Thesis-Sand Cemeted Grout

A STUDY ON THE ENGINEERING BEHAVIOUR OF
GROUTED LOOSE SANDY SOILS
A Thesis
Submitted by
SANTHOSH KUMAR. T. G.
for the award of the degree
of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Faculty of Engineering)
DIVISION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
COCHIN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
KOCHI – 682 022
November 2010
Certified that this thesis entitled “A Study on the Engineering Behaviour of
Grouted Loose Sandy Soils”, submitted to Cochin University of Science and Technology,
Kochi-22, for the award of Ph.D. Degree, is the record of bonafide research carried out by
Sri. Santhosh Kumar. T. G, under my supervision and guidance at School of Engineering,
Cochin University of Science and Technology. This work did not form part of any
dissertation submitted for the award of any degree, diploma, associateship or other similar
title or recognition from this or any other institution.
Dr. Benny Mathews Abraham

(Supervising Guide)
Professor & Head of Civil Engineering
Kochi-22 School of Engineering
26.11.2010 Cochin University of Science & Technology
DECLARATION
I, Santhosh Kumar.T.G hereby declare that the work presented in the

thesis entitled “A Study on the Engineering Behaviour of Grouted Loose
Sandy Soils”, being submitted to Cochin University of Science and Technology
for the award of Doctor of Philosophy under the Faculty of Engineering, is the
outcome of the original work done by me under the supervision of Dr. Benny
Mathews Abraham, Professor and Head of Civil Engineering, School of
Engineering, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi- 22. This work
did not form part of any dissertation submitted for the award of any degree,
diploma, associateship or other similar title or recognition from this or any other
institution.
Kochi-22 Santhosh Kumar. T.G.

26.11.2010 Reg.No. 2680
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I take great pleasure in expressing my sincere gratitude to my guide and mentor
Dr. Benny Mathews Abraham Professor & Head Division of Civil Engineering, School
of Engineering, CUSAT, whose vision, genius and professional guidance made this work
possible.
I express my sincere thanks to Dr. Babu T Jose Emeritus Professor, CUSAT
and Doctoral Committee member, for his sincere help, discussions and advice during
the various phases of this research work.
I place on record my profound sense of gratitude to Prof. (Dr.) A. Sridharan
Former Deputy Director and Professor of Civil Engineering, IISC Bangalore for his
valuable advice, discussions and critical evaluation, which were given at various stages of
this work.
I express my sincere thanks to Dr. David Peter Principal School of Engineering,
CUSAT, for the support given to me during the period of the work. I owe a very special
thanks to Smt. Nishi Wilson Professor Govt. College, Tripunithura, for the support
given to me in the preparation of this thesis. I would also like to thank the AICTE for
the financial assistance provided for this study.
I am thankful to all the teachers of Civil Engineering especially Dr. Sobha Cyrus,
Dr. Roy M Thomas, Dr. Glory Joseph, Dr. Dipak Kumar Sahoo and Prof. G. Madhu
for the motivation and encouragement given to me. I also remain grateful to Dr. Biju N,
Sri. S. Ramdass and Sri.P.A Job for their timely help in obtaining relevant literature for
the research.
I owe a debt of gratitude to all the technical staff of SOE, especially Smt.
Saramma E.J., Mr. Purushothaman K.T., Mr. Aboobacker, Mr. Pradeep K.N., Mr.
Kunjumon V.C., Mrs Seena Skaria, Smt. Jinitha, Sri. Babu Varghese and Sri Binu, for
the whole hearted help and laboratory assistance during the laboratory investigation. A
special word of appreciation to Mr. Purushothaman K.T for the constructive suggestions
and ideas given during for the fabrication of the experimental set up. I also express my
sincere thanks to Er. Joy K. M. of the Cochin University of Science and Technology for
his invaluable help.
I express my thanks to the Technical Education Department for sanctioning the
NOC for carrying out this work. I express my thanks to all my colleagues for the moral
support given to me. I greatly acknowledge my gratitude to my friends whose prayers
have been with me for the successful completion of the thesis. I take this opportunity to
remember and thank all the teachers from my child hood who have been instrumental in
moulding my career.
I am indebted to my beloved parents and family members for their affection,
moral support, and prayers doing the period of this work. I express a deep sense of
gratitude to my wife Bindu K for her continuous encouragement, patience and
confidence which helped me to pursue my dreams. To my children, my son
Gopikrishna and my daughter Gopika, a special hug &gratitude for their tolerance,
support and prayers along this journey.
Last but never least I express my worshipful gratitude to The Almighty who
guided me in my endeavour.
ABSTRACT
The constructional activities in the coastal belt of our country often demand
deep foundations because of the poor engineering properties and the related problems
arising from weak soil at shallow depths. The soil profile in coastal area often consists
of very loose sandy soils extending to a depth of 3 to 4 m from the ground level
underlain by clayey soils of medium consistency. The very low shearing resistance of
the foundation bed causes local as well as punching shear failure. Hence structures
built on these soils may suffer from excessive settlements. This type of soil profile is
very common in coastal areas of Kerala, especially in Cochin. Further, the high water
table and limited depth of the top sandy layer in these areas restrict the depth of
foundation thereby further reducing the safe bearing capacity.
The present investigation was aimed at obtaining solutions for problems like
this. The improvement in relative density and thereby the load carrying capacity of
loose sandy soils of different gradations through different methods such as vibration
technique was studied. The low values of bearing capacity estimated even after
densification compared to the requirement in the case of foundations for multi-storey
buildings prompted to try grouting as one of the possible solutions.
Grouting is quite a familiar term in foundation engineering, the primary
purpose of which is to fill the voids of the formation material by replacing the existing
fluids/air with the grout and thereby improving the engineering properties of the
medium. The most commonly used grout material i.e. - ordinary Portland cement -
has many advantages such as high strength, high durability, environmently free and
of low cost. Two methods were adopted to place the grout within the pores of the
sand medium. They are: (i) by hand mixing the grout uniformly with the soil and (ii)
by pumping the grout into the sand medium with the help of a grout pump.
The effect of cement grouts on the shear strength and the shear strength
parameters of loose sandy soils were investigated. The effect of the common
admixtures used along with cement grouts (accelerators, retarders, fluidiser,
antibleeders, etc.) on the shear strength of the grouted medium was also studied.
Compressive strength tests were also conducted on these grouted samples with the
objective of arriving at a correlation between the shear strength and the compressive
strength of the grouted medium.
A grouting setup was developed in the laboratory for grouting the sand beds
prepared in steel tanks. The lateral flow of the grout and thereby the efficiency of
grouting was assessed by three methods (i) from the cross section area of the grouted
mass measured at different depths (ii) by determining the cement content at different
radial distances at different depths and (iii) by conducting load tests on the grouted
sand beds.
The effectiveness of grouting in reducing the permeability of granular
medium was also studied. Constant head permeability tests were carried out on the
sand medium treated with different materials such as cement, bentonite, lime, locally
available clay and different combinations of the above materials.
The results of the various investigations conclusively proved that grouting
can be used as an effective method for improving the strength characteristics
significantly and reducing the permeability of loose sandy soils.
CONTENTS
Chapter 1INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 1 -5
Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................................. 7-36

2.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 7
2.2 Strength improvement on densification ........................................ 8
2.3 Grouting Technique ......................................................................... 9
2.4 Grouting Materials............................................................................ 14
2.5 Shear strength of grouted soils ....................................................... 21
2.6 Compressive strength ...................................................................... 26
2.7 Permeability Studies on Grouted Sandy Soils .............................. 30
2.8 Scope of the Work............................................................................ 34
2.9 Objectives of the Present Study ..................................................... 35
Chapter 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS .............................................................. 37-60

3.1Introduction ........................................................................................ 37
3.2 Materials ............................................................................................. 38
3.2.1 Sand .................................................................................................... 38
3.2.2 Cement ............................................................................................... 39
3.2.2.1 Physical properties of cement ............................................................... 40
3.2.2.2 Admixtures ....................................................................................... 44
3.2.3 Bentonite ........................................................................................... 45
3.2.4 Cochin marine clay .......................................................................... 47
3.2.5 Lime.................................................................................................... 47
3.3 Grouting operations ......................................................................... 48
3.3.1 Grout impregnation by hand mixing ............................................ 48
3.3.2 Grout impregnation by pumping .................................................. 50
3.4 Testing Methods ............................................................................... 51
3.4.1 Shear strength test ............................................................................ 51
3.4.2 Compressive strength test............................................................... 52
3.4.3 Cross sectional area of grouted mass ............................................ 52
3.4.4 Cement content determination ...................................................... 54
3.4.5 Load tests .......................................................................................... 58
3.4.6 Permeability....................................................................................... 58
Chapter 4 STRENGTH STUDIES ON UNGROUTED & GROUTED SAND...... 61-157
4.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 61
4.3 Strength improvement on grouting ............................................... 69
4.3.1 Grouted with cement alone ............................................................ 70
4.3.2 Cement with admixtures ................................................................. 84
4.3.3 Lime.................................................................................................... 93
4.4 Shear strength parameters ............................................................... 97
4.4.1 Cohesion intercept ........................................................................... 97
4.4.1.1Grouted with cement alone .................................................................. 97
4.4.1.2 Cement with admixtures .................................................................... 104
4.4.1.3Lime ................................................................................................... 113
4.4.2 Angle of shearing resistance ........................................................... 117
4.4.2.1 Grouted with cement alone ................................................................. 117
4.4.2.2 Cement with admixtures .................................................................... 124
4.4.2.3 Lime ................................................................................................. 133
4.5 Compressive strength ....................................................................... 137
4.5. 2 Cement with admixtures ................................................................ 144
4.6 Relation between compressive strength and shear strength....... 152
Chapter 5 STUDIES ON CEMENT GROUTED SAND BEDS ........................... 159-203

5.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 159
5.2 Design and fabrication of the grouting set up .............................. 160
5.3 Grouting of sand beds .................................................................... 166
5.4 Grouting efficiency from cross section dimensions .................... 167
5.4 .1Cement alone .................................................................................... 169
5.4.2Cement with admixtures .................................................................. 177
5.5 Grouting efficiency from actual cement contents. ...................... 178
5.5.1Cement content determination ....................................................... 184
5.6 Grouting efficiency from load tests ............................................... 194
Chapter 6 PERMEABILITY STUDIES ON THE GROUTED SOIL ............................... 205-218
6.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 205
6.2 Cement as the grout material .......................................................... 207
6.3 Cement with admixtures .................................................................. 211
6.4 Locally available clay ........................................................................ 213
6.5 Bentonite ........................................................................................... 217
6.6 Locally available clay along with cement/ lime ............................ 217
Chapter 7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .................................................. 219-231
7.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 219
7.3 Improvement of shear strength on grouting ................................ 220
7.3.2 Grouted with cement and admixtures .......................................... 221
7.3.3 Grouted with lime ............................................................................ 223
7.4 Shear strength parameters ............................................................... 223
7.4.2 Grouted with cement and admixtures .......................................... 223
7.4.3 Grouted with lime ........................................................................... 225
7.5 Compressive strength ....................................................................... 225
7.6 Relation between compressive strength and shear strength....... 227
7.7 Studies on cement grouted sand beds .......................................... 227
7.7.1 Grouting efficiency from cross section dimensions ................... 228
7.7.2 Grouting efficiency from actual cement contents ...................... 228
7.7.3 Grouting efficiency from load tests .............................................. 229
7.8 Permeability studies on the grouted soil........................................ 230
RERERENCES ................................................................................................. 233-243
PUBLICATIONS ................................................................................................ 245

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The terms ground improvement and ground modification refer to the
improvement in or modification to the engineering properties of soil that are
carried out at a site where the soil in its natural state does not possess properties
that are adequate for the proposed Civil Engineering activity.
Ground improvement refers to any procedure undertaken to increase the

shear strength, decrease the permeability and compressibility, or otherwise
render the physical properties of soil more suitable for projected engineering
use. A large number of methods have been developed for ground improvement
from ground surface to depths of 20 m or more by in-situ treatment. The
improvement may be accomplished by drainage, compaction, preloading,
reinforcement, grouting, electrical, chemical or thermal methods. Among the
various soil stabilization procedures, the most suitable one is selected
depending upon the type of soil available, time, cost involved etc.
Excavating the poor soil and replacing it with soil having desired
properties is normally economical only when soil has to be treated down to a
depth of 3 m and the water table is below 3 m. If the water table is high,
1
Chapter-1
lowering of water table prior to excavation has to be carried out by dewatering

techniques, which are expensive.
Vibro-compaction is used to increase the density of loose sand. This

technique is not useful for soils having greater than 20 percent fines.
Grouting is quite a familiar technique in the field of civil engineering,

especially in foundation engineering. The technology of grouting finds
applications in almost all the fields of foundation engineering such as seepage
control in rock and soil under dams, advancing tunnels, cut off walls etc
(Nonveiller, 1989). The primary purpose of grouting is to fill the voids of the
formation material by replacing the existing fluids with the grout and thereby
improving the engineering properties of the medium especially reducing the
permeability.
Grouting is effective in both sand and silt deposits. Grouts are liquid
suspensions or solutions that are injected into the soil mass to improve its
behaviour. Such liquids can permeate into the void space of the soil and bind
the soil particles together. For medium sands or coarser materials the grout used
most often is a slurry of water and cement. This slurry however, cannot enter
into the void space of fine sand and silts for which chemical grouts are used.
Grouts can be broadly classified as suspension grouts and solution

grouts. Suspension grouts consist of small-size solid particles dispersed in a
liquid medium. These include cement grouts, that is, slurry of cement in water;
soil-cement grouts consisting of a slurry of soil and cement in water; and
bentonite grouts comprising a slurry of bentonite in water. Cement grouts are
the most widely used and usually have water and cement in the ratio ranging
from 10:1 to 2:1.
2
Introduction
Properties of a grout are described in terms of five parameters:

groutability, stability, setting time, permanence and toxicity. Grouting methods
for soils are classified as permeation grouting, compaction grouting, hydro-
fracture grouting and jet grouting. Cement grout not only fills the voids and
reduces permeability but also sets with time and binds the soil grains together.
As a consequence, the strength of soil mass increases and its compressibility
decreases. Sometimes cement in a grout is replaced by clay to reduce the cost.
When the objective of grouting is only to reduce permeability, bentonite grouts
can be used (Lovely 1998). However, the permanence of such grouts under high
hydraulic gradients is questionable and often cement is added to the bentonite to
improve its permanence.
Even though grouting has found several applications in the practice of

civil engineering, available studies on grouts and grouting have been very
limited. Even today, the grouting operations are based on thumb rules and
existing practices rather than rational design principles or well defined
procedures substantiated by research data (Shroff and Shah, 1992). In the
present investigation on the engineering properties of grouted medium
including methods to improve the same which can be effectively used in
foundation soils for increasing the bearing capacity and in dam grouting or cut
off walls for reducing the seepage to a minimum. The contents of the various
chapters are briefly described below.
Chapter 2 presents a detailed review of the literature available on the

investigations carried out by earlier researchers. Some important properties of
grouted medium viz, strength, settlement and permeability are discussed. The
behaviour of cement and bentonite grout together with the list of admixtures
used in grouting are also presented. Previous works on the strength and
3
Chapter-1
permeability of grouted soils are presented and the scope of the present work is
also brought out in this chapter.
An account of the materials used and the testing methods adopted in the
present investigation are given in Chapter 3. The selection and preparation of
grouting materials and the medium to be grouted are explained. Detailed
accounts of the testing methods are also presented.
Chapter 4 presents the results of the investigations carried out on

ungrouted and grouted sand. The effect of the grain size and improvement in
load carrying capacity of sandy soils on densification is clearly brought out
through load tests conducted on these sand beds. The improvement in the shear
strength of the loose sandy soil on cement grouting is discussed in detail. The
influence of the cement content, curing period and initial water content are
discussed. The effect of the common admixtures used to improve the properties
of cement grouts i.e. accelerators, retarders, fluidisers, antibleeders etc., on the
strength of the cement grouted sand is also discussed in detail in this chapter.
The results of shear strength tests conducted on samples prepared by using lime
as the grouting material instead of cement are also presented.
Chapter 4 also presents the results of the compressive strength tests

conducted on cement/lime grouted samples with cement content, curing period
and initial water content as variables. A comparison between the results from
shear strength tests and compressive strength tests and correlation between
them are given in this chapter.
Chapter 5 discusses the design and fabrication of the grouting set up and
results of investigations carried out on prepared sand beds in steel tanks, using
this grouting set up. The results obtained from the measurement of cross section
area of grouted mass and determination of cement content by chemical analysis
4
Introduction
at different radial distances and depths are presented. The results of the load
tests conducted on the cement grouted sand beds and the influence of the
admixtures in improving the lateral flow of the grout are also presented in this
chapter.
Chapter 6 presents the results of permeability tests conducted on

ungrouted and grouted sand samples. The effect of various grouting materials
such as cement, bentonite, lime, locally available clay (Cochin marine clay) and
certain combination of these materials on reducing the permeability of the sand
medium, is also discussed.
Number of conclusions drawn based on the results obtained from the

above investigations are presented in Chapter 7.
5
Chapter-1
6
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Strength improvement on densification
Contents
2.3 Grouting Technique

2.4 Grouting Materials
2.5 Shear strength of grouted soils
2.6 Compressive strength
2.7 Permeability Studies on Grouted Sandy Soils
2.8 Scope of the Work
2.9 Objectives of the Present Study
2.1 Introduction
Grouting, which has several applications in the field of civil engineering,
was once considered as a mysterious operation. The effectiveness of grouting
requires a lot of understanding, skill, meticulous attention and an intuitive
perception. Eventhough grouting was started 200 years ago, it was treated for a
long time, as an art which eluded scientific investigation and improvement
(Nonveiller, 1989). Its performance was for some time, more or less a privilege
and a well protected secret of a few specialist companies. The curious image of
grouting is changing slowly, as research and development broaden our
knowledge in this area.
Grouting is a procedure by means of which grout is injected into voids,

fissures, crevices or cavities in soil or rock formation in order to improve their
7
Chapter-2
properties, specifically to reduce permeability, to improve strength or to reduce

the deformability of formations. Grouting has a wide application in modern
civil engineering. It reduce the permeability of formations under the water
retaining structures, control the erosion of soil, increase the strength of
materials below foundation of heavy structures and or reduce the deformability
of the material in the foundation, fill the voids between rock and tunnel linings,
form cut off walls, fill voids for rehabilitation etc.
Grout is injected under pressure into the material to be grouted until it

fills the desired volume of material around the hole or until the maximum
specified pressure is attained and a specific minimum grout flow is reached.
From injected watery suspensions, injected water is squeezed out in the pores
and the compacted mass of the injected compound fills the fissures and voids.

Numerous instances arise of soils at a site being of inadequate strength
to support a proposed structure and for which the needed improvement cannot
be obtained using such method as vibration, rolling or preloading, either
because of the inapplicability of these methods at such sites or because of
economic considerations (Shroff and Shah, 1992).
Soil compaction can offer effective solutions for many foundation

problems, and is especially useful for reducing total settlements in sands.
However, efficient use of soil compaction methods requires that the
geotechnical engineer understands all factors that influence in compaction
process carefully. The poor quality soils, especially their low bearing capacity,
make it necessary to improve their properties by stabilization. Soil compaction
requires geotechnical competence and careful planning on the part of the design
engineer. The selection of the most suitable method depends on a variety of
8
Review of Literature
factors, such as: soil conditions, required degree of the compaction, type of
structure to be supported, maximum depth of compaction, as well as site-
specific considerations such as sensitivity of adjacent structures or installations,
available time for completion of the project, competence of the contractor,
access to equipment and materials etc (Massarsch and Fellenius, 2002).
Bement and Selby (1997) investigated the compaction settlement of

granular soils when exposed to vibrations typical of those generated in the
ground by vibrodriving piles that the compaction of soil is strongly dependent
upon vertical effective stress, the type and grading of the soils. Broadly, a well-
graded soil compact more than a uniform soil, the moisture content is also a
significant parameter and saturated soils compact the most, with much smaller
settlements from dry soils.
For cohesionless soils with dominant particle-size increase, the angle of

shearing resistance increases with increase of particle- size, at both constant
density and constant relative density. However, the increase for constant density
is insignificant compared to that in the case of constant relative density. For
increase in relative density for any particle size of cohesionless soils, there is a
definite increase in angle of shearing resistance. But the rate of increase of
angle of shearing resistance with respect to relative density is much higher at
bigger size particles, compared to that of lower sizes (Chattopadhya and
Saha,1981).
2.3 Grouting technique

Soil stabilization with cement grouts injected under pressure has come
into widespread use in construction. At present, the method of grouting is
highly prevalent in a number of branches of structural engineering; in hydraulic
engineering for the building of anti seepage curtains; for imparting mono-
9
Chapter-2
lithicity and impenetrability to the concrete masonry of structures; in mining for

the opening of shafts, side drifts, and other workings; and in foundation
engineering for the reinforcement of existing foundations beneath buildings and
structures as well for strengthening the soils in their beds. The primary merits of
the method of grouting lie in its technical simplicity, convenience of use, and
high reliability of the results achieved. Moreover, the method is sufficiently
economic, and does not require complex equipment, and is also ecologically
safe for the environment (Ibragimov, 2005)
Permeation grouting is commonly used in geotechnical engineering

either to reduce the permeability or improve the mechanical properties of soil
and rock. Success in a given grouting operation requires that the desired
improvements in the properties of the formation are attained. Grouts are
generally categorized as suspension, or particulate grouts, which are prepared
with Ordinary Portland or other cements, clays, or cement- clay mixtures, and
fine sand in some cases, and solution, or chemical grouts which include sodium
–silicate acrylamide, acrylates, lignosulfonates, phenoplast and aminoplast as
well as other material that have no particles in suspension (Zebovitz et al.
1989).
Jet grouting done to stabilize underlying marine clay, using double fluid
system, a thick layer of jet grouting pile provided from 5m thick using ultra
high pressure cement grout injection that cuts and mixes with the soil to be
treated with cement grout under controlled insertion, rotation and withdrawal.
The formed jet grouting pile, increase in shear strength and acts as a barrier
forming impermeable strata, struts the sheet pile as structural support for
excavation (Vadivel, 2006).
10
Compaction grouting could be effectively used to mitigate liquefaction

of the susceptible soils. The greatest improvement from grouting was achieved
in sands. Silts were also improved but the grouting was less effective (Miller
and Roycroft, 2004).
Microfine cement suspensions with a water: cement ratio of 4 or higher

can be successfully injected into fine sand (D10 as low as 0.15 mm with a
hydraulic radius as small as 0.002 mm) under a pressure of about 10 psi and
will have a depth of penetration of at least one-half meter. Cement particles are
captured around the contact points between sand grains and are deposited on the
grain surface to form a thick cake, which, upon hardening, provides the grouted
mass with improved mechanical properties. Microfine cement grouts are being
proposed increasingly as an alternative to chemical grouts (which often contain
one or more toxic components) for grouting fine sands, but their successful use
is influenced strongly by the relationship between the suspended solids
(individual particles or particle aggregations) in the grout the pores in the
porous medium. Although advocated by some practitioners, the use of
concentrated (low water : cement ratio) suspensions and high injection
pressures can lead to non-homogeneity in the grouting of a soil formation due
to the development of preferential paths during injection or hydraulic fracturing
of the soil mass.(Arenzana et al., 1989)
The concept of a limiting effect or a boundary effect of grouting is of

great value in both theoretical research and the practical application of grouted
sand. The selection of grouting for a specific job is mainly affected by the
amount of improvement, in strength and/ or stiffness, that can be achieved, and
the limitations for this improvement with increased depth or confinement ( Ata
and Vipulanandan 1999). Particle size distributions are used in characterizing
11
Chapter-2
the soil and to determine the groutability of soils (Vipulanandan and Orgurel,
2009).
The procedure adopted for preparation of a grouted bed in the laboratory

was given by Dano et al. (2004). The sand was placed with a zero fall height in
a transparent and rigid cylindrical column made of PVC of diameter of 80 mm
and a height of 900 mm. A few simultaneous hammer stroke on the PVC tube
compacted the soil. A fixed volume of grout equal to 1.2 times the initial
volume of the granular skeleton was then injected from the base to the top of
the column at a flow rate of 3cm3/s. column was kept in a humid condition for a
period of 28 days.
Littlejohn (1982), Lowe and Standford (1982) Clarke et al. (1992) De

Paoli et al. (1992) and Schwarz and Krizek (1992) made significant
contribution on the study of grout materials, properties, equipment and
procedure for grouting.
The safe construction and operation of many structures frequently

require improvement of the mechanical properties and behavior of soils by
permeation grouting using either suspensions or chemical solutions. The former
have lower cost and are harmless to the environment but cannot be injected into
soils with gradations finer than coarse sands. The latter can be injected in fine
sand or coarse silts but are more expensive and, some of them pose a health and
environmental hazard (Karol 1982,1985). Grouting has a minimal effect on the
angle of internal friction of sands or yields an increase of up to 4.5 º.There are
strong indications that pulverized, cementitious, fly ash with appropriate
additives can be effectively utilized for permeation grouting of coarse sands
(Markou and Atmatzidis, 2002).
12
Boulanger and Hayden (1995) reported that, in many situations, the

bottom-up method can be used as effectively as the top-down method if
appropriate modification are adopted at shallow depths. Even with the extra
cost of much modifications, it is likely that the bottom-up method will be the
most economical choice.
Berry and Buhrow (1992) studied the settlement, structural failure and
in-place repair of above ground storage tanks with many sizes and placed on
foundations of varying nature. The causes of tank stress and failure are
reviewed, including some environmental control concerns and causes, and
related to tank foundation problems. The uneven movement and settlement of
foundation soils can be stopped by grouting.
The permeability and strength of grouted sand is strongly influenced by

the method of grouting because different mechanism govern the deposition and
packing of cement particles within the pore structure. During the injection
process, preferential flow paths allow the migration of cement particles into the
soil, and micro-structural packing undoubtedly varies within the pores of the
grouted sand, this is in contrast to the more uniform distribution of cement
particles in hand-mixed specimens (Schwarz and Krizek, 1994).
The groutability ratio is not a universally applicable criterion, and values

large or smaller than the limiting value of 25 do not necessarly indicated
success or failure, respectively, of a specific grouting operation using a
particulate grout; experimental evidence suggests that the grain size distribution
and relative density of fine sands may control the grouting operation (Zebovitz
et al. 1989).
The grouting technique in the MRRB project at Kaohsiung City in the

southern part of Taiwan, shows a significant increase of horizontal stress within
13
Chapter-2
the improved soil mass. Preloading effect was more significant in reducing wall
displacement than anticipated. Jet grouting also increases the overall strength
of improved soil mass. Other improvement methods, such as compaction grout
column and displacement pile driving may be even more effective than jet
grouting (Hsieh et al., 2003).
2.4 Grouting materials

