The Expositor

11alt «ext ~octety
TRANSLATIO• 3BRIBS, No. 8

(EXTRA SUBSCRIPTION)
THE EXPOSITOR
(ATTHASALINI)
BUDDHAGHOSA'S
COMMENTARY ON THE DHAMMASANGAl'~H
THE FIRST BOOK OF THE ABHI-
DHAMMA PITAKA
VOL. I.
TRANSLATED BY
MAUNG TIN, M.A.

PROFESSOR OF PALI AT TBE COLLEOB, RANGOON
EDITED AND REVISED BY
MRS. RHYS DAVIDS, D.Litt., M.A.
1ont)on
PUBLISHED FOR THE PALI TEXT SOCIETY
BY
THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, AMEN CORNER, E.C.
AND AT
NEW YORK, TORONTO, MELBOURNE, AND BOMBAY
EDITORIAL NOTE
IT is now fully four years since the translation of this important

Commentary was begun by Mr. Maung Tin, the representative
of the Pali Text Society in Burma. Obstacles confronted him
at the commencement, and many difficulties along the way.
With a training and a diploma got at Calcutta University, and
a proficiency in Pali, Burmese, and English, as well as in
Sanskrit and Prakrit, he was anxious to prove himself in the
field, yet so lacking in competent labourers, of the ancient
classical literature adopted by his native land. Workers
in other lands warned him off successively from making more
accessible two or three notable works as well as the Atthasa-
lini, but on this work, not yet begun elsewhere, he took his
stand, and during the last year of menac3 at sea the type-
script came over piecem~al in safety. As to the many diffi-
culties in the work itself, there was the lamentable need of
revision in the PTS edition of the text, and the many obscuri-
ties and elliptical clauses (occurring amid a good deal of un-
necessary redundancy) in Buddhaghosa's style. I do not
say, nor would the translator claim, that the result is every-
where satisfactory. But we judge that we have made ni.ore
possible, by this pioneer effort, the production of a really
good translation in th~ future. It is no light effort, all who
know the text will agree, for a man to have accomplished the
pioneer translation of such a work into a foreign tongue.
We should look around for long to find an Englishman capable
of such a task. The translator is hoping soon to renew uni-
versity study at Oxford, and I trust that there and thereafter
much good work in Pali literature from his pen will come to
aid our knowledge.
Of the Atthasalini or Atthasalini itself I have had my say
elsewhere. The many interesting psychological disquisitions
vii
viii Editorial Note
in its pages I have also tried to deal with elsewhere, always
feeling sorely the need of such a translation as is given below.
Here I will only say that the title literally rendered-' abound-
ing in meaning' or (for attha has many' meanings') matter,
or profit, etc.-ba:ffied us and ' Expositor ' (it should be
Expositrix)1 is a makeshift for which I plead guilty. And
I add one mqre comment.
He has made allusion to terms, in my own 'prentice work on
the text (of which this work is the Commentary), the English-
ing of which I have since agreed to modify. He hai;; · himself
altered other terms, and that is quite as it should be. If I ever
revise for reprint that now exhausted edition, I shall have other
such details to alter. On the word cetana~ volition, I have
already commented in the Compendium of Philosophy, p. 238,
n. 3. Another term of great importance in Buddhist thought,
and for-the translator very elusive, is rupa,
On this term another equally instructive note by Mr. Aung
should also be studied (op. cit. pp. 271-3). We have followed
him in not rendering rupa by ' form.' 'Shape' or 'form' is no
doubt the popular and the more archaic sense. If you make a
'likeness,' say a clay model of any person or thing, you would
call it his or its iupa. And the primeval factors employed
by the creative Brahman in peopling the earth were called
'name' and 'shape' or 'form' (narnarupa). 2 But for the
specialisation required in Abhidhamma these renderings are a
little unwieldy. This may be seen more clearly by quoting from
the following pages three sentences. 'Rupa is that which
changes its state' (p. 69). 'The rupa comes into the avenue of
the mind-door' (p. 96). ' He develops the path for rebirth ih
the sphere of rupa' (p. 216). It is fairly clear that no one
English word would fit all three cases. They deal, taken in
order, with (a) something essentially plastic and mutable as
distinct from a relatively constant and rigid factor-the
'name' or, according to the Dhammasa:riga:p.i, mind and
1 However, the translator would none of her !
2 Cf. he~ilon ' Gestalt ' in Die Weltansehauung der Brahma~w-Texte,
Gottingen, 1919, pp. 102f., 114, by Hermann Oldenberg-the last con-
tribution, I believe, to our Indological knowledge,,by this great scholar
whose loss to such studies it _ will be hard to make good.
Editorial Note ix
Nibbii.na1 ; (b) that which the organ of sight is said to see2 ;
(c) a world of intellige:t;).t beings that is, for some not obvious
reason, called rupa, but which is often called the world of
brahmas. Hence we have rendered rupa in (a) by' matter'
or ' material quality'; in (b) by ' visible object ' ('sight' being
applicable equally to organ and object of sight and therefore
ambiguous); in (c) by ' sphere' (or realm) of attenuated
matter.'
It is in (c) that we really feel the deprivation of the term
' form.' And although I am responsible for the clumsy peri-
phrasis which the translator has been good enough to put up
with, I am inciined to think that Pali translators will either
revert to 'form,' or keep to the very adaptable word rupa,
rupaloka, or use the nearly equivalent term 'Brahma
world.'
To the contradictory a-rupa (p. 267) -may be far more
easily fitted our terms ' immaterial,' ' incorporeal.' Mental
factors are often divided off from corporeal factors by the
adjective ,arupino. And albeit no denizen of any heaven
classed as arupa is recorded as having assumed corporeal shape
to visit the rupaloka or the lower kama-worlds (which in-
clude the next world and the earth), yet that world was in
Buddhist tradition a real Somewhere, described in terms of
abstract thought. The world of Form, of the Formless, might
still stand, as before, to signify these two departments of
the Universe of Being, deriving, for the reader at least, what
dignity they may from their capital letters.
But why the clumsy periphrasis ' of attenuated matter ' 1
Well, if neither 'form,' nor rupa be approved, it is evident
that neither 'matter,' nor 'visible object' is a more suitable
term. Rupaloka, whatever else it mean, does not, in this case"
mean a world where matter or material shapes are its typical
and preponderant content. Even the denizens-the devas (they
are, of course, not ' gods' in any Western sense )-of the world
next' above' earth are shown as less subservient to.matter than
1 See B.P.E., p. 341 f.
2 We see directly only extended colour. We see symbolically, by
s~ggestion or inference, much else that we have learned by touch.
x Editorial Note
we are. They can by an effort of volition transport themselves,
ni.ind and body, to this earth and back without inconvenience.
But,· to appear in that deva-world, a denizen of the 'higher'
Riipa (or Brahma) world is represented.as investing himself
at will with a body of 'grosser' material qualities than those
that make up his Riipa-body.1 . This was therefore of a more
sublimated, refined, subtle nature. The matter of it was
attenuated in density. That this seems to be a Buddhist
tradition taught in Burma may be seen from a letter recently
received from the translator-I regret that absence on a
holiday prevented him from quoting any authority.
' The lower sixteen out of the twenty brahma worlds. are
called rupa worlds. And the brahmas of these sixteen worlds
are called rupiivacara, 2 because they are in worlds where rupa
arises. They have rupa, but to say that they are so called
because of their rupa would not be a correct interpretation,
grammatically speaking. Brahmas, it is true, are endowed
with rupa, but not with all the twenty-eight forms of riipa
characterizing beings of the kamaloka (or kamavacara). They
are without the rupa' s (the material qualities) of femininity,
masculinity, the sentient organisms of smell, taste, and touch.
And though they are endowed with the elements of extension,
heat, and mobility, they differ, even in this respect, from
beings of the kiimaloka. For instance, a human body is
·either a present resisting solid) or it is absent. The bodies
of brahmas are not so. Cut one with a knife and no hann is
done. It is like cutting a flame. Generally speaking, the
rupa of brahmas is very refined or sublime, sublimated or, as
you render it, attenuated, as distinguished from [the kamaloka
inhabitants on the one hand, and] the arupa or spirit brahmas
on the other. Their senses of sight and hearing are highly
developed. Theirs it is to own the super-sensitive telepathic
faculties entitled dibbacakkhu, dibbasota. ' 3
In giving no authority for this doubtless hoary ,A.bhidhamma
tradition, Mr. Tin leaves I)le to conclude that rupaloka is so
called .as a division of the brahmiiloka. This world by his
1 Dialogues ii. 244, 264.. 2 Denizens of the Riipa sphere.
3 Dibba=deva. Usually rendered heavenly or celestial eye and ear.
Editorial Note Xl
account is four-fifths rupavacara, and one-fifth arupavacara.

And that these four-fifths have been distinguished as rupa
has nothing to do, comparatively speaking, with the fact or
nature of the rupa in the humbler spheres of the earth or the
purgatories, or the sagga, the next 'bright world , of the better.
folk who have passed (temporarily) from e~rth. I note that he
uses the word brahmas ~ith a more widely distributed denota-
tion than is the case in either the Dhammasaiigai;U (§ 1283), or
the Compendium of Philosophy Jp.142), or Childers' s Dictionary
(s.v. Sattaloko). But this is, after all, of little importance.
For the tradition he cites, brahmas include all beings, some
having a refined corporeality, some being pure spirit, who
have passed on either from the 'sagga' of the lower world
beyond us, or, through eminent virtue, direct from earth-life ..
Future translators will make their choice, as to a name for
the former division, between ' world of form,' ' sphere, realm,
world of attenuated or subtle matter,' just ' Riipa,' or some
better device. With the term we commend to them two re-
flections:-"-One concerning the past, one the future. Whence and
. how did this Buddhist cosmology spring up, whereof we find the
several spheres sporadically mentioned already in the Nikayas,1
partial classifications of them in the Abhidhamma Pitaka,2
and fun· classification in medieval mai:luals-e.g., the Com-
pendium of Philosophy (p. 142) ~ The other reflection, con-
cerning the future-i.e., of human knowledge-is on the need
of humanity, in its religion of to-morrow, of a cosmology,
soberer and simpler than that built by the ancient mind of
Buddhist Indi~, to replace the vast fuournful ignorance of the
accredited religions of to-day concerning the other-whereness
of life, past, present, and future. It was only concerning the
future of the Arahant that Gotama drew down the veil of his
Avyakata-his ' things unrevealed' -because it was to no
good purpose to seek to know.
C. A. F. RHYS. DAVIDS.
CH!PST;EAD, SURREY.
June, 1920.
1 E .g., Dialogues ii. 39f.; 280,296; lffajjhima i. 210; ii.194; J(indred
Sayings i. 48; Pss. of the Sisters, p. 100 f., etc.

2 Dhammasangarii. § 1283; Vibluuiga, last chapt.er.
PREFACE
IN Burma, the Atthasalini1 is one of the best known works of

Buddhaghosa. It is widely studied .by student monks and is
freely quoted by authors of Abhidhamma works. lt is likely
that a European reader, reading through the English tr11nsla-
ti~n now offered to the public, will not be favourable in his
judgment. The plan of the work itself is enough to prejudice
him, while a good knowledge of the cardinal doctrines
of the Buddha and Buddhist philosophy is necessary, if
Buddhaghosa is to be appreciated. And that is impossible
for him unless he is eminently sympathetic towards. Buddhist
thought. In the present work it is not the aim of Buddha-
ghosa to e~pound any particuiar doctrine; he is only concerned
with explaining the meanings of terms that occur in the
Dhammasaliga:¢. . In doing this he has freely scattered the
gems of his thought at every opportunity, and has thus en-
hanced the value of the work. The word-definitions which
may be very tedious (and sometimes pointless) to a Western
scholar are all-important to the Buddhist student, who must
know the meanings of conceptual terms before he can grasp
ultimate truths. So one must wade through tile word-
de:finitions in this book before getting to the depths of its
thought.
Abhidhamma studies have made such strides since Mrs.
Rhys Davids tra.nsl~ted the first Abhidhamma work-viz.,
Dhammasaliga:¢ in 1900-that many of the psychological
terms used by her in that translation have been altered by
herself in other wor]rn in consultation with Mr. S. Z. Aung.
I have availed myself of this improvement, and adopted in the
present work such terms of the Dhammasa.liga:µi translation
- - - - - - - -·- - ---·-·---
1 Burmese scholars invariably spell AHhasii.lini.
xiii
XIV Preface
as have been approved of by these pioneers of Abhidhamma
translation. I have indicated in footnote~ other renderings
used in that translation. In a few cases I have offered new
meanings of my own.
I have nothing to add to what Mrs. Rhys Davids has said,
in her Buddhist Psychological Ethics, about the Atthasalini,
its date -and importance. But I take this opportunity of .
recording my appreciation of her scholarship that then enabled
her, without aid from Burma, to draw upon the Atthasalini
for her suggestive footnotes. It_is no small gain to Abhi-
dhamma scholarship that the first English translator of the
first of the Abhidhamma works and the leading Western
authority on the subject should, after an interval of twenty
years of progressive study, have edited and revised the present
translation of the commentary.
The Atthasalini, horn the nature of its contents, is a difficult
book to translate. I have therefore tried to be as literal as
possible even to the extent of sometimes sacrificing style to
clearness. In the course of the translation, I discovered many
errors and omissions in the text edited for the Pali Text Society
by Professor Edward Mi.iller. I therefore based my transla,
tion on two Burmese texts, the one printed by the Sasanajo·
tika Pi!aka Press, Rangoon, 1913, and ,the other edited in
the well-known Pyigyi-maridaing :Press Series by Saya Pye,
Aggamahii.pa~<;lita. I have derived much help from the two
Burmese translations of the Atthasii.lini-namely, the Old
Nissaya (MS. Bernard Free Library, Rangoon), by Ariyala:ri-
kara of the early part of the eighteenth century, and the New
Nissaya (printed at Kemmendine, Rangoon, in 1905), by
Pyi: Sadaw of the middle of the nineteenth century. I have
also quoted the following Pali commenta'i:ies and sub-com-
mentaries bearing on the Atthasalini :
l. 'fika or MUla~ikii, by Ananda of Ceylon.
2. Anu{ikii, a sub-commentary on the MUl~ikii, by Dham-
mapala of Ceylon.
3. Visuddhimagga fika (also called Paramatthamanjusa
'/.'ika or Mahii,!ika), by Dhammapala of Ceylon.
4. Siiratthadipani, by Sariputta of Ceylon.
Preface xv
5. Atthasiilini Y ojana, by Sirimaligala of Burma. Four-
teenth century.
6. Abhidhana fikii, by Minister SirimahacaturaJigabala of
Burma. Fourteenth century.
7. Ma'l'fidipa, a sub-commentary . on the Miilatikii, by
Ariyaval!lsa of. Burma. Fifteenth century.
8. Vinayalankiira, by Tipitakalaiikii.ra of Burma. Seven-
teenth century.
9. Attlwsalini Ga'l'f~hi(-pada), by Patamagyaw Aung Zan
Hta Sayadaw. Eighteenth century.
The original MSS. of these works may be consulted at the
Bernard Free Library, Rangoon. The first six have also been
printed in Rangoon. I do not know whether the last three
have ever been printed.
The quotations which I have made from them for the eluci-
dation of the Atthasalini will also serve to show the importance
of studying the successive scholastic interpreters of a Pali text
from the earliest times, that the value of the historical develop-
ment of any doctrin~l point may not be lost to us. Other
quotations, which are purely of a lexicographical nature have
been assigned, at the instance of Mrs. Rhys Davids, to an
Appendix for the benefit of Pali students.1
My thanks are due to Mr. Shwe Zan Aung, B.A., who was
kind enough to go through my first drah translation as far
as the end of the Discourse on' Doors ' (p. 140). And I tender
my best thanks to Mrs. Rhys Davids, who first encouraged
me to undertake this difficult work, for the rare courtesy she
has shown me in a series of letters, embodying counsel and
advice, criticisms and suggestions. Finally, my thanks are
due to a kind friend who has helped me with the verse trans-
lations.
MAUNG TIN.
RANGOON CoLLEGE,
:May 4, 1920.
1 A full general Index will appear with the second (and concluding)
volume.
BOOKS REFERRED TO
A.-ENGLISH.
Buddhist . Birth Stories (Triibner's Oriental Series). Rhys

Davids. London, ·1880.
Buddhist India (Story of the Nations Series). Rhys Dav.ids.
London, 1903.
BPE Buddhist Psychological Ethics. A translation of the
Dhammasa:riga¢. Mrs. Rhys Davids. London, 1900.
Buddhist fsychology (Quest. Series). Mrs. Rhys Davids.
London, 1914.
Childers's Pali Dictionary. London, 1875.
Compendium of Philosophy. A translation of the Abhidham·
matthasa:rigaha. S. Z. Aung and Mrs Rhys Davids.
PTS, 1910.
Dialogues of the Buddha. A translation of the Digha Nikaya
(Sacred Books of the Buddhists). T. W. and Mrs. Rhys
Davids. London, 1899, etc.
JPTS=Journal of the Pali Text Society London, 1882, etc.
Kindred Sayings. . A translation of the Sa1!1yutta Nikaya I.
Mrs. Rhys Davids. PTS, 1917. '
Mahaval!lsa. Translated by Professor W. Geiger. PTS, 1912.
Points of Controversy. A translation of the Kathavatthu.
S. Z. Aung and Mrs. Rhys Davids. PTS, 1915.
Psalms of the Brethren. A translation of the Theragatha.
Mrs. ,Rhys Davids. PTS, 1913.
Psalms of the Sisters. A translation of the Therigatha.
Mrs. Rhys Davids. PTS, 1909.
The Questions of King Milinda. Translated by Rhys Davids.
SBE, 1890, etc.
The Religions of India. E.W. Hopkins. London, 1896.
Vina ya Texts. A translation of the greater part of the Vinaya
Pitaka. SBE, 1881, etc.
xvii
xviii Books Referred to_
B.-PALI.
A.=Ariguttara Nikaya, of the Sutta Pitaka. PTS, 1885, etc.
5 vols. and index. ·
Abhidhanapadipikasiici. Colombo, 1893.
D.=Digha Nikaya, of the Sutta Pit.aka. PTS, 1889, etc.
3 vols.
Dhp.=Dhammapada, of the Sutta Pitaka. PTS, 1914.
Dhammapada Commentary. PTS, 1906, etc. 4 vols.. and
index.
Dhs.=Dhammasaliga¢, of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. PTS,
1885. ,.,,
Jataka. . Ed. by V. Fausboll. . London, 1877, etc. 6 vols.
and index vol. ·
Kathavatthu, of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. PTS, 1894, etc.
M.=Majjhima Nikaya, of the Sutta Pitaka. PTS, 1887, etc.
3 vols.
Mahaniddesa, of the Sutta Pitaka. PTS, 1916, etc.
Mahavarp.sa. PTS, 1908.
Milindapanha. Trenckner. London, 1880.
Pts.- Patisambhidamagga of the Sutta Pitaka. PTS,
1905-7. 2 vols.
S.=Sa:qi.yutta Nikaya, of the Sutta Pitaka. _ PTS, 1884, etc .
. 5 vols. and index vol.
Suma.Ii.gala Vilasini, Corny. on Digha Nikaya. PTS, 1886.
Sn.=Sutta Nipata, of the Sutta Pitaka. PTS, 1913.
Udana, of the Sutta Pitaka. PTS, 1885..
Vibhaliga, of the Abhidhamma Pitaka~ PTS, 1904.
Vinaya Pitaka. Ed. by H. Oldenberg. London, .1879, etc.
Visuddhi Magga. PTS, 192_0. '
Yamaka, of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. PTS, 1911, etc.
UNPUBLISHE D p ALI.WORKS.
Papanca Sudani, Corny. on Majjhima Nikaya. (P. 188.)
Patthana, of the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
Sumali.gala Vilasini, Corny. on Digha Nikaya. (Vol. I. is
puplished by PTS.)
Theragatha, Corny. on, v. Pss. of the Brethren. (P. 77, n. 3.)
Udana Corny.
CONTENTS
PA.OB
CNTRODUCTORY DISCOURSE 1
BOOK !.-RISINGS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

PART 1.-THE TABLE OF CONTENTS (111atilca)
CHAPTER.
I. THE TRIPLETS 46
II. THE COUPLETS 61
III. SUTTA PHRASES . 68
PART IL-ANALYSIS OF TERMS

OF THE MORAL TRIPLET - 73
PART ~II.--DI~COURSE ON DOORS (OR GATES)

I. DOOR OF AN ACT OF BODY 109
II. DOOR OF AN ACT OF SPEECH 114
III. DOOR OF AN ACT OF THOUGHT - 116
IV. DISCOURSE ON KAMMA (VOLUNTARY ACTION) 117
V. DISCOURSE ON COURSES OF IMMORAL ACTION 126
VI. COURSES OF MORAL ACTION 136
VII. CONCLUSIONS 138
PART IV. -OF MORAL CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCE IN THE

WORLDS OF SENSE
I. OF THE SUMMARY OF CONSCIOUS STATES - 141
II. DISCOURSE ON THE SECTION OF EXPOSITION 180
III. ON THE SECTION OF THE SUMMARY - 202
IV. OF THE SECTION. ON THE VOID, OR EMPTINESS - 206
V. THE SECOND TYPE OF CONSCIOUSNESS - 207
VI. THE THIRD TYPE OF CONSCIOUSNESS - 208
xix
xx Contents
CHAPTER PAGE
VII. THE FOURTH TYPE OF CONSCIOUSNESS - 208

VIiI. THE FIFTH, -SIXTH, SEVENTH, AND EIGHTH TYPES
OF CONSCIOUSNESS - 208
PART V.-DISCOURSE. ON MORAL CONSCIOUSNESS IN

THE REALM OF ATTENUATED MATTER
I. JHANA-THE FOURFOLD SYSTEM - - 216
II. THE SECOND JHANA 225
/
III. THE THIRD JHiNA 228
IV. THE FOURTH JHANA - 235
V. THE FIVEFO,L D SYSTEM - 239
VI. THE FOURFOLD PROGRESS - - 243
VII. THE FOUR OBJECTS OF THOUGHT - - 246
VIII. THE SIXTEENFOLD COMBINATION - - 247
- IX. DISCOURSE ON THE DEVICES (OR ARTIFICES) - 248
X. THE OTHER DEVICES - 249
XI. DISCOURSE ON THE POSITIONS OF MASTERY - 252
XII. DISCOURSE ON THE DELIVERANCES - 255
XIII. THE DIVINE STATES - 257
XIV. DISCOURSE ON THE FOUL - - 264
PART-VI.-~!ORAL-CONSCIOUSNESS OF THE IMMATERIAL

WORLD - 269
PART ·VII.-DISCOURSE ON MORAL CONSCIOUSNESS AS

THREE-PLANED - 284
THE EXPOSITOR
(A 1'THASALINI)
COMMENTARY ON THE DHAMMASANGA~i

(COMPENDIUM OF PHENOMENA)
BY
BUDDHAGHOSA
INTRODUCTORY DISCOURSE
Honour be to that Blessed One, the Arahant, the Buddha

Supreme
As on all beings his pity, rolled at will

The Sage's in~ight through all knowable things.
His heart by that world-pitying,love inspired,
When, after the Twin Mirade, 1 he dwelt
At the high mansion of the Thirty-three, 2
Throned-like the sun on Mount Yugandhara-
On Par;4ukambala, his rocky seat,
Under the tree called Paricchattaka,
1 Se~ Pa~isambhidiimagga, i. 125 f.; Jiital;a, i. 77, 88, 193.

2 Tidasiilaye. Lit., in the abode of th3 thricc-t3n. Tidasa,frequently
substituted, in verse, for the more usual tiivat-i17isa (e.g. Therig. ver. 181;
and in pro.so, Mil. 291), is explained by the Abhidhiina{ika as an ellip-
tical form of ti-tidasa = tiivati11isa. This work sees an alternative
explanation in dasii=avatthii, divisions, namely, ofJife: birth, develop-
ment, decease, or-according to the Abhidhiinappadipikiisiiti-birth,
being (sattal, and destruction (viniisa), dasa being taken as parimiitiii
(the three 'measur3s' of h3coming).---;Tr.
2 The Expositor
He by that noble insi{Jht gave discourse
On the Abhidhamma to the spirits who' came,
Led by his mother,1 from the myriad worlds,
And compassed him about on every side.
I bow before the glorious Buddha's feet;

-I reverence the Church, and the Good Law.
No evil falls on him who bends the knee
To those Three Jewels. That w kick the Spirit of spirits
Unto the spirits taught, he afterwa-:ds,
The Leader, told it all in .form concise2
To Sariputta Elder, when he waited on
The Sage at Anotatta lake. 3 And what
The Elder heard, he brmtght to ptains of earth
And taught it to the brethren. And they all
Remembered it. And when the Council met,
By the wise son of the Videhi Dame 4
It was again rehearsed.
Being besought
By Buddhaghosa, 5 bhikkhu pure in deed
And virtue, of subtle insight without taint,
What Abhidhamma from the first hath meant
I shall expound, in many figures shown
And searched at all times by the greatly wise.
The ancient Commentary thereof was sung
By the first Council, Mahakassapa
Their leader, and later again by seers.
Mahinda brought it to the peerless isle,
1 Tradition in Burma makes her rel,iorn as the devi Santussitii.. The

phrase matara'f!i pamukha11i katva in line 11 may also be construed with
the predicate, sampavattayi, thus: 'gave a discourse on the Abhidhamma,
to the assembly of spirits, principally to his mother.'-Tr.
2 Desetva nayato, which may also mean, 'by way of showing the
method.'-Tr.
a A great lake located by tradition in the Himalayas. We have not
traced thiS episode in any other work. Cf. Vinaya Texts i. 124.-Ed.
' 0~; 'the sage of wisdom or energy,' Ananda the Thera. Cf.
Kindred Sayings, p. 109, n. l; 321.-Ed.
6 Not the Thera, author of this work.-- Tr.
f ntrodiwtory Discourse 3
Ceylon, and in their tongue they wrote the book.1
[2] Rejecting from that ancient scroll the speech
Of Tambapanni, I shall here ini;cribe
On.the palmy~~-leaf the faultless tongue
That disobeys no rule of holy script,
Illuminate the minds of those who dwell
In the .Great Minster, suffering nor taint
Nor base commixture of the heresies,2
True meaning of the Abhidhamma show,
And satisfy the wise with chosen words
From expositions of the Sutta-lore.
In the Visuddhimagga I have told
Xhe stations of religious exercise,
Right conduct, super-knowledge, insight true.
These therefore laying by, I shall declare
Precept by precept all the holy script.
Give ear obediently, while I expound
The Abhidhamma-lore,3 for it is hard
To hear such discourse as ye now may hear.
Herein what is meant by ' Abhidhamma '? That which

exceeds and is distinguished from the. Dhamma (the Suttas).
The prefix ' Abhi,' like ' Ati,' is used in the sense of prepon-
derance and distinction, as in such passages as, ' Severe pains
overwhelm (abhikkamanti) me, brother; and do not abate' ;4
and 'of eminent (abhikkanta) beauty.' 5 Again: 'Hence when
many sunshades and flags are uplifted, the sunshade which
excels the rest in size and is of distinguished colour and form is
1 450 years after the Parinibbana, according to Burmese com-
mentatoTs; about 230 years, according to prevailing European com-

putation.-Tr.
2 Nikiiyantaraladdhihi = nikiiya, a 'body' of people, + antara,
different+laddhihi, with the views. The Mmy,idipa says that the two
othcir sects were the Abhayagirivasi, and the Jetavanavasi, dwellers at
the Abhayagiri monastery, and the Jetavana monastery respectively.
Some wrongly translate the expression as 'extrame views of the
Nikayas.'-Tr.
3 Abhidhammakatha11i is short for Abhidhamma-A!{hakatha'f/1.-Tr.
~ Sat1iyutta iv. 120. 6 lb. i. 1. ete.
4 The ExpoBitor
called atichattarp,, ' the pre-eminent sunshade,' and the flag
which is the largest and is replete with various distinguished
paints and colours is called atidhaja, ' the pre-eminent flag.'
And when many princes and gods are gathered together, the
prince who is specially ·distinguished and surpasses others in
birth, property, pomp, dominion, and other attainments is
called atirajakumara, 'the prince par excellence'; and the god
who is specially distinguished and surpasses others in age,
beauty, domi:hion, pomp, and other attainments is called
atideva, or abhideva, 'the peerless god.' Similarly Brahm~
is called .Atibrahma, ' the supreme Brahma.' Even so this
'dhamma' is called Abhidhamma, because it excels and is
distinguished by several qualities from the other Dhamma.
In the Suttanta, the five 'aggregates' are classified partially
and not fully. In theAbhidhamma they are classified fully by
the methods of Suttanta-classification, Abhidhamma-classifi-
cation, and catechism. Similarly with the twelve sense-organs,
the eighteen elements, the Four Truths, the twenty-two con-
trolling faculties, and the twelvefold Causal Genesis. [3] It
is only in the Indriya Vibhanga1 that there is no Suttanta-
classification, and in, the Vibhanga on Causal Genesis2 the
method of catechism is wanting. In the Suttantas the four
Applications in Mindfulne;;s are partially classified, not fully.
But in the Abhidhamma they are classified in detail under the
three methods. And the same with the Four Supreme Efforts,
the Four Steps to Supernormal Potency, the Seven Factors of
Wisdom, the Eight-fold Path, the Four Jhanas, the Four
Infinitudes, the Five Precepts, the Four Analyses. Of these
only in the Sikkhapada V iblianga is there no Suttanta-classifi-
cation.3 In the Suttantas knowledge is partially classified, ·
not fully. And so are the Corruptions (kilesa). But in the
Abhidhamma there is a detailed classification of knowledge
after the table of contents has been thus laid down: 'Under
the unitary method the basis of knowledge is . . .'4 and so
forth. Likewise the corruptions are classified in many ways
1 Vibh. p. 122 j. 2 lb. p. 135 f.

3 lb. p. 285 /. ' lb. p. 306.1:
Introductory Discourse 5
beginning with the unitary method.1 In the Suttantas
cosmogony is partially classified, not fully; in the Abhidhamma
by the threefold method it is classified fully. 2 Thus is it to
be understood that the Abhidhamma exceeds and is distin-
guished from the Dhamma.
There is a co:ijsensus of opinion among teachers that the
Abhidhamma is divided into seven books, viz., Dhamma-
sangatfi, V ibha1iga, Dhiitukathii, PuggalapaMiatti, Kathiivatthu,
Y aniaka, and PaUhiina.
But the Vita1;u;l a schooP say:' Why bring in Kathiivatthu?
Was it not settled by Tissa, Moggali's son, two hundred and
eighteen years after the Buddha's Parinibbana ? Hence it is
[merely] the word of his disciples. Reject it.' [To whom we
say: ] t Are there then only six books in the Abhidhamma ?'
'I do not say so.' 'What do you say then?' 'Seven books.'
' How do you get the seven ?' . ' There is a book called
M ahadhammahadaya (in the Great Co~mentary); with that I
make the seven.' ' In the M ahiidhammahadaya there is nothing
which has not been said already in the Dhammahadaya
Vibhanga. 4 And the remaining.catechetical section, which is
peculiar to your M ahadhammahadaya, is not long enough
to make up a treatise by itself. Hence it makes the seven
only with the Kathiivatthu.' ' Nay, not with the Kathiivatthu.
[4] There is the Mahii-Dhiitukathii 5 ~ with that I make the
seven.' 'But there is nothing new in that either.6 The
remaining texts, peculiar to it, are. not long enough to make
up a treatise. Hence the Kathiivatthu makes the seventh.'
When the Supreme Buddha, who taught us the seven treatises,
came to.the Kathiivatthu, he began with an eight-faced inquiry
1 Vibh. 345j. 2 lb. 404 j.

3 The V,itaJJ.Q.avadi' s are explained by the Ma1;1-idipa to be the sectarians
of Abhayagiri and Jetavana of the introductory verses.-Tr.
4 Vibh. p. 401 /.
5 Another book compiled in Ceylon. Hence it is uncanonica,l. The
mal·editing in this dialogue in the P.+.s. ed. greatly obscures the
meaning.;-Tr.
6 Being repeated aftar suGh teits as Dhammahadayavibha.iiga,
MaWhamm7-hadaya, Dhatukati1ii, and Dhiif.uvibh.ailga (Majjh. iii. 237).

6 The Expositor
into the theory of the person (or soul), in four questions each
of two fivefold divisions1 and laid down a table of contents in
a text not quite as long as one recital, to be adopted ih all the
discourses : ' Is the person known in the sense of a real and
ultimate fact? Yes. Is the person known in the same way
as a real and ultimate fact is known? Nay, that cannot be.
Acknowledge ymu refutation. Is the person not known in the
sense of a real and ultimate fact ? Nay, it is not known. Is
the person unknown in the same way as any real and ultimate
fact is known? Nay, it cannot be. Acknowledge your
refutation. Is the person known everywhere in the sense of a
real and ultimate fact ? Or is it unknown ? Is it known
always in the sense of a real and ultimate fact ? Or is it
unknown ? Is it known in everything in that gense, or is it
unknown ?' 2 Thus, showing the eight aspects and their
respective refutations, the table of contents has been laid
down3 by the Teacher.
Now when he laid down the table of contents he foresaw
that, two hundred and eighteen years after his death, Tissa,
Moggali's son, seated in the midst of one thousand bhikkhus;
would elaborate the Kathavatthu to the extent of the Digha
Nikaya, bringing together five hundred orthodox and five
hundred heterodox Suttas.
So Tissa, Moggali's son, expounded the.book not by his own
knowledge but according to the table of contents laid dow:u,
as well as by the method given, by the Teacher. Hence4 the
entire book became the word qf the Buddha. After which
precedent ? After the f5] M adhupitf¢ika-suttanta5 and others.6
In that Suttanta the Blessed one, after laying down heads
of a _discourse, ended thus: ' Bhikkhl;I., owing to such causes7
Sae Points of Controversy, pp. 8-12.

1
lb. If.
2
3 Cqnstruing ?hapitii with sa pan'esii of paragraph 8.
4 !ti = tasma. · Ma~1.idipa.
5 Majjhima, i. 108 f ., expounded by Kaccana.
6 Such as the Subha81.ttta, Di:1.ha, i. 204 f., expounded by Ananda, and
the -$wl}itisutta, ib. iii. 207 f., ·expounded by the Councillors.

7 Nidiina11i. used in the plural sense of karapii.
the factors of prolonged r~birth beset a man.1 Here if there
be nothing to be pleased withal, proud of, or assimilated, then
it is the end of the latent bias of lust,' etc.-and then rose from
his seat and entered .the monastery. The bhikkhus, who
received the doctrine, approached Mahakaccana and ques-
tioned him as to the meaning of the heads laid down by the
Buddha of the Ten Powers. The Elder, not .replying direct
to the question, said by way of paying homage to the Buddha:
' Sirs, a person desirous of and seeking pith should bear in
mind this simile of pith-the Buddha is like the pith of a tree,
his disciples are like the branches _and leaves. For, Sirs, the
Buddha, who knows all knowable things, discerns all dis-
cernible things,2 is the eye 0£ the world,3 the wisdom of the
world,4 is like the constituents of wisdom5 to the world, is like
the Ariyan Path6 to the world, is the speaker and originator
of the Four Truths, the expounder of their meaning, the giver
of the Deathless, the master of the Law, the Tathagata.'
After thus praising the Teacher he, at the repeated request of
the bhikkllus, expounded in great detail the meaning of the
heads of discourde. laid down by the Buddha and sent them
away saying: 'Sirs, if you are willing, approach the Buddha
and ask him the meaning. And you should accept what he
explains to you, so that if my explanation harmonizes with
omniscience you should take it; if not, reject it.' They
approached the Buddha and asked him. The Teacher,
without referring to any (possibly) ill-spoken words of Kaccana,
raised his neck aloft like a golden drum and filling with breath
his noble mouth, grnceful as the full-blown lotus, emitted the
Brahma voice,7 and saying,' Well done, well done!' to theElder,
t Craving, conceit, and wrong view are the three principles which
pr<>long the evolutionary process of a being;....::..Tr.
2 Jana?,n and pass~rti may be taken in two ways; (a) as future passive
particiiples...i...Janitabba?,n passitabba17i, as' translated here---,and (b) at1

present participles--jananto passanto, in the sense of 'in knowing all
things he knows, in seeing .a ll things he sees.'-Tr.
a Or, 'istheeyeofwisdom.' "'Or, 'isthe embodimentofwisdom.'
5 Dhamma = bodhiPakkhiyadhamnia. Cf. Compendium 179, n. I.
6 Brahma =ariya magga. Tika.
1 See Dialogues of the Buddha ii. 265
8 The Expositor
added: 'Bhikkhus, learned is Mahakaccana, profoundly wise
is Mahakaccana. If you had asked me the same question,
I would have answered exactly as he has done.' Thus since
the time when the Teacher gave his approval, the whole
Suttanta became the word of the Buddha. And it is the same
with the Suttas expounded by Ananda and others.
Thus in teaching the seven books, when he came to the
Kathiivatthu the Buddha laid down the table of contents in
the way mentioned above. [ 6] In doing so he foresaw that two
hundred and eighteen years after his death, Tissa, Moggali's
son, seated in the midst of one thousand hhikkhus, would
elaborate the Kathavatthu as is stated above. And Tis1:m,
Moggali's son, expounded the book not by his own knowledge
but according to the table of contents laid down, as well as by
the method given, by the Teacher. Hence the entire book
became the word of the Buddha. Thus the Abhidhamma
consist:> of seven books inclusive of the Kathavatthu.
Now in the first of the seven books, the Dhammasmiga1.ii,
there are four divisions, viz., classification of consciousness, of
matter, the summary, and the elucidation. In the classifica-
tion of consciousness, there are eight classes of moral (states)
arising in the sensuous universe, twelve classes of immoral
(states), sixteen results of good, seven results of evil, eleven
inoperatives ;1 five classes of moral states arising in the uni-
verse of (attenuated) matter, five results thereof, five corres-
.po:hding inoperatives; four classes of moral states arising in the
immaterial universe, four results thereof, four corresponding
inoperatives, four transcendental states,2 four results thereof:
eighty-:nine classes in all constituting the divisions of con-
sciousness. lt is also called the Chapter on states of con-
sciousness. In extent of utterance, it exceeds six recitals,3
but is endless and immeasurable when expanded.
Next comes the classification of matter,4 otherwise known as
the Chapter on Matter, in which matter is classified in detau
. . .
tKiriyii. 2 Lokuttara. In B.P.E. 'higherideal/ supramundane.
3 A ' racital' (bh!i1Javara) usually consists of 250 stanzas of thirty-two

syllables, a stanza consisting of 4 feet of 8 syllables each.""-Tr.
' In B.P.E. 'form.'
lntroditetory Discourse 9
after th.e table ofcontents, laid down under a unitary method,
dual method and so on. In extent of utterance it exceeds two
recitals, but is endless and immeasurable when expanded.
Next is a summary by way of roots, aggregates, doors,
planes of existence, effect or meaning, cause or text, name, sex.
It summarizes .roots and aggregates,
And doors, planes of ex·istence, meaning, text,
Name, sex-and therefore is called Summary.
It is also called the Chapter on abstract categories.1
ln extent of utterance it is exactly three recitals, but is
endless and immeasurable when expanded.
Next is a commentarial chapter ending with the couplet of
the harmful (and the harmless), and explaining the meaning
of the three Pi~akas, which constitute the Buddha's word.
[7] Bhikkhus who cannot remember the numerical series in
the Great Book have recourse to this section. In extent of
utterance it occupies two recitals, but is endless and immeasur-
able when expanded.
J'P.!ls i:Q. , ~_xtenLo( 11tterance thE'. . _entire Dhammasai}ga1J-i
_exceeds thirteen recitals, but is endless and immeasurable
when expanded. Such are
The elements of Mind and Matter, and
The sum, the exposition of the whole-
Lore deep and subtle that the Buddha taught.
Immediately following the Dhammasanga1J-i is the V ibhanga,
consisting of eighteen parts, viz., the classification of (mind
and matter into) aggregates, sense-organs, elements, truths,
controlling faculties, causal genesis, applications in mindful-;
ness, supreme efforts, steps to supernormal potency, factors
of wisdom, paths, jhanas, infinitudes, precepts, analyses,
knowledge, the minor subjects and the essence of the Law. Of
these, the aggregates are clas~ified by the three methods:
Suttanta-classification, Abhidhamma-classification, and cate-
chism. In extent of utterance it occupies five recitals, but is
endless and immeasurable when expanded. Next, the sense-
1 Nikkhepa. In B.P.E. 'elimination.'
10 The Expositor
organs and others are classified also by the threefold method.
Among them the classification of the sense-organs exceeds
one recital in extent of utterance. The classification of
the elements occupies two recitals. ~ Likewise that of the
.Four [Facts or] Truths. There is no Suttanta method in
the classification of the controlling faculties. In extent of
utterance it exceeds one recital. The classification of the
causal genesis occupies six recitals, but there is no catechism.
The classification of the applications in mindfulness exceeds
one recital. Likewise that of the supreme efforts, steps to
supernormal potency, £actors of wisdom and paths. The
classification. of the jhanas occupies ·two recitals; that of the
infinitudes exceeds one. In the classification of the precepts
there is no Suttanta method; in extent of utterance it exceeds
one recital. [8] Likewise that of the analyses. That of
knowledge is subdivided into ten parts. In extent of utter-
ance it occupies three recitals. The classification of the minor
subjects is also subdivided into ten parts. In extent of
utterance it occupies three recitals. The classification of the
'heart of theDhamma' is subdivided into three parts and ex-
ceeds two recitals in extent 0£ utterance. But all are capable of
endless and immeasurable expansion. _'rb.1.1.!! the V ibhanga_~'f}_
exte_n t of utterance occupies thirty~five recitals, but when
expa,nded it is endless and·immeasurable.
Next comes the book named Dhiitukatha, which comprises
fourtet;in parts: (1) the grouped and the ungrouped, (2) the
ungrouped by the ungrouped, (3) the grouped by the un-
grouped, (4) the grouped by the grouped, (5) the ungrouped by
the grouped, (6) the associated and the dissociated, (7) the
dissociated by the associated, {8) the associated by the dis-
sociated, (9) the associated by the associated, (10) the dis-
sociated by the dissociated, (11) the associated and the
dissociated by the grouped, (12) the grouped and theungrouped
by the associated, (J3) the associated and the dissociated by
the ungrouped, and (14) the grouped and the ungrouped
by the dissociated. !D-·-extent of utterance it exceeds six
r~citals, but is endless and immeasurable when expanded.
Next comes the Puggalapaiiiiatti under six hi'.lads: concepts
Introductory Discourse
of aggregates, Of sense-organs, of elem~nts, of realities, of
controlling faculties, of the. person. In extent of utterance it
exceeds five recitals, but is endless and immeasurable when
expanded.. -
Next comes the Kathiivatthu bringing together one thousand
Suttas: five hundred orthodox and five hundred heterodox.
ln extent of utterance, as rehearsed at the Councils and not as
written now on palm-leaf, it was of the length of the Digha
Nikaya, but it is ~ndless and·imme~surable when expanded.
Next comes the Yamaka, divided into ten parts: roots,
aggregated, sense~organs, elements, truths, coefficients,11atent
bias, consciousness, doctrine, and controlling faculties. [9] In
extent of utterance it occupies one hundred and twenty_
re'litals, but is endless and i:mlneasurable when expanded.
Next comes the Great Book, otherwise called Pafthana,
divided into twenty-four parts by way of relations, viz., of root-
condition, ofobject, predominant principles, immediacy, direct
immediacy, coexistence, reciprocity, dependence, sufficing
condition, pre-existence, post-existence, repetition, kamma,
result, nutriment, controlling faculties, jhana, means, associa-
tion, dissociation, existence, non-existence, abeyance, absence.
The following points in the Patthana should be considered:
The triplets of ' good,' etc., are twenty-two in number. ' Things'
(or mental properties) which are root-conditions, or not, down
to harmful or harmless'; there are one hundred ouch.couplets
in all. ' States either partake of knowledge or not,' to "are
insight into destruction and insight into non-origination,' :
these others are the forty-two Suttanta couplets. Of these
the twenty~two triplets and the hundred couplets taught by
the omniscient Buddha are the directly spoken words of the
Conqueror and form the table of contents for the seven books.
Then whence arose the other forty-two coupleta ? By
whom were they laid down and taught ? They originated
1 I.e., of body, speech, and thought. Breath is ca.lled aankhara because
it is -accomplished by the hotly; initial and sustained applications of

mind are called sankhiira because they are accomplished by speech; and
th~ remaining mental coefficients are called citta-8d:t'i:khiirii.-Tr. Cf.
Majjhim<i, i. '301 (Vedalla-sutta).-Ed.
12 The Expositor
with Sariputta, Generalissimo of the Law, having been laid
down and taught by him. But he did not lay them down
through his own self-evolved knowledge. They have been
gathered from th-e Eka-Nipata and Duka-Nipata of the
Anguttara-Nikaya, the Sangiti and Dasuttarasuttantas of the
Digha-Nikaya, in order to help students of the Abhidhamma
in their references to the Suttantas. These triplets and
couplets are disposed of in one summarizing chapter. In the
remaining chapters the Abhidhamma (proper) is expounded
t.ill the couplet of the' harmful' (and the harmless) is reached.
The supreme Buddha taught in the way of right succession
the Tika-PaJ~hana, based on the twenty-two triplets, and the
Duka-Pa~~hana, based on the hundred couplets. He then
taught the Duka-tika-PaJ~hana, taking the twenty-two triplets
and inserting them among the hundred couplets.1 Then
again taking the hundred couplets and inserting them among
the twenty-two .triplets he taught the Tika-duka-PaHhana.
[IO] And inserting the triplets among the triplets he taught
the Tika-tika-Pa~~hana. And inserting the couplets among the
couplets he taught the Duka-dul;,a-PaHhiina. The text says:
' Celebrated and desirable are the Tika, Duka, Dukatika,
Tikaduka, Tikatika, and Dukaduka . . Profound are these six
methods in the way of right succession.' In the converse
PaHhana also the Tika-Pat~hana is based on the twenty-two
triplets.
The Duka-Pa{thana is based on the hundred couplets. The
Dukatika-Pa~hana has been taught by inserting the twenty-
two triplets among the hundred couplets; the Tikaduka-
Patthana by inserting the hundred couplets among the twenty-
two triplets; the Tikatika-PaHhana by inserting the triplets
among the triplets; the Dukaduka-Pa~thana by inserting the
couplets among the couplets. Thus in the converse order also
the Pa~~hana is expounded in six ways. And so the text
says : 'Celebrated and desirable are the Tika, Duka,
Dukatika, Tikaduka, Tikatika, and Dukaduka. Profound
a.re these six methods (of permutation to be understood)
1 Combining the twenty-two triplets severally with each couplet.~Tr.

in the converse order.' Then again the same six ways have
been shown in the combined method of right succession and
converse order. Hence the text says: 'Celebrated and desir-
able are the Tika, Duka, Dukatika, Tikaduka, Tikatika, and
Dukaduka. Profound are these six methods in the combined
method of right succession and converse order.' Immediately
after this the Buddha taught the same six ways in the
combined method of the converse order and right suc-
cession. Hence the text says: 'Celebrated and desirable
are the Tika, Duka, Dukatika, Tikaduka, Tikatika, and
Dukatika. Profound are these six methods (of permutation
to be understood) in the combined method of the converse
order and right succession.' Thus six in the way of right
succession, six in reverse order, six in the combined method
of right succession and converse order, six in the combined
method of · the converse order and right succession-the
twenty-four universal methods Qf Patthana constitute the
Great Book.
Now to understand the depth of ~he Abhidhamma, it must
l>e understood that there are four oceans: the ocean of repeated
births, the ocean of waters, the ocean of method, and the ocean
of knowledge. Of these,
' The unbroken line of organs, elements,
And aggregates-" sarrisara " is its name.'
This is the.ocean of repeated births. Inasmuch as the ultimate
start in birth of these bein~s is not apparent-whether it was a
hundred [ll] or a thousand, or a hundred thousand years, or a
hundred or a thousand or a hundred thousand cosmic periods
ago prior to which they were not, or whether they were born in
the time of a certain king or a certain Buddha-prior to which
they were not, no limit can be set. ' The ultimate starting-point,
bhikkhus, of ignorance before which it did not exist , but after
which it came into being is not revealed.' 1 +n this way this
ocean of repeated births is of an unknown beginning.
And there is the great ocean known as the ocean of waters.
It is eighty-four yojanas in depth. There is no measurement
1 Anguttara, v. ll3. Cf. Sarµyutta Nikiiya, ii. 178; iii 149.

14 The Expositor
of the waters as hundred, thousand, ten thousand, or hundred
thousand tins. It is incalculable and immeasurable. Verily
it is only reckoned as a mass of water. This is the ocean of
waters.
Which is the ocean of method ? The three Pitakas, the word
of the Buddha. For in reflecting upon the two Pitakas,
infinite rapturous joy arises in the sons of clansmen who are
faithful, abundantly believing and endowed with superior
knowledge. ·which are the two? The Vinaya and the
Abhidhamma. Infinite rapturous joy arises in those bhikkhus
who learn the Vina ya text and reflect that it is the province
of the Buddh~s, and not of oth~rs, to lay down the rule for
each fault or transgression according to its gravity.
Infinite rapturous joy also arises in the brethren when
reflecting on implications of things supernormal, of colours
and of good conduct.1
Again the bhikkhus, who study the Abhidhamma, experi-
ence infinite rapturous joy in reflecting. As though grouping
the multitude of stars in the sky (into constellations), the
Teacher taught things mental and ·material, di vi ding them into
various parts and portions-things subtle and abstruse such
as the unique2 content of aggregates, sense-organs, elements,
controlling faculties, powers, factors of wisdom, kamma and
its result; and the distinction between mind and matter.
Consider this story of such an experience. The Elder Maha-
gatigamiyatissa [12] crossed over to the opposite. shore of
India with the intention of paying homage to the Wisdom Tree.
Seated on the upper deck of the boat he looked at the great
ocean; but neither the thither nor the hither shore appeared
to his vision. There appeared o:rll.y the great ocean, strewn
with foam thrown off by the breaking of the billows, and
looking like a sheet of silver spread out on a bed of jasmine
flowers. He thought to himself: which is more extraordinary
1 See Uttarimanussadhammasikkhi.ipada~n. Sukkavisa~~hi sikkhi.i-

padai,n, and SaiicaritasikkhiipadaJ!l. Vin. iii. 92, 113, 139.-l;r.
2 'Antaraiµ' here can only mean 'unique.' Tiki.i. Cf. Childers.'s
Diet. s.v. 'peculiarity,' etc.-Tr.
I ntroduetnry Diswurse 15
-the heaving of the ocean waves, or the basis of the method
of the twenty-four divisions in the Great Book 1 Then the
limits of the great ocean became apparent to him. Indeed,
he thought to himself, this ocean is limited, below by the earth,
above by the sky, on one side by the mountain encircling the.
world-system, and on the other by the seashore. But the
limits of the universal PaWhiina are not apparent. And
abundant raptu,re arose in him, as he reflected on the subtle
and abstruse Law. Arresting his rapture and increasing his .
insight even while he was seated, he threw off all the corrup-
tions, and being established in the topmost Fruition which is
Arahantship, he exulted in this song of esctasy:
He is1 the true disciple of the Sage
Who s~es, like a bright jewel in his hand,
Root-causes, from which all becoming is-
Lore deep and hard to know, which the Great Sage
Intuited, and all2 in order taught.3
This is the ocean: of method.
Which is the ·ocean of knowledge 1 Omniscience. It is
not possible to distinguish the (different) oceans of repeated
births, of waters, and of method except by omniscience.
1 Read attheva = atthi eva.

2 Nikhilena. If taken as an adjective qualifying the Sage, this word
would mean 'free from the five khilas.'-Tr.
3 This translation follows the 1'ika. ·Othe.r ways of translation are:
' There is .the profound and abstruse Patthana taught in due order by
the Great Sage free from the five "thorns," after intuiting the causal
relations of things. And a disciple penetrates it even as one sees a
material thing in the palm of one's hand '-Pyi Sadaw. 'The Great
Sage by his intuition has completely taught in due order things.of the
present in relation to causes such as condition, and there is the universal
Patthana, profound and very difficult to understand. The disciple
penetrates it as easily as one sees a material thing in the palm of one's
hand '-Ma7Jidipa. _ · ·
' There are the causal relations completely taught by the Great Sage in
due order by his intuition. These causal relations of conditioned things
of the present, profound and very difficult to understand, the Buddha's
disciple sees as easily as a material thing in the palm of his hand'-
G®Jthipada.
16 The Expositor
Hence omniscience is called the ocean of knowledge. . Of these
four oceans that of method is here intended; for omniscient
Buddhas penetrate it.1 And our Blessed One, seated at the
foot of the Wisdom Tree, penetrated it and thought: ' To this
has my vision pierced! lo, even to this Law have I reached,
who seeking and inquiring for more tlian a hundred thousand
ages, for over £our incalculable periods, here seated in this
cross-legged posture (as on a throne) have expelled every con-
.ceivable corruption.' And he sat on the 'throne' for yet seven
days, reflecting on the Law he had penetrnted. Then after
those seven days, he rose from the throne and stood gazing at
it for seven days without blinking his eyes, thinking,' On this
throne Ihave indeed attained omniscience.' Hence this doubt
occurred to the gods: ' Surely to-day Siddhattha [13] must
still have something to accomplish, for he has not abandoned
attachment to the throne.' The Teacher, knowing their doubt,
in order to quiet it, rose immediately into the sky and dis~
played the Twin Miracle. The miracle performed at the
throne under the Wisdom Tree and that performed at the ·
assembly of his relatives and that performed at the assembly
of the citizens of Pataliputta2 were all the same as the Twin
Miracle performed at the foot of the white mango-tree in the
garden of K.a:i;i.Q.a. · Thus having displayed the Twin Miracle
he descended from the sky and for seven days walked to
and fro between the throne and ~he place where he had
stood.
Now not even on a single day during the interval of twenty-
one days were rays emitted from the Teacher's body. During
the fourth week he sat in a jewel house in the north-west
direction. The jewel house here does not mean a house made
of the seven jewels but the place where he contemplated the
seven books. And while he contemplated the contents of thb
Dhammasangani, his body d:d not emit rays; and similarly
1 Siivaka's (disciples or' hearars ')knew it only through the Buddha's
preaching.-Tr.
2 The Ga'f!fhipada raads Pii.dhiyaputta. Since the miracle was per-
formed for the subjugation of this ascetic at an assembly composed
of the citizens of Pa~aliputta, either reading is right.-Tr.
I ntrod1tctory Discourse 17
with the contemplation· of the next five books. But when;
coming to the Great Book, he began to contemplate the
twenty-four universal causal relations of condition, of presen-
tation, and so on, his omniscience certainly found its
opportunity therein. For as the great fish Timiratipiiigala
finds room only in the great ocean eighty-four thousand
yojanas in depth, so his omniscience truly finds room only
in the Great Book. Rays of six colours-indigo, golden,
red, white, tawny, and dazzling-issued from the Teacher's .
body, as he was contemplating the subtle and abstruse Law
by his omniscience which had found such opportunity.
The indigo rays issued from his hair and the blue portions
of his eyes. Owing to them the surface of the sky
appeared as though besprinkled with collyrium powder, or
covered with flax and blue lotus-flowers, or like a jewelled
fan swaying to and fro, or a piece of dark cloth fully spread
out. The golden rays issued from his skin and the golden
portions of his eyes. [14] Owing to them the different
quarters of the globe shone as though besprinkled with some
golden liquid, or overlaid with sheets of gold, or bestrewn
with saffron powder and bauhinia-flowers. The red rays issued
from his flesh and blood and the red portions of his eyes.
Owing to them the quarters of the globe were coloured
as though painted with red-lead powder, or besprinkled
with the liquid of molten lac, or wrapped round with red
blankets. or bestrewn with the shoe-flower, the sea-coral, and
bandhujivaka flowers. The white rays issued from his bones,
teeth, and the white portions of his eyes. Owing to them
the quarters of the globe were bright as though overflow-
ing with streams. of milk poured out of silver pots, or
overspread with a canopy of silver plates, or like a
silver fan swaying to and fro, or as though well covered
with such flowers as the wild jasmine, water-lily, chaste
flower, jasmine, and coffee-wort. The tawny and dazzling
rays issued from the different parts of his body. Thus the
six-coloured rays came forth and caught the great mass of
earth. The' great earth, having a thickness of two hundred
and forty thousand yojanas, appeared like a burnished lump
18 The Expositor
of gold. The rays penetrated the earth and caught the water
below. The water which supports the earth and has a depth
of four hundred and eighty thousand yojanas appeared like
gold dust poured out of golden jars. They penetrated the
water and caught the atmosphere which, nine hundred and
sixty thousand yojanas in thicknei;;s, appeared like well-erected
columns of gold. Penetrating the atmosphere, they sprang
fo>:th into the open space beyond. Going upwards they caught
the abodes of the four Regents of the world. Penetrating
these_, they. caught the Tavati~sa, and thence the Yama,
thence the Tusita,, thence the Nimmanarati, thence the Para-
nimmita-vasa vatti spheres, an-1 thence the nine Brahma
worlds, thence the Vehapphala, thence the five Pure Abodes,
and thence the four Aruppa heavens. Having.penetrated the
last of these, they sprang into the open space across to the
infinite world-systems. In so many of these places, there was
no light in the moon, nor in the sun, nor in the host of stars;
nowhere 'was there lustre, neither in the parks, nor in the
mansions, nor in the wish-yielding tree, nor in the bodies and ·
ornaments of the gods. Even Great Brahma, able to diffuse
light throughout. a billion world-systems, [15] became like a
glow-worm at sunrise. There appeared only the mere out-
line of the moon, the sun, the host of stars, and the parks,
mansions, and the wish-yielding tree of the gods. So much
space was flooded by the Buddha's rays. Such power is not
the potency of resolve nor of culture. But the blood of the
Lord of the world became clear as he contemplated such a
subtle and abstruse Law. Likewise the physical basis of his
thought, and his complexion. The element of colour, pro-
duced by the caloric order, born of the mind, steadily estab-
lished itself with . a radius of eighty cubits. In this way,
he contemplated for a whole week.
How wide is the Law, contemplated for seven nights and
seven days ~ It is infinite and immeasurable. This, of
course, refers to the discourse as thought out in the mind.
And it should not be said that the Teacher was unable to
finish preaching in a hundred or a thousand or ten thousand
years the Law mentally worked out in a week. For subse-
quently the Tathagata, seated in the midst of the gods fro~
the ten thousand world-systems, at the Pa~Q.ukambala stone
at the foot of the Paricchattaka ·tree in Tavati~sa, making
his mother his chief witness, taught th~Law, passing from onP.
theme to another1 in a hundred, a th P.isand, and a hundred
thousand divisions. And infinite and immeasurable was !;he
discourse, which went on ceaselessly for three mont,hs with the
velocity of a waterfall, or streams of water issuing from water-
pots turned mouth downwards. For a speech of the Buddha
when thanking his host for entertainment, if elaborated a
little, may reach the length of a Digha or Majjhima discourse.
And a discourse given after a meal to the host of assembled
people reaches the length of a discourse in the two great
Nikayas, Sarµ,yutta and Anguttara. Why should it b~ so 1
Because the Bu-ldhas are but slightly occupied with the
business of maintaining life, the. lips close well, the mouth
opens lightly, 2 the tongue is soft, the voice is sweet, the deli-
very of words is quick. 3 Hence the Law, preached in such a
short time; is of the length stated ;4 when it was preached for
three months it must have been infinite an.d immeasurable.
The Elder Ananda was indeed of wide experience, a student
of the Three Pitakas, and could learn, recite and preach, as he
stood, one thousand five hundred stanzas or sixty thousand
feet, as easily as though he were gathering creepers and flowers.
That was the Elder's single course of exposition. None but
the Buddha was able to teach, or attain the distinction of
teaching this Elder the actual text, word by word. Even a
disciple of such surpassing mindfulness, intelligence [16] and
fortitude would not be able to finish learning in a thousand
years the sermons preached by the Teacher in three months
in the way mentioned above. 5
But how did the Tathagata, preaching continuously for
three months, sustain the body, which is the issue of grasping
1 Or, ' special or unique themes.' Cf. p. 14, n. 2.

2 Or, 'is well adjusted.' Mukhiidiinam =mu.khavivara~za11i. Tika.
3 Uttering 128 words to one of a worldling.
• I.e., equal to the Digha and Majjhima Nikaya.s.
5 Cf. Pss. of the Brethren, p. 354.
20 The Expositor
::i.nd depends on material food 1 By nourishing ·it with food}
Now each particular interval of time is well marked, ·well
divided and well observed by the Buddhas. Accordingly
the Blessed One, in preaching the doctrine in the world of men,
looked at the time. He noted that it was the time for going
·his begging rounds. So he created a Buddha after his own
image and thus determined : ' Let this created Buddha hold
.the robe, the bowl, speak and assume his appearance in such
and such a way; let him preach so much of the doctrine.'
Then.the (true) Buddha took his own bowl and robe and went
to Anotatta Lake. The gods offered him a tooth-stick made
of Naga creepers . . He used it, bathed in the lake, and stood
on the top of the Ma~osila rock. He put 01:1 the well-dyed
undergarment and the robe, took the bowl made of blue stone
and presented by the four Regents of the world, and went to
Uttarakuru. Gathering alms thence he sat on the shore of
Anotatta Lake, partook of his meal, and went to a sandalwood
forest for the midday rest. Sariputta, generalissimo of the
Law, went there, seived the Supreme Buddha, and sat aside.
Then to him the Teacher gave the method saying,' Sariputta,
so much doctrine has been shown.' Thus the giving of the
method was to the chief disciple, who was endowed with
analytical knowledge, as though the Buddha stood on the
edge of the shore and pointed out the ocean with his open hand.
To the Elder also the doctrine taught by the Blessed One in
hundreds and thousands of methods became very clear.
At what time did he, after his midday rest, take.up (his bowl
and robe) and go to Tavati~sa to preach the Law 1 He went
about the time of showing the Law to the clansmen residents
of SavatthI who had arrived. Which (spirits) knew of his
going (to the world of men) or arrival at Tavati~sa, after
shOwing the Law, and which knew it not 1 Spirits of greater
power knew it; spirits of lesser power knew it not. \\'hy did
not these know it 1 Because there was no difference between
the Supreme Buddha and the created Buddha as regards their
rays, voices, or words. ·
l Or, 'by relaxing the stiffened muscles and thus equalizing the
fo u postures, walking, sitting, standing, and lying down.' Ariyalan·
ka,,.,·s Ni8saya,.
NowSariputta, having IP,arnttheLaw taught(bythe Teacher)
preached it to five hundred bhikkhus, his own pupils. The
following is their connection with the past. [17] They,
so it is said, were born as bats in the time 0£ the Buddha
Kassapa. Hanging from (the roof o~) a cave, they heard
tJ~evoiceo£ twobhikkhus reciting the Abhidhammaandgrasped
a general idea that it was the Law, being unable to distinguish
the good from the bad. They passed away with only the
general idea suggested by the voice and were reborn in the
world 0£ gods. They dwelt there during a whole interval
between the death 0£ one Buddha and the appearance 0£ the
next, and in the time 0£ this Buddha were reborn aa men;
Being convinced by the Twin Miracle, they renounced the
world in the presence of the Elder who, having learnt the Law
taught by the Teacher, preached it to them. Their acquire-
ment of the seven books was simultaneous with the conclusion
0£ the Abhidhamma teaching of the Buddha.
The textual order 0£ the Abhidhamma originated with
Sariputta; the numerical series in the Great Book was also
determined by him. In this way the Elder, without spoiling
the unique doctrine, laid down the numerical series in order
to make it easy to learn, remember, study and teach the Law.
Such being the case, was the Elder the very first to understand
the Abhidhamma 1 Nay, it was the Supreme Buddha who
first understood the Abhidhamma. For he, seated on the
throne under the Wisdom Tree, penetrated it and became the
Buddha and, while seated for seven days in one position on the
throne, uttered this song 0£ ecstasy :
Lo I when appear true doctrines1 to the saint

Zealous and thoughtful, all his doubts dissolve;
He knows that all Becoming is through Cause.
Lo I when appear true doctrines to the saint
Zealous and thoughtful, all his doubts dissolve ;
He knows the demolition of all Cause.
1 Dhammii. These may mean the four truths, facts, or the 37

faotora of enlightenment. Dhammapiila; Comy. on Udiina.
22 The Expositor
Lo I when appear ·true doctrines to the saint
Zealous and thoughtful, all !tis doubts dissolve;
And he is as a Ught unto the world,
Having annihilated Mara's hosts,
Even as the sun illuminates the sky,
Having dispelled the darkness of the night.1
These were the first words of the Buddha.

[18] But the students of the Dhammapada say that th1~
following were the' first words spoken by the Buddha:
Long I endured the circles of rebirth,

Seeking but finding not the architect.
Rebirth continual is continual pain.
But now have I espied thee, architect I
Behold, thou shalt not build the house again.
Broke are thy beams, thy pinnacle destroyed.
Now to N ibbana2 has my mind atta·ined
And now in me all craving is destroyed. 3
The words spoken at the time of the Parinibbii.na by the

Buddha while lying down between the two Sal-trees were his
last:
'Hearken now, bhikkhus, I tell you: Conditioned things
are subject to decay; work out your salvation with diligence. ' 4
The good Law pointing to the Deathless and taught (by
the Buddha) for forty-five years between these two events, as
though. he was wreathing a garland of flowers or composing
a string of jewel beads, forms his mi.idle sayings. Altogether
they form three Pi!akas, five Nikayas, nine All.gas, and eighty-
four thousand Khandhas. How so 1 The entire worJs of the
1 Vinaya Texts i. 18; also translatad in Points of Controversy 118.
_CI. Comp., p. 179. 2 Visaiikhiira.

3 Dhp. ver. 154; Pss. of the Brethren ver. 184, which ends (lifjerently.
In the Introduction to the Jataka storieR, the verses are said to have
been uttered by all the Buddhas when they attained omniscience under
their Bodhi-tree. Cf. Rhys Davids, Bvddhist Birthstories, 103 f.-Ed.
· • Dialogues ii. 173.
Introductory Disco1irse 23
Buddha 11re divided by. way of Pit,aka into three parts: the
Vina ya, Sutta and Abhidhamma. Herein both the Patimok-
khas (Bhikkhu and Bhikkhuni) and the two Vibha1igas
(Bhikkhu . and Bhikkhuni), the twenty-two Khandhakas,
the sixteen Parivaras, constitute the Vinaya Pitaka.
The collection of thirty-four suttas beginning with the
Brahmajala sutta forms the D'igha Nikiiya; the collection of
one hundred and fifty-two suttas beginning with the Mula-
pariyiiya sutta forms the Majjhima Nikiiya; the collection of
seven thousand seven hundred and sixty-two suttas beginning
with the Oghatarar:a sutta forms the Sarµ,yutta Nikiiya; the
collection of nine thousand- five hundred and fifty-seven
suttas beginning with the Cittapariyiidana siitta forms the
Anguttara Nikiiya. Fifteen different treatises1 to wit, Khitdda-
kapatha, Dhammapada, Udiina, ltivuttaka, Sitttanipata, Y.i-
manavatthu, Petavatthu, Theragatha~Therigatha, Jataka, Nid-
desa, Pa~isambhida,.Apadana, B'tfddhavarµ,sa, and Oariyapi,~aka
form the Khuddaka Nikaya. All these constitute the Sutta .
Pitaka.
The seven books beginning with Dharnmasa1iga~i'i form the
Abhidhamma Pitaka.
[19] Herein-
Beca·use it shows precepts and principles,
And governs both the body and the tongue,
Therefore men call this Scripture Vinaya,
For so is Vinaya interpreted.
By ' principles ' in this verse are meant the methods of the
fivefold Patimokkha ordinance, of the seven classes of offence
beginning with the Parajika of the Mii.tika and of the Vi-
bhaiiga. · By ' precepts ' are meant the methods of the
additional enactments, resulting in the strengthening or the
relaxing of the observance of original ordinances. It also
regulates the body and the tongue by restraining them from
transgression. Therefore on accou11t of its principles and
precepts and its regulation of the b,ody and the tongue,
it is called Vinaya.
1 Cf. p. 32.
24 The Expositor
Hence it has been said to facilitate the study of the word-
definition:
Because it shows precepts and principles,
And governs both the body and the tongue,
Therefore men call this Scripture V inaya,
For so is Vinaya interpreted.
Further:
This Scripture shows, e'Cpresses,fructifies,
Yields, guards the Good, and is unto the wise
A plumb-line; therefore Sutta1 is its name.
For it shows what is good for the good of self and others.
It is well expressed to suit the wishes of the audience. It has
been said that it fructifies the Good, as crops fructify their
fruit; that it yields the Good as a cow yields milk; and that
it well protects and guards the Good. It is a measure to the
wise as the plumb-line is to carpenters. And just as flower.;
strung together are not scattered nor destroyed, so the Good
strung together by it does not perish. Hence it has been said,
to facil.i tate the study of the word-definition:
This Scripture shows, expresses, fructifies,

Yields, guards the Good, and is unto the wise
A plumb-line; therefore Sutta is its name.
The word-definition of Abhidhamma has been explained.