The selection of the appropriate grout compound to be injected depends
on the effect to be achieved and on the properties of the injected materials to be
permeated. Two classes of grouting materials are generally recognized;
suspension type grouts and solution type grouts. The suspension type grout
include soil, cement, lime, asphalt, emulsion, etc. while the solution type grouts
include a wide variety of chemicals such as sodium silicates acrylamide,
lignosulphonates, aminoplast, phenoplast, etc (Shroff 2009).
Cement based grout mixtures can be investigated in soil laboratories in

order to study their flow characteristics, bleeding, consistency, gelation, time of
set, density, compressive strength and pH. Simple testing procedures such as
flow cone , bleeding and compressive strength tests are usually sufficient for
the development of thin grout mixtures which are not injected under flowing
water conditions and, therefore, gelling is not a fundamental requirement
(Coumoulos and Koryalos, 1983).
In order to take into account the effect of cement grout in the pores of
the granular material, adhesive forces were added at each contact point to the
mechanical forces determined from the external stresses applied on the granular
assembly. The magnitude of those adhesive forces depends on the nature of the
grout and on the concentration of the grout in cement particles. The expression
14
of this adhesive force as a function of cement content is based on extensive

experimental work performed by Dano (2004) on grouted sand.
The groutability of sand with acrylamide grout was influenced by the

fines content. The grout pressure fines content relationship was nonlinear.
Unconfined compressive strength of grouted sand was influenced by the
particle size and gradation, density, and fines content of sands (Ozgurel and
Vipulanandan, 2005).
Soil-grout mix called soilcrete was used for ground improvement to

prevent liquefaction in Jackson Lake Dam and Wickiup Dam in United States.
While soilcrete was produced by deep soil mixing in Jackson Lake Dam, it was
created by jet grouting in Wickiup Dam. Field tests showed that jet grouting
was very successful and the strength attained were sufficient to make an
appropriate design alternative as far as time and cost were concerned (Yilmaz et
al. 2008).
Suspended particles with an equivalent diameter less than about one-

third the hydraulic radius of porous medium will pass through the medium and
be present in the effluent (Arenzana et al.1989).
Improving ground strength, considerations should include the ease with

which the cement may be introduced and the robustness of the strength.
Portland cement gives a more ductile and strain hardening response compared
with the other cements studied (Ismail et al. 2002).
Some recommendation can be advanced regarding the development of a

standard method for laboratory preparation and testing of grouted specimens.
Sand specimens should be grouted by injection to more closely simulate the
field process. Longitudinally split moulds should be used to avoid jacking to
minimize sample disturbance. Adequate curing time should be provided to
15
Chapter-2
assure full development of the mechanical properties of the grouted mass

(Christopher et al. 1989).
Cement and clay mixtures have found widespread use on Tennessee

Valley Authority foundations composed largely of extremely porous limestone
and dolomite. Cement- clay grout is more economical and is satisfactory from
the porosity point of view for filling solution channels and caverns in rock
subjected to erosion or leaching from hydrostatic pressures (Elston, 1958)
There are two basic factors which govern the penetrability of grout, the
first one is the viscosity of the grout and the second is granulometry of the grout
material vis-a vis the permeability and dimensions of pore space in the
alluvium. The viscosity of the grout into the intergranular spaces of the
formation to be grouted depends much on the viscosity of the grout. The
viscosity of an ideal grout mix should be sufficiently low so that it can be
pumped easily and can penetrate through the fine interspaces, but not as low as
to travel long distance without appreciable pressure drop (Datye,1961). Among
the various properties of grout suspensions, fluidity and stability are of prime
importance (Nonveiller, 1989).
Fluidity is an inverse function of initial viscosity, bearing an

approximately linear relationship with viscosity. In the case of coarse grout,
fluidity is affected principally by dynamic interparticle forces of attraction and
repulsion and/or by dilatancy of the moving suspended particles. A coarse grout
can only be pumped easily when it contains sufficient fluid to prevent dilation
of the particle matrix during shear while injecting. A reasonable percentage of
fines is also desirable to increase the specific surface area of the grout particles
and thereby prevent the separation of liquid and solid phase (shroff and shah
1992).
16
The rheological properties significantly influenced the case of

injecting microfine cement grouts. This behavior was reflected in the
maximum pressure required to satisfactorily grout the sand; a 2:1 grout
required about a 35% higher maximum injection pressure compared to a
3:1 grout,and 1:1 grout required more than a 300% higher pressure than a
2:1 grout. In addition, there is a strong relation between the grout
viscosity and the amount of particle sedimentation and accumulate bleed
water that occur in the grout filled voids, hence, increasing the water to
cement ratio of the grout improves its injectability, but has an adverse
effect on bleed capacity (Schwarz and Krizek, 1994).
Sinroja et al. (2006) Through their studies using microfine slag

cement grouts found that gel time increases with increase in w:c ratio of
the grout. Bleeding potential is lowest for microfine slag cement grout
with sodium hydroxide. With respect to rheological properties, it can be
concluded that apparent viscosity increases with increase in time and
decrease in w: c ratio.
Deere (1982) reported that in a very thin mix with a water-

cement ratio 6:1 by volume there may be as much as 60 percent
sedimentation of the cement grains in a 2 hour period. The thicker the
mix, less is the sedimentation.
Lovely (1998) while investigating on the properties grouts found

that the cement grouts are least stable and stability increases with cement-
water ratio. This calls for continuous agitation of thin cement slurries.
The tendency of cement grout to bleed can be significantly brought down
17
Chapter-2
by addition of bentonite. The utility of bentonite as an excellent

antibleeder of cement grout has been brought out.
According to John (1982) most of the U.S Army of Crop’s

foundation grouting is done with the grout composed of Portland cement,
bentonite and water. The additions of small percentages of sodium
bentonite produce beneficial results. Settlement is almost eliminated
without significant reduction in strength or increase insetting time.
Grouts with3% superplasticizer were easily injected into the soil

samples and the strength of these samples increased as compared with
those of cement- grouted samples ( Akbulut and Saglamer 2002). The
addition of latexes significantly improves the compressive strength, shear
bond strength, stability, resistance to wet –dry cycles and resistance to
sulphate attack. The use of latexes in cement grouts has a considerable
effect on their physical and mechanical properties of grouts
(Anagnostopoulos, 2007).
Jose et al. 2000 investigated on the effect of admixtures on the

behaviour of cement grouts that at lower cement/ water ratios, the
increase in viscosity is not significant but viscosity considerably increases
with higher cement / water ratios. When admixtures are used in cement-
grouting, their effects on viscosity and stability should be studied
thoroughly. The accelerator such as, sodium silicate, increases the
viscosity by a small amount well within the pumpable limits. But this
admixture will not help much in reducing sedimentation. The retarder,
triethanolamine, reduces viscosity, but it is not that effective in reducing
18
bleeding. The antibleeder, aluminium sulphate increases viscosity, at the

same time reduces sedimentation to a considerable extent. Considering
the behavior of the above admixtures, the addition of small percentages of
bentonite increases the stability significantly. It has also been shown that
the viscosity is not unduly altered by the addition of bentonite. Thus
bentonite can be taken as a cheap and effective admixture for cement
grouts with regard to stability.
Lovely et al. (1997) reported that the addition of small quantities of

salts like sodium chloride, potassium chloride and calcium chloride
reduces the viscosity of bentonite grouts significantly. This property can
be made use of for injecting more grout material into the permeable
medium.
Among the different methods available for measurement of

viscosity of grouts, Marsh cone method is the most convenient one taking
into consideration the field application also (Lovely et al., 1994).
Huang et al.(2003) reported that, compared with OPC, wet-ground

fine cement (WFC) has shorter setting time, less bleeding and lower
compressive strength. By adding suitable water-reducing agent,
performance of WFC slurry can be greatly improved, but it is necessary
to control grinding time in order to have a best mechanical properties.
The addition of accelerators caused a decrease in viscosity upto an

optimum dosage beyond which it increased. This point is very useful in
the field of grouting because the addition of bentonite makes a cement
grout more stable at the same time the reduction in viscosity makes it
19
Chapter-2
possible to inject more material into the formation voids. Retarders are
found to be more effective in reducing the viscosity. Antibleeders also
caused a reduction in viscosity upto an optimum dosage as in the case of
accelerator beyond which it increased. Expander caused considerable
increase in viscosity of cement-bentonite mixes. Commonly available
expander, aluminium powder, causes boiling of the suspension
accompanied by enormous heat evolution if added in excess (Lovely et al.
1998).
Variation in the grain size and grain size distribution of the grouted
sand have a significant influence on the mechanical properties of the
grouted mass; less important are the effects of initial density and degree
of saturation by water. The influence of grain shape and mineralogy also
appear to be relatively insignificant (Christopher et al. 1989).
Akbulut and Saglamer (2002) reported that the groutability of soil

depends on the effective size D10 of soil, cement particle size d90, w/c
ratio of grout (or viscosity) fine content of soil passing through 0.6mm
sieve, grouting pressure and relative density of soil. The soil particle-size
and cement maximum particle – size have important effects on successful
grouting. The decrease of the grain – size of soil made the grouting
impossible. Despite the increase in grouting pressure, soil with a grain-
size smaller than 0.6 mm was not grouted by cement grouts. An increase
in grouting pressure or the w/c ratio of grout increased the groutability of
soil.
20
The most relevant factor for assessing grouting effectiveness is the

amount of grout retained by the soil, which depends on grouting
procedure (grouting pressure and time), moisture conditions, time and
soil state variables (void ratio and initial water content) (Lirer et al.
2006).
2.5 Shear strength of grouted soils

Cement grouting can be profitably used for strengthening foundation
beds. The shear strength parameters, c & Ø, shows phenomenal increase when
grouted with cement. The cement-water ratio of the grout act as a key
parameter in the control of strength gain of sandy soils. The investigation on
improvement of bearing capacity of sandy soils by grouting shows that there is
considerable promise and scope for developing cement grouting as technique to
improve foundation beds and their bearing capacity, especially in case of
cohesionless soils (Glory et al. 2001).
Cement grouting by impregnation in granular media is a widely used

technique in civil engineering, applied in order to improve the mechanical
characteristics of soils. The idea consists in incorporating a pressurized cement
grout in the pore space of the soil. The setting of cement grout in the pore space
increases both the strength and stiffness. The resulting microstructure is a
heterogeneous material made up of sand grains, cement and pores. The injection
by impregnation method does not modify the structure of the granular
assembly. Several experimental studies on reference sand have been devoted to
the increase of the strength due to cement grouting. These works show that the
grouted material remains a frictional one, the strength of which is correctly
modelled by Mohr –Coulomb criterion. Grouting is mainly responsible for the
grain in cohesion by the material and only marginally affects the friction angle.
21
Chapter-2
The cohesion linearly varies with cement content, the magnitude of the
cohesion gained by grouting and also the friction angle is a slightly increasing
function of cement content. The increase in angle of friction is negligible with
respect to cohesion (Maalej et al. 2007).
Axelsson and Gustsfson (2006) developed a robust method to determine

the shear strength of cement-based injection grouts in the field. Based on that
the method to determine the yield strength of a grout by letting a stick sink into
the grout seems to be a robust method to measure the yield strength in the field.
At a medium porosity, the shear box gives angle Ø the same order as
that of given by the triaxial. Denser samples give a higher angle in the shear
box, looser samples a lower angle. (Nash et al. 1953)
Introduction of a cementing agent into sand produces a material with

two components of strength- that due to the cement itself and that due to
friction. The friction angle of cemented sand is similar to that of uncemented
sands. Weakly cemented sand shows a brittle failure mode at low confining
pressures with a transition to ductile failure at higher confining pressures. For
brittle type cementing agents, the cementation bonds are broken at very low
strains while the friction component is mobilized at large strains. Density, grain
size distribution, grain shapes and grain arrangements all have a significant
effect on the behavior of cemented sand (Clough et.al, 1981)
Generally, the strength of the soil is estimated by Mohr- Coulomb’s

failure criterion. It is generally accepted that grouting effectively increased the
compressive strength of the sand by filling the voids and by imparting a
cohesion or adhesion factor, yet the grout contribution cannot simply be added
to the sand strength. The introduction of silicate grout into the sand particles
22
and modifies the type of failure of grouted sand (brittle failure at strains less
than 0.3%) (Ata and Vipulanandan 1999).
Yoshida et al. (1991) studied the effect of saturation on shear strength of

soils and found that the cohesion intercept tends to decrease sharply with
increasing saturation until it reaches a value of equal to about 80%, but it
becomes almost equal to zero, irrespective of soil type and density, when the
sample is fully saturated with the saturation ratio of 100%.
In low cement contents and low confining pressures the highest shear
strength of cemented soils belongs to the soil cemented with Portland cement.
Increasing the confining stress, the shear strength of soil cemented with
Portland cement drops lower than the shear strength of the soil cemented with
gypsum. However, it is still higher than the shear strength of soil cemented with
lime. The rate of increase in shear strength of soils cemented with Portland
cement reduces with increase in confining stress when the amount of
cementation is low. When the cement content increases to 4.5% the shear
strength of the soil cemented with Portland cement is always higher than the
shear strength of the soil cemented with gypsum and lime (Haeri et al. 2006).
Cementation bond plays a dominant role on the strength characteristics

of the cement admixed clay. Even if the cementation bonds is broken down, the
shear resistance contributed from the cementation bond still persists. The shear
resistance does not reduce with the increase in the effective confining pressures.
The role of the cementation is not only to introduce the cohesion to the clay but
also to enhance the friction angle. The friction angle is boosted considerably by
only adding small amount of cement to the base clay. (Horpibulsuk et al.
2004).
23
Chapter-2
The addition of a cementing agent to a wind-blown sand (cohesionless

material) with uniform size distribution produces a material with two strength
components- that due to cementation or true cohesion and that due to friction.
The angle of internal friction for the treated sands is not much different from
that of the untreated sand. Peak strength as well as initial tangent modulus
values, increase with an increase in curing period, confining pressure, cement
content and density (Aiban, 1999).
Ata and Vipulanandan (1998) investigated on cohesive and adhesive

properties of silicate grout on grouted-sand behaviour and found that the
grouted – sand strength is influenced by either the grout strength and / or the
grout-sand adhesive strength, whichever is less. The grouted sand strength
increases with the increase of grout strength, but this increase is limited where
the grouted- sand strength approaches a limiting value. The relationship can be
represented by the hyperbolic relationship. Similar relation also was reported by
Ata (1993) for the cement-grout and the cement /fly ash system. It is therefore
concluded that the unconfined compressive strength of grouted sand can be
represented by a hyperbolic function, of both the grout strength and the
adhesive tensile strength.
Grouted sand prepared in the laboratory by injection of very fine cement,

the friction angle is almost unchanged by the injection treatment. The Mohr-
Coulomb cohesion varies between 0.1 and 0.5 MPa depending on the cement
content of the grout and the relative density of the soil and increase in
proportion with the cement – to – water ratio (Dano et al. 2004).
The contributions of inter-particle friction and particle interlocking to the

behavior are relatively more important at high densities, and that the
contribution of the cementation is relatively more important at low densities. At
24
high densities, a significant proportion of the cement fills in the void spaces and
does not contribute significantly to the inter-particle bonding. Thus the
effectiveness of a given proportion of cement decreases as the density increases
(Huang and Airey, 1998).
Cementation plays an important role in the stress-strain and strength

behaviour of frictional materials (Lade and Overton, 1989). The larger particle
are highly interlocked, thus producing greater rates of dilation during shearing,
and this results in higher peak strengths. According to this, cementation results
in effective cohesion as well as higher effective friction angle. Increasing
amounts of cementation in granular soil increasing cohesion and tensile strength
as well as increasing friction angle at low confining pressures.
The shear strength of the cemented soil measured in conventional

triaxial tests can be determined as a function of the unconfined compressive
strength and the uncemented friction angle (Schnaid et al. 2001).
The increase in the dynamic shear modulus of artificially cemented

specimens at low levels of cementation (1-4% by weight) is determined to be
due to an increase in stiffness coefficient (Acar and El-Tahir, 1986 ).
The strength of the grouted mass is not significantly affected by the

water: cement ratio of the suspension, but it is dependent on the cake thickness
and the hydration characteristics of the gel (Arenzana et al.1989).
Consoli et al. (1998) studied the influence of fiber and cement addition
on behaviour of sandy soil and found that the addition of cement to soil
increases stiffness and peak strength. Fiber reinforcement increases both the
peak and residual triaxial strengths decreases stiffness, and changes the
cemented soil’s brittle behavior to a more ductile one. The triaxial peak strength
increase due to fiber inclusion is more effective for uncemented soil.
25
Chapter-2
Furthermore, the increase in residual strength is more effective when fiber is

added to soil containing cement

The gradation and type of sand influenced the compressive properties of
grouted sand. The compressive strength increased with the increase of
uniformity coefficient of the sand (better gradation) and with the increase of the
particle’s angularity. For curing periods beyond 28 days and up to 2 years the
variation in the unconfined compressive strength, modulus, and strain at peak
were very small compared with the properties at 28 days. (Ata and
The structure of grouting media (porosity, permeability coefficient),

grouting pressure, grouting time, water cement ratio are the four factors
controlling the compressive strength of grouted gravels and diffusing radius of
grout in sandy gravel layers. Compressive strength of grouted gravels increases
with the increase of grouting pressure, porosity, grouting time and decreases
with the increase of water cement ratio (Ping et al. 2008).
Yoon and Farsakh (2009) while carrying out laboratory investigation on

the strength characteristics of cement-sand as base material that the standard
Proctor maximum dry density of the cement-sand increases with the increase of
cement content. This is because the finer cement particles will fill the voids in
sands that have larger sizes. This will take place until all voids in sands are
filled with cement particles.
The compressive strength of the grouted soil specimens was decreased

and the permeability of grouted samples was increased due to an increase in
water cement ratio. The Dr of the soil affected the injection and an increase in
26
the Dr decreased the groutability of the soil. The compressive strength of

grouted samples slightly decreased with an increase in the Dr. an increase in the
finer content in soil increased the grouting pressure while decreasing the
groutability of soil medium. The grouts with 3% superplasticizer were easily
injected into the soil samples and the strength increased as compared with the
cement grouted samples only (Akbulut and Saglamer, 2002).
Acar and El-Tahir (1986) studied the low strain dynamic properties of
artificially cemented sand and found that, the relative increase in the stiffness
coefficient with cementation could be expressed with stiffness ratio. This ratio
is nonlinearly related to both the degree of cementation and void ratio. The
stiffness ratio is higher for dense specimens. For weakly cemented specimens,
the stiffness ratio could be estimated from knowledge of unconfined
compressive strength or the cohesion intercept.
Das et al (1995) reported that the tensile strength increases with the
increase of the cement content, accompanied by a decrease in the tensile strain
at failure. Ribay et al. (2006) reported that microfine cement grout and mineral
grout can be used as permanent soil treatment since they present high creep
limits strengths compared to silicate grout which was essentially used for
temporary treatment.
The compressive strength of silicate – grouted sand can be represented

as a hyperbolic relationship of the grout compressive strength and the grout-
sand adhesive strength. The failure strains of grouted sands tested in unconfined
compression were reduced remarkably with increased curing and were less
than 0.3% indicating that compressive failure strength is governed mainly by
the grout cohesive and adhesive strengths. The modulus of unconfined grouted
sand is mainly a function of the grout occupying the void space and the
27
Chapter-2
adhesive bonds developed at the grout - particle interface. (Ata and

Consoli et al. (2007) reported that the addition of cement, even in small
amounts, greatly improves the soil strength. The unconfined compression
strength increased approximately linearly with an increase in the cement
content. The rate of strength gain, increased with an increase in the dry density
of the compacted soil cement, indicating that the effectiveness of the cement is
greater in more compacted mixture. For a given dry density, the variation in
moisture content affected the unconfined compression strength of the soil
cement. Generally, an increase in strength is observed with increasing moisture
content until a maximum value is reached, after which the strength decreases. It
appears that this effect of moisture content varies with the cement content. The
reduction in the porosity of the compacted mixture greatly improves the
strength. Hence the unconfined compression strength increased approximately
exponentially with a reduction in the porosity of the compacted mixture.
The determination of the cement content in concrete made with different

types of cement is usually accomplished through the chemical analysis. This is
a tedious and elaborate technique that has been standardized in ASTM. The
error involved in this method should not exceed 5% (Ibrahim et al. 2004).
The cement content increased in cement admixed clay, while fixing clay
water content, after curing the void ratio decreased and the strength increased.
As the clay water content increased while maintaining the cement content
constant, after curing void ratio increased and strength decreased (Lorenzo and
Bergado, 2004).
Unconfined compressive strength of micro fine slag cement grouts

increases with increase in curing time from 7 to 60 days and decreases in water
28
cement ratio from 2 to 0.8. the UCS of slag cement grout with sodium
hydroxide and grouted sand is about two fold of grout with sodium silicate at 28
days. the flexural strength increases with decrease in w:c ratio. ( Sinroja et al.
2006).
Unconfined compression tests on clay-cement mixes within the proposed

working range show that water-cement ratio alone cannot account for the
variation in strength; the influence of the soil-cement ratio must also be
included. For a given water-cement ratio, the strength of the cement-treated soil
appears to increase with the soil-cement ratio (Lee et al. 2005).
Grouting generally is used to fill voids in the ground (fissures and

porous structures) with the aim to increase resistance against deformation, to
supply cohesion, shear strength and uniaxial compressive strength or finally
(even more frequently) to reduce conductivity and interconnected porosity in an
aquifer (Moseley and Kirsch, 2004).
The strength of grouted sand was influenced by particle size and

distribution and fines content of soil while the permeability of grouted sands did
not vary with soil properties (Ozgurel and C. Vipulanandan).
The extent to which soil strength and stiffness can be improved by

cement stabilization is very much dependent on the micro structural
characteristic of the in-situ soil and the method of introduction of cement slurry
into the soil. Unconfined compressive strength tests conducted on the soil
samples from the mechanically treated and jet grouted portions revealed
interesting relationships that can be explained by the differences in the soil
properties; e.g., particle size and method of soil improvement (Jeyanathan,
1994).
29
Chapter-2
Baig et al. (1997 investigated on low strain shear moduli of cemented

sands that the relative density of the sand skeleton is not as influential as the
degree of cementation on shear moduli.
Schnaid, et al. 2001 studied the stress- strain behaviour of an artificially

cemented sandy soil, showed that the unconfined compressive strength seems to
be a direct measure of the degree of cementation in triaxial compression. For
the range of stress investigated, the deformation secant modulus of the
cemented soil is not significantly affected by the initial mean effective stress.
The Coulomb-Mohr theory is not exactly applicable to concrete, the

Mohr rupture diagram offers a way of representing the failure under combined
stress states from which an estimate of the shear strength can be obtained. By
this method it has been found that the shear strength is approximately 20
percent of the uniaxial compressive strength (Mehta and Monteiro).
2.7 Permeability studies on grouted sandy soils

Hydraulic conductivity defines the capacity of a porous medium to
conduct a particular fluid, and is a function of both the medium and the fluid
(Uppot and Stephenson, 1989).