But here is another:
Because this book shows things that suffer growth,
Of proper attributes, to be revered,
Well-differentiated, and of worth
Surpassing, Abhidhamma is its name.
(20] For the prefix 'abhi' implies growth, proper attributes,

reverence, clear differentiation, and surpassing worth. Thus
in such sentences as, ' Sir, severe pains grow in me ;' 2 it expresses
growth. In such sentences as, ' Those are remarkable 3 and
2 <;lf. :fl· 3.
I ntroditctory Discour8e 25
characterized 1 nights,' it expres.ses proper attributes. In such
sentences as,' king qf kings 2 and conqueror of men,' it expre.~ses
reverence. In such sentences as, 'He is able to master the
Abhidhamm(J, and Abhivinaya, ' 3 it-expresses di:fferentiation;
the sentence, that is to say, means, 'He is able to master the
Dhamma and the Vinaya without confusing either with the
other.' In such phrases as, 'with surpassing 4 beauty,' it
expresses worth. In the sentence, ' He develops the means for
rebirth in the RU.pa-world ;5 he lives . di:ffusing one quarter
of the globe with thoughts of love,' 6 things capable of growth
are referred to. In such phrases as, 'visible object, audible
object,' things of proper attributes are referred to, because
they are characterized as objects, etc. And things to be
revered are referred to in such phrases as, ' things pertaining
to students, things pertaining to adepts, and things trans-
.c endental.' In such phrases as, ' this is touch, that is feeling,
etc.,' things distinguishable as to their nature are referred to.
And things of surpassing worth are referred to in such phrases
as, 'states sublime, states immeasurable, states incomparable.'
Hence it has been said to facilitate the study of the word-
definition :
Because this book shows thing.~ that su.ffer growth, ... etc.
The term ' Pitaka ' has a com:r;non meaning:
·By ' Pi(.aka ' the learned s1'.gnify

'Study' and' basket '-with which word compound
These;-Sutta, Abhidhamma, Vinaya.
' Pitaka ' is used in the sense of ' study ' in such sentences
as, 'L~t us not [value doctrines] by proficiency7 in the Pitaka.'
And it is used in the sense of a ' basket ' in such sentences as,
'as if a man were to t'ake a spade and basket and go .... ' 8
i Abhilakkhita.
2 Rajabhirii.jii.. Sutta-Nipiita, ver. 553. 3 Vin. i. 64.
4 Abhikkantena. Of. Sa1J1y~itta i, 1, etc. 6 Dhs. § 160.
6 D'igha i. 250, etc. 7 . A. i. 189.
.8 Majjhima i. 127:
26 The Expositor
_Wherefore,
By ' Pitaka ' the learned signify

'Study' and 'basket '---with which word compound
These- Hutta, Abhidhamma, Vinaya.;
Thus 'Vinaya' forms a compound with 'Pitaka' in its

two senses and is called Vinaya-Pitaka, because of its being at
once a study and a basket of meaning. So also do 'Sutta-
Pitaka,' [21) and 'Abhidhamma-Pitaka.' And having thus
understood them, in order again to understand the various
aspects of the three Pitakas,
In them, when need is, let the several kinds

Of sermon, teaching, discourse be explained:
And the profundity of precept-lore
And passion-piwging laws. What each attains
In these three studies; how he may succeed,
Wher~in he fails, let this too be explained.
To explain and elucidate we add: The three Pitakas are

respectively spoken of as teachings of authority, of popular
philosophy, and of metaphysical truths; or as instruction
according to misconduct, according to circumstance, and
according to states; or again, as discourses of trivial or serious
restraint, of the refutation of heretical views, and of the
distinction between mind and matter. And herein the Vinaya-
Pitaka, taught generally with authority by the Blessed One
who was fit to give authority, is said to be a teaching of
authority; the Sutta-Pitaka, taught generally concerning
popular ethics by the Blessed One, who was skilled in popular
ethics, is called teachings of popular philosophy; and the
Abhidhamma-Pi~aka, taught generally concerning things in
their ultimate sense by the Blessed One, who was skilled in
ultimate truths, is called teaching in ultimate truths.
Likewise, the first, i.e., Vinaya, instructs grave offenders
according to their respective misdee3s, and is called instruction
given concerning such; the second, i.e., Sutta-Pi~aka, is
adapted to various wishes, latent tendencies, traits of character,
I ntrod'uctory Discourse 27
resolutions, and is called instmction adapted to circu~tance;
and the third, i.e., Abhidhamma-Pitaka, instructs, according
to states, those persons who imagine a self in the ultimate
sense in mere collocations of things, saying, 'This is I; that
is mine,' and is called instruction given in accordance with
states.
Similarly, the first is called a discourse of restraint and
control, because therein are given discourses on griwe or trivial
restraint as opposed to tranagression. ' Restraint and
control ' m.eail restraint big and smail, like acts big and small·;
fruits big and small.1 The second is called a discourse on the
· refutation of heretical views, because therein is unrolled the
coil of the sixty-two heresies.2 The third is called a discourse
on the distinction between mind and matter, because therein
is discourse of that distinction in its ethical connection, etc.
And in the three Pitakas, the threefold training, the three-
fold riddance and the fourfold profundity are to be understood:
_morality treated specially in the Vinaya-Pitaka is the unique
training in virtue; consciQusness treated specially in the
Suttanta-Pitaka is the. unique training in higher mental
training; philosophy treated specially in the Abhidhamma-
Pitaka is the unique training in high~r or metap'o.ysical under-
standing. In the Vinaya-Pitaka [22] the riddance of trans-
gression due to the corruptions is meant, because morality is
opposed to transgressions; in the Suttanta-Pi~aka the riddance
of the tyranny of the corruptions is meant, because _con-
centration of thought is inimical to such tyranny; in the
Abhidhamma-Pitaka the riddance -of latent bias is meant
because understanding is opposed to it. In the first Pitaka
there i.s a temporary riddance of the corruptions (hy means
of various factors of morality); in the others their riddance
is of the nature of- discarding and extirpating by t: .e Path.
In the first Pi~aka the riddance is of the corruption of mis-
conduct; in the others it is of the con:uption of craving and
wrong views. And in each of them, the fourfold profundity,
1 'Big' re3traint includes the Parajika's and S:inghadisesa.'s of the
Vinaya (vol. iii .); the rest a.re 'sma.11.':___Tr.

2 See Dialogues i., first Suttn.nta.
28 The Expositor
viz., of the doctrine, of the meaning, of the exposition, and of
intuition, should be understood.
Herein 'doctrine' (dhamma) means the text; 'meaning'
(atth.a) the sense·of the text; 'exposition' (desana) the verbal
preaching of the text which has been borne in mind; and
'penetration' (pativedha) is the understanding of the text
and its meaning as they really are. And in these three Pitakas,
inasmuch as it is difficult for the poor in understanding to
comprehend or obtain a firm footing in these four things___,.
just as it is difficult for hares and other small creatures to
enter..or obtain a firm footing in the great ocean-they are said
to be profound. Thus in each Pitaka the fourfold profundity
should be understood.1 Or again: ' Doctrine ' means root.-
condition; for it has been said 2 that ' knowledge of a cause or
c_ondition is the analysis of doctrine.' 3 ' Meaning ' is the
result of a condition; for it has been said that knowledge of
the result of a condition is the analysis of meaning. ' Exposi., .
tion' means statement* in the sense of verbal expression ofthe
doctrine as it is, or it means a discourse. given in the way of
right succession or reverse order, in abstract or in detail, etc.
Penetration4 means comprehending. 5 It is either worldly or
transcendental. It penetrates, by way of object and without
confusion, into causes according to their effecta, into effects
according to their causes, into concepts according to circum-
stances giving rise to such notions. It also implies t,he
irreversibility of the respective characteristics of such and
such.things (as the five aggregates and Nibbana}, taught in this
or.that Pitaka.6 Now the meaning of such causes and effects
.1.: The Anutika adds, that ' dhamma ' is the original arrangement of
words (saddappabandho) to be studied and understood with the help of
various meanings given to them; that 'desanii.' is the sub3equent
preaching of those words for the underatanding of others.
· 2 Vibhanga 293.
· 3 Cf. Ledi, as quotsd in Points of Controversy 380.
* Abhiliipo.
4 The literal meaning of pxfivdha.-Ed.
Ii Abhisamayo. Cf. Sum. Vil. i. 32.
, pativedha has been taken in the active sense.
6 In .the first sense_
Here it is in the passive.

as things taught under various aspects in the Pi~akas is pre-
sented to the intellect of the hearers. Next there is the exposi-
tion which elucidates that meaning of things taught under
those aspects; then there is intuition, called irreversible pene-
tration of things taught therein, or the irreversible nature of
the respective cha~acteristics of things. All this is difficult for
the uncultured, w:._ho are not well supported by accumulated
merit) to grasp or obtain a firm footing, as has 'been stated
above. Thus far [23] this verse:~
In {hem, wlten need is, let the several kinds

Of sermon, teaching, discourse be explained,
And the profundity of precept-lore
And passion-purging laws-
has now been explained.

Herein three kinds of atudy of the threetPitakas should be con-
sidered: study after the manner of one catching a snake, study
for the purpose of salvation, and study as of a treasurer. Of
these, that study which is badly acquired out of a desire to be
vexatious to others, etc.,1 is like catching a snake. Concerning
which it is said : 'Just as, bhikkhus, a person desirous of
catching a snake goes out in search of one. He sees a big snake
and catches it either by the body or the tail. And the snake
turning back bites him on the hand, the arm, or any other part
of the body big or small. On that account he dies or suffers
pain approaching death. And why 1 Because, bhi~hus,
of his bad catching of the snake. In the same way, h}iikkhus,
in the religion some good-for-nothing persons improperly
study the doctrine in its various branches. Having studied
the doctrine they do not intelligently consider the mealing
of the text. And the meaning not being considered with
understanding, those acquired doctrines do not lend themselves
to close insight. These people study the doctrine for the
purpose of annoying others or of freeing themselves from the
criticism or scoffing of others.* For whatever Good right-
1 Or, 'to free oneself from the .oppression of other.o.'
* ltivadapparrwkkha.
30 The Expositor
m.indel people study the doctrine, that Good these good-for-
nothingpeople do not experience; and the doctrines being bad'.y
acquired are conducive to their disadvantage and misery for
a long time. Wherefore ? Because, bhikkhus, of their being
badly acquire:i.'1 But that study, which is well acquire::l. by
one desirous of fulfilling _a body of precepts, etc., and not for
the sake of annoying others, is for the sake of salvation, con-
cerning which it is ~>aid: ' The doctrines being well acquired
.conduce to advantage and happiness for a long time. Where-
fore ? Because, bhikkhus, of their being well acquired.2
Finally, the saint, who has acquired a complete knowledge
of the aggregates, got rid of the corruptions, developed the
Path, [24] penetrated the Fruition of Arahantship, realized the
Truth of Cessation, and extinguished the intoxicants, studies_
merely for the purpose of preserving the tradition, and of
guarding the line8,ge of the doctrine. This is the study of the
treasurer.
The bhikkhu, who is well practised in the Vinaya, arrives,
by fulfilling the precepts, at the three kinds of knowledge,
which are fully treated of therein. · The bhikkhu, who is well
versed in the Suttas, arrives, by his attainment of concen-
tration, at the six branches of super-knowledge, which are
fully treated oftherein. The bhikkhu, who is well cultivated in
the Abhidhamma, arrives, by his attainment of understanding,
at the four analyses, whi<;h are fully treated of therein. Thus
the bhikkhu, who is well trained in the three Pitakas, in due
course arrives at the attainment of the three kinds of knowledge,
the six branches of super-knowledge, and the four analyses.
But the bhikkb.u, who is ill trained in the Vinaya, imagines
that there is . no fault in the forbidden sensations of touch,
because the touch of these is similar to that of blankets and
cloaks, etc., which are pleasurable and are permitted by the ·
Buddha. And it has been said: 3 'I know the doctrine taught '
1 Alagaddiipama-sutta. Majjhima , i. 133 £. 2 lb., 134.
3 Majjhima, i. 130. · Ariyalailkara says that Ari~tha , a heretic, in

some lonely spot gave way to sense-indulgence and, not knowing the
Vinaya, said that average men might also be Sotapanna's, Sa.kada-
gami's, or Anagami's, and that Arahants might indulge in the pleasures
of the senses.
I ntrod1ictory Discourse 31
by the Blessed One, namely, that certain things are inimical
(to progress), but that they are incapable of doing any harm
to one who uses them in certain ways.' Consequently the
bhikkhu arrives at evil practices. The bhikkhu, who is ill
trained in the Sutta, gets a wrong idea, not. knowing the
meaning of such passages as, ' There are,- bhikkhus, four
persons1 in the world,' concerning which it has been said,
' Owing to his wrong ideas,2 he accuses us, harms himself and
pro:luces much demerit.' Consequently he arrives at wrong
views. The bhikkhu, who is ill trained in the Abhidhamma,
makes his mind run to excess in metaphysical abstractions
and thinks of the unthinkable. Consequrntly he gets mental
distracti!:m. For it has been said, ' Bhikkhus, there are four
.unthinkables, things that should not be thought of. Mad-
ness or vexation will be the portion of him who does so.' 3
Thus the bhikkhu, who is ill traine~d in the three Pi~akas,
in due course arrives at failure of different sorts, such as evil
principles, wrong views, mental derangement.
So far the import "Of the ver::;e
- - ' what each attains

In these three studies, how he may sitaceed,
Wherein he fails, let this too be explained'
has been explained.

Thus the three Pitakas by the knowledge of the scriptures
in various ways are to be known as the Buddha's word.
[25J How are the five Nikayas grouped ? The entire words
of the Buddha are divided into D~gha Nikaya, Majjhima
Nikaya, Sarp,yutta, Anguttara, and Khuddaka Nikiiyas.
1 One wholives for his own good, one who lives for the good of others,
one who lives neither for his own nor others' good, one who lives both
for his own and others' good. D. iii. 232; M. i .. 341; A. ii. 205. This is
said by the Buddha as a conventional truth. Not knowing it in the
ultimate sense he gets the wrong idea. Discussed in Points of Contra·
versy, p. 16.-'-Ed.
2 Or, 'owing to his wrong nature or conduct,' says the Siiratt/w,dipani,,
which also reads dU{Jgahiterw dhammerw. a A. ii. ~.

32 The Expositor
Which of these is the Digha Nikaya? The collectior of
thirty-four suttas beginning . with BrahmaJ'ala, forming three
divisions.
Suttantas thirty and four.in chapters three-
Digha N ikaya, firs~ and longest book.
But why is it called Di<Jha Nikaya? · Because it is a group

and a location of long sutta.>, and a group or a location is called
Nika.ya, ' I do not see, l:>hikkhus, any other single group so
varied as the animal group' ;1 'the aborle of P01;iika princes, of
Cikkhalika princes ' 2-these are examples showing the mean-
ing of the term both i!l the religious and the secular senses.
Thus in the remaining Nikayas also should this definition be
understood.;
Which is the Majjhima Nikaya? Tlie collection of one·
hundred and fifty-two sutfas of medium length beginning
with the Mulapariyaya-Sutta, forming fifteen divisions.
Beven score and twelve Suttantas in fifteen
Chapters the Majjhima Nikaya holds.
Which is the Sarp,yutta Nikayaf The seven thousand
seven hundred and sixty-two suttas beginning with the
-Oghatara'}'fa, and arranged as Devatasarp,yiitta, etc.
Seventy-seven hundred suttas, sixty-two
Buttantas, Sarp,yutta Nikaya holds.
Which, is the Angnttara Nikaya? The nine thousand five
h11ndred and fifty-seven suttas beginning with Oittapariyadana,
arranged by way of an increase of the parts by one at a ti:n;ie.
Nine thousand and five hundred and fifty-seven,
These are the suttas in Anguttara.
[26] Which is the Khuddaka Nikaya? 3 The whole of the
Vinaya-Pitaka, Abhidhamma-Pitaka, and the fifteen divi-
sions, as shown above,-beginning with Khuddakapa~ha,
Dhammapada, all the remaining words of the Buddha, exclud-
ing the Four Nikayas.
1 fjarµyutta, iii. 152. 2 Not traced. 3 Cf. p. 23,

I ntro~uctory Discourse 33
Save Digha and the three Nikayas named,
The rest of Buddha's word is Khuddaka.
Thus as to Nikayas there are five.
Which are the 'nine parts '1 The entire Sutta, Geyya,
Veyyakarana, Gathii, U diina, ltivuttaka, J iitaka, Abbhuta,
Vedalla.1 ·
Herein, the dual Sutta-Vibhanga, the Niddesa, the Khandha-

kas, and Parivara, the M angalasutta, Ratanasutta, N iilakasutta,
Tuvatakasutta of the Sutta-Nipata, and any other words of the
Tathagata bearing the name of Sutta should be regarded as
Sutta. All the Suttas with verses should be understood as
Geyya. In particular, all the chap~ers with verses in the
Sarµ,yutta-Nikiiya form Geyya. The entire Abhidharnma-
Pitaka, Suttas without verses and ;any other words of the
Buddha not.included in the eight p~rts should be understood
as Veyyakaratfa, 2 or exposition. Dhammapada, Theragathii,
Therigatha, those pieces in the Sutta-Nipata not called Sutta,
and entirely in verse should be known as Gatha. Eighty-two
Sµttantas connected with verses due to knowledge and joy
should be understood as Udana.
One hundred and twelve Suttantas taught in this wise:
'Thus was it said by the Blessed One,' etc., should be under-
stood as Itivuttaka (the' Thus-said'). Five hundred and fifty
birth-stories beginning with the Apatf'l'Jaka constitute the
Jataka. All Suttantas connected with wonderful and mar-
vellotis things spoken in this wise: ' There are, bhikkhus, four
wonderful and marvellollil things in Ananda,' 3 should be
understood.as Abbhuta. All Suttantas in the form of questions
asked through repeated attainment of delight and under-
standing, such as the Suttas: Oullavedalla, M ahavedalla, Sam-
miidiUhi, .Sakkapaiiha, Sankharabhajaniya, M ahiipU'l'J'l'Jama, 4
1 The doctrine as compiled (if ndt as written) literature is thus
enumerated in the Pi~akas, e.g., Majjhima i. 133.-Ed.
2 As Geyya means Suttas with veraes and Veyyakaral_!a means
Suttas without verses, there seems to be no need of a separate part as

Suttas, which are neither. In point of fact, Veyyakara:r;ia is applied to
those Suttas containing questions and answers.-Tr.
3 Aitguttara ii. 132.
4 Majjhima i. 299; 292; 46; Digha ii. ::!63; Majjhima iii. 99; 15.
34 The · Expositor
etc., should be· understood as Vedalla. Such are the nine
parts.
Which are the eighty-four thousand units of text 1
'
[27] Eighty-two thousand from the Blessed One,
Two thousand from the bhikkhu Sar~putta
Eighty-four thousand dhammas have I learned.1
Thus,the whole of the Buddha's word is composed of eighty-
four thousand units of text. Of these, the Sutta containing
one theme2 forms one unit of text. Where a Sutta cont11ins
more than one theme, its units of texts are determined by the
number of such themes. In verses each query or question
as~ed forms a unit, and each .answer forms another. In the
Abhidhamma each trinal or dual classification, as well as
each classification of conscious intervals, forms one unit of
text. In the Vinaya there are subjects, tables of contents,
classification of terms, offence, innocence, interim o;ffence, and
division into triplets; wherein each portion should be under-
stood as a unit of text. Such is the division of the Doctrine
into eighty-four thousand units of text.
Thus at the time of the Rehearsal at the First Council, held
by the five hundred, the company of the. self-controlled who
recited .under the presidency of Mahakassapa did so after
previous determination: ' [This is the Doctrine, this is the
Vina ya] ;3 these are the first words, these the middle .words,
these the later words of the Buddha; this is the Vinaya~
Pitaka, this the Suttanta-Pitaka, this the Abhidhamma~
Pitaka, this the Digha Nikaya. . . . Khuddaka Nikaya;
these the niue parts, to wit, the Suttas, etc.; these the
eighty-four thousand units of text.' And not only this: the
various literary expedients appearing in the three Pi!akas
such as the lists of contents (uddana), chapters (vagga),_
elisions (peyyala), sections (nipata) of single, double subjects,
etc., groups (sarriyutta), fifties (pannasa)-all this having
been arranged, was rehearsed in seven months. And at the
1 Verse spoken by Ananda toGopakaMoggallana. 0£. M ajjhima iii. 7 /.
2 Anusandhika. Anusandhi is .a logical sequence of subjects.
3 Not in P .T.S. ed.-Ed.
conclusion of the .Rehearsal the great earth quaked (up
to the limits of the water) repeatedly, violently, with a
vertical upheaval everywhere; and various wonders mani~
fested themselves, as though giving congratulations with
well-felt delight at the thought: ' Th:e religion .of the Buddha
of·the Ten Powers has thus, by the Elder Mahakas.sapa,
been_Jnade capable of lasting a period offive thousand years.'
Thus as. rehearsed at the Council, the Aoliidhamma is
a . Pi!aka by Pi!aka-classification, Khuddaka-Nikaya by
Nikaya~classification, [28] Veyyakara:µa by Part-classifi-
cation and constitutes two or three thousand units of
text by the classification of textual units. One of those
bhikkhus who studied the Abhidhamma once sat in the
midst of bhikkhus who knew all the five Nikayas,1 and
quoting the text (sutta) from the Abhidhamma taught the
Doctrine thus: ' The aggnigate of matter is unmoral; of. the
four (mental) aggregates some are moral, some immoral, and
some unmoral. Ten sense-organs are unmoral; the (re-
maining) two sense-organs may be moral, immoral, or unmoral.
Sixteen elements are 1rnmoral; the (remaining) two ele-
ments may be moral, immoral, or unmoral. _ The Fact of the
Origination of Ill is immoral; the Fact of the Path is moral;
the Fact of Cessation is unmoral; the Fact of Ill may be
moral, immoral, or unmoral. Ten controlling powers are
unmoral; the controlling power of grief is immoral; the
controlling power of (intellect which prompts and inspirea
us)-" I shall come to know the unknown "-is moral; four
controlling powers may be moral or unmoral; six controlling
powers may be moral, immoral or unmoral.' 2 A bhikkhu,
seated there, asked, 'Preacher, you quote a long text as though
you were going to encircle Mount Sineru; what text is it?'
' Abhidhamma text, brother.' ' \Vhy do you quote the
Abhidhamma text? Does it not behove you to quote ,other
texts spoken by the Buddha?' (Preacher) 'Brother, by
whom was the Abhidhamma taught ?' · ' Not by the Buddha.'
1 Thus the '.fikii interprets sabbasii.mayikaparisaya. ' ffat in t_he
fourfold assembly' accordin5 to the Ga~1{hipada.
2 Vibhanga, 62; 73; 90; 112; 125.
36 The Expositor
(Preacher) 'But did you, brother, study the Vinaya-Pitaka ~,
'No, brother, I did not.' (Preacher) 'Methinks, because
you have not studied the Vinaya-Pitaka, you say so in
ignorance.' 'I have, indeed, brother, studied some Vinaya.'
(Preacher) 'Then that has been badly acquired. You must
have been seated at one end of the assembly and dozing. A
person who leaves the world under such teachers as yourself
to give the Refuge-formula, or a person who receives the full
ordination under a chapter of such teachers as yourself, who
·have badly studied the Vinaya, does amiss. And why ~
Because of this badly" studying some Vinaya." For it has
been said by the Buddha :1 " If without any intention of
reviling the Vinaya one were to instigate another, saying,
Pray study the Suttas or Gathas or Abhidhamma first and
afterwards you will learn the Vinaya-there is .no ofience in
him." (Again, in the Bhikkhuni Vibhaiiga:2 "A bhikkhuni
is guilty of a minor offence) if she questions on the ,Abhi-
dhamma or Vina ya after getting permission (to question) on
the Suttanta, or on the Suttanta or Vinaya after getting
permission (to question) on the Abhidhamma, or on the
Suttanta or Abhidhamma after getting permission (to question)
on the Vinaya.'' But you do not know even that much.' 3
With so much refutation was the heretic put down. The
M ahagosinga Sutta is even a stronger authority (to show that
the Abhidhamma is the Buddha's word). For therein when
Sariputta, the Generalissimo of the Law, approached the
Teacher to inform him of the reciprocal questions and answers
that took place between Mahamoggallana and himself, and
told how the former had answered, (the Master said) [29]
' Brother Sariputta, in the religion the talk of two bhikkhus
on the Abhidhamma, each asking and answering the other
without faltering, is in accord w1th the Dhamma. Now such
a bhikkhu, brother Sariputta, might enhance the beauty of
the Gosiiiga Sala Forest.'4 The Teacher, far from saying
that bhikkhus, who knew Abhidhamma, were outside his
l Vin. iv. 144. 2 Vin. iv. 344.
a Similarly, implies the preacher, there is no offence in me when I

say you would do wrong to get ordained.-Tr. 4 Majjhima. i. 218.
I ntroduetory Di'.scour se 37
religion, lifted his drum-like neck and filling (with breath) his
mouth, fraught as the full-moon with blessings, emitted his
godlike voice congratulating Moggallana thus: 'Well done,
well done, Sariputta ! One should answer rightly as Moggal-
lana has done; Moggallana is indeed a preacher of the
Dhamma.' And tradition has it that those bhikkhus only who
know Abhidhamma are tme preach_ers of the Dhamma; the
rest, though they speak on the Dhanima, are not preachers
thereof. .And why? · They, in speaking on the Dhamma,
confuse the different kinds of Kamma and of its results, the
distinctiOn ,between mind and matter, and the different kinds
of states. The students of Abhidhamma do not thus get con-
fused; hence .a bhikkhu who knows Abhidhamma, whether he
or
preaches the Dhamma not, will be able to answer q aestions
whenever asked. He alone, therefore, is a true preacher of
the Dhamma. To this the Teacher referred when he approv-
ing said, 'Moggallana has well replied to questions.' He who
prohibits (the teaching of) Abhidhamma gives a blow to the
Wheel of the Conqueror, denies omniscience, subverts the
Teacher's knowledge full of confidence, deceives the audience,
obstructs the path of the Ariyas, manifests himself as advocat-
ing one1 of the eighteen causes of dissension in the Order, is
capable of doing acts for which the doer is liable to be ex-
communicated, or admoni.shed,2 or scorned (by the Order),
and should be dismissed after the particular act of excommuni-
cation, admonition, or scorn, and reduced to living on scraps
of food.
But if the heretic should say, had Abhidhamma been
taught by the Buddha, there would have been an introduction
prefatory to it, just as in many thousands of the Suttas the
preface generally runs as, ' One day the Blessed One was
staying in Rajagaha/ etc., he should be contradicted thus:
' The J ataka, Suttanipata, Dhammapada, and so on, have no
1 Bhedakaravatthu, viz.: showing what. has been spoken by the
Buddha as not spoken. The eighteen are given in V inaya T~.~ iii.
266, § 2.-Tr.
2 See Vin. ji. 7 (Vin. Texts i.ii. M3); the Nissayakamma administ~r<'d
to Seyyasaka. ·
38 The Expositor ·
such introductions, and yet they were spoke1i. by the Buddha. '1
Furthermore he should be told, ' 0 wise one, this Abhidhamma
. is the province ·of the Buddhas, not of others; the descent of
the Buddhas, their birth, their attainment of perfect wisdom,
their turning of the Wheel of the Law, [30] their performance
of the Twin Miracle, their visit to the devas, 2 their preaching
in the deva-world, and their descent therefrom are all manifest.
It would be unreasonable to steal the Treasure-elephant, or
horse of the universal Monarch and yoke it to a cart and drive
about, or the Treasure-Wheel and fix it to a hay cart and drive
about, or to use the Treasure-jewel capable of shedding light
to the distance of a yojana by putting it in a cotton basket
-and why? Because they are royal property. Even so
Abhidhamma is not the province of others; it is the province
of the Buddhas only. · Such a discourse as the Abhidhamma
can be taught by them only; for their descent is manifest
. . . likewise their return from the deva-wo:dd. There is,
0 wise one, no need for an introduction to Abhidhamma.'
When this is so stated, the heterodox opponent wou}d be
unable to adduce an illustration in support of his cause.
'fhe Elder Tissabhiiti, resident at the Central Park, wishing
to show that the place of the Great Enlightenment3 is an
introduction to Abhidhamma, quoted the Pqdesavihiirasutta
- ' Bhikkhus, by whatever mode of life I lived after I first
attained Buddhahood, I have [these two weeks] lived by that
mode of living.' 4 This he expanded: There are ten positions:
of the aggregates, the field of sense, the elements, the Truths,
·the controlling powers, the causal signs, applications of mind-
fulness, jhana, mind, and states. Of these the Teacher at
the foot of the great Wisdom Tree intuited the Jve aggre- .
gates fully; for three months he lived only by way of the
1 The double negative na • • • na agrees with the reading in the
Ma7Jid'tpa. Some raad 'atthi, na ca tiini,' etc.-' they have introduc-
tions and wera not spoken by the Buddha.'
2 Read tidivokkam?, so explained in the Y ojanii. q£. Dhammapada
Commentary, iii. 216. ·
3 The Anufikii t:J.kes ' mahiibodhinidiino ' to be ' pa~ivedhabhumi,'
•th1 place of intuition, and the Yojanii, the Wisdom Tree .
. ' Sa~nyuUa. v 12.
I ntrod'ltcfiory Discourse 39
aggregate of feeling. 1 He intuited the twelve sense-organs
and the eighteen elements fully; for three months he lived only,
by way of feeling, in tp.e field and in the element of mental
presentations. He intuited the four Truths fully; for three
months he lived only by way of feeling in the Truth of Ill. He
intuited the twenty-two controlling faculties fully; for three
months he lived only by way of the five emotional indriyas: 2
He fully intuited the. chain3 of the causal genesis; for three
months he lived by way o; feeling with touch as its cause. He
intuited the four applications in mindfulness fully; for three
months he lived only by way of feeling to which mindfulness
was intensely applied. [31] He intuited the four Jhanas fully;
for three months he lived only by way of feeling among the
factors of Jhana. He intuited mind fully; for three months
he lived by way of feeling mind only. He intuited (other)
states fully; for three months he lived only by way of (one
or other of) the triplet of feeling. 4 Thus the Elder set forth
an introduction to Abhidhamma by means of the Padesa-
viharasutta.
The Elder Sumanadeva, resident in a village, while trans-
lating the Scriptures5 at the base of the Brazen Palace, thought:
'This heterodox believer, who does not know the introduction
(nidana) to Abhidhamma, is just like one crying (helpless)
with uplifted arms in the forest, or like one who has filed a
lawsuit without witness.' 6 And in order to show the intro-
duction he said,' At one time the Blessed One lived among the
1 S. Z. Aung comments on this: I.e., the Buddha lived his thoughts.
He felt himself identical with himself. In the language of M. Bergson,

.the Buddha intuited his personality, the real considered by way of
aggregate, sense-organ, etc., and actually experienced what he in-
,tuited.-Tr.
2 Vibhaiiga, 123. 3 Reading 0 v'1tta:tp..- Tr.
4 Good, bad, indifferent. 'It wiU be noticed that the feeling by which
the Buddha lived his thoughts is only a part (padesa) of the whole of the
·object intuitedin each case.'-S. Z. Aung.
0 I.e., Abhidhamma and the Commentaries. So Pyi (reading pari-
for pavattento). Ariyii.lailkara interprets: 'reciting the Dhamma, to
wit, sila,' etc. .
6 Instead of appeali1ig to us, who can bear testimony to Abhidhamma
having an introduction.-Tr.
40 The Expositor
gods on the Pai:i-Q.ukambala rock at the foot of the Paric-:
chattaka tree in Tavati~sa. Then the Blessed One taught
Abhidhamma to the Tavati~sa gods thus: ' moral, immoral,
and unmoral states of consciousness,' etc. 1
Whereas in the .Sutta discourses there is but one intro-
duction, in Abhidhamma there are two: one on the Career
and its Goal, and.one on the teaching. Of .these the former
comprises the events froni the time of Dipankara of the
Ten Powers up to the time of attaining the throne under
the Wisdom Tree; the latter comprises the events between
the last mentioned and the time of turning the Wheel of
the Dhamma. Thus for proficiency in the introduction to
Abhidhamma, which has both of these, the following questions
should.beasked: I. Fromwhich source hasthis Abhidhamma
originated ? 2. Where has it matured ? 3. Where, 4. when,
and 5. by whom was it mastered ? 6. Where, 7. when, and
8. by whom was it studied? 9. Where, 10. for whose benefit,
and 11. for what Jll!!POSe was it taught ? 12. By whom was
it accepted 1 13. Who are learning it ? 14. 'Who have learnt
it 1 15. Who know it by heart? 16. Whose word is it?
And 17. by whom has it been handed down?
The reply to these is: 1. Faith which urges to enlighten-
ment was the source. 2. In the five hundred and fifty
Jatakas. 3. At the foot of the Wisdom· Tree. 4. On the
foll-moonday of Visakha. 5. By the omniscient Buddha.
6. At the foot of the Wisdom Tree. [32] 7. During the
seven days spent at the Jewel House. 8. By the omniscient
Buddha. 9. Among the Tavati~sa devas. 10. Of the devas.
11. For release from the four Floods. 12. By the devas~
13. Probationers and good worldlings. 14. Saints fo:~e from
the Intoxicants. 15. Those who lay it to heart. 16. Of the
Blessed the Arahant, the Buddha Supreme. 17. By the un•
broken line of teachers. It was conveyed up till the time of
the third Council by the Elders Sariputta, Bhaddaji, Sobhita,
Piyajali, Piyapala, Piyadassi, Kosiyaputta, Siggava, Sandeha,
Moggaliputta, Visudatta, Dhammiya, 2 Dasaka, Sonaka,
Revata, and others. After that, it was conveyed by ~ sur,:~es-
1 Dhs. Table of Contents. 2 Or Dhammika-Pyi.
sion of their pupils. Thus in India it has been conveyed by
an unbroken line of teachers. And to this island of Ceylon
subsequently came Mahinda, Iddhiya/ Uttiya,2 Bhaddanama,
and Sambala; These greatly wise ones brought it to this
island from India, and thenceforward till to-day it has been
conveyed by the line of tealhers known as their pupils. Of
Abhidhamma thus ·conveyed, the introduction of the Career
and the Goal, from the time of Dipaitkara of.the Ten Powers
till the attainment · of the throne under the Wisdom Tree,
and the introduction of the Teaching till the turning of the
Wheel of the Law will be clear from the tradition:
(Here follows the Durenidana of the Jiitaka Commentary,
edited by Fam1boll, vol. i., pp. 2-47, and translated by Rhys
Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, pp. 2-58.)
There in.TU.Sita hP- surpassed other spirits in ten attributes;
he enjoyed celestial pleasure till the end of life [33] for
fifty-seven kotis and sixty thousand years by human· calcula-
tion. The spirits on being informed3 that he was to come to
the end of his life among them in seven days, because of the
manifestation of the five portents-namely, the clothes get
soiled, the flowers fade, 4 sweat exudes from the armpits,
the body becomes uncomely, the spirit cannot remain in
his seat-became agitated at the thought 'how empty ·our
heavens will become !' They knew that the Great Being had
fulfilled the perfections, and they thought: ' If he should get
the Buddhahood now by taking birth in the world of men,
then men who do meritorious deeds will pass away, and instead
of going out to another world of spirits, will fill our world of
spirits.'
(So the Buddha said to Sariputta) :
When I in Tusita abode was ealled
Santus1'.ta, from all the myriad worlds
They came to me with suppliooting hands
1 Or !Hiya-Pyi. 2 Or UHiya-Pyi ..
3 PyI supplies 'vattabbe' aft~r
'piipU'l_iissati ti.'
' They get these clothes and flowera at their rebirth owing to the
rJsult of.their Kamma.-Yojana.
42 The Expositor
Saying~· Great Hera, now thy time is come.
Enter the womb, and know the Deathless Path,
Bringing salvation imto gods and men.'
Thus requested to be the Buddha, he made the five great
observations as to the time, island; locality, family, and life-
term of his (future) mother. His resolution having been made,
he passed away from Tusita and was reborn in the family
of Sakya rajahs; and there in due course reached the prime
of life without ever falling off from the full enjoyment of
his splendid glory.
The details of his life during this interval should be gathered
from such Sutta passages as: 'In the meantime, 0 Ananda,_
the Bodhisat: mindful and knowing, passed away from Tusita
heaven and descended into his mother's womb,'1 and so on, ·
as well as from their commentaries. Enjoying the glory of
kingship comparable to that .of the gods in the three palaces
suitable respectively for the three seasons, one day, when he
went out ·to disport himself in the garden, he saw one after
another three divine messengers in the form of .an old man,
a sick man, and a dead man. He became greatly agitated and
·turned back: But at the fourth time he saw a monk, and took
a fancy to monkhood, thinking, ' It is good to be a monk.'
,He then proceeded to the garden, spent the day there; and,
seated on the bank of the lucky lotus-pond and dressed by the
god Vissakamma, who came in the guise of a barber, [34] he
heard , the news of Rahula-Bhadda's birth. He conceived a
great paternal affection for hiR son and, thinking that he would
cut the bond before it grew stronger, entered the city in the
evening.
' Does not thai mother bear a tranquil lieart,
Does not that :fat her bear a tranquil heart,
DoM not that spouse, to whom is such a lord?'
Hearing this verse sung by Kisiigotami, .daughter to his
aunt,2 he took off from his neck a necklace of pearls worth a
hundred thousand and sent it to her .saying: ' She has declared
the path of tranquillity to me.' He entered his own mansion,
I Majjhima iii. 119. 2 Pyi takes pituccha- to mea.ir ' uncle.'
I ntrod1lctory D{scourse 43
and seated on .a glorious couch he saw the physical change
that had come over the ·actresses during sleep. Disgusted at
heart he · woke up Channa, had his horse Kanthaka brought
round, mounted it; and surrounded by spirits from the myriad
world-systems went out with Channa on the Great Renuncia-
tion. During the remainder of that night he passed the three
great kingdoms,1 became a monk on the banks of the river
Anoma, went in due course to Rajagaha. There after going
round for alms, while seated in a cave at Mount Pal).Q.ava,
he was offered the kingdom by the king of Magadha, and
rejected the offer. However, he gave his promise to the king
that he would visit the kingdom aft_!lr he had attained
ommscience. He . next approached .A~ara and Kalii.ma-
.Uddaka. Dissatisfied with the special attainments acquired
from them, he practised the mighty efl;orts for six years.
On the full-moon day of Visakha,, early in the morning
he ate the meal offered by Sujata in the suburban village
of Senani, floated the golden bowl in the River Nerai'ijar'a,
passed the day in various attainments in the dense Great
Forest on the bank of the rivet, and in the evening, taking
-the eight handfuls of grass offered by the goatherd, Sotthiya,
he ascended the consecrated thro11e under the Wisdom Tree
the ·while his praise$ were sung by Kala, the Naga king,
and spread the grass, resolving: ' As long as my mind is not
released from.the intoxicants through the absence of grasping,
I will not change my seat.' And he sat facing the East and,
before sunset, dispersed Mara's forces~ In the :first watch
of the night he won insight into former existences, in the
middle watch insight into b.lrths and deaths, and .at the end
of the third watch intuited omniscience, adorned with all
the qualities of a Buddha, suoh as the Ten Powers, the
Four Confidences, [35] and arrived at the ocean of this
Abhidhamma method.
· This should be considered ·as the introduction to Abhi-
dhamnia which tells 0£ the Career and the Goal.
He having thus attained Ab'hidhamma spent seven days
in a singl~ sitting posture; seven days i~ conteinplating
1• Viz.. K.apilavatthu, Devadahx, KcHiya:'-'--Ariytilankiira.
44 The Expositor
the throne 0£ wisdom without. blinking his eyes; seven
days in walking to and fro; and in the fourth week he
contemplated the self.acquired Abhidhafuma.1 He spent
another three weeks at the goatherds' (banyan) tree, the
Mucalinda tree; and the Rajayatana tree. 2 During the eighth
week he sat at the foot 0£ the goatherds' banyan tree.. · Re-
flecting on the profundity 0£ the Dhamma, he was reluctant to
preach it; but when entreated to do so by Sahampati, who
came witli a retinue 0£ Mahabrahmas from the myriad
world-systems, he surveyed the world with the Buddha's eye;
and to comply with the wish 0£ Mahabrahma looked out for
disciples, asking to himself . ' To whom shall I first preach the
Dhamma 1' He discerned thatA!ara and Uddaka were dead,
but remembering the great services of the group 0£ five monks,
he rose from his seat and went to Kasi-town. lle fell in on the
way with Upaka the wanderer, with whom he conversed, and
on the foll-moon day 0£ Asa!hi he reached the abode of the
group 0£ five monks at the Deer Park at Isipataua. He con-
vinced them (of his own Buddhahood), who were using a term
0£ address 3 unbefitting his new position, and turni~g the Wheel
0£ the Dhamma he gave to them, headed by the Elder Alliia-
ko~~aiiiia, and to the eighteen myriads 0£ Brahmas, the
nectar of the Deathless. Thus the introduction to Abhi'-
dhamma on the Teaching should be understood as leading
up to the turning 0£ the Wheel of the Dhamma.
This is the abstract. The detailed account should be under-
stood from Suttas like Ariyapariyesana and Pabbajja4 with
their commentaries.
These introductions to Abhidhamma on Career and Teach·
ing may be divided into three periods according as the events
are distant, not very distant, and proximate. Of these the
Distant introduction should be understood as comprising
events from Dipalikara till the Tusita abode. From the Tusita
abode to the foot 0£ the Wisdom Tree is the Near introduction.
i I.e., philosophy acquired through intuition.-Tr.
2 The Kingstead Tree. So called because it is supposed to have been
the residence of a king of fairies.
a .Avuso. • MajjMma i. 160 ff.; Sutta·Nipiita, ver.. 405.24.
I ntroditctory Discourse 45
Such a verbal introduction as> 'At one time the Blessed One
lived among the Tavati~sa devas on the Pa:µQ.ukambala stone
at the foot of the Paricchattaka tree. There the Blessed One
related the Abhidhamma discourse to the Tavati~sa devas ' -
is the Proximate introduction.
This is the Introductory Discourse.
BOOK I '
RISINGS . OF CONSCIOUSNESS
PART I-THE TABLE OF CONTENTS

(MATIKA)
CHAPTER I
THE TRIPLETS
[36] Now has arrived the opportunity of discoursing on
Abhidhamma according to the agreement made (in the
Introductory verse):
'Give ear obediently, while I expound
The Abkidhamma-lore, for it is hard
To hear such discourse as ye now may hear.'
Now the venerable Abrudhamma consists of seven books
beginning with Dhammasanga_'J'f'i. This book has four divisions:
risings of Consciousness, -and the rest. The division on
risings _of Consciousness is twofold: Table of contents and
Classification of terms. Of these, the table of contents comes
first and is divided into the table of triplets and the table of
couplets. Of these, the table of triplets comes first ·and the
triplet headed by moral states is the first therein. In the
triplet headed by moral states, the words ' moral states ' are
the first. Hence.
Ye faithful, with devout and single mind
This subtle Abhidhamma discourse hear,
· Thus it begins:
The triplet of 4 moral states, immoral states, unmoral
states ' 1 is named the moral triplet after the opening
1 Dhs. p. 1.
46
Triplets in the M iitikii 47
se_:t;l,tence, The triplet-of 'states associated with pleasurable
feeling, states associated with painful feeling, states associated
with feeling neither pleasurable nor painful,' is n~med the
triplet of feeling after the word ' feeling,' common to all the
thr~e members. Thus the names of all the triplets and ·
couplets should be understood from either the first term, or
the te;rm common to all the members of each.
All.these triplets and_couplets have been marked off into
fifteen divisions~ne triplet and fourteen couplets.1 Six
couplets beginning with that of ' states which are conditions,
states which are not conditions' may be called theCondition-
group, because they stand together like the pericarp of a
flower, or.a bunch of flowers, by virtue of mutual connection
both in text and sense. Next, seven other couplets, beginrnng
with that of' states with causal relations, states without causal
i:elatio:t;lS,'. are not so mutually connected, [37] and are to be
understood as the Lesser Intermediate couplets, because they
!}.re 1frm,ply selected as ordinary couplets and placed severally
among .1 Groups,' and because they are less than the Greater
Intermediate ones.
Then the Intoxicant-group (is to be understood) by virtue
of six couplets beginning with that of Intoxicants. Similarly
with the Fetter-group (which is to be understood) by virtue
of the couplet of the Fetters, etc.
And similarly the Knot-group, 2 the Flood-group, the Bond-
group, the Hindrance-group are to be understood by virtue
oLthe couplets of the Knots, the Floods, the Bonds, and the
Hindrances.
The .Reversion-group is to be understood by virtue of five
couplets beginning with that of reversion.3 Thus altogether
seven groups should be _understood.
Further on come the fourteen Greater Intermediate couplets
beginning with that of ' States with object.'
Next follows the Grasping-group of six couplets beginning
with th.a t of grasping. · ·
1 Dhs. pp. 2-8.
~ Gantha. In B.P.E.: 'The Group of the Ties.'
a Parimasa. In B.P.E : ' The Group on Contagion.'
48 Ri~sings of Com~cio'ltsness
Thereafter, ·the Corruption-group of eight couplets begin-

ning with that of the Corruptions.
Then eighteen couplets beginning with that of • what
should be got rid of by means of insight ' are called the Final
couplets,cfrom being placed at the end of the Abhidha~ma
table of contents.
But forty-two couplets beginning with that of• States which
partake of knowledge and states which do not partake of
knowledge ' are called the Suttantika couplets.
Thus all the triplets and couplets have been marked o:II
into fifteen divisions. Thus marked o:II, they form two
portionsi according as there is partial treatment or complete
treatment. To expand: Of these, nine triplets and seventy-one
couplets are termed• partially treated' because the remaining
and partially treated states, mental and material,1 have still to
be taken into account. The remaining thirteen triplets and
seventy-one couplets' are •complete' without a remainder.
Therein, of.the triplets, the nine triplets: thos_e of feeling, initial
application of mind, zest, resulting states, the past, and the
four object-triplets, are •partially treated.' Of the couplets
are the three at the conclusion of the nine groups beginning
with the Condition-group and ending with the Grasping-group.
[38] The four couplets at the end of the Corruption-group;
the two Greater Intermediate couplets of •states associated
with consciousness and states dissociated therefrom, and
states mixed with consciousness and states unmixed there-
with ' ; the remaining thirty-eight collplets in the. Suttantika
couplets, with the exception of the four couplets of synonyms,
concepts, word-definition, and mind and matter-all these are
'partially treated.' All the remaining triplets and couplets
should be regarded as 'complete.'
Now comes the word-by-_word comment on the terms in the

table of contents; beginning With ' moral states.'
First of all, the word 'kusala' (moral) means •of good
health,' ' faultless,' ' skilful,' ' productive of happy sentient
results,' etc. In such passages as, ' Is your reverence k_usala ?'
, 1 Which have not been reckoned as triplets or couplets.
Triplets in the M atika 49
' ls your reverence free from ailment ? '1 -kusata has the
meaning of ' good health.' In such passages as, ' Which, sir,
is kusala behaviour ?' 'Great king, it is conduct that is
blameless ';2 and again in, ' Sir, as the Blessed One has taught
the Law verily incomparable with respect to kusala states' 3~
kusala means ' faultless.' In such passages as, ' You are
kusala at the different parts of a chariot ' ;4 ' Graceful women
who have been trained and are kusala in singing and
dancing,' etc. 5 -kusala means' skilful.' In such passages as,
' Bhikkhus, (merit flows from) the cause that has built up
kusala states,'6 and '(Visual cognition springs into existence)
because it has been performed and accumulated by a kamma
which is kusala '7--'-kusala means 'productive of happy
results.' No~ here, in the phrase 'moral states,' either
'wholesome,' or 'faultless,' or 'productive of happy results'
is a suitable meaning. -
And the word dhamma (state) )s used in the sense of
' scriptural text,' ' root-condition,' ' virtue,' ' absence of an
entity, living thing,' etc. In such passages as, 'Thia one
studies the Dhamma, the Sutta and the Geyya ' 8-dhamma
means' the Scriptures.' In such passages as,' Knowledge of
root-conditions is analysis of dhamma 10-dhamrna means
' root-_condition, or cause;' In such passages as,
' Dhamma, adhamma bear not equal fruit:
One leads to Heaven, the other leads to Hell ' -
dhamma means ' virtue,' or 'good quality.' 10
In such passages as, ' At the time of consciousness coming
into existence, there occur dhammas '; 11 and again, ' he
abides watchful over certain dhammas '-dhamma implies
'absence of an entity or living soUl.' [39] And in the
Dhammasangal)i also it is proper to take it in this sense.
1 Dasara~ha Jiitaka. Jiit. iv., No. 461. · 2 ~fajjMma ii. 115. ·

3 Digha iii. 102. 4 Majjhima ii. 94.
5 J iit. vi. 25. 6 Diglia iii. 58.

7 Commentary on the Cakkavattisutta, Digha iii. 58 ff. ; Dhs. § 43.
8 Majjhima i. 133. 9 Vibhanga, 293.
•0 'l'her.:qcitltii, var. 3i)4. 11 Majjhima i. 61.

50
But to come to word-definitions: kusal,a' s are so called
in that they cause contemptible things to tremble, 1 to shake,
to be disturbed, destroyed. Or, kusa are those (vices)
which lie in a person under contemptible conditions.2 And
kusal,a' s 3 are so called becauae they lop o:ff, cut o:ff what
are known as immoralities (a-kusala's). Or, knowledge is
called kusa 4 because of the reduction or eradicatiop of
contemptible things, and kusal,a fi is so called because things
should be taken, grasped, set in motion by that kusa .
.Or just as the kusa grass cuts a part of the hand With both
edges, so also certain things cut off the corrupt part in two
portions, either what has arisen, or what has not arisen.
Therefore /,;usala' s are so called because they cut o:ff the
corruptions like the kusa grass.
Dhamma' s may be defined ~s those states which bear
their own intrinsic natures, or which are borne by causes-in-
relation, or which are borne according to their own character-
istics.
'Immoral' (akusala) means 'not moral.' Just as the
opposite to friendship is enmity, or the opposite to greed, etc.,
is disinterestedness, etc., so 'im!lloral' is opposed to moraL
'Unmoral' (avyakata) means 'undeclared.' The meaning
ia that the · ' unmoral ' cannot be pronounced to be either
moral or immoral; it is indeterminate. · Of these, moral states
or things have the characteristics of 'faultlessness' and
' happy result,' immoral, of ' faultiness ' and ' bad result,'
and unmoral, of ' no result.'
Have the terms,' moral' and' state,' in the opening clause,
one and the same meaning, or di:fferent meanings 1 (This
, query leaves) something (to be said) here.6 If 'moral' and
'state' had the same meaning, the~ it would be like saying
From ku, 'bad,' + ,Jsal, 'to tremble,' say the Commentaries.

1
From ku, ' bad,' + ./ii, to lie.
2
3 From kusa, so derived + ,Jla, to cut.
! From L"U, ' bad,' + ,Jso, to reduce.
5 From kusa, so defined, + ,Jl:J, to take.
a Literally 'And what here ?'- a commentarial device adopted to
show that the query is incomplete.-Tr.
Triplets in the M iitikii 5J
' moral moral.' And if they had different meanings, the
triplets and couplets would make sextuplets and quadruplets,
.and there would be no connection between the terms. To
illustrate: If one were to say, 'Moralities, matter, seer,'
there would be no (logical) connection between the terms owing
.to a lack of mutual dependence in thought; so here also there
would be an absence of connection (between ' moral ' and
'state'). And terms without any connection between ~he
. antecedent and the consequent serve no useful purpose. The
query would also contradict a later question: ' which states
are moral?' For (in this view of different meanings) states
can never be identical with moralities; hence the contradiction.
But the question:' which states are moral?' is quite possible.
Another method: If the terms ' state ' and ' moral ' ·had
the same meaning (i.e., denoted one and the same thing), the
terms 'moral,' 'immoral,' and 'unmoral' would have one
and the same meaning, because the three terms had the same
meaning of ' state.' To expand: The-word ' state ' coming
after 'moral,' etc., has one meaning in the sense of a' state.'
Therefore the (three) words 'moral,' etc., not differing from:
the thrice following word' state,' would also have that one
_meaning; what is moral would be immoral and again unmoral.
But if the oneness in the meaning of these three words com-
prised under 'state' be not accepted, and if it be urged that
the word' state' after' moral' means (40] one thing, that after
'immoral' means another, and that after' unmoral' means a
third, then it may be said that by' state' is meant existence;
and anything different from existence is non-existent. There~
fore exlsten(le as nenoted by ' state ' after ' immoral,' being
different from that denoted by the same word after ' moral,'
would become non-existent. So also with existence as denoted
by ' state ' when it comes after ' unmoraL' Moreover, existence
as denoted by ' state ' after ' moral ' would be unreal, on the
view that it differs from the other two in meaning. And the
words ' moral,' etc., not being different from the word ' state,'
which have_thus become non-existent, would themselves
become non-existent.
AH this imaginary objection is not reasonable. And why 1
52 Risings of Consciousness
Because the general usage is accomplished by, or in conformity
with, convention. For ' usage ' is accomplished by con-
ventional signs, through which that' usage' is accepted by the
general consent to express or signify certain meanings. · And
so in' moral states,' etc., the word' state,' preceded by' moral,'
and the word 'moral,' followed by 'state,' have not been
accepted by the wise as identical in meaning as in ' moral,
moral,' nor as mutually independent in meaning as in 'morali-
ties, matter, seer.' But here in this phrase' moral states,' etc.,
the word ' moral ' has been accepted as signifying ' faultless-
ness ' and 'happy result '; and ' immoral ' as signifying
'faultiness '; and 'unmoral' as signifying ' no result '; and
'state' as signifying 'bearing its own intrinsic nature.'
The word' state,' uttered immediately after each of these
words, reflects its own general meaning on them, inasmuch as
they are all ' states ' by the general characteristic of bearing
their own intrinsic natures, etc. And the words ' moral,' etc.,
uttered before the word ' state,' reflect their special meaning
on it, inasmuch as a 'state' is either moral, immoral, or un-
moral. Thus the~e words being uttered separately indicate
their mere meanings, and being uttered in conjunction with
'state,' they all indicate their own general and special meanings.
And this usage the wise in the world have accepted. There-
fore all that has been said (§§ 96-97) by way of fault-finding
regarding identity and difference of meanings is unreasonable.
Thus far for the word-by-word explanation of terms in the
triplet beginning with ' moral.' And the same method is to
be understood in the remaining triplets and couplets. But
henceforward we shall speak merely of what distinguishes
those triplets from the foregoing.
The word sukha in 'associated with pleasurable feeling,'
etc., first of all means' pleasurable feeling,'' root of happiness,'
'pleasurable object,' 'condition of happiness,' 'objective
station occasioning pleasure,' ' freedom from cares,' and
'Nibbanic happiness,' etc. To expand: In such passages as,
' By getting rid of sukha '1 -sukha means ' pleasurable
feeling.' In such passages as, 'Sukha is the appearance of
1 From Fourth Jhii.na formula; cf., e.g., DhB. § 165••.•
Triplets in the. M atika 53
the Buddhas !'1 'sukha is the state of freedom from lust in
the world ' 2 -sukha means 'root of happiness.' [41] In
such passages. as, 'Mahali; inasmuch as matter is sukha,
falls and descends on sukha ' 3-sukha means ' pleasurable
object.' In such passages as, 'Bhikkhus, the word merit
is the synonym of sukha ' 4-sitkha means ' condition of
happiness.' In such passages as, 'Not easy is it, bhikkhus,
to succeed in describing how pleasant are the heavens; ' 5
again,
' They know not bliss who see not N andana ' 6 -
, bliss' (sukha) means 'place occasioning happiness.' In such

passages as,' these states (jhana) constitute a sukha life.in this
very world ' 7 sukha means ' freedom from cares.' In such
passages as, 'Nibbaua is the highest sukha ' 8 -sukha means
'Nibbanic happiness.' But here 'pleasurable feeling' only
is intended.
In such passages as, 'manifest vedana occur to me '-the
word vedana should mean' what is felt.'
The word dukkha signifies ' painful feeling,' ' basis of
misery,' ·'unpleasant object,' 'cause of evils,' 'station of evil
as cause,' etc. To illustrate: In such passages as, ' By
getting rid of dukkha,' 9 dukkha means 'painful feeling.'
ln such passages as, ' Birth is dukkha,'10 dukkha means
'basis of misery.' In such passages as, 'Mahali, inasmuch
as matter is d·ukkha, falls and descends on dukkha,' 11
dukkha means 'painful object.' In such passages as,
'Dulckha it is to accumulate evil,'12 duklcha means 'cause
of misery or ill.' In such passages as, ' Not easy, bhikkhus,
is it to succeed in describing how duklcha are the purgatories,'13
dukkha means ' place occasioning suffering.' But here
i Dhp. 194. 2 Udiina ii. I. 3 S. iii. 69. 4 A. iv. 89.
5 M. iii. 172; but upama replaces akkhanena papu:i:iiturp. Cf., however,
be'ow n. 5, whern quotation and tJxt ibidem <'gr0c.-Ed.
6 S. i. 5, 200. 7 Not traced. 8 Dhp. 203, 204.
9 From the formula for Fourth Jhana; Cf., e.g., Dhs. § 165.
10 Vin. i. 10 (Vin. T e.i:ts i. 95). 11 S. iii. 69.

12 Z>hp. 117. 13 .ill.iii. 169.
it' should be understood to mean only ' painful feeling.' The
word-definitions are as follows: That which gives happiness
is pleasure or ease; and that which causes misery is pain or ill.
That which is neither ill nor pleasure is ' neutral ' (adukkha-
m-asukha), where the letter . 'm' is inserted by rules of
[philological] combination. All these three kinds are ·
termed 'feeling' because the taste of an object of sense is
experienced or enjoyed.
Among-them, pleasure has the characteristic of experiencing
a desirable object of sense; pain, an undesirable. object;
that which is neither pain nor pleasure, a (neutral) object
opposed to both.
The expression' associated with' is used with all the three
terms. It literally means 'joined' equally or together in a
variety of ways.' In what ways ? ' In ways of a common
origin,' etc. [42] (In the Kathiivatthu _the question:)1 'Are
there not some states associated with some (other) states?'
being answered by' No,' (the Theravadin goes on:)' In deny-
. ing it, are there not some states, accompanied by co-existent
states, or mixed with some (other) states, having a common
origin, ·a common cessation, a common basis and a common
object of sense?' The meaning of 'association' is thus
explained by means of having a common origin and so on.
Hence 'associated with' means 'conjoined with in various
ways of having a common origin,' etc.
In the triplet of ' results,' 2 the effects of moral and immoral
(volitions) which are distinct from each other are called
'results/ a name given to certain mental states which have
· reached the state of maturity (through disti.n ct causes called
moral and immoral volitions). .
' States that involve resultant states ' mean ' states which
bear their own intrinsic nature of causing results.' 3 Just as
beings who by their intrinsic nature are liable to birth and old
1 K. V. vii. 2 (p. 337; trans. 196). 2 Dhs. p . 1.
8 Vipiika.dhamma.-dha.mma, the first • dha.mma. ' in this expression is

synonymous with ' sa.bhava,' which is further explained by • pa.ka.tika..'
• Vipaka.dhammii by itself would mean • results,' but the whole expression
refers to ca.uses effecting those results.-Tr.
Triplet8 in the M atika 55
age are said to be subject to birth and old age, so states by
virtue of their producing results should be understood to mean
'state possessing the-intrinsic nature of causing results.' The
third term (viz., ' states which are neither results nor causes ')
is said by way of rejecting both.1
In the triplet of 'Grasped and favourable to grasping,'
' grasped ' means-seized-as-effect by a kamma, attended by
craving and wrong view in the act of sensing or thinking of an
object. Upadaniya means 'favourable to grasping' because
of the connection with grasping by having become objects.
The term is applied to objects of grasping. ' Effects grasped
and favourable to grasping ' (upadinnupadaniya) is a name
given to material and mental states born of kamma attended
by the' intoxicants' (asava's). In this way, but in the nega-
tive sense, the meaning of the remaining .two terlll8 should
be understood.
In the triplet of ' Corrupt and corrupting,' ' corrupting '
means 'that which corrupts' (i.e., oppresses or torments a
being). ' Corrupt ' means ' arisen or occurring together with .
the corruptions.' · 'Corruptible' means-capable of becoming
corrupt by attending to self as an object, or permanently
conjoined with corruption owing to inability to get beyond
the state of being objects of corruption. It is a name given to
objects of corruption. Corrupt [states]2 which are (at the
same time) objects of corruption are called 'corrupt and
corruptible.' The remaining two terms should be under.stood
in the same way as inthe preceding triplet (i.e., in the negative
sense).
[43] In the triplet of 'Initial application of mind,' 'with
initial application of mind ' means ' occurring together with
initial application of mind by virtue of conJunction therewith;'
' with sustained application of mind ' means ' occurring with
sustained application of mind.' ' With initial and sustained
applications of mind'. means 'occurring together with' both
initial and sustained applications of mind.' · ' Without initial
1 I.e., 'vipik:abhava,' state of being a rasult, and 'vipakasabhava,' a
cause possessing the natura of producing results.-Tr.

2 I.e., subject to corruption.-Tr,
56 Risings of Gon8cio1umess
and sustained applications of nrind ' means ' devoid of both.'
'Only with sustained application of nrind' means 'having
the sustained application of mind alone out of the two
kinds of application, initial and sustained, as its measure.'
The meaning is that such states are not conjoined with
initial application over and above the sustained application
of mrnd. ' Without initial and with sustained application
of mind only ' means 'having the sustai_ned application of
mind as its measure without the initial application.'
In the triplet of ' zest,' ' accompanied by zest ' means ' gone
into a state of having a common origin, etc., with zest,' i.e.,
'associated with zest.' The remaining two terms should be
explained in the same way.
But in the third and last term ' hedonic indifference ' means
neutral feeling. It may be verbally defined as 'that which
views equably th~ occurrence of the aspects of pain and
pleasure, and may be further amplified· thus: ' proceeds under
. a medium condition by occupying a neutral position.' 'I'hus
this triplet is described to show the distinction bebyeen
pleasure with zest, and pleasure without zest by taking the
two terms from the triplet of feeling.
In the triplet of ' insight,' ' by insight ' means ' by the path
of the stream-winner.' For it is called insight because of the
first glimpse of Nibbana.
But although the ' son-by-adoption ' 1 gets as such his first
glimpse of Nibbana, he is as a man come to the presence of the
king on a certain business, who sees from far the king going
about on elephant-back by a certain route and, on being asked
whether he had seen the king, replies that he had not, becaui:le
his business had not been transacted. In the same way
although a man has seen Nibbana, he cannot be said to have
insight, because the corruptions to be got rid of have not been
got rid of. That knowledge indeed stands at the point of the
Path2 where the mind turns toward [its goal].
1 On this term (gotrabhii) see Compendium, PI>· 55, 215. Childers's
Diet., s.v.
2 I.e., it occupies the same position in the process of Path-thought as
'advertin~' does in a~ ordinary :process of thou~ht.-fr.
Triplets in the M iitikii 57
' By culture' means •by the remaining three Paths,' for they
arise by virtue of cultivating (or developing) the four Ariyan
•· Truths already seen by the First Path. They do not see
anything not already seen previously; hence they are called
'culture ' or development. The third term is described by
way of rejecting both.
In the immediately following triplet, the expression 'having
root-conditions removable by insight• refers to those states the
roots of which are so removable. The second phrase should
be explained in the same way. But the third term: 'not
having root-conditions removable either by insight or by
culture' [requires a different treatment. It] must not be
'understood to mean those states the roots of which are
removable neither by insight nor by culture.1 -rt must be
taken to mean those which have no roots removable either by
insight or by culture. 2 [44] Otherwise, unconditional states
would not be included. For these contain no roots removable
by insight or culture. Moreover, it would imply the removal,
by insight or culture, of states other than roots in the con-
ditional states, not of the roots themselves. 3 In point of fact,
the expression 'not removable either by insight or by culture'
was said with reference to-the roots themselves, but not to
those other states which are not roots. Neither of these inter-
pretations is intended. Therefore the third term' not having
roots removable either by insight or by culture • should be
understood to mean those states which do not have roots
removable either by insight or by culture.
In the triplet of 'leading to accumulation, ' 4 'accumulation '
means' that which is accumulated by kamma and corruptions.
It is a name for the processes of rebirth and decease. 'Leading
to accumulation • are ' those causes which by being accom-
1 In otherwords, the phrase should not be rendered by' having roots
not removable by insight nor by cultura.'-Tr.

2 In other words, the phrase should be rendered by' not having roots
removable by insight or by culture.'-Tr.
3 The reasoning involved herein is that if .roots are not removable
something other than roots must be removable.-Tr.
• phs. r· 2,
plished go to, or lead a man, in whom they arise, to-that round
of rebirth.' It is a name for co-intoxicant moral or immoral
states. Nibbana being free from ' cumulation,' which is
another worff for ' accumulation,' is called ' dispersion.'1
' Leading to dispersion ' is ' going towards that dispersion
which he has made his object.' It is a name for the Ariyan
Paths. Or, 'leading to accumulation' are 'those states which
go about severally arranging (births and deaths in) a round of
destiny like a bricklayer who arranges brjcks, layer by layer;
in a wall.' ' Leading to dispersion' are those states which go
about destroyjng that very round, like a man who continually
removes the bricks as they are laid by the mason. The third
term is spoken by way of rejecting both.
In the triplet of ' Appertaining to studentship,' this phrase
means 'occurring among the three kinds of study.' These
associated states are also called' appertaining to studentship;'
because they belong to the seven stages of study, and because
they themselves form the subject of study by reason of the
incompleted course of study. From there being no higher
study to acquire, certain states are called 'Not appertaining
to studentship.' Or, developed states of mature study are
called by this name, which iS a synonym for the things con-
stituting the Fruition which is Arahantship. 2 The third
phrase is used in rejecting both.
In the triplet of ' Limited,' the word ' liinited ' is applied
to a Uttle mass, as in' a small or little mass of cowdung, '·3 etc.,
b(lcause of its being cut off all round. States which, because
of their small power are like little objects, are called ' limited,'
a name given to things pertaining to the universe of sense.
'Sublime' means 'having reached greatness,' from ability
to discard corruptions, from the abundance of fruition, from
the length of duration; or it means 'have been reached by
great persons,' i.e., persons with noble intention, energy,
impulse, and understanding.
[45] States such as lust, etc.,·which form a liinit are called
'Finite.' 'Infinite' means ' having no such limit either by
1 Namely, of the cumulative round of r3birth.
2 Viz., the eighth stage. 3 San;i,yutta iii. 144.
Triplets in the Matika 59
way of objects of sense or of association-;' or it meanE! 'being
opposed to limit.' In the triplet of 'limited objects of :<iense,'
this expression means 'having limited states as objects.'
Likewise in the two remaining terms.
In the triplet of 'Low,' this word means 'pase' and is
appiied to immoral states; ' medium' means 'existing midway
between low and exalted,' and is applied to the remaining
states of the three planes. ' Exalted ' has the meanings of
'excellent' and' unatinted,' and is applied to transcendental
states~
In the triplet of ' False,' this word means .' of false nature/
partly by reason of not realizing expectations, such as ' they
will bring advantage and happiness to me,' and partly by
reason of the reversibility of the beautiful, etc., by their opp~
sites. When giving results of a false nature, certain states are
called 'uniform,' as invariably giving the inevitable results
immediately after the dissolution of the aggregates.1 There-
fore 'false and uniform' means 'both false in (nature) and
uniform (in giving results).' Opposed to what has been said
above, 'true ' me.ans ' of true nature.' ' True and uniform •
means 'true and uniform by way of fructification imme-
diately after themselves.' 'Not uniform' means 'not uni.form
in both ways.'
In the triplet of ' Object of the Path,' 'Path ' means 'that
which leads to, i.e., seeks for Nibbana, or that wnich goes to
Nibbana destroying the corruptions.' ' Objects of the Path '
are ' states having the Path as their object.' ' Conditioned
by the Path' means (a) 'having the Eightfold Path as their
special condition, in causal relation to root-conditions,' or (b)
' Conditions associated with, or occurring in, the Path/
Therefore the expression may mean' having those associated
root-conditions in the Path,' or, 'having the root-condition
which ia the Path,' since right views themselves are at once
the Path and the condition. ' Dominated by the Path '
1 I.e., at 'death.' When many acts having such result3 ara done,
that only which is strongest gives the result, and not the rest, which are
ineffective.-Tikli. ·· ·
60 Risings of Gon8ciousness
means' having the dominance of the Path by reas_on of over-
whelming (the dominated).'
In the triplet of 'Arisen,' this word means uprisen or
happened, i.e., having reached (a state) from the nascent
up till the cessant instant. 'Not arisen' means not yet
appeared. 'Bound to arise' refers to states which will
inevitably arise as part of a completed cause.
In the triplet of ' Past,' this word means passed beyond
· (a) their own characteristics, or (b) the momentary states
beginning with the nascent instant. By ' iuture ' is meant
'has not yet reached those two conditions.' By ' present '
is meant ' uprisen in dependence upon this or that cause.'
In the immediately next triplet, 'their past object' means
'having a past object.' And the same with the remaining
two terms.
[46] In the triplet of 'Personal,' this word refers to states
which occur after making a locus of selves as though with the
understanding ' we shall consider or take things thmi existing
to be we ourselves.' The word 'personal' (ajjhatta) has a
fourfold content, namely, personal in field, in self-reference,
(just) personal,, personal in range.
In such sentences as, ' Ananda, mind should be well focussed
by that bhikkhu as ajjhatta, namely, only in that symbol of
concentration which has been practised before '1 ; ' inwardly
rapt (ajjhattarato) and concentrated' 2 ajjhatta means 'personal
in field.' In such passages as, ' He live~ contemplating
states, even among states which are pleasing as ajjhatta,' 3
ajjhatta means 'subjective.' In such passfl,ges as 'The
six ajjhattika sense-organs,' 4 ajjhatta means 'personal.'
In such passages as, 'This, Ananda, is the life fully
attained by the Tathagata, to wit, that he, by disregard-
ing all provocative signs and symbols, has reached th'e
ajjhatta Void and therein abides,' 5 aiJ'hatta means ' range'
in the sense of ' dominion.' The attainment of Fruition is
named the dominion of the Buddhas, but here the meaning
- -·- ··-·-·-------
1 Majjhima iii, 112. 2 Digha ii. 107. a Ibid. ii. 301.
• Pa[tisambhidamagga i. 122. 5 Majjhimaiii. 111.
Couplets in the Matikii 61
of • personal ' is intend_ed. Hence states occurring in one's
own continuity and pertainng to each individual are to be
understood as ' personal. •1
But states outside that personality, whether bound up with
the controlling faculties or not, are termed -' external.' The
third term is spoken by virtue of both.
The immediately following triplet refers to states occurring
in the act of attending to just these three kinds of states
(i.e., personal, external, externo-personal) as objects.
In the triplet of 'Visible,' states which arise together with
sight, i.e., visibility, are termed' visible.' States which arise
together with opposition called ' impact,'* are termed ' re-
acting.' Some states are termed' both visible and reacting.'
Unseen states are termed ' invisible.' Some invisible states
react as described. The third term is used in rejecting both,
. So far for the word-by-word commentary on the terms in
the table of contents of the triplets.
CHAPTER II
THE COUPLETS
IN the table of contents of the couplets we shall comment on
those words which have not been found in the triplets.
First and foremost, in the condition-group,2 hetu-dhamma
(or hetu dhamma) are states called [special] conditions in the
sense of roots. [ 47] The term ' non-condition ' is used in
1 'We, who are but parts existing in such a unique manner by way
of inclusion in an individual series of personalities through our charac-

t3ristic functions of contact, etc., as well as through our sense-organs, etc.,
constitute the self (atta, kaya), being the totality of (the five aggregates,
etc., called) the self-state (attabhava), which is a whole. The · term
'.personal' is applied to states which make the self (i.e., the totality of
the five aggregates) a locus of parts or selves, or a locus of self-idea as
though with this convention, "we shall understand thus," i.e., in the
aforesaid sense •..:....Pyi Sadaw. * Patihanana.
2 Hetu rendered' cause' in B.P.E.; cf. p. 274, n. I; also S. Z. Aung
in Compendium 279 /. Dhs. p. 2.
62 RiSings of Consciousness
rejecting them< ' 'Conditional,' means 'occurring together with
roots by way ofassociation.' •Unconditional' means' having
no roots which occur in a similar way.' States conjoined with
roots by way of a common origin, etc., 1tre termed' associated
with root-conditions.' Stat~ disjoined from roots are termed
'dissociated from root-conditions.' Though there is no
difference in meaning between the two couplets (viz., the
•conditional' and the 'associated with root-conditions');
they have been thus specified, partly by way of embellishment
of the discourse and partly to meet the needs of those persons
who thus gain enlightenment. Next, after the last~mentioned
couplet, combining the first couplet with the second and the
third couplets, the other three couplets are uttered as _they
ought to be, by virtll,e of such terms as ' condition 1 and ' not-
condition,' etc. Therein,-as the phrase' conditions as well as
conditional states ' occurs in the text, so also ' conditions as
well as unconditional states' may be formed on analogy;
moreover, as 'conditional states but not conditions' occur,
so also 'unconditional states but not conditions' may be
formed anew. The same method should be followed in con-
joining (root-conditions and not-root-conditions) with the
couplet of ' associated with root-conditions.'
Though the expression, ' States which are not root-conditions
are conditional as well as unconditional ' would suffice, an
extra phrase was used ' But indeed,' when it was said ' But
indeed states which are not root-conditions,' etc., in the text.
It may be understood that the following additional meaning is
implied by its use. How 1' Not only states which are not
root-conditions (hetu's) may be classified as conditional and
unconditional, but others also are so classifiable. Nay,
more. Not only may the former be so classified, but
they may be classified also in other ways. The meaning
intended here is: just as states which are not root-conditions
are conditional and unconditional, so are states which are
root-conditions. Again, just as the former are classified into
conditional and unconditional, so may they be classified with
• associated with root-conditions ' and ' dissociated f:t:om root-
conditions.' Such is the extra-signification.
Couplets in the M atikli
In the couplet of ' Lesser Intermediate,' st~tes which occur'
together with their own completed cause in a relation are
termed 'relative.' States without any causal relation either
at the time -Of genesis or of duration are termed ' absolute '
(or non-relative). •Conditioned '1 means made by a con-
currence of causes-in-relation.' 'Unconditioned means not-
. made or conditioned.'
States [or bodies] which possess properties of matter in an
inseparable state are termed 'material.' 2 States which have
no such material properties or qualities are termed' immaterial.'
Or, states possessing matter which has the characteristic of
·physical change are termed 'material.' Those which are
not so changeable are termed 'immaterial.'
In the expression ' worldly phenomena ' the round of
rebirth is called 'the world' (loka), bec~use of its dissolving
and crumbling (lujjana, etc.). States which are joined to the
world by being included therein are termed' worldly.' 3 [ 48] To
have passed beyond the ' worldly ' is to be unworldly, lit.,
'ulterior.' Things. which have passed beyond the worldly,
being not included therein, are termed ' transcendental ,
(lit., ' ultra-world '). 4
By ' knowable or known by anyone ' is meant knowable,
etc., by any one of the modes of cognition, visual, etc. The
opposite follows, and completes the couplet.
In the Intoxicant-group, ' intoxicants ' are ' things which
ftow,' 6 i.e.; fl.ow or arise from the senses and the mind. Or
Intoxicants may be defined as things which, as states,
' flow ' up to the stage of adoption and which, as in space,
' flow ' as far as the topmost plane of existence. The meaning
is that they occur keeping these states6 within that extent
of space. The prefix ii in asava (intoxicant) is, indeed,.
used in the sense of' keeping within.' Or, as the juices of the
mq,dira7 fruits, etc., become intoxicants by fermentation for a
1 Sankhata, asankhata. B.P.E.: 'compound, uncompounded.'
2 Dhs. p. 3 a Lokiya. B.P.E.:' mundane.'-Tr. ' Lokuttara.
5 Like putridity, exuding from a wound.-Pyi Sadaw.
8 Henceforth the text usually takes dhamma (states) as understood.
7 Bassia latijolia, out of which monks are permitted to make sweet
decoctiolis.- Tr.
length of time, so certain states which are like these intoxicants
-are termed asava' s. It is customary to call long_;fermented
madira wines, etc., intoxicants. If by long fermentation they
are named intoxicants, then these mental states are also
worthy of the name. For it has been said: 'No ultimate point
of ignora~ce is apparent, bhikkhus, so that one may say,
" once there was no ignorance." '1 Or, ' intoxicants ' are those
states which fructify or beget the pains of the ocean of births
of long duration. States other than these are not intoxicants.
The ' co-intoxicant ' states are those which occur together
with the arisen intoxicants, with them.selves (co-intoxicants)
as objects. 2 Those which have no intoxicants (as subjects)
are ' non-intoxicant.' The remainder should be understood
as explained in the condition-group, but with this difference:
In that group the last couplet, to wit, ' But the states which
are not root-conditions, indeed, are either conditional or
unconditional,' was obtained by placing the second term of
the first couplet at the beginning; but here in this group no
such final couplet as 'Now the non-intoxicants are with
or without intoxicants ' has been explicitly stated. Although
it has not been so expressed, this couplet and other divisions
will be understood as in the foregoing.
In the Fetter-group the states which join or bind in repeated
rounds of birth the person in whom they exist are termed
' fetters.' States other than these are termed ' not fetters.'
States which, having become objects of sense, help the growth
of the fetters by being bound up therewith are termed ' tending
to fetters.' 3 This is the name given to the objects, the fetters.
Those which are not objects of sense are termed' not tending
to fetters.' [49] The remainder should be understood in the
same way as in the condition-'group.
In the Knot-group, states which knot or tie in repeated
rounds of birth by way of birth and decease the person in
whom they exist are termed' knots.' States other than these
1 Aiiguttara v. 113. Ignorance is one of the asavas.

2 Or, 'The objects of intoxicants occurring together with their
subjects are termed co-intoxicants.'-Tr. · .
3 Samyojaniya. B.P.E.: 'favourable to the Fetters.'
Couplets in the M atika 65
are termed ' non-knots.' States which are entangled in, or
fastened by, the knots by virtue of being their objects are
termed ' liable to knots.' The remainder should be understood
in the same way as in the condition-group. The same method
of understanding by implications is to be followed in what
remains unsaid in the other pairs.
In the Flood-group,1 states which sink, submerge in re-
peated rounds of birth the person in whom they exist are
termed 'floods.' States which are liable as objects to be over-
whelmed by the floods are termed 'subject to floods.' Only2
th,ose states which are the objects of floods should be taken.
In the Yoke-group, states which yoke to repeated rounds
of birth the person in whom they exist are termed ' yokes.'
The 'yokeable' should be understood in the same way as in
the foregoing.
In the Hindrance-group states which hinder the mind are
termed 'hindrances.' 'Liable to be hindered' should be
understood in the same way as with the Fetters.
In the Reversion group3 states which, passing beyond the
impermanence, etc., of things as they really are and, by
assuming them to be permanent, etc., handle them reversely,
are termed' reversing.' Things which, as objects of sense, are
handled in a reverse manner by the ' reversion ' are termed
'reversed.'
In the Greater Intermediate couplet, states are termed
' objective ' 4 from arising together with objects, because they
cannot exist without objects. States which have no objects
are termed 'subjective.' 'Conscio"Jsness' (citta) is so called
from thinking (cit) 0£° an object, or because it is variegated
(citta, citra). States which are inseparably joined to the mind
are termed' mental properties. ' 5 States which are thoroughly
mixed up with consciousness from the nascent stage to the
cessant are termed ' mixed with consciousness.' States which
1.Dhs. p. 4. 2 Reading eva. P. T.S. ed.: evaiµ.

3 Paramasa-gocchaka:ip.. B .P.E.: 'Group on Contagion.' Dhs. p. 5.
4 Lit. co-object. B.P.E.: 'having a concomitant object of thought.'
0 deta~ika. B.P.E. :- ' involved in the life ol' sense.' Compendium
-'mental properties.'
66
though arifii.n.g simultaneous] y with consciousness, do so withoui
being thoroughly mixed therewith, are termed ' unmixed with
<Con.sci-0usness."
States by which some things arise are termed ' origin.'
Those states which have consciousness for origin.-are termed
~originated by·consciousness.' 1 ·
States which occur together are termed ' connate.' States

which occur together with consciousness are termed ' connate
with consciousness.'-
States which always follow others are termed ' inevitable
successors.' What do they follow 1 Consciousness. Thqse
which follow consciousness are termed ' mental successors.'
States which are thoroughly mixed with consciousness and
are originated by consciousness are termed ' mixed with and
originated by consciousness.' [50] States whi·ch a~e thoroughly'
mixed with, originated by, and co-natal with consciousness are
termed ' mixed with, originated by consciousness in co-
nativity.' States which are thoroughly mixed with, originated
by, and invariably follow consciousness are termed 'mixed
with and originated by consciousness in succession.'
All the remaining terms are to be understQod by way of
contradiction of the terms explained.
By what has been said in the triplet of ' personal ' with
reference to the six subjective organs of sense, these subjective
organs alone are termed ' internal.' States outside of these
are termed ' external.'
.[States or material qualities] which cling to the Four Essen-
tials,2 but which are not clung to as are the Essentials, are
termed 'derived.' [States] which not only cling, but are also
clung to 3 are termed' underived.'
In the Grasping-group, states which cling strongly (to objects
of sense) in the sense of holding fast are termed 'grasping.'
States other than these are termed ' non-grasping.'
In the Corruption-group the meaning should be under-
stood in the same way as in the ' corrupt ' triplet.
1 B.P.E.: 'sprung from thought.'
B.P.E.: 'The four greait phenomena.'
2
3 The word upiidiyanti is taken in both an active and a passive sense;
as nissayanti and nissiyanti.-Py"i.
Oouplet.c; in the M iitikii 67
In the Final Couplets,1 states which for the most part fre-
quent the abodes of sense are termed kamavacara. Those
that generally frequent the abodes of attenuated matter are
termed rupavacara. 2 Those that frequent the immaterial
abodes are termed arupavacara. This is but .an abstract
of the Final Couplets. The detailed account will appear
hereafter. · States which are limited by or included in the
round of the triple plane of existence are termed ' Included.'
Those not so limited are termed 'Unincluded.' States
which, cutting the roots of the rounds of repeated births
and making Nibbana their object, go out from the rounds
are termed ' leading out.' Those which do not go out in this
manner are termed ' not leading-out.' From the certainty
of yielding. frµit immediately after decease, or after their
own occurrence, states are termed ' certain.' 3 From not
being certain in like manner states arc termed 'uncertain.'
States which outstrip others are termed' ulterior.' States
which arise together with 'ulterior states ' capable of out-
stripping themselves are termed 'co·ulterior.' Those which
have no such ulterior states (beyond themselves) are termed
' incomparable.'
States through which beings bewail are termed 'harm.' 4
Beings overcome by lust and so on bewail in various ways.
'Harm ' is the name given to such lust, etc. States. which arise
together with such harm (as causes of grief) by virtue of
association, and a coinmon establishment for riddance in one
and the same individual are termed' harmful.' States which
have no such grievous causes are termed ' harmless.'
1 Dhs. p. 6.
2 B.P.& : 'the world of form.' Riipa may mean (a) material, (b)
visible object. On, riipa as 'attenuated matter,' cf. Dialogues ii. 244•
264.-Ed.
· 3 The flve anantariyakammas and niyatamicchadiHhi yield fruit
immediately after the next decease. The four Paths yield fruit immedi-
ately after their own occurrence. Cf. Dhs. § 1290; Points of OontroverBy
275, n . 2 .
.i Ral].a = (a) rel].u-'-' dust, ' or 'mist' of lust, etc.; (b) 'fight, war'
against the Paths; (c) 'pain' (dukkhavighata); anguish (upayiisa) and

distr.:iss (pari\iiha), which are the fruits of immoralities.-Hka. B.I'.E,:
'concomitant with war.'
68 Risings of Conscioitsne81:;
CHAPTER III
SUTTA PHRASES
IN the couplets drawn from the Suttas,1 states which by virtue
of association pertain .to wisdom are termed ' partaking of
wisdom,' also because they arise as parts and portions of
wisdom. Herein eight modes of wisdom, viz., knowledge of
insight, potency of the will-power, the six kinds of super-
knowledge, belong to wisdom. [51] In the latter sense any
one of these eight is wisdom, the rest being considered as parts
thereof. Thus wisdom and its associated parts should be
. understood as 'belonging to wisdom.' But here only states
associated with wisdom are meant.
States which by virtue of association belong to ignorance
are termed ' belonging to ignorance '; also because they arise
as parts ·and portions of ignorance. Herein ignorance · is
fourfold: intellectual darkness concealing the Fact of Ill, its
origin, its cessation, and the Path leading to cessation.
By the first method, ' belonging to ignorance ' also includes
states associated with these four modes of ignorance. Any
one of these is ignorance, the others being considered as
' belonging to ignorance.' Thus it should be understood
that ignorance and states associated therewith ' belong to
ignorance.' But here in this couplet only the associated
states are meant.
Again, states, which from their powerlessness to overwhelm,
their inability to destroy, the darkness of the corruptions, are
like lightning flashes, are termed 'lightning-like.' States
~hich, from their ability to destroy the darkness of their
corruptions completely, are like the thunderbolt, are termed
' resembling the thunderbolt.'
States established in fools are termed ' foolish.' They are
so called figuratively after the customary name of ' fools,'
given to persons in whom they are established. From being
established in the wise, states are called ' wise.' They are so
called figuratively after the customary name of ' wise,' given
1 Dhs. p. 7.
Sutta Phrases in the M atika 69
to persons in whom they are established. Or, ' foolish ' from
producing folly, ' wise ' from producing wisdom.
By' black' is meant 'dark,' i.e., capable of causing absence
of brightness of mind. 'White' means' capable of causing
mental brilliance.' Or, because of being the cause of rebirth
in miserable planes, states are termed 'black'; and because of
being the cause of rebirth in happy abodes, states are termed
'white.'
States which [figuratively] burn both here and hereafter
are termed ' burning.' Those which do not so burn are
termed 'not burning.'
The three couplets beginning with the ' synonymous '
couplet have n<? difference whatsoever in meaning; the
difference is olliy in the letter. With mere words made their
bases, such , expressions as 'luck-bringing,' and 'wealth-
bringing,'1 etc., are termed' syno:r,tyms.'
' Etymology ' is the derivation of words expressed together
with the reason in word-definition as in the example, ' Bhik-
khus, sankharas are those states which compose what is
compound.' 2 The meanings of the derivation are termed
niruttipatha.
Terms, -signifying (one and the same idea) in various ways, .
e.g., takka, vitakka, sankappa, 3 are called 'expresaions.' The
meanings of expressions are term_ed pannattipatha. [52] Of
these three couplets, having uttered one couplet (not different
in sense from the other two) the motive in uttering the other
two should be understood from what has been said in the
Condition-group (p. 62).
In the mind and matter group, the term 'mind' (nama)
is applied to mental properties, because 'names' once given
to them are fixed, or because they bend (namanti) objects,
or because as objects they bend the mind unto themselves.
'Matter' is that which changes its state or condition.4 This
herein is the abstract; the detailed account will appear in the
chapter on the Summary.
1 Lit. luck-increasing. 2 Ea11;yutta iii. 87,
~ [.e., ca!Jing a single thing, viz., thought, by three names.
~ (Accordlng to heat or cold, etc.) Cf. op. cit. iii. 86.
Nescience of the Truths of III, etc. is termed ' ignorance.'
The wish to live is termed' craving for existence.' 1
The 'theories of becoming,' of ' eternalism,' ' non-becom-
ing ,'2 and 'annihilation' refer respectively to the fact of
renewed life, eternal life, extinction, an<! annihilation of life.
The process-theories of eternalism, annihilationism, infinity,
and finity refer respectively to the views that the soul and the
world are eternal, will be annihilated, are infinite, are finite.
The view concerned with the ultimate beginning [of things]
is termed ' the view of ultimate beginning.' The view con-
cerned with the ultimate end is analogous.
· . 'Unconscientiousness' is t:\le state of a person who is not
ashamed of doing shameful things; it is shamelessness in detail.
' Carelessness of blame ' is the state of a person who does not
fear what should be feared; it is reckles1:1~ess in detail. Con -
scientiousness and discretion are the opposites.
In' surliness,' etc., a man of conflicting views, who delights
in opposition, is devoid of regard for the faith and speaks
unpleasant words ia said to be' surly.' The act of such a man
is termed ' surly speech '; the state of such a man is te~med
' surliness.'
He who has evil friends, such as unbelievers, is termed ' in
evil friendship.' 'Suavity' and 'in good friendship' should
be understood as the opposite in sense to what has been said.
' The offences ' are the five and also the seven classes of
offence. ' Proficiency in dealing with the offences ' thus
declared and in the restoration from these offences [refer to
canonical rules] .
'Proficiency in attainments' is a name given to discernment
of the stages of ecstasy. 3 [53] 'Proficiency in emerging from
attainments ' is analogous.
' Proficiency in the elements,' . . . ' in attention,' ••. ' in
the field of sense,' . . . ' in causal genesis,' . . . ' in occasions '
refer respectively to. the eighteen elements, to ob::ervation
of the same, to the organs and objects of sense, to the twelve
Lit. 'craving to become.'-Ed.
1 2 Vibhava-di~thi.
a Or, ·' proficiency in determining the period of j hanic ecstasy jnduced

or entered into. '-Tr.
Sutta Phra8es in the M atika 71
factors in [the formula of] causal genesis, and to what is, or
is not the occasion or c~use of an event. A cause is described
as 'occasion,' because in' dependence on it result or fruition,
is established.
'Uprightness,' ' mildness,' refer to persons so qualified.
The state of forbearance in a patient person is termed
' patience '; ' temperance,' the state of one delighting in ·
good (su-) .
. The state of friendliness known as gentleness, causing equal
happiness to all, is termed 'amity.' Just as the presence of
others leaves no gap around us, so courtesy is a spreading
out with things spiritual and material.
The state called ' door-unguardedness as to · faculties'
refers to lack of restraint of the five controlling powers [or
senses] with mind as the sixth. The state of not knowing the
measure of the accepting and the partaking of food is ' in-
temperance in food.' The follpwing couplet should be under-
stood as the contrary of the foregoing.
The state of a person with lapse of memory, known as
absence of mind, is termed 'obliviousness.' 'Non-compre-
hension' is the state of not knowing adequately[ or thoroughly].
The faculty which is mindful is termed ' mindfulness ' ; that
which understands adequately is termed ' comprehension.'
_ 'The power of reflection' is the not wavering on account of
non-reflection. The strength arisen in one who, with energy
as his principal means, develops the seven factors of enlighten-
ment is termed ' the power of culture.'
That which lulls or quiets opposing influences is termed
'calm.' 1 That which sees things in various ways as imper-
manent, etc., is termed' insight.' Calm which has taken an
object, and again induces calm, becomes the causal symbol
for the latter. Similarly for the term 'the mark of support.' 2
[54] That which upholds associated states is termed 'support.'
That which does not oscillate about various objects is termed
'balance.'
M~ralfailure reckoned as non.:restraint capable of destroying
~ Dhs. p. 8,
72 Risings of Conscioitsness
virtue is termed' moral depravity.' The failure of views called
erroneous opinion capable of aestroying right views is termed
' depravity of view.'
Perfection of moralityis termed 'moral perfection,' 1 because
the morality of one who delights in good deeds perfects or
accomplishes virtue. Knowledge which has resulted in
perfection of view is termed ' attainment 1 in theory.'
The purity of virtue, namely, virtue which has arrived at
a state of extraordinary purity, is termed 'moral purity.'
The insight which is capable of reaching purity, i.e., Nibbana,
is termed ' purity of view.' By the sayings :2 (a) ' But now
pure views,' as well as (b) 'the effort of one who has adequate
views,' is meant (a) the pure theory whic:ih knows that we are
owners of our kamma, etc.,3 and (b) the effort associated with
that knowledge referring to views adequate to the effort.
The term ' agitation ' 4 refers to fear arisen in connection
with birth, etc. The causes, namely, birth, etc., productive of
agitation, are termed ' occasions for agitation.' By ' the
proper effort of the agitated ' is meant his adequate exertions.
By' discontent in good states 'is meant want of content in the
accomplishment thereof. By ' non-retreat in effort ' is meant
the not stepping back, the not faltering in effort without
reaching Arahant8hip.
' Wisdom' (vijja) is so called because of knowing; ' emanci-
pation' is so called because of being free (from the corruptions).5
By ' knowledge in destruction ' is meant such knowledge
arising in the Ariyan Path as is capable of destroying the
corruptions. By ' knowledge in non-origination ' is meant
such knowledge in the Ariyan Fruition, arisen at the terminus
of the Path, as is capable of causing the non-origination of
the corruptions, destroyed by this and that Path.
This is the word-by-word commentary. on terms in the
Table of Contents.
1 Sampadi. B.P.E .: ' progress.'
2 Anguttara i. 95.
3 Majjhima iii. 203. 4 Anguttara ii. 115.
, 5 Or. from directing the mind unrestrainedly towards the objec~
~ Nibbana ),-Yojanif.
PART II-ANALYSIS OF· TERMS
CHAPTER I
OF THE MORAL 'l'RIPLET
Now in order to explain the differences in the states grouped
in the Table of Co:qtents already laid down as above, there
follows the classification of terms beginning with the question:
Which are the moral states ?1 The first [type of] moral
thought, experienced in the universe of sense, has been shown
by the words: ' When a sensuous moral thought occurs.' In
its exposition, first of all, [55] there are three main sections:
the determination of states, the summary, and 'emptiness.'
0£ these, the determination is twofold: outline and exposi-
tion. In the outline there are four divisions: question,
exposition of the occasions, outline of states, and conclusion.
Of these, 'which states are moral?' is the question. 'When
the sensuous . . . then ' is the exposition of the occasion.
'There is touch .· .. non-distraction' is the outline of
states. 1 On that occasion [these], or whatever other mental
states there may be, which have .arisen in dependence upon
(those expressly mentioned) :-these states are moral ' is
the conclusion.
Thus as to the first division, viz., the question: 'which are
moral states?' is a question for the purpose of explanation.·
To expand: Questions are fivefold: to show something not
seen before, to discuss what is already seen, to clear up doubts,
to discover opinion, to explain. And this is how they differ:
which is a question put to throw light on something not seen
before ? The question which is put for gaining knowledge, for
seeing, weighing, accornpiishing, perceiving, and revealing
some point which has not already been understood, seen,
t Dhs. § 1.
1a
weighed, accomplished, perceived, or revealed. What is a
question for discussion of views ~ The point has alfeady been
learnt, seen, weighed, accomplished, perceived, and revealed.
But the question is put in order to discuss with other wise
people. .What is a question to clear up doubts? When one
has come to misgivings, doubt, dubiety: ' Is it thus, is it not
thus, what is it, how is it ?' The question is put to remove
those doubts. What is a ·question to discover opinion ? The
Blessed One in order to discover the opinion of the bhikkhus
asks the question: 'What do you think, bhikkhus? Is
matter permanent or impermanent?' 'Impermanent, Jord.'
'And is that which is impermanent painful or pleasant?'
' Painful, [56] lord.' ' And is it proper to contemplate that
state which is impermanent, painful, and reversible as " ThiR
is mine, this am I, this is myself"?' 'Nay, lord.' 1 This is the
question to discover opinion. What is a question for purposes of
explanation ? The Blessed One asks the brethren a question
in order to explain: 'Bhikkhus, there are four applications in
mindfulness. Which are the four ?•2 This is the question for
purposes of explanation.
Of these, the first three questions do not arise in the case
of the Buddhas. And why ? Because for the Buddhas there
is nothing, whether conditioned in the three periods of time,
or unconditioned and out of time, that has not been known;
seen, weighed, accomplished, perceived and revealed. Hence
for them there is no question for the illuminating of what is not
seen. And there is no need for the Blessed One to d1scuss
what has been intuited by his own knowledge with another
monk or brahmin or spirit or Mara or Brahma. Hence there
can arise no· question for a comparison of views. Inasmuch as
the Blessed One is free from perplexity, has passed beyond
doubt, and in all things is devoid of misgivings, there can
arise for him no question to clear up doubts. But the other
two questions occur to the Blessed One. And of these, the
question: 'Which states.are moral?' should be understood as
having been asked for purposes of explanation.
1 Majjhima iii. 19 /. 2 .D. ii. 290 (slightly different).

Analysis· of Term8 75
Herein by the word ' which/ the question is asked regarding
states to be expounded in detail, By th1:i mere words-' States
(are) moral,' it is not possible to know how the Blessed One
ha~ treated these states, or how they functioned. But when
' which ' is uttered, inquiry concerning them is manifest.
Hence I have said that the word' which' refers to the states
to be expounded in detail. By the ·two words ' states . . .
moral,' together with the question, the Buddha shows which
states are under inquiry. Their meaning has been explained
above.
But why, without saying' moral states,' as in the Table of
Contents, is the order reversed as' states ... moral '1 Because
after the discourse, in the Table of Coritents, on the distinctions
of states, it is for the purpose of showing which states possess
those distinctions. In Abhidhamma just states are to be
dealt with, .but these in turn should be taught in various
distinctive aspects, as ' moral ' and so forth. .Therefore here,
in which only states are dealt with, is no popular discourse,
.a nd these states should be shown by way of distinctive ·
aspects, and not merely as states in general. For a teaching
on states by way of such distinctions carries with it the divi-
sion of a mass, as well as the higher analytical knowledge.
Having enumerated the different classes of states (in the
Table of Contents) as 'moral states' and so on, these states
should now be explained by way of their distinc.tive aspects.
[57] To . show them by way of distinctions, the order of
words has been reversed in 'which states are moral 1' For
when states have been shown to possess distinctions, it is
logical and easy for the understanding to follow up the
exposition with another on the distinctions.
Now as to the expression, '~hen sensuous moral thought
. . . ': here he showed consciousness on a given occasion.
The Sage first determined the occasion by the state of con-
sciousness~ then to show the specific phases of that conscious-
ness, he showed the consciousness as being on a given occasion:
' when a sensuous moral thought, etc.' And why 1 Because
it was by this consciousness [or thought), fixed amid the
diversity of occasions by one given occasion, that the Blessed
One undertook the difficult task of enlightening us as to the
aspects of the content of that thought on an occasion deter-
mined by that thought, the aspects being its continuity, mass,
function, object, solidarity.*
Now here is the word-by-word comment on terms in the
passage ' when,' etc. ' When ' is an indefinite locative.
' Occasion' (samaya) denotes the time indefinitely marked
by' when ..' Thus far (by these two words) an indefinite time
has been shown. The word samaya, however:
Means .harmony in antecedents, group,
Elimination, moment, penetration,
Condition, acquisition, time, opinion.1
E.g., in such passages as, ' Perhaps to-morrow we might
approach, having regard to time and samaya,' 2 . it means
' harmony in antecedents.' In such passages aa ' Bhikkhus,
there is but one moment, one samaya for the practice of the
holy life ' 3-samaya means 'opportunity.' In such passages
as 'Hot samaya,' 'fever-samaya' 4-it means 'season.' In such
passages as 'a large samaya in the great forest '5 -samaya·
means' assembly.' In the passage: 'Bhaddali, you have not
discerned the samaya: that the Blessed One is staying at
Savatthi, and will know that the bhikkhu Bhaddali has not
perfected the training in the religion '6 -samaya means ' con-
ditions, hetu.' 'At that time a studious wanderer, [58] by name
Mana, son of the nun Mu~Q.ika, was staying in the Park of Queen
Mallika, surrounded by a fence of fig-trees and containing a
hall for discussion in samaya '7-in such passages samaya
means' opinions'-
Whatever ' good ' be in the present world,
Whatever ' good ' be in the world to come-
H e only is called wise who has the skill
To compass abhisamaya of good8 -
* Santati (sic lege in P.T.S. ed.).
1 Sum. V. i. 31 f. 2 Digha i. 205.
3 Ahguttara iv. 227. Cf. Sa~nyutta iv. 126; Jat. i. 381.
'Vin . .iv. ll 7 (Vin. Texts i. 44) 5 Digha ii. 254.
6 Maj}h. i. 438. 7 lb. ii. 22; v.l. Mal}.~kli.. 8 Sa'![tyutta i. 87.

Analysis of Terms 77
in such passages samaya _means ' acquisition.' ' By the right
abhisamaya of conceit he made an end of ill '1-in such
passages samaya means ' elimination.' ' The fact of ill has
th~ sense of, oppression, of being conditioned, of burning,
of reversibility, of penetrability (abhisamayattho) 12--fo such
passages samaya means ' penetration.'
Thus among its many meanings,
T·ime, harmony in antecedents, moment,
Oon4ition, group-these five the wise should note,
These samaya here signifies.
Thus, in the matter of moral consciousness, where ' when
sensuous moral thought,' etc., is uttered, these five out of the
nine meanings should be understood by the wise . .
. Here ' harmony in antecedents ' meaneth
Oonc11,rrency of causes: and by' moment'
The four w'heels, the unique ' ninth ' is understood.
To expand: ' Harmony in antecedents ' should be under-
stood as the concurrence of causal relations established by their
bringing about a common result. Again, the precise ninth
moment, declared by the Blessed One in the sentence,
'Bhikkhus, there is but one moment, one opportunity for the
practice of the holy life,' should be known as the ninth, the
sole moment.8 ·
Again, ' Bhikkhus, there are these four wheels wherewith a
fourfold wheel of gods and men so endowed rolls on, viz.:
dwelling in a suitable place, association with the good, self-
control, accumulation of merit in previous existences.'" Thus
four wheels have been declared, but should be classed as
the one moment in the sense of occasion (or conjuncture),
for they form the occasion for the production of merit.
Samaya having been shown to mean 'harmony in ante•
1A.nguttara iv. 8.
gPts. ii. 106 (but in P. T.S. ed. abhisamaya~~ho is omittcd).-·.Ed.
a Anguttara iv. 227. Paa. of the Brethren 248, n, I.I
• Digha m. 276~ Anguttara ii. aa.
78 Risings of Oorisciousness
cedents ' and ' moment, or opportunity,' the following is the
explanation of the other meanings of the word: ' Time '
may be clearly shown as a notion abstracted by mere usage
from this or that (event). A collection of states such as' con-
tact,' etc. may be clearly explained as 'a group' or 'mass.'
To expand: Time is only a concept derived from this or that
phenomenon, such as (a) states expressed in such phrases as,
'temporal (aspect of) mind,' 'temporal (aspect of) matter';
(b) the phenomenal occur:rence expressed by such phrases as ·
'the past' and' the future'; (c) the phenomenal succession in
an organism expressed by ' the time of seed-germination '
and 'the time of sprouting '; [59] (d) the characteristic
marks of phenomena expressed by ' the time of genesis '
and 'the time of decay'; (e) the functions of phenomena
expressed by ' the time of feeling,' and 'the time of cognizing ';
(f) functions of beings expressed by 'the time of bathing '
and' the time of drinking '; (g) the modes of posture expressed
by 'the time of going' and 'the time of stopping'; (h) the
revolution of the moon, sun, etc., expressed by 'morning,
evening, day, and night'; or(i) the grouping of day-sand nights,
etc., into periods expressed by 'half-month,' 'month.' It
should be understood that this (abstract time) is a mere
concept, because it is not existing by its own nature.
The congeries of states such as contact, feeling, etc., is in
our text displayed as 'groups.' Samaya having thus been
shown to mean also ' time ' and ' group,' the other meaning
of 'condition ' is to be understood: By ' condition' is meant
'causal relation.' That there are several conditions may be
understood by way of their ' doors ' or relations. To expand:
In this connection a cause-in-relation is a condition. The
multiplicity of conditions may be understood from their doors
or relations. How so? The eye, object, light, attention, etc.,
are the many causes-in-relation of the sense of sight, etc.,
arising in the eye-door, etc. In the Great Book (the PaUhana)
twenty-four causal relations have been taught, to wit, relation
of condition, relat.ion of object, and so forth. Excepting the
causal relations of. resultants and post-existence, the rest are
causes•in-relation of moral states. All these two sets of
Analysis of Terms
rcauses-in-relation are here (i.e., in this connection) meant by
the term 'condition.' Thus the multiplicity of conditions
should be understood by way of their doors or relations.
·It should now be understood that these five meanings of
'·harmony of antecedents' and so forth are comprehended under
the word samaya. But why have all these five meanings
instead of any one of them been so comprehended ? Because
the term is used t.o show various distinct meaning'>. To
expan_d: Of these, samaya in the sense of 'harmony of
antecedents ' shows occurrence from many causes. By show-
ing this, the view that there is one single cause1 is contradicted.
By ' harmony of antecedents ' is meant the mutual contribu-
tion towards the production of a common result. Therefore
this also shows that there is no single agent. For when there
is a cause (adequate) in its own natul'e, 2 it is not fitting to
look about for another cause. Thus by showing the non-
existence of any one cause (the erroneous view) that pain
and pleasure are created by oneself3 is contradicted.
· Herein, it may be objected that the expression, 'it shows
the occurrence from .many causes,' is not proper. [60] And
why 1 Because causes which are not conditions when they
exist severally, would not b0come conditions when they act
in harmony. When every one of a hundred blind men cannot
see, it is impossible for all the hundred (collectively) to see.
This arg11mel}t is not unreasonable. (The answer is): Causes
are said to be in concord when they accomplish a result in
common, and not because of the mere combination of various
antecedents. . And the vision of the blind men is not .~ result
in common. Why 1 Because of their inability to see though
there may be a hundred of them. But vision by the eye, etc.,
is a result in common, because when the one exists, the other
arises in consequence. It is quite clear that though .:;tates
may be no causes when they are not in concord, they become
causes when they are in concord. This may be understood
1 Such as Brahma, Prajapati, Purusa, Kala, .or Vi~l).u as creator
(issarakaral).avada), or nature as cause (pakatikaral).avada).-7'ika; .

2 Such as the sentient organism, e.g., sight and visible object.-Pyi.
a Sa'f!l'yutta ii. 22. ·

80 Risings of Conscioit8ness
by there being no results in the absence of concord and there
being results when there is concord. The failure or otherwise
of a sense, e.g. sight when the sensitive organism is lacking,
or not, is clearly proved in this world. This first of all is
to show the word samaya in the sense of ' harmony of ante-
cedents.'
That 'ninth moment, 'which is the inverse of the eight wrong
occasions, and the four wheels (of conjuncture), such as 'dwell-
ing iri a suitable place,' and so forth, is termed ' moment ' in
the sense of 'occasion' or 'opportunity.' It does not occur
without there being a concurrence of circumstances, such as
existence as a human being, the rise of the Buddha, and the
stability of the good Law, etc. The difficulty of getting ·
reborn as man, etc., has been shown by the Buddha, in the
Sa'Y(byutta Nikaya, by the illustration of the blind tortoise, etc.1
Morality which renders service to transcendental states and
is connected with the most subtle moment-subtle, because
of the difficulty of getting it-may be said to be difficult of
achievement. Thus t,he word samaya in the sense of
' moment ' or ' opportunity ' makes clear the difficulty of the
achievement of good. By thus illustrating opportunity, the
negligent life of those who, though they have arrived at the
right moment, turn it into a profitless moment, without
repeatedly striving to achieve good connected with that
moment, is condemned. Samaya has thus be~n shown in
the sense· of 'moment or opportul)ity.' Very small is the
interval for exercising moral_ thoughts, and the extreme
rarity of such moments .may be understood from the Com-
· mentary on the Sutta (of Da?hadhanuggaha,),2 where it is said,
'Bhikkhus, there is the speed of this man; greater is the speed
of the sun and the moon; greater is the speed of the Yama
God who runs before the sun and the moon; swifter yet than
that is the perishing of life's activities.'
Here, first of all, the short duration of the physical life-
control is descri:bed. While (a unit of) matter which has arisen
persists, sixteen thought-moments arise and break up.. And no
a M.. iii. 169; S. v. 4f56/. a S. ii. 266. ;

.i!!1!B~:t'.a"tiPn can convey the shortness of time t}iey occupy.
[61]
~ence the Blessed One has said: Bhikkhus, it is no easy matter
to illustrate the quickness of thoughts in theirchanging.1 Thus
the word samaya in its sense of time shows the extreme
shortness of the time in the occurrence of a moral thought.
By this term thus showing the shortness of time, advice has
been given exhorting us to great stre~uousness and earnestness
in intuition,2 albeit intuiticmis as difficult for the mind as
stringing pearls in the dark by a lightning-fl.ash, because of its
extremely short duration. This is the exposition of samaya
in the sense of time.
Samaya in the sense of ' group ' shows the -simultaneous
occurrence of many states. For an aggregate of states; such
as contact, etc., is said to be a 'group'; the consciousness
arising in that group of states arises together with those atates.
Thus the co-occurrence of many states is shown. By this
word showing the nature of the group, the occurrence of one
' state ' only is contradicted. This is the setting forth of the
meaning of samaya in the sense of 'group.'
Samaya in the sense of ' condition ' shows the occurrence
in dependence on another. The phrase ' at what time '
connotes the occurrence of something when its condition exists,
that is to say, of something on which it depends. By this word
showing thus the condition, th_e_c_onceit of one who believes that
states un~onditionally follow one's own will3 is subdued. This
is the meaning of samaya in the sense of ' condition.'
Thus the phrase yasmi1Ji samaye when it denotes ' time,'
means 'at what time '; when it denotes 'group,' it means ' in
what group '; when it denotes ' opportunity,' ' harmony of
antecedents,' and' condition,' it means' when the opportunity
arrives,' ' ~li,en there is a c~ncurrenc:e of causes,' and ' when
i;i. condition exists,' respectively. E.g. , when sens•1ou ; monl
consciousness springs into being, on an opportunity arriving,
a concurrence of causes, or a condition existing, then contact
and so forth also arise. Thus should the meaning be under-
1 Ariguttara (henceforth indicated by A.) i. 10.

2 Pativ.,,dba.
Sa-vasa.
3 In other words, the theory of absolute free-will is
denied.-Tr.
stood. Here samaya in the sense of time1 and of group is
used in the locative case, i.e., as locality in the sense of basis
of things taught here (in Abhidhamma). By the occur-
rence of samaya as opportunity, concurrence of causes, or
condition, the occurrence of those states (contact, etc.) is
marked. Therefore if understood in these senses, _samaya i11
the locative
_:··:-. --- - .. marks state , or existence.
- ' -
By ' sensuous ' is meant included in the sensuous states,

namely, ' Between the Avici purgatory below and the Para-
nimmitavasavatti heaven above,' · etc.2~oncerning which
the question and answer are put. [62] Briefly, the literal
defillition of the term is as follows: sensuous experience is
twofold: of basis and of corruption. The latter means pas-
sionate desire; the former· means the round of the triple
plane of existence. Of these· the sensuousness of the corrup-
tions is so termed because it desires, and the other, the
sensuousness of basis, is so termed because it is desired by,
the sensuousness of the corruptions. There are eleven locali-
ties, viz.: four purgatorie8, one world of men a,nd six worlds
of spirits, in which this twofold sensuousness prevails.
And ' sensuous ' is the term applied to them all because
' sensuousness ' frequents them, like the battlefield resorted
to by soldiers. As the place where armed men resort is called
. a battlefield because it is specially characterized by them,
even though there may be other creatures, unarmed bipeds
and quadrupeds, resorting to the same, so though things of
other universes such as that of attenuated matter frequent it,
the place still continues to be called' sensuous,' because it has
been specially characterized by these modes of sensuous
experience. Just as ' rupa-sphere ' is shortened into
'rupa,' 3 so 'sensuous universe' is simply called 'sensuous'
by eliding the latter term. Thus ' sensuous universe ' means
thatthis(firstclass of moral) consciousness frequents this eleven-
1 Ho.w can time, being a concept, be a basis of things in Abhi-
dhamma .? Because states that occur in time marked by consciousness

do not exist before or after that time.-fika. 2 Dhs., § 1281.
. 3 In such phrases as ' he develops the Path for the attainment of

'f"uipa.'-Tr;
.Analysis of Terms 83
fold localized sensuousness, even though it also frequents the
planes of' attenuated rupa' and of non-rupa. Just as an ele-
phant, which has earned the appellation of 'battle-experienced'
ftom its frequenting the field of battle, continues to be known
by that name although it also frequents the town; and just as
living creatures whose habitat is land or water, though placed
out of their own elements, are still called 'land-traversing '
or 'water-traveraing,' even so this (class of) consciousness,
though occurring elsewhere, should be known as ' sensuous.'
Or (this consciousness is termed) sensuous because its
sensuousness frequents, by way of attending to, objects of
sense. Certainly it also frequents the universe of attenu-
ated matter and that of non-matter. But a calf is so
named because it 'calls' (vaccha-varlati=vadyati); and a
bu:ffalo is called' mahisa 'because it lies on the ground (mahi).
All other animals (although they also make noises and lie on
the ground) do not get these names. The application of this
illustration should be understood thus:
Or; this class of consciousness is called ' sensuous ' because it
·causes rebirths to frequent the sensuous plane of existence.
By kusala is meant (moral) 'good' in the sense of destroy-
ing or disturbing contemptible states ;1 or in the sense of whole-
someness, faultlessness, and accomplishment by skill. To
illustrate: in 'How are you?_ are you well, sir?' kusa!a is
used to mean 'health,' i.e., not being ill or sick or unwell in
body. So in mental states it should be understood in the sense
of 'health,' i.e., absence of sickness, illness, or disease throttgh
the 'corruptions.' [63] Moreover, from the absen::e of the
faultiness, hate, and torments of the 'corruptions,' kiisala
has the sense of 'faultlessness.' Understanding is described
as skilfulness. ' Good' has the sense of 'brought about by
skilfulness.'
Now consciousness 'associated with knowledge ' may be
called good (or moral). But how can consciousness 'dis-
sociated from knowledge,' be called by that name ?2 (The
1_ Obtained by the scholastic word-play affected at one period by both
East and West; lcucchitana'!l salanapihi. This has been anticipated

above, p. 48/.- Ed. 2 See Dhs. (or B.P.E.), §§ 147, 149.
reply is): It is also called good (or moral) by a figure of speec.h.
As a fan made not orpalmyra leaves but of mats, etc.,is called,
figuratively, a palmyra fan from its resemblance· thereto,
so consciousness though dissociated from knowledge is called
good or moral.
But philoi:;ophic.ally speaking, 'consciousness associated with
knowledge' iscalledgood in the three senses of health, faultless-
ness, and skill; and that 'dissociated from knowledge' is called
good in two senses only. 'Good' as taught by the Jataka
method, by the Bahitika Sutta method and by the Abhi-
dhamma method1 is applicable to this consciousness in all
three senses.
Moral Good defined by way of characteristic, etc., has
faultless, happy results as its characteristic; the destruction
of immoralities as its essential property; purity aa its recurring
manifestation; and rational attention as its proximate cause.
Or, by being opposed to fault it has the characteristic of
faultlessness; the property of purity ; the recurring manifesta-
tion of desirable results; and the proximate cause of rational
attention as said above .
.To expand: As regards characteristics; etc., the specific or
generic attributes of these, or those states, are termed the
' characteristic' (lakkha'J'farp,).
Essential property (rasa) means funetion or achievement.
Recurring phenomenon (paccupa~~hana) means mode of
manifestation, or effect.
Immediate occasion (pada!~hanarµ,) means proximate cause.
Thus wherever we speak of characteristics, etc., their mutual
difference should be understood in this wise.
.dy 'consciousness ' (citta) is meant that which thinks of
its object, is aware variously. Or, inasmuch as this word
' consciousness ' ia common to all states or classes of conacious-
neRs, that which is known as worldly, moral, immoral, or the
great inoperative,2 is termed •consciousness,' because it
arranges itself in a series (cinoti, or, its own series or continuity)
by way of apperception in a process of thought. And the
1 As shown by the examples quoted on p. 49.-Ed.
2 On this term see bel<:>w, pt. x., ch. vi.
resultant is also termed ' consciousness ' because it is accumu-·
lated (cito) by kamma and the corruptipns.
Moreover, all (four classes) are termed 'consciousness'
because they are variegated (citra) according to circumstance.
The meaning of consciousness may also be understood from
its capacity of producing a variety or diversity of effects.
Herein consciousness with lust is one thing, [64] that with
hateis another, that with delusion is another, that experienced
in the universe of sense is another, and those experienced in the
universe of attenuated matter, etc., are others. Different is
consciousness with a visible object, with an auditory object,
etc.; and in that with visible objects, varied is conscious-
ness of a blue-green object, of a yellow object, etc. And
the same is the case with the consciousness of auditory
objects. ·
And of ·all this consciousness one class is low, another is
medium, and a third is exalted. Among the low class again
c:msciousness is di:fferent when dominated by desire-to-do, or
when dominated by energy, or by investigation. Therefore
the variegated nature of consciousness should be understood
by way of these characteristics of association, locality, object,
th~ three degrees of comparison and dominance.
Although any single one of these is verily not variegated
in itself and by itself in the sense explained thus, it is never-
theless proper to say of any one of them, that it is so called
frQm its variegated character, because it is included in con-
sciousness as making up a variegated whole. Thus far the
first explanation of consciousness is from its variegated nature.
How is consciousness (i.e., mind) capable of producing a
variety or diversity of e:ffects in action? There is no art in
the world more variegated than the art of painting. In paint-
ing, the painter's masterpiece1 is more artistic than the rest
of his pictures. An artistic design occurs to the painters of
masterpieces that such and such pictures should be drawn in
such and such a way. Through this artistic design there arise
operations of the mind (or artistic operations) accomplishing
such things as sketching the outline, putting on the paint,
touching up, and embellishing. Then in the picture known as
the masterpiece is effected a certain (central) artistic figure.
Then the remaining portion -of the picture is completed
by the work of planning in mind as, 'Above this figure
let this be; underneath, this; on both sides, this.' Thus all
classes of arts in the world, specific or generic, are achieved by
the mind. And owingto its capacitythus to produce a variety
or diversity of effects in action, the mind, which achieves all
these arts, is itself artistic like the arts themselves. Nay, it is
even more artistic than the art itself, because the latter cannot
execute every design perfectly. For that reason the Blessed
One has said, 'Bhikkhus, have you seen a masterpiece of
painting 1' 'Yea, Lord.' 'Bhikkhus, that masterpiece of
art is -designed by the mind. Indeed, Bhikkhus, the mind
is even more artistic than that masterpiece.' 1 Nay, more.
All the fa~tors of this diversified sentient organism, such
as -kamma, feature,* idea, language, etc., in the destinies
of spirits, men, denizens_of purgatories, lower animals, etc.,
are a1'3o wrought by the mind. Good and bad acts in various
deeds, ascharity, virtue, cruelty, deceit, etc., are accomplished
by the_mind. Hence there is a variety of kammas; and owing
to this variety of kammas, there is in the various destinie;,;
[65] difference of features, i.e., difference in hands, feet, ears, 2
stomachs, necks, faces; etc. ; the difference in notion or idea
is because of the difference in outward form, expressed by
' this is woman, this is man,' according to the form taken.
The difference in the common usage of such terms as ' man,'
'woman 'in language, according to ideas, is due to the difference
in ideas. Because by virtue of the difference of usage in
language, an act, productiv.!l (in rebirth) of this or that
individuality, is performed.( with the wish),' May I be a woman,
a man, a prince, a brahmin,' therefore the' difference in
effective action (kamma) results from the difference in usage.
When the difference of actions effects a (future) existence as
prayed for, because it does so through destiny, then from'the
1 Sai.nyutta iii. 151. * Liftga. 2 Not in P.T.S. ed.

difference in kamma resµlts the difference in destiny. · By the
difference of kammas ~re manifested the typical or specific
difference of animals without feet, of bipeds, et<;:., in this or that
destiny of creatures; the hereditary difference of lowness or
highness in the passive side of our existence; the difference of
beauty, ugliness, etc., in the features of an individual; and the
difference of profit and loss, etc., in worldly conditions. Hence,
all the .factors of this diversified sentient* organism such as
character, outward appearance, idea, language; etc., in such
destinies as spirits, men, denizens of purgatories, lower animals,
etc., shoufd thus be understood.
This e:Kplanation should be understood by a Sutta not
rehearsed at the three Councils. For it is there said, ' By the
analysis of the various divisions and subdivisions of mutually
different kammas arises the determination of the various
divisions and subdivisions of mutually different features. By
the analysis of· the Various divisions and subdivisions of
mutually different features various divisions and subdivisions
of mutually different ideas are determined. By analyzing the
various divisions and subdiVisions of mutually different ideas,
the discrimination of the various divisions and subdivisions
of mutually different usages in language is effected. By
analyzing the various divisions and subdivisions of mutually
different usages in language, the various divisions and sub-
diVisi~ns of mutually different kammas are differentiated.
fo dependence on the difference in kamma appears the
difference in the destiny of beings without legs, with two legs,
four legs, many legs, vegetative,1 spiritual, with perception,
without perception, with neither perception nor without per-
ception. Depending on the difference in kamma appears the
difference in the births of beings, high and low, base and
exalted, happy and miserable. Depending on the difference in
kamma appears the difference in the individual features of
beings as beautiful or ugly, high-born or low-born, well-built
or deformed. Depending on the difference in kamma appears
the difference in the worldly conditions of beings as gain and
1 Rii.pino.
loss, fame and d!sgrace, blame and praise, happinesa and
misery.
Further it has been said:
[66] From kamma andformform and perceptions come,
Perceptions differentiation cause
In things, as ' This .is woman,' ' This is man.' 1
By kamma the world moves, by kamma men
Live, and by kamma are all beings bound
As by its pin the rolling chariot wheel. 2
By kamma one attains glory and praise,
By kamma bondage, ruin, tyranny.
Knowing that kamma bears fruit manifold,
Why say ye, ' In the world no kamma is r 1
'0 lad, beings have kamma as their property, they are its
heirs, are originated by it, are its kin, are sheltered by it.
Kamma divides _beings into low and exalted.' 3 By this
capacity to produce a diversity of effects (in destiny) in a
manner detailed above is the diversity of the mind to. be
understood. For all variations are done by the mind only.
Because a thought, which has no opportU:nity4 (of maturing
its own effects) or which lacks the remaining conditions,5 does
not produce any of the divers effects, (only) the factors of
this manifold sentient organism6 effected by the (e:ffectual)
thought have been declared. The mind is even more diverse
than these. Hence the Blessed One has said, ' Bhikkhus, I
see no other class so variegated as creatures of the animal
kingdom; even more variegated than those creatures, bhik-
khus, is the mind.'7 .
In the phrase 'is arisen,' 8 arisen (uppanna) has many
meanings, as ' existing,' etc. Of these, all that is endowed
.., ... · -· · - · - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - -
t Not tr.i,ced. 2 Siittn-Niplita., 654. 3 Majjhima iii. 203.
4, Owing to prohibition by some superior kamma, or because the
perfprmer has done it in some place or at some time where no result is
givetl,.-Tr.
5 Ttme, destiny, motive, etc.-Tr. 6 Ajj hattika.111.
7 sdu1yutta iii. 152. 8 Dhs., § 1.

with (instants of) genesis, decay, and dissolution is termed
' arisen as existing at the present moment.'
The moral and immoral thoughts which have ceased after
experiencing their objects and which are therefore known as
' experienced and gone,' as well as the remaining conditioned
things whiCh are known as ' become and gone,' because they
have ceas~d after having arrived at the threefold moment
of genesis, decay and dissolution, are termed' arisen as having
just gone after becoming.' Because the kamma in such
.expressions as, ' those kammas done by him in previous
existences,'. stands, though past, by preventing a different
result and by giving occasion to its own result, and because the
result though not yet arisen invariably takes place when an
opportunity is given, it is called 'arisen as having given rise
to a potential opportunity of its own fruition,' or ' arisen as
possessing an effected potential opportunity of occurring.'
[67] Immorality not so removed (by the Path) as not to
occur in various planes of existence is termed' arisen as having
got a plane for future existence.' Here the difference between
'a plane of existence' and' a state which has obtained a pla.ne
for future existence ' should be understood.
' Plane ' means the five aggregates of the three planes,
which are objects of insight. The body o~ corruptions fit to
arise in those aggregates is said to have 'obtained a plane
for future existence.' For that plane is obtainable by this
ca.rruption, therefore it (i.e., the body of corruptions) is said
to have ' obtained a plane for future existence.' Of these four
meanings of uppanna described here, that of ' existing at the
present ' is intended. Herein its word-definition: ' present
or existing' is called uppanna, because it has arrived at the
portal, so to speak, of genesis, etc., after the end of the previous
state. '.];his word_ 'l!-ppanna has many meanings: ' past,'
'getting,1 'uprisen,' 'not discarded,' 'not completely cut off,'
1"the totality of the _three instants.'1 In such passages as,
' Bhikkhus, at that-time Kakusandha, t he Blessed One, the
Saint, the Supreme Buddha had arisen in the world 12-
1 I .e., the lifo·wnit of any living thing-nascent, static, oessa.nt.- Ed.
a Sa111.yutta (henceforth iudioa.ted by 8.) ii. 19l..
uppanna is used in the sense of 'past.' 'To the elder,
Ananda has arisen a superfluous robe '1-here uppanna
means ' getting.' ' Even, bhikkhus, as a strong wind at
intervals disperses a great mass of clouds that have arisen ' 2-
here uppanna meaI13 'uprisen.' ' The wandering of the
mind which has a.risen is difficult to remove; (mindfulness
on respiration) then and there causes evil, i.e., immoral
states, to disappear every time they have arisen ' 3 -here
uppanna means 'not discarded.' 'One who cultivates,
practises many times the Ariyan Eightfold Path causes at
intervals evil, i .e., immoral, states to disappear then and there
every time they have arisen ' 4-here uppanna means 'not
cut off.' In the catechism, ' Is a thing arisen in the course oi
generation? Yes ' 5---uppanna has the meaning of 'reached
the totality of the three instants.' Here too it means this;
so that ' (consciousness) has arisen ' 6 means: ' has reached
the totality of the three instants,' ' is existing,' or ' is present.'
This is the meaning in brief outline. ' Consciousness has
arisen ' is the heading of this discourse.
But consciousness does not arise singly. Just as in saying,
'the king has arrived,'·it is clear that he does :riot come alone
without his attendants, but comes attended by his retinue,
so this consciousness should be understood to have arisen with
more than fifty moral (mental) phenomena. But it may be said
that consciousness has arisen in the sense of a forerunner.
For in worldly phenomena consciousness is the chief, conscious-
ness is the principal, consciousness is the forerunner. [68] In
transcendental phenomena, however, understanding is the
chief, understanding is the principal, understanding is the fore-
runner. Hence when the Blessed One came to the explanation
of the Vina ya he, in asking a question, did not ask, 'What is
your contact, what is your feeling, what is your perception,
what is your volition ?'but making consciousness the principal,
he asked, 'What is your mind, brother?' When answered,
'I have no mind to steal, lord,' the reply is not, 'Abstaining
from theft through contact is not an offence, bhikkhu,' etc.,
1 Vin. Texts ii. 213. 2 s.v. 50. a A . iii. 185; S. v. 50.
• s. v. 50. 5 Yam. ii. 18. 6 Dhs., § 1
_Analysi8 of Terms 91
but ' Abstaining from theft in intention is not an offence,
bhikkhu.'1 Not merely l.n the explanation of the Vina ya, but
also in some other lay discourses has he shown mind to be
the principal. Even as he said,' Bhikkhus, whatever states are
immoral, pertain to the immoral, take sides with the immoral,
all are led by mind; of these states mind arises first.' 2
'Consciousness leads, rules, makes all modes of m~rid.

And whoso speaks or acts with evil mind,
Him evil follows as the wheel the ox.
Consciousness leads, rules, makes all modes of mind.
And whoso speaks or acts with a good mind,
Bliss like a faithful shadow follows him. 3
By mind the world is led, · by mind is drawn:

And all men own the sovereignty of mind.' 4
' Bhikkhu, through mental corruptions beings are corrupted;

through mental purity beings are purified. 5 This mind, bhik-
khus, is dazzling, and yet it is defiled by foreign corruptions. ' 6
'Householder, when the mind is unguarded, bodily action is un-
guarded, speech also is unguarded, thought also is unguarded.'
... Householder, 'Y.hen the mind is· guarded .. . malevolent
. . . not malevolent . ~ : saturated with lust .. . not saturated
with lust ... i!_h.en.a.cta~words ;i,ndtb,qughts are inacorrespond-
j.pg state:' 7 Thus in dealing with worldly matters mind is the
ch'ief, mind is the principal, mind is the forerunner. Thus it
should be understood, [69] and further, that not only one or
two of these Suttas, but all are to be taken collectively so
that one may support the other.
In asking questions .on transcendental matters, one -says
not' What contact have you acquired, what feeling, percep~
tion, or volition?' but' Bhikkhu, what understanding have you.
acquired ?-understanding of the first Path or the second or
the third or the fourth ?' laying stress on understanding as
1 Vin. iii. 58. 2 A. i. 11. 3 Dhp., ver. 1, 2.
4 8. i. 39. Of. parikassati here, there parikissati.
s A. i. 10. 6 S. iii. 151. 7 A . i. 261.
92 Risings of Consciousness ,
the chief and the principal. No moral states headed by
understanding become degraded. But what is the purpose of
understanding ? ' Bhikkhus, in the Ariyan disciple endowed
with understanding there are established faith which follows
it, energy which follows it, and mindfulness and concentra-
tion which follow it.'l
These and other Suttas should be noted here (as pointing
to wisdom or understanding as the principal faculty). Thus
when we come to transcendental matters, understanding is
the chief, the principal, the forerunner. But we are here dis-
cussing secular matters. Hence, making mind the principal,
he said, 'consciousness (i.e., mind) has arisen.'
' Accompanied by joy ': this means ' gone into the state
of a common origin with joy, in the sense of enjoying pleasure
like honey.' This word 'accompanied' (sahayata) has the
meanings of ' corresponding nature,' ' mingled,' ' dependence,'
'object,' 'associated with.' 'This craving produces repeated
births and is accompanied by passionate delight '2-here
sahaga,ta means ' of corresponding nature.' The meaning
is that craving hns become passionate delight. 'This in-
vestigation, bhikkhus, is accompanied by idleness, associated
with idleness '3-here sahagata should be known in the sense
of ' mingled,' ' mingled with idleness arising at intervals.'
' He develops that factor of wisdom called mindfulness,
accompanied by the idea of the skeleton :' 4-here sahagata
should be understood as ' dependence.' ~ The meaning is,
' depending on the notion of the skeleton and developing the
idea, mindfulness as a factor of wisdom has been obtained.'
In the passage, 'He has acquired the attainments accom-
panied by ru71a, or by the immaterial '5 -saluiga.ta is used
in the sense of mental ' object.' In the passsage, ' This
happiness is accompanied by this zest, [70] is coexistent
and associated with it '6-sahagata is used in the sense of
combination. And in this expression, 'accompanied by joy,'
1 S. y, 229. I S. iii. 158. 3 S. V, 280

' S. v. 131. G Not traoed.
e Vlb1i. 21'i8•••. Ail of water and milk.-flkti.
the last meaning is intended. For here ' accompanied by
joy' is synonymous with' thoroughly mixed with joy.'
And this term' thoroughly mixed with' (sa'lf/,SaWia) is seen
with many meanings, such as 'similar,' 'saturated,' 'com-
panionship,' ' coexistence.' ' Avoiding lean and fat horses
Sa'f!l:Sattha horses (in age, appearance and speed) have been
yoked ' 1--'here the word sa'1fl,Sattha means 'similar.' 'Ladies,
you live sa'lf/,Sa,ttha with passion ' 2-here it means ' saturated
with passion.' ' He lives in association with householders '3-
here sarp,sa,ttha means 'mentally intimate.' 'This happiness
is accompanied by this zest, is coexistent, sarµsattha and con-
joined with it '-it means ' coexistent.' Here also in ' accom-
panied by joy '- sarrisatfha means ' coexistence in association.'
Herein.there is no conjoining which is without coexistent, or
accompaniment. But the coexistent may or may not be
associated and conjoined. For in material and immaterial
states which are produced together, matter is coexistent with
non-matter, but is not associated or conjoined with it. Like-
wise non-matter -with matter, and matter with matter. But
non-matter is always accompanied by, coexistent, associated,
and conjoined with non-matter. Bearing this coexistence in
a state of mixture, so to speak, and in association- this is
meant when it is said, ' accompanied by joy.'
By ' associated with knowledge ' is meant ' yoked evenly
by way of a common origin,' etc. What should further be said
h@re has been said in the triplet of feeling in the commentary
on the Table of Contents. Thus it should be understood that
this consciousness is associated (with knowledge) by the
characteristics of a common origin, common cessation, common
basis, common object. This exposition indicates a maximum
limit. But in immaterial existence association without a
common basis is obtained.
By this sentence (viz., 'sensuous ... associated with know-
ledge'), which class of consciousness is being discussed 1
That main type in moral (consciousness), experienced in
the universe of sense, which is accompanied by joy, thrice-
1 .Jae. vi. 22. 2· Vin. iv. 240. 3 Vin. ii. 4.

conditioned, associated with knowledge, and automatic. By
the indefinite question, 'Which states are moral~· the morals
of the four planes of life are taken.1 By the words, ' sensuous
moral thought has arisen,' the moral consciousness of the three
(higher) planes is excluded, and only the eightfold sensuous
moral consciousness is taken. By the expression, ' accom-
panied by joy,' that fourfold consciousness which is accom-
panied by hedonic indifference is excluded from these eight;
only the fourfold consciousness accompanied by joy is taken.
By the expression' associated with knowledge,' from these four
. is excluded the twofold consciousness dissociated from know-
. ledge;· [71] only the twofold consciousness associated with
knowledge is taken. Automatic (or unprompted)2 conscious-
ness shoulg npt be commented on, as it has not yet been uttered
in the text itself. But though it has not been made explicit,
yet because the next class of consciousness is said to be con-
sciously prompted, it should b~ understood that this first tjpe
is automatic. For the Supreme Buddha from the very begin-
ning intended to classify this main type of consciousness on
this principle, and hence it should here be considered as
carried out.
Now in order to show consciousness by way of object he
said 'visible or,' etc.; thus the Blessed One in expound-
ing immaterial statefl shows them by way of basis or object,
or both basis and object, or by way of their own function
or property.
To expand: In such passages as-' There is cont~ct [having
its basis] in the eye, ear . . . in the sense-ll\ind; feeling born
of visual contact . . . of sense-mind; visual cognition . . .
· sense-mind cognition '-immaterial states are shown by way
of basis. 3 'Perception of visible object ... of ideas; cognition
of colour-of ideas '4-in such passages they are shown by
way ~f objects. 'Visual cognition arises in dependence upon
1 See Dhs. (or B;P.E.), §§ 1281-87.
2 Asankhiiriyab~vo. Cf. B.P.E. § 146.
3 In visual contact, etc., the sensitive organ is the basis; in mind-
consciousness, etc., the mind-door, as the cause, is the basis.- Tikii.
4 s.
ii. 251. . . ..
sensitive eye and visible object, contact arises from the con-
course of these three . . . ; mental cognition arises in depen-
dence upon mind-door and object of thought, contact arises
from the concourse of the three ' 1-in such passages they are
shown by way of basis and object. ' Volitions, bhikkhus, arise
through ignorance; rebirth-consciousness arises through voli-
tions ' 2-in such passages they are shown by way of their own
functions or properties. But in thiS place, showing them by
way of objects he said, ' visible object or,' etc.
Herein ' visible object' is just one that is past, present, or
future arising from four (things) ;3 ' audible object ' is just
one that is sound, past, present, or future, due to two
-t hings;4 'olfactory object' is odour, past, present or future,
due to four (things) ;3 ' gustatory object' is taste, past, present,
or future, due to four (things) ;3 '-tangible object' is touch, past,
present, or future, due to four (things). 3 'Cognizable objects'
include (a) states due to one, two, three, four, or to none of
these causes ;5 (b) states past, present, or future; and (c) states
which cannot be sa:id to _be either (a) or (b), i.e., all states said
tO be the field of consciousness, but other than those five
sensibles already described. 6
[72] Those who -say that 'cognizable object' includes also
the five sensibles which have not come into the avenue of the
senses should be refuted by the following Sutta, where it is
said: 'Mind, brother, is the true refuge (or, co-ordinating resort)
of these five sense-faculties, which have several objects
and fields of sense, incapable of experiencing one another.
Mind experiences their several fields.' 7 Visible objects, etc., are
the objective fields of these five sense-faculties; though they
are experienced by the mind, it is clear that they are still
objects of sight, etc. 8 And further the meaning is rendered
.1 J,f ajjlii-ma (henceforth indicated by M.) i. 11; S. iv. 32.

2 s. ii. 2.
3 Viz., past action, mind, physical inanimate causes, and nutri-
ment.-Tr. 4 Viz., the second and third of the foregoing.-Tr.
G E.g., old age and impermanence.-Tr. -
6 Thus (c) refer to concepts and Nibbii.na.--'---Tr. 7 M. i. 295.
8 Hence they are not objects of thought.-Tr.
clear from the fact of these sensibles being also the objects of
the knowledge given by supernormal vision, etc. For the five
objects of sense which have not come into the avenue of the
ordinary senses are the objects of supernormal vision, etc., but
they are not objects of sense-mind. By what has now
been said the determination of objects should be understood.
Of the six objects each comes into the avenues of two
'doors': the visible object (light and colour) comes into the
avenue of the mind-door the moment it strikes the sensitive
organ, that is to say, it causes vibration of the .life-con-
tinuum. The case with sound, odour, taste and touch as
objects is similar. Just as a bird flyirig through the sky .and
alighting on a tree touches the branch of the tree and its
shadow strikes the ground, the touching with the branch and ·
the spreading of the shadowtaking place in one moment, simul-
taneously, so the contact with the sensitive organ, etc., by
the presented object of sense is simultaneous with its coming
into the ave~ue of the mind-door through its ability to cause
the life-contiliuum to vibrate. After .t hat, the life-continuum
is cut off by a process through the eye-door, etc., beginning with
'adverting' and ending with 'determining' ;1 immediately
&.fter which a state of consciousness of the main type takes
place with any one of those objects.
In the purely representative process through the mind-
door, however, there is no function of striking the sensitive
organ. These objects present themselves naturally by virtue
of having been seen, heard, smelt, tasted and touched. How 1
Some one here below circumambulates a great shrine, which
is well plastered, variegated by colours of orpiment, realgar,
etc., beset with divers kinds of flags and banners, interlaced
with flowers and wreaths, encircled by garlands, so to speak, of
lights, illumined by an enchanting glory, and adorned in every
respect. On the sixteen platforms he pays homage in the five-
fold manner of contact.2 With clasped hands raised in
Cf. Compendium 27-30; 126f.

1
If standing by (a) keaping the two feet evenly together on the
2
ground, (b) keeping the two palrcs evenly together in contact, (c) raising
them to the forehead, (d) bowing or bending towards an object of
adoration.he stands looking upwards [73] with rapture derived
from the contemplation of the Buddha. Having thus derived
rapture from the contemplatio~ of the Buddha by looking at
the shrine, wherever, subsequently, he may have gone and
seated himself in places [reserved] for night or day, the well~
·_decorated shrine seems to appear to his eye on reflection, as
it did actually at the time when he circumambulated it.
Thus, first of all, by previous sight, a visible object comes
into tlie ' avenue.'! Hearing the sound of one who with a
sweet voice lectures on the doctrine, or who with a sweet
voice is merely reciting or readinrr
• 0
the Text, wherever, subse-
quently, he sits thoughtful, the sermon expounded or the text
recited is represented at his mind-door, as if it came into the
avenue of his ear-door as when he listened and gave liis
approbation. Thus through previous hearing, the audible
object comes into the avenue. Getting a fragrant perfume
or flower he offers it with the scent as an object of mind
either in his seat or in a shrine; then wherever he after·
wards sits down thoughtful, the perfume is as if it came into
the avenue of the nose-door as at the time of making the
offering. '.['hus through previous smell the olfactory object
comes into the avenue. He enjoys an excellent meal in
common with his fellow-monks; subsequently wherev~r, on
getting inferior food, he reflects on his having enjoyed an
excellent meal on a certain previous occasion with his felldw-
monks, that sapid object is as though it came into tl1e avenue
of the tongue-door as at the time when he enjoyed it. Thus
the sapid object comes into the avenue through previous
experience. He enjoys a soft bed or stool or carpet or cover-
ing pleasant to the touch, and subsequently wherever he
feels a hard bed, and reflects that he has enjoyed a soft bed
a.d orat:on, (e) finally separating the palms and placing one on each side
of the head. If seated by (a) letting fall the two knees evenly together
on the ground, (b) letting fall the two elbows ewnly together on the
ground, (c) str.ot ching the two foraarms· and spraading the pnJms
out, (d) keeping them evenly together on the ground, (e) placingthehen.d
on the back of the two palms.- V inayiilankiira.
1 Apatha1!1. Cf. Vin. 'l.'e,x!s ii. 12; .~f. i; 190. Bud. Psy. 66.
98 Ri..sings of Consciousness
on a previous occasion, the tangible object comes into the
avenue, as it was actually felt at the time when he enjoyed that
pleasurable touch. Thus through· previous touch a blanket
as tangible object comes into the avenue. Thus in the mind~
door as such there is no function of contact with the sensory
organism. Through having been seen, heard, smelt, tasted,
and touched, these objects should be understood as coming
naturally into the avenue.
Now the following is another method of exposition, [74] not
mentioned in the (earlier) Commentaries, of the natural
representation of objects that have been seen, etc. First and
foremost, what is seen, heard, and connected with both-these
should be understood as i;uch. Things ' seen ' includes what
has been seized through the five doors; things ' heard' is what
has not been 'seen' directly, but what is learnt by hearsay
about the five sensibles. 1 An idea connected with both sources
of knowledge is termed ' connected with both.' Thus should
it be understood that by virtue of the former these objects (i.e.,
sensibles) come into the avenue of the mind-door. Herein the
representation of them has been described above in five ways.
But (as regards the latter class) some one hears that the figure
of the Buddha, born of superior merit, is like this and that,
that his voice is exceeding sweet, that the scent of certain
flowers in a certain place is very delightful, that the taste of
certain fruits in a certain place is very sweet, and that the
touch of certain coverings, etc., is very pleasant. From mere
hearsay, without actual contact with the sensory organs,
these sensibles come into the avenue of (or are represented at)
the ill.ind-door. Then to such an one consciousness (of that first
main type), having for its object that sight or sound described,
arises by virtue of faith; or consciousness of the same type with
that scent, etc., as its object, arises by virtue of a desire to
present such (flowers, fruits, or coverings described) to Ariyans,
or by virtue of moral approbation of their being offered by
others. Thus these five sensibles come into the avenue at the
1 These two fields might be randered by ' experience ' and 'infor ma·
tion.' Cf. Campendiuni of Phil. 37 .~Tr.
mind-door through wh'.1-t is' heard.' Lastly, another person
has either seen or heard about those things mentioned. To
him the thought occurs .: 'Of such and such a figure will be
the Buddha who will arise in the future! In this way visible
objects, etc., come into the avenue at the mind-door by virtue
of their connection with things seen or heard, without actual
contact with the sensitive organism. Then to him conscious-
ness (of this first main type), with one or other of the five
sensibles as object, arises in the manner described above. Thus
it is to be understood that by virtue of the connection with
both (experience and information) objects of sight, etc., come
into the avenue at the mind-door. This is only a hint.
By virtue of (a) (blind) faith, (b) approved criticism, (c) ratio-
cination on aspects of things, (d) satisfaction at intuition into
any reality, etc., the coming into the avenue of visible objects,
etc., at the mind-door should be understood in detail. Inas-
much as these objects, which have been represented by faith,
criticism, logic, intuition, etc., are both real and unreal, this
.method has not been adopted in the Commentary. It should .
be understood that an apperceptional thought1 having any
· one of the objects arises through two doors in the manner de-
scribed. Thus the apperception of a visible object arises at the
eye-door and also at the mind-door. The same is the case with
apperceptions of sound, etc. Of these doors the apperception
of a visible object arising in the mind-door is of three kinds:
accomplished by charity, virtue, or culture. [75] Of these
again each is of three kinds: deed (body), word, and thought.
And the same with apperceptions of sound, etc.
Of these objects, this moral consciousness of the first main
type arises having as visible object a certain desirable,
pleasing, agreeable, and captivating colour as a sign of
. beauty in blue-green, yellow; red, or white flowers, raiment,
minerals, or metals. 'But is not this desirable object the
fundamental cause of greed 1 Ho~ then is this conscious-
ness good 1'-(an objector might ask). (The answer is):
It has become good by virtue of its being determined, bent,
1 Javanalllo Cf. C<rmpendium of Phil. 29.