the method of grouting because different mechanisms governs the deposition
and packing of cement particle within the pore structure (Schwarz and Krizek-
1994).
Pandian et al. (1995) studied the permeability and compressibility

behaviour of bentonite-sand/soil mixes, that the bentonite particles due to their
very large specific surface form a coating around the coarser sand particles, thus
preventing direct contact between grains. This results in a decrease in
30
compressibility at the same time the permeability coefficient is of the same

order, as bentonite particles coat sand grains with the result that seepage control
still affected.
Cement grouting was mostly confined to seepage control but it can be

profitably used for strengthening foundation bed also (Glory, et al. 2001). The
penetrability of soils, which can be characterized by the permeability and the
dispersivity of the cement - water suspension, which can be characterized by its
grain size distribution; serve as criteria for defining the possibility of the
impregnation of a soil by cement grout . (Ibragimov, 2005).
Grouting of granular materials is usually done to arrest or reduce water

movement, to strengthen the material for the purpose of on creasing bearing
capacity or reducing settlement under existing loads, or both of these functions.
Grouting is also done to increase shearing resistance for stability against lateral
movement (King and bush, 1961).
Grout fills cavities, joints and fractures by a process of sedimentation. It

is forced into the openings and then has excess water squeezed out by the
pressure exerted on the grout and by a combination of these two functions. With
the above in mind it follows that both grout mixes and injection methods should
be adjusted to fit the character of the openings to be filled with grout (Bussey,
1973).
The permeability of stabilized sand may increase remarkably due to flow

channels caused by the shear stress increment and that the relationship between
the permeability of stabilized sand and the shear stress increment depends upon
density, grain size and type of chemical grout. In sands stabilized by silicate
grout, the permeability of stabilized sand with large grain size increases
remarkably owing to shear deformation, irrespective of density. On the other
31
Chapter-2
hand, if the grain size of stabilized sand is small, the permeability does not
increase excessively as long as dilatancy does not occur (Mori and Tamura,
1986).
The permeability of a cement grout can be improved by increasing the

milling fineness of the cement, or by reducing or completely eliminating the
coarse fraction. Certain basic properties of the cement grout are improved with
increasing milling fineness; separation of the grout is reduced, a more uniform
structure is created with respect to density , the rate and volume of water is
lowered, and the strength of the cement stone is enhanced. (Ibragimov, 2005)
An increase in w/c ratio of grout increased the permeability of soils

decreased the strength of grouted samples and, therefore, some of the grouted
samples were not taken form moulds due to insufficient hardening. It also
negatively affected the permeability of grouted samples (Akbulut and Saglamer,
2002).
The latest tendency of the dam designers is to direct their efforts towards
a more precise analysis of rock masses and an estimate of the static and
dynamic effect of water seeping through the joints and fissures. When the
reservoir is filled, the water pressure builds up behind the rock slopes unless it
is relived by the curtain grouting and drainage. Positive drainage and grouting
is recommended for eliminating interstitial water pressure and developing
maximum possible bearing capacity of the foundation (Desmukh, 1978).
IS :4999 – 1991 gives the recommendations for grouting of pervious

soils for control of seepage. These are applicable wherever the primary purpose
of grouting is to reduce the permeability of the soil.
For grout injected specimens, decreasing the water to cement ratio of the
grout and increasing the curing time significantly lowered the permeability and
32
increasing the strength, whereas increasing the distance from the injection point
had little effect on the permeability and produced meaningful reductions in
strength. These trends are consistent with the sand acting as a filter for the grout
suspension (Schwarz and Krizek, 1994).
For hand mixed specimens, in which a predetermined percentage of

voids in the sand was filled with grout, the void volume percentage of grout
filled voids was, by far, the most influential factor (as opposed to water to
cement ratio and time) in decreasing the permeability of the sand, whereas the
water to cement ratio of the grout and the curing time most influence the
strength. cement content of injected specimens was than that of corresponding
hand mixed specimens, the permeability of injected specimens was greater than
that of hand mixed specimens, thus indicating that the permeability of grouted
sand depends not only on the amount of cementitious particle in the void spaces
but on the distribution of the cement and resulting structure of the grouted sand,
which are influenced by the grouting procedure (Schwarz and Krizek, 1994).
The permeability of granular soils depends mainly on the cross-sectional

areas of the pore channels. Since the average diameter of the pores in a soil at a
given porosity increases in proportion to the average grain size, the
permeability of granular soils might be expected to increase as the square of
some characteristics grain size designated as the effective grain size. The
permeability of granular soils may decrease substantially on account of the
presence of even small amounts of fine silt and clay sized particles. The
mineralogy and degree of aggregation or dispersion of the fines determine the
magnitude of the decrease in permeability. Compacted mixtures of sand and
bentonite are often used as blankets or liners to form seepage barriers against
fluids, including leachates from disposal facilities. (Terzaghi et al. 1996)
33
Chapter-2
The effectiveness of the grouting operation in terms of permeability and

strength is controlled, to some extent, by the granulometry of the soil formation;
the finer the sand is being grouted, the larger is the observed increase in
strength and decrease in permeability (Zebovitz et al. 1989).
Eklund and Stille (2007) investigated the penetrability due to filtration

tendency of cement-based grouts that grain-size and grain-size distribution are
of grtate importance to filtration tendency. Experiments performed with inert
and cement material; it seems to be advantageous for penetrability to have a
grain-size distribution that does not contain too many fine or coarse grains. the
value of d95 should be 4-10 times less than the aperture to be penetrated by the
cement base mixture. Small amount of small grain –sizes are also important in
achieving low filtration tendency of the grout. This is because of the increased
tendency for small grains to flocculate into larger agglomerates, compared to
larger grain-sizes.
2.8 Scope of the work

The constructional activities in the coastal belt of our country often
demand deep foundations because of the poor engineering properties and the
related problems arising from weak soil at shallow depths. The soil profile in
coastal area often consists of very loose fine sandy soil extending to a depth of
3 to 4 m from ground level underlain by clayey soils of medium consistency.
The very low shearing resistance of the foundation bed causes local as well as
punching shear failure. Hence the structures built on these soils may suffer from
excessive settlements. This type of soil profile is very common in coastal areas
of Kerala, especially in Cochin. Further, the high water table and limited depth
of the top sandy layer in these areas restrict the depth of foundation thereby
further reducing the safe bearing capacity. Strengthening of these loose sandy
34
soils at shallow depths through economical techniques such as grouting could

be a possible solution for these foundation problems.
Eventhough grouting has found several applications in the practice of

civil engineering; studies on grouts and grouting have been very limited.
Grouting often has to serve the primary purpose of filling the voids or replacing
the existing fluids in voids by the grout with a view to improve the engineering
properties of the grouted medium. Cement grouting is the most important and
the most widely used method in the construction industries for reducing the
mass permeability and increasing the strength of formations. They develop the
strength and become impermeable when the cement hydrates and cures into a
system of interlocking crystals. Even today the grouting operations are based
on thumb rules and existing practices rather than design principles and well
defined procedures substantiated by research data. Hence a systematic study on
the behavior of cement grouted loose sandy soils will be of immense help to the
engineering community.
2.9 Objectives of the present study

The objectives of the present investigation are
1. To study the improvement in load carrying capacity of different fractions

of loose sandy beds.
2. To investigate the effect of cement grouts on the shear strength of loose

sandy soils.
3. To study how the commonly used admixtures affect the strength of the
cement grouted soils.
4. To arrive at a useful correlation between the shear strength and

compressive strength of grouted sand.
35
Chapter-2
5. To develop a grouting setup for conducting model studies in the

laboratory.
6. To assess the grouting efficiency through various methods such as

measurement of cross section dimensions of the grouted mass,
determination of cement contents at different points and by conducting
load tests on the grouted sand beds.
7. To study the effectiveness of grouting in reducing the permeability of

granular medium.
36
Chapter 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1Introduction
3.2 Materials
3.2.1 Sand
3.2.2 Cement
3.2.3Bentonite
3.2.4Cochin marine clay
Contents
3.2.5Lime
3.3Grouting operations
3.3.1 Grout impregnation by hand mixing
3.3.2 Grout impregnation by pumping
3.4 Testing Methods
3.4.1 Shear strength test
3.4.2 Compressive strength test
3.4.3 Cross sectional area of grouted mass
3.4.4 Cement content determination
3.4.5 Load tests
3.4.6 Permeability
3.1 Introduction
The efficiency of grouting is mainly dependent on the properties of the
grouting materials and appropriate grouting technique. The success of the
grouting is dependent on selection and type of grout materials, type of grouted
medium, grout mix design and suitable grouting techniques. The specific
mechanical properties that are important in the selection of a grout for a specific
job include mechanical permeance, penetrability and strength. The selection of
37
Chapter-3
particular grout is dependent on its geotechnical application along with the

other factors (Shah & Shroff 1992).
The technology of grouting has wide range of applications, varying from
filling large fissures in rock to alluvial grouting. The aim of the present
investigation is to control the properties of grout materials and thereby to
improve the bearing capacity and to reduce the permeability of loose sand
medium. Wide range of grouting materials are available in the field of grouting,
ranging from suspension grouts to solution grouts.
In the present study, suspension grouts have been used. Granular
medium was chosen as the formation to be grouted. The details of the grouting
materials, grouting medium, grouting procedure and testing methods are

presented in the following sections.
3.2 Materials
The selection of proper grouting materials depends upon the type of
granular medium and the purpose of grouting. Cement, bentonite, clay and lime
are the grouting materials normally used for grouting a granular medium. In the
present study sand was used as the grouting medium and cement (with or
without admixtures), lime and clay were used as the grouting materials.
3.2.1 Sand
As mentioned, sand was used as grouting medium for this study. River
sand procured from Kalady, which is a branch of the Periyar river - was dried
and sieved into different fractions. River sand of three grades - fine (75 µm-
38
Materials and Methods
425 µm), medium (425 µm- 2 mm) and coarse (2mm- 4.75mm) fractions as per
ASTM (D2487-10) and BIS (1498 -1970) classifications were used in the
present study. The grain size distribution curves of different fractions of sand
are shown in Fig.3.1.
100
FINE SAND
80 MEDIUM SAND
COARSE SAND
60
Percentage finer
40
20
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle size (mm)
Fig 3.1 Grain size distribution curves of sand
3.2.2 Cement
43 grade Ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS 269 – 1989 was
used for the preparation of cement grouts. The cement bags were kept in air
tight bins to avoid any change in the properties with the time of storage. The
experiments were planned in such a manner that once a bag of cement was
opened, the whole cement was utilized within 10 days. The physical properties
39
Chapter-3
of cement are presented in table 3.1. and its grain size distribution curve is
shown in figure 3.2.
Table 3.1. Properties of the cement used.
Sl.No. Property Characteristic value
1 Standard Consistency 28%
2 Initial setting time 131 minutes
3 Final setting time 287 minutes
4 Blaine’s Sp. Surface 298500 mm2/g
5 Sp. Gravity 3.14
6 Compressive strength
35.1 N/mm2
(i)7days
44.0 N/mm2
(ii) 28days
3.2.2.1 Physical properties of cement
The physical properties of the cement used were determined in

accordance with IS 269: 1989 and IS 4031: 1988
i) Fineness
The fineness of cement was tested using Blaine’s air permeability test
method. This test gives an idea about the fineness of the cement and the specific
surface of the cement grains. The test sample of cement was first enclosed in a
125g jar and shaken vigorously for two minutes to fluff the cement and brake
up lumps or agglomerations. The weight of the sample was calculated using the
expression given in IS: 4031: part 2: 1999. The perforated disc was placed on
the ledge in the permeability cell, above which, a filter paper disc was also
placed. The cement sample was placed in the cell and the surface was levelled.
A filter paper disc was placed above the cement sample and then it was
40
compressed with a plunger until the plunger collar was in contact with the top
of the cell.
After removing the plunger, the permeability cell was attached to the
manometer tube making sure that an air tight connection was obtained, without
disturbing the prepared bed of cement. The air in one of the manometer U- tube
was slowly evacuated until the liquid reached the top mark and the valve was
closed. As the bottom of the meniscus of the manometer liquid reached the
second mark, the timer was started and stopped as the meniscus reached the
third mark. The time interval was noted in seconds. The specific surface was
then calculated using the expression given in IS: 4031: part 2: 1999. As per IS:
269: 1989 the minimum value of specific surface is 2250 cm2/g.
100
80
Percentage finer
60
BENTONITE
MARINE CLAY
40 LIME
CEMENT
20
0
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle size (mm)
Fig. 3.2 Grain size distribution curves
41
Chapter-3
ii) Standard Consistency
This test is used for finding out the amount of water required to make a
paste of standard consistency. The standard consistency of a cement paste is
defined as the consistency which will permit the specific Vicat plunger to
penetrate to a point 5 to 7 mm from the bottom of the Vicat mould. 400g of
cement was weighed and a paste was made by adding 26% of water, observing
that the gauging time is below 5 minutes. The paste was filled in the Vicat
mould and the plunger was released. The penetration of the plunger was less
than the specified value in IS: 4031: part 4: 1988. The test was repeated by
making fresh cement paste with 27 and 28 percentages of water. It was found
that when 28 % water was added the penetration of the plunger was within the
specified limits.
iii) Initial setting time
The starting of the setting process of a cement paste is based on this

property. The working time available with particular cement depends on this. A
neat cement paste was prepared with 400 gm of cement and 0.85times the water
required for standard consistency. The Vicat mould was filled with this paste
and the needle was released. The needle was observed to be piercing completely
into the paste. The procedure was repeated until the needle failed to penetrate
the cement paste for 5± 0.5mm measured from the bottom of the mould. The
period elapsed between the time when water was added to the cement and the
time at which the needle failed to penetrate the required amount was reported as
the initial setting time.
42
iv) Final setting time
This time is used to describe the stiffening of cement paste. The needle
for initial setting time was replaced by the annular attachment. The cement
paste prepared to determine the initial setting time was placed beneath the
attachment in the Vicat apparatus. The attachment was brought down to the
surface of the cement paste. Initially, both the central needle and the
surrounding attachment made impression on the surface of the paste. Later at
287 minutes, the needle alone made the impression and this was reported as the
final setting time.
v) Compressive strength
This is obviously the most required property because it gives an idea

about the mechanical strength of hardened cement. The compressive strength is
determined by conducting tests on mortar cubes. For making one cube of
standard dimensions, 200 gm of cement and 600 gm of specified sand are first
⎛P ⎞
mixed well in dry condition and mixed with ⎜ + 3 ⎟ % of water where P is the
⎝4 ⎠
percentage of water required to produce a paste of standard consistency as
described in the earlier section. The prepared mortar was filled in previously
cleaned and oiled cube moulds placed on the vibration table. Vibration was
given for the specified time and the surface was smoothened with a trowel. The
moulds with specimen were kept in a moist room for 24 hours and then
detached from the specimens. The mortar cubes were kept in clean water for
curing. Compressive strength was determined after 7 and 28 days. Three cubes
were tested for each period and the average was reported as the compressive
strength.
43
Chapter-3
vi) Soundness
This property is essential that a cement paste, once it has set, does not
undergo a large volume change. This test was conducted using a Le - Chatelier
apparatus. The cement paste was prepared with 0.78 times the water required to
give a paste of standard consistency. The mould was filled with this paste and
the assembly was immersed in water for 24 hours. The distance between the
indicator points was measured. Submerging the assembly in water, the water
was brought to boiling in 25 to 30 minutes and then the distance between these
indicator points was measured. The difference between these two measurements
represented the expansion of the cement.
vii) Specific gravity
Specific gravity of cement was determined using a Le- Chartelier flask.

The flask was filled with kerosene upto the specified portion of the flask and
the level was noted. A weighed quantity of cement was poured into the flask
carefully taking care to see that the cement did not spill out. The flask was
shaken gently so that cement particles did not adhere to the inside of the flask.
The final reading was noted. The specific gravity was calculated as the ratio of
the weight of cement in grams to the weight of an equal volume of distilled
water.
3.2.2.2 Admixtures
Little John (1982) has given a list of admixtures that can be used in
cement grouting to improve the various properties of cement based grouts
(Table 3.2). Various other authors have recommended a number of additives
that can be used in cement as well as bentonite grouting. Admixtures are used
in cement grouts to serve as accelerator, retarder, and lubricant or to increase
the strength of the grout
44
Table 3.2. Common Admixtures used along with cement grout

Optimum dosage (% by
Sl. No. Admixture Chemical
wt of cement)
1 Calcium chloride 1-2
Accelerator
2 Sodium silicate 0.5-3
3 Tartaric acid 0.1-0.5
Retarder
4 Triethanolamine 0.1-0.5
5 Fluidiser Detergent 0.05
6 Expander Aluminium powder 0.005-0.02
7 Bentonite 2-10
Antibleeder
8 Aluminium sulphate Up to 20%
Among the accelerators, calcium chloride and sodium silicate were used
in the present investigation. To study the effect of retarders, triethanolamine and
tartaric acid were chosen. The fluidiser used was detergent, which is
commercially available soap powder (sun light detergent powder was used
here). Aluminium powder was used as the expander. Aluminium sulphate and
bentonite were used as antibleeders.
3.2.3 Bentonite
The bentonite used in this study is a commercially available, highly

expansive one. The properties of the bentonite are given in table 3.3. Bentonite
shows great affinity towards moisture. The percentage of water present in a
sample of bentonite varies depending upon the climatic condition. So the
bentonite, which was thoroughly mixed uniformly, was preserved in double
layer of polythene bags. Again these bags were stored in airtight bins.
45
Chapter-3
Table 3.3 Properties of bentonite

Sl. No. Property Characteristic value
1 Specific gravity 2.8
2 Liquid limit (%) 410
3 Plastic limit (%) 45
4 Plasticity index (%) 365
5 Shrinkage limit (%) 1.34
6 Volume change (%) 97.5
7 Linear shrinkage (%) 49.61
8 Activity 5.03
9 Free swell index (cc/g) 17.5
10 Cation exchange capacity (meq/ 100g) 60.8
11 pH 7.4
12 Surface area (m2/ g) 87.5
13 Conductivity (µs /cm2) 10800
14 Organic matter (%) 1.48
Physical properties of Bentonite
i) Atterberg limits
The liquid limit and plastic limit were determined as per IS 2720: part 5:
1985. The liquid limit test was conducted using Casagrande apparatus, starting
from a water content which required only around 10 blows for the groove to
close. The paste was then allowed to spread over a glass plate to allow
evaporation. This was then mixed thoroughly for the next test. The liquid limit
was reported as the water content which took 25 blows to close the groove.
46
Plastic limit was found out as the water content required just to make hair line
cracks for the clay thread of specific diameter of 3 mm.
ii) Grain size distribution
Grain size distribution of the grout suspension is a very important
property in grouting practice. The sedimentation analysis was done using a

hydrometer. Grain size distribution curve is shown in figure 3.2
3.2.4 Cochin marine clay
Marine clay was collected from a site at Elamkulam in Greater Cochin
area on the Western coast of India. Bulk samples of the clay were collected
from bore holes advanced by shell and auger method.
The boring operations were taken to the clay layers for collection of
samples. The boring operations were carried out as per IS: 1892: 1979, Code of
practice for subsurface investigations for foundations. Care was taken not to
include bentonite slurry during the boring operations as it could contaminate the
soil samples. Samples collected from different locations were put together and
mixed thoroughly into a uniform mass and preserved in polythene bags. The
grain size distribution curve of the marine clay is shown in figure 3.2
3.2.5 Lime
Specially selected uniform shells were used for preparation of lime for
the study. The shells were burnt to remove CO2 completely when they change
to brittle white shells of calcium oxide which were preserved in airtight
47
Chapter-3
multilayer polythene bags. The required amount of water alone was sprinkled
over the lone shells taken from these bags on each day of lime treated samples,
till all the shells crumble to fine powder which was then sieved through IS 425
micron sieve. This method of preparation of lime was used because of its
simplicity and the ease with which it can be prepared for field application.
3.3 Grouting operations
To place the grout within the pores of the granular medium, two
procedures were adopted. In the first method, the grout material was deposited
within the pores by hand mixing. In the second method, previously prepared
sand beds were grouted with different grouting materials by using a grout pump
to simulate the grouting operations in the field. The preparations of both these
types are described in detail below.
3.3.1 Grout impregnation by hand mixing
The grouting materials like cement, lime, etc. with or without

admixtures were hand mixed uniformly with the sand for the preparation of test
specimens.
(i) Grouting with cement
A unit weight of 14.5 kN/m3 for sand was chosen for the preparation of
samples, so that the relative density is 51%. This was selected by considering
the fact that it can be achieved relatively easily with very good reproducibility
and by considering the difficulty experienced in preparing the samples at units
weights corresponding to the loosest state. The required amount of sand of
48
specific size range was taken in a tray. The predetermined quantity of cement
(2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20 & 25% by weight of sand) was then added to the sand and
thoroughly mixed with a trowel. Water was (5, 10, 15, 20 or 25% by weight of
sand and cement) sprinkled over the cement sand mixture and thoroughly
mixed with a trowel. This was filled in split moulds of size 60 mm x 60 mm x
25 mm in two layers to obtain specimens for direct shear tests and also filled in
cube moulds of size 70.6 mm x 70.6 mm x 70.6 mm, to obtain specimens for
compressive strength tests. These specimens were kept at room temperature for
24 hrs, then taken out from the moulds and kept for curing for periods of 7 and
28 days. Specimens prepared for direct shear tests like this are shown in Fig 3.3
(ii) Grouting with cement and admixtures
To the cement-sand mixture prepared as explained earlier, predetermined

amount of admixture (% by weight of cement) dissolved in water (10% by
weight of sand and cement put together) was added. This ensured uniform
mixing of all the materials. This was then filled in split moulds of size 60 x 60 x
25 mm, in layers to obtain samples for direct shear tests and in cube moulds of
size 70.6 mm to obtain samples for compressive strength tests. These specimens
were cured before testing, as explained.
49
Chapter-3
Fig 3.3 Samples for direct shear test
3.3.2 Grout impregnation by pumping

Predetermined quantity of cement with or without admixtures was taken
and thoroughly mixed with a definite amount of water. The slurry was
thoroughly mixed for 10 minutes at 3000 rpm using a standard stirrer. The
grouting setup consists of a grout chamber with agitator, air compressor,
grouting nozzle and regulating valve. The grouting nozzle was kept in position
(at 5 cm above bottom level of tank) and the sand bed was prepared in a tank of
size 45 cm x 45 cm x 60 cm / 1 m x 1 m x 0.60 m at the loosest state (unit
weight of 13.1 kN/m3and an initial void ratio of 0.98). Sand was filled in the
tank by pouring through a funnel from a constant height of 1m from the top of
the sand bed. Then the slurry (grout) was poured into the grout chamber. In
order to reduce the possibility of settling of the grout in the grout chamber, an
agitator was provided inside the grout chamber. Grout was pumped under a
constant pressure of 5 kg/cm2 (500 kPa) into the prepared sand bed. The
grouting nozzle was raised during the grouting operation at regular intervals in
50
order to get uniform flow of grout over the entire thickness of the sand bed. The
grouted sample was kept for curing under moist condition.
3.4 Testing methods

In this investigation shear strength, compressive strength and
permeability of cement grouted sand were studied in detail. The physical
properties of grouting materials were also tested. The various test procedures
are discussed in detail as follows.
3.4.1 Shear strength test

The shear strength can be determined in the laboratory by direct shear
box test or triaxial test. In the present study, direct shear tests were conducted
for the determination of the shear strength parameters. Saturated specimens (of
size 60 mm x 60 mm x 25 mm) prepared as per the procedure given in section
3.3.1 were placed in the split mould. Perforated metal plates were placed above
and below the specimen to allow free drainage. A pressure pad was placed on
top and the entire box was placed in the trolley. A vertical load was applied to
the specimen through a static weight hanger and the specimen was sheared by
applying a horizontal force which causes the two halves of the box to move
relative to each other. The shear was applied at a constant rate of strain of
0.25mm/ min. The magnitude of shear load was measured by means of a
proving ring. The shear deformation as well as the vertical deformation was
measured during the test with the help of dial gauges. The procedure was
repeated on four specimens, each subjected to different normal loads. Normal
stress and the shear stress on the failure plane were obtained by dividing the
normal force and shear force by the nominal area of the specimen. Values of
shear stress at failure were plotted against the normal stress for each test. The
shear strength parameters c and Ø were obtained from the best fit straight line
through those points.
51
Chapter-3
3.4.2 Compressive strength test

The compressive strength of grouted specimens was determined by
conducting tests on 70.6 mm cube specimens. Hand impregnated specimens
were prepared in the mortar cube moulds and grouted specimens were cut into
this size from the grouted mass by a diamond concrete cutter. The specimens
were placed in the loading frame in the proper position and axial load was
applied at a constant strain rate of 0.02mm /min. The magnitude of load and
deformations were measured with the help of a proving ring and dial gauges.
The compressive stress was obtained by dividing axial force by the cross
sectional area of specimen. Three identical specimens were tested and the
average value was taken as the compressive strength.
3.4.3 Cross sectional area of grouted mass

A preliminary idea about the grouting efficiency can be obtained from
the cross section area of the actual grouted medium at different depths. For this
purpose, once the grouting was over and sufficient time allowed for curing, the
side walls of the tank were removed so that the dimensions of various cross
sections of the intact grouted mass at different depths could be taken. Lateral
measurements were taken from the centre of the grout hole to the corners and
centers of the side walls and additional measurements were also taken in case of
uneven shapes. For this purpose, a cage made of steel bars with the same lateral
dimensions as that of the tank was fabricated. Keeping this cage encompassing
the grouted mass facilitated easy measurements of the dimensions. All the
measurements were taken at 10 cm intervals from the top of the grouted bed
and recorded. With the help of these measurements cross sections were drawn
and the area was calculated at different intervals.
52
Fig. 3.4 (a) Collection of test specimens from grouted samples in progress
Fig. 3.4 (b) Collection of test specimens from grouted samples in progress
53
Chapter-3
The efficiency of grouting and lateral flow of grouts were also analyzed
by determining the cement content at various places of the grouted mass. For
this purpose, samples were collected at different distances radially from the
centre of the grout hole at different depths. The process of collecting the
samples by cutting the grouted mass with the help of a diamond cutter is shown
in Figs 3.4 (a) and 3.4 (b). Samples at the same radial distance (at a particular
depth) were mixed together and were used for the purpose of cement content
determination. The procedure adopted for the determination of cement content
is given below.
This test method covers the determination of cement content by

chemical analysis of hardened soil-cement mixtures. ASTM standards
designation D806-00; Standard test method for cement content of hardened
soil- cement mixtures were used in this test. A similar method was also
presented in BIS (IS:4332 - 1973) “Method of test for stabilized soils part VII
method of determination of cement content of cement stabilized soils”. This test
method determines the cement content in mixtures of cement with soil by
chemical analysis. It was developed primarily for testing samples for which a
significant degree of cement hydration or hardening has taken place.
The method involves the determination of the CaO contents in the soil
(sand), cement and in the grouted mass, separately. The procedure for
conducting the chemical analysis is explained below.
Take 25 g of each of the above samples after drying in an oven at 110 ±