100 Risings of Gonsciou.sness
trained, and laid to heart. 1 To expand: A person thinking:
'l ought to do meritorious deeds,' has his mind ' determined·
for moral acts, 'bent' only on '.moral acts by inhibiting immora.
acts, well ' trained' by constant practice of good. And has
' laid to heart' through such sufficing conditions as residence
in a suitable place, (assistance from or) dependence on good
associates, hearing the good Law, merit performed in for:mer
existences, etc. Thus by virtue of determination, inclination,
training, and idea, ,there occurs to him a moral thought.
The state of being ' accompanied by joy ' should here be
understood in virtue of the specific objects before the mind.
For this first class of consciousness is accompanied by joy,
because a desirable object having arisen, abundance of such
factors as faith are reasons for joy. For in those without faith
and of wrong views, joy does not arise even wl;ten they see the
figure of the Tathagata, which is a truly deiiirable object.
Those, again, who do 'not see the advantage of producing
merit do not experience joy, even though incited by others
to do good. Therefore abundance of faith, purity - of
views, seeing advantage in merit, should be understood
as factors . of this consciousness in making it accompanied
by joy.
Eleven states also conduce to the production of zest (or
rapture) as a factor of wisdom, namely, recollection of the
B;uddha, of the Law, of the Order, of the precepts, of self-
sacrifice, of spirits, of peace, avoidance of rough (i.e., . ill-
tempered) persons, serving meek persons, reflection on a Sut-
tanta which instils·faith and a tendency to all this. [76] It
is thus that 'accompanied by joy' should be understood.
The more detailed account in the BoiJ'hangavibhaiiga2 will
make this clear.
The association with knowledge mentioned in this class of
consciousness may be inferred from such causes ai; kamma (in
this existence), birth as determined by past kamma, maturity
of the controlling faculties, and distance from the corruptions.
}!'or instance, one who preaches the Law to others, teaches the
diff~rent kinds of blameless arts, manual labour and knowledge,
1 Abhujita. 2 Vibhanga , p. 227. See also p. 101.- Ed.

Analy8is of Terms 101
respectfully asks the preacher to preach the Law, and gives
alms of divers kinds with the wish : ' in the future I shall become
wise' -to him depending on such kamma, a moral thought
(may be said to) arise in association with knowledge. To
one born in a world free from ill-will (i.e., the world of
attenuated matter) a moral thought associated with know-
ledge also occurs. To that (spirit) happy therein, sentences
of doctrine appear, e.g. 'Slow, bhikkhus, is the produc-
tion of mindfulness; but when it is produced, that person
quickly acquires .special distinctions ' 1-in this way, in depen-
dence upon rebirth also, a moral thought arises in association
with knowledge. Moreover, when a moral thought arises also
in dependence on the maturity of faculties , it does so in
association with knowledge in those who have arrived at the
maturity of those faculties at the wisdom-decade. 2 And
when a moral thought arises also in dependence on distance
from the corruptions, it does so in association with knowledge
in those who have discarded them.
Truly has it been said:
Wisdom3 the studious ga?'.n, the heerlless lose.
Thus the.association of a moral thought with knowledge may
be inferred from such causes as kamma, re-birth, the maturity
of controlling powers, distance from the corruptions.
Further, there are seven states conducive to investigation of
the Law as a factor of enlightenment: frequent questionings (on
elements, aggregates, etc.), cleansing of things or substances,
equalizing of the faculties, a voiding of unintelligent persons.
frequenting of wise persons, reflection on teachings of deep
knowledge, inclination (of mind) towards this. For these
reasons thought associated with knowledge can also be inferred.
The detailed account in the Bojjhangavibhanga will make this
clear.
The main (type of) moral thought which has thus arisen
1 A. ii. 185.
2 Pafiiiadasaka, i.e. the ten years (forty to fifty) of maturing wisdom.
Cf. Visudiihi-JJiagga, ch. xx.- Tr.
3 Bhiiri, lit. abundance.-Dhp., ver. 282.
102 Risings of Conscioiisness
in association with knowledge is called [77] automatic from
its arising without external aid, instigation, or inducement.
It has a captivating colour as its object, and arises in three
fixed ways, being brought about by charity, virtue, or culture.
How 1 The subject gets either flowers, clothes, or elements
[of metals or minerals] such as are blue-green, yellow, red,
or white, and bearing in mind a particular colour and think-
ing, ' This will be my gift of colour,' offers the object to the
Three Jewels, namely, the Buddha, etc.; then the consciousness
is brought about by charity. For here is a story which I .h ave
heard: The treasurer Sa:righamitta (of King Du~~hagamani), 1
it is said, got a dress embroidered with gold and presented it
at the great shrine, saying,' This dress is golden in appearance;
the Supreme Buddha also is golden in appearance; the golden
cloth suits,the Goldl;ln One, and it will be our gift of colour.'
At such time it is to be understood that the thought is accom-
plished by charity. But when he gets such a gift and offers
it to the Jewels: the Buddha, etc., saying, 'It (i.e., this act of
gift) is my family custom, family tradition:, family usage, it
is my duty,' then the thought is accompliB'hed by virtue. 2
But when he, presenting the three Jewels with such a cloth,
estabfohes the (conviction of) perishing and transience,
namely, that' this colour will perish, will pass away,' then the
thought is accomplished by culture.
When the thought, though accomplished by charity, occurs
to one wbo offers the gift to the three Jewels with his own
hands, then an act of body accompanies it. When he in offer-
ing it to the three Jewels, orders his son, wife, servants, etc.,
to present it; then there is an act of speech. When he
thinks, 'I will make a' gift of colour,' referring to the actual
object spoken of in various ways, then an act of thought
arises. As regards Vinaya exposition, when such words as
'I will give this, I will do this' are spoken, it amounts to a
gift by this characteristic of spoken words. But as regarda
Abhidhamma exposition, a moral thought arises from the time
1 So the Y ojani.
2 Srta is here ciirittasila, positive virtue, as opposed to viirittasila,
negative morality. Cf. Visuddhi-lllagga, p. 11.-Tr.
when there is thinking in the mind of giving an existing object.
It is said [in the Great Commentary] that afterwards by act
or speech he will do what is necessary. Thus the consciousness
which is accomplished by charity is threefold by virtue of acts
of body, speech and thought.
But when, having got an object so spoken of, he offers it
to the three Jewels with his own hands according to the
traditions of his family, then the act of body is accomplished
by virtue. When by family tradition he commands his
family to make the offering, then the act of speech is accom-
plished by virtue. [78] When he thinks of offering as a gift
of colour something actually existing according to family
custom, family tradition, usage, as his duty, then it ii! an
act of thought. Thus a thought accomplished by virtue is
threefold by way of body, speech, and thought. But when he
gets the object i3poken of and offers it to the three Jewels, and
while walking to and fro establishes (the conviction of) perish-
ing and transience, then occurs an act of body accomplished
by culture. To him who contemplates as above, accompanied
by words, occurs an act -of speech (accomplished by culture).
To him who so contemplatel', without moving the bodily or
vocal org~na, occurs an act of thought (accomplished by culture).
Thus a thought accomplished by culture is threefold by way
_of body, speech and th~mght. Thus the Lord of the Law has
shown this moral consciousness of a visible object as classified
on the threefold basis of meritorious act, as well as by the nine
doors of action. The classification applies to audible and other
objects. For instance, making a mental object of a captivating
sound by a drum or other instrument, this consciousness arises
in the three ways as mentioned above. Herein it is not
possible to pluck a sound like a bulb or root, and place it in the
· hand like a stalk of blue lotus and offer it. But a gift of it may
be made, together with its basis, i.e. the musical instrument.
Therefore with the intention of makingagift of sound,hemakes-
a gift of one or other of the instruments, the drum, etc., to
the three Jewels, or causes such instruments to be set up; he
offers to the religious preachers oil and molasses, etc., as medi;,
cine to improve the voice, or annou_nces the se:i;:r:n_on_a an.d.
104 'Risings of Consciousness
lectures he has arranged;1 he delivers votes of thanks; then
the thought is accomplished by charity. When he does all
this ceremony by family custom, etc., as his duty, then it is
accomplished by virtue. When, having done all this, he
contemplates that such a sound, even though it reaches the
Brahma world, will perish and pass away, then it is accom-
plished by culture.
Herein, first of all, a thought accomplished by charity
becomes an act of body when, taking the drum, etc., he offers
them with his own hands, or, though he places them for a
perpetual offering, doea so with his own hands, or when,
with the intention of making a gift of sound,' he goes to pro-
claim the hearing of the Law, to discourse on the Law, or to
recite the text.
It is translated into an act of speech when he gives orders:
'Go, friends, make an offering to the three [79] Jewels of this
our gift of sound,' and ' place this bheri-drum or this mutiiiga-
drum in the precincts of that shrine,' or when he himself
prociaims the hearing of the Law, makes a religious speech, or
recites the text. But it remains fl. mere act of thought when,
without moving the bodily and vocal organs, he mentally
surrenders the actually existing object with the thought, 'I
shall make a gift of sounds.' To him who, with the idea that
the gift of sound is customary according to his family custom,
family tradition, family usage, offers drums, etc., with .his
own hands or places them in the precincts of the shrine, etc.,
with his own handa, or gives with his own hands (to the
religious preacher) the medicine for the improvement of the
voice, or goes, duty bound, to proclaim the hearing of the Law,
to discourse on the Law, or recite the text, the thought accom-
plished by virtue becomes an act of body. To one who gives
an order, 'The gifi of sound is in accordance with our family
custom, family tradition, family usage; go, friends, to the
tnree Jewels, the Buddha, etc., and make an offering'; or
to him who himself speaks on the Law, or recites the text as
1 .Upanisinnakakatha11i karoti (cf. Upani:;iad). The Commentator
(J'ika) explains this as : 'reeites the P~li text, pronounces religious
discourses, delivew lectures,'
Analy8is of Terms 105
a custom of his family, etc., it is translated into an act of
speech. · To one who th1nks: ' The gift of sound is a custom
' of my family, I will make a gift of it,' and mentally
sacrifices the existing object without moving the bodily and
vocal organs, it remains a mere act of thought. When going
to and fro he establiShes (the conviction of) transience and
passing away of sound, then the thought accomplished by
culture becomes an act of body. To one who accompanies
his contemplation with w~rds, but without moving the bodily
organs, it becomes a:ri. act of speech. _ But to one who so con-
templates the sound in mind only, without moving the bodily
and vocal .organs, it becomes an act of thought. Thus the
Lord of the Law has shown consciousness of an audible object
as classified on the threefold basis of meritorious act by means _
of the nine doors of action.
Selecting, as an' object of sense, a captivating scent out of
perfumes from roots, etc., a moral thought arises in three fixed
ways as said above. Therein when, on getting any one of the
scented roots, etc., he, considering it by virtue of the scent and
saying, 'my gift of perfume shall take place,' honours the
Buddha-Jewel, etc. therewith, then the moral thought is
accomplished by charity. All should be understood in detail
as was said in the case of a gift of colOur. Thus the Lord
of the Law has shown consciousness of a scent as an object
classified on the threefold basis of meritorious act by means
of the nine doors of action.
Making an object of sense of a captivating taste among
tastes of roots, etc., a moral thought arises in three fixed ways
as was said above. Therein when he gets any object of a
captivating taste among roots, etc., [80] and considers it by
virtue of the taste, saying, ' my gift of taste shall take place,'
and makes an o:ffering, a giving up, then the moral thought
is accomplished by charity. All should be understood in
detail as was said in the case of a gift of colour.
But here there is a difference in the case of a thought
accomplished by virtue. Stories occur in the Great Com-
mentary beginning with that of king DuHhagamani Abhaya,
who ate an e:xc~Ilent meal after offering (the like) to twelve
thousand bhikkhus, saying, 'It is not our custom_to partake
of food without (first) giving it to the Order.' Thus the Lord
of the Law has shown consciousness of a taste as an object
classified under the threefold basis of meritorious act by means
of the nine doors of action. -
When the object is something tangible; it consists of the
three Great Essentials (or Elements), viz. : extension, heat,
mobility. In this connection reference is not to these, but
to such things as beds, stools, etc. To expand: When on
getting, among furniture, any captivating tangible object he
considers it by virtue of the touch and surrenders it with the
thought,' This is my gift of touch,' then the thought is accom-
plished by charity. All should be understood in detail as
was said in the case of a gift of colour. Thus the Lord
of -the Law has shown consciousness of a tangible object
classified under the threefold basis of ~eritorious act by
means of the nine doors of action.
In the case of an object of thought, the six internal sense- _
organs, the three characteristic marks, the three immaterial
.aggregates, the fifteen material subtle qualities of matter,
Nibbana and concepts, whether included in the given object
or not, form the object of thought. In this oonnection there is
reference not to these, but to gifts of food, drink and life. A
moral thought with a captivating object from among nutritive
substances, etc.,_arises in the three fixed ways as said above.
Therein when he offers butter, ghee, etc., as his gift of food, the
eight drinks 1 as a gift of drink, and when as a gift of life he
·offers a meal by lot, a meal for a party,a meal for the Order, etc.,
gives medicine to indisposed monks, or gets a physician to
attend to the sick, has the net destroyed, the fish-trap broken,
the bird-cage spoiled, effects the release of the fettered, pre-
scribes by beat of drum the non-taking of life and does such
other acts to protect life, then the thought in question is
accomplished by charity. And when by reason 0£ principal
cir sacred duty he makes these gifts of food, drink, and life
because of his family custom, family tr::.dition, family usage,
the moral thought under discussion is accomplished by
- - - - --- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- ---- -
I J7in. '['ex/J ii. 132_,
virtue. When he establishes the conviction of transience and
passing away in an object of thought, [81] then the thought
in question is accomplished by culture. When with his own
hands he makes the gifts of food, drink and life, then the
thought accomplished by charity becomes also an act of body.
When he does so by ordering his family, then it becomes an
act of speech. When, without moving his bodily and vocal
organs, he thinks of giving an actually existing object as a gift
of food, drink and life, then it becomes an act of thought.
But when with his own hands he gives an existing object of
various kinds as described above according to the custom or
tradition of his family, etc., then the thought accom-
plished by virtue becomes an act of body. When he dpes so
by ordering his family it becomes an act of speech. When he
thinks of giving an existing object of divers kind_s as said above
according to the custom or tradition of his family, etc.,
then it becomes an act of thought. When walking to and fro
he establishes the conviction of transience and passing away
in an object o,£ thought, then the thought accomplished by
culture becomes an act of body. To one who establishes by
words that-conviction without moving his limbs, it becomes an
act of speech. Without moving his bodily limbs and vocal
organs, to him who in mind only establishes that conviction,
it b~comes an act of thought. Thus the thought accomplished
by culture is threefold by virtue of body, speech, and thought.
Thus the Lord of the Law has classified consciousness of an
object of thought on the threefold basis of meritorious act
by means of the nine doors of action.
This kind of consciousness (viz., the first moral thought of
the main type) ill connection with various physical bases and
various objects of sense has now been elucidated. And it can be
obtained by way of various objects of sense also in connection
with any subject of discourse. How ? Take the robe among
the four requisites of a religieux-six objects of sense and
thought are obtained. For example, the colour of a newly
dyed robe is agreeable and comely : this is colour as object:'
When used it makes a rustling sound-patta, patta-it is
then an audible object. What scent there is in it of dye-
stu:ffs such as bastard sandal wood or aloes, gives odour as
object. Taste as an object in a robe may be spoken of
figuratively as taste in usage. The pleasant touch there may
be in it is tangible object. The pleasurable feeling arising
because of the robe is object of thought. In the almsfood an
object of taste in the literal sense i11 obtained. Thus among
the four requisites (food, clothing, lodging, medicine) the
various objects of sense taking their place, we must classify
[our thought] according to charitable giving and so on.
Now of this kind of consciousness the object is a constant
concomitant, because without it that consciousness does not
arise. But the ' door 'is not a constant conco:µritant. Why 1
Because of the variablenes.; in previous actions (kamma).
Action being not always predictable, the door is equally
unpredictable.
PART III-DISCOURSE ON DOORS (OR GATES)
(DV ARAKATHA)
CHAPTER I
DOOR OF AN ACT OF BODY
To explain the meaning of this _variableness of both kamma
and door [82], the Great Commentary sets out a discourse
on Doors (or Gates).
In this the following subject-heads, viz., the three kinds of
action (kamma), three doors of action, five kinds of conscious-
ness, five d_oors of consciousness, six kinds of contact, six doors
of contact, eight [modes of] non-restraint, eight doors of
!-Ion-restraint, eight [modes of] restraint, eight doors of
restraint, ten .courses of immoral acts, ten courses of moral
acts, have been laid down in the Table of Contents (Pt. I.).
Although the three actions are described first in that Table,
we may leave these till later and take the three doors of action
for classification. Which are the ' three doors of action '?
Door of an act of body, door of an act of speech, and door of
an act of thought.
In the expression' act of body,' body is fourfold: that which
is grasped at,1 that which is produced by food, by the caloric
order, by mind. Of these, eight material qualities produced
by kamma, namely, those beginning with the organ of sight
and ending with life-control, and the eight material qualities
produced by kamma, viz., the four elements, colour, odour,
taste and nourishing essence constitute the body as that which
has been' grasped at' (by desire, etc., attending the kamma in
question). These eight qualities born of food constitute the
body as produced by food; the same eight born of the caloric
order constitute the body as produced by heat; and the same
eight born of consciousness constitute the body as produced by
mind .
•1 Or "laid hold of" (upii.diQ.r.iaka-kityo). Seep. 55.
109
110 Risings of Consciousness .
.
Of these three doors, 'door of an act otbody' is not (the
aspect of) body as grasped at by kamma, nor as otherwise ·
produced. But among the eight qualities of body produced by
mind, one is (capacity of) iIJ,timation, and it is this that is meant
by' door of an act ofbody.' Concerning that door, it has been
said, ' Which quality of body is called body-intimation 1 It is
that particular quality of body which informs, intimates, or
communicates in a unique manner, and which aids, supports,
or strengthens the body of a person who, with: a moral or
immoral or unmoral thought, moves forward, or steps back,
looks straight ahead or obliquely, bends or extends his limbs.'1
To expand: When a thought, ' I will move forward or step
back' occurs, it.sets up bodily qualities (born of mind). Now
there are eight groups of these bodily qualities: the four
primaries: extension, cohesion, heat, mobility, and four
depending on these: colour, odour, taste, nutritive essence
(oja). Among these, mobility strengthens, supports, agitates,
moves forward or backward the coexisting physical body.
Now in a cognitive process of simple' adverting' (ofattention),
when the seven moments of apperception (iavana) are set up,
the first six cause to arise only such [83] mobility as can
strengthen and support the coexisting body, but cannot
move it. In consequence, however, of this work of the first six
moments, the seventh moment sets up mobility able both to
move the body forward and backward and to cause the act of
looking straight ahead or obliquely, 9£ bending and extending
the limbs. Hence there results an act of going or coming or. ·
both; (by repetition more than a thousand times) ·it enables us
to say that a man 'has gone a yojana, gone .a s far as ten
yojanas.' As when a cart is drawn by seven yok~s, the bul-
locks at the first yoke are able to bear the yoke but not to
turn the wheels. And the same with the bullocks yoked to
the second ... and sixth yokes. But by harnessing bullocks to
a seventh yoke a clever driver sitting in the forepart of the cart
takes the reins and urges the bullocks with the goad, beginning
from the foremost of all; then all the bullocks being of .
1 Dh8. § 636.
The Door of a Bodily Action 111
united ::ltrength steady the yoke, turn the wheels, draw the
cart, enabling us to say that it has gone ten or twenty yojanas; .
Thus the completeness of this process should be understood.
Now the body·produced by consciousness- -that is not' inti-
mation.' But there is a certain peculiar, uni_que mode of change
in the primaries when set up by mind, through which, as a con-
dition, mobility is able to strengthen, support and agitate the
coexistent bodj. This is intimation. It is not set up by
consc~ousness as are the eight qualities. But as has been said,
' From the decay and death of things that are impermanent,
etc., bhikkhus, decay and death is impermanent and con-
ditioned,' etc. ;1 so because of thecommunicablenessof qualities
set up by consciousness, intimation may also he said to.be pro-
duced by consciousness. Because it is a capacity of communi-
-!lating, it is called' intimation.' What does it communicate 1 A
certain wish communicable by an act of the body. If anyone
stands in the path of the eye, raises his hands or feet, shakes
his head or brow, the movements of his hands, etc. are visible.
Intimation, however, is not so visible; it is only knowabfo by
mind. For one sees by the eye a colour-surface moving by
virtue of the change of position in hands, etc. But by reflect-
ing on it as intimation, one knows it by mind-door-conscious-
ness, thus: 'I imagine that this man wishes me to do this or that
act.' . For just as during the hot season, where there is water
they tie the palm leaves, etc., on the top of a tree in a forest
saying,' By this sign men will know the existence here of water;'
-or on the door of a liquor-shop they raise a flag; [84] and just
as the wind striking the tree blows it about; and the fish dis-:-
turbing th~ water, bubbles appear on the surface; just as,
again, at the edges of the course where a great flood has been
are tangled grasses, leaves and rubbish, and thus in the
palm-leaves, in the flag, in the waving foliage, in the bubbles,
the grasses, the leaves, and the rubbish, even though they
see not the actual objects thought of, men know by mind
as follows: 'Here must be water, here liquor, thus the tree
must be struck by the wind, there must be fish in the water,
1 s. ii. 26.
the flood must have run its course overflowing t-0 this
extent,' even so intimation is not visible but knowable. One
sees with the eye only the colour-object moving by virtue
of ch~nge of position in hands,1 etc. But by reflecting on
intimation one knows it by knowing the wis4 thus: ' Methinks
he wishes me to do this or that act.'
And intimation is so called not only because of communicat-
ing, but also because of being communicated. Communication
by sign is· intelligible to others, even to the lower animals.
Wherever dogs, foxes, crows and cattle are assembled, and
when they see the gesture of striking, on a stick or a stone being .
seized, they know, 'He wishes to strike us' and flee helter-
skelter. There is a time when intimation is not manifest, the
object being separated by a wall, enclosure, etc. But though
not manifest at that moment to him, yet from its being mani-
fest to those who are in its presence it is called intimation.
When th.e body set up by mind moves, does the body set
up by the other three causes move or not 1 The latter moves
likewise, goes with the former, and invariably follows it. Just
as dry sticks, grass, etc., fallen in the fl.owing water go with t.he
water or stop with it, so should the complete process be under-
stood. Thus intimation among material qualities set up
by mind should be understood as a door of an act of body.
By volition manifest in that door one takes life, commits
thefts, commits adultery; or else refrains from life-taking, etc.;
this volition is said to be an act of body.
There is a heretical view, that body being the door, the
volition manifesting itself in. that door is an act of body,
which should be classed as moral or immoral. But .putting
this view asid~ unmoral acts should also be included, thus
making up the triplet.
Herein, as the city-gate stands in the place where it has been
made and does not move to and fro even one finger-breadth,
and people go about by that door, so while the' door' does not
.change place With another, action which arises in this or that
door does. ;Hence the Ancients say:
Acts passthrough rloors, not doors through doors; by doors
One may distinguish well these acts Jrom those.
The .Door of a Bodily Action 113
(85] Of these a ' door ' receives its name from the act and
vice versa. As the places where consciousness, etc., is set up,
are known as the ' door ' of consciousness, ' door ' of contact,
' door ' of non-restraint, ' door ' of restraint, so the place where
an act of body arises is known by the name of 'door-of a
bodily act.' And the same with the ' doors ' of speech and
thought.. As a fairy residing in this or that tree gets its name
from that tree, as the cotton-tree fairy, the butea-tree fairy,
tl;ie nimba-tree fairy, or the phandana fairy, so the place where
the bodily act arises gets its name of 'door of the bodily
act.' A:nd the same with acts of speech and thought.
Of these body is one thing and action another .. But from
being performed by the body it is called bodily act. Hence
the teachers of the Commentaries said:
Work by a needle done is needle-work;
Needle and n,eedle-work are things distinct.
Work by a hatchet done is hatchet-work,:
Hatchet and hatchet-work are things distinct.
Work that by man is done is called man's work;
The man and the man's work are things distinct.
An act by body done is body-act;
Body and body-act are things distinct.
' '
(It ·may be objected that) if this is so, then the doors are
not rightly determined, nor the acts. How ? In body-
intimation, in that it has been said,
'Acts pqss through doors, . . •1
an act of speech may also arise; therefore to determine body-

intimation as 'door of an act of body' (only) is not right~
Again, an act of body may arise in speech-intimation; therefore
to determine this as an act of body is not right. (We reply)
-It is right. And why? Because of frequency and great
preponderance. For usually an act of body and not speech or
1 Whereas in a representative process there is only one kind of advert-
ing to an object of thought at mind-door, in a presentative process,

there are two kinds ·of adverting, first to a sensible external object at
the outer door and then to the percept at the inner door.-Tr.
thought arises in body-intimation; and therefore intimation
by gesture may be called door of an act of body. The acts
are rightly' determined just as the terms: Brahmin village,
mango forest, and iron-wood forest are rightly applied. An
act of body arises preponderantly in th() body-door, slightly
in the vocal door. · Therefore from its arising chiefly in the
body door, [86] the state of an act of body .is (said to be there)
.accomplished; as we say' woodmen' for those who frequent
the forest, and 'lusty maids' (in general), in the same way
are these acts rightly so allocated.1
Here ends the Discourse on the door of an act of body .
CHAPTER II
DOOR OF AN ACT OF SPEECH
IN this theory of the speech-door, speech may be considered
under the . three aspects of volition, abstinence and sound.
For instance, ' words endowed with four factors, 0 .bhikkhus,
are well-spoken, not ill-spoken, faultless and unblamed by the
wise ' 2 -here speech is voluntary. 'Avoidance of and absti-
nence from the fourfold misconduct in speech . . . is called
right spe·ech ' 3 -this is speech by way of abstinence. ' Speech,
voice, enunciation, utterance, noise, making noises, speech,
articulate speech-sounds ' 4-this is speech as sound. Now
of these, ' door of an act of speech ' is not the name of
speech by way of volition nor of abstinence. But there is a
certain intimation accompanying sounds (or words):-this is
the door of an act of speech. Concerning this it is said: ' Which
is that which is called intimation by speech r That speech,
voice, enunciation, utterance, noise, making noises, _speech,
1 ·A village is called Brahmin .village, though there are other people
than Brahmins in it. Likewise with a mango grove. Brahmins refer

to the act of body, village to door; just as the village is full of Brahmins,
so the door is of acts.-Ariyalankiira. On 'lusty maids' see Jiit. iv.
2.20.-Ed.
_2 Sn. ver. 78; S. i. 189 (cf. Kindred Sayings i., p. 239). The' four'
are well-spoken, righteous, kindly and truthful speech.-Ed.
3. Y.whanga 237. • Dhs. § 637.
The Door of an Act of Speech 115
articulation of one who has a moral, immoral or unm?ral
thought is called speech. By this speech there is intimation,
information; communication;.· this quality is intimation by
speech.' 1 ' I will speak this, I will speak that' -for one thus
thinking arises -·a sound produced by the ·diffusion of the
initial application of mind. This is cognizable, not by the
ear, but by the mind. This view is set forth in the Great
Commentary. But in the traditional Commentaries on the
Suttas, the expression ' sound produced by the diffusion
of the ,initial -application of mind' is explained as the sound
arisen fOr one who reflects when he hears the words which,
through diffusion of initial application of mind, are muttered in
sleep or in swoon. lei connection with those words he thinks:
'So that;is what you think; so that is what your mind reveals!'
and so chinking tells explanatory stories.2
In the PaWiana also occurs this sentence, ' Sound born of
mind causally relates itself to the sense of hearing by way
of an object.' . Therefore there is no sound, due to diffusion of
initial application of mind, which arises without an impact of
intimation, · and which is not cognizable by the ear.3 The
thought,' This will I speak, that will I speak,' sets up the_ eight
material qualities-extension, [87] cohesion, heat, mobility,
colour, odour, taste and nutritive essence. Among these,
extension produced by consciousness arises impinging on, or
striking the element of hardness grasped at by kamma.
Sound arises together with that impact between the elements.
It is sound set up by consciousness; it is not intimation. But
there is a certain unique change (in the primaries set up by
consciousness) which is the cause of bringing about the impact
of the element, grasped at by kamma, on that set up by mind.
This is speech-intimation. This should be followed by what
has been said just above, namely: 'This is not produced by
consciousness like the eight qualities,' etc.
But here, i.e., in the case of the door of an act of speech, or
speech-intimation, if we hear the sound of another calling
l Dhs. §_637. · 2 Cf. Dialogues i. 278 (KevaQ.Q.ha Sutta.).

a Cf. Points of Controversy ix. 9.
our name, 'Tissa,' 'Datta,' or 'Mitta,' and think of the inti·
mation, we know it as this: ' Methinks he wishes me to do
this or that act.' As in intimation by gesture this also is
mtelligible to the lower animals. Hearing such sounds as
'come,' ' go,' they know, 'He wishes me to do this, methinks,'
and accordingly come or go. But the alternative ' moves or
does not move the body produced by three causes ' does not
hold here. Neither is there the strengthening function (of
extension or of impact) produced by the first moment of
· apperception. It is by the volition which is accomplished
in that speech-door th~t we speak falsehood, calumniate,
speak harsh words, frivolous speech, or refrain from all these.
This is an act of speech; Henceforward all determination
of action and of door should be understood as said above.
Here ends the Discourse on the door of an act of speech.
CHAPTER III
DOOR OF AN ACT OF THOUGHT
I:N the discourse on the door of an act of thought, mind is
considered as fourfold by way of the planes of life.
Of these, the plane of sensuous consciousness is of fifty-four
classes; that pertaining to · the universe of attenuated matter
is of fifteen classes; that pertaining to the immaterial universe
is of twelve classes; the transcendental is of eight classes-in
all eighty-nine.1
Of these·, it cannot be said that what is called mind is not
mind-door, any more than it can be said that what is ·volition
is not kamma. Just as even the volition associated with the
fivefold cognition (i.e., of the five external senses) has been
shown in the Great Book to be kamma, even so it should
not be said that mind is not mind-door.
Here a question might be asked: what does this (mind-)
kamma do ·1 It harmonizes, arranges, co-ordinates, thinks,
stimulates and decides. This being so, what does the volition
of the fivefold external sense harmonize, arrange, [88] co-ordi-
1 Cf. Comp. of Phil. 92.

The Door of an Act of Thought 117
nate ? The co-existent factors.. For it harmonizes, arranges,
co-ordinates, thinks, stimulates and decides the associated ·
aggregates that are co-existent. This section is generally dis-
coursed Qh (by teachers) byway of a compendium. What does it
amount to ? The following is the answer decided upon here:~
Mind having twenty-nine phases, which is moral or immoral,
and ·is common to life in the three planes, is the door of an act
of thought. The volition which is accomplished in that door,
by which we take up covetousness, ill-will, wrong views, or
non-covetousness, good-will and right views :-this volition
is an act of thought. Henceforward all determination of
action .and of door should be understood as said above.
Here ends the Discourse on the door of an act of thought.
These are the three dbors Of action.
CHAPTER rv ·
DISCOURSE ON KAMMA (VOLUNTARY ACTION)
THEY (i.e., the three doors of action) have been shown without
first considering the three kammas.1 We now, making a be- ·-
ginning with these three kammas, shall give a detailed account
of the table of contents of the remaining portion of the dis·
course on the doors.
Th_ese are the three kammas: bodily kamma, vocal kamma,
mental kamma. And what is this kamma ? Volition, as
well as some states associated therewith. The following Suttas·
illustrate that volition is a state of kamma. 'I declare,
·bhikkhus, that volition is karnrna. Having willed, one acts
by body, speech and thought.' 2 ' When, Ananda, there is
bodily action, speech or thought, pleasure and pain to the
self arise by reason of volition capable of causing an
act, speech or thought.' 3 ' Bhikkbus, threefold volition
capable of causing an act constitutes the bodily karnrna,
immoral, increasing pain and having a painful result; fourfold
volition capable of causing speech, bhikkhus, constitutes the
- - - -- - - - -- -
1 Cf. above, p. 109. 2 A . iii. 415.
a 8. ii. 39 /.; A. ii. 157 /.
vocal kamma, immoral, etc.; bhikkhus, threefold volition
capable 0£ causing thought constitutes the mental kamma,
immoral,' etc. 1 Similarly with the bodily, vocal or mental
kamma which is moral, increasing pain and having a pleasur'-
able result.2 ' If, Ananda, this futile man Samiddhi, on
being questioned, ,were to reply to the Wanderer, Pataliputta,
" Friend Pataliputta, one who has done a voluntary and
pleasurable action by body, speech and thought, experiences
pleasure, one who has done a . ; . pain-bringing . . . a . . .
neutral action . . . experiences neither pleasure nor pain,"
then the futile man Samiddhi would reply rightly to the
Wanderer Pataliputta, 0 Ananda,3 -these are the Suttas
which show first of all that volition is kamma.' ·
And that states associated with volition are also kamma
has been shown by the fourfold classification of kamma.
It has been said, ' Bhikkhus, there are four, [89] which I have
realized and understood by my own higher (intuitive) know-
ledge. Which are the four 1 There is, bhikkhus, kamma
which is impure and productive of impurity; there is, bhikkhus,
kamma which is pure and prod~ctive of purity; there is
bhikkhus, kamma which is both impure and pure, and pro-
ductive of both impurity and purity; there is, bhikkhus,
kamma which is neither impure nor pure1 productive of neither
impurity nor purity, and which, though itself kamma, conduces
to the destruction of kammas. And which, bhikkhus, is
kamma which is neither impure nor pure, and is productive
of neither impurity nor purity ? How does it, though itself
kamma, lead to the destruction of kammas ? The seven factors
of wisdom:-mindfulness, etc., may be said to be kamma,
which, being neither impure nor pure, productive of neither
impurity nor purity, lead to the destruction of kammas.'
The same is repeated substituting the Ariyan eightfold path
for the seven factors of wisdom.4 Thus these fifteen states,
factors of wisdom and of the Path, have been shown by the
fourfold classification of kamma.
_ The twenty-one states, viz., these fifteen together with
1 Not traced. 2 Sentence omitted in P.T.S. ed.
3 Maijhima, iii. 208 f. ~ Anguttara, ii. 230 f.
Discourse on Kamma 119
the six:--covetousness, ill-will, wrong view, non-covetousness,
good-will, right view-should be understood as states
associated with volition.
Of these, the transcendental Path may be included in, and
classified under, the three forms of kamma (bodily, vocal,
mental). To expand: Restraint of the wickedness of trans-
gression by body should be understood as bodily; restraint
of the wickedness of transgression in speech, as vocal. Thus
right act is bodily kamma and right speech is vocal kamma.
When this pair is taken, right liVing, because it consists of
each, is included. Restraint of the wickedness of transgression
in thought is mental. This act of thought is fivefold by
virtue of (right) view, intention, exertion, mindfulness and
concentration. Thus the transcendental Path, if classified,
is classifiable under the three forms of kamma. Here comes
the subject of inclusion under doors. There is such a thing
as kamma which has not run its full course, though movements
. of bodily and vocal organs may have taken place and though
it is generated at the mind-door. [90] Such kammas have
been included under doors. Here is an illustration:
He who, thinking' I will go a-hunting deer,' gets his bow
ready, twists1 the bow:strings, sharpens his spear, eats his
meal, arra~ges his garments-so far he has moved his bodily
limbs. After heh.as roamed the forest the whole day he does
not get even a hare or a cat. Does this amount to immoral
bodily kamma or not 1 It does not. And why 1 :Wrom its
not-having reached the full course of action. It should be
understood as a mere misconduct of the body. And the saDJ.e
with such motives for catching fish, etc.
In the case of vocal doors, he gives an order, ' I will go
a-hunting; quickly get my bow ready and the rest.' And· as
before, he does not get anything in the forest. In this case,
though there is a movement of the vocal organs, it does not
amount to bodily kamma from not hav!ng run through the full
course of action. - [Thus it should be understood as a mere
misconduct in speech. ]2
1 Lege vatteti. 2 Omitt.ed in P.T.S. ed.

But in the case.of mind-door there is this distinction: The
mere harbouring of criminal intent to kill amounts to kamma,
and that by ill-will. not by actual life-taking. For immoral
bodily kamma arises in the bodily and vocal doors, but not in
the mind"door. Likewise immoral vocal kamma. But immoral
mental kamma arises in the three doors. Likewise moral
bodily, vocal and mental kammas. How ? One who takes
life with his own hands, steals what is no~ given, and commits
adultery, commits bodily kamma through the bodily door.
Thus, first of all, immoral bodily kamma arises in the body-
door; Covetousness, ill-will and .wrong view, which are co-
existent with those thoughts, pertain to volition and [as bodily
kamma.J are negligible.1 To one ordering specifically, " Go,
deprive such and such an one of life, steal such and such
property,' there is bodily kamma through the vocal door.
Thus immoral bodily kamma arises in the vocal door. But
covetousness, ill-will, wrong view, which are co-existent with
these thoughts, pertain to volition and [as vocal kamma] are
negligible. So far the teachers are in commentarial agreement.
But the sectary says that immoral'bodily action may arise also
in the mind-door. On being pressed to cite any Sutta adopted
at the Three .Councils, he quotes this Sutta called Ku!umpa :-
'Furthermore, [91] bhikkhus, here in this world, someone,
recluse or brahmin, who is endowed with supernormal potency
and has attained a mastery of his will, repeatedly contemplates
with evil intention the embryo of which some woman is preg·
nant thus: would that that embryo were not born in safety I
Thus, bhikkhus, was the infanticide of Ku!umpa committed.'
After quoting this Sutta he says, 'In this way by mere inten-
tion the embryo was crushed like a mass, of foam. Herein
where is the movement of either bodily or vocal organs ? It is
in the mind-door that this immoral bodily kamma ·arises.'
After saying·; ' We shall weigh the meaning of your 2 Sutta,' the
teachers weigh it thus: ' You have affirmed the killing of
- - - -- _ .. ,,,, ___ _ ___
1 Because there is no directing oneself to what belongs to others,
nor is there a command to kill.-Anutika. On 'negligible' (abboharika)
see Points of Controversy 361, n. 4. .
2 Implying that the Sutta was not adopted at the <:founcils.-Tr.
another by potency [or· mental force].' Now potency is ten-
fold: (1) of resolve, (2) of transformation, (3) accomplished by
mind, (4) of diffusion by insight, (5) of the Ariyas, (6) inborn
with the result of kamma, (7) of the meritorious, (8) accom-
plished through art, (9) accomplished by culture, (10) accom-
plished through industrial processes in this or that work.1
Of these; to which potency did you refer ?' ' That which is
accomplished by culture.' ' What ! is there an act of killing
another by potency accomplished by cultille ?' ' Yes, there
.is.' [Some teachers say that the act can be done only once.
As when a jar full of water is thrown by one wishing to hurt
another, the jar is broken and the water is lost, so by potency
accomplished by culture the act of killing another can be done
only once. Henceforward it is lost.] On this, after declaring
that by potency accomplished by culture, the act of killing
another is done neither once nor twice, the teachers question
the antagonistic speaker on concepts, ' Is potency accomplished
by culture moral, immoral or unmoral; associated with a feel-
ing; pleasurable, painful or neutral; coU:nected with both
initial arid sustained application of mind; connected not
with initial, but merely with sustained application of mind;
unconnected with both . initial and sustained application of
mind; experienced in the universe of sense, of attenuated
matter or of non-matter?' The sectary who knows the
question will answer thus, ' Potency accomplished by culture
is either moral or unmoral, but is associated only with a
neutral feeling, is without initial and sustained application
of mind, and is only experienced in the uniyerse of attenuated
matter.' [He should be asked,] ' In which category of
moralities, etc., is the intention of life-taking included ?'
lf he knows he will reply, 'The intention of life-taking is
immoral only, and is connected only with painful feeling, occurs
only with initial and sustained application of mind and is
experienced only in the universe of sense.' The rejoinder
to this is, ' If this be so, your meaning does not harmonize
with the triplet of morality, nor [92] with that of feeling,
1 P~,q· ii. 205f.; Vis. Mag. xii.; Compendium 60/.

nor with that of initial application of mind, nor with cosmo ·
logy.' ' What, then, is such a great Sutta useless f The
orthodox answer is, 'Not useless, but you do not know its
meaning.' To explain :-here the expression ' endowed with
potency and attained mastery of his will' does not refer to
potency accomplished by culture, but to the potency treated
of in the Atharvaveda.1 This is indeed obtainable in this
passage. And it is not possible to achieve it without bodily
and vocal organ or doors. For those who .desire this Atharva
potency have to practise for seven days such austerities as
eating food without salt, and lying on the rZabba grass spread
on the ground, and on the seventh day have to go through a
certain procedure within the cemetery ground by standing,
after taking the seventh step, and swinging the hand round
and round while repeating certain formulas; then is their work
accomplished. Thus this potency cannot be acquired without
bodily and vocal doors. And the conclusion which should be
arrived at herein is that bodily kamma does not appear at
mind-door. ·
The action of one speaking falsehood, etc., by a sign of the
hand is an act of speech, but the door is that of body. Thus
an immoral act of speech also arises in the body-door. But
covetousness, ill-will and wrong view co-existent with those
thoughts pertain to volition, and [as·bodily acts] are negligible.
But the action of one speaking falsehood, etc.; by speech is
an act of speech, and the door also is vocal. Thus an, immorBl
act of speech arises in the vocal door.· But covetousness,
ill-will, wrong view co-existent with those thoughts pertain
to volition and [as vocal acts] are negligible. So far the
teachers agree.
But the sectary says : ' An immoral act of speech also arises
in the mind-door.' On being asked to quote a Sutta adopted
at the 'rhree Councils he quotes ~heU posathakkhandha-sutta : -
, If a bhikkhu, after being thrice summoned to make a con-
fession, would not confess a real offence, which he recollects,
1 Potency spoken of in this, the fourth book of the Veda, is called
potency accomplished by art or knowledge (vijjiimayiddhj).-Pyi.

then he lies knowingly.' 1 In quoting, this Sutta he says,
' Thus not confessing his offence, being silent he commits
another offence. Herein whence is the movement of his
physiCal limbs or vocal organs 1 It is in the mind-door that
this immoral act of speech arises.'
He should thus be answered:-' How now ? has your Sutta
a meaning to be inferred, or a direct meaning?' 'My Sutta
has a direct meaning.' He showd be told, 'Do not say so;
we shall weigh the meaning of it,' and he should be questioned,
' What kind of sin is committed by one who knowingly speaks
falsehood?' A well-informed antagonist will say that there
is the sin of dukka-f:a in conscious falsehood. 2 Further he
should be told, [93] The body and speech are the two roots
of discipline. For all kinds of offence have been declared by
the Supreme Buddha with reference to tliese two doors only.
There is no enactment of laws of offence with reference to the
mind-door. You are acquainted far too much with the
nature of the discipline in that you have enacted laws of
offence in matters not enacted by the Teacher. You have
accused the Perfect Buddha (of being imperfect); you hiwe
given a blow to the Conqueror's spli,ere of authority.' . Having
thus put him down with these words, he should be asked the
following further question:-
, Does conscious falsehood arise from commission or omis-
_sion ?' If he is well-informed he will say: 'From omission.'
. Then he should be confronted with this question, 'What act
has been done by one, who does not confess his sin?' Not
seeing any particular act, he would surely be in distress. Hence
he should be convinced of the meaning of this Sutta. What
will be said is its meaning: what by way of offence is that
conscious falsehood, described by the Buddha? In other
words, which kind of offence is it ? It is au offence of dukka~a,
and it is so not on account of the characteristic of false speech,
1·Vinaya Texts i. 243 (Vin. i. 103).

2Vin. Texts i. 32. It is really pacittiya, but the sectary names
that because, for the man who is consciously a liar, remembers it and
does not confess it, it is dukka~a.-Ariyalankiira. -
124 .Risings of Oonscio_usness
but by the Buddha's words it should be understood as that
offence which arises from omission in the vocal door.
And it has been said,
If he should not converse with any man,
Nor even to another use his voice,
He would offend by word and not by deed:-
Of able judges here so runs the rede.1
Thus the right conclusion is that immoral vocal action does
not arise in the mind-door.
But when, by moving the limbs, with thought accompanied
by covetousness, one takes a [woman's] hands, etc. ; with ill -
will handles sticks, etc.; with wrong views makes reverence,
salutation, worship, preparations for an offering at an altar,
saying; 'Khandha,2 Siva or other (gods) are the highest,' then
the act is that of thought and the door is that of body. Thus
an immoral act of thought arises in the body-door, but the
volition here cannot be called an act of body (lit. is negligible).
When by moving the vocal organs with the thought accom-
panied by covetousness one covets another's property thinking,
' Would that what belongs to others were mine 1'; by ill-will
declares, ' Let these beings be killed, imprisoned, cut into
pieces, or let them not be '; by wrong view says, ' There is no
use in gift, in offering,' 3 etc. ; then the act is that of thought
and the door is that of speech. Thus an immoral act of
thought arises in the speech-door, but the volition herein
is not called an act of speech (lit. is negligible).
But when without moving his physical limbs or vocal organs
he is seated in seclusion, entertains thoughts accompanied by
covetousness 1 ill-will and wrong view, [94] then the act is that
of thought and the door also is that of mind. Thus an
immoral mental act arises in the door of mind. But in this
place volition and states associated with it arise in the mind-
- --·-· -- --·------ - - - · · · -- -
1_ Vin. v. 216/., by which the very faulty reading in the P.T.S. ed.
may be corrected.-Ed.
2 I.e., Skanda. On this late Saivite god see Hopkins: Religions of
.India, 410., 414.-Ed.
a See Dialogues i. 73.
door. Thus it should be understood that an immoral act
of thought arises in ali three doors.
And in what has been said [above],' Likewise moral bodily,
vocal and mental kammas,' 1 this is the method:-When by
any cause one who is unable to speak takes the precepts :-
'I abstain from life-taking, from theft, from wrong conduct in
sensual pleasure,' by mere signs of the hands, then the act is
that of body and the door is that of body only. Thus a moral
. act of body arises in the body-door. And the disinterested-
ness, love, right views accompanied by those thoughts pertain
to volition, but are not called acts of thought. 2 But when
he takes those three precepts .by word of mouth, then the act
is that of body but the door is vocal. Thus a moral act of
body arises in the speech-door. And the disinterestedness,
etc., accompanied by those thoughts pertain to volition,
but are not ca.lled acts of thought. 2 But when such precepts
are being given, and he takes them without moving his
physical limbs o:i: vocal organs, saying m.:intally:-' I abstain
from life-taking, from theft, from wrong conduct in sensual
pleasure,' then the act is that of body and the door is mental.
Thus a moral act of body arises in the mind-door. And the
disinterestedness, etc., accompanied by those thoughts pertain
to volition, but·are not called acts of thought. 2
A moral act of speech of one who takes the four precepts
of abstention from falsehood, etc., by body, etc., in the way
described above should be ·understood to arise in the three
doors. Here also disinterestedness, etc., pertain to volition,
but are not called acts of thought. 2 But the action of one
moving his physical limbs by thoughts accompanied by dis-
interestedness, etc., and doing such acts as sweeping the plat-
form of a shrine and honouring the shrine by offerings of
scent and flowers, is·an act of thought and the door is that of
body. Thus a ·moral act of thought arises in the body~door,
but the volition herein is not called an act of thought. 2 Of
one who, moving the vocal organs by consciousness accom~,
panied by disinterestedness, etc., says, ' Would that what
1 See above, p. 120, l. 6. 2 Abboharika: ,are negligible.

f26 Risings of Consciousness
belongs to others were not mine'; or who with consciousness
accompanied by love thinks, ' May all [95] beings be free from
enmity, from ill-will, from distress; may they bear themselves
happily'; or who by right views .thinks, ' There is use in
giving,' etc.; the action is that of thought but the door is vocal.
'.rhus a moral act of thought arises in the speech-door, but
the v:olition herein is not called an act of thought-i.e., is
negligible. When, without moving the limbs or vocal organs,
one seated alone mentally entertains thought accompanied by
disinterestedness, etc., the action is that of thought and the·
door_mental. Thus a moral act of thought arises in the
mind-door .
. . But in this place volition- and states associated with it
arise only in the mind-door. Herein one who says that action
in life-taking and theft, instigated by command, is an act
of body, and that the door, by virtue of that action, is the
body-door, ' preserves ' the act, but ' brea~s' the door. He ·
who says that the door of falSehood, etc., produced by a sign
of the hand is the body-door; and the action, by virtue of that
door, is an act of body, 'preserves' the door, but ' breaks'
the act. Therefore, with the intention of ' preserving ' the
act, one should not' break' the door; nor with that of' pre-
serving ' the door, should one ' break' the act. Action and
door should be understood as has .been said. Thus speaking
one will not ' break ' either the action or the door.
Here ends the Discourse on Kamma (action).
CHAPTER V
DISCOURSE ON COURSES OF IMMORAL ACTION
Now in the terms (a) 'five external senses,' (b) 'five sense-
doors,' (a) is consciousness on occasion of seeing, hearing,
smelling, tasting, touching; (b) are the doors of sight, hearing,
.smell, taste, touch~ The volition which arises by virtue of
these five doors should be understood as .a n act neither of body
nor of speech, but of thought.
The ' contact' of the eye, of the ear, the nose, the tongue,
Oourses of Immoral Action 127
the body and the mind are called the t six contacts! The
' six doors of contact' are those of eye-contact, ear, n()se,
tongue, body, and m.ind-contact. The eight' non-restraints'
are those of the eye, the ear, the nose, the tongue, the sensitive
body, the motor-body, speech and mind.
As to their content, these eight non-restraints are reducible
to five states, namely: immorality, forgetfulness, absence of
knowledge, abs~nce of patience, laziness. Not one of these
[96] arises in the five-doored cognitive process till after the
[instant of] determining. It arises only in the moment when
apperception begins. Unrestrained consciousness arisen in
apperception is called non-restraint in five doors. Contact
co-existent with sight is called sight-contact and the volition
is an act of thought. And that consciousness (i.e., of sight) is
called the door of an act of thought. In sight proper there is no
fivefold non-restraint; contact co-existent with [the moment
of] ' reception: ' is mind-contact, and the volition is an act of
thought. That consciousness (i.e., the receptive) is the door
of an act of thought. Herein also there is no fivefold non·
restraint. And the same is · the. case with 'examination'
and ' determination.'1 Contact co-existent with apperception
is mind-con,tact; the volition is an act of thought and that
(apperceptional) consciousness is the door of an act of thought.
Herein the non-restraint is that of sight, and the same is the
method to be adopted in the door of the ear, of the nose, of
the tongue, of the sensitive skin. But when mind-door apper·
ception arises, having as object one or other of the objects
of sense, resulting in the movement (of body) called body-
door simply (i.e., even without the aid of the vocal door),
then the contact co-existent with that (apperceptional) con-
sciousness is mind-contact.
Volition is an act leading to deed. But that (appercep-
tional) consciousness is not usually spoken of 2 as mind-door.
(That is to say) because of the arising of (bodily) movement
it does not go under the name of mind-door. The non-
restraint here is that of the moving body. When such apper-
1 Of. text, p. 271 ; Compendium 28 f. 2 Abbohirika. Of. p. 120;

128 ,Risings of Consciousness
ception arises, resulting in the movement of the vocal door,
pure and simple, without the body-door, then the contact
co-existent with that consciousness i~ mind-contact:
Volition is an act giving rise to speech. But that (apper-
·ceptional), consciousness is not usually called mind-door.
Because of the arising of the movement (of the vocal organs)
it does not go under the name of mind-door. The Ii.on-restraint
here is that of speech. But when such apperceptive conscious-
ness arises; without the aid of physical limbs and vocal organs,
as pure mind-door; then the contact co-existent with that con-
sciousness is mind-contact.
Volition is a mental act; that consciousness is the door of
mental act. The non"restraint here is that of nlind.
The doors of non-restraint of the eye, of the ear, of the
nose, of the tongue, of"the sensitive part of the body, of the
motor-body, of speech and of mind, by virtue of these eight
non-restraints, should be understood as the eight doors of
non-restraint.
The eight ' restraints ' are those of the eye, the ear, the
nose, the tongue, the skin, the m()ving body, speech and
mind. In the ultimate sense. they are five principles, namely:
virtue, mindfulness, knowledge, patience and energy. None
of these [97] arises in conscious processes up to the end of the
determination-moment, but. only in the moment of appercep-
tion. Though arisen in apperception restraint is referred
to the doors. The arising of all these restraints should be
understood in the same way as by the method described
in the case of non-restraints:' Contact co-existent with visual
cognition is eye-contact,' etc. Thus by virtue of these eight
restraints, the door of the restraint of the eye and so on should
be understood as the eight doors of restraint.
The ten' courses of immoral action are life~taking, theft,
wrong conduct in sensual pleasure, falsehood, calumnious
speech, harsh speech, frivolous talk, covetousness, ill-will,
wrong views.
Of these, 'life-taking' means taking life quickly or by vio-
lence. Slaughtering or killing of beings is meant. ' tife ' here
(literally l;>reathing thing), in common parlance, means a being;
in its ultimate sense, living force.1 And the term' life-taking'
is applied to the bodily ap.d vocal doors of oP.e who is cop.scious
that a beiP.g is liviP.g, and who produces ap. effort to cut off the
liviP.g force iP. that beiP.g. AmOllg allimals devoid of virtues
(g·u7Ja), it is a slight misdeed in the case of a small creature,
and a great misdeed in that of a large one. Why ? Owing to
the greatness of effort, and owing to the great size of the object,
even though the effort may be the same. Among men, etc.,
they being capable of virtue, it entails a small mi~deed in the
case of a being of small virtue, and a great misdeed in that of
a being of great virtue. An9, it should be understood that
when physical virtues are equal, the sin is smaller or greater
according as the corruptions and efforts (of the criminal) are
weaker or stronger. There are five constituent factors in the
crime of murder :-a .being, conscimisness of there being a
living creature, intention of killing, effort and consequent
death. And the six means of carrying out the effort are:--
one~ s own hands, instigation, missiles, permanent devices,
art and potency. As it will be too lengthy to treat of them
here in detail, we shall pass over them as well as other ex-
planations. Those desirous of details should look up the
Samantapasadika, the Commentary on the Vinaya. 2
'Theft' (adinnadana) means the 'taking of what is not
given'; the taking of what is another's property, robbery, or
the state of being a thief is meant. Here 'not given' applies to
property possessed by another. A property concerning which
another has arrived at the state of doing whatever li_e likes,
without incurring punishment or blame, is said to. belong to
another. The intention of stealing, producing the effort to
take something [98] with the consciousness that .it belongs to
another ifl termed ' theft.' And that entails a small sin if
what belongs to another is mean, and a great sin if it be of
excellence. And why ? Owing to the excellence of the object.
If they are of equal value, stealing objects which belong to
those distinguished for virtue entails a greater crime than the
1 Jivitindriyarp,. Or, 'controlling power which is life.'-Ed.

2 Professor J. Takakusu has prepared an edition of this work for
the P.T.S.-Ed.
l~O Risings of Oonsciousnes'S
theft of objects belonging to one inferior in virtue. There are
five constituent factors (in theft) :-another's property, aware-
ness that it is so, the thieving mind, effort, and consequent
removal-and six means :-taking with one's own hands, etc.
One or other of .these means may be carried out according _to
circumstances, in stealing by false measures and weights, by
force, by concealment, by design or by forgery. This is an
outlined account of theft. · The detailed account is in the
Samantapasadika.
In the expression 'wrong conduct in sensual pleasiires,'
I in sensual pleasures > means in matters of sexual intercourse' ;
t
' wrong conduct' means ' base and truly blameworthy con-
duct.' The characteristic of 'wrong conduct in sensual
pleasures' is the volition arising in the body-door, through
the unlawful intention of trespassing upon a person to whom
one. has no right of going. Herein persons to whom men
have no right to go are (a) ten classes of unmarried women :-
a woman under the guardianship (1) of her mother, (2) of her
father, (3) of her parents, (4) of her brother, (5) of her sister,
(6) of her relations, (7) of her clan, (8) of her spiritual guide,
(9) a woman under an engagement and (10) a woman under-
going punishment; and (b) ten classes of married women,
namely: (1) one bought by wealth, (2) one who becomes a wife
through her free-will, or (3) through love of property, or (4) of
clothes, (5) on:e lawfully wedded by parents after the ceremony
of dipping the hands of the couple in a bowl of water, (6) one
who is taken from the poorer classes, (7) a slave-wife, (8) a
servant-wife, (9) a wife captured in war and (10) a mistress kept
for a time.
Of these a woman under an engagement and one under
punishment together with (b) the latter ten:-these twelve
it is not allowable for other men to approach. And the sin
is smaller or greater according as the forbidden object is devoid
of or end9wed with virtues, such as the precepts. There
are four constituent factors of this crime: the mind to enjoy
the ·forbidden object, the effort to enjoy: devices to obtain,
and possession. And only one means: personal experience.
' Lying ' is applied to the effort of the body and speech, on
Courses of Immoral Action 131
the part of one who is_deceitful, to destroy the good of others.
The volition setting up the bodily and vocal effort to deceive,
with the intention of cheating others, [99] is termed ' false
speech.' Another definition:-' lying ' is applied to a thing
which. is not genuine or does not exist, and ' speech ' _means the
·representation of that as real, true. The characteristic of
'lying spe~ch or falsehood' is the volition of one desirous of
representing to others an untrue thing as true, which sets up
a corresponding intimation. It is more or less an offence
according as the welfare destroyed is greater or smaller. Or
to put it in another way: It is a small offence in laymen if
they tell an untruth:-' I have it not' -out of a desire not to
give something belonging to themselves; and a great offence
if they, as witnesses. perjure themselves in order to cause
loss (to others). In recluses it is a small offence if, by way of
an ironical joke, on getting but little oil or butter, they say:_:_
' To-day, methinks, a river of oil flows in the village.' It is,
however, a great offence in those who say that they have seen
something which they have not. There are four constituent
factors of this [offence]: an untrue thing, intention to deceive,
corresponding effort, the communication of the inatter to
others. There is only one means: personal action; and that
should be understood a.s the act of deceiving others either by
body, or by something connected with the body,1 or by speech.
If by that act another knows that meaning, the volition pro-
ducing that action is at that moment bound up with the act
of lying. In the same way, as one deceives another by
deed, by something connected therewith, or by speech, so a
person who instigates another, 'Say thus to him,' or who
lays a written leaf before another, or who records a permanent
writing on walls, etc., to this effect, 'This meaning should
be understood thus,' equally deceives others. Therefore it
is reasonable to assume that instigation, transmission and
permanent records are also involved in this form of immorality.
But as the Commentaries have not admitted this~ it should
be adopted only after a critical examination.
1 As an umbrella or a stick.-Ariyalankara.
'Slander' means calumnious speech which, by being said
to another, reduces to nothing the love which that person,
or the speaker bears at his own heart to a third person.
A word which makes one's self harsh,1 or causes another to
be harsh, is in itself harsh, neither agreeable to the ear nor
appealing to the heart. Such a word is termed' abuse.' 2
' Frivolous talk ' 1s speaking senseless, useless things.
The 'volition which is at the root of all speech of this sort,
and is named calumnious, etc., is here alone to be .under·
stood. The volition of one with a corrupt mind, producing
the bodily and vocal effort to sow the seed of discord among
others, or to endear oneself to others is termed the volition
of calumnious speech. It [100] is a smaller or greater offence,
according as the virtue of the person whom he separates is .
smaller or greater: There are foti.r constituent factors of this
crime: (1) Other persons to be divided; (2) the purpose:
' they will be . separated,' or the desire to endear oneself to
another: 'I shall become dear and intimate' ; (3) the corre-
sponding effort; (4) the communication. But when there is
no rupture among others, the offence does not amount to a
complete course.; it does so only when there is a rupture.
By 'harsh speech' 2 is meant the entirely harsh volition
which produces a bodily ai1d vocal effort, stabbing another as
with a mortal wound. 3 The following story is an illustration:
It is related that a certain boy, without listening to his mothe~' s
word, went to a forest. The mother, being unable to prevent
him, cursed him, saying, 'May a wild she-buffalo chase thee!'
And accordingly a she-buffalo appeared in the forest. The boy
m~de an asseveration of truth, ' May what my mother said
happen not; what she thought in her mind, may that happen!'
The buffalo stood as if there transfixed. 4 Thus though her
vocal effort was mortally wounding, yet her speech was not
1 Like the edge of a saw.- '{'ika.

2 This paragraph should apparently precede the previous one.
a M'.amma=maranti anenati, Yasmi~ ta.lite na jivati, ta~ thana~
fill!-IDmazp. nama- that place is called ' mamma,' which, being struck,
one does not live.-Yojanii.
4 Ma~ilf,ii viya; Burm. ed.: baddha, or bandhii. viya.
Courses of Immoral Action 133
really harsh, because _of her tender heart. For though parents
sometimes say thus to their children : 'May thieves cut you
up into pieces !' yet they do not wish even a lotus leaf to fall
on them. Teachers and spiritual guides sometimes say of
their pupils; ' What are we to do with these shameless,
reckless lads 1 Turn them out I' 'l.nd yet they wish that
they may attain and accomplish. But as words are not
harsh if the heart be tender, so are they not gentle, just be-
cause speech is -soft. The words of one desirous of killing :
' Let him sleep in.comfort ! ' are not soft; because of the harsh-
ness of thought the words are harsh. Harsh speech is propor-
tionate to the virtue of one concerning whom harsh words
are spoken. The three constituent factors of this offence are:
Another to be abused, angry thought, and the abuse.
Immoral volition producing the bodily and vocal effort to
communicate uselesss things, is termed 'frivolous talk.' Its
offence is great or small according as it is practised repeatedly
or not. The two constituent factors of this offence are: the
inclination, towards useless talk-like the stories of the fight
of the Bharatas and of the abduction of Sita, etc.1 -and the
narration of such themes. But the offence does not run
through the full course of action when others [101] do not
accept the story; it does so only when they accept it.
' Covetousness ' means coveting: a process of inclining
towards another's property when confronted with it. It has
the characteristic mark of thinking, ' Ah ! would this were
mine!' As offence it is small or great as in the case of theft.
Its two constituent factors are: Another's property, ·and the
bending over of oneself. Though greed for an object which
is another's property has arisen, it does not receive the
distinction of being a full course of action so long as one
does riot bend over to it saying,' Ah, would this were mine!'
That which destroys welfare and happiness is 'ill-will.'
It h~s the characteristic mark of the mental fault of injury to
others. The degree of offence is as in the case of harsh speech.
Its two constituent factors are: another being, and the thought
1 Sumangala- Vilasini, i, 76; R.hys Davids, Buddhist India, 183.

134- Risings of Consciousness
of doing harm. Mere anger with another being does not reach
that distinctive stage of the course of action, so long as there
is no destructive thought, such as: ' Would he were cut off ·
and destroyed!'
'Wrong view ' is that which sees wrongly by not taking the
right view. It has the characteristic of perverted views, such
as: ' There is no [use in a] gift.' And the offence is small or
great as in the case of frivolous talk, or accordillg as the wrong
view is of a temporary or permanent character. Its two
constituent factors are: perversion of the manner in which an
object should be taken, and its manifestation according to the
contrary view held of it. Here the distinctive stage of the
course of action is reached by the views: (1) there is no result
(in a moral act); (2}there are no causes (in happening); (3) there
is no such thing as (moral) actwn,1 and not by other yiews.
As regards these ten courses of immoral action, we may
come to decisions respecting them under five aspects, to wit:
(1) as .u ltimate psychological factors, (2) as groups, (3) as
objects, (4) as. feelings and (5) as roots. 2 (1) The first seven
in order out of the courses of action are volitions only ; the .
three beginning with covetousness are factors associated with
volition. (2) The first seven and wrong views-these eight are
courses of action, not roots. But covetousness and ill-will
are both courses of action and roots. Covetousness as a
root is the immoral root of greed, ill-will as a root is the immoral
root of hate. (3) Life-taking has a conditioned thing for
object, from its having the life-force as object. Theft lias
a living being or a thing for object. Wrong conduct has
a conditioned thing for object by virtue of touch, or, as some
say, a living being. Falsehood has either a living being or
a conditioned thing for object. So has calumnious speech.
Harsh speech [102] has only a living being for object.
Frivolous talk has either a living being or a conditioned thing
for object by way of things seen, heard, felt an<;l thought. So
1 (1) Denies the result of kamma; (2) denies both the cause and the
result; (3) denies kamma.-Tr. Cf. Diawgues of the Buddha i. 73 ..

2 Or spring11 of action, as our tradition would say.-Ed.
has covetousness. Ill-will has a living being for object,
and wrong views have for object a conditioned ·thing in
the three planes of existence, · (4) Life-taking is associated
with a painful feeling. For although kings on seeing a thief
may say, laughing, 'Go, kill him,' the volition of decision
is associated with pain only. Theft may be associated
with the three. kinds of feeling. He who on seeing another's
property takes it with delight has a pleasurable feeling;
if he steals it with fright, his feeling is painful; likewise
if he does so while he reflects on the consequent fruits. If
he takes it with indifference, the feeling is neutral. Wrong
conduct is associate9 with two kinds of feeling, pleasurable
and neutral; but in the thought of decision there is no neutral
feeling. Falsehood has all three kinds of feeling as with
theft; likewise calumnious speech. Harsh speech is associated
with a painful feeling; frivolous talk has all three kinds of
feeling. To illustrate :-When the story of the abduction of Sita,
or of the fight of the Bharatas, etc., is recited, and the hearers
applaud him and throw up their turbans, etc., there is to
the performer a delighted pleasurable feel~ng. When one
who has thus rewarded him comes up later and says: ' Tell
us from the beginning,' the narrator is displeased at the idea
and thinks : ' Shall I say somethin,g irrelevant and mis-
cellaneous or not r In such a case there is a painful feeling
at the time of reciting; if he is indifferent during the recital,
then there is a neutral feeling. Covetousness has two feelings,
pleasurable and neutral; likewise wrong views. Ill-will has a
painful feeling. (5) Life-taking has two roots by virtue of hate
and delusion; theft has also two by virtue of hate and delusion
or of greed and delusion; wrong conduct also has two by
virtue of greed and delusion ; likewise falsehood by virtue
of either hate and delusion or greed and delusion; likewise
calumnious speech and frivolous talk. Harsh speech by virtue
of hate and delusion, and covetousness by virtue of delusion,
have a single root; likewise ill-will. Wrong view has a double
root by virtue of greed and delusion.
Here ends the Discourse on the Courses of Immoral Action,
CHAPTER VI
COURSES OF MORAL ACTION
THE ten courses of moral action are :- abstinence from lif~~
taking, etc., and disinterestedness, good-will and right views.
Of these, life-taking, etc.,1 have been explained. 'Absti-
nence' is that by which people abstain from life-taking, etc.;
or that which itself abstains ;·or that which is the mere abstain-
ing. In the passage where it says ;_.:., That avoidance and
abstinence from life-taking that there is, at that time, in one
who abstains from taking life ' 2-that abstinence which is.
associated with moral consciousness is threefold : (1) [in spite
of] opportunity obtained, (2) because of observance, (3) eradi-
c.ation.
(1) When they who have not undertaken to observe any
particular precept, but who, reflecting on their own birth, age,
experience, etc., and saying, 'It is not fit for us to do such a
bad thing,' do not transgress concerning an object actually
·met with, the abstinence is to be considered as ' in spite of
· opportunity,' like that of Cakkana,3 a lay-disciple in Ceylon.
It is said that when he was young his mother suffered from a
disease, and the doctor recommend~d fresh hare-flesh. Cak-
kana's brother then said to him, 'Go, dear, roam the field,'
and sent him. He went there, and at that time a hare came to
eat the tender crops. On seeing him it ran with speed, and was
caught in the creepers, making the cry kiri ! kiri ! Cakkana
went after the sound, caught the hare and thought, 'I shall
make a medicine for mother.' . Again he thought, 'It is not
proper that for the sake of my mother's life I should take the
life of another.' He then freed the hare, saying, ' Go, enjoy
grass and water with other hares in the jungle,' and when
asked by the brother, ' Well, dear, did you get a hare?' he told
him what had happened. For 'that his brother scolded him.
1 I.e., theft, sexual misconduct, and four kinds of wrong speech.

See Ch. V.
2 fibh. 285. 3 In Burmese eclitions, Jaggana.
Courses of Moral Action 137
But he went to the mother's presence and stood averring a
truth: 'Since I was born, I declare that I have not intention-
ally taken the life of any creature.' . And straightway the
mother recovered.
" (2) The abstinence of those who have observed the precepts,
both during and after the time-limit, without t~ansgressing
against the object even on pain of death, is to be considered
as 'by way ofobservance,' like that of the lay-disciple dwelling
in the ,mountain UttaravaQ.<Piamana. It is said that, after
taking the precepts in the presence of .t he Elder Piligalabud-
dharakkhita, who dwelt in the Ambariya monastery, he was
·ploughing his field. His ox got lost. While looking for it
he ascended-the UttaravaQ.<Piamana mountain, where a great
serpent seized him. He thought, ' I will cut off its head with
my sharp axe.' Again he thought, ' It is not proper that I,
who have taken the precepts from my teacher of culture,
should break them.' And for the third time he thought,
' I will sacrifice my life, but not the precepts,' and threw away
in the forest the sharp axe with its shaft from his shoulder.
Immediately the boa-constrictor released him and went away.
[104] (3) Abstinence 'by way of eradication' should be
understood as that assooiated with the Ariyan Path. When
that Path has once arisen, not even the thought, ' we will
kill a creature,' _arises in Ariyans. Now, as with immoral
states, so with those that are moral, there are five aspects
under which decisions respecting them may be reached-
narriely, (1) .as ultimate psychological factors, (2) as groups,
(3) as objects, (4) as feeling and (5) as roots.
(1) Of the ten, the first seven are fit to be called volitions
as well .as abstinences; the last three are factors associated
with volition.
(2) The first seven are courses of action and not roots; the
last thre,e are courses of action and roots. Disinterestedness,
good-will and right view as roots become the moral roots:
the opposites of greed, hate and delusion.
(3) These are the same as those of life-taking, etc. For
abstention is from (the transgression against) the object to
be transgressed against. As the Ariyan Path with Nibbana as
its object abandons the corruptions, so these cou:i;ses of ac.tion,
having the faculty of life, etc., as their object, abandon the
wickedness of life-taking and so forth.
(4) All are pleasurable feeling or neutral feeling, for with the
·attainment of good there is no painful feeling. ~
(5) The (first) seven are threefold, namely, disinterested·
ness, love, intelligence, in one abstaining with a conscious-
ness associated with knowledge; twofold in one abstaining with
a consciousness dissociated from knowledge. Disinterested-
ness is twofold in one abstaining with a consciousness asso-
ciated with knowledge, and single when consciousness is dis-
sociated from knowledge. Disinterestedness by itself is not
its own root. Nor is good-will. Right view is twofold, as
- disinterestedness and as love. These are the ten courses
of moral action.
CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSIONS
To the foregoing discussion should be added a consideration
of courses of action in connection ~ith self-restraint, etc.
Want of self-restraint arisen through the five doors of con-
tact is an immoral mental act.. That which has arisen through
mind, the door of internal contact, is threefold in action.
For when movement of the body-door is reached, it is an
immoral act of body; when that of the vocal door is reached,
it is an immoral act of speech. · When movement of neither
is reached, it is an immoral act of thought.
Want of self-restraint which has arisen through the five doors
is also only an immoral act of body; that which has arisen
through_ the unrestrained door of the moving body is only
an immoral act of body; that which has arisen by the door of
speech or by the door of mind [105] is only an immoral act of
speech or of thought respectively.1 The threefold misconduct
of body is only an immoral act of body; the fourfold miscon-
1 The P.T.S. ed. has here a different reading.

Conclusions 139
duct of speech is only _an immoral act of speech; the threefolq
misconduct of mind is only an immoral act of thought.
Self-restraint which has arisen through the five doors of
(external) contact is only a moral act of thought; .if it has
arisen through the door of mental contact, it is threefold in
action, as in the case of non-restraint. Self-restraint arisen
through the five doors is only a moral act of thought; if it
has arisen by the door of the moving body, or through the
door of speech, or through the door of mind, it is only a moral
act of body, speech, or thought respectively.
Threefold good conduct of body is a moral act; fourfold
good conduct of speech is a moral act of speech; threefold
good conduct of mind is a moral act of thought.
An immoral act of body does not arise through the five
doors of (external) contact, but through the door of mind-
contact only; similarly with an immoral act of speech. But
an immoral act of thought arises through the six doors of
contact. If it results in movement in body and vocal doors,
it is an immoral act of body and of speech;1 not attaining
such movement, it is an immoral act of thought. As it
does not arise through the contact-door, no immoral act of
body takes place through the five unrestrained doors. But
it arises through the unrestrained doors of the moving body
and the moving vocal organ; it does not arise through the un-
restrained door of mind. Nor does an immoral act of
speech arise through the five doo:rs when unrestrained; it
arises through the door of the moving body when unrestrained
and the moving vocal organ; it does not arise through the
unrestrained door of mind.
An immoral act of thought arises even through eight
u~restrained doors; and the same method holds in moral
~cts of body, etc., but with this di:fference:-Immoral acts
of body and of speech do not arise through the unrestrained
door of mind, but these are not so; without moving bodily
limbs or vocal organs, they arise in the self-restrained door of
the mind of one who is taking the precepts.
t "It is mental action in these doors "-Pyi.

In such a case moral consciousness in the realm of · sense
·arises through the threefold door of action, and not through
the five (external) sense-doors. The feeling, pleasurable,
painful, or neutral, is conditioned by eye-contact. It does so
by means of the six doors of contact, but not through the
eight doors whei{ unrestrained; it arises through the eight
doors when restrained; (106] it does not arise through the ten
courses of immoral action; it ·arises through the ten courses
of moral action. Therefore, whether this (first main type of
moral) consciousness1 has ariseri through the doors of threefold
action, or through the six doors of contact, or through the
eight restraint-doors, or the ten courses of moral action, it was
said with reference to all classes of sensuous consciousness that
'the sensuous moral consciousness that has arisen has either
a visible or an audible object, etc., or an idea for its object.' 1
Here ends the Discourse o.n 'Doors.'
1 Dh.Y. § 1.
PART IV-OF MORAL CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCE
IN THE WORLDS OF SENSE
CHAPTER I
OF THE SUMMARY OF CONSCIOUS STATES
WHATEVER be the object with which-consciousness is concerned1
-in other words, the consciousness in question has arisen con-
cerning, that is, has made an object of, any of the objects of
sense or ideas of sense specified above. Up to this clause
it might seem as though any one object only among these
objects is permitted to this consciousness; so that it (i.e., this
consciousness) arises on one occasion in one person attending
to a visible object· and again it arises on another occasion in
another person with a sound, and so forth as object. But
there is no such order as its coming into being in any one
existence first with a visible object, afterwards with sound as
object. Nor is there any such uniformity as its coming into
being first with a blue-green object, afterwards with a yellow
object among objects. And it was in order to show that it
oan arise with <ill objects, and that there is neither order in
them nor, in the absence of order, any uniformity iri. respect
of specific sensations, that he said:-' Whatever be the object,
etc.' Consciousness arises not only with a certain, say,
visible object amorig these objects, but in reality with ari.y one
of them as object. It does not first attend to a visible object
and then to sound. It arises with any one of the objects
whatsoever by way of passing over one or two or more
intermediate terms either in the reverse order or in the way
of right succession. Moreover, in the case of a visible object
it does not arise with such a uniformity as attending first to
a blue-green object, afterwards to a yellow object, but with
1 Dhs. § l.
141
142 Risings of Conscioiisness .
any one · of them. Such is the meaning. And the same
with sound as object. This is one construction of the phrase
in question.
Another is as follows :-,Consciousness is termed visual, ·
auditory, etc., or cogitative, because it has a visible, audible,
etc., objeC?t, [107] or has an idea as its object. After having said
that such consciousness arises with its corresponding object,
he added the phrase 'whatever be the object,' etc. The
meani,ng of this phrase is that consciousness may arise 'with
any one of those objects in the manner explained above.
The Great Commentary, however, explains as follows:-
' There is nothing new implied by the expression "whatever
be the object"; what has already been enumerated is to be
taken.' And it goes on:-' This expression was used in
order to teach that consciousness comes into being with this
or that object, i.e., visible object . . . or idea.' Thus much
only is in the Great Commentary.
' At that time ' 1 is an expression which definitely fixes
the time shown indefinitely by the expression ' at·what time.'
Hence this matter should be regarded thus :-When moral
consciousness in the realm of sense arises, then only there is
contact, etc., down to absence of distraction.
Here, just as there ·is consciousness, so also is there contact,
etc. What kind of contact 1 It is that experienced in the
realm of sense; it is moral; it has arisen, and it is accompanied
by pleasure-in this way the construction should be made by
means of such terms as are obtainable. That the expression,
~ as are obtainable,' is used because, in the case of feeling, the
phrase, ' accompanied by pl~asure' is not obtainable, and in
the case of insight, ' associated with knowledge' is not
obt<>lnable, is an opinion of teachers 2 out of touch with the
Commentaries, and should not be regarded as possessing any
value. .
But why is contact mentioned here first 1 Because · of its
.being the first incidence of consciousness on an object, and
arises. touching th~ object. Therefore it is mentioned first.
1 Dhs. § 1. 2 Such as Revata.-]'ika. · ·

Moral Consciousness in the Worlds of Sense 143-
Touching by contact,_ consciousness experiences by feeling,
perceives by perception, wills by volition. Hence it has
been said:-' Bhikkhus, touched one feels, touched one
perceives, touched .one wills.'1 . Further: Just as in a
palace a pillar is the strong support to the rest of the
structure; just as beams, cross-beams, wing-supports, roof,
rafters, cross-rafters, neck-pieces are bound to the pillar,
fixed on to the pillar, so is contact a strong support to the
co-existent and associated states. It is like the pillar, and
the remaining states are like the rest of the structure.
But why, again, is it mentioned first ~ for the foregoing
gives no reason. For of states which have arisen in one
conscious moment it is not valid to say that' this ' arises first,
'that' afterwards. The reason is not because contact is a
·strong support. Contact is just mentioned [108] first in the
order of teaching, but it were also permissible to bring it in
thus :-There .are feeling and contact, perception and contact,
volition . and contact ; there is consciousness and contact,
feeling, perception, volition, initial application of mind. In
the order of teaching, however, contact is mentioned first.
Nor is the sequence of words among the remaining states of
any special significance. [Inquiry should be conducted as
follows:-] Contact means ' it touches.' It has touching
as its salient characteristic, impact ·as its function, 2 ' coinciding'
(of the physical basis, object and consciousness) as its mani-
festation,~ and the object which has entered the avenue [of
awareness] as proximate cause.
Though it is an immaterial state, it proceeds with respect
to objects after the mode of' touching.' Hence touch is its
characteristic.
There is no impinging on one side of the object [as in physical
contact], nevertheless contact causes consciousness and object
to be in collision, as visible object and visual organs, sound and
hearing; thus impact is its function; or it has impact as its
essential property in the sense of attainment, owing to the
1 Sa1Jiyutta iv. 68; words in different order.
2 Or' essential property.' Cf. Comp. of Phil. 13,,213.
3 Or ' resulting phenomenon.' Ibid.
144 Risings of Oonsciousness
impact of the physical basis with the mental object. For it
is said in the Commentary:-' Contact in the four planes of
existence is never without the characteristic of touch with
the object; but the function of impact takes· place in the
five doors. For to sense, or five-door contact is given
the name: "having the characteristic of touch," as well as
''having the function of impact." But to contact in the mind-
door there is only the characteristic of touch, but not the
function of impact.' And then this Sutta is quoted: ' As if,
sire, two rams were to fight, one ram to represent the eye,
the second the visible object; and their collision, contact.
And as if, sire, two cymbals were to strike against each other,
or two hands were to clap against each other; one hand would
represent the eye, the second the visible object, and their
collision contact. Thus contact has the characteristic of
touch and the fun~tion of impact.'1 SU:ch is the detailed
account .
. Just as in such phrases as 'seeing a visible object with .
the eye,' 2 sense-cognition is spoken of by the name of ey~, etc.,
so here it is spoken of as ' eye,' etc. Therefore should the
meaning of ' to represent the eye,' etc., be understood as
' to represent visual cognition,' etc. This being so, [109]
the function, in the sense of performance, of impact is accom-
plished, accOTding .to this Sutta, in the impact of consciousness
with object.
Conta.c t has coinciding as martifestation, because it is
revealed through its own cause, known as the coinciding of ·
three (basis, object, and consciousness). This is' shown here
and there by the Sutta-phrase:-' contact is the collision
of three.' 3 And in this phrase the meaning is that it
is contact because of the collision of the three, but it
should not be understood tJ:i,at the mere collision is con-
tact. Thus because it wa$ declared that contact . mani-
1 Milind.a i. 92 f. 2 Quoted in Dhs. § 1345.

a Majjhimri,, i, 111; Sa1J7.yutta, ii, 72; etc. The sense is brought up to
the opject, there is attention or adverting to the object, the object is
prepared, aud.'there is cognition of the object by consciousuess.-Tikii.
Moral Consciousness in the Worlds of Sense 145
fests itself in thi~ wis_e, therefore its manifestation is called
coinciding. But if manifestation be taken in the sense of
effect, contact has feeling as effect. That is, contact pro-
duces feeling, causes it to arise. Just as it is the heat in
· heated lac, and not the coals, or external cause, which pro-
duces softness, so albeit there is another cause, viz., .the
mental object and the basis, it is the consciousness in which
feeling inheres which produces it, .and not that [external]
cause.
Because contact arises by means of suitable attention, or
'adverting,' and through some faculty (i.e., eye, etc.), and
immediately in the object that has been prepared by conscious-
ness, therefore contact has as its proximate cau,se an object
that has entered the avenue of thought.
' Feeling '1 is that which feels. It has (1) experiencing as
characteristic, (2) enjoying as function, or possessing the
desirable portion of an object as function, (3) taste of the
mental properties as manifestation, and (4) tranquillity as
proximate cause.
(1) There is no such thing as feeling in the four planes
of existence without the characteristic of experiencing.
(2) If it be said that the function of enjoying the object is
obtained only ~n pleasilrable feeling, we reject that opinion,
and say:-' Let it be pleasurable feeling or painful feeling
or neutral feeling-all have the function of enjoying (anubha-
vana) the object.'
As regards enjoying the taste of an object, the remaining
associated states enjoy it only partially. Of contact there
is (the function of) the mere touching, of perception the mere
noting or perceiving, of volition the mere co-ordinating (the
associated states, or exerting or being active), of conscious-
ness the mere cognizing. But feeling alone, th!ough govern-
ance, proficiency, mastery, enjoys the taste of an object. For
feeling is like the king, the remaining states are like the cook.
As the cook, when he has prepared food of divers tastes, puts
it in a basket, seals it, takes it to the king, breaks the seal,
1 Dhs. § 3.
opens the basket, [110] takes the best of all the soup and ciirries,
puts them in a dish, swallows [a portion] to find out whether
they are faulty or not, and afterwards· offers the food of various
excellent tastes to the king, and the king, being lord, expert,
and master, eats whatever he likes, even so the mere testing
of the food by the cook is like the partial enjoyment of the
object by the remaining states, and as the cook tests a portion
of the food, so the remaining states enjoy a ·portion of the
object, and as the king, being lord, expert, and master, eats
the meal according to his pleasure, so ·feeling, being lord,
expert and master, enjoys the taste of the object, and therefore
it is-said that enjoyment or experience is its function. ·
In thitt second <1efinition feeling is understood as the
1
enjoyment only of the desirable portion of an object ' in any

manner' (i.e., by its nature or intention). Thus it is said to
have the function of enjoying the desired portion of the object.
(3) The mere presence of feeling, as such, is referred to
by calling its manifestation ' tasting a mental property
(cetasika. ).'
(4) And inasmuch as a tranquillized body_enjoys bliss or
happiness, feeling has tranquillity as its proximate cause.
The noting of an object as blue-green, etc., is. perception.11
It has the characteristic of noting and the function of recog-
nizing what has been previously noted. There is. no such
thing as perception in the four planes of existence without
the characteristic of noting. All perceptions have the
characteristic of noting. Of them, that perceiving which
knows by-specialized knowledge has the function of recognizing
what has been noted previously. We may see this procedure
when the carpenter recognizes a piece of wood which he has
marked by specialized knowledge; when we recognize a man
by his sectarial mark on the forehead, which we have noted
by our specialized knowledge, and say: 'He is so and so';
or when the king's treasurer, in charge of the royal wardrobe,
1 Namely, that only joyful feeling enjoys.-Pyi. See preceding

page. .
2 Dh8. § 4. ' Perception,' ' noting '=safifia, saiijanana.
Moral Oonscio1i,sriess in the Worlds of $ense 14.7
having had a label bound on each dress and; being asked to
bring a certain one, lights the lamp, enters the jewel chamber,
reads the label, and brings the dress. According to another
method, perception has the characteristic of noting by an act
of general inclusion, and the function of [assigning] 'mark-
reasons ' for this inclusive noting, as yvhen woodcutters ' per-
ceive' logs, and so forth.
Its manifestation is an inclining [of t:&e attention], i;ts in the
case of blind persons who 'see' an elephant.1 Or_, it has
briefness as manifestation, like lightning, owing to its inability
to penetrate the object.
[111] Its proximate cause is whatever object has. appeared,
like the perception which arises in young deer mistaking
scarecrows for men. Of the perceptions, that which is
associated with knowledge follows it, just .as, among the
elements of extension, etc., with their constituents, the remain-
ing constituents follow the element of extension, etc.2
Volition is that which co·ordinates, that is, it binds
closely* . to itself associated states as objects. This is its
characteristic; its function is conation. There is no such
thing as volition in the four planes of .existence without
the characteristic of co.ordinating; all volition has it. But
the. function of conation is only in mora.1 and immoral
states; as regards activity in moral and immoral acts,
the remaining associated states play only a restricted
part. . But volition is exceedingly energetic. It makes a
double effort, a double exertion. Hence the Ancients said:
1 Like the blind who imagine an elephant by the particular char-
acteristic of the part touched-e.g., he who has touched the tail says
that the elephant is like a broom-handle, and he who has touched tho
leg says it is like a pestle, etc.-Pyi. Or like one who, though now
blind, can say what an elephant is like.-Ariyalankara. Cf. Udana,
VI. 4.
2 The element of extension has stability and support as character-
istic, yet it cannot appear by itself; it appears with its seven constituents
-viz.: colour, odour, taste, essence (oja), moisture, heat, motion.
Although this is so, at whatever time its state is stable, it is called
extension. Thus the constituents follow the element.- Ariyalankara.
* Abhisandahati.
'Volition is like the nature of a landowner,1 a cultivator
who, taking fifty-five strong men, went down to the fields
to reap. · He was exceedingly energetic and exceedingly
strenuous; he doubled his strength, he doubled his effort, and
said, " Take your sickles," and so forth, pointed out the portion
to be reaped, offered them drink, food, scent, flowers, etc.,
and took an equal share of the work.' The simile should be
thus applied: Volition is like the cultivator; the fifty-five moral
states which arise as factors of consciousness are like the fifty-
five strong men; llke the time of doubling strength, doubling
effort by the cultivator is the doubled strength, double effort
of volition as regar.ds activity in moral and immoral acts.
Thus should conation as its function be understood.
It has directing as manifestation. It arises directing asso-
ciated states, like the chief disciple, the chief carpenter, etc.,
who fulfil their own and others' duties. . As the chief disciple,
seeing the teacher come from afar, himself recites his lessons
and makes other pupils recite each his own lesson; when he
begins the recitation, the rest follow; and as the head wood-
cutter, hewing the wood, himself makes other woodcutters
do each [112] his own work; for when he begins, the others
follow; and as the general, fighting himself, makes other soldiers
take part in the battle, for when he begins, the others follow
his example without turning back; even so, when volition
starts work on its object, it sets associated states to do each
its own work. For when it puts forth energy, they also put
forth energy. Hence the statement that it accomplishes
its own and others' work, like the chief .pupil or the head
carpenter. It is also evident that it arises by causing asso-
ciated states ~o be energetic in such things as recollecting an
urgent work, and so forth.
[Mind or] consciousness 2 is that which thinks of its object.
A definition of the word has been given. 3 As to its characteris-
tics, etc;, cognizing object is its characteristic, forerunnin£.
1 Reading not viiciiriyii, but thiivariyii=khettasiimi or landowner.

But some read Piiviiriya, as the cultivator's name.-Tr. ·
· 2 Dhs. § 6. 3 Above, p. 84.
is its function, conneQting is its manifestation, a mental and
material organism1 is its proximate cause. There is no such
thing as consciousness in.the four.planes of existence without
the characteristic of cognizing. All consciousness has it.
But when a' door' is reached !:Lt the place2 where the' object '
is evolved, consciousness is the forerunner, the precursor. A
visible object seen by the eye is cognized by consciousness, etc .
. . ·. an idea known by the mind is cognized by consciousness.
For just as the town-guard, seated at cross-roads in the middle
of the town, ascertains and notes each comer:-' This is
a townsman, this is a stranger,' and so forth, so should this
matter be understood. So, too, it was said by the Elder
(Nagasena) :~3 'Just, sire, as the town-guard, seated at the
cross-roads in the middle of the town, would see a man coming
from the east, would see a man coming from the west, .the
south, the north: so, your majesty, the object seen by the eye,
the sound heard by the ear, the smell smelt by the nose,
the taste tasted by the tongue, the tangible touched by the
body, the idea cognized by the mind, is cognized by con-
sciousness.' [113] Therefore it is said to have the function·
of forerunning.
The consciousness which arises next does so immediately
after the preceding consciousness, forming a co:µnected series.
Thus it has connection as manifestation.
Where ·there are all five aggregates, a mental and material
organism is always its proximate cause; where there are
four aggregates, 4 mind only is its proximate cause. There-
fore it is said that mind-and-matter is its proximate
cause.
But is this consciousness the same as the former conscious-
ness, or is it different 1 The same. Then wherefore is that
which was previously dealt with mentioned again 1 This
has not been considered in the Commentary. But it is
suitable to do so here. The sun and other things, as terms
and concepts, derived from rn.aterial or other data, are
1 Nii.mariipam. 2 1'hii.ne. .
a Milinda i. 95. ' As in ideation:.-Ed.
·actually not different from those data, so that when the
sun arises its material quality, viz.: heat, also arises, albeit
there is no sun different fr.om the material quality. Con-
sciousness also appears as a derivative from such phenomena
as contact, etc.; but actually it is different from them,
Hence, when consciousness arises, certainly then it is actu-
ally different from contact, etc. To show this meaning the
:mention of consciousness is repeated, and should thus. be
regarded.1
In such passages as: 2 'When for the attainment of
the RU.pa world one cultivates the path thereto and, aloof
from sensualities and from immoral states, by means of
the earth-device, attains and abides in the first Jhana . . .
then there arises contact,' etc., he who ' then '- at a fixed
time-is practising is not the identical he who is reborn.
And therefore in this passage it is only said ' there is
contact . . . feeling '.; it is not said :3 he who is practis-
ing, he is reborn. But in our passage also:-' when moral
consciousness .. . . arises,' etc.,4 the consciousness assigned
to the given time is not actually identical in its arising with
the consciousness which assigned that given time. Hence
it is that, when it is said: 'then there is contact, feeling,' it
is also said: ' there is consciousness.' And hence the repe-
tition of the word ' consciousness ' must be regarded as showing
what actually happens.
This is [our] judgment as to the repetition of 'conscious-
ness. In the section on the outline, the meaning was con-
. densed ;5 in the section of exposition it is detailed. For by
the first word consciousness the time has merely· been ·fixed.
But in order to show, at the time fixed by consciousness, what
states are present, a beginning is made with ' there is contact,'
consciousness being also [named as] present; hence the repe-
tition to include that consciousness.
1 _The simile holds good so far as the arising goes; the emphasis is
on the actual arising of consciousness together with contact, etc., as
the sun always rises with, e.g., its rays.-Tr. Cf. Dhs. § 1, lines 2, 7.
2 Dhs. § 160. 3 In P.T.S. ed. read so hotiti na wtta1µ.-Ed.
• Dhs. § 1. 5 P. 84.
[114] In this place_, if the word 'that' were not mentioned,
it would not be possible in the section of exposition 1 to classify
the consciousness (ari~ing) at that time. Thus would its
classification suffer. Therefore to classify consciousness in
this section it has been repeated.
Or, because in the phrase 'has arisen' this, namely, 'con-
sciousness which has arisen,' is the principal term in the teach-
ing, the Commentary considers that, since consciousness does
not arise in isolation, it is not in the word ' arisen' taken
by itself, but in conjunction with the fifty-five moral [con-
comitant] states. And thus 'consciousness' is first used in-
clusively as involving both itself and these, and secondly as
distinct from these and with them classified according to their
nature in- detail, beginning with 'contact,' consciousness
being here co~sidered as one of them.
' Initial application of mind ' 2 is literally ' one thinks about,'
or a ' thinking about.' It is said to be the prescinding [of
the mind]. 3 Its [main] characteristic is the lifting of conscious-
ness on to the object; having an object, it lifts consciousness
up to it. As someone depending on a relative or friend dear
to the king ascends the king's palace, so depending on initial
application the mind ascends the object. Therefore it has
-been said that initial application lifts the mind on to the
object. And the Elder Nagasena said that' initial application
of mind has the characteristic of the initial knocking. As,
sire, when a drum is struck, it goes on reverberating and
emitting a continuous sound, so initial application of mind
should be looked upon- as the iDitial stroke; and sustained
application of the_mind as the after-reverberation and con-
tinuous emission of sound/ 4 It has the function of impinging,
of circumimpinging. By initial application of mind the
aspirant is said to strike at and around the object. Its
manifestation is bringing the mind near to the object.
1 Dhs, § 6. 2 Dhs. § 7.
3 Cf. Mil. i. 51, where this characteristic (iihana) is assigned to
' wisdom ' (paiina).-Ed.
4 Cf. ib. i. 96, where the simile actually used is a. copper vessel, not a.
drum.-Ed.
' Sustained application of mind '1 is discursive work upon,
or traversing of the object. It has threshing out (or contem-
plation)2 of object as characteristic, the linking of co-existent .
states to .the object as function, and continuous binding as
manifestation. Although there is in some consciousness3
the non-separation of initial and sustained applications of
· mind, the former is the first incidence of the mind on the object,
as it were the striking of a bell, because it is more gross than,
and runs before, (the latter). [115] The latter is the con-
sequent binding of consciousness on the object, as it were the'
reverberation of the bell, because it is more subtle ahd of the
nature of repeated threshing of the object.
Of the two, initial application of mind possesses vibration. 4
When it first arises, it is as a state of mental thrill, like the
flapping of the wings of a bird about to fly up in the air, and
like the alighting in front of the lotus of a bee with mind intent
on the perfume; sustained application of mind is of a calmer
tenour, without much mental thrill, like the planing movement
of the wings of a bird in the sky, and the gyrating of the bee
about the lotus on which it has alighted. But in the Com-
mentary5 initial application, as a lifting of the mind on to the
object, is likened to the movement of a big bird in the sky,
taking the wind with, both wings and keeping them steadily
in a line. For it advances bent on a single object. Sustained
application, on the other hand, should be understood as a state
of contemplating which is like the movement of that flying
bird flapping its wings to take the wind. :For it has been
called a threshing of the object. It is a very fitting term to
use for a · continuous occurrence. The difference between
initial and sustained application of mind is plain in the
first and second Jhanas.6 Further, as when a man holds
1 Dhs. § 8.
2 Anumajjana. Morris derived it from m:j., J.P.T.S., 1886,
p. 118.~Ed.
3 E .g., in First Jhana, fourfold system.
4. On vipphara, Cf. Points .of Comrover8Y, 239 § 9.-Ed.
11 I.e., on the Aiigu.ttara N. i. 171 § 5.-Ed.
8 Fivefold system.
firmly by one hand a dirty copper bowl, and with the other
scrubs it with brush {or husk), initial application of mind is
like the firmly holding hand, and sustained application of mind
the scrubbing hand. So, too, as the potter whirls the wheel
by the stroke of the handle and makes the pot, initial applica-
tion is like the hand pressing the clay down, sustained applica-
tion the hand turning it to and fro. Again, in making a circle
the applying initial application of mind is like the thorn
fixed in the middle and the contemplating sustained applica-
tion of mind. the revolving thorn outside.
'Zest,' 'rapture,' is literally that which satisfies, develops.1
It has satisfaction as characteristic, the thrilling of body and
mind (or suffusion) as Junction, and elation as manifestation.
Rapture is of five kinds :-the lesser thrill, momentary rapture,
flooding rapture, all-pervading rapture and transporting
rapture. Of these, the lesser thrill is only able to raise the.
hairs of the body; the momentary rapture is like the production
of lightning moment by moment; [116] like waves ·breaking
on the seashore, the flooding rapture descends tin the body
and breaks; the transporting rapture is strong, and lifts the
body up to the extent of launching it in the air.
As the.Elder Mahatissa residing at Pu:µi;iavallika on the full-
moon day at eventide went into the courtyard of the shrine,
saw the moonlight, and.turning to the Great Shrine,2 he called
up the transporting rapture, with the Buddha as object of
thought, and by virtue of having habitually dwelt upon the
vision, at the thought:-' In such an holir, lo ! the four assem ·
blies salute the Great Shrine '-on the cemented floor he rose
in the sky like .a ball with mind entranced, and stood even
in the courtyard of the Shrine. Likewise a certain daughter
of noble family, in· Vattakalaka village, the s:upport of Giri-
ka:i;iQ.aka mo:µastery, soared into the sky also by strong trans-
porting rapture when thinking of the Buddha. It is said
that her parents, going in the evening to the monastery to hear
the Doctrine, said, 'Dear, you are heavily burdened; it is
t Dhs. § 9. Pi9ayatiti piti.

· 2. At Anurii.dhapura.-:Tr.
not the time for you to be walking; you are not able. We
shall hear the Doctrine, and make merit for you,' and went.
Although desirous of going; she was not able to disregard their
words, and remained behind in the house. She stood at the
door a.nd, looking by moonlight at the courtyard of the Shrine
against the sky at Girikal).c;laka, saw the offering of lamps to the
shrine and the four assemblies doing honour to the shrine by
garlands and scented perfumes, etc., and circumambulating
it, and heard the sound of the mass-chanting of the Brother-
hood. T)len to her occurred the thought: ' Blessed indeed
must be these who can get to the monastery and walk in such
a courtyard, and hear such a sweet religious discourse,'
and to her, looking at the Shrine rising like a mass of pearls,
arose transporting rapture. She soared into the sky, and de-
scended therefrom to the courtyard earlier than her parents,
saluted the Shrine, and stood listening to the Doctrine. Then
her parents coming asked her: 'Dear, by which way did
you come f 'Dear parents, I came by the sky, and not
by the road.' ' Dear, by the sky only saints can go; how
could you have come?' Thus questioned, she said, 'As I
was standing looking at the shrine in the moonlight, there
arose in me a strong rapture while thinking on the Buddha.
Then I knew not whether I stood or sat, but I laid hold of a
sign, and sprang into the sky, and stood in the courtya.rd.' So
far can transporting rapture work.
[117] When all-pervading rapture arises, the whole body is,
completely surcharged, blown like a full bladder or like a moun-
tain cavern pouring forth a mighty flood of water. This
fivefold rapture, becoming pregnant and maturing, begets
the twofold repose of mental factors and of consciousness;
repose; becoming pregnant and maturing, begets the twofold
bliss, bodily and mental; bliss, becoming pregnant and maturing,
begets the threefold concentration :-momentary concentra-
tion, access-concentration and ecstatic concentration. Of
these, the first two belong here. _
_Bliss1 or ease1 is that which gives pleasure.z In whom it
1 Sukha•qi. 2 Dhi.§10.
arises it makes him happy, is its meaning: It is a synonyni
for joyous feeling. · lts characteristic, etc., are the same
as in feeling.1 According to another method, bliss or ease
has the characteristic of being pleasant, the development of
associated states as its function, and shoWing favour2 to the
same as its manifestation. Although in some kinds of con-
sciousness3 rapture and bliss are not dissociated, ·rapture (or·
zest) is delight in the attaining of the desired objec;t, bliss
or ease is the enjoyment of the taste of what is acquired.
Where rapture is, there is ease; but where ease is, there
is not always rapture. Rapture is classed under the aggre-
gate of mental co-efficients, ease under the aggregate of
feeling. Rapture is like a weary traveller in the desert in
summer, who hears of, or sees water or a shady wood. Ease
is like his enjoying the water or entei:ing the forest shade.
For a man who, travelling along the path through a great
desert an~ overcome by the heat, is thirsty and desirous
of drink, if he saw a man on the way, would ask,' Where
is water ?' The other would say, ' Beyond the wood is a dense
forest with a natural lake. Go there, and you will get some.'
He hearing these words would be glad and delighted, and as
he went would see lotus leaves, etc., fallen on the ground
and become more glad and delighted. Going onwards, he.
would see men with wet clothes and hair, hear the sounds of
wild fowl and pea-fowl, etc., see the dense forest of green like
a net of jewels growing by the edge of the natural lake, he
would see the water lily, the lotus, the white lily, etc., growing
in the lake, he would see the clear transparent water, he would
be all the more glad and delighted, [ll8] would descend into
the natural lake, bathe and drink at pleasure and, his oppres-
sion being allayed, he would eat the fibres and stalks of the
lilies, adorn himself with the blue lotus, carry on his shoulders
the roots of the mandalaka, ascend from the lake, .put on his
clothes, dry the bathing cloth in the sun, and in the cool shade
where the breeze blew ever so gently lay him.self' down and say:
1 P. 145 f.
2 Anuggahana. Pyi'interprets this· as 'repeated grasping '-i.e;, of
the mental object. 3 Ci. First Jhii.na.-Tr~
' 0 bliss ! 0 bliss !' Thus should this illustration be applied:-
The time of gladness and delight from when he heard of the
natural lake and the dense forest till he saw the water is
like rapture having the manner of gladness a,nd delight at
the object in view. The time when, after his bath and drink he
laid himself down in the cool shade, saying, ' 0 bliss! 0 bliss!'
etc., is the sense of ease grown strong,1 established in that mode
of enjoying the taste of the object. In fact, the description
(of the two terms) is repeatedly illustrated,2 and so is the fact
that.where there is rapture or 'zest, there also is happiness.
Cittekaggata 3 is one-pointedness of mind, another name
for concentration. Regarding its characteristic, etc., the
Commentary has the following :-Concentratio11- has the
characteristic of leadership, also of non-distraction. As the
dome of a gabled house from binding the remaining constitu-
ents of the building is the leader, so concentration is the leader
of all those states from their being accomplished by conscious-
ness associated with concentration. Hence has it been said:
'As, your majesty, all the rafters of a gabled house go to the
ridgepole, incline towards, meet at the ridgepole, the ridgepole
is called the chief among them; so, your majesty, all moral
states incline towards concentration, slopf' towards concen-
tration, take refuge in concentration; concentration is called
the chief among them.' 4 And as the king in battle goes
wherever the army is giving way, and the army wherever he
has gone becomes reinforced and-the hostile army being ·
broken-follows the king;5 so concentration, from not allowing
the co-existent states to be thrown out and scattered, has
non-distraction as its characteristic.
1 Balappatta'f/i. The 'Mandalay' MS. (India Office) has phalap-
patta11i, 'which ha~ won fruition.'-Ed.
2 As the hearing and seeing of the lake and forest, etc.-Y ojanii.
3 Dhs. § 11.
' Mil. i. 60. 'Refuge in' (samiidhippabbhiira), as in a. cave . . The
three figures occur in the Nikii.yas, applied to the sea (S. iv. 79) and
to Nibbii.na. (ib. 180, etc.). The text of the Burmese translation reads
pii.mokkha.-Ed. . .
5 This simile is ·a lso in Mil., ib., but is here slightly altered a.lid made
more telling.-Ed.
Here is another explanation: l'his concentration, known as
one-pointedness of mind, has non-scattering (of itself) or non-
distraction (of associated states) as characteristic, the welding
together of the co-existent states as function, as water kneads
bath-powder int.o a paste, and peace of mind or knowledge
as manifestation. [119] For it has been said: 'He who is
concentrated knows, sees according to the truth.' 1 It is dis-
tinguished by having ease as proximate cause. Like the
steadiness of the flame of a lamp in the absence of. wind, so
should steadfastness of mind be understood.
By it persons or associated states believe, or one believes,
or the mere believing-this is saddha (faith).2 From the over-
coming of unfaith, faith is a controlling faculty in the sense of
predominance, or in its characteristic of decision it exercises
lordship (over associated states). Faith and · indriya, or
controlling faculty, give the compound ' faith-faculty.' It
has purifying, or aspiring as its characteristic. As the water-
purifying gem of the universal monarch thrown into water
causes solids, alluvia, waterweeds and mud to subside and makes
the water clear, transparent and undisturbed, so faith arising
discards the hindrances, cal1Ses the corruptions to subside,
purifies the mind and makes it undisturbed; the mind being
purified, the aspirant of noble family gives gifts, observes the
precepts, performs the sabbath duties and commences his
culture. Thus faith should be known to have purifying as
its characteristic. Hence has it been said by the venerable
Nagasena: 'As i£, your majesty, a universal monarch were to
cross a small stream with his fourfold army, and the water
would be ,perturbed, dirty, stirred up and muddy by .the
elep~ants, horses, chariots and infantry. And the king,
when he had crossed, were to give an order to the men, " Bring
me water, I say. I will drink.'' ·Now supposing the water-
purifying gem of the king would be with them, they would
reply, "Even so, lord," and throw the gem into the water.
Then at once the solids, alluvia, water-weeds and mud would
subside, and the water would become clear, transparent and
1 A . v. 3. 2 Dhs. § 12.
158 · Risings of Consciousness
undisturbed, and they would offer the water to the king saying,
"Maf the lord drink." As, your majesty, the water, so
should the mind be regarded; as those men, so th~ aspirant;
as the solids, alluvia, water-weeds and mud, so the corrup-
tions; as the water-purifying gem, so faith; as the moment
whentlie water-purifying gem is thrown, and the solids, alluvi_a,
-etc., subsiding, the water becomes clear, transparent and un-
disturbed, so, your majesty, faith arising discards the hin-
drances, [120] and the mind being free from them becomes
clear, transparent and undisturbed.' 1
It is, again, as though a timid crowd stood on both banks
of a great 1!iver full of all sorts of crocodiles, monsters, sharks,
ogres, etc. And a great warrior, the hero of battles, came-and
.inquired, ' Why do you stand still 1' And they would reply,
' We dare not cross on account of the dangers.' But he,
grasping his sharpened sword and saying, 'Follow me and
have no fear,' crossed the river and repelled the oncoming
crocodiles, etc. And making it safe for those folk he led them
from this bank to that, and from that bank he led them in
·safety to the hither bank. 2 So faith is the forerunner, the pre•
cursor to one who is giving gifts, observing the··precepts,
performing sabbath duties and commencing culture .. Hence
has it been said: Faith has purifying and aspiring · as its
characteristic.
Yet another view :~Faith has confiding as its characteristic;
purifying as its function, like the water-purifying gem; or
aspiring faith as function, like the crossing of the floods; free-
dom from pollution or decision as its manifestation; an object
worthy of faith or factors ofstream-winning3 as its proximate
cause. It should be regarded as at once hand, property
and seed.4
Viriya is the state of an energetic man, or it is the action:
of the energetic, or it is that which should be effected, carried
1 Mil. i. 54.
2 Cf. ibid. 55, where the danger lies in the river being in flood.~Ed.
3 D. iii. 227; S. ii. 68-71, etc. '
4 I.e., as emblems of agency, fulfilment, and condition of good
thoughts-:-Ariyalankara.
Moral Oonsciousn.ess in the Worlds. of Bense 159
out by method or suitable means. From its overcoming
idleness it is a controlling faculty in the sense of predominance.
Or, it exercises government with the characteristic of grasp.
Combined with faculty we get the compound: 'energy-faculty.'
Its characteristic is strengthening, and grasp, or support.
As an old house stands when strengthened by new pillars,
so the aspirant, when strengthened by energy, does not fall off,
or deteriorate as to moral states. Thus should the character-
:istic of- strengthening be understood. Hence it was said
by Nagasena: 'As,. your majesty, when a house is falling one
should strengthen it with other pieces of wood; being thus
strengthened, the house would not fall, so, your majesty, [121]
~nergy has the characteristic of strengthening; all moral states
when strengthened by energy do not fall away.' 1 And as a
!')mall army going to battle might be repulsed; then they
would tell the king; the king would send. a strong reinforce-
:ment; the-king's army, being thus supported, would defeat the
hostile army:- thus energy does not allow associated states to
recede, to retreat; it uplifts, supports them. Hence has it
been said that energy has the characteristic of supporting.
Another view is that energy has e_xerting as its character~
istic, strengthening the co-existent states as function, and
opposition to giving way as manifestation. It has been said:
' He being agitated, makes a rational effort,'2 hence it has
agitation, or the basic condition of making energy as proxi-
mate cause. Right energy should be regarded as the root
of all attainments.
Sati3-by this they remember the object, or one remembers
the object, or the mere remembering of the object-this· is
mindfulness. From overcoming confused memory, it is a
faculty in the sense of predominance. It exercises govern-
ment (over associated states) by the characteristic of ' being
present in,' 4 hence it is a controlling faculty, and hence the
1 Mil. i. 57. Viriya and paggaha are in that translation rendered
'perseverance' and 'tension' respectively.-Ed.

2 Mil. i. 57; here again the simile is not cited verbatim.-Ed.
8 Dhs. § 14.
4 Namely,, in any object of the past.- Pyi.
160 Risings of ConsMousness
compound c mindfulness-faculty.' . Its characteristic lS 'not
floating away,' 1 and acquirement. As the young treasurer
of the Icing, in charge of the tenfold treasure, both early and
late causes the Icing to take note of and remember the royal
possession, so mindfulness takes note of, remembers a moral
act. Hence the Elder said: 'As, your majesty, the king's con-
fidential adviser early and late makes the universal monarch
remember: so many, lord, are your elephants, so many horses,
. S() many chariots, SO much infantry, SO much bullion, SO much
gold, so much property; let your majest.y remember it-even
so, your majesty, ·mindfulness does not allow the floating
away of moral states, such as the four applications of mindfUI-
ness, the four supreme efforts, the four bases of supernatural
potency, the five controlling facwties, the five powers, the
seven factors of wisdom, the Ariyan eightfold path, calm,
insight, knowledge, emancipation, the transcendent states:-
thus, your majesty, mindfulness has non-floating away as
its characteristic.' 2 And as that jewel, the confidential
adviser of the universal monarch, knowing what is disad-
vantageous and what is advantageous, removes the disadvan-
tageous and promotes the advantageous, so mindfulness,
searching well the courses of advantageous and disadvan-
tageous states:-' these are disadvantageous states, miscon-
duct in body,' etc., removes the disadvantageous states, and
(122] acquires the advantageous ones:-' these are advan-
tageous states, good conduct as regards body,' etc. Hence
the Elder said: 'As, your majesty, that king's jewel, the con-
fidential adviser, knows what is advantageous and what is
disadvantageous to the Icing:-" these are advantageous to
the king, those disadvantageous; these are serviceable, those
not serviceable" -and then removes the disadvantageous and
acquires the advantageous, even so, your majesty, mindful-
ness as it arises searches well the courses of states, advan-
tageous and disadvantageous:-" these states are advan-
1 Not allowing any floating away, as of a pulllpkin in a strealll. It
does not suffer the object to slip, but keeps it steady as a rock.-7'ika.
2 Mil. i. 59. 'Transcendent' (lit. supralllundane) states is not in
the cited work. It SUlllS up the foregoing 41.-Ed.
tageous, those disadvantageous; these states are serviceable,
those not serviceable,;_and then removes the disadvantageous
and acquires the advantageous. Thus, your majesty, mind-
fulness has acquirement as its characteristic.' 1
Here is another method: mindfulness has ' not floating away'
as its characteristic, unforgetfulness as its function, guarding,
or the state of facing the object, as its manifestation, firm
perception, or application in mindfulness as regards the body,
etc., as proximate cause. It should be regarded as a door-post
from being firmly established in the object, and as · a door-
keeper from guarding the door of the senses.
'Concentration' 2 is that state which sets and places the mind
in the object. From overcoming distraction of mind, it is a
controlling faculty in the sense of predominance. It exer-
cises government (over associated states) by the charac-
teristic of imperturbability; thus it is a controlling faculty,
and gives the compound 'concentration··faculty.' Its
characteristic, etc., .are those of ' one-pointedness of mind ,
(p. 156).
Panna3 means one understands (pajanati). What does one
understand 1 The Ariyan Facts(or Truths) by the method: This
is ill, etc. But in the Great Commentary understanding is
defined as ' it causes to know (or understand)'. What does it
cause to know 1 Impermanence, ill, soullessness.' . Through
overcoming ignorance, it is a controlling faculty in the sense
of predominance~ It exercises goverimient (over associated
states) by the characteristic ofvisfon, hence it is a controlling
faculty and gives the compound 'understanding-faculty.'
It has illuminating and understanding as characteristic. As
when a lamp burns at night in a four-walled house the darkness
ceases, light manifests itself, so understanding has illuminating
as· its characteristic. There is no illumination equal to the
illumination of understanding. To the wise at a single sitting
the ten thousand world-spheres appear as of one light. Hence
the Elder has said: 'Just as when a man, your majesty,
1 Mil. i. 59. 2 Dhs. § 15. Samii.dhi. a Ibid.§ 16.

162 Risings Qf Consciousness
introduces an oil-lamp into a dark house, the lamp so intro-
duced disperses the darkness, produces light, [123] sheds
lustre, makes objects visible, so, your majesty, understanding
as it arises dispels the darkness of ignorance, produces the
light of wisdom, sheds the lustre of knowledge, makes plain
the Ariyan Facts. Thus, your majesty, understanding has
illuminating as its characteristic.'1
And. as a clever surgeon knows which food is suitable, and
which is not, so understanding as it arises knows states as moral
or immoral, serviceable or unserviceable, low or exalted, black
or pure, . similar or dissimilar. .And this was said by the
Generalissimo of the Law (Sariputta): 'It knows; thus, brother,
it is in consequence called understanding. And what does it
know 1 This is ill,' etc. 2 Thus it should be expanded. And
thus knowing should be regarded as the characteristic of
understanding.
Here is another view :~Understanding has the penetration
of intrinsic nature, unfaltering penet:cation as its characteris-
tic, like the penetration of an arrow shot by a skilled archer;
illumination of the object as its function, as it were a lamp;
non-perplexity as its proximate cause, as it were a good guide
in the forest.
Mind (mano) 3 is minding, that is, itdiscerns.(cognizes). But
the authors of the Commentary say: like measuring by the .
na!i or balancing by a great weight, mind knows the object.
It exercises government (over associated states) by the
characteristic of measuring, hence it is a controlling faculty,
giving the compound 'mind-faculty.' It is just a synonym
for consciousness (citta) mentioned above. 4
Sumano, 'joyous,' 5 means that one's mind, being associated
with zest and joy, is beautiful; and the state of being joyous
is joy. It exercises government (over associated states)
by the characteristic of pleasantness, hence it is. a controlling
faculty, and gives the compound ' joy-faculty.' It is another
term for happiness, ease, mentioned above.6
1 Mil. i. 61. 2 Majjhima i. 292. 3· Dhs. § 17

4 P. 148. 5 Dhs. § 18. 6 P.145/.
'Life '1 is that by which associated states live. It exercises
government (over associated states) b7 the - characteristic
of ceaseless watching, hence it is a controlling faculty,
and gives the compound 'life-faculty.~ It is the dominant
influence over continuity in [organic] processes. As regards
its characteristic, etc:, it has_the ceaseless watching over states
undivided from itself as its characteristic; the processes of
such states or co-existent states as function; the placing of
them as manifestation; states that have to be kept going
as proximate cause. And although there is orderly arrange·
ment in life's essential _properties, etc., it watches over those
states only in the moment of (their and its) existence, [124]
as water over lotuses, etc. And although it watches over
them, arisen as its own property, as a nurse over the infant,
life goes on only by being bound up with these states that
have gone on, as the pilot on the boat. Beyond the-cessant
instant it does not go on, owing to the non-being both of
itself and of the states which should have been kept going.
At the cessant instant it does not maintain them, owing to
its own destruction, as the spent oil in the wick cannot main-
tain the flame of the lamp. Its effective power is as its dura.
ti on.
As to the next five terms, 2 right view conveys the meaning
of vision; right intention, that of mental application; 3 right
endeavour, that of support; right mindfulness, that of presence
(or being at hand); right concentration, that of absence of dis-
traction. As regards word-definitions :-that which sees
rightly, or by which beings see objects rightly-this is
right view. That :which plans rightly, or by which beings
plan rightly~this is right intention. That which rightly
endeavours, or by which beings ·rightly endeavour-this is
]'.ight endeavour. That which remembers rightly, or by
1 Dhs. § 19. Jivitaip..

2 Dhs. §§ 20-24. 'Right' (samma) has here the sense of irreversi-
bility and escape from the succession of rebirths.-P~.
3 Cf. above, p. 151. Cf. Dhs. §§ 1; 21: 'applicatipn of mind' and
' intention ' are described in identical terms.-Ed.
which beings remember objects rightly-this is right mind-
fulness. That which evenly keeps the consciousness on the
object, or by which associated states evenly keep the con-
sciousness on the object-this is right concentration. Again,
a praiseworthy or beautiful view is right view. In this way
the word-definition should be understood. Their characteris-
tics, etc., have been stated above.
As to the seven' strengths '.1 'faith' and so forth have been
already described. And ' strength ' (bala) should· be under-
stood in the sense of ' not shaking.' Of these seven, that
which does not shake because of unbelief is the strength of
faith. It does not shake because of idleness-this is strength
of energy. It does not shake because of obliviousness- this
is strength of mindfulness. It does not shake because of
distraction-this is strength of concentration. It does not
shake because of ignorance-this is strength 0£ under-
standing. It does not shake because of shamelessness-
this is strength of conscientiousn~ss. ' It does not shake
because of carelessness of blame;__:_this· is· str~ngth of fear of
blame. Such is the explanation of the meaning by way of
both terms.
Th~ first fiv~ 'strengths' have been described above as
regards their characteristics, etc. In the last pair,2 conscien-
tiousness is that which abominates or shrinks from. It is a
synonym for shame. Fear of blame is [lit.] gloWing [i.e., with
nervous heat]. It is a synonym for agitation at evil. In the
table of contents shame was stated to be the characteristic.
In the following detailed discourse will be shown their mutual
difference, their origin and how they are influenced. [125)
Conscientiousness has a subjective origin, fear of blame has
an external cause. Conscientiousness is influenced by the self,
foar of blame is influenced by 't he world. Conscientiousness
is rooted in the intrinsic nature of shame, fear of blame in the
intrinsic nature 9f fear. Conscientiousness has the character-
istic of respectful obedience, fear of blame that of viewing
a fault with timidity and fear. Of the two, conscientiousness
1 Dhs. §§ 25-31 2 Ibid. §§ 30, 31.

with its subjective origin arises from four causes: consideration
of birth, of age, of heroism, of wide experience. How 1 ' This
evil act is not such as would be done by those of [good]birth; it
is such as those of low birth, fishermen and the like; would do;
it is not fittingthat such as I who am well-born should do it':-
thus considering one's birth, and not committing evil such as
life-taking, etc., one maintains [a standard of] conscientious"
ness. ·Agairi, ' this evil act is only worthy of boys; it is not
fitting that one of my years should do it' -thus considering
age, conscientiousness is maintained.' Again, ' this evil act
is ~n act for the weak; it is not fitting that I, who have courage
and strt~ngth, should do it ' :-thus considering, one- refrains
and maintains conscientiousness. Again, ' this evil act is
an act for blind fools and not for the wise; it is not fitting
that I, endowed with wisdom and wide experience, should
do it ' :-thus considering one's wide experience, one refrains
and niaintains conscientiousness. Having thus set up con-
scientiousness by introducing it into the mind, one does not
do evil acts, and thus conscientiousness has a subjective origin.
How 4as fear of blame ·an external origin 1 . ' If you do an
evil act, you will get blame among the four assemblies.
Thi wise will blame you. As the citizen

Shuns all impurity, the good shun you.
How, bhikkhu, will you do that which is w·rong ?'
Thus considering, one does not do evil owing to fear of blame

from without. Thus fear of .Llame has an external origin.
How is conscientiousness influenced by the self 1 Take a
certain son of .noble family [126] who makes 'self the chief
influence, and so refrains from evil:-' It is not fit that such a
man as I, who left the world through faith, endowed with
wide experience, believing in the ascetic life, should do evil.'
Thus is conscientiousness influenced by the self. Hence 'the
Blessed One has said : ' He makes self the chief influence, and
abandons immorality, develops morality, abandons . faults
and develops faultlessness, and keeps himself pure.' 1
1 Aliguttara i. 148, sligbtly different.
166 · Risings of Consciousness .
How is fear of blame influenced by the wo:r:ld 1 Here a
certain son of noble family makes the world the chief influence
and does not do evil. As the Blessed One has said: ' Wide
indeed is the world; in the wide world are monks and brahmins
of supernormal potency, with clairvoyance and knowledge
of others' thoughts. They see afar, although near at hand
they are not seen; mentally they know the thoughts of others,
me also (he thinks) they will know thus: "Look at this son of
noble family. Though he has become a morik by faith, leaving
his home for the homeless state, he lives mixed with evil
immoral things. There are spirits with supernormal potency,
clairvoyance, knowing the thoughts of others. They see
afar," etc. Thus he makes the world the chief influence,
abandons immorality, develops morality, abandons faults ·
and develops faultlessness, and keeps himself pure.' 1 Thus
fear of blame is influenced by the world.
Conscientiousness is rooted in the intrinsic nature of shame,
fear of blame in that of dread. Herei;n shame means the manner
of being ashamed, and conscientiousness is rooted in the in-
trinsic nature of that. Dread means the fear of purgatory,
and fear or' blame is rooted in the intrinsic nature of that. And
.both are manifested in the avoiding of evil. For a certain son
of noble family, in obeying the calls of nature, on seeing acer-
tain person worthy of respect, would manifest shame, would be
ashamed . . In the same way, sunken in an internal sense of
shame he do.es not do evil. A certain tuan frightened by the
fear of purgatory does not commit sin. Here is an illustration:
As of two iron balls, one being cold and besmeared with dung,
the other being hot and burning, a wise man does not catch the
cold one from loathing its being smeared with dung, nor the
other one for fear of getting burnt. Here the not grasping the
cold ball from loathing its being smeared with dung is like the
not doing wrong from being sunk in an internal sense of shame.
[127] The not grasping the hot ball from fear of being burnt
should be considered as the not doing evil from fear of purga-
tory.
l Ailguttara i. 148.
Conscientiousness has the characteristic of respectful obe-
dience, fear of blame that of viewing with timidity the fearful
aspect of wrong-doing. This duality is manifested in the
avoiding of evil. A certain man, indeed, from the four causes
of consideration for his high "birth, for the dignity of his
Teacher, for the greatness of his inheritance, for the honour
of his fellow-brethren, produces conscientiousness with the
characteristic of respectful obedience and does not do evil.
A certain man, from the four causes of self-accusation, of
accusation by others, of punishment, of evil destiny, produces
fear of blame with the characteristic of viewing with timidity
the fearful aspect of wrong-doing and does not do evil. Herein
considerations for high birth, etc., and fear of self-accusation,
etc., can [as above] be explained in detail.
By this they do not lust, or itself does not lust, or the mere
act of not lusting-this is 'absence of greed' (or disinterested-
ness). And the. same for' absence of hate' and' of delusion.' 1
0£ these three, absence of greed has the characteristic of
the mind being free from cupidity for an object of thought, or
of its being detached, like a drop of water on a lotus leaf. It
has the function of not appropria-!;ing, like an emancipated
monk, and the manifestation of detachment, like a man fallen
into a foul place. Absence of hate has the characteristic of
freedom from churlishness or resentment, like an agreeable
friend; the function of destroying vexation, or dispelling dis-
tress, like sandal wood; the manifestation c-'- being pleasing,
like the full moon. Absence of delusion has been explained
according to characteristic, etc., in connexion with the term
'faculty of understanding.' 2
Of these three, again, absence of greed3 is opposed to the
taint of grudging, absence of hate to that of wickedness,
absence of delusion to [that of] not developing the moral
qualities. And absence of greed is the condition of giving,
absence of hate that of virtue, and absence of delusion that
of cultlire. Moreover, through disinterestedness3 the excessive
estimates of the covetous are avoided; through amity the
1 Dhs. §§ 32-34. 2 P. 161. 3 Alobho.

168 Risings ·of Oonscio~ness
one-sidedness of the hater is avoided; through clear-headedness

the perversions of delus~on are avoided. And, again, when he
detects an actual fault, the disinterested man discloses it,
for the greedy man hides a fault; similarly, the man of amity
discloses a virtue . when detected, for the hater [128] effaces
a virtue; and the wise man reveals what he finds is really true,
while the dull man holds t.ruth false and the false true. And
again, through absence of greed one does not feel the pain of
separation from that which is beloved, affection being the in··
trinsic nature of the greedy man as well as inability to bear the
·pain of separation from the beloved. . Through absence of
hate one does not feel the pain of association with the unloved,
hatred being the intrinsic nature of the man of hate as well
as inability to bear the pain of association with the unloved.
Through absence of delusion one does not feel the pain of
not getting what is desired, .such considerations made by one
without delusion as: ' How were it possible r 1 . And, again,
through absence of greed the pain of rebirth is not experienced,
since the former is opposed to craving and the latter has its
root in craving. Through absence of hate the pain of old age
is not felt, since the keen hater becomes quickly aged. Through .
absence of delusion the pain of death is not experienced, for
verily to die with the mind ha.filed is a pain which does not
come over the undeluded. And, finally, a harmonious life
of .happy people among laymen is due to absence of greed,
among monks to absence of delusion, and among all to absence
of hate.
To distinguish :-through absence of greed there is no re-
birth in the sphere of the Petas ;2 for verily beings generally
are born there through craving, and absence of greed is opposed
to craving . . Through absence of hate there is no rebirth in
purgatory; for verily it is through hate and churlishness
that we a.re reborn in a.purgatory resembling hate, and absence
of hate is opposed to hate. Through absence of delusion
re.~irth as a lower animal does not take place; for verily on
1 Cf. Dialogues ii. 177, which has not l,abbhati, but l,abbha, 'possiljJe'
-namely, that that which is impermanent should not decay.-Ed.

· 2 Ghosts or shades. .
Moral Oonscioitsness in the Worlds of Sense· 169
account of delusion persons are reborn among the always
deluded lower animals, and absence of delusion is opposed to
delusion. Of the three, absence of greed inhibits lusting enter-
prise; absence of hate inhibits separation due to hate; absence
of delusion inhibits that indifference which is due to ignorance.1
Moreover, according to the order of these three, there are
three perceptions: emancipation (associated with the First
Jhana), good-will (associated with love) and non-cruelty (a~
sociated with mercy). There are also these three perceptions:
the foul, the immeasurable and the elements. Through
absence of greed the extreme course of devotion to the pleasure
of sense is avoided; through absence of hate the opposite
extreme of self-mortification is avoided; and through absence
of delusion the Middle Course is reached. Simil~rly, absence
of greed breaks the physical knot of covetousness; absence of
hate breaks the physical knot of ill-will; and absence of delusion
breaks the remaining pair of knots. 2 Again, the two first
applications in mindfuln_ess are accomplished by the power
of the preceding two (i.e., absence of greed and of hate) ;
and the two latter applications in mindfulness are accomplished
by the power of the last (i.e., absence of delusion). Again,
absence of greed is the cause of good health, for the ungreedy
man does not resort to what is attractive but unsuitable;
hence his· good health. [129] Absence of hate is the cause of
youthfulness, for the man of no hate, not being burnt by the fire
of hate, which brings wrinkles and grey hairs, remains young
for a long time: · Absence of delusion is the cause of long life,
for the undeluded man knows what is advantageous· and not
advantageous, and avoiding what is not advantageous and
practising what is advantageous, lives a long life. Again,
absence of greed is the cause of the production of wealth,
for wealth is obtained through liberality. Absence of hate
is the cause of the production of friends, for through love
friends are obtained and not lost. Absence of delusion is the
cause of personal attainments, for the undeluded man, doing
1 Cf. Majjhima i. 3 with 364; Visuddhi Mana, ch. ix.-Ed.
2 ·Namely, practice of mere ritual and adherence to dogma.-Dhs.
§§ 1135 /.
170 .Risings. of Consciousness
only that which is good for himself, perfects himself. Again,
absence of greed brings about life in deva-heavens, absence of
hate brings about life in Brahma-heavens, and absence of
delusion brings about the Ariyan life. Moreover, through
absence of greed one is at peace1 among beings and things be-
longing to one's party, inasmuch as, if disaster befall them,
the sorrow which depends on excessive attachment to them
is absent. Through absence of hate one is happy among
beings and things belonging to a hostile party, inasmuch as
in the man of no hate inimical thoughts are absent.. Through
absence of delusion one is happy among beings and things
belonging to a neutral party, inasmuch as for the undeluded
there is no excessive attachment to all beings and things
belonging to a neutral party. Again, by absence of greed one
has insight into impermanence, for the greedy man, owing to
his_desire for wealth and property, does not regard imper-
manent conditioned things as impermanent. By absence
of hate one has insight into ill, for one inclined to amity
has, in possessing, abandoned the acquirement of the basis of
vexation and regards conditioned things as ill. By absence
of delusion one has insight into soullessness, for the un-
deluded man is clever in grasping2 the nature of reality and
knows the five aggregates which have no adviser3 as such~
As insight into impermanence, ill and soullessness is brought
about by these three states, so they too are brought
about by insight into impermanence, ill and soullessness.
Through insight into impermanence arises absence of greed;
through insight into ill arises absence of hate; through insight
into soulle.ssnessarises absence of delusion. For who, knowing
aright that this is impermanent, would cause affection to
arise for the sake of it ? Who, knowing conditioned things
to be ill, would cause the further ill of anger exceedingly
violent to arise for them ? And who, knowing things as
empty of soul, would again fall into delusion ?
1 Ni!Jbuto; a_t peace, because detached.-Tr.

~ In P.T.S. ed. read yathavagahal)akusalo.
3 Cf. Dialof!ues ii. 208, n. 1 : parii:iayako.
Jtl oral Consciousness in the Worlds of Sense 171
'Non-covetousness '1 is that which does not covet others'
property.
Good-will2 is that which does not ruin one's own or another's
bodily or mental happiness, worldly or future advantage and
good report.
That which sees aright or is a beautiful view :-this is right
view. 3 This and the last two terms, v.i z.: non-covetousness,
etc., are other names for absence of greed, hate and delusion.
Above, these three were taken by way of roots, here they
should be understood by way of courses of action.
The se.nse of shame (conscientiousness) and fear of blame,
taken above4 as ' strengths,' are here [repeated] in the sense
of guardians of the world. For these two states do indeed
guard the world, as he said: ' Bhikkhus, these two pure states
guard the world. Which are the two 1 The sense of shame
and fear of blame. · If, bhikkhus, [130] these two pure states
did not guard the world, there would be no regard paid to
mother, or mother's sister, or uncle's wife, nor teacher's wife,
nor wife of honourable · men. The world would be full of
promiscuous births, as among goats, sheep, fowls, pigs, dogs
and jackals. Because, bhikkhus, these two pure states guard
the world, therefore regard is paid to the mother and the
rest.' 5
. ' Tranquillity of the kaya ' 6 is the calnii.ng ofthe three groups
of mental factors (concomitant with 3onsciousness); tranquillity
of consciousness is the calming of mind. Kaya here refers
to the three aggregates-feeling, perception and mental
activities. 7 These two states being·t!Lken together have the
characteristic .of pacifying the suffering of both mental factors
and of consciousness; the function of crushing the suffering
of both; the manifestation of an unwavering and cool state of
both; and have mental factors and consciousness as proxi-
1 Dhs. § 35. 2 Dhs. § 36. 3 Dhs. § 37.

4 Seep. 164 f. 5 A'liguUara i. 51=lti-vuttaka § 42.
6 Dhs. §§ 40, 41.
7 . Kaya may mean (1) the body (S. i. 156); (2) the tactile sense;
(3) bodily action; (4) any group, as here.-Ed.

172 Risings of Oonsciousness
mate cause. They are the opponents of the corruptions,
such as distraction, which cause the disturbance of mental
factors and of consciousness. ·
'Kaya· lightness' is buoyancy of mental factors; citta-
lightness is buoyancy of consciousness. 1 They have the
characteristic of suppressing the heaviness of the one and
the other; the function of crushing heaviness in both; the
manifestation of opposition to sluggishness in both, and have
mental factors and consciousness as proximate cause. · They
are the oppon~nts of the corruptions, such as sloth and
torpor, which cause' heaviness and rigidity in mental factors
and consciousness.
' Kaya-plasticity ' is plasticity of mental factors; citta-plas-
ticity is plasticity of consciousness.2 They have the character-
istic of suppressing the rigidity of mental factors and of con-
sciousness; the function of ~rushing the· same in both;, the
manifestation or effect of setting up no resistance; and have
mental factors and consciousness as proximate cause. They
are· the opponents of the corruptions, such as opinionativeness
and conceit, which cause mental rigidity.
'Kaya-wield~ness' is wieldiness of mental factors; citta-
wieldiness is that of mind. 3 They have the characteristic of
suppressing unwieldiness in both; the function of crushing
the same; the effect of success or attainment of both in ·
making objects of thought; they have mental factors and
consciousness as proximate cause; and are the opponents
of the remaining hindrances4 which cause unwieldiness in
mental factors and consciousness. [131] They should ·, be
regarded as bringing faith in objects of faith, and patient
application in works of advantage, and are like purity of
gold. -
' Kaya-fitness ' is fitness of mental factors; citta-fitness is
that of consciousness.4 They have the characteristic of
the freedom of mental factors and of consciousness from
illness; the function of crushing illness in both; the manifesta-
1 Dhs. §§ 42, 43. 2 Ibid: §§ 44, 45.

3 Dhs. §§ 46, 47. 4 Ibid. §§ 48. 49 .
tion of freedom from evil; they have mental factors and con-
sciousness as proxima:te cause, and are the oppon~nts of the
corruptions, such as diffidence, which cause illness in both.
'Kaya-rectitude' is rectitude of mental factors; citta-recti-
tude is that of consciousness.1 They have the characteristic
of straightness in both; the function of crushing crookedness
in both; the manifestation of non-deflection; they have mental
factors and mind as proximate cause, and are the opponents
of the corruptions, such as deception and craftiness, which
cause crookedness in mental factors and consciousness.
'Mindfulness' 2 is that which remembers. ' Comprehension' 3
is that which comprehends. The meaning is to know a thing
all round, in different ways. Knowledge of a thing according
to its .usefulness, its expediency, its scope, and to know it
without confusion :-these are its four divisions. For their
characteristics, etc., see either term mentio:ned above as
faculties.4 . They are again mentioned in this place under
the aspect of serviceableness.
'Calm' 5 is that which calms adverse states, such as sensual
desire. ' Insight' is that which views states in their various
aspects as impermanent. In meaning it is understanding.
The characteristics, etc., ·of these two have been mentioned
above.6 And here they are given as forming a well-yoked
pair.7
'Uplift' is that which upholds co-existent states.8 'Balance '
is the opposite of distraction called excitement.9 Their
characteristics, etc., have been mentioned above.10 The pair
is treated here in order to show the union between energy and
concentration. ·
' Or whatever other immaterial states causally linked there
are on that occasion-these are moral ' 11 means that these
1 Dhs. §§ 50, 51. 2 Ibid. § 52. a Ibid. § 53.

• P. 159; 161. 5 Dhs. §§ 54, 55. 6 P. 156; 161.
7 Like an even pair of thoroughbreds drawing in friendly union the
carriage of the mind.-Anufika.
8 Paggaha.-Dhs. § 56, or 'grasp' (B.P.E.). 9 Ibid .. § 57.
10 Under 'energy' and 'concentration,' pp. 158, 161.

11 Dhs. § 1.
174 Risings of Gon.sciousness
fifty states and more (six) which have . been explained as
' This. is contact,' down to ' This is non-distraction:,' in due
order of the terms, are not the only (iii.oral states). In point
of fact, [132] on the occasion when the first main type of
automatic consciousness, accompanied by joy, thrice-con-
ditioned and experienced in the realm of sense arises, there
ari$e on that occasion states other than contact and the rest,
but associated with them, each state being produced from its
suitable cause, and, by the absence of material quality, in its
intrinsic nature incorporeal. And all these states are moral.
Having hitherto shown the fifty and more states fixed in the .
text as factors of consciousness, ·the King of the Law has in~ _
dicated nine other states by the phrase ' Or whatever,' etc.
.These nine states a'Ppear in various passages of the Suttas.
as desire, resolve, attention, equanimity, pity, sympathy,
abstinence from misconduct of body and of speech, and from .
wrong livelihood. And in this main type of consciousness:
there is orthodox desire, that is, good in its conational aspect~
which is not fixed in the text as a factor of consciousness, but
is here included by the ' Or whatever. . . ..' Likewise there is
resolve, attention, equanimity, and the preparatory stage of
amity.1 This is taken only with absence of hate. There
are also the preparatory stages of pity and of sympathy and
of hedonic indifference. But this last is taken only with
equanimity There are also right speech, right work, right
livelihood. This last is not fixed in the text as a factor of
consciousness, but is included here in the ' Or whatever.'
Of these nine states these four :-desire, resolve, attention
and equanimity-are acquired simultaneously, the rest at
different moments. For when by the (first type of) conscious-
ness one abandons wrong speech and by abstinence therefrom
fulfils right speech, then the five, to wit, right speech, together
with the. four beginning with desire, are acquired simul-
taneously. When one abandons wrong work and by absti-
nence therefrom ful~ls right work, abandons wrong livelihood
and by abstinence therefrom fulfils right livelihood, and·
1 I.e., which has not reached Jhii.na-ecstasy.-Pyi.

ltloral Consciousness in the .Worlds of Sense 175
attains the preparatory stage of pity and of sympathy, then
the five, to wit, each of these actions, together with the four
beginning with desire, are acquired simultaneously. Pass-
ing beyond these five states, one who gives charity, fulfils the·
precepts and applies himself to work (i.e., stations of religious
exercise) acquires the four universal factors. Thus of these
nin:e 'Or whatever' states 'desire')s synonymous with wish
to act. Hence its characteristic is wish-to-act, its function
. is searching for an object, [133] its manifestation, having the
object at its disposal, which object is also its proximate cause.
In the taking of. an object by the mind, desire should be
regarded as the stretching forth of the hand.1
'Resolution' regarding an object is choice of the same. Its
characteristic is determination, its function, opposition to
slinking along,2 its manifestation, unsha.kableness,3 its proxi-
mate cause, an object fit to be decided. Owing to its un-
shakable naiture it should be regarded as a stone pillar.
'Attention' is a niode of work, working in the mind. It
makes mind, so fo speak, different from the previous mind.
It is of three kinds: Attention which regulates the object,
attention which regulates process-consciousness, attention
which regulates apperception. Of these, (a) that which regu-·
lates the object is called attention because it makes {the
object] in the mind. It has the characteristic of driving
associated states towards the object, the function of joining
associated states to the object, the manifestation of facing
the object. It is included in the aggregate of mental coeffi-
cients, and should be regarded as the charioteer of associated
states because it regulates the object. (b) Attention which
regulates process-consciousness is a synonym for the adverting
of mind at the five doors4 ; and (c) attention which regulates
1 As by thieves to grasp an object in the dark.- P yi. Cf. Greek

6pd;is.-Ed.
2 Asaip.sappana. As of an irresolute child thinking, Shall I do it, shall
I not do it ?~'f'ikii. Cf. Anguttara v. 288 j., 291.
3 Pyi and P.T.S. edn. read nicchayapaccupafPhana; but Burmese
authorities apparently niccala•.