5°C to remove free water. Sieve the samples through a 425 µm sieve. Each
sample is prepared in the following amounts: raw soil, 5 g; soil-cement mixture,
5 g; and cement, 1 g. Each sample is placed in a 250-ml beaker and 50 ml of
54
HCl (1 + 1) is added to each sample, then covered, and boiled gently for 5 min
on the hot plate. Add 25 ml of hot water to this, stir well and allow to settle
momentarily, and then decant the contents through a Whatman No. 1 filter
paper. The filtrate should be received in a 250-ml volumetric flask. When the
liquid has passed through the filter paper, wash the residue once by decantation,
using hot water, then transfer it to the filter, using a stream of hot water. The
beaker should be rapidly policed, the loosened material being transferred to the
filter paper. The material on the filter should then be washed four times more,
each washing consisting of 10 to 15 ml of hot water directed in a stream from
the wash bottle. Very small amounts of residue would occasionally pass
through the filter, which may be disregarded.
When washing is completed, discard the filter, and dilute the filtrate in
the volumetric flask to 250 ml with cold water. Agitate the flask to mix the
contents thoroughly, then remove a 50-ml aliquot and transfer it to the original
250ml beaker, using a 50ml pipette and dilute it to 100 ml. Make the solution
slightly ammoniacal, boil it for 1 to 2 min, and allow the hydroxides to settle.
Filter the hydroxides through an 11-cm Whatman No. 1 filter paper, receiving
the filtrate in the 600-ml beaker. Wash the original 250-ml beaker into the filter
once with a stream of hot NH4NO3 solution (20 g/l), and follow by washing the
hydroxide precipitate once or twice with hot NH4NO3 solution. Set this aside,
and place the original beaker under the funnel. Perforate the paper with a rod,
and wash the hydroxides down into the original beaker, using a stream of hot
NH4NO3 solution (20 g/l) to remove most of the precipitate from the filter
paper. Treat the paper with 20 ml of hot HCl (1 + 3), directing the acid over the
paper with a glass rod. Wash the paper several times with hot water, and then
discard the paper and dilute the solution to 75 ml. Fig. 3. 5 shows the test set up
for cement content determination.
55
Chapter-3
Fig. 3. 5 Test set up for cement content determination
Make the solution slightly ammoniacal and boil it for 1 to 2 min, allow
the precipitate to settle, then decant through a Whatman No. 1 paper as before,
receiving the filtrate in the 600-ml beaker previously set aside. Wash and police
the beaker in which precipitation take place, finally washing the precipitate on
the filter three or four times with NH4NO3Solution (20 g/l). Discard the
hydroxide precipitate. Add 2 ml of NH4OH (sp gr 0.90) to the filtrate, which
will now have a volume of 250 to 350 ml. Heat the solution to boiling and add
10 ml of hot saturated ammonium oxalate solution. Keep the mixture near
boiling until the precipitate becomes granular; then set it aside on a warm hot
plate for 30 min or more. Before filtering off the calcium oxalate, verify
completeness of precipitation, and make sure that a slight excess of NH4OH is
present. Filter the mixture through an 11-cm or 15-cm Whatman No. 2 filter
paper, or if preferred a Whatman No. 42 paper, making sure that all the
56
precipitate is being retained. Thoroughly clean with a rubber policeman, the

beaker in which precipitation took place and transfer the contents to the filter
with a stream of hot water. Wash the filter eight to ten times with hot water (not
more than 75 ml), using a stream from the wash bottle.
Carefully open the filter paper and wash the precipitate into the beaker in
which the precipitation was effected. Dilute it to 200 ml and add 10 ml of H2SO4 (1
+ 1). Heat the solution just short of boiling, and titrate with the standard KMnO4
solution to get a persistent pink colour. Add the filter paper and macerate it.
Continue the titration slowly until the pink color persists for 10 s.
Make a blank determination, following the same procedure and using the
same amount of all the reagents.
Calculation
The cement content of the grouted sample is computed as follows
The percentages of CaO in the soil, in the cement, and in the grouted
samples can be calculated as:
Where:
A = KMnO4 solution required for titration of the sample in ml,
B = KMnO4 solution required for titration of the blank in ml,
C = normality of the KMnO4 solution,
D = sample represented by the aliquot titrated in gms and
0.028 = CaO equivalent of 1 ml of 1.0 N KMnO4 solution.
57
Chapter-3
Percentage of cement by mass of soil can be determined as
E = CaO in the cement (%)
F = CaO in the soil (%) and
G = CaO in the grouted sample (%).
3.4.5 Load tests
The efficiency of the grouting process was also verified through load
tests conducted on ungrouted/grouted sand beds. The initial tests for the
assessment of improvement in load carrying capacity through densification,
were conducted by filling the sand at the desired densities in small tanks of size
30cmx30cmx30cm. For estimating the load carrying capacity of grouted beds,
the grouting operations were done in large tanks of size 1mx1mx0.6m.
Uniform sand beds in the loosest state (unit weight 13.1 kN/m3 ) were prepared
after keeping the detachable side walls of the tank in position. Grouting was
done as per the procedure given in section 3.3.2. The disturbed portion at the
top for a depth of 10cm was removed, and after curing for a period of
28days,load test was conducted in this grouted bed. The load was applied
through a 20cm square plate with the help of a hydraulic jack. Dial gauges
mounted on the opposite corners of the plate gave the settlement corresponding
to the load (read from the pressure gauge).
3.4.6 Permeability
Permeability is defined as the property of a porous material which

permits the passage or seepage of water or other fluids through its
interconnecting voids. Gravel is highly permeable while stiff clay or high
58
plastic clay is least permeable. The flow of water through soils may be laminar
or turbulent. In most of the practical flow problems in geotechnical engineering,
the flow is laminar. The flow of water through soil obeys Darcy’s law which
states that the rate of flow is proportional to the hydraulic gradient. The
coefficient of permeability can be determined in the laboratory by constant head
test or falling head test. In the present study, constant head tests were
conducted for the determination of the permeability. Rigid wall permeameters
(standard concrete permeability test apparatus) of size 150 mm x150 mm x150
mm were used. The sand was filled in the mould keeping the dry unit weight of
sand as 14.5 kN/m3. Water was permitted through the sand medium under a
constant head of 2m (20 kPa). The discharge was measured once a steady state
condition is reached. The test setup is shown in figure 3.6
Fig. 3.6 Permeability test set up for grouted samples.
59
Chapter-3
For preparing the hand impregnated cement/bentonite grouted samples,

medium sand (unit weight 14.5 kN/m3) was mixed with predetermined
percentages of cement/benonite (2, 4, 6, 8 & 10 % by weight of sand) in the dry
condition. Then 10% of water (by weight of sand + cement mixture) was added
to this, thoroughly mixed and filled in the mould in layers to achieve a uniform
mass. These permeability specimens were allowed to cure under saturated
condition by permitting the flow at a very small head.
Discharge measurements were taken at a constant head of 2m at different

curing periods (in the case of a few specimens) in order to check whether the
permeability is affected by the curing period of the grouted specimens. From a
series of experiments, it was found that the permeability goes on reducing upto
a curing period of around 15 days. Hence permeability tests on subsequent
samples were done after the specimen has undergone a curing for 15 days.
To study the effect of grouting with locally available clay on the

permeability of the sand medium, Cochin marine clay in moist condition (at
natural water content) was mixed with sand before filling in the permeability
moulds. Similarly for preparing specimens to study the effect of additives such
as cement/lime, the predetermined percentage of cement/lime in powder form
was mixed with Cochin Marine clay (in moist condition) and then mixed with
sand before filling in the permeability moulds. For all these tests, care was
taken to keep the unit weight of sand in the mould as 14.5 kN/m3.
60
Chapter 4
STRENGTH STUDIES ON UNGROUTED
& GROUTED SAND
4.1 Introduction
4.3 Strength improvement on grouting
Contents
4.3.1 Grouted with cement alone

4.3.2 Cement with admixtures
4.3.3 Lime
4.4 Shear strength parameters
4.4.1 Cohesion intercept
4.4.2 Angle of shearing resistance
4.5. 2 Cement with admixtures
4.6 Relation between compressive strength and shear strength
4.1 Introduction
Construction of structures on weak ground often requires the soil to be
improved in order to ensure the safety and the stability of foundations. Ground
improvement in granular soils can be achieved by different methods such as
vibro-flotation, compaction piles, compaction with explosives, excavation and
replacement, reinforced earth, grouting etc. Soil compaction requires intricate
geotechnical competence and careful planning on the part of the design
engineer. The selection of the most suitable method depends on a variety of
factors, such as: soil conditions, required degree of compaction, type of
61
Chapter-4
structures to be supported, maximum depth of compaction as well as site-

specific considerations such as sensitivity of adjacent structures or installations,
available time for completion of the project, competence of the contractor,
availability of equipment and materials etc.
The compaction of soils is intrinsically dependent upon the type and

gradation of soil. Broadly, a well-graded soil compacts better than a uniformly
graded soil and moisture content is also a significant parameter to be considered
(Bement and Selby, 1997). Dynamic compaction can only be used to a
maximum depth of 10m to 20m and will not yield good results when the water
table is at shallow depths (Yilmaz et al. 2008).

Earlier studies have indicated that the relative density of loose sandy
soils can be substantially improved by different methods. Among the different
methods available, vibration technique is reported to be the most effective one.
A question has been raised on how to increase the relative density of

loose sands located within shallow depths. It is an inevitable problem in
dynamic soil improvement methods that vibration induced on the ground
surface tends to loosen the cohesionless soils. Hence alternative methods for
improving the density and strength of loose sand at shallow depths are required.
The effect of grain size of cohesionless soils on its shear strength

characteristics was studied by Chattopadhya and Saha(1981). They found that
as the particle size increases, the angle of shearing resistance also increases at
both constant density and constant relative density. However, the increase of
angle of shearing resistance for constant density is insignificant compared to
that in the case of constant relative density.
62
Strength Studies on Ungrouted & Grouted Sand
Several researchers have conducted analytical and experimental

investigations of soil – tamper interaction and impact response of granular soil.
Forssblad (1965) suggested that the kinematic impact energy can be equated to
the volumetric strain energy in the affected soil mass by integration over the
affected volume. Ellis (1986) reported on dynamic compaction laboratory tests
and crater development in different soils.
Heh (1990) and Poran (1992) have conducted extensive laboratory

model testing programs to investigate the impact response of dry sand. They
found that, beyond the maximum density, additional compaction energy would
be detrimental to both clays and sand as breakdown can occur causing a
decrease in density.
Experiments were conducted in the laboratory in order to assess the

improvement in the load carrying capacity of sand beds on densification. For
this purpose, uniform sand beds with different densities (achieved through
vibration of the predetermined weight of sand) were prepared in tanks- starting
with the loosest state. Load tests were conducted on these beds, the results of
which are discussed here.
Fig. 4.1 shows the load- settlement curves of medium sand compacted at
different densities. At lower unit weights as one would expect, the peak is not
well defined. It can be seen from the figure that the ultimate stress at the loosest
state is only 22.7 kN/m2. At higher unit weights the failure is easily identifiable
by distinct peaks. Maximum compaction yielded a unit weight of 16.2 kN/m3
and the corresponding ultimate stress is 367 kN/m2 which is more than 16 times
the value for the sand at the loosest state. In the loosest state (corresponding to a
dry unit weight of 13.1 kN/m3 and void ratio of 0.98), the angle of shearing
resistance (Ø) is only 270 (Table 4.1) and at the densest state (corresponding to
63
Chapter-4
a dry unit weight of 16.2 kN/m3 and void ratio of 0.61), the Ø value increases to
390. At natural state (corresponding to a dry unit weight of 14.5 kN/m3 and
relative density of 51%), the angle of shearing resistance obtained is 340, the
ultimate stress being 93 kN/m2, which is 4 times more than that at loosest state.
As expected, the ultimate stress steadily increases with increase in density; this
rate of increase being phenomenal beyond a unit weight of 14.5kN/m3.
The load – settlement curves of coarse sand compacted at different unit

weights are given in Fig. 4.2. The plot shows that the ultimate stress at the
loosest state (unit weight 14kN/m3) is only 16.9kN/m2. Here also the ultimate
stress is not well defined, but at higher unit weights it is easily identifiable by
distinct peak at failure. At unit weight of 15.0kN/m3 the ultimate stress is
78kN/m2 and at maximum compaction yielded a unit weight of 16.2kN/m3 and
the corresponding ultimate stress is 301kN/m2.
2
Load intensity (kN/m )
0 100 200 300 400
0
10
Settlement (mm)
Soil: Medium sand

3
15 Unit weight (kN/m )
13.1
13.5
14.0
20
14.5
15.0
16.2
25
Fig.4.1 Load –settlement curves at different unit weights of medium sand
64
2
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
0
5
Settlement (mm)
10
Soil: Coarse sand

15 3
Unit weight (kN/m )
14.0
15.0
20 16.2
25
Fig.4.2 Load – settlement curves at different unit weights of coarse sand
Fig. 4.3 shows the load- settlement curves of fine sand compacted at
different unit weights. The plot shows that upto around a unit weight of 14.0
kN/m3 the failure peak is not well defined. The ultimate stress corresponding to
unit weight of 12.3, 13.0 and 14.0 kN/m3 are 11.0, 44.0 and 125 kN/m2
respectively. At higher compaction (unit weights being 15.0 and 16.2 kN/m3),
the failure is easily identifiable by distinct peaks, the ultimate stress being 658
and 694 kN/m2 respectively.
Fig. 4.4 shows the load – settlement curves of fine, medium and coarse
sand compacted in layers in the mould so that the unit weight is kept constant
i.e., 14.0 kN/m3. At this unit weight the ultimate stress of coarse sand is only
16.9 kN/m2, whereas for medium sand it is 38.3 kN/m2 and for fine sand it is as
high as 125 kN/m2. Eventhough the void ratio of the sand medium is same in all
65
Chapter-4
the three cases, fine sand gave very high value ( 7 times) compared to the
coarse sand.
Fig. 4.5 shows a similar trend of the load – settlement curves of fine,
medium and coarse sand at a unit weight of 15.0 kN/m2. The peak load for coarse,
medium and fine sand are 78, 185 and 658 kN/m2 respectively. But at still higher
unit weights (unit weight of 16.2 kN/m3), the peak load in case of coarse, medium
and fine sand are 301, 367 and 694 kN/m2 respectively (Fig. 4.6).
From the above, it can be concluded that the load carrying capacity of
the sand medium depends not only on the density, but also on the gradation.
Further, the load carrying capacity of finer fractions is always higher compared
to the coarser fraction irrespective of the density. This can be attributed to the
increased contact area between the particles, in case of finer fractions.
2
Load intensity(kN/m )
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0
5
Settlement (mm)
10
Soil: Fine sand

3
15 Unit weight (kN/m )
12.3
13.0
14.0
20
15.0
16.2
25
Fig.4.3 Load – settlement curves at different unit weights of fine sand
66
2
0 50 100 150 200
0
3
Unit weight: 14.0 kN/m
5 Soil
Fine sand
Medium sand
Settlement (mm)
10 Coarse sand
15
20
25
Fig.4.4 Load – settlement curves of sand at different gradations
2
0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
3
Soil
4 Fine sand
Medium sand
Settlement (mm)
Coarse sand
12
16
67
Chapter-4
2
Loading intensity (kN/m )
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0
6
Settlement (mm)
8
3
10 Unit weight: 16.2 kN/m
12 Soil
Fine sand
Medium sand
14 Coarse sand
16
Direct shear tests were conducted on fine, medium and coarse sand
specimens in a shear box apparatus of 60 x 60 x 25 mm to determine the shear
strength parameters at different unit weights. The unit weights at the loosest
state were 12.3 kN/m3 (fine sand), 13.1 kN/m3 (medium sand), 14.0 kN/m3
(coarse sand) and the corresponding Ø values were 230,270 and 340 respectively
(Table 4.1). Similarly the Ø values obtained for fine sand, medium sand and
coarse sand were 27, 34 and 370 respectively, at a unit weight of 14.5 kN/m3.
But in the densest state (unit weight 16.2 kN/m3), all the fractions give the same
value of angle of shearing resistance (390).
The values of safe bearing capacity computed (using Terzaghi’s bearing

capacity equation with a factor of safety of 3) from these Ø values are also
given in Table 4.1. It can be seen that the maximum safe bearing capacity
achieved is only 90.3 kN/m2, which may not be sufficient in the case of
68
multistoried buildings. Further, these methods would be quite expensive in the

field. Hence, studies were initiated to see whether grouting with cement could
be a simpler and economical alternative to this.
Table 4.1 Characteristics of the sand used
In loosest state At natural state In densest state

Sand
Safe bearing capacity (kN/m2)

Unit weight (kN/m3)
Unit weight (kN/m3)

Unit weight (kN/m3)
Ø (degree)
Ø(degree)
Ø (degree)
Fine
12.3 23 11.4 14.5 27 18.3 16.2 39 90.3

Medium
13.1 27 18.3 14.5 34 40.2 16.2 39 90.3

Coarse
14 34 40.3 14.5 37 69.4 16.2 39 90.3
4.3 Strength improvement on grouting

Introduction of a cementing agent into sand produces a material with
two components of strength- that due to the cement itself and that due to
friction. The friction angle of cemented sand is similar to that of uncemented
sands. Density, grain size distribution, grain shapes and grain arrangements all
have a significant effect on the behavior of cemented sand (Clough et.al, 1981)
69
Chapter-4
The groutability of soil depends on the effective-size D10 of soil, cement

particle-size d90, water cement ratio of grout (or viscosity), fine content,
grouting pressure and relative density of the soil. Grouting becomes difficult as
the grain-size of soil decreases. An increase in grouting pressure or the water
cement ratio of grout can increase the groutability of a soil. However, an
increase in water cement ratio of grout decreases the strength of grouted
samples (Akbulut and Saglamer, 2002).
Several experimental studies on reference sand have been devoted to the

increase of the strength due to cement grouting. These works show that the
grouted material remains a frictional one, the strength of which is correctly
modeled by Mohr –Coulomb criterion. Grouting is mainly responsible for the
gain in cohesion by the material and only marginally affects the friction angle
(Maalej et al. 2007).
Direct shear tests were conducted in moulds of size 60 x 60 x 25 mm

(the details given in section 3.4.1) to determine the shear strength of the grouted
soil samples.

To place the grout within the pores of the granular medium, two
methods were adopted. In the first method, the grout was deposited within the
pores by mixing the sand with the required quantity of the grout material
(cement/lime) and soil specimens were prepared in the moulds at desired unit
weights and kept for curing under humid conditions as explained in section
3.3.1. In the second method, previously prepared sand beds were grouted with
different grouting materials using a grout pump similar to the procedure used in
the field.
70
The variation in the shear strength ࣎ with cement content (varying from
2 to 25 % by weight of dry sand) at an initial water content of 10 % is shown in
figure 4.7. As expected, the value of shear strength steadily increases with
increase in cement content. In the case of 2 % cement content, the increase in
shear strength is only 3 % (after 7days of curing) and 24 % (after 28days of
curing) when compared with the shear strength of sand without addition of any
cement. The percentage increase in shear strength at 4, 6 10 & 25 % of cement
contents after the 7 days of curing is 28, 109, 263% and 897% respectively,
whereas the percentage increase is 70 %, 150 %, 322 % & 1300 % in case of
specimens cured for a period of 28 days. The results are as expected –i.e. τ
Value increases with increase in the curing period.
1000
Soil: Medium sand

3
Unit weight of sand: 14.5 kN/m
800 Initial water content: 10 %
2
Normal stress: 100 kN/m
Shear strength (kN/m )
2
Curing period
600 7 days
28 days
400
200
00 5 10 15 20 25
Cement content (%)
Fig. 4.7 Variation of shear strength with cement content
71
Chapter-4
Fig. 4.8 shows the variation in shear strength with cement content for
specimens prepared at an initial water content of 20 % for a normal stress of
100 kN/m2. It can be seen that the shear strength keeps on increasing with
increase in cement content and curing periods. The percentage of increase in
shear strength is from 3 to 528 % for a corresponding increase in cement
content of 2 to 25 % after 7days curing. For the specimens cured for 28 days,
the increase in shear strength is from 14 to 1046 % for the corresponding
cement content of 2 to 25 %.
1000
Soil: Medium sand

3
2
2
Curing period
600 7 days
28 days
400
200
00 5 10 15 20 25
Cement content (%)
The variation in shear strength with cement content at initial water
contents of 10 and 20 % after 28 days of curing are shown in fig 4.9. At
constant cement content, a marginal decrease in shear strength is seen with

increase in initial water content.
72
Fig 4.10 shows the variation of shear strength with initial water content
at a cement content of 4 % after 7 and 28 days of curing. As expected, the shear
strength decreases with increase in initial water content. It is noted that the
shear strength increases upto around 5 % of initial water content and thereafter
a slight decrease in shear strength is seen which is constant upto 25 % of initial
water content. Fig 4.11 shows the effect of water content of the grout on shear
strength for a cement content of 10 %. Here also the increase in strength is upto
around 5 % of the initial water content and beyond that a marginal decrease in
strength with increase in initial water content is seen. It is also noted that as
expected the shear strength increases with curing periods, whereas at 25 % of
initial water content, the shear strength value after 28 days of curing is much
closer to 7 days curing strength.
1000
Soil: Medium sand

3
800 2
Curing period: 28 days
2
Initial water content

600 10 %
20 %
400
200
00 5 10 15 20 25
Cement content (%)
73
Chapter-4
200
Soil: Medium sand
3
unit weight: 14.5 kN/m
Cement content: 4 %
2
150
Curing Period
2
7 days
28 days
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Initial water content (%)
Fig. 4.10 Variation of shear strength with initial water content
400
Soil: Medium sand
3
Unit weight of sand: 14.5 kN/ m
Cement content: 10 %
2
300
Curing Period
7 days
2
28 days
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 4.11 Variation of shear strength with initial water content
74
The variation in shear strength with initial water content for 4 and 10 %
of cement contents after 28 days of curing is shown in fig. 4.12. In both cases,
the maximum value of shear strength is at around 5 % of initial water content.
Eventhough the shear strength decreases with increase in initial water content,
the decrease is more significant at higher percentage of cement content. It may
be noted that the effect of initial water content is more if the cement content is
more.
Fig. 4.13 shows the variation of shear strength for coarse sand with
cement content for specimens prepared at an initial water content of 10 % and
cured for 7 and 28 days. As the cement content increases from 4 to 20 %, the
rate of increase in shear strength is marginal initially (upto around 8%) but
thereafter the rate of increase is phenomenal. The curves also show the
pronounced effect of curing period at higher cement contents.
400
Soil: Medium sand
3
2
300 Cement content
4%
2
10 %
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig.4.12 Variation of shear strength with initial water content
75
Chapter-4
1000
Soil: Coarse sand

3
800 Unit weight of sand: 14.5 kN/m
Initial water content: 10 %
2
2
600 Curing period

7 days
28 days
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20
Cement content ( % )
Fig. 4.13 Variation of shear strength with cement content (Coarse sand)
Fig. 4.14 shows the variation in shear strength with cement content for
specimens prepared using fine sand at an initial water content of 10% and cured
for 7 and 28 days. As in the case of medium and coarse sand, the shear strength
of fine sand is also seen increasing with the percentage of cement content. As
the percentage of cement content increases from 2 to 25%, the corresponding
increase of shear strength is from 0.4 to 10.3 times that of fine sand without
cement content. Here also the rate of increase in shear strength is very high at
higher percentages of cement content. A marginal increase of shear strength
due to the effect of curing is shown in the figure.
The effect of initial water content on shear strength of fine sand, at

normal stress of 100 kN/m2 and grouted with a cement content of 10% is shown
in the fig. 4.15. The plots show that upto and around 15% of initial water
content the shear strength increases, thereafter a reduction in shear strength is
76
seen with increase of initial water content. It is thus seen that there is an
optimum initial water content at which the shear strength is maximum. Fig.
4.16 shows the effect of cement content on shear strength of grouted medium
for different gradation of sand such as fine, medium and coarse sand fractions.
Eventhough the value of shear strength increases with cement content, the
influence of grain size on τ is significant. At lower cement contents, its
influence is marginal. Eventhough medium sand specimens give higher τ than
coarse sand specimens at lower cement contents; the coarse sand specimens
register higher strength as the cement content increases.
The variations in shear strength τ with cement content at different

normal stresses are shown in figures 4.17, 4.18, 4.19 and 4.20. As one would
expect, the shear strength increases with increase in normal pressure. The rate
750
Soil: Fine sand
3
Unit weight of sand:14.5 kN/m
2
Shear strength (kN/M )
2
500 Curing period:

7 days
28 days
250
00 5 10 15 20 25
Cement content ( % )
Fig. 4.14 Variation of shear strength with cement content (Fine sand)
77
Chapter-4
Shear strength (kN/m ) 250
200
2
Soil: Fine sand

3
Unit weight of sand: 14.5kN/m
150 Cement content: 10 %
2
Curing period:
7 days
28 days
100
0 5 10 15 20 25
Initial water content ( % )
Fig. 4.15 Variation of shear strength with initial water content (Fine sand)
1000
2
800 Curing period: 28 days
3
2
Soil:
600
Fine sand
Medium sand
Coarse sand
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement content (%)
Fig. 4.16 Variation of shear strength with cement content for different gradation
78
1200
Soil: Medium sand