4 Or 'presentative consciousness,' (c) being 'representative conscious-
ness.' ·
appereeptiop. is a synonym for mind-door-adverting. These
two (b) (c) kinds of attention are not intended here.
'Equanimity' (or balance of mind)l is neutrality regarding
various states. It has the characteristic of carrying on .con-
sciousness and mental properties equally, the function of
checking deficiency and excess, or of cutting off partisanship;
it has the manifestation pf neutrality. .By virtue of its in-
difference regarding consciousness and mental properties it
should be regarded as a charioteer who treats with impartiality
the well-trained horses he is driving.
' Pity ' and ' sympathy' will be explained in the exposition
· of· the Divine States.2 There is only this difference-pity
and sympathy have there attained to ecstasy, and are ex-
perienced as in the realm of attenuated matter;3 here they
are experienced in the realm of sense.
' Kaya-misconduct-abstinence ' means abstinence from mis-
conduct in bodily action. The remaining two sentences are
analogous. As regards characteristic, etc.; it has been said
that each of these three does not trespass nor tread on objects
of the other two. They have the function of shrinking from
the same; and they have faith, sense of shame, fear of blame,
contentment and more, as proximate antecedents. They
should be regarded as produced by the aver_ted state of the
mind from evil action.
The fifty-six states beginning with contact and the nine
' Or whatever ' states form, in this outline section of states,
altogether sixty-five groups. Of these, sixty-one sometimes
occur in a single moment, and sometimes full sixty. The
sixty-one occur on five occasions when they arise in their
capacity to fulfil right speech, right work, right livelihood,
pity, and sympathy; the sixty occur on a single occasion, quite
apart from these five (i.e., in charity or virtue). [134] And
excepting the ' Or whatever' states there are fifty-six states
mentioned in the text. Moreover, of the fifty-six, by taking
what has not been taken, there are fully thirty states, to wit :
1 Tatra-majjhattata is lit. 'there-middleness.'-Ed.

2 Dhs. § 251 /.and below. 3 The RU.pa. heavens.
the fivefold contact-group,1 initial application, sustained
application, zest, one-pointedness of mind, the five controlling
faculties, the two strengths of sense of shame and of fear of
blame, the two roots of absence of greed and of absence of
hate, the twelve states beginning with repose of mental factors
and of mind.2
Of these thirty states, eighteen cannot be classified, twelve
can be classified. Which are the eighteen 1 Contact, per-
ception, volition, sustained application, zest, life-faculty, and
the twelve beginning with ' repose of mental factors ' are un-
classifiable. Feeling, consciousness, initial application, one-
pointedness of mind, the faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness,
understanding, the strengths :--sense of shame, fear of blame,
absence of greed, absence of hate-these twelve are classifi-
able (sa-v£bhattikii).
Of these, seven states are classified in two places, one in
three places, two in four places, one in six places, and one in
seven places. How 1 Consciousness, initial application of
mind, faith, sense of shame, fear of blame, absence of greed
and absence of hate-these seven are classified in two places.
For of these, consciousness (citta'l!b) is spoken of as such
when it has attained3 fivefold contact; and as faculty of mind
(m'.ino) by way o£3 faculties. Initial application is spoken of
·as such by way of jhana-factors; and as right intention by
way .of Path-fuctors. Faith is spoken of as faculty of faith
by way of faculties; and as strength by way of ·strengths.
Sense of shame is spoken of as the strength ' sense of shame '
by way of strengths; and as sense of shame under,the aspect
of the two guardians of the world. 4 And the same with fear of
blame. Absence of greed is spoken of as such by way of root;
1 I.e., contact, feeling, perception, volition and consciousness.-
Dk&:§ 1.
2 The states which have been left out are included in these 30; e.g.,
' happy ease ' and the ' faculty of joy ' are included in ' feeling,' the
'fa.culty of mind ' in ' consciousness,' and the three aspects of Samadhi
as well as 'balance'. are included in 'one-pointedness of mind,' and
so on.-Ariyiilaiikii,ra.
3 Patvii, having reached, won.
• Seep. 171.
and as disinterestedness by way of course of action. Absence
of-hate is spoken of as such by way of root; and as good-will by
way of course of action. Thus these seven states are classified
in two places. Feeling is spoken of as such by way of the five-
fold contact-group, as bliss or ease by way of jhana-factors, as
faculty of joy by way of faculties. Thus one state is classified
in three places. Energy is spoken of as faculty of energy by
way of faculties, as right endeavour by way of Path-factors,
as the strength 'energy' by way of strengths, as 'uplift'
by way of the later couplet.1 Mindfulness is spoken of as
faculty of mindfulness by way of faculties, as right mindfulness
by way of Path-factors, as the strength' mindfulness' by way
of strengths, [135] as mindfulness by way of the later couplet.
Thus two states are classified in four places. Concentration
is spoken of as one-pointedness of mind by way of jhana-
factors, as faculty of concentration by way of faculties, as
right concentration by way of Path-factors, as the strength
'concentration' by way of strengths, as 'calm and non-dis-
traction' by way of the later couplet. Thus this single state
is classified in six places. Understanding is spoken of as the
understanding faculty by way of faculties, as' right views' by
way of Path-factors, as the strength 'understanding' by way
of strengths, as' absence of delusion' by way of roots, as right
views by way of course of action, as' comprehension' [by way
of the e~en pair of states, as 2 ] 'insight' by way of the later
couplet. Thus this single state is classified in seven places.
But if someone should say: -'Therein is nothing new; it only
fills up words in various places by taking what has already
been taken; it forms a discourse of neither connection nor
order, like goods stolen by thieves, an unintelligent discourse,
like grass disturbed in the path of a herd of cattle '-he should
be checked by our saying, 'Not so!' No discourse of the
Buddhas3 is without connection; there is always a connection.
Neither is there an unintelligent discourse . . All has been
spoken with intelligence. For the supreme Buddha knows
1 Seep. 173. 2 Omitted in P.T.S. ed.

3 Read Buddhanarp desana, and correct what follows ibid.
the function of each of the states, knowing which, in making
the classification by function; he has classified, each in one
place, the eighteen single-functioned states. Knowing the
seven states to have a double function, he has classified each
in two places. Knowing feeling to have a triple function, he
has classified it in three places. Knowing energy and mindful-
ness to have a fourfold function, he has classified them in four
places. Knowing concentration to have a sixfold function,
he has classified it in six places. Knowing understanding to
have a sevenfold fUJlction, he has classified it in seven places.
Here is a simile :~A wise king, they say, goes into solitude
and thinks, ' This property, the heritage of royalty, should
not be used up anyhow. I will increase the income by suitable
arts.' He assembles all his artisans and declares, ' Summon
those who know a single art.' Thus summoned, eighteen
men stand up. He assigns each his portion and sends them
away. When h~ declares, ' Let those who know two arts
come forward,' seven men approach him. To each he
entrusts two portions. When he declares, ' Let those who
know three arts come forward,' one man approaches him.
To him he entrusts three . portions. When he declares,
'Let those who know four arts come forward,' two men ap-
proach him. To them he entrusts four portions. When
he declares, ' Let those who know five arts come forward,'
nonel approaches him. When he declares, 'Let those who
know six arts come forward,' one man approaches him. To
him he entrusts six portions. When he declares, ' Let those
who know seven arts [136] come forward,' one man approaches
him. To. him he entrusts seven portions. The wise king
here is like the incomparable King of the Law, the artisans
are like the states which have arisen as factors of conscious-
ness, the increasing of the income by suitable arts is like the
classification of the various states according to their functions.
And au these states form seventeen groups according to the
contact-quintet, jhii.na-factors, controlling faculties, Path-
factors, strengths, roots, courses of action, guardians of the
1 P.T.S. ed. should read nagacchi. Cf. context above.

world, repose, buoyancy, plasticity, wieldiness, fitness, recti- ·
tude, mindfulness and comprehension,. calm and insight,
uplift and non-distraction.
End of the Discourse on the Section of the Summary o.f Con-
scious States.
CHAPTER II
DISCOURSE ON THE SECTION OF EXPOSITION
Now in order to show the classification of the fifty-six words
which have been fixed as the Text in this Section of the Outline
of States, the Section of Exposition has been begun on this
wise: ' What on that occasion is contact 1' 1
The meaning of this question is:-It has been said that on
the occasion when the main class of automatic consciousness
as experienced in the realm of sense, moral, accompanied by
joy and thrice-conditioned, arises, there arises on that occa-
sion contact. And which is that contact 1 In this way the
meaning of all the following questions should be considered.
' That which on that occasion is contact ' refers to that
contact which on .that occasion arises as a fact of touching.
The word in its simple form2 expresses the· intrinsic nature of
fouch. 3 Pkusana is the act of touching. Samphusana,
increased by the prefix, is the way of touching [viz.: to unite
With the object]. Samphusitattatp, is the state of so touch-
ing. And this is the construction: There is on that occasion
contact by virtue of touching; there is on that occasion that
which is the act of touching; there is that which, on that occa-
sion, is the act of touching to unite with; there is that which,
on that occasion, is the state of touching to unite with. Or
that which, on that occasion, is contact by virtue of touching
is, in other different ways, said to be the act of touching, the
act of touching to unite with, and the state of touching to
1 Dhs. § 2.
2 I.e., without the aid of prefixes or suffixes.-Ariyalaiikara.
3 Or, because it shows the intrinsic nature of touch, free from figures
of speech, this word implies an ultimate reality (sabhiivapada~n), i.e .•
absence of a living entity.-Anutika.
The Section of Exposition 181
unite with. This cont~ct there is on that occasion. And the
same _construction of the words in the expositions of feeling
and the rest should be understood.
The following is a decision by classification common to all:
In showing the classification of the first main type of conscious-
ness experienced in the realm of sense, the Blessed One [ 137]
has placed the fifty and more words in a table of contents and,
taking up each, has made the classification. And they are
thus classified according to three causes, are different accord-
ing to four causes. And in this main type the explanation
of the same terms in other ways is twofold. How 1 They
are classified on these three grounds :-the letter, the prefix,
and the meaning.
Of these, e.g., 'anger, fuming, irascibility, hate, hating,
hatred,1 is a classification according to the letter.' 2 For here
a single thing, that is, anger, is classified according to the
letter. In .' application, sustained application, progressive
application of mind,' 3 the classification is according to the
prefix.4 In' erudition, skill, subtlety, criticism, reflection, in-
vestigation,'5 the classification is according to the meaning.
Three kinds of classification are obtained in the exposi-
tion of the word contact. Phassaphusana (touch, touching)
is a classification according to the letter; samphusana (the
touching, to unite with) is according to the prefix; sam-
phus£tatt(t ·(the state of touching to unite with) is according
to the meaning. In this way the classification in the expo-
sition of all the remaining words should be understood.
Again, they are different for other four reasons:-(1) name,
(2) characteristic, (3) function and (4) opposition. (1) Take
the passage:-' What on that occasion is ill-will 1 That which
·on that occasion is hate, hating ' 6 • • • here ill-will and hate
are only different names for anger. Thus should the difference
in the difference of name.s be regarded.
(2) In the sense of group the five aggregates form one
1 Dhs. § 1060.
2 Vyafijanavasena, i.e., 'verbal form '-'-e.g., kodlw, kujjhanii, etc.
a Dhs. § 8. 4 Thus ciiro, augmented by vi-, anu .•
' Dhs. § 16 o lb. § 419
182 · Risings of Consciousness
aggregate. And of these, ' matter' has the characteristic of
[changing orJ transforming, ' feeling ' of experiencing, ' per-
ception ' of noting, ' volition' of co-ordinating, ' consciousness'
of cognizing. Thus these five aggregates have different
characteristics. Thus should the difference according to
characteristic be understood.
(3) There are four supreme efforts: ' a bhikkhu i:n this
religion sustaining his mind strives for the non-arising of
evil, [138] immoral states which have not arisen,' etc.,1 th1w
a single thing, that is, energy, by difference in function has
arrived at four places, and [thus] difference according to
difference in fucliction should be understood.
(4) The four bad states: they give weight to anger and not
to good states, they give weight to hypocrisy and not to the
good Law, they give weight to gain and not to the good Law,
they give weight to honours and not to the good Law~in such
ways difference according to difference by opposition should be
understood.
And this fourfold difference is obtained not only in contact,
but also in all the fivefold contact-group. Contact, indeed, is
the name of contact. . . . Consciousness is the name of
consciousness. Thus should the difference be understood by
means of the different names. And contact has the character-
istic of touching, feeling of being experienced, perception of
noting, volition of co-ordinating, consciousness of cognizing-
thus should be understood the difference in characteristics.
So contact has the function of touching, feeling of enjoying,
perception of noting, volition of co-ordinating, consciousness
of cognizing-thus the difference according to different func-
tions should be understood. Difference by opposition is not
obtained in the fivefold contact-group. But in the exposition
of absence of greed orlust, et c., there is this passage: 'Absence
of lust, of lusting, of lustfulness ' 2 -thus should difference
by opposition be understood.
1 B.P.E.• p. 358 (v.)-viz., (1) prevention of evil, (2) ejection of
evil, (3) induction of good, (4) maintenance of good. Dhs. § 32.-Ed.

2 Dhs. § 32.
Thus, in the exposition of all these words, should the differ-
ence obtainable in these four ways be understood.
There is a different twofold explanation: embellishment of
the term:, and strengthening or intensification.1 For when
phassa is uttered once only as if just pressing with the end of a
stick, then the word is not decorated, adorned, embellished.
When it is repeated as phassa, phusana, samphusana, samphu-
sitatta, according to the letter, the prefix and the meaning,
then there is decoration, ado,rnment, embellishment. As if
c
they were to bathe a young boy, dress him in a beautiful dress,

adorn him with flowers, smear his eye (-lids) and make only one
mark of vermilion on his forehead, then his forehead-decora-
tion would . not· be complete unless it were surrounded by
various colours and forehead marks were made. Thus should
this point be illustrated. This is the word-embellishment.
And the repetition by virtue of the letter, the prefix and the
sense is known as intensification. As when we say' brother!'
or I Reverend Sir!' or 'ogre,' or 'snake' [139] there is no in-
tensification till we repeat-brother I brother I and so on, so
when phassa is uttered once only as if just pressing with the
end of a stick, there is no intensification. But when it is re-
peated as phassa, phusana, samphusana, samphusitatta, accord-
ing to the letter, the prefix and the meaning, then there is
intensification. Thus this different explanation is twofold,
and the meaning everywhere obtainable by that difference in
the exposition of the words should be taken into account.
' This contact is on that occasion ' 2 means: on the occasion
when the first main [type of] moral consciousness experienced
in the realm of sense arises, this is the contact that there is on
that occasion. This is the elucidation of the exposition of
contact. We shall now elucidate only what is special in the
exposition of the other words, feeling, and so on. And the rest
is to be understood in the same manner as what has been said
(with reference to contact).
In the reply, ' That which on that occasion is .. .' 3 [the
- - - ··- - - - - -
1 Pyi reads (a) elucidation of one term by another; (b) confirmation
by means of embellishment or emphasis.
2 [)hs. ~ 2, ~ l,b.. § 3.•
184 Ris~ngs of .Consciousness
neuter gender] 'yarµ,' ('that which') is used through the in-
fluence of the [neuter] word' sata' (happiness),1 albeit in the
question [the feminine gender] 'katama' (what) is used:-
' what (katama) on that occasion is feeling 1'
In' born of contact with the appropriate element of mind·
consciousness ' 2 'appropriate' means 'suitable, fit for
pleasantness and pleasure.' For the word 'tajja' (appro-
priate) means' suitable.' As the Buddha has said: ' He speaks
words appropriate and suitable to it.' 3 And the mind-con-
sciousness is said to be appropriate in that it has been produced
by visible objects, etc., which render service to pleasure.
' Mind-consciousness ' is an element in the sense of being free
from an entity; hence 'mind-consciousness.' ' .Born of con-
tact ' 'means that it has been produced from, or in contact ;4
hence ' born of contact.' ·
' Mental ' is dependent on the mind. ' Happy ' is used in
the sense of sweet (like honey).
' That which on that occasion is '-according to the mean-
ing already given-' born of contact with the appropriate
element of mind-consciousness, a mental happiness- this is
the feeling that there is on that occasion' -on this wise all the
terms should be construed.
Now, by the word 'cetasika' included in the text-' the
mental pleasure5 etc.' ~bodily pleasure is inhibited. By the
word 'pleasure,' mental ill is inhibited. Ceto-samphassajarµ,
is born of mind-contact. ' The happy pleasurable feeling ' is
happy feeling, not unhappy; pleasurable [140] feeling, not
painful. The three following words are spoken in the feminine
gender.6 And the meaning is happy feeling, not unhappy ;
pleasurable feeling, net painful.
In the exposition of perception,7 ' born of contact with the
appropriate element of mind-consciousness' means the per-
ception which is born of contact with the element of mind-
consciousness, suitable to the perception that is moral.
1 B.P.E. : 'pleasure.' Seen. 6.
2·Diis. § 3. B.P.E. : ' representative intellection.'
3 Majjhima iii. 163. 4 Lege samphasse. 5 Sukhall!.
o Vaj,anii. (feeling) is/. gender. 1Diis.§4
Sanna (perception) is . the name of a real thing;1 san1ananii
is the act of perceiving by noting; sanjanitattarp, shows the
state of having perceived by noting.
The same is to be understood in the exposition of volition.2
· In the exposition of consciousness,3 ' consciousness' (citta)
is so called because of its variegated (citta) nature. 'Mind•
(mano) is so called because it knows the measure of an object.
'Mental action' (rnanasa) is just' mind.'
The tale of sense-impressions is a snare
4
That weaves its fetters to and fro in air.
-here m,anasa (sense-impressions) is [an adjunct of] mano.
Wherefore should thy disci_ple, Blessed One,
Delighting in thy Rule, 0 thou well-known
To men, as undergraduate set term
To life unconsummated in his mind ?5
-here 'mind' is Arahantship, but manasa is identical there
with mano, merely augmented in form.
'Heart• is the same as mind (citta). In the passage, 'I
will either scatter your mind or break your heart,' 6 the breast
is meant. In the passage, ' Methinks he chops with a heart
that knows hearts,'1 the mind is meant. In the passage 'the
vakka is the heart,' 8 the basis of heart is meant. But here
the mind is called' heart' in the sense of inwardness.
Mind also is said to be ' clear • in the sense of ' exceedingly
pure,' with reference to the subconscious life-continuum.9 So
the Buddha has said:~' Bhikkhus, the mind is luminous,
but is corrupted by adventitious corruptions.' 10 Though
immoral, it is called ' clear' because it issues [from subcon-
1 Sabhii.va.
2 Dhs. § 5: cetana. B .P.E. 'thinking.' See this corrected, Oom-
pendium, p. 235 f.-Ed. 3 Dhs. § 6 .
. 4 s: i. lll (Kindred Sayings i. 140).
5 lb. 121 (ib. 151 ). 6 lb. 207 (ib. 265).
7 Majjhima i. 32, which reads tacchati. Pyi reads gacchati.
8 Not traced.
9 Bhavanga. Cf. Compendium, p. 266. B. Psy., pp. 171, 178. 'The
Buddhist Philosophy of Change,' Quest Review, October, 1917, p. 16.
10 Anguttara i. 10.
186 Risings of Consciou.mess
scious vital conditions] just as a tributary of the Ganges
is like the Ganges and a tributary of the Godhavari is like the
Godhavari.
' Mind as organ of mind '-here as [an act of· grasping]
'mind' (mano) is declared to be a sense-organ (ayatana).
This it shows, not in the sense that devayatana means ' sphere
·of spirits,' but because mano itself is a sphere of sense.
The word iiyatana may mean either abode, mine, meeting-
place, [141] birth-place, or reason. To expand :-Among man-
kind, in such passages as ' the abode of the lord,2 the abode of
Vasudeva ' 3 -iiyatana means 'abode.' In such passages as
' an ayatana of gold, or of silver,' it !lleans ' mine.' In such
religious passages as,
In pleasant trysting place the passengers of air
Together flock . . .4
it means ' meeting-place.' And in such passages as: If there
be any ayatana, then he attains the ability of testifying . . . .,5
it means 'reason' (or ground for).
Here three of these meanings are suitable, viz.: birth-place,
meeting-place, reason. For mind is ayatana in the sense _of
birth-place as in the passage:-' states such as "contact"
and so on, are born in the mind.' 4 And mind is ayatana
in the sense of a meeting-place, as in the passage:-' External
objects, visible, audible, olfactory, gustatory and tangible
assemble there as objects in the mind;' 6 And mind is aya-
tana in the sense of reason (or ground), because of its being
the cause-in-relation of the co-existence, etc., of contact and
so on.
.The meaning of ' faculty of min.d ' has been discussed.
Viiiiia?Ja is cognizing. Viiiiiat;-a-khandha is consciousness
as an aggregate. The meaning of khandha (aggregate) should
be taken as group or mass, etc. ' It goes by the name of a
large khandha of water ' 7 -here klta.ndha is used in the sense
1 Manogahana.rµ. The conception of sensation as a grasping, or
being seized, is classic in Indian thought. Cf. B. Psy. 59.-Ed.
2 Issara. 3 Cf. Jat. iv. 82. 4· Anguttara iii. 43.
s Majjhima i. 494. 6 Nott.raced. 1 Not traced.

of mass. In such passages as, ' The khandha of virtue, or
of concentration,'1 it is iised in the sense of good quality. 'The
Blessed One saw a large piece of wood ' 2 -here it is used as
. mere designation. But in the present connexion it is called
' aggreg~te' symbolically. For in the sense of mass, one
(unit of) consciousness is a part (only) of consciousness. There-
fore, as one cutting a portion of ·a tree is said to ' cut the tree,'
so one consciousness, ·which is only a portion of the aggregate
of consciousness, is said symbolically to be the aggregate of
consciousness.
Tajjii manovinna~iadhatu . means .·· the element of mind-
. consciousness suitable to states such as ' contact,' etc. In
this expression a>single [moment of] consciousness is called
by three .·.names: mano {mind), in the sense of measuring;
viniiii'J!a (consciousness}, in·the sense of discrimination; dhatn
(element) in the philosophical sense of ultimate reality, or of
absence o.f a living entity. In this fivefold contact-group,
because phassa is cCl:i:1tact, and is not called ' born of contact
with the appropriate element of . mind-consciousness,' and
because consciousness is the element of mind-consciousness
(and is not called' born of contact with the appropriate element
of mind-consciousness'); therefore in this [142] couplet the
expression, ' born ()f contact with the appropriate element of
mind-consciousness' has not been adopted.
But·in the terms• initial application of mind,' etc., although
this expression. is obtainable, it is not brought out in this ex-
position of consciousness because it has been cut off. And a
difficult thing has been accomplished by the Blessed One, who
has brought out the expression after making an individual
classification of these states of the fivefold contact group.
True, it .would be possible to find out by sight, or by smell,
or by taste the. di;fference in the colour, smell and t aste of a
variety of waters or a variety of oiis which have been placed
in a jar and churned the whole day, yet it would be called a
difficult thing to dQ. But a thing of greater difficulty has been
accomplished by the supreme Buddha, who has brought out
1 Anguttara i, 125 f. 2 Saqiyutta iv. 179.

their designation after making an individual classification of
the immaterial states, viz., consciousness and its co-efficients
which have arisen in one object. Hence it was said by the
. Elder Nagasena: ' A difficult thing, your majesty, has been
done by the Blessed One.' 'What difficult thing, Venerable
Nagasena, has been done by the Blessed One ?' ' A difficult
. thing, your majesty, h~s been done by the Blessed One when
he declared the determination of these immaterial states, con-
sciousness and its co-efficients, which have arisen in one object,
saying this is contact, this is feeling, this is perception, this is
volition, this is mind.'
' Give an illustration.' 'As if, your . majesty, a certain
man were to go down in a boat to sea, and taking some water
in the hollow of his hand taste it with the tongue; would he
know, your majesty-this is Ganges water, this is Aciravati
water, this is Sarabhii water, this is Mahi water r ' It would
be difficult, venerable Nagasena.' ' A more difficult thing
than that, your majesty, was done when the Blessed One
declared the determination of these immaterial states, con-
sciousness and its co-efficients, which have arisen in one object
saying, this is contact, this is feeling, this is perception, this
is volition, this is mind.' 1
In the exposition of initial application of mind,2 this is
[called] ap-ply-ing in virtue of' plying' [the mind with objects].
To what extent is it plied ? [Vitakka] 'supplies' a pot, a cart,
a league, half a league-this is what goes on in ' application.'
This is the primary [notion] in the word takka. Vitakka,
'initial application' in virtue of ap-plying [sup-plying],
is an emphatic term for ' plying.' 3
1 Milinda i. 133. B. found this passage very useful, quoting it
also in the Visuddhi Magga; ch. xvii., and in the Papanca Sudani.
He here omits the Jumna river.-Ed.
2 Dhs. § 7.
3 Takka, Sanskrit tarka, is the Indian term for logic, or dialectic,
or reasoning. The root tark signifies to tum or twist. We only ap-

proach this in our ' controvert ' from wart, 'trt, to tum. Hence it has
only been possible (once the decision was made to follow S. Z. Aung'J
rendering of vitakka) to imitate B.'s play on the word by a parallel play
in ' ply.'.:,_Ed. B.'s commentators have the following: ' As the draw·
[Among the- equivaleµt terms]' intention' (sankappa) con-
veys the sense of thorough-designing. And 'fixation' is
the applying the selective1 mind to the object. Next [143],
'focussing' is the term for 'fixation,' intensified by a prefix.
Then, ' uplift of mind' is the elevating or setting up of con-
sciousness on to an ooject. And' right intention' is intention
which is praiseworthy, has won to a moral state because of
its veracity and progressiveness.
In the exposition of ' investigation,'2 the [kernel] of the word
ciiro expresses a going-about the object. This is the primary
meaning. 'Investigation' indicates general scrutiny. The
next terms with prefixes--anu-upa-viciiro-indicate order and
closeness in the investigation. Next, 'mental adjustment'
indicates the mind being fitted to its-object as an archer fixes
his arrow to the bowstring, and ' examination ' is either a sus-
tained consideration, or the opposite of want-of-consideration
(anu-pekkluita, an-ilpekkha,ta).
In the next exposition, zest (rapture)3 is a word of primary
meaning. The next two equivalents are developments of the
word joy ( y'mud, y'mod), augmented by their prepositions
a-, pa-. Or, as the act of blending medicinal herbs, or oils,
or hot and cold water is called modana, so also zest is a mOdana
(blending), because_of its making one blend out of co-existent
states.
To make merry-this is ' mirth.' To make very merry--
this is ' merriment.' They are synonyms for the behaviour
of mind in laughing and abundant laughing. ' Felicity'
implies wealth, a name for riches. And zest is wealth from
being the cause of joy and from its resemblance to wealth.
For as joy arises in a rich man on account of his wealth, so it
arises in one possessing zest on account of zest. Therefore
wealth is a name for zest or rapture which is established in the
intrinsic nature of delight. And a rapturous person is said
ing, dragging up, withdrawing of water in a pit, so is the takkana/tfo, akruf•

<!hana'l!i, vitakkana'!Ji of object in consciousness.'-fikii. 'The vitakka
which ai;ises as if mind were brought to object is really a dragging of
object to mind.'-Anutika.
. 1 Lit., one-pointed. 2 Dhs. § 8. 3 lb. § 9.
to be elated from the exaltation of body and mind. ' Elation '
is the state of an elated man. 'Attamanata' is one's own
delight. The mind of a rufiled or angry man,!" from being
a proximate cause of ill or pain, is not said to be'his own mind;
the mind of one who has appeased his anger, from being the
proximate cause of happiness or bliss, is said to be his own
mind: Hence the term ' one's own delight,' referring to the
state of one's own mind. And because it is not the mentality
of any other self and is a property of consciousness, therefore
~e read ' one's own mental delight.'l
In the exposition on one-pointedness of mind2 it stands un-
shaken in the object--this is 'stability.' The two following
words are the same augmented by prepositions. Another·
explanation is:-It stands combining associated states [144]
in the object-this is ' solidity.' It stands having dived and
entered into the object-this is' steadfastness.' In the moral
portion four states dive into the object-to wit, faith, mindful-
ness, concentration, understanding. Hence faith has been
· said to be the downward plunge, mindfulness to be the non-
floating, concentration to be the grounded stand and under-
standing to be the sounding penetration. And in the im-
moral portion three states dive into the object-to wit, craving,
opinionativeness and ignorance. Hence they are called the
down-plungers [or floods]. But one-pointedness of mind is not
strong enough to enter (in the immoral portion). As by sprink-
ling a dusty place with water and smoothing it, th~ dust sub-
sides only for a _short time and again resumes its original con-
dition whenever it is dry, so in the immoral portion, one-
pointedness of mind is not strong.3 And as when we sprinkle
a place with water poured from pots and dig it up with spades
and cement it by beating, pounding and kneading, an image
is reflected there as in a burnished glass, and the reflection is
true any moment though a hundred years were to pass, so
in moral [consciousness], one-pointedness of mind is strong.
* Ana.bhiracldho. 1 Attamanatii.. 2 DhB. § 11.
a Yet it is called 'steadfastness,' not because of its strength, but
because it is intent on one action-for instance, murder-till that is
accomplished.-'fikii
The Sect-ion of Exposition 191
' Absence of distraction ' is that which is opposed to the
'scattering' which arises by virtue of flurry and perplexity.
Consciousness, going. [to and· fro] through flurry and per-
plexity, is distracted. But in 'poise' such distraction is
absent. By flurry and perplexity consciousness is said to be
scattered; it is drawn here and there. But the state of mind
called 'unscattered mentality' is just the opposite. ·
' Calm ' is of three kinds---calm of the mind, calm when
settling [disputes], <?alm of all conditioned things. Of these,
the first is one-pointedness of mind in the eight attainments.
For, owing to one-pointedness of mind the wavering, the
trepidation of the mind ceases, stops; therefore it is called
calm of the mind. Calm, when settling [disputes] is the seven
Vinaya Rules beginning with 'Procedure in presence.'1
For through those rules cases of dispute are settled, pacified;
therefore it is called calm when settling [d~sputes]. And
because all conditioned things, at the advent of Nibbana, are
put to rest and pacified, therefore that Nibbana is called calm
of all conditioned. things. It is in this sense that calm of the
mind in the exposition of one-pointedness of mind is meant.
The 'faculty [controlling power] of concentration' is that
.which effects governance in the characteristic of concentration.
The ' strength of concentration' is that which does not shake
through distraction. 'Right concentration' is threefold-irre-
versible concentration, emancipating concentration,2 and
moral concentration.
[145] In the exposition of the' faculty of faith ' 3 -itis' faith·
as belief in the virtues of the Buddha, etc.; or faith is the
habit of believing in the Three Jewels, the Buddha (the Order,
the Law). 'Trust' is [the behaviour of mind which] has faith.
It dives into the virtues of the Buddha, etc., as though break-
ing themand entering into them- this is 'confidence.' By this
· beings have abundant assurance in the virtues of the Buddha,
etc.-this is 'assurance.' Or, it itself has great assurance in
1 See Vinaya Texts i. 68; iii. 45 f. (8.B.E. xiii., xviii.). Adhikara.Q.a.•

Samatha.
2 Supply niyyanikasamadhi in P.T.S. text. 3 Dh8. § 12.
them1 -this is 'assurance.' Now, when a different method
of explanation is adopted because of compound terms, as
faith-faculty, etc., the classification of terms is made by taking
the first member-and this is the rule in the Abhidhamma-
therefore the word 'faith' is repeated. Or, here it is not
like the term itthindriya, which is equivalent to faculty of
femininity; this faith as a faculty is the term 'faculty of
faith.' Thus the word ' faith' has been repeated to show
the equality between the two members. And thus the need
of repeating the first member in the expositions of all the words
is to be understood. It makes government (over associated
states) in the characteristic of choosing-this is the' faculty
of faith.' It does not waver on account of unbelief-this is
' strength of faith.'
In the exposition of the ' faculty of energy ' 2 the word
' mental' is said to show that energy is always mental. ' Bhik-
khus, that which is bodily energy is always energy as a factor
of wisdom; that which is mental energy is always energy as a
factor of wisdom. Thus energy is outlined. ' 3 Thus, in such
Suttas, even though this energy may be said to be bodily
from its arising in on~ walking to and fro, etc., yet it is not so
called as in the term 'body-consciousness.'4 Verily there is
only mental energy. It is to show this that ' mental ' has
been said. -
By the term ' initial putting forth of energy ' (viriyarambho)
the Blessed One rejects the putting forth of other than energy.
For the word arambha (putting forth) comes with the dif-
ferent meanings of kamma, offence, work, energy, cruelty,
destruction, etc. For instance:-
Whatever suffering comes to pass, arambha is the cause thereof.
And if arambha takes an end, there is no happening of ill:-5
here arambha means [our] kamma.
1 Abhippasii.do. 2 Dhs. § 13.

3 Sa11iyutta v. 111. P.T.S. ed. there reads agacchati.
4 In this term the organ of touch is meant.-Ed.
li Sutta-NipiUa, ver. 744.
' There is both arambha and repentance ' 1 :-here it is offence.
Great sacrifi'ces, all the mighty arambha:
These are not rites that bring a rich residt / 2
Here it is the labour over sacrificial pillars, etc.
[146] Bestir yourselves, rise up, renounce, .come forth
And yield yourselves unto the Buddha's r-ule ! 3
Here' bestir' (arabhatha) is energy.
' They work against (put to death, arabhanti) creatures
with the recluse Gotama's authority '4 : - here'the word means
cruelty.
' He refrains from samarambha of seeds or plants ' 5 :-here
it is destruction in the sense of cutting. breaking, etc.
But here the interpretation [of the word] is energy. Hence
m'.riyarambha means the putting forth which is energy.
Viriya. indeed has been declared to be arambha by virtue of
a putting forth. And this is the primary fact in viriya.
Next, ' striving' is by way of escaping from idleness.
' Onward effort' is so called by virtue of reaching a higher
and higher place.6 ' Exertion ' 7 is so called by virtue of rising
up and keeping going. ' Endeavour ' is so called by virtue
of special exertion; ' zeal,' of being zealous ;8 ' ardour,' of being
exceedingly zealous; ' vigour,' of firmness; ' fortitude,' of
bearing consci.ous:riess and its concomitants, or of bearing
the continuity of morality by unbroken procedure.
Another method of exposition:-This viriyarambha is
' striving ' in expelling lust, ' onward effort ' in cutting the
bonds, ' exertion' in escaping from the floods, ' endeavour'
in reaching the opposite shore, ' zeal ' in· being a forerunner,
' ardour' in exceeding the limit, ' vigour ' in lifting the bolt
1 Not traced.
2 Cf. S. i. 15 (Kindre,d Sayings i. 102), which omits the first two words.
3 lb. 157 (ib. 195). 4 Majjhima i. 368. 5 Dialogues i. 5, § 10.
6 Or, stepping over each station of idleness.-Tr.
1 Uddhar.:i yamanarp niyyamo (exertion is a striving upward).-'Tika.
s Zeal (Ussiiha) is endurance over against misery, or one's own

burden.-Abhidhiina{ika.
194 Risings of Oonsciousnes-s
[of ignorance], and ' fortitude ' in producing steadfastness.
'Verily, let the skin, veins and bones dry up ' 1 -thus by virtue
of unfaltering effort at such a time is the 'state of a man of
unfaltering effort.' The meaning is firm effort, steadfast
effort. Moreover, inasmuch as this energy does not put down
the desire-to-do, does not put down, let go, set free the charge
to do moral acts, but carries an unflinching mind, therefore it
is said to be of ' sustained conation,' · ' sustained bti.rden.'
Just as if they were to say,' Get a beast of burden, an ox, to
draw a burden from a marshy place not beyond the bullock's
strength,' and ·the bullock, pressing the ground with its
knees, were to carry the burden and would not allow it to drop
on the ground, so energy lifts up and seizes the burden in the
matter of doing moral acts. Hence it is said to be ' support
of burden.'
It exercises government (over associated states) in the
characteristic of supporting them or carrying out the accepted
work-this is 'faculty of energy.' [147] It does not fluctuate
on account of idleness-this is ' strength . of energy.'
' Right endeavour' is irreversible, emancipating, moral
endeavour.
In the exposition of the ' faculty of mindfulness ' 2 mind-
fulness is so called by virtue of calling to mind. This is the
primary word. It is. 'recollection' by virtue of repeated
calling to mind, ' calling back to mind ' by virtue of calling
to mind as though gone to the presence of the object. These
two words merely show increase on account of the preposition.
'Remembrance' (sarar:ata) is mental behaviour in remem-
bering. Inasmuch as it is a name for the Three Refuges
(sarat:a), the word mindfulness is repeated to inhibit that
meaning. ·Here remembrance means mindfulness.
Mindfulness is called ' bearing in mind ' from its nature
of bearing in mind a lesson heard or learnt; 'non-superficiality'
(in the sense of diving or entering into the object) is the state
of not letting the object float away. Not as pumpkins and
pots, etc., which float on the water and do not sink therein,
1 Sarp:yutta ii. 28, etc. 2 Dks. § 14.

does mindfulness sink into the object. Hence it is said to be
non-superficiality. From not forgetting a thing done or spoken
long ago, mindfulness is called ' non-obliviousness.' It
exercises government (over associated states) in the charac-
teristic of presenting or illuminating the obj ect_:this is the
' faculty of mindfulness.' It does not fluctuate on account of
negligence-this is ' strength of mindfulness.' ' Right. mind-
fulness' is irreversible, emancipating, moral mindfulness.
In the exposition of the ' faculty of understanding '1 under-
standing is so calleq in the sense of knowing plainly, i.e.,
making plain the meaning of various things. Or, understand-
ing is that which knows states under various aspects ·as im-
permanent, etc. l'his is the primary word. The behaviour
of mind in knowing widely is ' wisdom.' That which inves-
tigates impermanence, etc., is' search ' (vicaya). 'Research'
(pavicaya) shows increase by means of the preposition.
' Search for doctrine ' is that which investigates the doctrine
of the Four Truths . . Understanding is ' discernment ' by virtue
of discerning impermanence, etc. By means of the· different
prepositions understanding is called 'discrimination,' 'dif-
ferentiation.'
The state of a learned man is ' erudition.' The state of an
expert is' proficiency.' The state ofa subtle man is' subtlety.'
'Criticism' [here] is critical knowledge respecting impermanM
ence and kindred su,bjects. ' Reflection,' or, in whom it arises
it makes him think of impermanence:--this is ' reflection.'
' It examines impermanence,' etc.-'-this is 'examination.'
The next tarm, bhuri (breadth), is a name for the earth; under-
standing is like the earth in the sense of both subtlety2 and
amplitude; hence' breadth.' [148] And it has been said that
the earth is broad, and that a man endowed with understanding,
having richness and abundance like the earth, is of' b~oad'
understanding. Further, this bhuri is a synonym for under-
1 Dhs. § 16.
2 AB the earth, apart from rocks, stones and sand, etc., is called
subtle earth (bhiimi sal).ha), so understanding, apart from the rocks of
corruptions, is subtle.-Gary,fhi. Another reading is 'saI.J.thavittatthena'
='in the sense of stability and amplitude.'
standing, because this delights in the true [or revealed] mean-
ing.1
'It slays the corruptions and destroys them, as lightning
destroys stone-pillars' -this is ' sagacity'; or, it is' sagacity'
in the .sense of quickly grasping and bearing the meaning.
Next, 'in whom it arises it bends or inclines him to practise
that which is his pf\rsonal advantage,' or' it inclines associated
states to the penetration of the irreversible characteristic
marks '-this is ' guide.' ' It discerns states under various
aspects such as impermanence,' etc.-this is 'insight.'
'Comprehension' is that which knows impermanence,
etc., in right ways. In order to put the wicked mind
which has run off the track on to the right track, under-
standing urges it, just as a 'goad' urges horses of Sindh
who are off the track in order to put them on the right
track. It is like a goad, and is called 'incitement.'2 As
a controlling faculty understanding exercises government
in the characteristic of ' seeing impermanence,' etc. It does
not vacillate through ignorance- this is 'strength of under-
standing.' As a weapon, in the sense of cutting off the cor-
ruptions, understanding is the ' sword of understanding.'
In .the sense of rising high into the sky like a lofty building
it is the ' height of understanding.' In the sense of illuminat-
ing it is the ' light of understanding.' In the sense of shedding
lustre it is the ' lustre of understanding.' In the sense of
being splendid it is the ' splendour of understanding.' For
to the Wise Man,3 possessed of understanding and seated,
at one sitting the ten thousand world elements become of one
light, one lustre, one splendour. Hence it has been said that
understanding is light, etc. In these three words, though the
sense is accomplished by any one of them, the teaching is
made to meet the inclinations of [various] persons-for in-
stance, in such Suttas as ' Bhikkhus, there are four kinds of
light; which are the four ?-the light of the moon, of the sun,
1 An unreproduceable word-play of the 'buried city' species: bhiiriti
lihute atbhe ramati ti.-Ed.
2 Badly punctuated in P.T.S. ed.
a I.e., the Bodhisat.-Ariyalankara.
The .Section of Exposition 197
of fire, and of understanding. These are the four kinds of light.
Of these, the light of understanding is the best. Likewise,
bhikkhus, the four kin_ds of lustre . . . of splendour.'1 For
the meaning has been well analyzed in various ways, and others
understand it in different ways. The ' treasure of under-
standing ' is meant in the sense of causing, giving, and pro-
ducing delight,2 of being worthy of respect (or being varied),
of the difficulty of getting, or of manifesting it, of incompar-
ableness, and of being the property of illustrious beings.
Beings are not, on its account, deluded in the object, or
itself is not deluded in the object-this is 'non-delusion.'
The expression ' search for the doctrine ' has been already
explained.3 Why is it repeated ?-in order to show the anti-
thesis between non-delusion [149] and delusion. By that ex-
pression non-delusion shows its antithesis to delusion. And
non-delusion is not a thing altogether different from delusion:
but what is .meant here is that the non-delusion known as
'search for the doctrine' is opposed to delusion. Filially,
' right views ' are irreversible, emancipating, moral views.
In the exposition of the ' faculty of life ' 4 ' that persistence
which is in the immaterial states '. means the persistence which,
in the sense of establishing them, is in the associated immaterial
states. For when it is present, the immaterial states occur,
go on, continue; hence it is calleq 'persistence.' 5 This word
gives the nature of the faculty of life. And inasmuch
as these associated immat erial states-when there is
persistence-subsist, occur, maintain themselves, progress,
continue, preserve themselves, the terms subsistence, etc., are
given. As to the definition of the other terms :-by this the
co-existent states subsist-this is ' subsistence ' ; they ocour
-this is' occurrence.' So with' establishment.' The [stem]
vowel in the first word, yapana (occurrence), has been short-
ened, owing to the influence of scholars.6 By this the co-
1 A1J1]ultara ii. 13;) f. CI. "1. i. 14, 47 (Kindred Sayings i. 22, 67).
2 Read rati-kii.rahtthena. in P.T.S. ed.
3 Above, p. 195. 4 Dhs. § 19.
" Ayii. Ayii; causative of i, to go.-Ed.

6 Yapana, yapana. B.P.E.,' going on, being kept going on.'
198 Risings of Consciousness ·
existent states progress-this is ' progress '; they continue
-this is ' continuance '; they preserve themselves- this is
'preservation'; they live-this is 'life.' It makes govern-
ment (over associated states) in the characteristic of ceaseless
watching over the co-existent states-this is 'the faculty of
life.' . .
In the exposition of the ' strength' called ' sense of shame,' 1
' that which on that occasion' means ' by which state at the
time (of the first type 0£ moral consciousness).' Or, by change
bf gender (n:i.asculine for neuter), 'that state which arises at
the time (of the first main type of moral consciousness) ' -
thus should the meaning be known. ' Hiriyitabbena ' is the
inst:rumenthre case used in the sense of employment.2 The
meaning is:-it abominates, loathes misconduct of body and
other immoral states fit to be abominated. ' 0£ bad (states)'
means of low (states). 'Of immoral states' means of states
not produced by understanding (i.e., produced by ignor-
ance) ·; ' sampatti:ya ' is also in the instrumentive case in the
sense of employment. The meaning is :-it abominates, loathes
the attainment of, the endowment with these immoral states.
In the exposition of the strength called 'fear of blame,' 3 this
is in the instrumentive case in the sense of root-condition, [One
fears]4 on account of misconduct in deed, word, or thought,
where is fear of blame as. root-condition, and which is fit
to be feared. On account of the attainment of bad states
of the kinds stated, and having fear of blame as root-con-
dition-such is the meaning.
In the exposition of 'non-greed ' 5 non-greed works by
not-lusting. Disinterestedness is that which does not lust.
This is a word showing its own nature. 'Not-lusting ' is
behayjour in not lusting. A person possessed by lust is
' lustful,' the not being which is ' not lustful.' [150] The
state of a person not lustful is ' absence of lustfulness.'
' Ab3ence of infatuation ' is the opposite to infatuation. The
1 Dhs. § 30. 2 Or, of cause or condition.-Tika.

3 Dhs. § 31. 4 Cons~quences-e.g., purgato~y.-'fikii.
5 Dhs. § 32. Or ., disinterestedness.'
The SeCtion of Exposition 199
· other terms are behaviour in ' not being infatuated,' and the
state or one not infatuated.
That which does ·not covet is ' none covetousness.' ' Dis-
interestedness as the root of what is moral ' means that root
considered as disinterestedness, for this is that root-i.e.,
cause of moral states. It is moral and a root in the sense of
causal relation; hence 'moral root.'
In the exposition of non-hate,1 'non-hate' works by not
hating. 'It does not hate' - this is non-hate. ·This is a
word showing its own nature. 'Not hating' is behaviour in
not hating. The state of a person not hating is ' non-hatred.'
That which, from being opposed to ill-will, is not ill-will is
'good-will.' That which is not spleen from being opposed
to the pain of anger is' absence of spleen.' Non-hate is con-
sidered as a moral root- the meaning has already been
declared.
In the exposition of' repose of mental factors,' etc.,2 because
the word kayo means the three aggregates mentioned, there-
fore it is said, 'Of the aggregate of feeling,' etc. By it those
three factors are in repose, freed from suffering, have attained
relief-this is ' repose of mental factors.' The second word
(pa~ipassaddhi--composure) has been increased by the pre-
position. ' Calming' is the behaviour of mind in calming.
The second word (pa~ipassambhana - tranquillizing) has
been.increased by the preposition. By the endowment of
repose, the state of the three aggregates which have been
tranquillized is ' tranquillity.' All these words describe the
composure of suffering caused by the corruptions of the
three aggregates. By the second method3 the composure
of the suffering of the aggregate of consciousness is described.
Ease in change4 is buoyant behaviour, the lightly changing
in those three factors, their state in thus changing. As has
been said, it is the capacity for quickly revolving. 'Non-
sluggishness' is a word contrasting with heaviness. It means
the being not-burdened. 'Non-inertia' is the not being stiff5
1 Dhs § 33. 2 lb. § 40 ff. 3 lb. § 41. 4 lb. § 42.

'' Like a .python that has swallowed an iron stick.-Pyi
owing to the absence of the burden of sloth and torpor. These
describe buoyancy of behaviour in the three aggregates.
By the second section1 buoyancy of behaviour in the aggregate
of consciousness is described.
[151] 'Plasticity' means soft state. Herein fine smooth-
ness is .called soft. The state of that is ' suavity.' ' Non-
roughness' means the state of being not rough. 'Non-
rigidity' means the state of being not rigid (hard). Here
also the plasticity of the three aggregates and that of the
aggregate of consciousness are discussed consecutively.2
'Wieldiness ' 3 means soundness of action. Serviceableness
for moral action is the meaning. The remaining pair of words
(kammafinattarp, ka,mmannabhiivo-tractableness, pliancy) have
been increased in verbal form. 4 Here again the three
. aggregates and consciousness are taken consecutively.
' Fitness ' 5 means the fitting state. Ab:oence of disease
and sickness is the meaning. The remaining pair of words
have been increased in verbal form, and here also is consecu-
tive description.
'Rectitude ' 6 is the upright state. The state of procedure
with an upright behaviour is the meaning. The state of the
three upright aggregates and of the aggregate of conscious-
ness is 'rectitude.' 'Non-deflection' is opposed to crooked"
ness in flow, as of ox-urine; 'non-crookedness,' to that of
the crescent moon; 'non-twist' to that of a ploughshare.
1 Dhs. § 43.
2 The absence of resistance in acting morally on the part of these
states, which are not devoid of buoyancy, like those associated with
delusion, is 'plasticity' (mudita). The plasticity of immaterial states,
from resemblance to matter, etc., which are said to be plastic on account
of non-rasistance, is' suavity' (maddavata).-~ika.
3 Dhs. § 4.6 f.
4 The mind, exceedingly soft (mudu), being wet with craving.
is unwieldy for moral action, like powdered gold. The mind, very
rigid with conceit, etc., is unwieldy, like unheated gold. The mind
which is soft to the right extent ior morality is wieldy, like
properly tempered gold. Thus wieldiness depends on the right soft-
ness.-7'ika.
a Dlts. § 48 f. o lb. § 50.
He who, having done evil, says, ' I have not done it,' is said
to be crooked like ox-urine from having proceeded and backed
out. ·He who, while doing evil, says, 'I fear evil,' is said to
be crooked like the crescent moon from being crooked· in
general.. He who, while doing evil, says: ' Who may not fear
evil ?' is said to be crooked like the ploughshare from being
but slightly crooked. Or again, whoever has the three doors
of action impure is said to be crooked' like ox-urine '; whoever
has any two doors of action. impure is said to be crooked
' like the crescent moon ' ; and whoever has one door of action
impure is: said to be crooked like · the ploughshare. But the
reciters of the Digha-Nikiiya say: One, who in the whole
of his life practises the twenty-one things not to be pursued1
and the ·six things not to be practised2 is said to be crooked
like ox-urine. One who during the first portion of his life
fulfils the four Purity Precepts,3 abominates evil, is sensitive,
is observant of the precepts, and is like the preceding person
[152] in the middle and last portions of his life is said to
be crooked like the crescent moon. On~ who during the
first and middle portions of his life fulfils the four Purity
Precepts, abominat~s ~vil, is sensitive, is observant of the
precepts, and is like the preceding two types of persons in
the last portion of his life is said to be crooked like the
1 The !ika has the following enumeration of these: doctoring,
carrying messages, going on (other) errands, excision of tumours and

abscesses, anointing scara, giving emetics or aperients, cooking secre-
tions, preparing oil for the eyes (why are these five not included in the
first?), giving of bamboos, leaves, flower.s, fruits, bath-powder, ·tooth-
picks, water for face-bathing, medical powder.s, or chalk; cajolery,
idle talk .(I:t. pea-soup talk), petting children. Cf. a partly identical
list in Milinda 370.
2 These ara: vesiyagooora, asking alms from a prostitute's house
through friendship; vidhavagooora, or from a divorced woman's house;

thullakumiirigooora, or from an old maid's house; paiJrJ,akagooora,
or from an eunuch's house; pa(iagaragooora, or from the house of dealers
in drink; bhikkhunigocara, or from nuns' pramises.-fika.
3 I .e., restraint according to .the Patimokkha (Vin. Texts i. 1-69),
restraint of sense and other faculties, purity of livelihood, rastr<Lint

connected with the four requisites. Cf. Vi.~. Magga. ch. i.
ploughshare . . And the state of a man crooked by virtue of
the corruptions is called ' deflection,' ' crookedness,' ' twist.'
:Sy way of opposition to these, non-deflection, etc., have been
discussed. The teaching given has been determined by the
aggregates. For the non-deflection, etc!, are of the aggregates
and not of the person. Thus .by means of all these terms
behaviour in straightness of the three aggregates and of the
aggregate of consciousness has been consecutively discussed-
that is to say, of these immaterial states in the absence of the
corruptions.
Now in the words ,, Or whatever' this section of the con•
clusion 'has already been discussed. By it the exposition in
brief of the ' Or-whatever' states shown in the section of the
outline of states is now finished.
Enil. of the Discourse on the Section of the Exposition .
CHAPTER III
ON THE SECTION OF THE SUMMARY1
THUS far is finished the section of the determination of states
adorned by its eight divisions, to wit, four in the section of
outline (questions, exposition of occasion, outline of states,2
conclusion) and the same four in the · section of exposition._
Now the section of the summary is begun with, ' On that occa-
sion there are four aggregates.'3 It is threefold by virtue of
.outline, exposition and further exposition. Of these, 'Now
on that occasion there are four aggregates,' etc., gives the
outline. ' What on that occasion are the four aggregates 1'
etc., is the exposition. 'What on that occasion is the aggre-
gate of feeling 1' etc., is the further exposition.
Of these, in the section of the outline, there are twenty-
three portions beginning with the four aggregates. Their .
meaning should be taken thus:
At what time the first main type of moral consciousness,
1. Sa.Iigaha. Dks. §§ 58-120.

2 Dks. § 58 ff. (koHhasavara), etc.
3 Reading in P .T.S. ed. dhammuddeso as before.-Tr.
The ' Summary ' 203
experienced in the realm of sense, arises, those states exceed-
ing fifty1 which, excepting the ' Or whatever,' have been in-
cluded in the text, and which have arisen at that time as
factors of consciousness-all these being gathered together
make four aggregates ih the sense of groups: [153] two sense-
organs in the sense of ' ayatana ' given above, two elements
in the sense of intrinsic nature, emptiness of self, absence of
a living entity. Further, _three of these states are called
nutriments in the sense of causal relation. The rest are not
nutriments.
What then 1 Are these fifty-three (other than the three
imtriments) in a causal relation either one with another, or
wit~ matter originated by themselves, or are they not ?
[They are.] But the' three nutriment' states, in one way2 or
another,3 as causes surpass the fifty-three states; hence they
are spoken of as nutriments. How 1 To whatever present
states the remaining [factors of] mind and mentals are causal
relations, to those three contact also, as a nutriment, is in
causal relation .and sustains [or induces] the three feelings.
The volition of mind as a nutriment is also in causal relation
to them and sustains the three existences. Consciousness
as a nutriment is also in causal relation to them and sustains
the organism of Inind and matter in reconception. (Thus
as nutriments they surpass the fifty-three states.)
But is not this [consciousness as nutriment] merely a result,
while this first main type of consciousness is a moral conscious-
ness? [We reply:-] Although it is a moral consciousness, it has
been called consciousness as nutriment because of its resem-
blance to the consciousness which is a result. Or, these three
states are called nutriments in the sense of strengthening the
associated states, as material food strengthens the body.
Hence it is said : ' The immaterial nutrim~nts are causally
related, as nutriments, to their associated states and to the
material qualitie·s produced by them.' 4
1 Fifty-six in all.
2 They rander service as co·exist3nt states. This is the expansion
of tatha ('fikii) .
a This is the exp:imion of aiiiiathi ( .4nu~ilr.i) . 1 PaUhana.
Another explanation:- Because they are in a special causal
relation in the subjective continuity, material food and the
three states are said to be nutriments. Material food is
specially correlated to the material body of beings who par-
take of it; so is contact to feeling in the immaterial group; so
is mental volition to consciousness, and consciousness to the
dual organism. As the Blessed · One has said, ' Just as,
bhikkhus, this body is established on material food, stands in
dependence on it, does not stand without it, so from contact
as cause arises feeling, from feeling as cause arise activities,
from activities as cause arises consciousness, from conscious-
ness as cause arises the mental and material organism.'1 ·
Next, eight states are controlling faculties; in the sense of
dominant influence and not the rest. Hence it is here said:
'there are eight controlling faculties.' Again, five states are
Jhana-factors, in the sense of viewing the object closely.
Hence it is here said: 'there is fivefold Jhana.' [154] Next, five
states are Path-factors, in the sense of _means of escape from
the round of existence, and of being the condition of reaching
Nibbana. Hence it is here said: ' there is a fivefold Path.'
For although the Path is eightfold, yet, in the worldly con-
sciousness,2 the three abstinences3 are not obtained at one and
the same instant. Therefore it is said to .be :fivefold only.
But [it may be objected] there is this scripture: 'The Path
by which they came is a phrase for the Eightfold Ariyan
Path.' 4 In this Sutta the Path of insight preceding the Trans-
cendental Path is eightfold, just as the latter is eightfold.
Now, since the mundane Path, as implied by the term' path
by which they came,' is eightfold, should it not be eightfold
here also 1
Nay, it sho-u.ld not be. This Suttanta teaching is [carried
out by] expounding. In this way he said, for instance,
1 Not traced. Cf. Sarp,yutta v. 64f.
2 As represented in this first main type.-Ariyalankiira.
3 A scholastic term for the factora in the Eightfold Path called 'right
:;peech, action and livelihood. Abstinence from the oppo3ites of these.'

-Gompenclium, p. 97, n. 2.-Ed.
4 Sa'f}iyutta iv. 195.
_The ' Summary ' - 205
•Verily, before this happened, his bodily acts, vocal acts and
life were quite pure.' 1 But this [Abhidhamma] is bare
teaching without exposition. In the worldly consciousness
the three abstinences 'are not2 obtained at one and the same
instant, and therefore the Path is said to be fivefold.
Seven states are 'strengthS' in the sense of not shaking3 ;
three states are root-conditions in the sense of roots; one
state is contact in the sense of touching the object; one state
is feeling in the sense of experiencing the object; one state is
perception in the sense of noting the object; one state is voli-
tion in the sense of planning; one state is consciousness in the
sense of (a) being aware and (b) being variegated; one state
is the aggregate of feeling4 in the sense of a group and ex-
periencing the object5 ; one state is the 'aggregate of percep-
tion in the sense of a group and noting the object; one state
is the aggregate of mental co-efficients in the sense of a group
and planning; one state is the aggregate of consciousness in
the sense of a group and being aware and variegated; one
state is the sense-organ of mind in the SE;nse of knowing the
object and an abode, as was said above; one state is the con-
trolling faculty of mind in the sense of knowing and being
dominant; one state is the element of mind-consciousness in
the sense of knowing and of being intrinsic in nature, void
[of personality] and without a living entity. The remaining
states are not like this last. Moreover, excepting conscious-
ness, all the remaining states form one sphere of (mental)
states according to the meanings already given; and one
state is the element of (mental) states. By the section of the
conclusion: 'or whatever at that time,' the ' or-whatevers'
discussed above are taken here also. So everywhere should
also the ' or-whatevers' be taken. [155] After this section
we shall not discuss at such length. And in the sections of
the exposition and further exposition the meaning should be
understood as given above.
End of the Section of the Summary, otherwise called the
Section of Groups.
1 llfajjhima iii. 289. 2 Sic lege in P.T.S. ed. 3 Dhs. §§ 95 ff.
4 Sio lege in P.'l'.S. ed. 5 Dhs. §§ 112-120.
CHAPTER IV
OF THE SECTION ON THE VOID, OR EMPTINESS1
Now, 'At that time there are states,' thus the section of the
Void begins. It stands in two ways-outline and eixposition'.
In the former section, with the words, ' states there are,'
there are twenty portions, but in none of them is there a
division made, as above, into four, two, three. And why ?
Because such a division was made in the section of the sum-
mary. The states classified there are spoken of here. And
here there are only states; no permanent being, no soul is
known.2 These (fifty-six states) are mere states without
essence, without a guiding principle. And it is to show the
emptiness of this that they are stated here also. Therefore
the meaning should here be thus regarded.
At. what time the first main type of moral consciousness
experienced in tlie realm of sense arises, at that time, by virtue
of being factors in consciousness, the fifty and more states which
have arisen are ultimate things. There is nothing else whatever,
neither a being, nor an individuality, nor a man, nor a person.
Likewise they are aggregates in the sense of groups. Thus by
the former method the connexion of the matter should be
understood in all the words.
And because there is no Jhana factor different from Jhana,
. no Path-factor different from the Path, therefore here it
is said merely: 'there is Jhana, there is the Path.' There
is Jhana in the sense of viewing the object closely; there is
Path in the sense of condition [for getting Nibbana]; there is
no other, neither a being nor an individuality-thus should
the connexion of the meaning be understood in all the words.
The meaning of the section of the exposition is evident.
-Here ends the section of the Void. ·
Here ends the Commentary on the First Type of Conscious-
ness set forth as adorned with the three main sections.
i:Dhs. § 121.
2 Bhiivo ti satto, yo koci vii attho.-Tikii.
The Second Type of Consciousness 207
CHAPTER V
THE SECOND TYPE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Now to show the second class of consciousness, etc., the
beginning is thus: ' which are the states ?'1 In all of them
the main sections should be understood. as given in the first
class.
[156] And not only. the main sections, but the meaning
of all the words which have been analogously stated in the
first type of consciousness should be understood in the
manner alteady given. After this second class of conscious-
ness we shall comment on new words only.
In the exposition of the second class, ' sasankharena ' 2 is a
new word, meaning ' with safikhiira.' The import is ' with
external plan, effort, instigation, expedient, totality of causes.'
By what totality of causes, viz., an object, etc., the first main
type of consciousness arises, with that instigation, that expe·
dient the second . type arises. Thus should its arising be
understood. For instance'; in this dispens~~tion a certain
bhikkhu, dwelling in a border monastery, when the time has
arrived to sweep the courtyard of the shrine, or to attend to
the Elder or to listen to the Law, thinks thus: 'It is too far
to go and come back. I will not go.' He thinks again; ' It
is improper for a bhikkhu not to sweep the courtyard, not
to attend to the Elder, not to listen to the Law. I will
go,' and goes. Now whether it is from self-instigation, or
whether he has been admonished by another pointing out the
disadvantage in not doing one's duty, etc., and the advantage
in doing it, or whether he has done his duty by being impelled
thereto by such words as,' Come and do this,' his moral con-
sciousness is said to have arisen by external plan, by the
'totality of causes.
1 Dhs. § 146. 2 Dhs. § 147.

CHAPTER VI
. THE THIRD TYPE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
IN the tlµrd class of consciousness natfavippayutta means
'dissociated from knowledge.' This consciousness also takes
pleasure in the object, but here there is no discriminat-
ing knowledge. It should be regarded as the consciousness
arising in you.:'.lg boys who, when they see and greet a bhikkhu,
say, 'This is my Elder,' and show respect when saluting the
shrine and listening to the Law. But in the text here under-
standing is lacking in seven places.1 The remaining contents
need no comment.
CHAPTER VII
THE FOURTH TYPE OF QONSOIOUSNESS.2
IN the fourth class of consciousness also the same method
should be taken. Because it is said to be with external plan,
we may regard it as obtained, e.g., at such a time when parents
catch hold of young boys by the head and make them pay
homage to the shrine, etc., and the boys, although it was not
their aim, do so with pleasure.
CHAPTER VIII
THE FIFTH, SIXTH, SEVENTH, AND EIGHTH TYPES
OF OONSCIOUSNESS3
IN . the fifth class of consciousness, upekkhasahagata means
' accompanied by hedonic indifference.' [157] For this fifth
class is neutral towards the object, and there is also a discrimi-
nating knowledge. It is stated here in the text that in fivefold
Jhana there is indifference, in the eight controlling faculties
there is indifference. Accordingly, in the exposition of all
1 I.e., understanding as controlling faculty, strength, path, root,

course of action, and one of the pairs is omitted. Cf. Dhs. §§ 16, 20,
29, 34, 37, 53, 55.-Tr. .
2 lb. §§ 148 f. 3 lb. §§ 100 /.
Remaining _Types of Consciousness 209
hedonistic terms, neutraLfeeling has been discussed in a doc-
trine which eliminates both the happy and the unhappy, the
pleasurable and the painful. The state of indifference as a
controlling faculty should be understood as making government
(over associated states) in the characteristic of neutrality.
In one place, in the serial order of words, 'rapture' is wanting.
Therefore the states established in the text as factors of con-
sciousness are only fifty-five. It is with reference to these fifty-
five states that the decision in all the groups in all the sections
should be understood. The sixth, seventh and eighth classes
of consciousness should be understood in the same way as the
second, third and fourth. For in these classes there is only
change of feeling and lack of rapture. And the remainder of
the words, together with the manner of arising, is like the second,
third and fourth classes of consciousness. Again, when the
preamble of Pity and Sympathy1 [is being practised], these
classes, according to the Great Commentary, arise.
Now these are the eight types of mo.::d consciousness experi-
enced in the realm of sense. And all of them should be set forth
by the ten bases ofmeritorious acts. How? Bases of meritorious
acts, consisting of (1) charity, (2) of virtue, (3) of culture,
(4) of respect for elders, 2 (5) of dutifulness,2 (6) of sharing of
one's merit, (7) of thanksgiving, (8) of teaching, (9) of listening
to the Law, (l(J) of rectification of opinion-these are the ten
bases of meritorious acts.
Of these, (1) charity is the charitable meritorious act, which
is the basis of various advantages. And the same holds good
with the remaining words; for instance, when one has made a
gift of the four requisites, such as a robe, or of any object of
sense, or of the ten bases of giving, such as food, etc., the
volition that arises in the giver on the three occasions of pro-
ducing the articles prior to the gift, of making the gift, and of
recollection with a joyful heart after the gift, is the basis of
charitable meritorious action.
(2) 1'he volition that arises in one who takes the fivefold
1 Cf. Dhs. §§ 258-61.
2 Sahagata1.n has no meaning here except ' accompanied by intimation
through act and speech [of respect for elders and of dutifulness].'-Pyi.
precept, the eightfold precept or the tenfold precept; or who
goes to the monastery thinking, ' I will become a recluse ' ;
who becomes a recluse and reflects, ' I have fulfilled my wish,
I am indeed a recluse; that is good and well done'; who ob-
serves the Patimokkha and reflects on the four requisites,
such as a robe, etc.; who guards the eye-door, etc., regarding
objects of sense which have presented themselves; [158]
who purifies his mode of life-all such volition is the basis of
virtuous meritorious action.
(3) In one who cultivates himself, regarding both the eye
as impermanent, ill and selfless, and the other senses and the
mind, also visible and other sense-objects, objects of thought,
sense~cognition with mental cognition, sense~contact, feeling
born of sense-contact, perception of sense-objects, old age
and death all in the same way as is taught in analytical
knowledge1 by the path of insight, all his volitions that have
not attained ecstasy in the thirty-eight objects of conscious-
ness2 constitute the basis of meritorious action in culture.
(4) Respect as .a basis of meritorious action should be
known in such acts as going to meet an elderly person, taking
his bowl and robe for him, saluting him, showing him the way.
(5) Dutifulness. as basis of 1:11eritorious action should be
known in those acts by which we carry out duties great and
small towards our elders, when, for instance, we take the bowl
from a bhikkhu who ·has been ·seen to enter the village for
alms and fill it with food in the village, and present it to him,
or go quickly and take the bowl, etc., on hearing the summons,
' Go and bring the bhikkl\.us' bowl.' 3
(6) The sharing of one's merit as basis of meritorious action
should be recognized in the case of one who, having made a gift
and .an offering of perfume, etc., gives part of his merit thus:
'Let this share be for such an one!' or, 'Let it be for all beings!'
What then, will there be loss of merit to him who thus shares
what he has attained? No. As when from a burning lamp
1 Pa~isamhhida .
2 Viz., 40 Kammatthanas minus aloka and.aka.sa. Cf. Compend. 202 J.
3 R eading bhikkhiinaJ'.!l pattaip.. P .T.S. ed. reads: 'Go, bhikkhu,
and fetch that bowl.'
Remaining Types of Consciousness 211
a thousand lamps were lit, it would not be said that the original
lamp was exhausted; the latter light, being one with the
former [added] lights, becomes increased, thus there is no
decrease in our sharing what we have attained; on the con-
trary, there is an increase. Thus it should be understood.
(7) Thanksgiving as basis of meritorious action is to .be
understood as giving thanks with the words, ' Good, well
done!' when, for instance, others share their merit with us,
or when they perform another meritorious act.
(8) From a desire for gain, thinking, ' Thus they will know ·
me to be a preacher,' someone preaches a sermon. That ser-
mon is not of much fruit. One who makes the attainment of
emancipation the chief motive, not a desire for honour, and so
preaches to others the doctrine in which he is proficient-this
is the basis Qf meritorious action consisting of teaching.
(9) One who listens to the doctrine, thinking, ' They will
take me, thus listening, for one of the faithful' -this does
not yield much fruit. Another, out of the .softness of heart,
suffusing good,1 listens, thinking, ' There will be much fruit
for me.' This is the basis of meritorious action consisting
of listening to the Doctrine. ·
[159] (10) To correct one's own views is the basis of meri-
torious actiop. of rectified opinion. But the reciters of the
Digha-Nikaya say that rectified opinion is the characteristic
of assurance respecting all things. 2 For by it there is much
fruit to one doing any sort of merit.
Of these bases of r;neritorious action, (1) charity arises with
the thought 'I will give charity,' when he is making the gift,
and when he reflects 'I have given it.' Thus the three voli-
tions-preliniinary volition, volition at the time of making the
gift, subsequent volition-become one, and constitute the
basis of meritorious act consisting of charity.
(2) That which consists of virtue also arises with the
thought, ' I will fulfil the precepts,' when he is fulfilling them,
and when he refl~cts : 'I have fulfilled the precepts.' All the
1 Either to himself or others.-Pyi.
2 I.e., all courses of moral action, or bases of meritorious action.-
Pyi.
three volitions, becoming one, constitute the basis of meri-
torious act consisting of virtue.
So for the remaining eight.
In the Suttas there are only three bases of meritorious action
-charity, virtue and culture. The other bases should be under-
stood as included in these three. Respect and dutifulness are
thus included in that which consists of virtue. Sharing of
merit and thanksgiving1 are included in that which consists
of charity; teaching, hearing the Law and rectification of
opinion in that which consists of culture. Rectification of
opinion, in the doctrine of those teachers who say that it has
the characteristic of assurance in all the basee, is comprehended
in the three bases of charity, virtue and culture. Thus these
bases of meritorious act form three in abstract and are ten
when expanded.
Now, as to these bases, when we think' I will give in charity,'
thought works by one or other of those eight classes of moral
consciousness experienced in the realm of sense; in making
the gift we give by one of them; in reflecting ' I have given
charity,' we reflect by one of them; in thinking 'I will fulfil
the precepts,' we think by one of them; in fulfilling the pre-
cepts we fulfil by one of them; in reflecting ' I will develop
culture,' we think by one of them; in developing it, we develop
by one of them; in reflecting ' I have developed culture,'
we reflect by one of them. [160] In thinking ' I will pay
homage to my elders,' in paying it, in reflecting ' I have paid
it,' we think, reverence, and reflect · by them. In thinking
' I will do my duty by the body,' in doing it, in reflecting ' I
have done it,' we think and reflect by them. In thinking ' I
will share my merit,' in doing it, in reflecting 'I have shared
it'; in thinking 1 I will give thanks for a gift of merit by another,
or for the merit acquired by others '; in giving thanks; in
reflecting 'I have given thanks,' we work by those eight
classes. In thinking ' I will preach the doctrine ' ; in preaching
1 This is included in charity because, as a loving giver, sacrificing a
faultless thing, re]oices at the gain of another, so one who gives thanks
rejoices. at· another's possessions.-filca.
it; in reflecting 'I have preached it,' we think, preach, reflect
by them. In thinking ' I will listen to the doctrine ' ; in doing
so; in reflecting ' I have listened,' we do likewise. Likewise
in thinking ' I will rectify my opinion.' But in rectifying
our opinion we do so only by one or other of the fou..r main
classes of moral consciousness associated with knowledge. In
reflecting 'I have rectified my opinion,' we do so by one or
other of all the eight.
In this connexion1 there are four Infinites, to wit, (1) space,
(2) world-systems, (3) groups of sentient beings, (4) the know-
ledge, of a Buddha.
(1) There is, indeed, no limit to space reckoned as so many
hundreds, thousands, or hundred thousands of yojanas to
east, west, ·north, or south. If an iron peak of the size of
Mount Meru were to be thrown downwards, dividing the earth
in twain, it would go on falling and would not get a footing.
Thus infinite is space.
(2) There is no limit to the world:systems reckoning by
hundreds or thousands of yojanas. If the four [161] Great
Brahmas, born in the Akani~~ha mansion, endowed with
speed, and capable of traversing a hundred thousand world-
systems during the time that a light arrow shot by a strong
archer would take to travel across the shadow of a palmyra
tree, were with such speed to run in order to see the limit of
the worldcsystems, they would pass away without accom-
plishing their purpose. Thus the world-systems are infinite.
(3) In so many world-systems there is no limit to beings,
belonging to land and water. Thus infinite are the groups of
beings.
(4) More infinite than these is a Buddha's knowledge.
Thus of the countless beings in the countless world-
systems, many kinds of moral consciousness experienced in
the realm of sense, accompanied by joy, associated with know-
ledge, and with external aid, arise to one and many to many.
And all of these in the sense cif being experienced in the realm
1 Or place, {hane, explained by the commentaries as referring to
the Great Commentary.~Tr.

of sense, of being accompanied by joy, of being associated with
knowledge, of being without external aid, may be classified
in one group-namely, the main class of consciousness accom-
panied• by joy, thrice-con~itioned and automatic. And the
same with the main class of consciousness '-with external aid,'
and so on down to the eighth class, accompanied by
hedonic indifference, dissociated from knowledge, twice-con-
ditioned, with external aid. Now, all these classes of moral
consciousness experienced in the realm of sense, arising in the
countless beings in the countless world-systems, the Supreme
Buddha, as though weighing them in a great balance, or
measuring them by putting them in a measure, has classified
by means of his omniscience, and has shown them to be eight,
making them into eight similar groups. Again, in this con-
nexion1 the striving for merit has been taken in six ways.
There is merit done by one's own nature, merit done after the
example of another, inerit done by one's own hands, merit done
by ordering (another), merit done with knowledge of the result
of kamma, merit done without knowledge of the result of
kamma. 2 , And anyone working merit by any of the first four
methods does so by one or other of these eight classes of moral
consciousness. One working merit by the fifth does so by the
four classes ' associated with knowledge ' ; one working it by
the sixth does so by the four classes 'dissociated from know-
ledge.'
Further, in this connexion the four purities of gift have been
reckoned, to wit: lawful acquisition of the requisites, greatness
or nobleness of volition, properties of the basis,3 consummate
virtue. Of these, requisites obtained through righteousness
and equity are lawful requisites. [162] Greatness of volition
is his who gives with faith and confidence in kamma and its
result. The state of freedom from the Four Intoxicants is
fulfilment of right virtues in the recipient. The state of the
saint purged of the intoxicants, when he_ emerges from jhana, is
1 See preceding note.

2 Or, merit done with comprehensive knowledge and that done with-
out it.-Tr. 3 I.e.,. virtue in the recipient.-Tr. ·
consummate virtue. The moral consciousness experienced in
the realm of sense of one who is able to make gifts connecting
these four factors yields fruit even in this bodily existence,
like that of Pu:µJ;lakase!thi, Ka~avalliya, Sumana the flower-
seller, etc.
Considered in abstract, the whole of this moral conscious-
ness experienced in the realm of sense is on~, being grouped
as consciousness (citta) in the sense of knowing the object
and of being varied. By way of feeling it is twofold: accom-
panied by joy, or by hedonic indifference. By way of teach-
ing showing the classification of knowledge ~ it is fourfold:
(a) type of consciousness, without external aid, accompanied
by joy, associated with knowledge; and type of consciousness,
without external aid, accompanied by hedonic indifference,
associated with knowledge; 1 (b) the same associated with
knowledge and with external aid; (c) the same without ex-
ternal aid and dissociated from knowledge; and (d) the same
with external aid and dissociated from knowledge. Thus
it is according to the teaching on the classification of know-
ledge. Thus in this fourfold division there are eight kinds of
moral consciousness, to wit, four without external· aid and
four with external aid considered under this head. Know-
ing these truly, the Blessed One, the omniscient, most ex-
cellent of leaders, best of sages has declared, taught, regu-
lated, established, discussed, analyzed, and expounded them.
End of the Exposition of Moral Consciousness in the world of
sense-experience, [a portion] of' The Expositor,' the Commentary
· on the ' Compendium of States.'
1 In the sense of association with knowledge and of being without
external aid, these two are one.-Tr.

PART V -DISCOURSE ON.
MORAL CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE REALM OF
ATTENUATED MATTER 1
CHAPTER I
JR.A.NA-THE FOURFOLD SYSTEM
Now the beginni~g of this division: ' Which are the states that
are moral ?' 2 proceeds to show the nature of moral conscious-
ness in the realm of attenuated matter. In the reply, by
[attenuated] matter, life under those conditions is meant.
' That he may attain to' -i.e., may obtain rebirth, renewed
existence, be produced there. ' Way thereto' -i.e., a means.
The import is:-He traces out, seeks after, engenders, effect"s
that rebirth. And this is what has been said: ' He develops
the path (magga) by means of which there is birth, existence,
production in that sphere of life.' What then? By this
path is there assuredly rebirth in that sphere? Not so. By
such utterances as ' Bhikkhus, develop [ecstatic] concentra-
tion; in such a state one knows, one sees as things really are,' 3
we see that there is a transcending even of that spher~ by pene-
tration [of insight]. Nevertheless, for rebirth in that sphere
there is no path other than this. [163] Hence the words:-
' he develops the path for rebirth in the sphere of attenuated
matter.'
In its meaning, this path is volition, or states associated
1 Rupiivacara, lit. sphere of matter or material qualities, ar sphere
where riipa's or objects of sight are the principal medium of.experience.

-Comp., p. 12. Actually, the material environment and the corporeal
frames in those realms seem to have been as varied in kind as in the
lower planes of the Kamavacara 'heavens,' but more refined or sub-
limated. Cf., e.g., Dialogues ii. 244, § 17. Rendered' form' in B.P.E.,
whereon cf. Comp. 271.-Ed. ·
2 Dhs. §§ 160 ff.
3 8a~n~tta iii. 13; v. 414.
216
Fourfold Jhiina 217
with volition, or both. In the passage: ' Sariputta, I know
purgatory and the path leading to purgatory,' 1 the' path' is
the volition [the will that leads thereto]. In the lines:
Faith, modesty and -meritorious giving-
These are the things that men of worth pursue ;
This, say they, is the path celestial;
Hereby we pass into the deva-world, 2
states associated with volition are the ' path.' Volition and
states associated with volition are the' path' in.the Sankharu·
papatti Butta, etc.:-' This, bhikkhus, is the path, this is the
way.' 3 In the present connection, from its being said to be
jhana, the states associated with volition are intended. And
inasmuch as volition in jhana drags in rebirth, therefore both
volition and the associated states increase. ·
' Develops ' 4 means to beget, produce, increase. This
is the meani:p_g of .bhavana here. Elsewhere the meaning
is different according to the. preposition, as sambhavana,
paribhavana, vibhiivana. Of these, sambhavana means re-
ligious confidence, thus:-' In my Order, Udayi, my disciples
believe in the higher ethics, knowing that the recluse Gotama.
is virtuous and is endowed with the higher ethics.' 5 'Con-
centration perfected by virtue is of much fruit, of great advan-
tage; understanding perfected by concentration is of much
fruit, of great advantage; the mind perfected by understanding
is well freed from the Intoxicants ' 6 -here paribhiivanii means
perfecting. Vibhiiiiana means disappearance in: 'cause
matter, cause feeling, perception, activities, consciousness
to disappear.' 7
Again, bhavanii is used in the sense· of producing and
increasing, e.g.:-' Udii.yi, I have preached to the disciples
1 ·Majjhima i. 73.
2 Anguttara iv. 236. Bur.rnese t~xts, for diviyaiF (celestial) read viri-
ya1J1·· Cf. Points of Gontrov~sy, 199.
a Majjhima iii. 100.
4 B.P.E. : ' cti.ltivates ' (bhaveti). Cf. B. Psy. 107 n. 1, 133, 158.
s Majjhima ii. 9.
·6 Digha ii. 81 (Dialogues ii. 85 f.>·. 7 Not traced.
the practice according to which they develop the four applica-
tions in. mind£ulness.'1 And such is its meaning here also.
Hence it has been said that bhaveti means to beget, .produce,
increase. But why is the teaching l;iere on the moral con-
sciousness of the realm of attenuated matter initiated by the
personal agent, and not by taking the conscious state (dham-
ma ), as in the exposition of the moral consciousness of the
sensuous realm 1· [164] Because it should be accomplished by
practice. For the moral consciousness of this realm· is to be
accomplished by one or other of the four Modes of Progressive
Practice.2 It does not arise without progressive practice. like
that of tp.e sensuous realm. And progress arises when there
_is a person to attain it. To show this meaning the 'Blessed
One, in giving the teaching introducing first the person, has
said: 'he develops the path for rebirth in the RU.pa sphere.'
Next, the phrase ' aloof, indeed, from sensuous desires ' 3
means being separated from, being without, having parted
from the pleasures of sense. And the word ' indeed ' (eva)
here is to be understood as having the meaning of assurance. 4
Because it has this meaning the Blessed One shows the oppo-
sition of the First Jhana to the pleasures of sense which do not
exist in the interval when one has attained it (First Jhana),
and its attainment only by the rejecting of them. How 1
·when thus, by being aloof from sensuous desires, assurance
is given, this meaning is made clear :-as where darkness exists,
there is no lamp-light, so this Jhana does not arise in the
presence of sensuous desires, which, indeed, are opposed to it.
As by abandoning the hither bank, the thither bank is obtained,
so by abandoning .sensuous desires this Jhana is attained.
Therefore he made thi.s a matter of assurance.
Herein one might object: ' But why is this " indeed " spoken
with the preceding term (i.e., sensuous desires) and not with
the following term (i,e., immoral states) 1 What 1 should one
live attaining to this Jhana without being aloof from im-
moral s.tates 1' Not thus should the matter be understood.
i Majjkima _ii. 11. 2 Dks. §§ 176 ff.

a Dks. § 160. 4 Niyamattho.
Foitrfold Jhana 219
Eva,-it is true, is spoken with the preceding term, because
jhana is an escape from sensuous desires; and jhana is that
because it has passed beyond all sensuous conditions, and is
opposed to the lust of sense-desires. Accordingly he said:
' From sensuous desii:es this [jhana] is the escape, this is the
exit.'1 Yet the word 'indeed' may also be used with the
following term, as it is in 'Indeed, bhikkhus, in my dispensa-
tion . . . the first class of recluse is to be found, the second
class of recluse is to be found.' 2 For it is not possible to live
in the attainment of this jhana without being aloof from those
immoral states, known as the Hindrances, which are so dif-
ferent from .it. Thus assur.ance should be understoo_d in both
· the terms, And although, in this pair of te~ms, by the common
word ' aloof' all kinds of aloofness are included, such as that
of the co~responding part and so on, yet here only aloofness
of body, aloofness. of mind and by aloofness arrest [of the
Hindrances] a.re to be understood.
By the term 'sense-desires' the desires based on objects
of sense are referred to, as in the Mahaniddesa:-' What
are the desires based on objects, delightful and lovely rs
And. in the Mahaniddesa and the Vibhanga these are
said to be sense-desires of our lower nature,4 e.g., ' The desire
that is will, [165] lust, lust of the will, lustful intentions.'5
All the sense-desires of our lower nature also should be under-
stood as included. This being so, the meaning of ' aloof in-
deed from sensualities ' ought also to be ' aloof indeed from
sense-desires based on objects,' by which bodily aloofness is
meant. ·
[In the next clause:-] ' aloof from immoral states,' the
proper meaning is ' separated from. the sense-desires baseQ.
on our lower nature, or all immoral states,' by which mental
aloofness is expressed,
By the former clause (i.e., aloof indeed' from sense-desires),
because it has been said to be aloof from the sense-desires
1 D'igha iii. 275;(vii.)._ 2 Anguttara ii. 238.
a Maha-Niailesa 1.
4 Specified as the ten kilesa's. On this t erm see B .P.E., p. 327 f .
Ii Vibhanga 256.
·based on objects, therefore it is clear that the pleasure of
enjoying such sense-desires has been given up. By the second
clause (i.e., aloof from immoral states), because it has been
said to be aloof from the sense-desires based on our lower nature,
it is clear that the bliss of jhana-emancipation has been com-
prehended.1 Thus from their being said to be aloof from sense-
desires based oµ objects and on our lower nature, by the first
of the two phrases is shown clearly the relinquishment of the
basis of the lower nature itself, by the second, that of our lower
nature; by the first, the giving up of frivolity, 2 by the second,
that of foolishness; by the first is sbown the purity of motive,
by .t he second, the nourishment of the wish (for Nibbana). 3
Thus far, in the clause 'from sense-desires,' we have the
method for the portion including sense-desires based on objects.
In the portion including sense-desires of our lower nature,
'sensuous desires,' variously considered as will, lust, etc., is the
will of those desires. This sensuous desire, though included
among immoral states, is taken separately, as being opposed
to jhana in the same way as it is said in the Vibhanga :-
, Herein what is the sensuous desire which is the will thereof ?'4
Or it is taken in t~e first phrase as being sensuous desires
of our lower nature, and in the second phrase as being included
in things immoral. And the plural ' from sense-desires,'
·not the singula,., is used to show its manifold. nature. And
although other states are immoral, only the Hindrances are
spoken of as showing the opposition to, hostility of the higher
jhana factors in the same way as is said in the Vibha1'tga :--
,Herein which are the immoral states 1 Sensuous desire,' etc.5
For it is said that the Hindrances are opposed to the jbina-
factors, which are hostile.to them and dispel and destroy them.
1• This sentence is omitted in the P.T.S. ed.-Ed.

2 I.e., to lust after any and every visible object met with.-Pyi.
3 By being pure from the corruptions.- '.I'ikti. Or, asayaposana
means tl).e fulfilment of one's wish, which consists in the accom-
plishment, by means of good deeds done in former existences,. of ante-
cedent conditions for the development of jhana.-Anufika.
« Cf. Vibhanga, loc. cit.
5 Ibid.
Fourfold Jhana 221
Likewise it is said, in the Pe~kopadesa, 1 that concentration
is opposed to sensuous desire, rapture to ill-will, initial applica-
tion of mind to sloth and torpor, bliss to flurry and worry, sus-
tained application of mind to perplexity. Thus the former clause
- ' aloof indeed from sensualities '-expresses separation from,
by the discarding of, sensuous desire, the latter clause-' aloof
from immoral states '-separation from the five Hindrances.
And if we include what has not been [explicitly] included,
the separation by discarding is stated, in the first and second
clauses, respectively, of sensuous desire and of the remaining
Hindrances; of greed (one of the three immoral roots, with
the five pleasures of sense for object) and of hate and delusion
[the other immoral roots] with the bases of vexation, etc.
[166] for object; of sensuality as' flood,' 'bond,' 'intoxicant,'
' grasping,' ' the physical knot ' of covetousness, the lust of
desire as' a fetter' among the' floods,' etc., and of the remain-
ing floods, bonds, intoxicants, graspings, knots and fetters
of craving and states associated with it, and of ignorance and
states associated with it; and also of the eight states of con-
sciousness associated with greed and of the remaining four
immoral states of consciousness. · ·
So much, then, for the setting forth of the meaning of ' aloof
indeed from sensualities and aloof from immoral states.'
Now, having so far shown the factor eliminated in the First
Jhana, the- clause-' with initial and with sustained appli-
cation of mind '-is next stated to show the factors associated
with it.
In this phrase jhana is said to arise, together with initial
and sustained application, classified according to the character-
istics, etc., already given above [in connection with the realm
of sense, a mental state which] has arrived at the realm of
attenuated matter through association with ecstasy. It has
been said that, as a tree is found with its flowers and fruits,
so this Jhana occurs with initial and sustained application.
And in the V ibhaiiga, ·the teaching, as determined in a personal
way, is given thus:-' One is endowed with, possessed of, this
1 Here called ' Petake.'

initial application, this sustained application,' etc:t But the
meaning there is to be understood as in this passage.
In the term ' born of solitude ' the meaning is separation,
solitude, freedom from the Hindrances. Or it means' solitary,'
'separated.' The group of states associated with jhana
and separated from the Hindrances is the meaning. And
' born of solitude ' is born from that solitude, or in that
solitude. -
Next, 'full of rapture-bliss' :~these terms have been set
forth above. Of the :fivefold rapture this is the' all-pervad-
ing rapture,'2 which, being the root of ecstatic concentration,
goes on increasing and has reached association ~ith concen-
tration. This is the rapture meant here. And this rapture
and this blis$ are obtainable in this jhana; hence it is said .to
be 'full of rapture and bliss.' Pitisukha"n means rapture
and-bliss, like ' Dhamma-Vinaya,' e_tc. There is the rapture
and bliss born of solitude of, or in, this jhana; hence ' born of
solitude, full of rapture-bliss.' For verily as the jhana is
born of solitude, so in it the rapture and bliss are also born
of solitu,de. and are obtainable in it. Therefore it is proper
to say' bo:i;n of solitude and full of rapture-bliss' as one term.
But in the Vibhanga it has been said in this way: 'This bliss
is accompanied by this rapture,' etc.3 ·The meaning, however,
is to be understood as in this passage.
[167] 'First Jhana '-this is the im1llerical order. 'First'
is the first to have arisen4 ; and also that ip is the first to be
entered into. But this last meaning is not a sure character-·
istic. For an aspirant who is of practised self-control, and has
attained the eight attainments, is able to enter into jhana
from the beginning to the end, and from the end to the begin-
ning, and also to fall into it at intermediate stages. Thus this
jhana is first in the sense of arising first.
Jhana is twofold : that which (views or) examines closely
the object and that which examines closely the characteristic
marks~ Of these two, 'object-scrutinizing ' jhana examines
1 Vibhanga 257, 1. 12 f. 2 See above, p.153.

3 V ibhaliga 258. 4 Uppannan ti. Or, to be attained.
Fourfold Jkana 223
closely those devices [for s_elf-hypnotism]1 as mental objects.
Insight, the Path and Fruition are .called 'characteristic-
examining jhiina.' Of these three, insight is so called from
its -examining closely the characteristics of impermanence,
etc. Because the work to be done by insight is accomplished
through the Path, the Path is also so called. And because
Fruition examines closely the Truth of cessation, and possesses
the characteristic of truth, it also is called 'characteristic-
examining jhana.' Of these two kinds of jhana, the ' object-
examining ' mode is here intended. . Hence, from its examining
the object and extinguishing the opposing Hindrances,2 -
jhiina is to be thus understood.
'Having attained' is said to niean 'having approached,'
' having reached,' or,' having fulfilled,' ' having accomplished.'
In the Vibhanga, ' having attained ' is said to mean the getting, ·
gaining, attainment, full attainment, touching, realizing,
fulfilling of the First Jhiina. 3 There the meaning is to be
understood in the same way.
' He lives ' means to be endowed with the Jhana, the various
kinds of which have been distinguished above by the mode of
behaviour corresponding to that Jhiina, and to accomplish
the progress or function, continuance, preservation, main-
tenance, regulation, living of a personality. Indeed, it has
been said in the Vibhanga, that 'he lives' means to progress,
continue, preserve, maintain, regulate, live. 4 Hence 'he
lives.'
In the term' earth-device,' the circular [portion of] earth
is called earth-device as representing the entire earth. The
image of the mark, or the after-image obtained in dependence
on. that disc of earth, is also called the ' earth-device'; so also
is the jhiinaobtained in that image. Of these three meanings,
the last is to be understood here. The meaning in abstract
is that he is living in the attainment of the First Jhiina
known as that of the earth-device. [168] With this earth-
1 See B.P.E.; p. 43, n. 4, 57.
2 On this, as praceding Jhana, cf. Dialogues i. 82-84; Campen·
dium 54.-Ed.
3 Loo. cit. - 4 Yibhanga, loc. cit. B.P.E., 'abides in (viharati).'
224 Risings of Oonsqiousness
device, what ought to be done by a clansman's son who has done
th.e preamble, induced the fourfold and fivefold Jharias, in-
creased insight with jhana as proxi~ate cause, and who is
desirous of attaining Arahantship 1 At first, having purified
the Four Precepts of restraint known as the Patimokkha,
restraint of controlling faculties, purity of life and dependence
on requisites; he should ·establish himself in the sublimer
Precepts; he should cut off any impediment, which exists
in him, among the ten impediments beginning1 with ' house-
life '; he should approach that good friend, who gives him
stations of exercise; he should study that exercise befitting his
own practice among the thirty-eight stations of exercise as
given in the Text,2 and if the earth-device is suitable he should
take that up; he should reject an unsuitable monastery,3 living
in one that is suitable for his jhiina culture; he should sever
the minor impediments; and by not slackening the arrange-
ment 'of the entire process of culture, comprising the different
stages of preamble, guarding of the image, a voiding of the
seven unsuitable things, pursuing the seven suitable things,
and proficiency in the tenfold ecstasy, he should practise with
a view to the attainment of jhana.
This is an abstract; the detailed account is to be learnt from
the account given in the Visuddhi-Magga. 4 The same remark
holds good in the case of the following Jhanas. The entire ·
process of culture of all the stations of exercise has been de-
tailed in the Visuddhi-Magga, where the method of all the
Commentaries has been followed. What good is there in
repeating what has been said in various places 1 We shall
-therefore not explain it in detail again. Without spoiling
the meaning, we shall without break give the explanation of
the Pali Text in order due, without repeating ourselves.
Finally, the ph;ase 'at that time' means the time of his
life when he has attained the First Jhana. 'Thereis contact ..•
there is non-distraction' -these are the fifty-six states, the
various kinds of which have been distinguished as to the order
·1 Mahti-Niddesa, .156. 2 Compenilium, 202.

3 Rea.cling gahetvi bhii.vanaya na anuriipaip. . • • 4 Ohs. iii ff .
Fourfold Jhana 225
of terms in
the first class of moral eonsciousness of the :rea1Il1
0£ sense. In -reality, only these are of the realm of sense.
Those discussed here, as to plane, are sublime and experienced
in the realm of attenuated matter. This is the distinction
here. The remaini~g words , are the same. But here are
obtained the four 'Or-whatever' states beginning with will.1
The sections of the Groups and of the Void have been explained.
End of the First Jhiina.
CHAPTER II
THE SECOND JHANA2 ,
IN the exposition of the Second Jhana, the clause:-' from
the suppression of initial and sustained application' [169]
means ' owing to the suppression, the transcending of these
two: initial application and sustained application, they not
being manifested from the moment when Second Jhana begins.'
Not only are all the inental factors of First Jhii.na not present
in Second Jhana, but even those that are present--contact,
and so on-are different. It is through the transcending of
the gross element that there is the attainment of other Jhanas,
the second from the First and so on. And it should be under-
stood that it was to show this meaning that the words ' from
the suppression of initial and sustained application' were said.
'Subjective' (ajjhatta) here means 'personal.' But in
the Vibhaiiga just this is said:-' "Subjective" means self-
referring.'3 And because ' personal ' is intended, therefore
that which is one's own, produced in one's continuity, is to
be here understood.
Next, 'tranquillizing' :-faith is said to be tranquillizing.
Through connection with it, the jhana also is said to be tran-
quillizing, as a cloth when steeped in indigo is called indigo.
Or, because this jhana tranquillizes the mind owing to its
union with faith and the suppression of the disturbing initial
1 Or 'desire-to-do' (chanda). 2 Dhs. § 161.
3 Vibhanga258--paccatta1.n; 'personal' isniyakai,n. Cf. below.-Ed.
and sustained application, therefore it is called ' tranquillizing;'
in this second sense the construction- is -to be understood as
' the tranquillizing of mind.'
In the former sense, ' of mii:id ' is to be construed as 'with
supreme exalfati on,' this being the connected meaning :-alOne
(lit. one, eko) it rises above (udeti)-:-this is ekodi (exalted). 'No
1onger'overgrown by initial and sustained application, it rises up
at the top, as the best' is the meaning; for in the world what
is best is also called unique (eko). Or, it may also be said that.,1
as deprived of initial and sustained ~pplication, it rises up
(udeti) single, or companionless; hence 'rising alQne.' Or,
again, it raises associated states, or causes them to rise. ' One '
in the sense of 'best,' and exalted in the sense of 'raising,'
give us ekodi:-' supremely exalted '-which is a s;ynonym
for concentration. And this Second Jhana develops this
exaltation, therefore it is called ekoiribliava-' pre-eminent,'
'single,' 'best to produce associated states.' And as it is
· of mind and not of an entity, or a living principle, it has
been said to be' unique exaltation of mind (cetaso).'
-· [It may here be objected:-] is not this faith and this concen-
tration called 'uniquely exalting' present in First Jhana also _1
Why this tranquillizing only, and unique exaltation of mind 1
The answer is :-That First Jhana, being disturbed by initial
and sustained application, is not quite clear, but is like water
full of big and small waves, therefore [170] it is not said to be
tranquillizing, though there be faith in it. And because it
is not quite clear, concentration in it is not well manifested;2
therefore unique exaltation is not ascribed to it. But in the
Second Jhana, owing to the non-existence of the impediments
of initial and sustained application, faith, having got its
. opportunity, is strong, and concentration, by attaining inti-
mate alliance with strong faith, is manifested. Therefore in
this way should the formula be understood.
In the Vibhanga only this much is said, that tranquillity
is faith, believing, confiding, assuring; and that unique e:x:alta-
1 Reading iti pi vattul)l vaHati.

2 Like fish in muddy water.-Tika, _
Fourfold Jhana ·. 227
tion of mind is [defined as right concentration:-] 'that mental
persistence . . .. right concentration, which; etc.'1 The
explanation given above, however, should be understood as
not going against, but indeed coinciding, concurring with the
meaning given in the Vibhanga.
' Without initial and sustained application.' From being
removed by culture, there is no initial application in this
Jhana; hence ' without initial application.' Similarly, it is
'without sustained application.' And in the Vibhanga it
has been ·said that this initial application and this sustained
application are calmed, quieted, suppressed, terminated,
exterminated, destroyed, completely destroyed, dried up,
quite dried up, :finished; hence 'without initial and sustained
application.'2 ·
Here it may be said:-Is not this meaning determined by
the phrase ' from the suppression of initial and sustained
application '1 Then why is it repeated as ' -~thout initial
and sustained application '1 True, this. latter meaning has
already been determined. Yet the repetition does not show
merely the meaning of the former phrase. Have we not said,
that from the transcending of t~e gross factor there is the
attainment of other Jhanas beyond the First ~ 3 To show this7
it is said thatthe Second Jhana tranquillizes the mind because
of the suppression of initial and sustained application, and not
because of the slough of our lower nature (as at the moment of
access). Because of the suppression of initial and sustained
application it develops unique exaltation, and not, like the .
access in jhana, because of the removal of the Hindrances,
and also not, like the First Jhana, because of the manifestation
of the factors. Thus this phrase shows the condition of
tranquillity and unique exaltation. Moreover this Second
Jhana is without initial and sust~ined application, because
they are suppressed, unlike the third and fourth Jhanas,
and visual cognition, etc., which are without initiJ.l and
sustained application, because they do not e:.iist. Thui3
. 1 Vibhang(f, 258, I. 10. The abbreviated definition there is given in
full, ibid. 217, and in this work is discussed on p._J-07 f.
2 Loe. cit. 3 Supra, p. 225.
228 Risi"'f}s of Consciousness
it also shows the e:ffect, and not merely the fact of the n~n
existen~e of initial and sustained application. But the
phrase ' without initial and sustained application' merely
shows their non-existence. Therefore, having said the former
phrase, we may also say this latter phrase.
' Born of co11centration' means born of the concentration of
the First Jhana, or o;f,the associated concentration. (171] 0£
the two, although the First Jhana is also born of the asso·
ciated concentration, yet only the Second Jhana is worthy of
being called concentration, from it; freedom from the disturb-
ing initial and sustained application. from being quite unshak-
able and from being well clarified. Therefore, to speak its
praises, it is said to be born of concentration.
'Full of rapture-bliss' -this is as said above. 'Second' is
by numerical sequence. The meaning also is that he enters
into this Second Jhii.na.
[In the list:-].' At that time there is contact,' etc.-this
being fivefold Jhana, the words ' initial and sustained appli-
cation ' have been left out; so in the fivefold Path the
words ' right intention ' have been left out. By their
influence the decision as to the classifiable and unclassifiable
terms should be understood.
In the section of the Groups1 also occur the threefold Jhana
and the fourfold Path. The rest is the same as in the first
Jhanas.
End o.f the Second Jhana.
CHAPTER III
THE THIRD JHANA
IN the exposition of the Third Jhana, 2 in the clause 'because of
distaste for ·rapture,' the distaste is the revulsion from, or
transcending of, the kind of rapture mentioned. The word
"and' between the two words, rapture and distaste, has
--"""----------~----~------~--····- --
1 Cf. above section, pp. 202-5. 2 Dhs. § 163,

Fourfold Jhana 229
simply a conjunctive meaning. It combines the suppression
of rapture with that of initial a1_1d sustained application.
When the work of suppression only is added, then the con-
struction should be understood as 'because of distaste for
rapture, nay more, because of its suppression.' And in this
construction distaste has the meaning of ' revulsion from.
Therefore the meaning should be taken as ' because of re-
vulsion from, and suppression of, rapture.' But when 'the
suppression of initial and sustained application is added,
then the construction should be understood as ' because of
distaste for rapture, nay more, because of the suppression of
initial and sustained application.' And in this construction
distaste has the meaning of 'transcending.' Therefore the
meaning should be taken as 'because of the transcending
of rapture and of the suppression of initial and sustained
application~'
Although the initial and the sustained application has been
suppressed even in the Second Jhana, the suppression of both
has been said to show the way to, and to extol the praises of,
the Third Jhana. For when ' because of the .suppression of
initial and sustained application' is said, is not the meaning
plain that · the suppression is the way to this Jhana ? And
albeit they are not removed in the Third Ariyan Path, yet the
five lower [172] Fetters beginning with the theory of individu-
ality are said to be removed by way of extolling the Path, so
that those striving for its attainment may put forth effort.
Even although they have not been suppressed, their removal
has been mentioned for purposes of commendation. Hence
the meaning has been said to be ' from the transcending of
rapture and from the suppression of initial and sustained
application.' ·
In 'one lives indifferent,' 'indifferent' means he looks on
disinterestedly; the meaning is: he looks evenly, not taking
any side.1 One who is possessed of the Third Jhana is called
indifferent from being endowed with that indifference, pure,
abundant; and strong:
t I.e., from any feeling of pl~ure or pain.~Pyi.

230 Risings_of Consciousness
Indifference is of ten kinds: (1) sixfold, (2) of the Divine
States, (3) of the Factors of Wisdom, (4) of energy, (5) of
complexes of activity, (6) of feeling, (7) of insight, (8) of
equanimity, (9) of jhana, and (10) of purity. (1) Of these,
' the bhikkhu who in this life is purged of the Intoxicants sees
with the eye a visible object, -an9, is neither joyful nor sad,
but lives indifferent, -mindful and comprehending.'1 Thus
the indifference which come.s to such a saint, in such a way that
he does not abandon the pure original state, when the six
kinds of 9bjects, whether desirable or undesirable, are pre-
sented at the six doors, is known as the sixfold. indifference.
(2) The indifference which takes up the neutral position -re-
garding beings2 thus: ' He continues to diffuse one quarter
[of any region] with a mind accompanied by equanimity ' 3
is. known as that of the Divine States. (3) The indifference
arising with the mode of neutrality among co-e~istent states
thus: ' He develops indifference as a factor of .wisdom and
dependent on detachment ' 4 is known as that of the Factors
of Wisdom. (4) The indifference which arises thus in the
text: ' The indifference which from time to time attends to the
[so-called] "mark of indifference," ' 5 and is neither too in·
~ense nor .too slack, is known as that of energy. (5) The in-
difference which is a state of equanimity derived from the
estimate that the Hindrances, etc. [are to be put away], in
such texts as' How many kinds of equanimity arise by means
~£ concentration, how many by means of insight 1 Eight
arise by means of concentration; ten by means of insight ' 6
is known as that ofthe complexes. (6) The indifference which
1 Anguttara ii. 198.
2 Viz., that they are' owned by their kamma.'-Pyi. Cf. Majjhima
iii. 203.
3 Dialogues i. 318, etc. ' Sa"!lyutta iv. 367; v. 91.
5 'Neutral energy,' being free from contraction and expansion, is
called indifference, and this, under the aspect of such neutrality, is
called the ' mark of indifference,' because it is a condition of the pro-
duction of similar energy.-fika.
6 Pts. i 64. -I.e.,. by means of the eight worldly attainments (samii-
patti) and by means of the t.en composed of the Four Paths, Four
Fruition!j-:-the Void and the Signless.-'[ika.
Fourfold Jhana _ 231
is neither painful nor pleas11rable, as in' When sensuous moral
consciousness ~rises accompanied by indifference,'1 is known
as that of feeling. (7) The indifference which arises as
equanimity in respect of [intellectual] investigation, thus:
'He puts aside the "is,' ' the "has come to be," and acquires
indifference,' 2 [173] is known as that of insight. (8) The in·
difference which balances co-existent states equally, and which
comes among the 'Or whatever states,' beginning with will,
is known as that of equanimity. (9) The indifference which
comes as 'He lives indifferent,' 3 and which does not beget
partisanship with the bliss, excellent though it may be, of the
Third Jha11a, is known as that of jbana. (10) The indiffer•
ence which comes as ' indifference of the Fourth Jhana in its
utter purity of mindfulness,' 4 and which is purified of all oppos-
ing states; and has no business in their suppression, is known
as that of purity.
Of these; the sixfold indifference and that of the Divine
States, of the Factors of Wisdom, of equanimity, of jhana, and
of purity are one in sense, as being equanimity. But they
are distinguished under six heads owing to the different states or
conditions corresponding to the classification, though there is
only one kind of being, just as in boys, lads, elders, generals,
kings, etc. Therefore among them, where there is the six-
fold indifference, there is nothing of the Factor of Wisdom, .
etc. And where there is the indifference which is a Factor
of Wisdom there is no sixf()ld indifference, etc.
As these six are one in sense, so is the indifference of the
(mental) complexes and of insight one in sense-namely,
understanding, which is twofoJd in function. As a man, hold-
ing a stick cleft like a goat's hoof, searches for a snake, which
has entered the house late in the day, and seeing it lying on
the heap of husks, looks down, thinking, ' Is it a snake, or not r
i Dhs. §§ 150, 156.
2 As to the five aggregates. Not traced. He becomes indifferent on
contemplating the three characteristics of the five aggregates; just as a
man is no longer curious when he is satisfied that a snake is poisonous
by seeing the three rings on the neck.-'!'ika.
a Dhs. § 163. 4 Dhs. § 163,
232 Risings of Oonscioitsness
hut on seeing the thre~ rings on the neck is no more doubtful;
but becomes indifferent as to search, so the aspirant, who has
worked at insight, on seeing the· three characteristic signs by
means of insight, becomes indifferent as to search for the
impermanence, etc., of the complexes. This is the indifference
of insight.
As when the man firmly catches hold of the snake by his
goat's-hoof-cleft stick and, seeking to release it, thinking,
'How shaJl I free it, so that I may not hurt it and I myself
be not bitten r becomes indifferent as to catching it, so from
looking upon the three existences as though on fire, as a
result of his seeing the three characteristic signs, a man
'becomes indifferent as to seizing the complexes. This is the
indifference of the complexes. Thus when the indifference of
insight is accomplished that of the complexes is also .accom-
plished. In this way the twofold function of neutrality con-
sists in searching and seizing. [174] But the indifference of
energy and that of feeling are different from each other and
from the others.
Thus, of the ten kinds, it is the indifference of jhana that
is here intended. It has the characteristic of middleness, the
function of not enjoying (even the excellent bliss ?f the Third
Jhana), the manifestation of absence of activity, the proxi-
mate cause of distaste for rapture.
Here one might object: ' Is not this jhana-indifference the
same in sense as that equanimity-indifference, which is obtain-
able in the First and Recond Jhanas ? If so, then, in those two
Jhanas also, it should be said that "he abides indifferent."
Why has this not been said~,
Because there is no distinct function. Indeed, the function
of equanimity is not distinct in the First and Second Jhanas,
because it is overwhelmed by initial application, etc. But
in the Third Jhana, because it is not overwhelmed by initial
and sustained application and rapture, it has lifted up its
head, so to speak, a~d has a.positive distinct function. Here
ends the full explanation of the sentence ' He abides in-
different.'
Now al'! to ' mindfU;l and comprehending,' ·we think o:r
Fourfold Jhana 233
rem,e mber and are 'mindf_ul.' We know fully and are' com~
prehending.' Thus the mindfulness and -the comprehension
are stated in connexion with the person.
Of these, i:nindfulness has the characteristic of remember-
ing, the function of opposition to forgetfulness, the manifesta-
tion of watchfulness; comprehension has the characteristic of
opposition to delusion, the function of overcoming doubt, or
of bringing a work to completion, and the manifestation of
examination.. Although this phrase is obtainable in the pre-
ceding Jhanas-1ndeed, to one of forgetful memory and with-
out comprehension there does not arise even the access stage
of jhana, much less ecstasy-yet from their grossness the pro-
cess of consciousness is easy, like the movement of a man on
the earth, and in them the function of being mindful and com-
prehending is not revealed. But from the putting away of the
gross factor and the fineness of this Third Jhana, it is desirable
that the process of consciousness be maintained by the function
of being mindful and comprehending like the movement of a
man on the edges of razors. Hence it has been mentioned here
only.
Is there anything more to say 1 As the suckling calf, being
removed from the cow and left ungiiarded, again approaches
the cow', so the blissful ease of the Third Jhana, being removed
fro:in rapture, if unguarded by mindfulness and compre-
hension, would again approach rapture and be associated
with it. Indeed, bel.ngs long for happiness; and the blissful
ease of the Third Jhana is exceedingly sweet, than which there is
no greater bliss. But owing to the power of mindfulness and
comprehension, there is no longing present for this bliss,
and this condition does not change. It is to show this dis-
tinctive meaning that the phrase has here been said.
Now in the clause ' he.experiences blissful _ease by the mental
factors,' [175] although to one endowed with the Third Jhana
there is no thought of such experience, yet he may experience
that bliss which is associated with his mental factors, or, though
he has emerged from jhana, he may still experience that bodily
bliss, because his material body has been suffused by the
exceedingly refined mind-born matter produced by that
234 Risings of . Consciousness
1tssociated bliss. Hence the phrase has been said to show this
meaning. . .
Now in the clause.' of which the Ariyans declare: he, in-
different and mindful, abides in blissful ease,' the. meaning is
that byreason of, on account of, the Third Jh~na the Ariyans;
that is, the Buddhas, etc., declare, point out, designate, estab-
lish, reveal, disclose, explain, set forth, praise a person who has
mastered that jhana. ·
.And how ? [By saying:] ' he indifferent and mindful abides
jn blissful ease,' and having entered into the Third Jhana he so
abides-'· thus should the sequence in the meaning be understood.
But why do they praise him so 1 Because he is worthy of
praise. ·To expand: Because he is indifferent even in the Third
Jhina which has reached the perfection of bliss of exceeding
sweetness, because he is not dragged along by the contagion
of the bliss of it, and is mindful with an established mindful-
ness, so that rapture may not arise, and because he experi-
ences by his mental factors that bliss which is not corrupt
and which gives delight to, and is followed by, the Ariyans,
therefore is he worthy of praise. Him praiseworthy the
Ariya,ns praise, setting forth his merits as the condition of
their praise: ' Indifferent and mindful · he abides in blissful
ease; '
. ' Third ' is by numerical sequence; this is the Third Jhii.na
. he enters into.
In ' at that time there is contact,' etc., in ·the fivefold Jhana
the word 'rapture' is wanting, and by its influence the decision
of the terms, both classifiable and unclassifiable, shoUld be
understood.
In the section also of the Groups mention of the twofold
Jhana is made. The rest is the same as in the Second Jhii.na,
End of the Third Jhana.
Fourfold Jhana 235
CHAPTER IV ,
THE FOURTH .IBANA
IN the exposition of the Fourth Jhana, the clause ' from the
putting away of pleasure and from the putting away of pain '1
inean,s the putting away of pleasure and pain in the mental
factors.
'Previous' means that the putting away of pleasur-e and
pain took }Jlace before, and not at the moment of the Fourth
Jhana.
The clause 'from the passing away of joy and grief,'
namely, of mental pleasure and mental pain, has been said
[176] because ofthe previous passing away, the putting away
of these two. When ate they put away 1 At the 'access' -
moments2 . of the four Jhanas. For joy is put away at the
access-moment of the.Fourth Jhana; pain, grief and pleasure
are put away[respectively] at the access-moments of the First,
Second and Third Jhanas. Thus, although they have not
been stated according to the sequence of their removal, yet
their removal should be understood even by the sequence of
the summary of . controlling faculties . both in the I ndriya-
Vibhangas and here.
But if they are put away at the access-moments preceding
this or that Jhii.na, then why is it said [that their cessation -is
in the -Jhii.nas themselves] thus: ' Where does the uprisen
controlling. faculty 0£ pain cease completely 1 Bhikkhus, in
this case the bhikkhu, aloof indeed from sense-desires . . .
enters into and abides in the First Jhii.na. Here the control-
lmg faculty of pain which has arisen ceases completely..• ..
Where do the controlling faculties of grief, ..• of pleasure, ....
and of joy which have arisen cease completely 1 Bhikkhus,
in this case the bhikkhu from the putting away of joy
. •. . enters into and abides in the Fourth Jhii.na. Here the
controlling faculty of joy which has arisen ceases completely.' 4
t Dhs. § 165. 2 On this term see Oomp. of Phil. 55.

3 Vibhanga 122. ' Sarpy. v. 213 /.
This is said because of their complete cessation. For in the
Jhanas their cessation is completed, not merely begun; at the
access-moments their cessation is not completed. True,
though there is cessation in the access to the First Jhana,
with a different adverting of the mind, yet there the controlling
faculty of pain may be produced through contact with gad-
flies, mosquitoes, etc., or by falling on to an uneven seat; but
there is no such production within the ecstasy; or this
controlling faculty of pain which ceases at the access does not
thoroughly . cease, because it is . not killed· by its ..opposite
(faculty). But within the ecstasy, owing to the diffusion of
rapture, the whole body is surcharged with pleasure. And the
controlling faculty of pain of the ·pleasure-suffused body has
thoroughly ceased, being killed by it$ opposite. Moreover,.
although it has been put away, the controlling faculty of grief
may arise at the access to the Second Jhii.na with a different
adverting of the mind. Why does this arise when there ·is
bodily suffering and mental distress, with initilll and SU$·
tained application of mind as its cause, and does not arise in
. the absence of initiai and sustained application ? 'Where
it arises, it does so when there is initial and sustained
application; and at the access to the Second Jhana initial and
sustained applications have not been put away; hence th~
possibility of its arising. But there is no such possibility
owing to the removal of the cause in the Second Jhana. Simi-
larly, although it has been put away) the controlling faculty
of pleasure may arise at the access to the Third Jhana in one
whose body has been suffused by refined matter produced by
rapture; but it may not arise in the Third Jhana itself, because
rapture, the cause oi pleasure, has·completely ceased therein.
[177JSimilarlyJ although it has been put away, the control-
ling faculty of joy may arise at the access to the Fourth Jhii.na
because it is near and has not been well transcended, owing
to the non-existence of indifference which has attained to
ecstasy; but it may not arise in the Fourth Jhana itself.
Hence in various places the word ' complete' has been taken
as ' Here the uprisen controlling faculty of pain ceases com-
pletely.'
Fourfold. :Jhana 237
Why [it may be objected] are these feelings, which have
thus been put away at the access to the various Jhanas,
gathered together in the Fourth Jhana ~
For the purpose of apprehending them easily. In other
words::--in 'neither painful nor pleasurable' this neutral
feeling is [revealed as] subtle and hard to understand. It
is not possible to apprehend it easily. Therefore, as, in order
to catch a vicious bUll that may not be caught by approaching
it anyhow, the cowherd brings together all the cows ill a
pen, lets them out one by one, and, when the bull comes out
in its· turn, orders its capture: 'catch it!' so the Blessed One,
to make easy the comprehending of the neutral feeling, has
brought forth all the feelings. By showing all the .feelings
it is possible to comprehend neutral feeling as that which is
neither pleasure nor pain, neither joy nor grief.
Further, these feelings should be understood to have been
stated to show ·the cause of the mental emancipation of the
Fourth Jhana, which is neutral feeling. The preceding Jhanas
which have put away pleasure and pain ~re ind.eed the causes
of this mental emancipation. As has been said : ' Four, Sir,
are the causes of the attainment of mental emancipation
which is neutral feeling. In this case, Sir, a bhikkhu from
the putting away of pleasure . . . enters into and abides
in the Fourth Jhiina. These, Sir, are the four causes of the
attainment of mental emancipation, which is neutral feeling.' 1
As, although they are put away elsewhere, the errors of
individuality, etc., are said to be put away in the Third Path
with a view to extol its praises, so, in order to praise the Fourth
Jhiina, these feelings should be understood to be mentioned
in connection with it. Or they should be understood to
be mentioned to show the great remoteness of lust and hate
here, owing to the destruction of their causes. For as to
these pleasure is the cause of joy, joy of lust, pain of grief,
grief of hate. And by the destruction of pleasure, etc., lust
and hate are destroyed with their causes. Thus they are
very distant. 2
i Majjhima i. 296. 2 From the Fourth Jhana.-fika.

238 Risings of Consciousness .
The clause ' neither pain nor pleasure ' means not pain by
the absence of pain; not pleasure by the absence of pleasure.
By this the Buddha shows the third [kind of] feeling as opposed
to pain and pleasure, and not merely the absence of pain and
pleasure. The third feeling is neither pain nor pleasure, and
is also called hedonic indifference. [178] It has the character-
istic of enjoying an object midway between the desirable
and the undesirable, the function of middleness, the manifes-
tation: of not being apparent, the proximate cause of the cessa-
tion of pleasure.
Then as to the clause:-' Purity of mindfulness born of
indifference,' in this Jhana, because of the purity of the mind-
fulness which has been produced, mindfulness is pure. · Such
purity is made by indifference, not by any other ; hence this
Jhana is called ' purity of mindfulness, born of indi:fference.'
In the Vibhanga it has been said that mindfulness is cleansed,1
purified and burnished by indifference; hence ' purity of mind-
fulness born of indifference.' That indifference by which
there is here purity of mindfulness should be understood as
equanimity. And not merely mindf~lness has been purified
by indifference, but also the associated states have been puri-
fied. The teaching, however, has put mindfulness at the head.
Although this indifference exists also in the first threeJhanas,
yet as the crescent moon, being overpowered by the sun by day,
and not getting the favourable night which makes it cool and
renders service to it, is not clear, not radiant, though it exists
by day, so the crescent moon of equanimity, being overpowered
by the night of opposing states, such as initial application of
.mind, and not getting the favourable night of indifferent
feeling, is not clear in the first three Jhanas, even though in
.them it is present. And when indifference is not clear, the
co-existent states, such as mindfulness, like the light of the
.indistinct crescent moon by .day, are not clear. Therc;ifore in
the three Jhanas not one is said to be ' purity of mindfulness
born of indifference.' But in the Fourth Jhana the crescent
moon of equanimity, not being overpowered by the might
1 Or 'diffused,' reading visada for vivata.-Tr.

Fourfold Jhana
of opposing states, such as initial application of mind,
and getting the favourable night of indifferent feeling, is
exceedingly clear. Owing to its clearness the co-existent
states, such as mindfulness, like the light of the clear crescent
moon, become clear, radiant. Hence the Fourth Jhii.na is
said to be ' purity of mindfulness born of indifference.'
' Fourth ' is by nu.merical sequence; · he enters into this
Jhii.na as fourth.
In' there is' contact,' etc., in the :fivefold contact, indifferent
feeling should.he understood as the only ' feeling.'
Moreover, in the :fivefold Jhii.na, in the eight controlling
faculties [179]; this has been said: 'There is indifference;
there is the controlling faculty of indifference.' The remain-
ing. words, wanting in the Third, are also wanting in the
Fourth Jhii.na.
In the section of the Groups also, the Jhana should he under-
stood to he twofold by virtue of indifference and one-pointed-
ness of mind. All the remaining words are the same as in the
Third Jhana.
End of the Foitrfold system.
CHAPTER V
THE FIVEFOLD SYSTEM
Now with the words:-'-' which are the states that are moral,' 1
the :fivefold system begins.
Why [is there a :fivefold system]? There are two reasons:-
[to satisfy some] persons' inclinations, and to adorn the teach-
ing. To expand :-In the assembled gathering of th~ spirits,
to some spirits only initial application of mind appeared gross,
and sustained application of mind, rapture, pleasure, one-
pointedness of mind appeared good. To them in a fitting
manner the Teacher divided the fourfold Second Jhana as
without initial, and with only sustained, 11pplication. To
some spirits sustained application appeared gross, and rapture,
pleasure and one-pointedness of mind appeared good. To
1 Dhs. § 167.
themina fitting manner he classified the threefold Third Jhana.
To some spirits rapture appeared gross and pleasure and one-
pointedness ·Of mind appeared good. To them in a fitting
manner he classified the twofold Fourth Jhana. To some spirits
pleasure appeared gross and indifferenpe and one-pointed-
ness of mind appeared good. To them in a fitting manner he
classified the twofold Fifth Jhana. Thus far for [the appeal to
different] personal inclinations. Again, those conditions of the
Law by which, because they have been thoroughly penetrated,
the teaching is adorned-those conditions were thoroughly
penetrated by the Tathagata. Hence, because of the vastness
of his knowledge, the Teacher, who is skilful in arranging his
teaching, and who has attained the [art of] embellishing it,
fixes that teaching by whatever factor that has come to hand,
and in any way he chooses. Thus here he has classified a
First Jhana of five factors, a fourfold Second Jhana ' without
initial and with only sustained application of mind,' a three-
fold Third Jhana, a twofold Fourth Jhana and a twofold
Fifth Jhana. This we have called embellishing the teaching.
Further, the Blessed One· taught three kinds of ooncentra-
tion in the Suttanta passage: ' Bhikkhus, the three kinds of
concentration are: with initial arid sustained application of
mind, without initial and with only sustained application,
without initial and without sustained application.' 1 Of these,
that with initial and sustained application, and that without
initial and sustained application have been classified and shown
above; [180] but not that concentration without initial and
with only sustained application. And it should be understood
that the Fivefold System has been begun to show that con-
centration.
In the list:-' contact,' and so on, belonging to the exposi-
tion of the second Jhana of the Fivefold System,2 only ' initial
appiication of mind' is wanting. And in the section of the
Groups this also is special: 'There is the fourfold Jhana,
there is the fourfold Path.' All the rest are the same as in
1 A1i-guttara iv 310 / . Cf. Sa1p.yutta iv. 360, 362; Questions of

Milinda ii. 222. 2 Dhs. -s fo1 .
Fivefold Jhana 241
the First Jhana. . And the_Second, Third and Fourth Jhanas
in the Fourfold System are the Third, Fourth and Fifth Jhanas
here. It is to show the order of their attainment that this_
system should be understood.
It is said that a minister's son came to town from the district
to attend on the king. He saw the king for one day only, then
wasted all his wealth by the vice of drink. One day, when he
was drunk, they stripped off his clothes, covered him with worn-
out mats and .hauled him out of the liquor-shop. A certain
man who could read the signs on a ma:ii's limbs saw him asleep
ona rubbish heap and came to this conclusion: 'This man will
be a protection to the people; he ought to be looked after.' So
he had him bathed with powdered earth, had him clothed in a
pair of thick robes, had him again bathed in scented water, had
him dressed in a suit of fine clothes, made him ascend his palace,
fed him ·with delicious food, gave him to the care of his servants,
saying:' Tend him,' and went away. Then they brought him
to bed, and, in order to prevent his going to the liquor-shop,
four strong men stqod pressing his hands and feet: one of the
servants shampooed his feet, a second took a fan and fanned
him, a third sat playing the lute and singing. By getting to
bed fatigue left him and he slept awhile. On waking he
was unable to bear the pressure on his hands and feet, and
threatened them, saying, 'Who presses my hands and feet ?
Go away!' They went away <:i,t the first word. Then again
he slept awhile, and on waking, being unable to bear the sham-
pooing of his feet, said: 'Who shampoos my fe~t ? Go away!'
The man went away at the first word. Then again he slept
awhile, and on waking, being unable to bear the wind of the
fan, he said: 'Who is this ? . Go away!' The man went away
at the first word. Again he slept awhile, and on waking,
being as unable to bear the sound of music as if it were a dart
in his ear, threatened the musician, who also went away at
the first word. [181] Then in due cou~se the nuisance of
fatigue, pressing, · shampooing, fanning, and music being
removed, he slept soundly, rose and went into the presence
of the king. And -the king gave him high authority. He
became a helper of the people.
In this simile, the minister's son who comes to ruin by drink
represents a householder of the clansmen who has in many
ways come to loss and ruin. The reader of signs on the limbs
represents the Tathagata. The conclusion that · this man
will be a helper of the people, and that he is worthy of attend-
' ance, represents the resolution of the Tathagata that such
and such an one will be a helper of the people, and that he is
worthy of ordination. The cleansing of the minister's son
by powdered earth ~s the clansman's attainment of ordination .
. The former's being wrapped in thick robes is the latter's
putting on the~ dress of the ten moral preceptS"; again, as the
bath: of the former in perfumed water, so .is the latter's bath
,in the perfumed water of the 'Patimokkha self-restraint, etc.-;
as the former's dressi:qg in a suit of fine clothes is the latter's
dressing in the fine clothes of the fulfilment of the purity of
· the said precepts. Again, as the ascending into the palace
by the former dressed in fine clothes, so is the ascending into
·the palace of concentration and culture by the latter dress.ed in
the fine cloth of the purity of virtue. Then the partaking of
delicious food by the one is as the partaking of the death-
lessness of such states as mindfulness and comprehension,
which renders service to concentration. Again, as the putting to
bed of the one by the attendants after his meal, so is the putting
of the otherfo the' access' -Jhana by initial application of mind,
etc. · Again, as the group of four men who pressed the hands
and feetof the minister's son in order to prevent his going to
the liquor-shop, so is the emancipated initial application of
·mind which presses the mind on the object to prevent its going
in the direction of sensuous perceptions. The shampooer
of the one represents the sustained application of the other,
causing the repeated contemplation of the object by the mind.
As he who produces a breeze by fanning, so is rapture bringing
coolness to the mind. As the musician gratifying the ear, so
isjoy gratifying the mind. As the former's going off to sleep
in bed for awhile getting rid of fatigue, so is the latter's ap-
proach to the First Jhana getting rid of the fatigue of the
hindrances through dependence upon 'access '-jhana.. Then,
as to the former 's inability to bear the pressure on his hands
Fivefold Jhana 243
·and feet on his waking frolJl sleep, his threatening the men,
and his subsequent sleep awhile after their departure, [182]
so is the seeing defect in initial application of mind through
inability to bear its pressing on the mind, when he rises
from the First Jhana, and his subsequent approach to the
Second Jhana, initial application being removed, and with
only sustained application. The threat@ing the shampooers
·of feet, etc., one by one, through inability to bear. the
shampooing, as said in due course above at his waking from
repeated sleep, and his going off to sleep awhile at their
departure should be regarded as the other's seeing defect
in sustained application of mind, etc., one by one, through
inabl.lity to · bear them with their defects already mentioned
•on his rising repeatedly from the Second Jhana, etc., and hi~
repeated approach, these faults being removed to the Thirjl
Jhii.na without initial and su!!tained application, the Fourth
Jhii.na free from rapture and the Fifth Jhii.na where joy has
been put away. As the rising from sleep, going to the
king's presence and attaining to authority should be under-
stood the attainment of Arahantship by the clansman who has
risen from the Fifth Jhii.na and followed the Path of Insight.
And as the attaining to power by the minister's son and his
being a helper to many a man should be understood the attain-
ing to Arahantship by the clansman, and his being a helper
to many. For all this it is that he is called the incomparable
field of merit.1
End of the Fivefold System.
CHAPTER VI
THE FOURFOLD PROGRESS
By so much has the double classification, called the Ninefold
Scheme, comprising the fourfold and fivefold systems, been
set forth. But in its contents this classification should be
1 Salfi'!fUlla i. 220, etc. (Kindred Sayings 282).
known as the Fivefold Jhana, the fourfold system being in- ·
eluded in the fivefold system.
Now because this jhana is accomplished also with a certain
rate of progress, therefore, in order to show the classification
of progress, the text again begins with ' which are the states
that are moral 1'1
'Herein, when this jhana has a painful progress, we get tho
clause 'progress being painful'; when there is sluggish
intuition, we get ' intuition being sluggish.' Thus there are
three names to this jhana, to wit : ' painful progress,' ' sluggish
intuition,' and 'earth-device.' And the same method is
observed in' painful progress, quick intuition.' 2
Herein, from the first resolve till the access of the particular
jhana arises, the jhana-development which occurs is called
progress. And the insight which .occurs from the access till
the ecstasy is called intuition.3 And this progress is painful
to some. The meaning is that, (183] from the abundant produc-
tion of such opposing states as the Hindrances, it is difficult,
not pleasant to carry on. To some, from there being no such
opposition, it is easy.
To some, again, intuition is sluggish, weak and of slow occur-
rence; to others it is quick, strong and of swift occurrence. .
Hence he who from the beginning, in discarding his lower
nature, does so with fatigue, painfully, by means of external
aid, of instigation, to him progress is painful. And he who,
having discarded the lower nature, abiding round about the
ecstasy, takes long to attain to the ·manifestation of the
jhana-factors, is of sluggish intuition. He who quickly
attains to the manifestation of the jhana-factor is of quick
intuition. He who in discarding the lower nature does
so with ease, without fatigue, is one to whom progress is
easy.
Details concerning what is fitting and is not fitting, prelimi-
nary works such as cutting off the impediments, skilfulness in
ecstasy, etc., have _been explained 4 in the exposition of mental
1 Dhs. § 176. 2 lb.§ 177 • .

3 Abhiiiiiii,, more lit. superknowledge.-Ed. 4 Vis. Mag. p. 90 f.
The Fourfold Progress 245
culture in the Visuddhi Magga. Of them, he who pursues
what is not fitting is of painful progress and sluggish intuition.
He who pursues what is fitting is of easy progress and quick
intuition. And he who in · the preliminary stage to access
pursues what is not fitting, and in the subsequent stage to
access pursues what is fitting, or who in the preliminary stage
pursues what is fitting, and in· the subsequent stage pursues
what is not fitting, is of mixed progress and . intuition.
Further, the progress of one who, without accomplishing the
preliminary work of cutting off the impediments, applies himself
to culture is painful. The reverse is easy progress. Again,
the intuition of one who does not perfect skilfulness in ecstasy
is sluggish; and it is quick in one who perfects skilfulness in
ecstasy.
Moreover, the classification according ·to craving and ig-
norance, and the chief reason of calm and insight should be
understood. To expand: To one overcome by craving the
progress is painful; to one not overcome by craving it is easy.
And to one overcome by ignorance the intuition is sluggish;
to one not so overcome it is quick. And he who has no
past conditions for calm makes painful progress; one who has
such makes easy progress. And one who :h.as no past con-
ditions for insight is of sluggish intuition; one who has such
is of quick intuition.
Classification by virtue of our lower nature and controlling
faculties should also be understood. To expand: To one
whose nature is acutely corrupt and whose controlling faculty
is soft, progress is painful and intuition sluggish. But to one
of keen controlling faculty, intuition is quick. To one with a
mild lower nature and soft controlling faculty, progress is
easy and intuition sluggish. But to one of keen controlling
faculty intuition is quick. Thus in progress and intuition
the person who ~ttains to jhana [184] by means of painful
progress and sluggish intuition, that jhana is said to be of
painful progress and sluggish intuition. In the remaining
Jhanas also the same method is to be understood. In these
progress should be understood as [lying] in the arrest either
of that mindfulness of which it is said thus: ' The mindflJ1ness
246. Risings of Consciousness
corresp~nding to that [of the first JhanasJ1 is :firmly established,
understanding partakes of firmness ' ; or of the .desire for the
various Jhanas. The intuition. in abiding round about. the
ecstasy of one who has attained to the access of these Jhanas
is also to be understood [as here involved].
And the progress and the intuition are just .according to
how they corb.e. 2 In o~her words, the Second Jhana which
arises following the attainment of a First Jhana, where progress
is painful and intuition sluggish, is even like the First Jhii.na
(its condition). And. the same with the Third and Fourth
Jhii.nas.
As in the fourfold method, soin the fivefold method the pro-
gress should be understood as 9£ four kinds. Thus we get in all
nine groups of four combinations with respect to progress. In
these, according to the text, there are thirty-six classes of
consciousness. Actually, however, from the inchision of the
fourfold method in the fivefold method, there .are only twenty
classes of consciousness.
End of the fourfold Progress.
CHAPTER VII
THE FOUR OBJECTS OF THOUGHT
Now because this Jhana is fourfold by object-classification, as
well as by progress-classification, therefore, to show the former
classification, we have again the beginning: 'which are the
states that are moral rs
In this clause:-' limited and with .a limited object of.
1 Tada.nudhammatii.=false mindfulnei;s as an aggregate (khandha)
associated with craving which lusts after the various Jhii.nas. Or that
mindfulness which bears the various Jhii.nas and which is not free from·
lusting after them.-'.fikii.
· 2 I.e., .the progress of the Second and other Jhii.nas depends 'some·
times, but not always, on the attainment of the First Jhii.na.-'.fika.
a Dk& § 181.
The J!'our Objects of Thouyht 247
thought'-' limited' refers .to that Jhana which.has not been
practised and is not able to become a cause of the next higher
Jhana. Again, that Jhana which arises in respect of an object
of the size of a small sieve, or the cover of a cooking-pot, and
which has a small object, is said to be 'with a limited object
of thought.' '
That Jhana [on the other hand] which has been practised
and well developed, and is able to become the cause of the
next higher Jhana, is called 'immeasurable.'1 That Jhana
which arises in re~pect of an extensive object and which has
a:p. immeasurable object due to its growth in size is said to be
'with an immeasurable object of thought.' And from the
·combination of the characteristics already mentioned the
combined method should be understood. Thus in respect
of objects also the four ninefold methods have been discussed.
And the classes of consciousness here are the same in number
as in the preceding fourfold progress.
EJtd of the fourfold Object of Thought.
CHAPTER VIII
THE SIXTEENFOLD COMBINATION
Now in order to show the sixteenfold method of combined:
object and progress [185] we have again in the beginning:-·
' ·which are the states that are moral 1' 2 Therein the jhana
spoken of in the first system is low for four reasons: painfulness
of progress, sluggishness of intuition, limitedness, limitedness
of object, The jhana spoken of in the sixteenth method is
e.xalted for fou,r reasons: ease of progress, quickness of intui-
tion, immeasurableness, immeasurableness of object. In the
remaining fourteen methods the .lowness and exaltedness
should be known for one, two and three reasons.
1 IJhs. § 182. 2 lb.§ 186

CHAPTER IX
DISOOUR8R ON THE DEVICES (OR ARTIFICES,
KA8IJYA)
BuT why was this method taught ? Because it led to the
production of jhana. To expand: the supreme Buddha, in con-
nection with the' earth-device,' taught schematized1 jhana by
the fourfold and the fivefold methods; likewise schematized
progress and object. Of the two jhana-series also, to those
spirits who were able to un4erstand schematized jhana by
the earth-device as it is taught by the fourfold method, this
fourfold method was taught in a fitting manner. To those
spirits who were able to understand it as it was taught by the
fivefold method, the fivefold method was taught in a fitting
manner. To those spirits who were able to understand it as it
is taught by the fourfold method, with schematized progress
and object, the fourfold method in bare progress and bare
object was taught in a fitting manner. To those spirits who
were able to understand it as it was taught by the fivefold
method, the fivefold method was taught in a fitting manner.
Thus the teaching has been taught above with reference to
people's [various] inclinations.
And the Supreme Buddha, who was capable of adorning
the teaching, had divided the four branches of analytical
knowledge, and had a clear knowledge of the ten' strengths,'
the four grounds of confidence, etc., was able, owing to his
-having well penetrated the irreversible functions and
characteristics2 of states, and his skill in concepts of _things,
to fix the teaching by any method whatever. Therefore, by
means of his proficiency in elaborating the teaching, he made a
discourse on the bare fourfold mdli.od in connection with the
'earth-artifice.' And because those persons who bring up
jhana cannot do so without object and progress, therefore,
because it is certain to produce jhana, this sixteenfold method
was set forth.
1 Suddhika-, lit. pur-ish. Cf. Points of Controversy, 14, n . 2 .
.2 Or, the characteristics known in their own irreversible nature.-
¥ ojanii.
The Ten 'Devices' 249
So far the bare set of nine, the four progress sets of nine,
the four object-sets of nine, these sixteen sets of nine, in all,
twenty~five sets of nine, have been set forth. In each set of
nine are two methods, namely, the fourfold and the fivefold
methods. Thus there are fifty methods. In the text are
two hundred and twenty-five kinds of jhana-consciousness:
one hundred in the twenty-five fourfold methods, [186] one
hundred and twenty-five in the fivefold methods. But from
thefourfold method.being included in the fivefold method, there
are only one hundred and twenty-five modes of consciousness.
And of these two hundred and twenty-five modes of conscious-
ness which are in the text, in the exposition of each are three
main sections ·beginning with the determination of states.
But they have been abridged after the schematized method
in each exposition had been shown.
End of the Earth-device.
CHAPTER X
THE OTHER DEVICESl
Now inasmuch as these Jhanas arise also through the water~
device, etc., in order to show these devices we have again as
opening question, ' Which are the states that are moral ?' 2
In them the textual method, elucidation of meaning, classes
of consciousness and abridgment of sections are all to be
understood as given under the earth-device. But the whole
of this method of culture, beginning with the preamble of the
device, has been set forth in the Visuddhi Magga. 3
In the Mahasakuludayi-Sutta4 ten devices are mentioned. Of
them, the' consciousness' -device is the same as the sublime con-
sciousness produced with respect to space, and as the attain-
ment of the sphere of infinite consciousness produced after the
preamble of the sublime consciousness. Thus it follows the
._ ____:__ _____··- ·--··-·-·-----··-· · .,.
1 Or artifices (kasi?ia)-namely, for inducing jhana.

2 Dhs. § 2J3. · :i Ohs. iv., v. 4 M . ii. 14.
250 RiBings of Consciousness
teaching on the immaterial in all its aspects. Hence it is not
mentioned in this place. And the ' space '-deyice is the same
as the space obtained by separating the device, as the aggre~
gate produced by making that space the object, as that
separated space which ought to be taken as the mark in any
hole in a wall, etc., and as the Fourth and Fifth Jhanas pro-
duced by making that separated space the object.
Of these two, the first method (of space separated from the
.device and the aggregate) follows the teaching on the im-
material; the last method (including the remainder) follows
the teaching on the E,iipa realm. Thus, owing to its mixed
nature, it has ' not been mentioned in the teaching on the
material realm. The jhana produced in the separated space,
however, is the path to the attainment of the ·Riipa pl;:i.nes.
Hep.ce it should be taken into account. But in it only the
Fourth and Fifth Jhanas arise, but not the Immaterial Jhana.
Why ? Because the separation of the device is not obtained.
For though it is repeatedly, separated, it remains just space,
,and thus in it the separation of the device is not obtained.1
Therefore the jhii.na which arises from it is conducive to a
happy abode under pres.eiit conditions; is a basis of super-
knowledge, of insight, but not ·Of cessation. But here
graduated cessation is not obtained as far as the Fifth Jhana;
(187] on the contrary, it is a basis of the round of births.
~d as this Jhana (of separated space) is the basis of super-
knowledge, so also are the Jhanas arising. in the previous
device. ·But in these Jhanas their distinction lies in the.IT
being bases of cessation. All that remains to be said on the
space-device has been said in the Visuddhi Magga. 2
By the aspirant who wishes for the potency of transforma-
tion, such as ' being one yet many,' 3 and producing the eight
attainments in the previous eight devices, the mind should be
tamed in these fourteen ways: (1) in the way of right succes-
sion of the devices; (2) in the reverse order of the devices;
(3) in the way of right succession and the reve~se order of the
devices; (4) in the way of right succession of the Jhanas;
l ;Reading na l,abbhati. 2 Ch. v. a Dialouues· i. 88.

The Ten t Devices,. 251
(5) in the reverse order of the Jhanas; (6) in the way of right
succession and the reverse order of the Jhii.nas; (7) by passing
over Jhanas; (8) by passing over devices; (9) by passing over
Jhii.nas and devices; (10) by change of factors; (U) change of
objects; (12) change of factors and objects; (13) specification
of factors; (14) specification of objects. The detailed discourse
is given in the Visuddhi M agga.1
It is impossible that the aspirant as a beginner, without
~uch a previously developed culture, taming his mind in the
fourteen ways, should fulfil by any means the potency of
transformation. For the preamble of the device is burden-
some to.the beginner; one in a hundred, a thousand, might be
able to perf~wm it. To him who has performed the preamble
of the device the production of the mark is burdensome; one
in a hundred, a thousand, might be able to produce it. When
the mark has been produced, the attainment of ecstasy after
increasing the mark is burdensome; one in a hundred, a ,
thousand, might be able to attain it. To one who has attained
ecstasy the taming of.the mind in the fourteen ways is burden-
some; one in. a hundred, a thousand, might be able to tame it.;
To one who has tamed the mind in the fourteen ways, the
potency of transformation is burdensome; one in a hundred,.
a thousand, might be able to acquire· it. · To one who ha~
attained the potency .of transformation, quickness ol intui<
ti on* is burdensome; one in a hund;ed, a thousand, might be.
able to .get it, like the Elder Rakkhita of - ~ight years' full
ordination among the thirty thousand elders of supernormal
potency, who had come to minister to the sick EJder Maha:r;o·
hanagutta at the Therambatthala. 2 The story has been told
~n the V isuddhi M agga. · ·
End of the Discourse on the Devices;
1 Ch. xii: 'Iddhividha-niddeso.' . * Khippanisanti.