1000 Initial water content:10 %
3
2
800 2
Normal stress (kN/m )
50
600 100
150
200
400
200
00 5 10 15 20 25
Cement content (%)
Fig.4.17 Variation of shear strength with cement content at different normal stresses
1200
Soil: Medium sand
1000 Curing period: 28 days
3
2
2
800 50
100
150
600 200
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement content (%)
79
Chapter-4
1250
Soil: Coarse sand
3
2
2
750 Normal stress (kN/m )
50
100
150
500 200
250
0
0 5 10 15 20
Cement Content: ( % )
1000
Soil: Fine sand
3
2
2
600 50
100
150
200
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement content (%)
80
of increase is very high at higher percentage of cement content than at lower

percentage of cement content for all cases of sand fractions.
The effect of initial water content on shear strength, at different normal

stresses of 50, 100, 150, 200 kN/m2 and grouted with a cement content of 4 &
10% are shown in figs. 4.21 & 4.22 respectively. Here also as one would
expect, the shear strength increases with increase in normal pressure.
Figures 4.23, 4.24 & 4.25 show typical plots showing the relation
between shear stress and shear strain. It can be noticed from the figures, that the
stress–strain response exhibit a linear relationship prior to the peak, for all
cement contents. As expected, the value of shear strength steadily increases
with increase in cement content. Figure 4.25 shows the influence of the initial
water content of the specimens on stress–strain response.
250 Soil: Medium sand

Cement content: 4 %
2
50 150
200
100 200
2
150
100
50
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig.4.21 Variation of shear strength with initial water content at different normal
stresses
81
Chapter-4
500
400
2
300
200
Soil: Medium Sand
100 2
50 150
100 200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig.4.22 Variation of shear strength with initial water content at different normal
stresses

3
Unit weight: 14.5 kN/ m
2
700 Normal stress: 100 kN/m
600 Cement content
0 %
Shear Stress (kN/m )
2
2 %
500 4 %
6%
8%
400 10 %
15 %
20 %
300
200
100
00 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Shear Strain (%)
Fig. 4.23 Shear stress- shear strain curves
82
800
Soil: Medium sand

3
700 Unit weight: 14.5 kN/ m
2
Cement content
2
0 %
500 2 %
4 %
6%
400 8%
10 %
15 %
300
20 %
200
100
00 2 4 6 8 10 12
Shear Strain (%)
400
Soil: Medium sand
3
2
300 Initial water content
0%
2
5 %
10 %
20 %
200
100
00 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Shear Strain (%)
83
Chapter-4
Certain admixtures are used along with cement for improving the
properties of grouts such as viscosity and stability (Lovely 1998). But no study
has been reported on how these admixtures will affect the strength of the
cement grouts. Various admixtures such as calcium chloride and sodium silicate
(accelerators), triethanolamine and tartaric acid (retarders), aluminium powder
(expander), detergent (fluidizer), and aluminium sulphate and bentonite
(antibleeders) are used in the present study.
The effect of Calcium chloride on shear strength of cement grouted

medium having curing periods of 7 & 28 days are presented in fig.4.26. A slight
reduction in the shear strength is noted at around 1% of CaCl2, but further
increase in percentage of the salt will cause an increase in shear strength. Fig.
4.27 shows the variation of shear strength with percentage of sodium silicate
which is also an accelerator, in cement-grouted soils. It can be seen from the
figure that addition of sodium silicate causes initially a reduction in shear
strength of the cement grouted soil. Considering the improvement in properties
like viscosity and stability (as reported by Lovely et al. 2000), and the early
setting of the grout, this reduction in strength (to the tune of only 10% to 20%)
is within the tolerable limits.
Fig. 4.28 shows the effect of sodium silicate/ calcium chloride content
on shear strength of cement grouted medium sand after a curing period of 28
days. It can be seen that among the accelerators, the performance of calcium
chloride is better than sodium silicate with regard to shear strength.
84
Soil: Medium sand

3
300 Cement content : 10 %
2
Normal stress kN/m
Curing period
2
7 days
28 days
250
200
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
% of Calcium chloride
Fig. 4.26 Effect of Calcium chloride content on Shear strength of cement grouted
Medium Sand
300
250
2
Soil: Medium sand

3
Cement content : 10 %
2
200 Normal stress: 100 kN/m
Curing period
7 days
28 days
150
0 1 2 3
% of Sodium Scilicate
Fig. 4.27 Effect of Sodium silicate content on Shear strength of cement grouted
Medium Sand
85
Chapter-4
350
Soil: Medium sand
3
2
300 Curing period:28 days
2
Sodium Silicate
Calcium Chloride
250
200
0 1 2 3
% of Calcium chloride / Sodium silicate
Fig. 4.28 Effect of Sodium silicate / Calcium chloride content on Shear strength of cement
grouted Medium Sand
Fig. 4.29 shows the effect of percentage of tartaric acid on the shear
strength of sand grouted with cement. At smaller percentage (upto around
0.15%), the value of shear strength is found to decrease, but thereafter it
increases and almost reaches the initial value. The variation of shear strength
with the addition of triethanolamine which is also a retarder along with cement
is shown in figure 4.30. Eventhough the shear strength increases at lower
percentage of salt content, a marginal reduction is noticed as the percentage of
salt increases.
Fig.4.31 shows the effect of both these retarders on shear strength of

cement grouted medium sand. It can be seen that triethanolamine gives much
higher shear strength even at lower percentages and hence can be considered as
a better retarder compared to tartaric acid.
86
The effect of detergent on shear strength of cement grouted sandy soils

cured for 7 & 28 days are presented in fig. 4.32. The optimum dosage of this
salt as a fluidiser is 0.05 percent, as recommended by Shroff and Shah (1992).
The present study also indicates that the shear strength increases upto an
optimum dosage of 0.05%, thereafter the value of shear strength is found to
decrease with increase in salt content.
Fig. 4.33 shows the effect of aluminium powder (used as expander) on

shear strength of grouted medium sand for a cement content of 10%. The
optimum dosage of this salt as expander is below 0.02 percent, as recommended
by Littlejohn (1982). At lower percentage of this additive (0.005%) a sudden
increase in shear strength is noticed, but as the percentage increases, there is a
slight reduction in shear strength, which is still higher than the original value.
The present study indicated that the use of optimum dosage of this salt
increases the shear strength of the grouted sand.
300
250
2
Soil: Medium sand

3

2
150
Curing period
7 days
28 days
100
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
% of Tartaric Acid
Fig. 4.29 Effect of Tartaric acid content on Shear strength of cement grouted Medium
Sand
87
Chapter-4
350
300
250
2
200
Soil: Medium sand

3
2
Normal Stress : 100 kN/m
Curing period
50 7 days
28 days
0 2 4 6 8 10
% of Triethanolamine
Fig. 4.30 Effect of Triethanolamine content on Shear strength of cement grouted
Medium Sand
350
300
2
Soil: Medium sand

3
250
2
200
Tartaric acid
Triethnolamine
150
0 2 4 6 8 10
% of Retarder
Fig. 4.31 Effect of retarder on Shear strength of cement grouted Medium Sand
88
300
2
250
Soil: Medium sand

3
2
Curing period
7 days
28 days
200
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
% of Detergent
Fig. 4.32 Effect of detergent content on Shear strength of cement grouted Medium Sand
350
2
300
Soil: Medium sand

3
2
250 Normal stress : 100kN/m
Curing period
7 days
28 days
200
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
% of Aluminium powder
Fig. 4.33 Effect of Aluminium powder content on Shear strength of cement grouted Medium
Sand
89
Chapter-4
The effect of percentage of aluminium sulphate on shear strength of

cement grouted medium sand specimens cured for 7 and 28 days are presented
in fig. 4.34. The results of tests on specimens cured for 7 days indicated a
marginal reduction in shear strength compared to the original value. But as the
curing period increases (28 days), the shear strength is found to increase with
increase in percentage of this salt with a slight reduction noticed at around 2 %
of this salt content.
The effect of bentonite on shear strength of cement grouted sand at an

initial water content of 10 % having curing periods of 7 & 28 days are
presented in fig. 4.35. There is a reduction in shear strength of approx 10 to 15
% with the addition of bentonite to the cement grout after 7 & 28 days of
curing. Fig. 4.36 shows the variation in shear strength with percentage of
bentonite having an initial water content of 20 %, and cured for 7 & 28 days. In
this case, the reduction in shear strength is approx 15 to 30 %, which is more
compared to the 10 to 15 % than the 10 % of initial water content. Hence proper
control over the initial water content of the grout is essential in order to
ascertain the required strength. It may be further seen that the increase in shear
strength due to curing from 7 days to 28days is almost the same irrespective of
% of bentonite
Figure 4.37 shows the variation of shear strength when different

percentages of these antibleeders are used along with cement grout. In the case
of aluminium sulphate, eventhough there is slight decrease in strength initially,
as the percentage increases, the shear strength increases, even exceeding the
original value. But in the case of bentonite, there is a reduction in shear strength
(approx 15 %) irrespective of the percentage of bentonite added to the cement
grout.
90
350
Soil: Medium sand
3
2
300
2
Curing period:
7 days
28 days
250
200
0 2 4 6 8 10
% of Aluminium Sulphate
Fig. 4.34 Effect of Aluminium sulphate content on Shear strength of cement grouted
Medium Sand
300
Soil: Medium sand
3
2
2
Curing period
7 days
250 28 days
225
200
0 2 4 6 8 10
% of Bentonite
Fig. 4.35 Effect of Bentonite content on Shear strength of cement grouted Medium Sand
91
Chapter-4
250
3
Soil: Medium sand Unit weight of sand: 14.5 kN/ m
Initial water content: 20 % Cement content : 10 %
2
Curing period
200 7 days
28 days
2
150
100
50
0 2 4 6 8 10
% of Bentonite
Fig. 4.36 Effect of Bentonite content on Shear strength of cement grouted Medium Sand
350
Soil: Medium sand
3
2
2
300
Aluminium Sulphate
Bentonite
250
0 2 4 6 8 10
% of Antibleeder
Fig. 4.37 Effect of Antibleeder on Shear strength of cement grouted Medium Sand
92
4.3.3 Lime
Little and Yusuf (2001) found that the unconfined compressive strength
of soil specimens stabilised with lime increases with lime content.
The variation in shear strength with lime content (varying from 6 to 25%
by weight of dry sand) in lime grouted medium sand having an initial water
content of 10% is shown in figure 4.38. As expected, the shear strength
increases with increase in lime content. The figure also shows the influence of
curing periods of the specimen on the shear strength value. Fig. 4.39 shows the
variation in shear strength with lime content in lime grouted medium sand at
initial water content of 20%. Here also a similar trend is seen. Fig. 4.40 shows
the effect of lime on shear strength of lime grouted sand having curing periods
of 28 days. The figure also shows the influence of the initial water content (in
other words the lime /water ratio of the grout) of the specimen on the shear
strength value. Fig. 4.41 shows the effect of bentonite content with shear
strength of sand grouted with 10% lime having an initial water content of 10%.
Shear strength initially decreases and then increases to initial value at 10%
bentonite content. Bentonite does not show any significant effect of increase in
shear strength especially when the curing period is 28 days.
Fig. 4.42 shows variation of shear strength with cement/ lime content
having initial water content of 10%, after a curing period of 28 days. It can be
seen that the shear strength significantly increases with increase in percentage
of cement content where as lime content does not have much effect on the shear
strength values. Fig. 4.43 also shows variation of shear strength with cement/
lime content having an initial water content of 20%, after a curing period of 28
days. This also shows tremendous effect of cement content, compared to lime in
improving the shear strength of loose sandy soils.
93
Chapter-4
130

3
110
2
Curing period
7 days
100
28 days
90
80
70
60
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Lime content (%)
Fig. 4.38 Variation of shear strength with lime content
130

3
110
2
Curing period
7 days
100
28 days
90
80
70
60
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Lime content (%)
94
130

3
110
2

10 %
100
20 %
90
80
70
60
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Lime content (%)
100
Soil: Medium sand

3
90 Lime content : 10 %
2
Curing period
7 days
80 28 days
70
60
0 2 4 6 8 10
Bentonite content (%)
Fig. 4.41 Variation of shear strength with bentonite content on lime grouted sand
95
Chapter-4
1000
Soil: Medium sand

3
800 2
Initial water content :10 %

2
600 Cement
Lime
400
200
00 5 10 15 20 25
Cement/ Lime content (%)
Fig.4.42 Variation of shear strength with cement / lime content
1000
Soil: Medium sand

3
Unit weight of sand : 14.5 kN/m
800 2
Initial water content : 20 %

2
600 Cement
Lime
400
200
00 5 10 15 20 25
Cement / Lime content (%)
Fig.4.43 Variation of shear strength with cement / lime content
96

Cement grouting can be profitably used for strengthening foundation
beds. The shear strength parameters, c & Ø, shows phenomenal increase when
grouted with cement. The cement-water ratio of the grout acts as a key
parameter in the control of strength gain of sandy soils, increasing amounts of
cementation in granular soil increasing cohesion and tensile strength as well as
increasing friction angle at low confining pressures (Lade and Overton, 1989).
Generally, the strength of the soil is estimated by Mohr- Coulomb’s

failure criterion. It is generally accepted that grouting effectively increases the
compressive strength of the sand by filling the voids and by imparting a
cohesion or adhesion factor, yet the grout contribution cannot simply be added
to the sand strength (Ata and Vipulanandan 1999).
4.4.1 Cohesion intercept
The cohesion intercept linearly varies with cement content, the

magnitude of the cohesion gained by grouting and also the friction angle is a
slightly increasing function of cement content (Maalej et al. 2007).
4.4.1.1 Grouted with cement alone
The variation in the shear strength parameter c with cement content

(varying from 2 to 25% by weight of dry sand) is given in fig 4.44. As
expected, the value of c steadily increases with increase in cement content. The
cohesion intercept at 2% of cement content is 10 kN/m2, which increases to 145
kN/m2 at 10% of cement and at 25% cement it becomes 690 kN/m2. The effect
of curing period is more significant at higher percentages of cement content
than at lower percentages.
97
Chapter-4
Fig.4.45 shows the variation of cohesion intercept with cement content

having an initial water content of 20%. The results are as expected - c value
increases with increase in cement content. Fig.4.46 shows the variation of
cohesion intercept with cement content for a curing period of 28 days. The
figure shows the influence of the initial water content on cohesion intercept. As
one would expect, the cohesion intercept decreases with increase in the initial
water content. As the water content increases from 10 to 20%, the c value
reduces to around 50 %, whereas at 25% cement it reduces to around 25%.
Figs.4.47, 4.48 & 4.49 show the influence of the initial water content
(i.w.c) and curing periods on the cohesion intercept of grouted medium. The
results show that c initially increases upto an i.w.c of 5% and then decreases
with increase in i.w.c, both for 4% and 10% cement content. The results are as
one would expect- the cohesion intercepts decrease with the increase in i.w.c,
but the value increases with increase in the curing period. It is to be noted that
there is an optimum initial water content at which cohesion intercept is
maximum and this happens to be around 7%.
Figs. 4.50 and 4.51 shows the variation of cohesion intercept with
cement content in case of coarse sand and fine sand having an i.w.c of 10%. It
can be seen from the figures that in both the cases, the c value increases with
increase in cement content and also with increase in curing periods.
98
700
Soil: Medium Sand
3
Cohesion intercept (kN/m )
2
500 Curing period

7 days
28 days
400
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement content (%)
Fig. 4.44 Variation of cohesion intercept with cement content
600
Soil: Medium Sand

500 Unit weight of sand: 14.5 kN/ m
3

2
400 Curing period

7 days
28 days
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement content (%)
99
Chapter-4
700
Soil: Medium Sand
3
2
500 Initial water content

10 %
400 20 %
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement content (%)
50
45
Soil: Medium Sand
3
Cement content: 4 %
35
2
Curing period
30
7 days
28 days
25
20
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 4.47 Variation of cohesion intercept with water content
100
200
180
160
2
140
120
100
80 Soil: Medium Sand

3
40 Curing period
7 days
20 28 days
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
200
Soil: Medium sand
3
160
Cement content
2
4%
10 %
120
80
40
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
101
Chapter-4
800
Soil: Coarse sand

3
2
Curing period:
7 days
400 28 days
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement Content: ( % )
Fig. 4.50 Variation of cohesion intercept with cement content (coarse sand)
500
Soil: Fine Sand

400 3
2
300 Curing period

7 days
28 days
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement Content ( % )
Fig. 4.51 Variation of cohesion intercept with cement content (fine sand)
102
Fig. 4.52 shows the variation of cohesion intercept with initial water
content for fine sand having a cement content of 10%. It is clear from the figure
that the c value increases upto an i.w.c. of around 15% and then decreases with
further increase in water content.
The variation of the shear strength parameter c with cement content for
specimens made of medium, coarse and fine sand fractions are shown in figures
4.53. It can be seen that the value of c steadily increases with increase in cement
content. It can also be seen from the figure that there is not much variation in c
value upto cement content of 10%, the rate of increase of c value is substantial
with increase in particle size at higher cement contents.
130
Soil: Fine Sand
3
Unit weight : 14.5 kN/ m
120 Cement Content: 10 %
Curing period:
2
110 7 days
28 days
100
90
80
70
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 4.52 Variation of cohesion intercept with initial water content (fine sand)
103
Chapter-4
700
600 Curing Period : 28 days

Water Content : 10%
3
2
Fine Sand
400 Medium Sand
Coarse Sand
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement Content (%)
4.53 Variation of cohesion intercept with cement content and gradation of sand
4.4.1.2 Cement with admixtures
The effect of calcium chloride (used as accelerator) on shear strength

parameter c of cement grouted medium having curing periods of 7 & 28 days
are presented in fig.4.54. A slight reduction in the c value is noted at around 1%
of CaCl2, but further increase in percentage of the salt will cause an increase in
c value.
Fig. 4.55 shows the variation of cohesion intercept with the percentage
of sodium silicate added to the cement grout. Addition of this salt causes slight
reduction in c value after 7days curing. Eventhough the value of cohesion
intercept decreases by a very small percentage (approx. 0.5%) after curing of 28
days, it then increases and attains the original value of cohesion intercept
without the addition of any admixture.
104
240
Soil: Medium sand
3
200 Initial water content: 10%
Curing period
2
180
7 days
28 days
160
140
120
100
80
60
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Calcium chloride content (%)
Fig. 4.54 Variation of cohesion intercept with percentage of calcium chloride
150
120
Soil: Medium sand
2
3
Initial water content: 10%
90
Curing period
7 days
28 days
60
30
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Sodium silicate content (%)
Fig. 4.55 Variation of cohesion intercept with percentage of sodium silicate
105
Chapter-4
Figure 4.56 shows the variation of cohesion intercept when different

percentages of these accelerators are used along with cement grout. When
sodium silicate is used, eventhough there is slight decrease in c value initially,
as the percentage increases, the c value increases and attains the original value.
But in the case of calcium chloride, eventhough there is a slight reduction in c
value initially (approx 1%) it increases with increase in percentage of calcium
chloride added to the cement grout.
The effect of tartaric acid on cohesion intercept is shown fig.4.57. It can

be seen that, the cohesion intercept decreases drastically with increase in
percentage of tartaric acid in the case of grouted specimens cured for 7 days,
whereas for specimens cured for 28 days, the cohesion intercept initially
decreases and then increases and even overtakes the initial value with increase
in the percentage of tartaric acid. Hence one has to be careful in selecting the
dosage when tartaric acid is used as retarder.
Soil: Medium sand

220 3
200
2
Curing period
180
Sodium silicate
Calcium chloride
160
140
120
100
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

% of accelerator
Fig. 4.56 Variation of cohesion intercept with percentage of Accelerators
106
150
120
2
90
Soil: Medium sand

3
60
Initial water content : 10%
Curing period
30 7 days
28 days
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Tartaric acid content (%)
Fig. 4.57 Variation of cohesion intercept with percentage of tartaric acid
The variation of cohesion intercept with percentage of triethanolamine is

presented in fig. 4.58. Eventhough there is considerable reduction in the
cohesion intercept with increase in percentage of the salt on 7 days of curing,
there is an initial increase in cohesion intercept (at around 2%) and as the
percentage of the salt increases there is a marginal reduction in cohesion
intercept, but not below the original value.
Fig. 4.59 shows the variation of cohesion intercept with the different
percentage of retarders when used along with cement grout. It can be seen that
there is no reduction in strength when the optimum dosage with respect to
viscosity reported in literature (tartaric acid- 0.05 % and triethanolamine 2 to 10
%) of the retarder is used.
Fig. 4.60 shows the effect of detergent (used as fluidiser) on cohesion

intercept of cement grouted sand cured for 7 & 28 days. Eventhough the
107
Chapter-4
cohesion intercept remains almost constant with percentage of detergent in case

of specimens cured for 7 days, there is marginal reduction for specimens cured
for 28 days. Here also one has to be selecting the optimum dosage of the
detergent.
Fig. 4.61 shows the effect of aluminium powder (expander) on cohesion

intercept of the grouted medium for a cement content of 10%. From the figure,
it is clear that, as far as the strength is concerned there is an optimum dosage
(0.005 %) irrespective of the curing period. Further, detergent percentage will
not adversely affect the strength of the cement grouted medium as seen from the
graph for a curing period of 28 days.
240
200
160
2
Soil: Medium sand

3
Cement content:10 %
80
Curing period
7 days
28 days
40
0 2 4 6 8 10
Triethanolamine content (%)
Fig. 4.58 Variation of cohesion intercept with percentage of triethanolamine
108
240
200
2
160
Soil: Medium sand

3
Cement content:10 %
80
Tartaric acid
Trienthanolamine
40
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Amount of retarder (%)
Fig. 4.59 Variation of cohesion intercept with percentage of retarders
160
140
2
120
Soil: Medium sand
3
Cement content:10 %
100
Curing period
7 days
28 days
80
0.000 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125
Detergent content (%)
Fig. 4.60 Variation of cohesion intercept with percentage of detergent
109
Chapter-4
200
160
2
120
Soil: Medium sand
3
Cement content:10 %
80 Curing period
7 days
28 days
40
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.02
Aluminium powder content (%)
Fig. 4.61 Variation of cohesion intercept with percentage of aluminium powder
Fig. 4.62 shows the variation of cohesion intercept with percentage of

aluminium sulphate (used as antibleeder) in the cement grout. Eventhough there
is a marginal decrease in cohesion initially (at around 2%), increase in
percentage of aluminium sulphate increases the cohesion intercept. The plot
also shows the effect of curing, which is significant in the case of aluminium
sulphate.
Fig. 4.63 shows the variation of cohesion intercept with bentonite

content in the cement grout, the initial water content of the sand- cement-
bentonite mixture being 10%. Eventhough there is a slight improvement in
cohesion intercept after an initial reduction for specimens cured for 7 days; it
goes on decreasing with bentonite content in case of specimens cured for 28
days.
110
180
Soil: Medium sand

3
2
Curing period
7 days
28 days
140
120
100
0 2 4 6 8 10
Aluminium sulphate content (%)
Fig. 4.62 Variation of cohesion intercept with percentage of aluminium sulphate
Soil: Medium sand

3
2
Curing period
7 days
28 days
120
100
0 2 4 6 8 10
Fig. 4.63 Variation of cohesion intercept with bentonite content
111
Chapter-4
Fig. 4.64 also shows the effect of bentonite on cohesion intercept of the
grouted medium for a cement content of 10% , the initial water content being
20%, cured after 28 days. The effect of bentonite is initially to increase in
cohesion (at 2%) around 32%, whereas when the percentage of bentonite
increases, decrease in cohesion is around 30%. Eventhough the variation is
similar as the above case for specimens cured for 7 days, there is not much
reduction in the cohesion intercept in case of specimens cured for 28 days.
A comparison between the effects of these two antibleeders ie,

aluminium sulphate and bentonite on the cohesion intercept is given in Fig.
4.65. The effect of aluminium sulphate is to increase the cohesion whereas
addition of bentonite causes a reduction in the value of cohesion.
Soil: Medium sand

100 3
80
Curing period
2
7 days
28 days
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
112
180
160
2

3
unit weight of sand: 14.5 kN/m
Cement content:10 %
Aluminium Sulphate
100 Bentonite
80
0 2 4 6 8 10
% of Antibleeder
Fig. 4.65 Variation of cohesion intercept with percentage of antibleeders
4.4.1.3 Lime
The variation of cohesion intercept with lime content incase of

specimens prepared at an initial water content of 10 % is presented in fig. 4.66.
It can be seen that cohesion increases with increase of lime content. The
marginal increase in cohesion during curing is also shown in the figure. Fig.
4.67 shows the variation of cohesion intercept with lime content having an
initial water content of 20%. At lower percentages of lime content (upto 8%),
no significance in cohesion intercept is seen. The effect of initial water content
on cohesion intercept is shown in fig. 4.68. It can be seen that the cohesion
intercept decreases with increase in initial water content.
113
Chapter-4

3
Unit weight of sand :14.5 kN/m
40
Curing period
2
7 days
28 days
30
20
10
0
0 4 8 12 16 20
Lime content (%)
Fig. 4.66 Variation of cohesion intercept with lime content
40
Soil: Medium sand
3
Unit weight :14.5 kN/m
2
30
Curing period
28 days
7 days
20
10
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Lime content (%)
114
50
Soil: Medium sand
3
40
2

10 %
20 %
30
20
10
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Lime content (%)
Fig. 4.69 shows the variation of cohesion intercept with percentage of

bentonite, grouted with 10% lime having an initial water content of 10%. After
an initial reduction, the cohesion intercept goes on increasing with increase in
bentonite content. The effect of the two suspension grout materials i.e. cement
and lime on the cohesion intercept is presented in Figs. 4.70 and 4.71. The
superiority of cement compound to lime as a grout material irrespective of the
initial water content is quite clear from these figures.
115
Chapter-4
30
Soil: Medium sand
3
2
Lime Content :10 %
20 Curing period
7 days
28 days
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
800

3
600
Curing period : 28 days

2
500 Cement
Lime
400
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fig. 4.70 Variation of cohesion intercepts with cement / lime content
116
600
Soil: Medium sand

500 unit weight of sand: 14.5 kN/m
3

2

400
Cement
Lime
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 4.71 Variation of cohesion intercepts with cement / lime content
4.4.2 Angle of shearing resistance
The contributions of inter-particle friction and particle interlocking to the

behaviour are relatively more important at high unit weights, and the contribution
of the cementation is relatively more important at low unit weights. (Huang, and
Airey, 1998). Grouting is mainly responsible for the gain in cohesion by the
material and only marginally affects the friction angle. The increase in angle of
friction is negligible with respect to cohesion (Maalej et al. 2007).
4.4.2.1 Grouted with cement alone
Fig. 4.72 shows the variation in the shear strength parameter Ø with
cement content. Eventhough the Ø value increases with increase in cement
content, the rate decreases beyond a certain value of cement content (approx.
15%). The Ø at 4% of cement content is 40 degrees, and increases to 50 degrees
at 8% of cement and at 25% cement it becomes 68 degrees. Fig. 4.73 also
117
Chapter-4
shows the variation in the shear strength parameter Ø with cement content
having an initial water content of 20%. The Ø value increases with cement
content, but beyond 15% of cement content the rate of increase is marginal.
Another interesting observation is that the value of Ø increases with

increase in water content, which is not in line with the variation of c value,
which is clearer from the subsequent figure 4.74.
Figs. 4.75 & 4.76 show the effect of the initial water content and curing
periods on the Ø value of grouted medium. The shear strength parameter Ø
increases with curing periods and increases with i.w.c. Fig. 4.77 shows the
variation of Ø with initial water content. It can be seen that the variation of Ø
increases with increase in i.w.c and % of cement content.
70
65
Angle of shearing resistance (degrees)
60
55

3
40 Curing period
7 days
35 28 days
30
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Cement content (%)
Fig.4.72 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with cement content
118
75
70
Angle of internal friction (degrees)
65
60
55
Soil :Medium sand
3
Water content :20 %

45
Curing Period
40 7 days
28 days
35
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement Content (%)
Fig. 4.73 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with cement content
75
70
65
60
55
Soil: Medium sand
50 Unit weight of sand: 14.5kN/m
3

45
Initial water content:
40 10 %
20 %
35
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement content (%)
119
Chapter-4
48
Soil: Medium sand
46 3

Cement content: 4 %
44
Curing period
42 7 days
28 days
40
38
36
34
32
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 4.75 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with water content
60
55
50

3
Curing period
35 7 days
28 days
30
25
20
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig.4.76 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with water content
120
60
55
50
45
40
Soil: Medium sand
3
30 Cement content
4%
25 10 %
20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fig. 4.77 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with water content
The effect of cement content on Ø-value of cement grouted coarse sand
is presented in fig. 4.78. In the case of specimens cured for 7 days, the increase
in Ø-value is linear with increase in cement content. But in specimens cured for
28 days eventhough the linear increase in Ø-value is marginal with cement
content upto a certain cement content (approx. 15%), the rate of increase is
marginal thereafter.
The variation in Ø-value with cement content of fine sand is shown in
fig. 4.79. Here also the Ø-value increases with increase in cement content and
curing periods.
Fig. 4.80 shows the effect of the initial water content and curing periods
on the Ø- value of cement grouted fine sand. The Ø- value increases upto an
121
Chapter-4
initial water content of 10-15% and further increase of water content decreases
the Ø- value. These curves are similar to the compaction curve for soils i.e.,
there is an optimum value of initial water content of the grout with regard to the
value of angle of shearing resistance.
Fig. 4.81 shows the variation of angle of shearing resistance with cement
content for various gradations of the grouting medium. As expected, the Ø-

value increases with gradation of sand and cement content.
70
65
60
55
50 Soil: Coarse sand

3
45
Curing period
40 7 days
28 days
35 0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 4.78 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with cement content (coarse sand)
122
70
Soil: Fine Sand

3
Curing period:
7 days
28 days
50
40
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 4.79 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with cement content (fine sand)
55
50
45
40 Soil : Fine sand

3
35
Curing period:
7 days
28 days
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 4.80 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with initial water content (fine sand)
123
Chapter-4
70
65
60
55

50
Water content: 10%
3
45
Soil:
40 Fine Sand
Medium Sand
Coarse Sand
35
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement Content (%)
4.4.2.2 Cement with admixtures

Fig. 4.82 shows the variation of Ø- value with percentage of calcium
chloride (used as accelerator). It can be seen that after a marginal initial
increase (at around 1% ), the Ø- value decreases in the case of specimens cured
for 7 days whereas in the case of specimens cured for 28 days, the value
continuously decreases with increase in the calcium chloride content.
Eventhough there is a decrease in angle of shearing resistance, the greater
increase in cohesion intercept results in increased shear strength.
Fig. 4.83 shows the variation of Ø- value with percentage of sodium
silicate which is also used as an accelerator. In this case also there is a reduction
in Ø- value with increase in the percentage of sodium silicate. It can be seen
from the figure that, at higher percentages of the salt, the curing period does not
have much effect on the Ø- value.
124
56
54
52
Soil: Medium sand

3
48 Curing period
7 days
28 days
460.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Fig.4.82 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with percentage of calcium chloride
55
Soil: Medium sand
3
Curing period
52 7 days
28 days
51
50
49
48
47
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Sodium silicate content (% )
Fig.4.83 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with percentage of sodium silicate
125
Chapter-4
The variation of Ø- value with percentage of accelerator is shown in fig.

4.84. In both cases, Ø- value decreases with the increase in percentage of the
salt. The reduction in Ø- value is more, with the addition of Calcium Chloride
compared to Sodium Silicate.
But these small reductions in Ø- value is compensated by the increase in

the cohesion intercept which is reflected on the shear strength values.
Fig. 4.85 shows the variations of Ø- value with percentage of tartaric

acid, which is used as retarder. The angle of shearing resistance remains almost
constant initially, but there is marginal decrease in the value with increase in the
percentage of tartaric acid specimens cured for 28 days.
The effect of triethanolamine (also used as retarder) on Ø- value is
presented in fig. 4.86. The marginal reduction in angle of shearing resistance is
compensated by the increase in cohesion intercept and it can be concluded that
this admixture will also cause no reduction in shear strength.
56
Soil: Medium sand

3

curing period:28 days
52 Sodium silicate
Calcium chloride
50
48
460.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

% of Accelerator
Fig.4.84 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with percentage of accelerator
126
55
54
53
Soil: Medium sand
3
51 Curing period:
7 days
28 days
50
49
48
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Tartaric acid content (% )
Fig.4.85 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with percentage of tartaric acid
55
(degrees)
50
Soil: Medium sand
Angle of shearing resistance
3
45 curing period
7 days
28 days
40
0 2 4 6 8 10
Fig.4.86 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with percentage of triethanolamine
127
Chapter-4
Fig. 4.87 gives a comparison between the two retarders- its effect on the
Ø- value. Even the addition of very small percentage of tartaric acid (around
0.5%) brings down the Ø- value by 10%, the same amount of reduction is
experienced only at high percentages (8 to 10%) of triethanolamine. Hence one
has to be very careful in the use of tartaric acid as a retarder along with cement
grouts.
Fig. 4.88 shows the effect of percentage of detergent on Ø- value of

cement grouted sand. The Ø- value increases upto 0.05% of detergent, whereas
further increase of this admixture, decreases in the Ø- value of cement grouted
sand. It can also be seen that the curing periods has very little effect on the Ø-
value, the trend remaining the same.
55
Soil: Medium sand


3
53 curing period: 28 days
Tartaric acid
52 Triethanolamine
51
50
49
0 2 4 6 8 10
% of Retarder
Fig.4.87 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with retarder
128
58
56
54

3
Curing period
48 7 days
28 days
46
0.000 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.12
% of Detergent
Fig.4.88 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with detergent
Fig. 4.89 shows the variation of Ø- value with percentage of Aluminium
powder (which is used as expander) in cement grouted sand. Eventhough there
is a slight decrease in Ø- value initially, it increases with 4% of the salt in case
of specimens cured for period of 7 days. But in the case of specimens cured for
28 days, after an initial increase, the Ø- value remains more or less constant
irrespective of the increase in the dosage. It is interesting to see that unlike other
admixtures, the addition of aluminium powder increases the Ø- value of the

grouted medium.
129
Chapter-4
58

3
Curing period
7 days
52 28 days
50
48
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025

% of Aluminium powder
Fig.4.89 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with percentage of aluminium powder
Fig. 4.90 shows the variation of Ø- value with percentage of bentonite
(antibleeder) used along with cement grouts. The test specimens were prepared
at an initial water content of 10% and tested after curing for 7 and 28 days.
Eventhough the Ø- value goes on reducing with percentage of bentonite in case
of specimens cured for 7 days, it shows an increasing trend in case of
specimens cured for 28 days. When the initial water content is increased to 20%
there is a reduction in Ø- value for bentonite contents up to around 4%. But

thereafter the Ø- value gradually increases as can be seen from Fig. 4.91.
Fig.4.92 shows the variation in Ø- value with percentage of aluminium
sulphate which is also used as an antibleeder. A gradual decrease in Ø- value is
seen incase of specimens cured for 7 days, with the increase in percentage of
130
aluminium sulphate; but in case of specimens cured for 28 days, after an initial
reduction (at around 2%) the Ø- value increases with increase in percentage of
the salt
A comparative behaviour of the above two antibleeders when used along
with cement grout is given in Fig. 4.93. It can be seen that the behaviour is
exactly the same – ie. the Ø- value increases with increase in percentage of the
salt after an initial reduction at around 2% of the salt.
60
55
Soil: Medium sand

3
unit weight of sand: 14.5 kN/m
Curing period
7 days
45 28 days
40
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Fig.4.90 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with bentonite content
131
Chapter-4
58

3

52
Curing period
50 7 days
28 days
48
46
44
42
40
38
0 2 4 6 8 10
55
Soil: Medium sand

3
curing period
7 days
28 days
45
40
0 2 4 6 8 10
% of Aluminium sulphate
Fig.4.92 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with percentage of aluminium sulphate
132
58
56
54
Soil: Medium sand
52 curing period: 28 days
Bentonite
Aluminium Sulphate
50
0 2 4 6 8 10
% of Antibleeder
Fig.4.93 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with percentage of antibleeders
4.4.2.3 Lime
The variations in Ø- value with lime content are shown in Figs. 4. 94,
4.95 & 4.96. Eventhough the Ø value remains more or less constant at the
initial stages, the value increases beyond a certain value of lime content
(approx. 15%). Another interesting observation is that the value of Ø increases
with increase in water content, which is not in line with the variation of c value.
Fig. 4.97 shows the variation in angle of shearing resistance with

bentonite content. It can be seen that when bentonite is used with lime grout, a
marginal increase in Ø- value with increase in bentonite content takes place. It
can also be seen from the figure that increase in curing period has no significant
effect on Ø- value.
133
Chapter-4
Soil: Medium sand

36 3
Curing period
34 7 days
28 days
32
30
28
0 5 10 15 20
Lime content (%)
Fig.4.94 Variation of angle of shearing resistance with lime content
40
35
Soil: Medium sand
3
Curing period
7 days
28 days
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Lime Content (%)
134
40
35
Soil: Medium sand

3
Initial water content:

10 %
20 %
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Lime content (%)
38
36
34
Soil: Medium sand

32 Lime Content :10 %
Curing period
7 days
30 28 days
28
0 2 4 6 8 10
135
Chapter-4
A comparison between the effect of the two suspension grouts – cement

and lime on the Ø- value is presented in Figs. 4.98 and 4.99. The specimens
were prepared at an initial water content of 10% in the former whereas the
initial water content was increased to 20% in the latter. In both cases the
advantage of using cement as a grout material compared to lime is quite clear
from the significant increase in Ø- value with increase in cement content.
70
Soil: Medium sand
Curing period :28 days
Angle of shearing resistance (degree)
60
Cement
Lime
55
50
45
40
35
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig.4.98 Comparisons between angle of shearing resistance and cement / lime content
136
75
70
65
60
Soil: Medium sand
50 Cement
Lime
45
40
35
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement / Lime Content (%)
Fig.4.99 Comparisons between angle of shearing resistance and cement / lime content

Determination of shear strength through direct shear test is a time
consuming process and also requires at least three to four specimens. Further, at
higher cement content, it is very difficult to conduct the tests till the failure of
the specimens with the normal test set up. But determination of compressive
strength in such cases is very easy and can be done very accurately. Hence
attempts have been made to correlate the compressive strength with the shear
strength / shear strength parameters of the cement grouted soils.
The gradation and type of sand influenced the compressive properties of

grouted sand. The compressive properties strength increased with the increase
of the coefficient of uniformity of the sand (better gradation) and with the
increase of the particle’s angularity (Ata and Vipulanandan, 1999). Unconfined
compressive strength of micro fine slag cement grouts increases with increase
137
Chapter-4
in curing time from 7 to 60 days and decreases in water cement ratio from 2 to
0.8 ( Sinroja et al. 2006).

Fig. 4.100 shows the variation in compressive strength with cement
content in the case of specimens prepared at an initial water content of 10%. As
one would expect, the compressive strength goes on increasing with increase in
percentage of cement content. The compressive strength of the grouted sand
also increases with the curing period.
Fig. 4.101 also shows the variation of compressive strength with cement
content, the initial water content being 20%. Here also, as expected, the
compressive strength increases with increase in cement content and curing
period. The effect of the initial water content on the compressive strength of the
grouted soil samples is shown in Fig. 4.102. It can be seen that the compressive
strength decreases with increase in initial water content.
8000
Soil : Medium sand
3
Compressive Strength (kN/m )
2
Water content :10 %

6000
Curing Period
7 days
28 days
4000
2000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement Content (%)
Fig. 4.100 Variation of compressive strength with cement content
138
5000
Soil: Medium sand

3
4000
Water content :20 %

2
Curing Period
7 days
3000
28 days
2000
1000
00 5 10 15 20 25
Cement Content (%)

3
Curing period: 28days
2
6000 Initial Water Content

10 %
20 %
4000
2000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement Content (%)
139
Chapter-4
The above fact is conclusively proved through tests conducted on

samples prepared at different initial water contents and at cement contents of
4% and 10%, the results of which are given in Figs. 4.103, 4.104 and 4.105. As
expected, the compressive strength increases with percentage of cement and
curing period. But the strength goes on decreasing as the initial water content
increases, irrespective of the cement content and curing period. Experiments
were repeated with specimens prepared with fine sand and coarse sand and the
results are presented in Figs. 4.106 and 4.107. It can be seen that, as in the case
of medium sand, here also the compressive strength increases with cement
content and curing period.
The effect of gradations of soil in the compressive strength of grouted

specimens is given in Fig. 4.108. The compressive strength increases with
increase in cement content in all the three fractions – ie, fine, medium and
coarse sand. An interesting observation is that, eventhough the coarse fraction
shows less strength than the fine & medium sand, it overtakes the other two, as
the cement content increases (beyond 15%).
Another interesting observation is about the influence of initial water

content in the compressive strength of grouted specimens prepared with fine
sand. The results presented in Fig. 4.109 show an increase in strength upto a
certain amount of water content (approx. 12%). But as the water content
increases, the compressive strength decreases, giving an optimum initial water
content to attain the maximum compressive strength, the shape of the curve
being similar to a compaction curve, irrespective of the curing period. This
behaviour is not in line with that of medium sand (Fig. 4.104) where the
compressive strength goes on decreasing with increase in initial water content.
140
500
Soil: Medium sand

3
Compressive strength (kN/m )
2
Curing period
7 days
300
28 days
200
100
0
5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 4.103 Variation of compressive strength with initial water content
2500
2000
2
1500
Soil: Medium sand

3
1000 Unit weight of sand : 14.5 kN/m
curing period
500 7 days
28 days
00 5 10 15 20 25
141
Chapter-4
2500
2000
2
Soil: Medium sand

1500 3
1000 Cement content

4%
10 %
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
12000
Soil: Coarse sand
3
10000
2
8000 Curing period

7 days
28 days
6000
4000
2000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
142
6000 Soil: Fine sand

3

2
Curing period
7 days
4000
28 days
2000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
12000
Water content : 10 %
3
10000
2
Curing period : 28days
Soil
8000
Fine sand
Medium sand
Coarse sand
6000
4000
2000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cement Content (%)
143
Chapter-4
1600
2
1200
800
Soil: Fine sand
3
Cement Content: 10 %
400
Curing period
7 days
28 days
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
4.5. 2 Cement with admixtures

Fig. 4.110 shows the variation in compressive strength with percentage
of calcium chloride (used as accelerator along with cement grout) on cement
grouted sand. The effect of this admixture is to improve the strength (though
not significantly), in addition to the benefit of serving as an accelerator. Fig.
4.111 shows the effect of sodium silicate (another admixture – which is also
used as an accelerator) on the compressive strength of cement grouted sand.
The results indicate a reduction in strength with increase in percentage of this
admixture. Comparisons between the performance of these two accelerators are
given in Fig. 4.112. This plot underlines the superiority of calcium chloride
over sodium silicate when used as an admixture along with cement grout.
The compressive strength of cement grouted soil on the addition of a
retarder such as tartaric acid is presented in fig. 4.113. It is observed that
addition of even a very small percentage (0.5 %) of tartaric acid reduces the
compressive strength by 45 %.
144
2600
2400
2
Soil: Medium sand

2200 3
2000
Curing period
7 days
1800 28 days
1600
1400
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Fig. 4.110 Effect of Calcium chloride content on compressive strength of cement grouted
Medium Sand
2400
2000
2
Soil: Medium sand

3
1200 Curing period

7 days
28 days
800
400
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Sodium silicate content (%)
Fig. 4.111 Effect of Aluminium sulphate content on compressive strength of cement
grouted Medium Sand
145
Chapter-4
2400
Soil: Medium sand
3
2

2200
Calicium chloride
2000 Sodium silicate
1800
1600
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
% of Accelerator
Fig. 4.112 Effect of accelerator on compressive strength of cement grouted Medium Sand

3
2
Curing period
7 days
1600 28 days
1200
800
400
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Tartaric acid content (%)
Fig. 4.113 Effect of Tartaric acid content on compressive strength of cement grouted
Medium Sand
146
The effect of triethanolamine - another retarder - on compressive
strength is given in fig. 4.114. The compressive strength of cement grouted

sand reduces with the increase in percentage of triethanolamine.
Fig. 4.115 shows the effect of the above two retarders on compressive
strength of cement grouted sand. Eventhough there is a reduction in
compressive strength on the addition of both the retarders, the reduction in
strength is far less in the case of triethanolamine compared to tartaric acid.
Further the property of triethanolamine in reducing the viscosity of cement

grouts ( Lovely, 1988) can be taken advantage of.
Fig. 4.116 gives the results of the compressive strength of cement
grouted sand specimens on addition of aluminium powder, which is an
expander used in cement grouting. It can be seen that the compressive strength
remains more or less constant on addition of this admixture.
The effect of antibleeders - aluminium sulphate and bentonite - on
compressive strength of cement grouted sand is presented in Figs. 4.117 and
4.118. The behaviour of both these admixtures is almost the same. Eventhough
there is an initial reduction in strength at smaller percentages; the strength picks
up as the percentage increases. Hence, both these admixtures can be used as
antibleeders along with cement grouts, without adversely affecting the

compressive strength.
147
Chapter-4
2400
Soil: Medium sand

2100 3
2
1800
Curing period
7 days
1500 28 days
1200
900
600 0 2 4 6 8 10
Fig. 4.114 Effect of Triethanolamine content on compressive strength of cement
grouted Medium Sand
2400
2
2000
Soil: Medium sand

3
1600 Curing period : 28 days
Triethanolamine
Tartaric acid
1200
0 2 4 6 8 10
% of Retarder
Fig. 4.115 Effect of retarder on compressive strength of cement grouted Medium Sand
148
2600
2400
2
2200
Soil: Medium sand
3
1800
Curing period
1600 7 days
28 days
1400
1200
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
Aluminium powder content (%)
Fig. 4.116 Effect of Aluminium powder content on compressive strength of cement
grouted Medium Sand
2400
2200
2

3
Curing period
1600
7 days
28 days
1400
1200
1000 0 2 4 6 8 10
Aluminium sulphate content (%)
Fig. 4.117 Effect of Aluminium sulphate content on compressive strength of cement
grouted Medium Sand
149
Chapter-4
Compressive Strength (kN/m ) 2400
2
2000
Soil: Medium sand
3
1600 Curing period

7 days
28 days
1200
0 2 4 6 8 10
Fig. 4.118 Effect of Bentonite content on compressive strength of cement grouted

Medium Sand
The compressive strength of cement grouted sand decreases marginally

with addition of bentonite contents at an initial water content of 10%. As the
percentage of initial water content increases (20%) the compressive strength
decreases with increase of bentonite contents which is presented in fig. 4.119.
Fig.4.120 shows the variation of compressive strength when different

percentage of antibleeder is used along with cement grouts. When aluminium
sulphate is used, eventhough there is a decrease in compressive strength
initially, as the percentage increases the strength increases and reaches to its
original value. But in the case of bentonite, there is a reduction in compressive
strength initially, thereafter a slight increase which is less than the original
value.
150
1200
Soil: Medium sand
3

2
Curing period
800 7 days
28 days
600
400
200
0 2 4 6 8 10
Fig. 4.119 Effect of Bentonite content on compressive strength of cement grouted
Medium Sand
2300
Soil: Medium sand
2
2200 Curing period

Aluminium sulphate
Bentonite
2150
2100
2050
2000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
% of Antibleeder
Fig.4.120 Effect of antibleeder on compressive strength of cement grouted Medium
Sand
151
Chapter-4

As mentioned earlier, the main purpose of conducting the compressive
strength tests was to search for a correlation with the shear strength/shear
strength parameters of the grouted soil because of the difficulty in conducting
the shear tests on these grouted soils having high strength.
The cohesion intercept (apparent cohesion) is a measure of the degree of
grain to grain bonding. Therefore, it might correlate with the uniaxial
compressive strength which is also a measure of grain to grain bonding
magnitude. (Al-Awad, 2002).
To obtain a correlation between the shear strength and compressive
strength of the grouted soils, results obtained from the direct shear test and
compressive strength tests on soil specimens having same composition were
plotted. Such a plot is given in fig 4.121 in which the compressive strength
results are plotted against the corresponding cohesion intercept obtained form
the results of the direct shear tests. The plot gives an excellent straight line
relationship with a high correlation coefficient of 0.95.
The relationship can be expressed as;
Where
c = cohesion intercept in kN/m2
p = compressive strength in kN/m2
Fig. 4.122 represents the relation between the measured and predicted
cohesion intercept (from the above equation) values. It can be seen that most of
the data points are located very close to the 450 line, as evident from a high
correlation coefficient of 0.95. A similar result was obtained in the case of the
plot between the measured and predicted compressive strength values shown in
Fig 4.123.
152
700
600
Cohesion Intercept (kN/m )
2
500
400
300
c = 0.079 p - 2.21
200
r = 0.95
100
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
2
Fig. 4.121 Relation between compressive strength and cohesion intercept

700
600
Correlation coff. = 0.95
Predicted Cohesion Intercept (kN/m )
2
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
2
Measured Cohesion Intercept (kN/m )
Fig. 4.122 Relation between measured cohesion intercept and predicted cohesion
intercept
153
Chapter-4
10000

Predicted compressive strength (kN/m )
2
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
2
Measured compressive strength (kN/m )
Fig. 4.123 Relation between measured compressive strength and predicted compressive
strength
Fig 4.124 gives the relation between the compressive strength and the
angle of shearing resistance (obtained from results of direct shear tests). The
plot gives a non-linear relationship, the equation being,
and the correlation coefficient in this case is only 0.83.
A linear relationship between Ø and p will yield an equation
with a low correlation coefficient of 0.78.
The main purpose of this attempt is to arrive at a reasonable relationship

between the shear strength and the corresponding compressive strength of the
grouted soils. Hence the values of shear strength computed from the results of
direct shear tests were plotted with the compressive strength of the 199 samples
154
and are shown in fig 4.125. It can be seen that the plot gives an excellent linear
relationship with a high correlation coefficient of 0.96.
The relationship between shear strength and compressive strength is

given by
where
τ - shear strength in kN/ m2
p - compressive strength in kN/m2
Fig. 4.126 shows the comparison between Predicted (computed from the
above equation) and Measured Shear Strength of Grouted samples. It can be
seen that most of the points are located close to the 450 line, the correlation
coefficient being 0.95.
75
70
65
Angle of shearing resistance (Degrees)
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
2
Fig. 4.124 Relation between compressive strength and angle of internal friction
155
Chapter-4
1000
800
2
600
400 τ = 0.104 p + 80.12

r = 0.96
200
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
2
Fig. 4.125 Relation between Compressive strength and Shear Strength of Grouted samples
700
600
Predicted shear strength (kN/m )
2
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
2
Measured shear strength (kN/m )
Fig. 4.126 comparison between Measured and Predicted Shear Strength of Grouted
samples
156
Hence a simple test such as compressive strength will be sufficient to

predict the shear strength of the grouted soil. Thus the relationship developed
between the shear strength and the compressive strength can be advantageously
used to estimate the strength of the grouted soil in the field.
157
Chapter-4
158
Chapter 5
STUDIES ON CEMENT GROUTED SAND BEDS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Design and fabrication of the grouting set up
Contents
5.3 Grouting of sand beds