2 I.e., the mango tree where Mahinda first alighted in Ceylon.-
y ojanii. See ~fahiivarµ.sa, xxxvi. 106. Name of one of the peaks of the
Missaka mounta.in in Ceylon 8iimantapiisiidikii. J,P.T.8., 1888, 7,.
CHAPTER ~I
DISCOURSE ON THE POSITIONS OF MASTERY

HAVING shown thus the moral consciousness of the realm of
attenuated matter in the eight devices, because there occurs
more of the same among those eight devices which are called
the Position of Mastery,1 [188] a system which is dissimilar in
culture, though similar in object, it is here set forth once more
with the beginning, ' Which are the ·states that are moral 1' 2
Therein' not perceiving material quality in himself' means
devoid of the perception of the preamble in his own bodily
frame, either from not getting it, or from not wishing it.
'Sees material qualities external to himself' means, from
having performed the preamble externally in the ei:ght devices,
he sees with jhana-eyes the external objects of these eight
devices by virtue of the preamble and the ecstasy.
' Limited ' means nc>t growing .
. In' having mitstered them': just as_a man of vigorous diges-
tion getting a spoonful of food makes a lump of it and swallows
it, saying, ' Call that eating anything 1' so a person of tran-
scendent and clear knowledge masters the device-objects and
attains jhana, saying, 'What is there to attain in this limited
object ~ This is not burdensome to me.' The meaning is
that he produces ecstasy together with the production of the
image of the mark in this limited object.
And by' I know, I see,' his former correct ideas are stated.
But in the Four Nikaya Commentaries3 it is said that by this
sentence his ~orrect ideas are meant, .and that they are indeed
the correct ideas of him who has arisen from, and is not still
within, the attainment.
'Immeasurable ' 4 means growing in size. In 'having
mastered,' just as a great eater getting a plate of food will
1 Abhibhayatana is jhana with an overpowering (abhibhii) preambla,
or knowledge as cause (ayatana), or jhana. with an abode or locus
(ayatana) called the object to be overpowered· (abhibhavitabbal!l
Abhibhayatana.).~Tika. 2 Dhs. § 204.
3 Agam'a~{hakathesu. 4 Dhs. § 212.

Positions of Mastery 253
not look at it because of _his large appetite, saying, ' Let
another come ! let another come ! what will this one plate do
for me?' so a person of transcending and clear knowledge
:qiasters those immeasurable objects and attains jhana, saying,
'What is there to attain in this immeasurable object? This
is not burdensome to me in making one-pointedness of mind.'
The meaning is that he produces ecstasy together with the
production of the image of the mark in the immeasurable
object.
'Limited, limited object; immeasurable, limited object':
here in this object-couplet of the first and second positions of
mastery,1 because the word 'limited' is mentioned, the im-
measurableness of object has not been included. In the second
method of thefollowing third and fourth positions of mastery,z
becau1:1e the word ' immeasurable ' is mentioned, the limited-
ness of object has not been included. But in the Great Com-
mentary it is said that, in this place, the objects have been
taken by twos, not by fours. [189] And why ? Because if the
four objects were taken, the teaching would be sixteen-
fold. And the sixteenfold teaching has already been uttered
at length by the Teacher, as though he was scattering sesa-
mum seeds on a mat. It is his wish to make an eightfold
discourse in this place. Hence the objects have been taken
by twos.
'Beautiful or ugly ' 3 means pure or impure colours. Pure
objects of blue-green, etc., indeed, are called beautiful, and
impure objects of blue-green, etc., are called ugly. Thus it
is here intended. But it is said in the Nikaya Commen-
taries that these positions of mastery have been shown
as beautiful or ugly by way of limited and immeasurable.
But in these four devices the limited comes by virtue of the_
frequency of initial application of mind, the immeasurable
by virtue of the frequency of delusion, the beautiful by virtue
of the frequency of hate, the ugly by virtue of the frequency
of lust. For to these persons walking in initial application,4
etc., these devices, limited, etc., are suitable. And this suita-
I Dhs. §§ 204-224. 2 lb. §§ 225-245. 3 lb.§ 2<!4.
4 :P.'.f.S. ed. omits part Qf this sentencl).-Tr,
Risings of Consciousness
'bility has been declared at length in the exposition of conduct
in the Visuddhi Magga.1
But why, without saying 'a man perceiving material quality
in himself sees external forms limited,' etc., is it said here in the
four positions of mastery,' without perceiving material quality
in himself 1.? Because his own body is not to be mastered.
For there, as well as here, it is only external objects that are ·
fo be mastered; hence they should always be mentioned.
Thus in both places they have been declared. And the ex-
pression: ' without perceiving material quality in himself,'
IS merely an embelfo;hment of the discourse by the Teacher.
This, so far, ·is an exposition of the new terms in the four .
·positions-of mastery. .
Moreo:ver, scheinatized method and classification by progress
·are to be understood in each position of mastery in the same
way as was said in connection with the earth-device, except
that here the fourfold object is the object-couplet; and the
sixteenfold method is the eightfold. The rest is the same.
Thus here in each position of m.astery are fifteen sets of nine :
one scheme of nine, four progress-sets of nine, two object-
sets of nine, eight sets of nine in the combination of object
and progress. Thus in the four positions of mastery the
(15 x 4) full sixty sets of nine should be understood.
[190] In the fifth and other positions of mastery the term
'blue-green ' 2 has been used as summarizing all such devices.
The term ' indigo colours ' is said in speaking of blue-green as
colour. The term 'indigo appearances' is said by way of
blue-green in appearance. Objects of opaque blue-green
are seen without the faintest sign of a flaw, and unbroken
in colour-so it is stated. 'Shimmering indigo' is said with
reference to their radiance, meaning irradiating, associated
with, indigo. It shows the special purity of colour of these
four 'positions of mastery.' 3
In 'yellow,' etc., also the meaning is to be understood· in
the same way. And one taking up the blue-green device
here seizes the mark (of upholding and its image) in a blue
1 P. JOI f.: Oariya-niddesa. 2 Dhs. §§ 246/,
a P.T.S. ed. omits half the sentence.-Tr.

The Deliverances ' 255
·(-green) flower, or cloth, or-colour-element. The work of the
device, the preamble, the arrangement of the ecstasy__:_all has
been discussed at length in the V isuddhi M agga.
And as in the earth-device, so here twenty-five sets of nirie
should be und~rstood in: each position of mastery.
End. ojthe Disco-urse on the fositwns of Mastery'.
CHAPTER XII
DISCOURSE ON THE -DELIVERANCES
Now be~ause this .moral consciousness of the realm of .at-
tenuated matter arises, not merely as positions of master}',
by mastering the positions called objects, but also as de-
liverance, therefore, in showing that method, again the begiri-
ning has been made with ' Which are the states that a;e
moraU'1
Now in what ~ense should 'deliverance' be understood 1
In the sense of adhimuccana, And what does this mean 1
Adhimuccana means being ' well freed ' from opposing states,
or it means sm1tained attention by way of taking delight in
the object. It is said to be the occurrence in the object2 with-
c;mt oppression and without hesitation, like the sleep of a child
on the hip of the father with its limbs, big and small, quite
free. It is to show the moral consciousness of the realm of
attenuated matter with such characteristics, and as havirig
attained to deliverance, that this method has been begun.
Therein 'one having material qualities' (rupi} refers to the
_po~session of material quality (riipar11), which means the
rupajhana, produced with reference to the hairs, etc., of
one's own body. For in doing the preamble of blue-green as to
one's own body, one does it with reference to the hair, or the
bile, or the pupil of the eye. In doing the preamble of yellow,
it is done with reference to_the fat, the skin, [191] or the yellow
spot of the eyes. In doing the preamble of red, it is done
1 Dh:s. § 248; 2 Or, 'procedure in connection with the object.'
with reference to the flesh, the blood, the tongue, the palms
of the hands and feet, or the red of the eyes. In doing the
·preamble of white, it is done with reference to the bones,
the teeth, the nails, or the white of the eye. Thus it is with
reference to a person who has done the preamble, and is pos-
sessed of the jhii.na induced, that this has been said.
'Sees visible objects' means he sees with jhana-vision
the external device-objects, blue-green, etc., also. By this
sentence the jhana-attainment is shown with reference . to
the devices of both the internal and the external bases.
'Unaware of his own material qualities.' 1 The meaning is
to be without the jhana produced with reference to one's own
hairs, etc. By this phrase is shown the state of the jhana
. obtained through external [objects] by performing the
preamble externally. ·
By the phrase 'How beautiful 1' 2 the Jhanas are shown in
. colour-devices, such as blue-green, of thorough purity. In
such jhana it is true that there is no discernment of the
beautiful within (anto) the ecstasy. Nevertheless, one who,
maintaining as object of his thought a thoroughly pure and
_beautiful device, may abide in the attainment of First Jh~na,
with the thought, ' How beautiful !' and of the other Jhanas
likewise. Such an one is indicated in the teaching.
Now in the Paf:isambhidii-magga [the question is asked]: 3 - ·
. ' By the mere la,ying to heart that " it is beautiful !" how
is there deliverance ~ 4 Here in this case the bhikkhu
continues to diffuse one quarter of a [given] region with
,thoughts of love. . . . Owing to this culture in love, persons
become free from aversion. Again, he continues to diffuse
one quarter of a [given] region with thoughts of pity, of
sympathy ... of indifference. Owing to this culture in ...
indifference, persons become free from aversion. Thus he
lays to heart that it is beautiful. And for this reason there
is deliverance.'
But here, because it is dealt with further on in the text
of the Divine States,5 that method has been rejected, and
1 Dhs. § 249. 2 lb. § 250. 3 Pts. ii. 39.
• P.T.S.: adhirnatto; v.Z. adhirrwkkho, for adhim'l!.lto. · 5 Dhs. § 251.

The Divin-e States 257
only the resthetic deliverance by way of the colours, very
blue-green, very yellow, very red, very white, pure blue-green,
pure yellow, pure red and pure white, has been allowed. Thus
the jhana of the realm of attenuated matter is said to be
device, or position of mastery, or deliverance. For this
jhana is called ' device ' in the sense of the entirety of the
object, 'position of mastery' in the sense of mastering
the object, 'deliverance' in the sense of bending towards
or attending to the object, or of being set free from
opposing states. [192] Of these, be it known that the teach-
ing of the device was uttered as Abhidhamma, but the other
two discourses on position of mastery and deliverance were
uttered as Suttanta teaching (Digha ii, 110 f.).
This, so fa!', is the exposition of the new terms. Moreover,
taking twenty-five in each deliverance, as in the Earth-device,
seventy-five sets of nine should be understood.
End of the Discourse on the Deliverances.
CHAPTER XIII
THE DIVINE STATES
Now to show the moral consciousness of the realm of attenu-
ated matter occurring by way of the Divine States of love,
etc., -again the beginning is made with ' What are the states
that are moral P
Therein ' accompanied by love ' means possessed of love.
And the same with the following ' accompanied by pity,' etc.
Now by whatever arrangement one practises and lives in
the attainment of the Jhanas accompanied by love, etc.,
all that arrangement of culture has been explained at length
in the Visu~dhi Magga. 2 The meaning of the remaining text
should be understood by the method given in the earth-
device. It is only in the earth-device that there are twenty-
five sets of nine. Here in the first three of the Divine States
1 Dhs. § 251. ' Divine '=- brahma-. 2 Chapter I~.

are twenty-five sets of seven by virtue of threefold and four-
fold · jhana. In hedonic indifference by virtue of fourfold
jhii.na there is a single set of twenty-five. In pity and sym-
pathy, these two together with the four, to wit, will and the
rest, are obtained as 'or whatevers '(p. 17 4). And here pain-
fulness of progress, etc., should be understood by discarding,
ill-will from love, cruelty from pity, dislike from sympathy,
lust and hatred from hedonic indifference.
Whereas the limitedness of object is by having not many
beings as object, immeasurableness is by having many beings
as object. This is the distinction. The remainder is the same
as in the earth-device.
Now that these four divine (brahma-) states as taught . by
the Best of Brahmas [the Buddha] have been understood
by way of the Text, the following particular comments con-
cerning them should be kno~. Thus: of love, pity, sym-
pathy, equanimity, 'love' means 'one loves.' 1 It signifies
' one wishes well.' Or love is so called because it goes on
concerning a loved one (metta, mitte), or because of the
state of being a loved one. · ·
That which makes2 the heart of the good quiver at the
pain of others is pity. Or it crushes,3 destroys the pain of
-others, thus it is [193] pity. Or it is pity because it is scattered
over4 t4e affiicted,-stretched out over them J>y diffusion.
(Thirdly) sympathetic joy (mudita) means those endowed
therewith, or with the co-existent states, rejoice, or one's self re-
joices, or just ' rejoicing.' (Fourthly) ' may they be without
enmity !'-thus, by the removal of such ill-will, one contem-
plates with disinterestedness by attaining to a condition of
centrality-this is hedonic indifference.
. As to characteristic marks, etc., first among them, love has
the characteristic of being a procedure of modes of beneficence;
1 Mettii (love) is thus derived from V mid-to love. It is implied

~hat it is a dhamma that loves, and not a person; therefore the view of
the heresy of the self is inhibited.- V isuddhi Magga '!'ilea.
2 I.e., karui1ii (pity) is derived from v'kar-to make.-Tr.
a I.e., the derivation is fromyki=-to destroy, kill.-Tr.
4 The derivation is from ykir-to sca.tter.-Tr.
The Divine States 259
the function or property of_bringing good; the manifestation
or effect of taking hatred away; the proximate cause of seeing
the lovableness of beings. Its consummation is the quieting
of ill-will; its failure is the production of hist. Pity has
the .characteristic of evolving the mode of removing pain; the
property of not being able to bear [seeing] others suffer; the
manifestation - of kindness; the proximate cause of seeing
the need of those overcome by pain. Its consummation is
the quieting of cruelty; its failure is the production of sorrow.
Sympathy has the characteristic of gladness; its property
is the absence of envying; its manifestation is the destruc-
tion of disaffection; its proximate cause is seeing the prosperous
state of other beings. Its consummation is the quieting of
dislike; its failure is the production of derision. Equanimity
has the characteristic of evolving the mode of centrality as
regards beings; its function is appreciation of others; its mani-
festation is quieting both aversion and sycophancy; its proxi-
mate cause is seeing the heritage of the occurring kamma as
' Beings are the pi;operty of their kamma. By its influence
they will attain to pleasure, or be free from pain, or not fall
from the prosperity already acquired.'1 Its consummation is
the quieting of aversion and of sycophancy; its failure is the
production of a profane and unintelligent indi:fference.2
These four Divine States have the bliss of insight and the
attainment of a happy existence as their common result.
Their several results are the destruction of ill-will, etc. - Love,
for instance, has the destruction of ill-will as result. The
others have the destruction of cruelty, of dislike, and of lust
as respective results. As it has been said : ' Friends, that
mental emaneipation called love is the escape from ill-will
. . . that mental emancipation called pity is the escape from
cruelty. . . that mental emancipation called sympathetic joy
is the escape from dislike . • . that mental emancipation called
equanimity is the escape from lust.' 3
1 Cf. Vis.-Magga, ch. ix.

2 I.e., absence of knowledge (anna~ia), may also be taken to be
devoid of joy and grief.-Mulafika. Cf. another pseudq-equanimity in
Majjhima i. 364.-Ea. 3 An~uttara iii, 291.
Each of them has two enemies, near and distant. To ex-
pand: of the Divine State of love the near enemy is lust,
because, like love, it sees merits. It is like a foe lurking near
a man. Quickly it finds access. Hence love should be well
protected horn lust. Ill-will is its distant enemy. From its
dissimilarity in natute it is like a man's foe dwelling in a moun-
tain fastness, etc. [194] Hence love should be cultivated
secure from ill-will. It is impossible that one should cultivate
love and at the same time get angry.
Asto pity, one who views visible objects, desirable, lovable,
endearing, delightful, associated with craving, objects which
have not been obtained as not obtained, or who remembers
what has been obtained formerly as now past, ceased, changed,
is filled with the sorrow called worldly (or profane).1 This,
because it also contemplates adversity, is the near enemy of the
Divine State of pity. From its dissimilarity in nature cruelty
is the distant enemy. Hence pity should be cultivated secure
from cruelty. It is impossible that one should cultivate pity
and at the same time strike with the band, etc.
As to sympathy, one who views visible objects, desirable, etc.,
is :filled with the joy called worldly. This, because it also con-
templates prosperity, is the near enemy of the Divine State of
sympathy. .F rom its dissimilarity in nature dislike is its distant
enemy. Hence sympathy should be cultivated secure from it.
·It is impo;ssible that one should be sympathetic and at the same
time be discontented with secluded monasteries or with the
higher inoral states.2
The fool who has seen a visible object and who is deluded,
an average man who has not overcome the limits of his lower
nature and the result of former births, who does not see the
evils of all conditioned things, is unacquainted with the teach-
ing_,'.this average man is filled with such indifference as is not
able to transcend the visible object. Hence it is called worldly
(or profane), and is· mere delusion. Owing to its similarity
in not considering faults and merits, it is the near enemy of
1 Gehasita is lit. domestic, of the 'house-life.'-Ed. Kama, being
.the abode of craving, is called geha.- Pyi. Cf. 1.:lilinda i,. 71.
i Adhikusala.dhammesu. Omitted in P.T.S. ed.
The Divine State8 261
the Divine State of equanimity. From their dissimilarity in
nature, both lust and aversion are its distant enemies. Hence
equanimity should be cultivated secure from them. ·It is
impossible that one should cultivate equanimity, and at the
same time be enamoured with, or hurt another.
Of all of these four Divine States, will, i.e., the will-to-do, is
the beginning; the discarding of the Hindrances is the middle;
ecstasy is the end. [195] One being or many beings as con-
cepts are the objects of those states. There is develop-
ment of the object on attaining to the' access' or the' ecstasy.'
This is the order of the development:-As a good cultivator
marks off the portion to be ploughed, and then ploughs iii, so,
marking off one dwelling, one should develop love towards
the. beings therein on this wise: ' May the beings in this dwelling
be free from enmity!'
Having made the mind soft and workable as to one dwelling,
two dwellings should be marked off, then in order three, four,.
five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten dwellings, a highway, half a
village, the whole village, a district, a kingdom, one quarter
of the globe-thus~ world-system and more should be marked
off, and love should be developed as to the beings in them.
Likewise pity, and the rest. This herein is the order in the
development of the object.
And just as concentration on the. immaterial may be con~
sidered as the result of the devices, concentration on the sphere
of neither' perception nor non-perception as the result of
concentration on the immaterial, the attainment of fruition
as the result of insight, the attainment of cessation as the
result of calm and insight, so here equanimity is the result
of the preceding three Divine States.
As without raising the pillars and hoisting the cross-beams
and wall-plates it is not possible to place aloft the peak and
the rafters, so without the Third Jhana obtainable in the
fir.st [three Divine States] it is not possible to develop the fourth
state, even though that state does not arise in dependence
on the Third Jhana produced in the devices, owing to dissimi-
larity of the objects.
[Herein one might ponder in this wise:-]' Why are love,
pity, sympathy and indifference called the Divine States 1
why are there four 1 what is their order 1 And why in the
Vibhanga are they called the" Immeasurables ''1 ' 1
'First, they are to be understood as divine in the sense of
' best' (or highest-settha),, and by their faultless nature.
For these states are best as constituting a superlative mode of
conduct towards others. And as Brahma divinities live
with faultless thoughts, so aspirants associated wi-.h ·these
four states live· like the Brahmas. Thus because of the
meaning of ' divine' and of their faultless nature, they are
ca.Ued the Divine States.
There are Four Powers leading to Purity ,·

These ar__e the Modes that start with Amity.
Limit unto their onward S'Weep is none.
By range as the Immeas'rables they're known. 2
Namely, inasmuch as love is the way to purity for him who

abounds in lll-will, as pity is the way if he abound in cruelty,
sympathy if he abound in repulsion, equanimity if he abound
in lust; again, because the fourfold work of the mind in relation
to others is the conveyance of good, the removal of harm,
[196] gladness over their success, and absence of preoccupation;
and inasmuch as he who practises the Immeasurables should
cultivate the four states towards all beings like a mother,
who in midst of four sons, one a babe; one ailing, one adolescent,
one managing his own affairs, desires for the babe growth,
for the sick riddance of illness, for the adolescent persistence
in the good things of adolescence, and is in no way anxious
for the son who manages his own affairs, therefore is the order
. of the influences leading to Purity thus.
And because a person desirous of cultivating them should
first practise them on beings by way of working good, and
love has the characteristic of proceeding by way of working
advantage; and because he then, pondering* on what he has
seen or heard, of beings praying for welfare when overcome by
1 Vibhanga, ch. xiii. 2 Visuddhi-magga, ch. ix.

* Samhhiivetvii.
The Div.ine States 263
sufferings, should practise them by way of taking away suffer-
ing, and pity has the characteristic of proceeding by way of
taking away suffering; next because he, seeing the prosperity
of those beings who had prayed for welfare and the re_moval
of suffering, should practise them by way of rejoicing at pros-
perity, and sympathy has the characteristic of profuse glad-
ness; and lastly, because he should practise them by the mode
of centrality called equanimity, owing to there being no work to
be done, and eq_uanimity having the characteristic of proceeding
by the- mode of centrality, therefore love has been mentioned
first by way of working good, etc., then pity; sympathy, equa-
nimity-thus the order should be understood.
And because all of them arise in an immeasurable field,
therefore are th-ey called the Immeasurables. For beings
Without limit constitute their field. ' Though it be but a single
being, in such a portion should love, etc., be developed,' thus
without making any limit they evolve by way of thorough-
going diffusion. Hence it has been said that they are four
by reason of the way to purity, etc.; their order is by reason
of the modes of working good; and they are also called the
Imrneasurables as arising with respect to an immeasurable
field of objects.
And of these having the characteristic of immeasurableness
in their field of objects, the first three are of the Third and
Fourth Jhanas.1 Why ~ Because they are not dissociated from
joy. But why should they not be dissociated from joy~
Because of their being the escape of such qualities as ill-will,
which spring from melancholy. The last Divine State is of
the remaining (Fifth) Jhana. Why~ Because of association
with neutral feeling. For the Divine State of equanimity
which arises .in the mode of centrality (197] does not arise
without neutral feeling.
End of the Disconrse on the Divine States.
-------
1 Fivefold system.
CHAPTER XIV
THE DISCOURSE ON THE FOUL
Now in order to show a class of moral consciousness of the
realm of attenuated matter1 certainly beneficial to beings who
walk in lust and which proceeds by virtue of each of the
Jhanas among [certain] various objects, once more we have
the beginning' which are the states that are moral 1' 2
Herein ' accompanied by the perception of a swollen thing,'
' swollen' is said of a corpse bloated by degrees from the time
of the loss of life onwards, like a bather's inflated bag. Or,
' swollen thing ' refers to its loathsomeness from its abomin-
a~le state, and is a synonym for such a corpse. ' Discoloured
thing' is a corpse of a predominating blue-green colour, mixed
with white and red; or just a corpse of blue-green colour cor-
rupted from its original state; or it is a corpse discoloured and
loathsome from its abominable state. It is an · equivalent
term for a corpse of a red colour in the fleshy parts, white
where matter gathers, and generally of a blue-green colour in
blue-green parts, as though covered by a blue-green sheet.
'Festering thing' is a corpse with matter fl.owing in lacerated
places; .or it is a corpse loathsome from its abominable state
and is festering. It is an equivalent term for such a corpse.
'Fissured thing' is a corpse split in two, or a corpse fissured and
loathsome from its abominable state. .It is an equivalent t~rm
for a corpse cut in the middle. ' Mangled thing ' is a corpse
torn here and there in various ways by dogs and jackals, etc.,
or it is a corpse mangled and loathsome from its abominable
state. It is an equivalent term for such a corpse. ' Dis-
membered thing ' is a corpse of which the parts have been
scattered, or it is just a dismembered corpse and loathsome
from its abominable state. It is an equivalent term for a
corpse dismembered here and there, in one place a hand, in
another a leg, in a third place the head. ' Cut and dis-
membered thing ' is a corpse cut in pieces and dismembered
in the way just given, a name for a corpse cut by a knife
1 ltii:p8.vacara, 2 /)hs. § 263.
The Ten Foul Bases 265
in the limbs, big and small, dter the pattern of a crow's foot
[198] and dismembered in the above sense. ' Bloody thing '
is that which scatters, pours out blood, causing it to trickle
here and there---:an equivalent term for a corpse besmeared
with trickling blood. 'Worm-foul' is worm-infested. It
pours forth worms; hence a ~ame for a corpse full of worms.
' Bone ' refers to skeleton, or to its being loathsome from its
abominable state. It is an equivalent term both for a group
of bones linked like a chain, and for a single bone. ,
And these foul things are the names both of the marks (of
upholding and ·image of the mark1 ) arisen in dependence on
them, and also of the Jhanas obtained with reference to the
marks. Therein the perception arisen by way of ecstasy with
reference to the mark of a swollen corpse is the ' perception of
the swollen thing.' And ' accompanied by the perception of
the swollen thing ' is in the sense of association with such per-
ception. So for the perception of the other nine.
Whatever arrangement for practice should be said here has
been said in all respects in the Visuddhi Magga. 2 The re-
maining exposition of the text should be understood by the
method given above. But, as in the Divine State of equa-
nimity alone, by virtue of the Fourth Jhana, there are twenty-
five set~ of one, so here by virtue of the First Jhana in each
foul thing there are twenty-five sets of one. And the Jhana
having as its object the mark produced in a limited part of the
swollen _corpse should be understood as having a limited object
from its inability to develop th.e foul object; and that in respect
of a large portion of the swollen corpse should be understood
as having an infinite object. So for the remaining nine.
Thus the ' Impurities ' the Man of virtue pure,

By [Sakka] thousand-eyed extolled, of Tenfold Power,
Named as conditions of this Jhana and of that. 3
Now that we know all the foul things according to the

method of the text, this particular discourse on them should
1 Cf. Compendium 54. 2 Chapter vi. -

3 D . p 193. Cf. ."Jia:ogues, s•a xxi., esp. p. 320.
266 Risings of ConsciouSness
further be learnt. Fo_r he who has attained Jhii.na, with refer-
ence to any one whatsoever of the ten ' foul things ' becomes
_~ober in behaviour, because, like a passionless saint, he has ~ell
discarded lust. 'And this being so, this cl~ssification of the
"foul'' has been declared, and is to be understood by virtue of
the corpse developing its intrinsic nature,1 and of the different
kinds of lustful behaviour. To expand: a corpse which has
arrived at the loathsome state may also reach the intrinsic
nature of the swollen corpse or of any of the others: dis-
coloured corpse; etc. [199] Thus the mark of upholding, "this
is the loathsomeness of the swollen corpse; this is the loath-
someness of the discoloured corpse," etc., should be caught
in whatever corpse he is able to catch it. Thus the tenfold
classification of the Foul should be understood by virtue of
the corpse developing its intrinsic nature.
'And of them, in particular, the swollen corpse, as making
'clear the decay of the form of the body, is suitable for one lust-
ing after the form of the body. The discoloured corpse, as
making clear the decay of the beauty of skin, is suitable for
one lusting after the complexion of the body. The festering
corpse, as making clear the stench connected with the sores
of the body, is suitable for one lusting after the smell of the
body produced by means of flowers, perfumes, etc. The fis-
sured corpse, as making clear the existence of a hollow within,
is suitable for one lusting after the solid state (of limbs) in the
body. The mangled corpse, as making clear the decay in the
perfection of the fulness of flesh; is suitable for one lusting after
the fulness of flesh in such parts of the body as the breasts, etc.
The dismembered corpse, as making clear the scattering of
the limbs, big and small, is suitable for one lusting after their
gracefulness. The cut and scattered corpse, as making clear
the change that has come over the different joints, is suitable
for one lusting after the perfection of the joints, of the body.
The bloody corpse, as making clear the abominable state of
1 Vis. Mag.193/. The V. M. Tika says that the body, under insight,
is.regarded in its intrinsic natur~ like a disguised ogre seen in his true
nature. Some read sarirasabhiiva-vipatti-vasena-' by virtue of the
false ~anifestation of the intrinsic nature of the body.'- Tr.
The Ten Foul Bases 267
being besmea~ed with blood, . is suitable for one lusting after
beauty produced by adornment. The worm-foul corpse, as
making clear the state of the body in common with val'ious
kinds of worms, is suitable for one lusting atter the idea that
the body is his own. The skeleton, as making clear the ahomin"
able state of the bones of the body, is suitable for one lusting
after the perfection of the teeth. Thus it should he understood
that the classification of the Foul has been declared to be ten-
fold also by means of the different kinds of lustful behaviour.
' And because, in this tenfold classification of the Foul, just
as in a river of swift current with flowing waters a boat is
steady by means of the rudder, and cannot stop without the
help of the rud~er, so from the weakness of the object1 the
mind is collected by the strength of initial application of mind,
without which it cannot be steady; therefore here is obtainable
the First Jhana (with initial application of mind), and not the
Second and other Jhanas. Though there is abomination, yet
because he has seen benefit in this foul object: " surely by
such progress I shall he freed from old age and death," and
because of the removal of the torments of the hindrances,
rapturous joy arises in him, like the flower-rubbish remover
[200] who feels joy over the rubbish heap in seeing benefit,
and thinks : " Now I shall get much wages," and like the sick
man at the alleviation of the misery. of sickness when vomit-
ing and purging.
' The foul thing, though tellfold, is one in characteristic,
which is t]le impure, evil-smelling, disgusting and abominable
state. Not only in the dead body does it appear with this
characteristic, but, as in the case of the Elder Mahatissa,
resident at Mount Cetiya, seeing the teeth of a laughing woman,
and of the 11ittendant novice of the Elder Sangharakkhita
looking up.at the king on an elephant's hack, it may also appear
in a living body. Indeed, the living body is as foul as the
dead body. But in the former the characteristic of the foul,
being covered by temporary adornments, does not appear.'
End of the Discoitrse on the Foul.
1 The inability of the object to draw the concentration of the mind
on itself owing to its abominable state is its weakness.-Pyi.
But is this all the ecstasy belonging to the [consciousness of
the] realm of attenuated matter, beginning with the earth-
device and ending in the perception of the skeleton ? Or is
there something more.? Yes, there is. There is the respiration-
Jhana, and the culture of mindfulness regard.ing the body,
which have not been spoken of here. Why not ? The respira-
tion-Jhana is included in the air-device; the culture of mindful-
ness regarding the body arisen by virtue of the fourfold and
fivefold Jhanas with reference to the hair, etc., is included
in the colour-devices; the mindfulness regarding the body
produced by virtue of the Jhanas attending to the abomina-
tion in the thirty-two parts of the body, and that of the Jhana
_a ttending to the colours of the nine1 sorts of corpses in the
charnel field is included in the ten foul things. Thus all
the ecstasies of [consciousness connected with] the realm of
attenuated matter have been included here.
End of the Discourse on moral consciousness of the realm of
attenuated matter.
1 As, one-day-old, two-day,old, etc.-Tr.
PART VI-MORAL CONSCIOUSNESS OF THE
IMMATERIAL WORLD
Now to show the moral consciousness of the immaterial

realm, again the beginning runs:-' which are the states that
are moral ?'1
Here, in the phrase:-' for the attainment of the immaterial
abodes,' 'arupa' is the immaterial 'abode'; and the term
' immaterial uprising ' means rebirth in the immaterial
abode. 'He cultivates the path ' means he produces and
develops the means, condition, cause. ' Wholly ' means ' in
all respects'; or' of all, without remainder.'
[Beyond all] 'perceptions of material qualities ' 2 (rupa-
sar"'iniinaip,) means the aforesaid Jhanas [201] of the realm
of attenuated matter and the registered objects (in the
' devices'). Such Jhana is symbolized by the designa-
. tion 'matter' (or 'material,' rupa). Such is the case in the
for.egoing phrases ' aware of his bodily frame he sees material
objects' ;3 again, ' externally he sees objects beautiful or
ugly.' 4 Hence in this passage 'perception of material
qualities,' that is, perception with respect to material quali-
ties is an equivalent term for such Jhana of the realm of
attenuated matter syinbolized by th-e perception. That such ·
Jhana is called 'matter-perceptioned' (rupa-sannarri) means
that 'matter' (material quality) is a name for it, and should
be understood as an equivalent term for the devices and the
registered.mental objects.
' By having passed beyond,' namely, through distaste
for and cessation. What is this saying 1 It means he,
having attained, abides in [the Jhana of] the infinity of _space
conditioned bydistaste and cessation, to wit, the distaste for,
1 Dhs. § 265. 2 B.P.E., 'consciousness of form.'
a lb.§ 24S. 4 lb. § 223.
269
and cessation in all respects of, all perceptions of material
qualities, of those which are known as the fifteen perceptions
of jhana by virtue of moral, of resultant and of inoperative
consciousness, and of those which are known as the eight
perceptions of object by virtue of the earth-device, etc. It
is not possible to live in the attainment of that without
wholly passing beyond the perception of matter. And on
this point, because one lusting after the object cannot possibly
transcend such perception, and because when the perceptions
are transcended the object is transcended, therefore without
speaking of the latter process the Vibhanga mentions only
the transcending of the perception~-· Herein, what is the
perception of matter 1 To one who has reached the attain-
nient of the realm of attenuated matter, or who is born in
a · material abode, or to one who lives in happiness· under
present' conditions, the!'e are perception, the perceiving, the
state of having perceived. These are called perceptions of
' matter. · There is the passing beyond, the surpassing, the
transcending of these perceptions. Hence it has been said
"by wholly passing beyond all perceptions of form." ' 1 And
·because these attainments are to be acquired by transcending
··'object,' and not a single object as in the First Jhana, etc.,
therefore this exposition of the meaning has been made also
by way·of transcending ' object.'
' By the dying out of the perception of impact ' 2 :-the
perception, that is, which is produced by the impact between
eye, etc., as physical bases, and visible things, etc., as objects,
is qa~d the perception of impact. It is an equivalent term
for the perceptions of visible things, etc. As he said:-' The
perceptions of visible object, of sound, smell, taste, tangible
object-these are called the perceptions of impact.' 3 The
stated clause implies, by the dying out, putting away, not
arising, not occurring of the whole ten impact-perceptions,
of the five good results and five bad results. [202] Surely
'[it maybe said] these are not obtained by one who has attained
· to the First and other Jhanas, since, at the time of attaining
these, consciousness is not arising by way of the five doors.
i Vibhanga 261, 2 Dh8. § 265. 3 Vibhanga 26l. .
Moral 'Arupa' Consciousness 271
Nevertheless, just as pleasure and pain are mentioned in the
Fourth Jhii.na and just as the theory of individuality, etc., is
mentioned in the Third Path, 1 although they are removed at
another stage, so these impact-perceptions are to be understood
as mentioned here by way of praising this jhana, so that
people may strive for it. Or, although they are not obtained
by one who has attained the [consciousness of] the realm of
attenuated matter, it is not because they have been removed;
for the culture of the jhana of that r'&.i.lm is not conducive to
distaste for matter; rather the occurrence of these impact-
perceptions ii:; in conjunction with matter. But this culture
of 'the immaterial' is conducive to distaste for matter.
Hence it is proper to speak of their removal here. It is
proper not only to speak of them, but also to bear in mind
that they have actually been removed. Verily, it has beeil
said by the Blessed One that, because of the non-removal of
these impact-perceptions prior to the jhana of the immaterial,
sound is a . thorn . to one attaining the First Jhana. 2 But
owing to their removal, here the imperturbability of the
immaterial attainments and peacefulness of emancipation
have been declared. And when Kalama . Alara
. entered on the
attainment of ' the immaterial,' he did not see, nor did he
hear the sound of five hundred carts passing close by him. 3
'By not attending to perceptions of difference' means
either ' to perceptions going on in a different field,' or ' to
perceptions of differences' (or multiformity). This term
·' perception of difference ' is mentioned for two reasons:-
:The Vibhanga analyzes it as follows:-' What herein is per-
ception of di:fference 1 The perception, perceiving, state of
having perceived, in one who has not attained jhana and
who is endowed with the datum of mind, or with tpat of
mental awareness-these are called perceptions of difference.' 4
In other words, the perception of such an one, comprising
t The Path of 'the Never-Returner, for whom the five lower Fetters
are done away with.'-Points of Controversy, 74. The 'theory of indi-
viduality' or soul was the first Fetter.
2 PointtJ of Gootroversy, 331, quoting Anguttara v. 133-35.
3 Dialogues ii. 141 f. ' Vibhaiiga, p. 261 f.
272 Risings of OoMciousness
·the data -0f his mind and mental awareness, goes on in a field
. of diverse natute with reference to di:fference in sights, sounds
and so on. In the next place, there are forty-four [classes of
perceptions] which are mutually unlike, being diverse in their
intrinsic nature. These are the eight classes of moral percep-
·tions,1 the twelve immoral, the eleven of moral results, the
two of immoral results, and the eleven ' inoperative '-all of
'the realm of sensuous ex;Perience. And the 'entire inattention
to these perc,eption,<1 qf di:fference' implies not adverting to,
not considering, not reflecting upon. And because he does
not advert in mind to them, does not attend to, does not
reflect upon them, [203] therefore the expression [commented
on] was used.
And because the preceding perceptions of matter and of
impact do not exist in the immaterial plane pmdm;ed by this
jhana, much less in that plane at the time of abiding in the
attainment of this jhana, therefore is their non-existence
said thus to be due to the two causes r,f transcending and
dying out. But among the di:fferent perceptions, ·because
twenty-seven perceptions, to wit, eight mot.al perceptioih'l of
the sensuous realm, nine inoperative perceptions, ten immoral
perceptions exist in the plane produoed by this jhana, there-
fore the cause of not attending to them was mentioned. ~nd
because one abiding in the attainment of this jhana in that
plane of existence does so by not attendwg to those percep-
tions, one who attends to them has not attained the jhana.
Briefly, ' by passing beyond the perceptions of matter '
implies the removal of all states of the realm of attenuated
matter. ' By· the dying out of the perceptions· of impact,
by inattention to perceptions of di:fference,' implies the
removal of, and inattention to, all consciousness and mental
properties of the sensuous realm.
Thus by these three clauses :-trans(}ending the· perceptions
of matter, the dying out of the ten perceptions of impact, the
·not attending to the forty-four di:fferent perceptions, the
-Blessed One has spoken the praises of the attainment of the
1 As discussed above, Part IV., pp. 141 g. The remainder· are
discussed in succession below.
infinity of space. For what reason ? For the purpose of
rousing the audience to activity and to persuade them, lest
some unlearned people should say: ' The Teacher declared,
''Get the attainment of the infinity of space." But what
is the u13e, w}iat is the benefit of thisr To prevent
them from so speaking, he praised this attainment in such
wise. For they, hearing its praises extolled, will reflect thus:
' So calm, they say, is this attainment and so exalted; we will
get it.' Then they will endeavour to get it. And he has
praised it to them for the purpose of persuasion, like a dealer
in molasses [who is called a dealer] in' visaka:µtaka.' 1 He, it
is said, took in a cart hard molasses, soft molasses, lumps of
molasses, treacle, etc., went to the border village and shouted,
' Buy visaka:µtaka, buy visaka:µtaka ! ' (lit.: poison-thorn).
T:\le villagers, hearing him, shut the doors of their houses and
made the children run away, saying,' Poison is cruel; he who
eats it dies; a thorn pierces, kills you. Both are cruel; what
is the use of them r Seeing this circumstanoe, the merchant
thought, ' They are unskilled as to names in vogue, [204] these
villagers. I will make them buy the toffee by a stratagem.'
S<;> he shouted, ' Buy a very sweet thing, buy a very delicious
thing; hard molasses, soft molasses, treacle may be got at a
low price, even for bad farthings, for bad pennies,' etc.
Hell-ring him, the villagers, glad and delighted, came out and
bought them, giving him much money. Now here, like the
shout of the merchant's ' Buy visaka:µtaka ! ' is the saying
of the Blessed One, 'Produce the attainment of the infinity
of space' ; like the thought of the villagers: ' Both are cruel;
what is the use?' is the thought of the audience:-' The
Blessed One has told us to produce the sphere of the infinity
of space. What benefit is there? We d_o not know its merits.'
Then, like the words of the merchant, 'Buy a very sweet
thing,' etc., is the Blessed One's showing the benefit, beginning
with the transcending of the perceptions of matter. As the
. villagers giving much money and taking the molasses; so is
the thought:-by hearing of the benefit, those whose hearts
1 A name for a species of sugar; Abhidhanapadipika. Cf. our
' bu~l's eyes,' or the Lancashire equivalent 'humbugs.'-Ed.
have been persuaded will make a great endeavour to get this
attainment. Thus the Blessed One has spoken for the purpose
of producing endeavour and so as to persuade.
[Next we haye] 'accompanied by the space-infinitude-
realm-perception.' Here 'infinite' means 'it has .no end.'
'Space-infinitude realm' means realm of infinite space or of
infinitude of space, in the sense of abode of the associated
jhana, *like a spirit-realm of spirits. It is an equivalent term
for the space separated· off by the [space}device. 'Accom-
panied by the perception of the sphere of infinite space '
means accompanied by the perception which has reached
ecstasy with reference to infinite space as object. But the
words given elsewhere-' Infinite is space 1'1-are not included
here in reference to space as being either infinite or limited.
Why ? When it is infinite it cannot be taken to be limited,
when .limited it cannot be infinite. This being so, the fourfold
object would not be complete and the discourse would not be
sixteenfold. A:ud it was the Supreme Buddha's wish to
make the discourse in this place sixteenfold. Hence without
saying·' infinite' or 'limited' he said 'accompanied by the
perception of the sphere of the infinity of space.' Indeed,
by this expression, both the words are included, the fourfold
object is completed, and the discourse becomes sixteenfold.
The meaning of the remaining text should be understood as
said above.
And in this jhana, sorrow at the destruction of desire for
the Fourth Jhana of the realm of attenuated matter makes
[205] progress painful.2 Sluggishness of entrance into ecstasy,
on the part of one who has destroyed desire, makes intuition
sluggish. The reverse should be understood as easy progress
and quick intuition. And the jhana which arises in space
divided off by a limited device is called 'limited object,' that·
* A ktisiirw/iioo;
1 When this Jhana is stated as a stage of Deliverance (fourth in the
eight), the formula runs thus (instead of as in the Dhs.): 'thinking
"space is infinite!" he reache11 and remains in,' etc. Dialogues ii. 119.
Cf. B.P.E. 71, n.
2. Cf. above, p. 246, The Four Objects of Thought.'
which arises in space divided off by an extensive device is
called 'immeasurable object.' As in the divine state of
equanimity, so here also by virtue of the Fourth Jhana there
_are twenty-five sets of one, and as here, so also in the following
Jhanas. And we shall explain only what is specific in these
latter.
In the next stage, to the clause ' by passing beyond the
sphere of infinite space,' 1 the previous method should be
applied, showing both the realm of infinite space, in the sense
of abode, and the jhana to be so called. Both are united
in the one term, and show that by not proceeding with them,
by not attending to them, both the jhana and its object are
transcended, and he att.ains and abides in the sphere of
infinite consciousness.
In the clause 'accompanied by the perception of the
-0onsciousness-infinitude-sphere,' infinite means that in attend-
ing to it, one thinks there is no end to it. ' Infinitude' is just
' infinite.' Instead of using viii:iia'l!iimaiicarp, for ' conscious-
ness-infinitude,' the shorter term (viiiiiii'l!ii:iicarp,) has been
used, an instance of the elision of a syllable. This conscious-
ness is the.sphere, in the sense of abode, of this perception-
hence ' the sphere of infinite consciousness.' ' Accompanied
by the perception of the sphere of infinite consciousness '
means accompanied by the perception arising with reference
to that sphere of infinite consciousness. It is a name for the
jhana which has as its object consciousness as proceeding in
space. In this jhana, from the pain of the destruction of
desire for .the attainment of the sphere of infinite space,
progress should be understood as painful; from a sluggish
entrance into ecstasy on the part of one who has destroyed
one's desire, a sluggish intuition should be understood. The
reverse should be understood as easy progress and quick
intuition. ' Limitedness of the object' should be understood
as procedure with reference to attainment which has for its
object space divided off in a limited 'device'. The reverse
should be understood as the immeasurableness of object.
. The rest is the same as in the preceding Jhana.
1 Dh8. §.266:
In the clause:-' by passing beyond .the sphere of infinite
consciousness •1· the previous method should be applied,
showing both the sphere of infinite consciousness, in the sense
of abode, and the jhana to be so called. Both are uruted
in the one term, and [206] show that by not proceeding with
them, by not attending to them, both the jhana and its
object are transcended, and one attains and abides in the
sphere of nothingness.
In the clause ' accompanied by the percepti9n of the sphere
of nothingness,' here 'nothing' signifies 'there is nothing of
it.' The statement is, that not even disruption remains of it.
Nothingness is the state of having nothing left, an equivalent
term for the disappearanceof the consciousness of the sphere
of infinite space. ' Sphere of nothingness ' is the sphere, in
the sense of abode, of the perception of that nothingness.
' Accompanied by the perception of the sphere of nothing-
ness' means accompanied by the perception proceeding with
reference to that .sphere of nothingness, and is a name for the
jhii.na having as its object the disappearance of consciousness
proceeding with reference to space.
In this jhana, where there is pain from the destruction of
desire for the attainment of the sphere of infinite conscious-
ness, progress is painful; where there is sluggishness of entrance
into ecstasy· on the part of one who has destroyed one's
desire, intuition is sluggish. The reverse should be understood
as ea~y progress and quick intuition. 'Limitedness of object'
should be understood as being the object, the disappearance of
the consciousness proceeding with reference to space divided
off by a limited device. The reverse should be understood as
immeasurableness of object. The rest is the same as the frrst.
In the phrase:-' by passing beyond the sphere of nothing-
ness,'2 by applying the previous method, the jhana with the
sphere (in the sense of abode) of nothingness is shown to be
itself called the sphere of nothingness; so also, by the afore-
said method, is its object. Both are united in the one term,
and show that, by not proceeding with them, by not attending
to them, both the jhana and its object are transcended, and
1 Dks. § 267. 2 lb. § 268.
Moral 'Arupa ~ Consciousness 277
one attains and abides in the sphere of neither perception nor
non-perception.
In the clause:-' accompanied by the perception (idea) of
the sphere .of neither perception nor non-perception,' the
jhii.na is So called because of the real existence of such per-
ception. In or,der to show this perception and its progress*
arising in one who practises accordingly, the Vibhanga elabo-
rates the phrase, 'neither perceptual nor non-perceptual,'
and says that ' orie attends to the sphere of nothingness as
peace, [207] and cultivates the attainment of the residuum
of mental -0oeffi.cients; therefore it is said to be neither per-
ceptual nor non-petceptual.' 1 In that text the sentence
'attends . . . as peace' means that he attends to the sphere
of nothingness as peace from the peacefulness of the object,
thinking:--.! Verily this attainment is peace; since it will hold
with non-existence itself as its object.' If he attends to it
as peace, he is no longer in a state of desire for [further]
attainment when he would be thinking, ' How can I transcend
this 1' His mind· is co,nsidering its peace, but as to regarding,
contemplating, attending how ' I shall attain, I shall sustain,
I shall emerge from, I shall reflect upon [what I have gone
through],' he does nothing of all this. Why? Because the
sphere 0£ neither perception nor non-perception is more peace-
ful, more excellent than the sphere of nothingness. As a king
riding his elephant in great state, and going about the city
streets, might see craftsmen such as carvers in ivory, tightly
swathed in one garment, their heads covered with another,.
their limbs besprinkled with ivory dust, making various
forms out of. ivory, etc. And he, being pleased with their
skill, might say': ' 0 sirs, how clever are these masters who.can
do such things!' But the thought does not arise in him::
' Good indeed would it be were I to give up my kingdom and
become such a craftsman I' And why is that 1 Because of
the great advantage of the glory of kingship. Now just as the
king goes p~st the craftsmen, so although the aspirant attends
to that attainment as peace, he does riot consider, ponder,
attend thus: 'I will attain it, sustain it, emerge from it, reflect
• Ta1ft tava. 1 Vibh. 263. Cf. Sum. V. on D. ii. 69, § 33.
upon it.' Attending to it as peace by the previous method,
he arrives at exceedingly subtle perception with the attain-
ment of ecstasy. By means of that perception he becomes
neither perceptive nar non-perceptive. And he is said to have
cultivated the attainment of the residuum of mental co-
. efficients, that is, the fourth ' immateria.l' attainment of
mental coefficients of exceeding subtleness.
Now in order to show the meaning of that sphere of neither
perception nor non-perception, which by virtue of the thus
acquired perception is so called, the states of mind and mental
properties are here stated of one who has entered into that
sphere of consciousness, or of one who is born in that plane
of existence,1 or of one who lives in happiness under present
conditions. Of these three the states of mind and mental
properties of one who has entered on that conscious ex-
perience are here intended. The literal definition is that,
owing to the absence of gross perception and the presence
of subtle perception in this jhana, with its associated states,
there is neither perception nor is there the absence of percep-
tion. This jhana of neither perception nor non-perception
is [classed as] a sphere included in the [conscious] ' spheres '
of mind and of ideas, [208] hence the name ' sphere of neither .
perception nor non-perception.' Or, again, the perception
here is non-perceptual in so far as it is incapable of efiective
functioning; and owing to the presence of the subtle residuum
of mental coefficients it is not non-perceptual-hence 'neither
perception nor non-perception.' And 'sphere <;>£ neither
perception nor non-perception' means that it is a sphere in
the sense of abode ~f the remaining states.
And not only perception is of such a kind. Feeling also
is neither feeling nor non-feeling, consciousness also is neither
consciousness nor non-consciousness, contact also is neither
conta~t nor non-contact. It should be understood that this
discourse has been made with perception as representative
of the other associated states.
1 ' The four ' immaterial ' Jhanas were supposed to be tastes o_
f the
presumably normal consciousness experienced, respeC'tively, ·by one
reborn on the four planes of the immaterial worlds.-Ed.
Moral 'A1·upa; Consciousness 27~
This meaning can be made plain by the similes of oil for

besmearing bowls, etc. It is said that a novice besmeared
a bowl with oil and put it by. At the time of drinking rice
gruel the Elder said to him,' Bring the bowl.' He answered:
'There is oil in the bowl, sir.' Then, when the Elder said,
'Novice, fet-ch it; we will fill an oil-tube,' he answered,
'There is no oil, sir.' In this simile, as from the said
[quantum] of oil inside, there is oil in the sense of the bowl's
being unfit for rice gruel, and yet there is not sufficient oil
for the filling of the oil-tube, even so that perception, from its
incapacity fol' effective functioning, is not perception, and
from the presence of the subtle residuum of mental coefficients
is not non-perception.
But what is the function of perception here ~ The noting
of the object, and the engendering of repulsion through
extraordinary insight. As the element of heat cannot perform
its function of burning in cold water, so this perception
cannot manifest the function of noting. And in the remaining
attainments it is not possible to engender repulsion through
extraordinary1 insight as perception can. Indeed, a bhikkhu,
who has not accomplished his contemplation in other groups
[of exercises], cannot attain to repulsion after he has grasped
the groups of the sphere of neither .perception nor non-per-
ception, albeit perhaps the venerable Sariputta, or a greatly
wise man of matured insight like Sariputta might be able to.
'These states (of neither perception nor non-perception) not
having been, have come to be; having become, they perish' -
thus he might be able by way of contemplating the group as a
whole, but not by means of insight into individual states.
Such is the subtleness of this attainment.
As by the simile of oil for besmearing the bowl, so by the
following simile of water in one's path this meaning is to be
made plain. [209] They say a novice, going on a journey
ahead of his Elder, saw a little water and said, 'Water, Sir;
take off your shoes.' Then when the Elder said,' If so, bring
the bathing cloth; we will bathe,' he replied, ' There is no
water.' In this simile, as there is water in the sense of being
i :j:tead visesa· for visaya-.
Just enough to wet the shoes, and no water in the sense. ·of
being enough for bathing, so this perception from its incapa-
city for effective function is not perception, and from the ·
presence of the subtle residuum of mental coefficients is not
·non-perception. Not only by these, but also by other fitting
·similes, should this meaning he made clear.
', Accompanied by the perception of the sphere of neither
perception nor non-perception' means accompanied by this
perception which proceeds in, or which is the sphere of, neither
perception nor non-perception. It is an equivalent term
for jhana which has the attainment of the sphere of nothing-
ness for object. Where there is pain at the destruction of
desire for the attainment of the sphere of nothingness, pro~
gress here is painful; where there is sluggishness of entrance
into ecstasy on the part of one who has destroyed desire,
intuition is sluggish. The reverse should he understood as
easy progress and quick intuition. ' Limitedness of the
object' should he understood as referring to attainment
when space is divided off in a limited device as object. The
reverse should. he understood as the immeasurableness of
object. The rest is the same as the first.
The fourfold consciousness of immaterWl spheres

Th' incomparable Lord hath [here] declared. And now
That these we've learnt, we must go on to know thereof
Some teaching in detail. These four do come to pass
If one transcend th' ob-ject experienced. But the wise
.Believe the jhana qualities are not surpassed.
0£ the four attainments, the first is from transcending the

image of the mark or the device-object, the second is from
transcending space, the third is from transcending the con"
sciousness proceeding with reference to space, the fourth is
from transcending the disappearance of consciousness. pro-
ceeding with reference to space. '.['hus these four im- .
material attainments should he understood in all respects
to have transcended the object. But in them the wise do.
not hold with the transcending of the factors. In th~ there
is no transcending of the factors as in the attainments of the
realm of attenuated matter, _because in all of them there are
just two jhana-factors: hedonic indifference and one-pointed-
ness of mind. Yet though there is no transcending of the
factors, the subsequent attainments here (in the immaterial)
are more exalted than the preceding.
Here each latter one is nobler: understand
The similes of dress and storeys.thus:-
[210] As in the lowest storey of a four-st()reyed palace there
might be available the highest of the five pleasures of sense
in the form of celestial dancing, singing, music, fragrant
scent, garlands, sweet drinks and eatables, couches, etc.;
in the second storey the pleasures available might be higher
than those in the first; those in the third storey might be
higher still; those in the fourth storey might be the highest
of all; although herein the four are all palace-storeys, and
there is no distinotion in them as such, yet owing to the
difference in the · performanc~ of the pleasures, the higher
storey is more excellent than the lower. . . .
And as a woman might possess two garments of a texture
four, three, two, or one in weight, spun thick, soft, very soft,
most soft, and of the same dimensions in length and breadth;
although herein the four garments are the same in length and
breadth, and there is no difference in respect of size, yet the
last named are more excellent than the former as regards
the coarseness or smootJuiess of touch, fineness of text\lre
and value, so also in these four immaterial attainm:entsr
although there are only two factors: in:di:!Jerence and : one--:
pointedness of mind, yet owing to the distinction ·in ·culture
and the degree of excellence of the factors, the subsequent
attainments here are more exalted. Thus they ai'e of graduated
excellence.
Where -a pavilion stands with filth around
One clinging hangs, another on him leans.
Another stands without and leaning not.
a
On him fourth man leans. .The wise should see
In these four men those Four respectively. 1
1 See Viauddhi-magga, chap. x. '.\ruppa.niddeso.'
This is how the meaning is connected:-They say that
there was a pavilion in an unclean place. A cert~in man on
arriving there, loathing the dirt, hung on to the pavilion with
both hands and remained there as though fixed. Another
man having come remained leaning on the first man who had
hnng on 'to the pavilion. Then a third man having come
thought, ' He who hangs on to the pavilion and he who leans
on him-both 0£ them are badly situated. Their fall with
the fall 0£ the pavilio:P is certain. Now I stand outside,' and
stood apart without depending on them. Then a four~h man
came, and considered the unsafe position of the man who hung
on to the pavilion, and 0£ the man who leant on him, and con-
sidering the safe position 0£ the man who stood apart stood
leaning on him.
Herein the device of marked off space should be regarded
as the pavilion -in an unclean place; _the sphere of infinite
space, with space for object and a contempt for the device-
object, as the man who, loathing the impurity, hung on to the
pavilion; [211] the sphere of infinite consciousness arising in
dependence on the sphere 0£ infinite space, with space for
object, as the man who leant on him who hung on to the
pavilion; the sphere of nothingness, which does not make
the sphei:e 0£ infinite space its object, but has the absence
(of the first immaterial consciousness) for its object, as the
man who thought 0£ the unsafe position 0£ both those men,
and who without leaning on him who hung on to the pavilion
stood apart; the sphere of neither perception nor non-percep-
tion proceeding in dependence oil the sphere of nothingness;
established in the exterior position called the absence 0£ the
(first immaterial) consciousness, as the man who thought of
the unsafe positions of the men who hung on to the pavilion
and of the man who leant on him, and who, considering the
man who stood without as ' he is well placed I' stood leaning
on him.
Though this be so,
' This ' takes just ' that ' as object, for it finds
No other; even so, that they may live,
Men [take] a king whose faults lie bare to view.
'This' sphere of neither _perception nor non-perception
takes 'that' sphere of nothingness for its object for want of
another, in spite of the latter's fault of having the sphere of
infinite consciousness as Its 'near enemy.' Like what 1
Like-the people who, for the sake of their livelihood, lean upon
the king though they see his faults. For although the people
see _his faults, to wit, 'his conduct is harsh,' they would not
get their livelihood save under this king who, though unre-
strained, harsh in act, speech and thought, is lord of all the
quarters of the country. Even so this sphere of neither per-
ception nor non-perception takes that sphere of nothingness
for its object, in spite of its fault, from inability to get any
other. Still,
Who climbs a stairway grasps the stairway rail ;
Who dimbs a hiU sees steadfastly the peak;
Who dimbs a rock may seek a kneehold firm;
So doth a man just on this jhana lean,
And as he leans upon it, carries on.
End of the D1J5course on the Immaterial Moral Consciousness.
PART VII-DISCOURSE ON MORAL CON-
SCIOUSNESS AS THREE-PLANED
Now; in order to ~how all the moral consciousness of the

three planes of existence as divided into 'low,' etc., again
the beginning is made with,' Which are the states that
are m.oral ~' 1 Herein 'low' should be understood as 'base'
(or paltry) by way of putting forth (or heaping up). [212]
'Medium' is a state between low and high or (excelll'Jnt).
' Exalted ' means _led up to ex-treme altitude or supreme
state2 ; the meaning is 'excellent.'
They are to be understood as referring to putting forth
effort. When; at the moment of putting forth any effeirt,
,desire, energy, awareness, or investigation is low, that [moral
consciousness] is known as 'low.' When these four states
are medimm, and again exalted, it is medium and exalted
respectively. That moral consciousness which is put forth,
with desire in the sense of will-to-do as its principal, its
chief, its leader, is said to be dominated by desire as coming
. from such dominant influence. And the same with the domi-
nant influence of energy, and the other two factors.
Halting at this place, we should count the methods thus:-
One method the foremost classification of all, one low, one
medium, one exalted, one method dominated by desire-to-do
- these are the five methods in moral consciousness dominated
by desire-to-do. So also there are five methods in each of the
dominant influences of energy, etc., and four times five gives
twenty. Or, the first is the bare method; the low, ~tc., amount
to three more; four are the dominant influences of desire-
1Dhs. §§ 269-76.
2 A 'buried city ' word-play only-pa-dhii.naiµ bhii.va111 ni.ta1Jl
pal}.ital!J..-Ed
284
Planes of Consciousness 285
[to-do]~ twelve are these four considered as low, medium and
exalted, in all twenty methods. Where are these twenty
great methods classified 1 They are classified in the chapter
entitled 'Low Triplet' of the Great Book. 1 And in this place,
taking the middle group from the Low Triplet, three portions
as low, medium, exalted should be made.. From these three,
excepting the middle group, and taking the low and the ·
exalted, sets of nine portions should be ·made. For in low
moral consciousness there are. low, medium, exalted; and in
the exalted moral consciousness there are low, medium,
exalted. Likewise in the low, .by low moral consciousness
there are low, medium, exalted; likewise in the low, by the
medium moral consciousness; and likewise in the low, by the
exalted moral consciousness. This is one set of nine.
In the exalted, hy low moral consciousness, there are also
low, medium, exalted; likewise in the exalted, by medium
inoral consciousness; and likewise in the exalted, by exalted
moral consciousness. Thii:i is the second set of nine. The
two sets make eighteen doors of action. 2 [213] From being
1 PaUhana. The ' Low Triplet ' is one of the chapters in the First
Book, or Tika-pa~~hana. -Ed.
2 In the :middle group of the Low Triplet those moral thoughts
which, with their results, are produced by way of gifts, etc., which
depend on the round of rebirths, are done as ' low '; those which.
with their results, are prod1tced by way of gifts, etc., whir.h depend on
the release from the round of rebirths, are. done .as 'exalted'; those
which give no Tesults are done as 'medium.' Of these three groups,
excepting the middle group, because of its not giving.results and taking
the other two, · nine kinds of moral consciousness certainly depending
on the mund of rebirths, and nine kinds depending on the release from
the round of rebirths, form eighteen doors of action. These actions
are also doors in the sense of being causes of the various results, hence
doors of actions. Or the ·Buddha has dedared the conf:lciousness in
various places to be so many doors of action; or the body-intimation,
etc., to be doors of action. And the eighteen princes should be known
according to tiheir actions to be the worthless nine from the· st?.ndpoint
of sanctity consisting of the ' low by the low ' trio, etc., and the worthy
nine consistin11: of the 'exalted by the exalted' trio, etc. Likewise
the priests, etc., and the devas. The forty-eight family customs are
their different· customs.~Tika.
Or, that which is done without reverence is low; that which is done
286 Risings of Consciousness ·
developed by, and by virtue of them, eighteen princes, eighteen
priests, eighteen merchants, eighteen workmen and forty-
eight family customs1 should be understood. But among these
three-planed moral thoughts, that of the realm of sense is
thrice-conditioned by way of association with and dissociation
from knowledge; it is also twice-conditioned; that of attenu-
ated matter and the immaterial realms is thrice-conditioned
only, and associated with knowledge. And of them the moral
consciousness of the sensuous realm arises, together with or
without the dominant influence; that of attenuated matter and
of the immaterial realm is replete with the dominant influence.
And of them, in the moral consciousness of the sensuous
realm, two dominant influences, viz.; object and co-existence,
are obtained; in the other two realms the dominant influ-
ence of object is not obtained, only that of co-existence is
obtained. In the text ' moral consciousness of the sensuous
realm arising . . . with the dominant influence of aware-
ness (citta ),' 2 - awareness as the dominant influence is said
by way of associated states. On the other hand, owing· to
the absence of the union of two types of consciousness,
~wareness cannot be the dominant influence of an associated
consciousness. And the same with desire, etc., as; dominant
influences.
with indifference is medium; that which is done with reverence is
exalted. Or, that which is done for the sake of some worldly gain is
lqw; out of a desire for a meritorious result is me.dium; from ·a sense of
propriety by one established in Ariyanship is exalted. Or that which
occurs through lust for the fulfilment of existence is low; out of a desire
for ab~ence of greed is medium; for the good of others is exalted. A
limited moral consciousness is low; that which is done by measure is
medium; that which is done in excess is exalted. The moral conscious-
ness which is just obtainable among the sublime morals is low; that
-which has not been exceedingly well cultivated is medium; that which
is well cult.ivated and acquired by men of control is exalted.-Ami~ilca.
1 Leaving out the low by the medium trio from the set of nine begin-
ning with the low by the low trio, a set of six is obtained. Leaving
out the exalted by the medium trio from the set of nine. beginning with
the exalted by the exalted trio, a set of six fa obtained. These two give
12, which with the 4 'castes ' make 48 family customs.-Tr.
a Dhs. § 269.
Planes of Consciousness 287
But if morality arises in one who is aware and who,
making any consciousness the principal, the chief, has put
forth another moral consciousness:-' it will arise in me,'
sonie hold that his first consciousness should be called the
dominant influence of awareness, and the second, as coming
from such dominant influence, should be said to be domin-
.a ted by it. This method, however, does not appear in
the Text, .nor in the Commentary. Hence the state of being
the dominant influence is to be un51erstood by the method
given.
In these nineteen main methods are the types of conscious-
ness of the extent given in the first main niethod, as formulated,
with the sets ,of nine and the sections of the text. Therefore
among the types of consciousness ' associated with knowledge'
accordl.ng to .the extent given, the twentyfold classification
of ' consciousness,' ' set of nine,' ' section ' should be under-
stood. Among the four types ' dissociated from knowledge,'
the sixteenfold classification of the same should be reckoned.
Tl;tis. is known as .the Particular Discourse on the moral con-
sciouness of the three planes.
End of ' Mor,al, Consciousness as . Three· planed.'
APPENDIX
SOME PALI WORDS DISCUSSED IN THE COMMENTARIES
(Indicated by an asterisk in the Translation. The figure[! in
brackets refer to the page of the Expositor)
Ajjhattika~ (87) _ indriyabaddhasantanai:p..-!ika.

Anabhiraddho (190)=anabhirato, kuddho.-Yojana.
Abhilapo (28): etena desana ti paiiiiatti ti etai:p. vacanal!l
dhammaniruttabhilapanai:p. sandhaya vuttai:p..-Tika.
Abhisandahati (147)=pabandhati.-fikii,=sampayuttadham-
me sakasakakicce patthapeti.-An~ika.
Akasanaiica (27 4): akasananta=akasanantya=akasananca=
akasanamca=akasanaiica.-Pyi.
Itivadappam~kkha (29) :' iti evam etaya paripattiya vadappa-
mokkh9.nisai:p.sa. Or, so so vado iti vado iti vadappa
mokkha.-Saratthadipani.
Khippanisanti (25l)=khippadassanai:p. khippabhiiiiiata (ni-
santi is from sam-to look). - fika.
Tai:p. tava (277): tan ti tai:p. saiiiia patipadai:p.; yathavutta-
saiiiiai:p. tassaca adhigamiipayan ti attho.-Visuddhi-
magga Tika.
Patihanana (6l)=patimukhibhava.-fika.
Liilga (86)=sa:i;i.thana.-rt:ka.
"santati (continuity) (76) means the solidarity of individual
mass by virtue of the continuous procedure of past
moments of consciousness (like a chain of moving ants).
Samiiha (mass) means the solidarity of things such as
contact, etc. Kicca (function) means the solidarity of
single moments of consciousness having the same char-
acteristics or states of single moments of_consciousness by
virtue of the resemblance of functions. Aramma:i;i.a (object)
means the solidarity of single moments of consciousness
by virtue of the aspect of difference between consciousness
and object.-Pyi.
Sambhavetva (262): va ti imaya patipattiya a yam nirayadisu
nibbatteyya ti parikappetvii. va.-Visuddhi-;,_agga Tika:

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11alt «ext ~octety

TRANSLATIO• 3BRIBS, No. 8

MAUNG TIN, M.A.

EDITED AND REVISED BY

MRS. RHYS DAVIDS, D.Litt., M.A.

IT is now fully four years since the translation of this important

account is four-fifths rupavacara, and one-fifth arupavacara.

1 E .g., Dialogues ii. 39f.; 280,296; lffajjhima i. 210; ii.194; J(indred

Sayings i. 48; Pss. of the Sisters, p. 100 f., etc.

IN Burma, the Atthasalini1 is one of the best known works of

Buddhist . Birth Stories (Triibner's Oriental Series). Rhys

BOOK !.-RISINGS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

PART IL-ANALYSIS OF TERMS

PART ~II.--DI~COURSE ON DOORS (OR GATES)

PART IV. -OF MORAL CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCE IN THE

VII. THE FOURTH TYPE OF CONSCIOUSNESS - 208

PART V.-DISCOURSE. ON MORAL CONSCIOUSNESS IN

PART-VI.-~!ORAL-CONSCIOUSNESS OF THE IMMATERIAL

PART ·VII.-DISCOURSE ON MORAL CONSCIOUSNESS AS

COMMENTARY ON THE DHAMMASANGA~i

Honour be to that Blessed One, the Arahant, the Buddha

As on all beings his pity, rolled at will

1 Se~ Pa~isambhidiimagga, i. 125 f.; Jiital;a, i. 77, 88, 193.

I bow before the glorious Buddha's feet;

1 Tradition in Burma makes her rel,iorn as the devi Santussitii.. The

Herein what is meant by ' Abhidhamma '? That which

1 450 years after the Parinibbana, according to Burmese com-

mentatoTs; about 230 years, according to prevailing European com-

1 Vibh. p. 122 j. 2 lb. p. 135 f.

1 Vibh. 345j. 2 lb. 404 j.

MaWhamm7-hadaya, Dhatukati1ii, and Dhiif.uvibh.ailga (Majjh. iii. 237).

Sae Points of Controversy, pp. 8-12.

the -$wl}itisutta, ib. iii. 207 f., ·expounded by the Councillors.

particiiples...i...Janitabba?,n passitabba17i, as' translated here---,and (b) at1

tKiriyii. 2 Lokuttara. In B.P.E. 'higherideal/ supramundane.

3 A ' racital' (bh!i1Javara) usually consists of 250 stanzas of thirty-two

1 I.e., of body, speech, and thought. Breath is ca.lled aankhara because

it is -accomplished by the hotly; initial and sustained applications of

1 Combining the twenty-two triplets severally with each couplet.~Tr.

1 Anguttara, v. ll3. Cf. Sarµyutta Nikiiya, ii. 178; iii 149.

1 See Uttarimanussadhammasikkhi.ipada~n. Sukkavisa~~hi sikkhi.i-

1 Read attheva = atthi eva.

1 Siivaka's (disciples or' hearars ')knew it only through the Buddha's

1 Or, ' special or unique themes.' Cf. p. 14, n. 2.

Lo I when appear true doctrines1 to the saint

1 Dhammii. These may mean the four truths, facts, or the 37

These were the first words of the Buddha.

Long I endured the circles of rebirth,

The words spoken at the time of the Parinibbii.na by the

1 Vinaya Texts i. 18; also translatad in Points of Controversy 118.

_CI. Comp., p. 179. 2 Visaiikhiira.

This Scripture shows, expresses, fructifies,

The word-definition of Abhidhamma has been explained.

(20] For the prefix 'abhi' implies growth, proper attributes,

The term ' Pitaka ' has a com:r;non meaning:

·By ' Pi(.aka ' the learned s1'.gnify

By ' Pitaka ' the learned signify

Thus 'Vinaya' forms a compound with 'Pitaka' in its

In them, when need is, let the several kinds

To explain and elucidate we add: The three Pitakas are