5.4 Grouting efficiency from cross section dimensions
5.4 .1 Cement alone
5.5 Grouting efficiency from actual cement contents.
5.6 Grouting efficiency from load tests
5.1 Introduction
In particulate grouts, the limit of injectability is decided from the

groutability ratio (ratio of D15 of the soil formation to d85 of the grout material),
in addition to its initial fluidity, while in Newtonian fine grouts these limits are
mainly a function of their initial viscosity and gel time. The groutability ratio
reveals that the size of the grout particle and the size of opening or pore space
of the mass to be grouted should be in such a proportion that blockage and
filtering of the grout can be minimized.
In order that grouting results be good, it is evident that the injector has to
choose the grout most suitable to the problem (viscosity, setting time, strength),
159
Chapter-5
but it is also necessary to know how to distribute it in the soil. For this, it is
necessary to make a correct choice of: (i) grout hole equipment (ii) distance
between grout holes (iii) length of injection passes (iv) number of grouting
phases and (v) grouting pressure and pumping rate (Shroff, 2009).
5.2 Design and fabrication of the grouting set up
For the purpose of assessing the groutability and for conducting model
studies in the grouted bed in the laboratory, a grouting set up had to be designed
and fabricated. A grouting setup normally requires a grout chamber with
agitator, an air compressor, a regulating valve and a grouting nozzle. The grout
chamber fabricated is a barrel type cylindrical drum of 50 litre capacity (0.30 m
dia & 0.75 m height) placed vertically with an axial shaft fitted with blades as
shown in Figure 5.1(a).The shaft is connected to a motor mounted on a bracket.
The cement water slurry is fed through an opening provided for grout inlet and
is thoroughly mixed by the rotation of the blades. The compressed air is
allowed to enter through the pressure inlet pipe from the air compressor and can
be regulated by a pressure regulating valve. The pressure relief valve controls
the injection pressure to the predetermined values and the measurement of the
injection pressure can be made with the help of the pressure gauge attached to
the grout chamber. The graduated perspex tube connected to the grout chamber
gives an idea about the quantity of grout pumped into the medium. A
photograph of the grout chamber is shown in Fig.5.1 (b).
160
Studies on cement Grouted Sand Beds
Fig. 5.1 (a) Section of grout chamber
Fig.5.1 (b) Grout chamber
161
Chapter-5
The grouting nozzle consists of an inner pipe passing through an outer

pipe as shown in Figure 5.2 (a). The inner pipe is made of thin stainless steel
tube of 10 mm diameter flush with the outer pipe and open at the bottom. The
outer pipe is made of PVC having inner diameter 20 mm, the lower end is
provided with a stainless steel nozzle and the end tapered for easy penetration
of the nozzle. The stainless steel nozzle is provided with 24 numbers of 4 mm
diameter holes through which the grout flows to the sand bed. A cross-section
of the nozzle is shown in figure 5.2 (b). Fig.5.2 (c) shows the photograph of the
grouting nozzle. A water jet under pressure through the inner stainless tube
facilitates the penetration of the nozzle into the grouted medium. The grout
flows through the annular space between the outer and inner pipe and
discharges through the nozzle holes into the sand medium to be grouted.
Figure 5.3 shows a schematic diagram of the grouting setup. The grout
slurry is poured into the chamber through the inlet and when switched ON the
motor agitates the grout, which rotates the blades attached to the shaft. To get
sufficient pumping pressure for the grout slurry, compressed air was pumped
into the chamber by opening the valve V1. Control of the pumping pressure of
grout slurry can be done by regulating the valve V2. Opening the valves V3,
V4, and V5 and simultaneously closing the water inlet valve and water jet valve
permits the flow of the grout into the annular space between the outer and inner
pipe and then into the medium to be grouted through the holes provided in the
nozzle. Flow of the grout in the vertical direction can be obtained by opening
the valve V6 and closing the valve V5. After the grouting operation, the grout
pipe and nozzle can be cleaned with the help of the water jet and water inlet.
Fig 5.4 shows a photograph of the grouting set up.
162
(b) Cross-section
All dimensions are in mm
(a) Longitudinal section (c) Photograph

Fig. 5.2 Grouting nozzle
163
Chapter-5
164
Fig: 5.3 Schematic diagram of the grouting setup
Fig. 5.4 Grouting set up
165
Chapter-5
5.3 Grouting of sand beds

Detachable steel tanks of 0.45 m x 0.45 m x 0.60 m and 1 m x1 m x 0.60
m were used for the laboratory studies. The tanks were assembled in the proper
position and the bottom of the grouting nozzle was kept on the sand bed at a
distance of 5cm from the bottom of the tank. The sand bed was prepared in the
tank at a unit weight of 13.1 kN/m3 (loosest state). Cement grout was prepared
by adding 10 % (by weight of sand + cement) of water and was poured into the
grout chamber. While preparing the grout, the viscosity was measured using
Mash funnel ensuring that the viscosity was within the pumpable limits. The
grout so prepared was pumped into the sand medium by maintaining the
pressure at 5 kg/cm2. When pumping of around 1/3 rd of the quantity of the grout
was over, the nozzle attached to the pipes was lifted slowly and kept at 1/3 rd the
height from the bottom. The process was repeated till another 1/3 rd quantity of
the grout got pumped into the medium. Again the nozzle was lifted and kept at
2
/3 rd height from bottom of the tank for pumping the final 1/3 rd quantity of the
grout into the sand medium. Throughout the period of the pumping, the agitator
was kept working in order to avoid the settling of cement.
After this the nozzle was completely withdrawn from the sand and
cleaned with water jet. The hole left in the sand bed which was already full with
cement slurry was filled with dry sand. Figs 5.5(a), 5.5(b) and 5.6 show the
grouting process in progress and the grouted sand. These grouted beds were
kept in humid conditions for curing. After 7 days of curing, load tests were
conducted on these grouted beds, dimensions of the cross section at different
depths were taken and representative samples were taken at different depths and
at different radial distances.
166
5.4 Grouting efficiency from cross section dimensions

A preliminary idea about the grouting efficiency can be obtained from the
cross section area of the actual grouted medium at different depths. For this
purpose, the side walls of the tank were removed so that the dimensions of various
cross sections of the intact grouted mass at different depths could be taken.
Fig. 5.5 (a) Grouting process in small tank in progress
167
Chapter-5
Fig. 5.5(b). Grouting process in large tank in progress
Fig. 5.6 Grouted sand bed
168
5.4 .1 Cement alone

Cement grout should be sufficiently fluid enough to allow efficient
pumping or injection and sufficiently stable to resist displacement and erosion
after the injection. The principal variables affecting the properties of cement
grout are water : cement ratio and rate of bleeding along with subsequent
plasticity and ultimate strength of the grout.
Grouting of the sand bed was done with cement contents of 2, 4, & 6 %
by the weight of sand, the initial water content being 10 % (by weight of sand +
cement). In order to get a quantitative idea about the lateral flow of the grout,
the cross sectional dimensions were measured at different depths - 100, 200,
300, 400, 500 and 600 mm from the top of the grouted bed. Fig 5.7 shows the
cross sectional area of medium sand grouted with 2 % cement (water cement
ratio of 4.3) at different depths. It can be seen that the area of cross section
increases with the increase in the depth. A three dimensional view of the
resultant grouted mass is shown in Fig.5.7 (vii).
The cross sectional area of medium sand grouted with 4 % of cement

(water cement ratio of 2.2) at different depths are shown in figure 5.8. The cross
section area is almost constant through out the depth of grouting shown in the
three dimensional view (Fig.5.8 (vii)).
Fig 5.9 shows the cross section of medium sand grouted with 6 % of
cement (water cement ratio of 1.4) at different depths. It is seen that cross
sectional area increases with increase in the depth of grouting which is also
clear from the three dimensional view (Fig. 5.9 (vii)).
A comparison of cross sectional area of grouted samples with 2, 4 and 6

% cement at different depths is presented in the form of a column chart in Fig.
5.10 (a). It can be seen that the effective cross section area of the mass grouted
with 4 % cement is maximum at all depths. This is more clear from Fig. 5.10
(b) which gives the volumes of these grouted masses calculated based on these
169
Chapter-5
measurements. A volume as high as 78 % of the original volume was obtained

in the case of grout with 4 % cement, whereas it was only 45 % and 53 % in the
case of 2 % and 6 % cement grouts respectively.
(vii) Three dimensional view

Fig 5.7 Cross sections of 2 % cement grouted medium sand
170

Fig 5.8.Cross sections of 4 % cement grouted medium sand
171
Chapter-5

Fig 5.9 Cross sections of 6 % cement grouted medium sand
172
Soil: Medium Sand
Cement
0.2 2%
Effective grouted c/s area (m )
2
4%
6%
0.1
0.0
100 200 300 400 500 600
Depth from surface (mm)
Fig. 5.10 (a) Comparison of cross section areas of grouted samples at different depths
Fig. 5.10 (b) Comparison of volume of grouted samples at different % cement
173
Chapter-5
The cross sectional areas of coarse sand grouted with 2, 4, and 6 %

cement at different depths are shown in Fig. 5.11. It can be seen that the sample
grouted with 4 % cement indicate a slight increase in effective grouted gross
cross sectional area compared with 2 % and 6 % cement. Fig 5.12 shows the
three dimensional views of these coarse sand specimens grouted with 2, 4 and 6
% cement.
A comparison of effective grouted cross sectional area of medium and

coarse sand is presented in Fig. 5.13. The effective grouted cross sectional area
is more upto a depth of 400 mm for medium sand, but it over taken by coarse
sand at 500 mm depth. Eventhough the effective c/s is much more at shallow
depth in medium sand, there is not much difference in total effective c/s area.
Fig. 5.14 shows the effective c/s area of medium and coarse sand
grouted with 4 % cement. It can be seen that cross sectional of medium sand is
much significant compared to coarse sand at this cement percentage.
The effective c/s area of medium and coarse sand grouted with 6 %
cement is shown in Fig. 5.15. At a depth of upto 400 mm the medium sand
shows significant increase in c/s area than coarse sand. Eventhough the same
amount of cement is used in both cases, the total grouted volume of medium
sand is more significant than coarse sand. In both cases of medium and coarse
sand, 4 % cement is more effective than 2 and 6 % cement.
The effectiveness of the three cement grouts – 2 %, 4 % and 6 % in

medium sand and coarse sand were compared in terms of the effective grouted
cross section area at different depths and are presented in Figs 5.13, 5.14 and
5.15. It can be seen that these cement grouts are more effective in grouting
medium sand.
174
Soil: coarse Sand
0.2 Cement
2
2%
4%
6%
0.1
0.0
100 200 300 400 500 600
Fig. 5.11 Comparison of cross section areas of grouted samples at different depths
(i) Coarse sand grouted with 2% cement (ii) Coarse sand grouted with 4% cement
(iii) Coarse sand grouted with 6% cement

Fig.5.12 Three Dimensional views
175
Chapter-5
Cement : 2 %
0.2 Medium Sand
Coarse Sand
2
0.1
0.0
100 200 300 400 500 600
Fig. 5.13 Comparison of cross section areas of grouted medium & coarse sand
Cement : 4 %
Medium Sand
0.2 Coarse Sand
2
0.1
0.0
100 200 300 400 500 600
176
The earlier results show that the lateral flow of the grout is very poor in
the case of 6 % cement compared to 4 % cement. This may be due to the low
stability and viscosity of the 6 % cement grout. The effectiveness of
antibleeders and fluidisers in increasing the stability and viscosity of cement
grouts have already been established. Hence studies were made in this direction
to verify whether the antibleeders and fluidiser could enhance the lateral flow of
the cement grout.
The addition of cement to bentonite results in a suspension which has

interesting synergistic properties and has been widely used as permeation grout.
Depending on the amounts of cement, bentonite and water, grouts will have
different properties. Burgin (1979) and Deere (1982) observed a striking
influence on viscosity of cement grout by an addition of a small percentage of
bentonite. They observed significant increase in Marsh funnel viscosity. Small
amounts of bentonite appear to be preferable, sufficient to reduce sedimentation
and bleeding but not so great as to impair significantly the pump ability and
penetrability. John (1982) suggested that fluidizing agents may be added to
reduce the viscosity of the grout.
De Paoli (1992) investigated the fundamental observation on cement

based traditional materials that in order to improve the mix permeability it is
necessary to increase its stability under pressure, thereby reducing water loss
and filter cake growth.
The admixtures used in the present study to make the grout more stable
include bentonite and aluminium sulphate (antibleeders) and detergent
(fluidiser). Figs. 5.16 (a) & 5.16 (b) show the effect of bentonite (5, 10 & 15 %
by weight of cement) and detergent (0.05 % by weight of cement) when used
177
Chapter-5
along with 6 % cement in grouting medium sand. Similarly the effect of 2 %

aluminium sulphate and 0.05 % detergent when used along with the same 6 %
cement in grouting medium sand is shown in Fig. 5.17. It can be seen from the
figures that the effective grouted cross sectional area is not increased by the use
of either bentonite or aluminium sulphate. In other words, the admixtures do
not play any significant role in improving the grouted volume of medium sand.
But these admixtures can influence the efficiency of the grout, when
grouting is done in coarse sand. Figs 5.18 (a) and 5.18 (b) clearly bring out this.
The column chart shown as Fig. 5.18 (a) clearly gives the increase in the
effective grouted cross section area when a combination of different
percentages of bentonite and 0.05 % detergent were used along with the cement
grout. It can be seen that the best results are produced by the combination of 15
% bentonite and 0.05 % detergent along with the 6 % cement grout. Fig. 5.18
(b) which shows the increase in grouted volume on using these admixtures
along with 6 % cement, in grouting coarse sand, underlines the above
statement. Some typical photographs of grouted samples are shown in fig.5.19.
5.5 Grouting efficiency from actual cement contents.
The flow of grouts in the pore space of the soil or any discontinuity of rock is
resisted by the drag at the interface between the grains and the fluid. For soils that are
not uniformly graded, useful estimates of the grout penetrated to the soils are
required. Generally the monitoring and efficiency of grouting is observed by the
flow - rate versus pressure which depends upon the porosity of the soil to be grouted.
The efficiency of grouting mainly depends upon the penetration of cement

grout through the pores of sand. Therefore cement content determination is very
much necessary to assess the quantity of lateral flow of the grout into the soil mass,
For this purpose, samples were collected from various points in the cured grouted
mass.
178
Cement : 6 %
0.2
Medium Sand
2
Coarse Sand
0.1
0.0
100 200 300 400 500 600
Soil: Medium Sand

Cement : 6 %
0.2
Bentonite Detergent
2
(as % of cement)
0 0
5 0.05
10 0.05
15 0.05
0.1
0.0
100 200 300 400 500 600
Fig. 5.16 (a) Effect of antibleeder & fluidiser on the flow of grout
179
Chapter-5
Fig. 5.16 (b) Influence of % bentonite on the grouted volume
Soil: Medium Sand

Cement: 6 %
0.2
Al2 SO 4 Detergent
2
(as % of cement)
0 0
2 0
2 0.05
0.1
0.0
100 200 300 400 500 600
Fig. 5.17 Effect of antibleeder & fluidiser on the flow of grout
180
Soil: coarse Sand

Cement content:6%
Bentonite Detergent
0.20 (as % of cement)
0 0
2
5 0
10 0.05
0.15
15 0.05
0.10
0.05
0.00
100 200 300 400 500 600
Fig. 5.18 (a) Effect of antibleeder & fluidiser on the flow of grout
Fig. 5.18 (b) Influence of % bentonite on the grouted volume
181
Chapter-5
(i) (ii)
(iii) (iv)
Fig. 5.19 (a) Typical photographs of grouted samples
182
(v) (vi)
(vii) (viii)
Fig. 5.19 (b) Typical photographs of grouted samples
183
Chapter-5
As mentioned above, the grouting efficiency can be estimated by

determining the cement content of freshly grouted samples or hardened samples
as per the procedure (explained in section 3.4.3) given in ASTM Standards (D:
806-00) “Standard test method for cement content of hardened soil- cement
mixtures”.
The sand bed prepared as explained in 5.3 at a unit weight of 13.1 kN/m3
was grouted using 2, 4 or 6 % cement and kept under humid conditions for
curing for a period of 28 days. Samples from different depths and from different
radial distances were cut from this grouted mass for the determination of
cement content.
Fig.5. 20 shows the variation of the cement content with radial distance
from the centre of grout hole at various depths of 200, 300, 400, 500 and 600
mm from the top of the grouted bed. 2 % cement (w/c ratio of 4.3) was used for
grouting this bed of medium sand. As one would expect, the distribution of
cement is not uniform with maximum cement content around the grout hole and
it gradually decrease with distance from the centre of the hole. At the centre,
eventhough the cement content is very high (5 to 8), it reduces to around 1.5 %
as the distance increases to 20 cm. The pattern of this variation in cement
content remains the same irrespective of the depth. The same results are also
plotted in Fig. 5.21 in the form of a column chart which gives a better
representation of this variation.
The variation of cement content with travel distance of grout in the case of
4 % cement (w/c. ratio of 2.2) at different depths are presented in Fig. 5.22. In this
case also the samples were taken from distances of 0, 6, 12 and 22 cm from the
centre of the grout hole. Compared to the earlier case the cement content obtained
184
at various depths at the same radial distance do not vary much. Also the higher
cement contents obtained at farther distances and the higher grouted volume (Fig.
5.8) indicates the better efficiency of the 4 % cement grout in medium sand.
Soil: Medium Sand

8 Initial W ater Content : 10 %
Grouted with 2 % cement

200
6
Cement Content (%)
300
400
500
600
4
0
0 50 100 150 200
Radial distance from centre of grout hole (mm)
Fig.5. 20 Variation of cement content with travel distance of the grout
Soil: Medium Sand

8 Initial W ater Content : 10 %
(W ater cement ratio: 4.3)

6
Cement Content (%)
200
300
400
500
4 600
0
0 50 100 150 200
Radial distance from centre of grout hole (mm )

185
Chapter-5
14
Soil: M edium Sand
Initial W ater Content : 10 %
12 (W ater cem ent ratio: 2.2)
G routed with 4 % cem ent
10 D epth from surface (m m )

200
Cement Content (%)
300
8 400
500
600
6
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240
Radial distance from centre of grout hole (m m )
Fig.5.23 shows the variations in cement content at different depths and

at different radial distances when the medium sand is grouted with 6 % cement
(w/c = 1.5). The very high cement content ( of the order of 10 -17 %) at the
centre indicate the poor flow of the grout in the lateral direction, which is also
substantiated by very small cement contents away from the grout hole.
A comparison of the flow of the grout in the lateral direction when the
medium sand is grouted with cement 2, 4 & 6 % cement grouts at depths 300,
400 & 600 mm from the surface are given in Figs 5.24, 5.25 & 5.26
respectively. It can be seen that 4 % cement grout is more effective from the
cement content and is more economical.
186

(W ater cement ratio: 1.5)
G routed with 6% cement
12 Depth from surface (mm)

Cement Content (%)
100
200
300
400
8 500
600
0
0 50 100 150 200
16
Soil: Medium Sand

12
Cement Content (%)
Depth from surface : 300 mm

Cement
2%
4%
8 6%
0
0 50 100 150 200
187
Chapter-5
14
Soil: M edium S and

12 Initial W ater C ontent : 10 %
Depth from surface :400 m m

Cem ent
10
2%
Cement Content (%)
4%
6%
8
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
R adial distance from centre of grout hole (m m )
12
S oil: M edium Sand
Initial W ater C ontent : 10 %
D epth from surface : 600 m m

Cement Content (%)
C em ent
8 2 %
4 %
6 %
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
R adial distance from centre of grout hole (m m )
Fig.5.27 presents the results of the cement content determined at

different depths and at different radial distances when the medium sand is
188
grouted with 6 % cement along with admixtures. The admixtures used in this
case were bentonite (antibleeder - 5 % by weight of cement) and detergent
(fluidiser - 0.05 % by weight of cement). Similarly the effect of the
combination of admixtures – aluminium sulphate (antibleeder – 2 % by weight
of cement) and detergent on the 6 % cement grout in improving the lateral flow
is given in Fig 5.28. Fig. 5.29 compares the effect of these admixtures with
that of the grout without any admixture. It is clear from the figure that these
admixtures can certainly enhance the lateral flow. Further it can be seen that
aluminium sulphate performs better as an antibleeder compared to bentonite,
when used along with cement grout.
The results of cement contents at different depths and at different radial

distances, determined when coarse sand is grouted with different grouts ie, 2, 4
and 6 % cement are presented in Figs. 5.30, 5.31 and 5.32 respectively. Fig.
5.30 gives a clear indication that
35
Soil: Medium Sand
30
Cement : 6 %
Bentonite : 5 %
Detergent : .05 %
25
Cement Content (%)
100
20 300
500
15
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
189
Chapter-5
18

Cement : 6 %
Aluminium sulphate : 2 %
12
Cement Content (%)
Detergent : 0.05 %

9 100
300
500
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
25
Soil: Medium Sand

Depth from surface :300 mm
20
Cement: 6%
Admixture
Nil
Cement Content (%)
5 % Bentonite +0.05 % detergent

15 2 % Aluminium sulphate +0.05 % detergent
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
190
20
18 Soil : Coarse Sand

16 Cement : 2%

200
300
12
Cement Content (%)
400
500
10 600
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Soil : Coarse Sand

20 Cement : 4%

200
300
15
Cement Content (%)
400
500
600
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
191
Chapter-5
20
Soil : Coarse Sand
100
200
300
Cement Content (%)
12 400
500
600
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
2 % cement is not at all effective; where as the flow of grout is better in

the case of 4 % and 6 % cement grouts, even without the use of any admixtures.
A comparison of the effect of these three cement contents at a particular depth
i.e. 300 mm is presented in Fig. 5.33. It can be seen that, similar to the case of
medium sand, 4 % cement is more effective in grouting the coarse sand also.
Figures 5.18 and its discussion clearly brings out the effect of
admixtures in improving the lateral flow of the grout in coarse sand. Since the
combination of 15 % bentonite and 0.05 % detergent was found the most
effective, cement contents were determined by taking samples at different
depths and at different radial distance from the coarse sand grouted with 6 %
cement along with these admixtures. The results presented in Fig. 5.34 clearly
shows the improvement in the grout efficiency in reaching farthest places. The
much higher cement content (~ 4 %) at these points is an indication of a more
or less uniform and effective lateral flow of this grout in coarse sand.
192
16
14
Soil : Coarse Sand
12 Depth from surface: 300 mm
Cement
Cement Content (%)
10 2%
4%
8 6%
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
20
Soil : Coarse Sand
Cement: 6 %
16 Bentonite: 15 %
Detergent: 0.05 %
100
200
Cement Content (%)
12
300
400
500
600
8
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
193
Chapter-5
5.6 Grouting efficiency from load tests
The results and discussions in the previous sections show that the
grouting efficiency can be assessed reasonably well from the effective grouted
cross section area and also by the determination of cement contents at different
radial distances. But it was felt that a more realistic picture could be obtained if
load tests were conducted on these grouted sand beds.
Load – settlement characteristics of grouted sand was studied by

conducting load tests in tanks of size 1 m x 1 m x 0.6 m. The sand was filled in
the tank at the loosest state (unit weight -13.1kN/m3). Grout was injected in to
the sand bed using different percentages of cement with or without admixtures.
The top 100 mm of the sand bed was removed and the grouted bed was kept in
humid conditions for curing for a period of 28 days. The cured sand bed was
loaded through a plate 20 cm x 20 cm with the help of a hydraulic jack. The
loading setup is shown in Fig. 5.35.
Fig. 5.36 shows the load settlement curves in the case of medium sand
grouted with 2, 4 & 6 % cement along with that for ungrouted sand. It can be
seen from the figure that the ultimate stress at the loosest state (corresponding
to a dry unit weight of 13.1 kN/m3) is only 22.7 kN/m2. Maximum compaction
yielded a unit weight of 16.2 kN/m3 and the corresponding ultimate stress was
367 kN/m2. When the sand at loosest state was grouted with 2% cement, the
ultimate stress became 380 kN/m2. The ultimate load corresponding to 4%
cement grout was 611 kN/m2, which is around 27 times the ultimate stress at
the loosest state. In case of sand grouted with 6% cement, the ultimate stress
was 830 kN/m2, which is 35 times the value of that of the sand at loosest state.
194
The load settlement curves of coarse sand grouted with 2, 4 and 6 %

cement at the loosest state, is shown in Fig. 5.37. It can be seen from the plots
that the ultimate stress at the loosest state (unit weight 14 kN/m3) is only 16.9
kN/m2. Maximum compaction yielded a unit weight of 16.2 kN/m3 and the
corresponding ultimate stress was 301 kN/m2. It is interesting to note that for
the grout with 2 % cement at loosest density, the ultimate stress was only 220
kN/m2 against 301 kN/m2 for the ungrouted sand at densest state. The ultimate
loads for 4 % and 6 % cement grouted coarse sand was 989 kN/m2 and 1023
kN/m2 respectively. ie, 4 % and 6 % cement grout yield almost the same
strength, which is around 60 times that of the ungrouted coarse sand at the
loosest state.
A comparison in the strength behaviour between medium sand and

coarse sand when grouted with 4% cement is given in Fig 5.38. The strength of
the grouted coarse sand is much higher when the deformations are small and it
exhibits a brittle type failure. But the load carrying capacity of the grouted
medium sand exceeds that of the coarse sand at higher settlements.
Fig 5.39 shows the increase in strength of the medium and coarse sand
with the increase in cement content in the grout. In the case of grouted medium
sand, the increase in strength is at a steady rate, where as for grouted coarse
sand, the rate of increase in strength is quite high as the cement content is
increased from 2 to 4 %. Further, in the case of coarse sand, minimum cement
content is required for the grouting to be effective. This may be due to the
increased pore space available in the case of coarse sand compared to medium
sand.
195
Chapter-5
Fig. 5.35 Loading set up

2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 160
0
Soil Medium Sand

5 at loosest state
at densest state
10 Grouted with
Settlement (mm)
2 % Cement
4 % Cement
15 6 % Cement
20
25
30
Fig. 5.36 Load settlement curves for grouted sand bed (medium sand)
196
2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0
10
Settlement (mm)
15 Soil: Coarse sand

loosest state
densest state
20 Grouted with
2 % Cement
4 % Cement
6 % Cement
25
Fig. 5.37 Load settlement curves for grouted sand bed (coarse sand)
2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
0
10
Settlement (mm)
Grouted with 4 % Cement

15 Coarse sand
Medium sand
20
25
Fig. 5.38 Load settlement curves of sand grouted with 4% cement
197
Chapter-5
1000
800
Ultimate stress (kN/m )
2
600
Coarse sand
400
Medium sand
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
% of cement in the grout
Fig. 5.39 Variation of ultimate stress of grouted sand with % of cement in the grout
Cement – bentonite mixes are very common in grouting practice.

Cement, when used alone is susceptible to bleeding or segregation to a high
degree which affects the pumping operation seriously. Many authors (Shroff
and Shah, 1992; Lovely et al. 1994 & 1997) recommended the addition of small
percentages of bentonite to solve this problem, which helps to increase the
stability and travel distance of the cement grout.
Load test was conducted on the medium sand bed grouted with 6 %
cement along with the admixtures. The admixtures used are bentonite (5 % by
weight of cement, which was found to be the optimum dosage as given in Fig
5.16) and detergent (0.05 % by weight of cement). The results from the load
test are plotted in Fig 5.40 which also gives the load- settlement curve for 6%
cement without any admixtures. Eventhough there is a slight reduction (around
198
20 %) in strength, the admixtures make the grouted sand bed to be more ductile,
thus eliminating the chances of a sudden failure of foundations.
The tremendous improvement in the lateral flow of the grout when

admixtures were used along with 6% cement in the case of coarse sand was
discussed in sections 5.4 and 5.5. In order to verify whether the same effect is
reflected in the strength behaviour also, load test was conducted on coarse sand
grouted with 6 % cement along with the admixtures – 15 % bentonite and 0.05
% detergent, and the results are presented in Fig 5.41. In this case, in addition to
making the sand bed more ductile, the admixtures help to increase the load
carrying capacity (twice the strength compared to the sand bed grouted without
admixtures). This can be attributed to the increased lateral flow of the grout
when admixtures are used along with cement in grouting coarse sand beds,
which is more clear from Fig 5.42.
2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
0
10
Settlement (mm)
15
Grouted with
25 6 % Cement
6 % Cement + 5 % Bentonite + 0.05 % Detergent
30
Fig. 5.40 Effect of admixtures on the load – settlement behaviour ( medium sand)
199
Chapter-5
2
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
0
10
Settlement (mm)
15
20
Soil : coarse sand
Grouted with
25
6 % Cement
6 % Cement +15 % bentonite + 0.05 % Detergent
30
Fig. 5.41 Effect of admixtures on the load settlement behaviour (coarse sand)
2
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
0
10
Settlement (mm)
Grouted with
6 % Cement
15 15 % Bentonite
0.05 % Detergent
20 Medium sand
coarse sand
25
30
Fig. 5.42 comparison of the effect of admixtures in medium and coarse sand
200
Investigations were made to study the load carrying capacity of cement
grouted beds in the ideal condition; i.e. what would have been the strength, had
the grout been uniformly spread over the entire volume of the soil mass. For
this purpose medium sand was uniformly mixed with different percentages of
cement (2, 4 and 6 % by weight of sand) and water (10 % by weight of sand +
cement) and filled in such a way that the initial unit weight of medium sand
alone was 13.1 kN/m3 (corresponding to the loosest state). After curing under
humid conditions for 28 days, load test was conducted following the same
procedure, the results of which are presented in Fig 5.43. As expected, there is a
phenomenal increase in strength with percentage of cement.

2
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 1400
0
10
Settlement (mm)
Soil : Medium Sand

loosest state
15
densest state
Uniformly mixed with

20 2 % Cement
4 % Cement
6 % Cement
25
Fig. 5.43 Load settlement curves of cement treated medium sand (uniformly mixed)
201
Chapter-5
2
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
0
10
Settlement (mm)
15
Medium sand
20 Cement : 4 %
Mixed uniformily
Grouted by grout pump
25
Fig. 5.44 Comparison of load settlement behaviour of cement grouted and uniformly mixed
sand beds
8000
Soil : Medium sand

Uniformly mixed
Ultimate stress (kN/m )
6000
2
Grouted by grout pump
4000
2000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
% of cement in the grout
Fig. 5.45 Variation of ultimate stress of grouted sand with % of cement
202
A comparison in strength of the medium sand beds grouted with cement
(grout pumped through grout pump) without any admixtures, with that of the
uniformly mixed medium sand beds is given in Figs 5.44 and 5.45. It can be
seen that grouting by grout pump could yield only one-third the load carrying
capacity of that of the uniformly mixed bed, for a cement content of 4 %. This
figure along with Fig. 5.45 stress the need for developing proper grouting tools
and methods for making the grouting process more efficient so that the
foundation design can be made more economical.
203
Chapter-5
204
Chapter 6
PERMEABILITY STUDIES ON THE GROUTED SOIL
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Cement as the grout material
Contents
6.3 Cement with admixtures

6.4 Locally available clay
6.5 Bentonite
6.6 Locally available clay along with cement/ lime
6.1 Introduction
The effectiveness of grouting to improve the strength characteristics of
loose sandy soils has already been established with the help of experimental
results in Chapters 4 and 5. Grouting is normally undertaken to reduce the
permeability of rock or soil formations and this process is used extensively in
the construction of hydraulic structures such as dams, power houses, tunnels
and in a wide variety of special cases. Various materials such as cement, sand,
silt, clay, bentonite, chemicals etc. are used, depending upon the need and
purpose of grouting and the nature of formations to be grouted. Eventhough the
application of this grouting technique to reduce the permeability of rock
formations has been reported in literature, no serious attempts are reported
about the effective use of this technique to reduce the permeability of soil
205
Chapter-6
formations. The results of experimental investigations carried out in this

direction are presented in this chapter.
The results obtained from permeability tests conducted on different

graded sand fractions such as fine, medium and coarse sand at a dry unit weight
of 14.5 kN/m3 is given in Table 6.1. As one would expect, the permeability
increases with increase in grain size of soil particles.
Table 6.1. Coefficient of permeability of different sand fractions

Sl. no. Soil type Size range (mm) Permeability (m/sec)
1 Fine sand 0.075 – 0.425 0.54 x 10-4
-
2 Medium sand 0.42 5 – 2.0 1.86 x 10 4
-
3 Coarse sand 2 .0 – 4.75 2.69 x 10 4
The technology of grouting now plays an important role in all the fields
of foundation engineering such as seepage control in rock and soil under dams,
advancing tunnels, cut off walls etc. in the evaluation of safety of any dam,
problems connected with excessive leaching and seepage. Seepage not only
causes loss of valuable water stored in the reservoir, but also poses problems by
its existence through piping. Control of seepage through the dam foundation
and minimizing exit gradient on the downstream, play key roles in the analysis
and design of dams. When transit or utility tunnels are to be placed beneath the
water table and the soils encountered have permeability greater than
approximately 1 x 10-5 m/s, water inflow can be expected. Along with this
water inflow, soil can be eroded into the tunnel, resulting in piping collapses
and adverse surface settlements. Remedial and rehabilitation measures for
206
Permeability Studies on the Grouted Soil
arresting excess leaching and seepage mainly involve controlling the

permeability of the soil strata by means of grouting.
Kenai et al.(2006) investigated the effect of compaction methods on

mechanical properties and durability of cement stabilized soil. According to
them the reduction in permeability could be attributed to the reduction of large
pores by the cement particles and cement hydration products. Thus the
treatment of soil with cement could lead to a better mechanical strength, lower
permeability and hence better durability.
6.2 Cement as the grout material
For grout injected specimens, decreasing the water to cement ratio of the
grout and increasing the curing time significantly lowered the permeability and
increased the strength, whereas increasing the distance from the injection point
had little effect on the permeability but produced meaningful reductions in
strength. These trends are consistent with the sand acting as a filter for the grout
suspension (Schwarz and Krizek, 1994).
In order to determine the effect of cement in reducing the permeability
of the sand medium, permeability tests were conducted on specimens prepared
in the permeability mould. For preparing the samples, medium sand (unit
weight 14.5 kN/m3) was mixed with different percentages of cement in the dry
condition. Then 10 % (by weight of sand – cement mixture) water was added to
the mixture, mixed well and filled in the mould for conducting the permeability
test.
207
Chapter-6
Figure 6.1 shows the effect of cement content on permeability of sandy
soil treated with cement, at different curing periods. As one would expect, the
permeability decreases with increase in the percentage of cement. The reduction
in permeability is only marginal in case of specimens cured for 7 & 14 days,
whereas the reduction is substantial as the curing period is increased to 28 days.
Similarly increased use of cement (beyond 10%) can influence the permeability
at higher curing periods only. The reduction in permeability with respect to the
cement content and curing period is more clear in Fig. 6.2. It can be seen that
the permeability got reduced by 1/7400 in the case of 25% cement and cured
for 28 days. When cement alone was added to the medium sand, the cement
hydrates and occupied the voids of sand thereby decreasing the

interconnectivity of soil voids by blocking the potential flow paths.
-3
1x10
-4
1x10
Permeability k,(m / sec)
-5
1x10
-6
1x10
Soil : Medium Sand
7 days
-7
1x10 14 days
28 days
-8
1x10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Cement Content (%)
Fig.6.1 Effect of cement content on permeability of cement treated sand
208
Ratio of reduced Permeability / original permeability 1
1
10
1
100
Soil : Medium Sand

1
1000 7 days
14 days
28 days
1
10000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Cement Content (%)
Fig.6.2 Reduction in permeability with cement content

the method of grouting because different mechanisms govern the deposition and
packing of cement particles within the pores structure. During the injection
process, preferential flow paths allow the migration of cement particles into the
soil and micro structural packing undoubtedly varies within the pore spaces of
the grouted sand ( Schwarz and Krizek, 1994).
Fig.6.3 shows the effect of curing period on permeability of cement
treated sand having different cement contents 4, 10 and 25 %. It can be also be
seen that eventhough the permeability decreases with elapsed time, it becomes
almost constant beyond 15 days of curing period for lower cement contents (i.e.
4 % and 10 %), but at higher contents (e.g. 25 %), the permeability goes on
reducing drastically even after 15 days. Hence one can presume that reduction
in permeability is directly related to the hydration of cement. The reduction in
the permeability with reduction in the size of particles of the mixture (sand +
cement) is quite clear from Fig.6.4 which is a plot between the effective size
D10 of the
209
Chapter-6
-3
1x10
-4
1x10
Permeability, k (m/sec)
-5
1x10
-6
1x10
Cement content
4%
-7 10%
1x10 25%
-8
1x10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (days)
Fig.6.3 Effect of curing time on permeability of cement treated sand

-3
1x10
-4
1x10
-5
1x10
-6
1x10
-7 Soil : Medium Sand

1x10 Additive : cement
-8
1x10
0.01 0.1 1
D10 (mm)
Fig.6.4 Effect of effective size of particles on the permeability of cement treated sand
210
sand - cement mixture and the corresponding permeability. Similarly, the addition
of cement (process taking place in cement grouting) will cause a reduction in the
void ratio and consequently the permeability. The plot between the void ratios
‘e’ and the coefficient of permeability ‘k’ (Fig. 6.5) illustrates the reduction in
permeability accompanied by the reduction in void ratio.
-3
1x10
-4
1x10
-5
1x10
-6
1x10
Soil : Medium Sand

-7 Additive : Cement
1x10
-8
1x10
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Void ratio,e
Fig. 6.5 Plot between void ratio and permeability of sandy soil treated with cement
6.3 Cement with admixtures

In most of the cases, the primary aim of grouting is to reduce or cut off
seepage through sandy subsoil by making it impermeable by deposition of fine
materials in pore spaces with grouting. The sand layers may be uniform mass of
either very fine or coarse grains or it can also be a well graded media. The
hydraulic conductivity of sand beds can be reduced by injecting fine materials
(10 % cement + bentonite) into the interspaces of the formation (Lovely, 1998).
211
Chapter-6
A soil bentonite mix is a three phase material of solids, water and air.
Besides their different densities, the two components of the solid phase have
different properties and must be considered separately. The bentonite particles
have a very high specific surface (5 - 12 × 104 m2/kg) which allows them to
retain a portion of water that displays inability to flow as freely as the
remaining water in the pore space (Chapuis 1990). Fig.6. 6 presents the results
of permeability tests conducted on medium sand treated with two different
percentages – 4 % and 10 %. The different percentages of bentonite (0.2 to 1.5
% by wt. of the sand + cement mixture) was added and the permeability tests
were conducted after a curing period of 15 days, as per the procedure discussed
in section 3.4.3. It is clear that there is a phenomenal reduction in the
permeability due to the addition of this admixture, i.e., bentonite. Another
interesting observation is that, eventhough the permeability goes on decreasing
with % of bentonite, at higher % of bentonite (e.g. 1.5 %), the permeability
corresponding to 4 % cement and 10 % cement yield almost the same value.
-3
1x10
Soil : Medium sand

-4
1x10 Cement content: 4 %
Permeability, k (m / sec )
-5
1x10
-6
1x10
-7
1x10
-8
1x10
-9
1x10
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
% of Bentonite
Fig. 6.6 Effect of bentonite on permeability of sandy soil treated with cement
212
This result can be advantageously used in field applications such as

construction of subsurface check dams. i.e. by increasing the percentage of
bentonite by a small amount, one can get a saving in the quality of cement to
achieve the same permeability, thereby reducing the cost substantially.
6.4 Locally available clay

The permeability of granular soils may decrease substantially on account
of the presence of even small amounts of fine silt and clay sized particles. The
mineralogy and degree of aggregation or dispersion of the fines determine the
magnitude of the decrease in permeability (Terzaghi et al., 1996).
The reduction in the coefficient of permeability, at constant void ratio,

from kaolinite to illite to smectite is largely the result of a reduction in the size
of individual flow channels and an increase in the tortuosity of the flow paths
(Mesri and Olson, 1971).
Eventhough bentonite clay can be used for reducing the permeability of

sandy soils, the availability of bentonite is confined to certain regions. Hence
investigations were done to check whether the locally available clay could be
used in place of bentonite to reduce the cost factor involved.
Cochin marine clay collected from a location in Elamkulam (properties

given in table 3.3) in the Greater Cochin area was mixed with medium sand in
different percentages and the permeability was measured.
The results are presented in Fig. 6.7. It can be seen that unlike cement
(Fig. 6.1) where the permeability goes on reducing with cement content, the
reduction in permeability with increase in the percentage of clay is marginal,
upto a clay percentage of around 15 %. Thereafter, there is a drastic reduction
in permeability with percentage of clay. Experiments were also conducted on
213
Chapter-6
other sand fractions- i.e. fine and coarse. Different percentages of clay were
mixed with these sand fractions and the permeability tests were conducted. The
results of tests on these sand fractions are also given in Fig. 6.7.
-3
1x10
-4
1x10
-5
1x10
Permeability (m / sec)
-6
1x10
-7
1x10
Fine sand
-8 Medium sand
1x10
Coarse sand
-9
1x10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
clay (%)
Fig.6.7 Effect of percentage of clay on Permeability
214
Eventhough the permeability decreases with increase in clay percent in

all the three cases, the variation in the permeability in case of fine sand and
coarse sand are not in the same pattern. In the case of fine sand, there is a
gradual reduction in the ‘k’ value and the lowest permeability that could be
attained is only 3.4 x 10-7 m/ sec, even at a very high clay content of 25 %. In
contrast to this, there is no significant reduction in the permeability in case of
coarse sand mixed with clay ( upto around 17%), but the value suddenly drops
beyond a clay content of 20 % and a very low permeability of the order of 7.8 x
10-9 m/ sec can be achieved for a clay content of 25 %. The permeability value
for medium and coarse sand mixed with 25 % clay is only 1/40th of that of the
fine sand with the same amount of clay. Hence, if grouting can be performed
with a high percentage of clay, more reduction in permeability can be attained
in case of coarser fractions of sand.
In the above set of experiments, the same amount of clay (5, 10, 15, 20
& 25 %) was mixed with all the three fractions of sand, the initial unit weight
being 14.5 kN/ m3. Hence the void ratios of the specimens having the same clay
content remain the same. The void ratio in each case and the corresponding
permeability values for all the three fractions of sand are tabulated in Table 6.2.
The wide variations in permeability for the three sand fractions having the same
void ratio are quite clear from the table. In other words, we can get the same
permeability for different sand fractions, eventhough their void ratios are
different. For example, fine sand without any clay (void ratio = 0.83) and coarse
sand having 20 % clay (void ratio = 0.52) yield almost the same value of
permeability.
215
Chapter-6
Table 6.2 Effect of void ratio on permeability of sandy soil with clay
Sl. No. Coefficient of permeability k (m/sec) for

% of clay Void ratio
Fine sand Medium sand Coarse sand
1 0 0.83 5.0 x 10-5
1.86 x 10-4
2.69 x 10-4
2 5 0.74 3.0 x 10-5 1.47 x 10-4 2.24 x 10-4
3 10 0.66 2.0 x 10-5 1.39 x 10-4 1.81 x 10-4
4 15 0.59 1.0 x 10-5 4.6 x 10-5 1.71 x 10-4

5 20 0.52 2.67 x 10-6 1.1 x 10-5 5.87 x 10-5
6 25 0.46 3.36 x 10-7 9.1 x 10-9 7.8 x 10-9
The above fact is also brought out by the figure 6.8, which is a plot
between the effective size (D10) of the particles in the specimen and the
permeability. Eventhough the permeability is almost constant for all the soil
fractions at higher values of D10, it varies widely as the value of D10 decreases.
-3
1x10
-4
1x10
-5
1x10
-6
1x10
Fine Sand + Clay
-7
1x10 Medium Sand + Clay
Coarse Sand + Clay
-8
1x10
-9
1x10
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1
D10 (mm)
Fig.6.8 Effect of Permeability with grain size D10
216
6.5 Bentonite
Bentonite clay, which is also used as an antibleeder along with cement
grout was tried in order to reduce the permeability of the sand. Samples for
permeability test were prepared by mixing medium sand (unit weight 14.5 kN/
m3) and bentonite powder (in the dry condition) at different percentages and
filling the mixture in the moulds. The results obtained from the permeability
tests are given in Fig. 6.9. It can be seen from the figure that the permeability
reduces drastically as the percentages of the bentonite increases. The figure also
gives a comparison of the performance of bentonite in relation to the locally
available clay and cement. The effectiveness of bentonite in relation to Cochin
marine clay and cement in reducing the permeability of a sand medium is quite
clear from this figure.
-3
1x10
Soil : Medium sand
-4 Clay
1x10
Cement
Bentonite
Permeability, k (m / sec )
-5
1x10
-6
1x10
-7
1x10
-8
1x10
-9
1x10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
% of Additive
Fig.6.9 Effect of Permeability with additives
6.6 Locally available clay along with cement/ lime

The improvement in strength characteristics of the locally available clay
(Cochin marine clay) on treatment with lime or cement has been clearly brought
217
Chapter-6
-8
1.0x10
-9
9.0x10
-9
8.0x10
Permeability, k (m/sec)
-9
7.0x10
-9
6.0x10
-9
5.0x10
-9
Soil : Medium sand + 25% clay
4.0x10 Additive
Lime
-9
3.0x10 Cement
-9
2.0x10
-9
1.0x10 0 2 4 6 8
% of cement / lime
Fig. 6.10 Effect of additives on permeability of sandy soil treated with clay
out by Jose et al. (1987) and Abraham (1993). But the effect on permeability
when this clay is treated with these additives has not been studied. Experiments
were conducted in this direction by conducting permeability tests on the
samples prepared by mixing medium sand and 25 % Cochin marine clay treated
with different percentages (by dry weight of clay) of cement or lime and cured
for 15 days, in order to explore the possibility of getting further reduction in the
permeability. The results are presented in Fig. 6.10. Eventhough smaller
percentages of lime cause a reduction in permeability, it becomes more
permeable as the lime content increases. But the treatment with cement causes a
reduction in the permeability, the effect of which is more pronounced at higher
percentages of cement. Hence the permeability of a sand medium can be
reduced to any extent by the use of a proper combination of locally available
clay and cement.
218
Chapter 7
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
7.1 Introduction
7.3 Improvement of shear strength on grouting
7.3.2 Grouted with cement and admixtures
7.3.3 Grouted with lime
Contents

7.7 Studies on cement grouted sand beds
7.7.1 Grouting efficiency from cross section dimensions
7.7.2 Grouting efficiency from actual cement contents
7.7.3 Grouting efficiency from load tests
7.8 Permeability studies on the grouted soil
7.1 Introduction
There has been a rapid development in the field of civil engineering
requiring selection of site from considerations other than soil quality alone. This
results in the need to make use of sites with very low bearing capacity/strength
also, such as loose sandy soils. This investigation examines the scope of
improving granular soils of low strength with cement grouting. Results on
systematic studies carried out on strength of cement grouted sand medium from
219
Chapter-7
the view point of bearing capacity are scanty. Based on the experimental
investigations and test results, the following conclusions are made.

Investigations carried out to assess the improvement in the load carrying
capacity of sand beds on densification through vibration techniques gave the
following conclusions.
¾ The load carrying capacity of the sand medium depends not only on the
density but also on the gradation and the load carrying capacity of finer
fractions, is always higher compared to the coarser fractions irrespective
of the density. This can be attributed to the increased contact area
between the particles, in the case of finer fractions.
¾ Maximum densification improves the load carrying capacity of the sand

at the loosest state by 16 times and even that would not be sufficient to
serve as the bed for shallow foundations in the case of multistoreyed
buildings.
7.3 Improvement of shear strength on grouting

The present investigations mainly focused at studies on the strength
behaviour of these loose sandy soils when grouted with different materials such
as cement with or without admixtures, lime etc. Grouted sand present the
general characteristic of cemented soils and can be considered as an
intermediate material between soil and concrete (Dano et al. 2004). The review
of published experimental results related to grouted sand (Schwarz and Krizek
1994; Zebovitz et al.1989) reveals a large discrepancy in the results due to a
wide variety of parameters related to the soil (grain size distribution, density
220
Summary and Conclusions
specific area, etc), the grout (nature, type, particle size distribution etc) and the
injection conditions (rate of discharge, grout pressure, injection procedure etc).
The conclusions drawn from the results of a series of direct shear tests,
conducted on samples prepared (by hand mixing) with different grouting
materials are given below.
¾ The shear strength of the loose sandy soil steadily increases with
increase in cement content and also with curing period, for all sand
fractions.
¾ The rate of increase in shear strength is very high at higher percentages

of cement than at lower percentages in the case of all the sand fractions.
¾ Eventhough specimens of medium sand give higher shear strength than

coarse sand specimens at lower cement contents; the coarse sand
specimens register higher strength as the cement content increases.
¾ The influence of the increased initial water content of the grout is to

decrease the shear strength of the grouted sand and the effect is more
pronounced at higher cement contents.
¾ Shear strength of the grouted sand increases with increase in normal

pressure. The stress–strain response exhibits a linear relationship prior to
the peak, for all cement contents and the value of shear strength steadily
increases with increase in cement content.
Several admixtures are used along with the cement grout to improve the
various properties of grout suspensions. The effects of these admixtures on the
strength of grouted sand were not studied previously. The following
221
Chapter-7
conclusions are made related to the shear strength of loose sand grouted with
cement along with these admixtures.
¾ The effect of accelerators (Calcium chloride & sodium silicate) is to

reduce the strength slightly, but while considering the other benefits
such as improvement in properties like viscosity, stability and the early
setting of the grout, this reduction in strength is within the tolerable
limits. Among the two accelerators studied, the performance of calcium
chloride is better, compared to sodium silicate with regard to shear
strength.
¾ One has to be very careful in the use of tartaric acid (retarder) with
cement grout. The results indicate a sharp decrease in shear strength
value when the cement content is less than 0.15 %. The shear strength
increases at lower percentage of triethanolamine and a marginal
reduction is noticed as the percentage of this salt increases. Comparing
the two retarders, triethanolamine gives much higher shear strength even
at lower percentages and hence can be considered as a better retarder.
¾ The shear strength increases upto the optimum dosage (0.05 %) of

detergent (fluidiser), thereafter the value is found to decrease.
¾ The use of optimum dosage (below 0.02 %) of aluminium powder

(expander) increases the shear strength of the grouted sand.
¾ The shear strength is found to increase with increases in percentage of

aluminium sulphate (antibleeder), eventhough there is a slight reduction
at lower percentage of this salt. The addition of bentonite (which is also
an antibleeder) to the cement grout causes a reduction (approx. 15 %) in
shear strength.
222
¾ The shear strength of the loose sandy soil increases with increase in lime
content and curing period, but this increase is negligible compared to
the tremendous increase in shear strength when cement is used as the
grout material.

The effect of grouting on the shear strength parameters ‘c’ and ‘Ø’ are
studied in detail and the following conclusions made.
The value of cohesion intercept c and angle of shearing resistance Ø

steadily increase with increase in cement content and also with curing period.
The rate of increase in Ø value is only marginal beyond a certain value of
cement content (approx. 15%). The effect of curing period is more significant at
higher percentages of cement than at lower percentages.
¾ The influence of the initial water content of the cement grout is very
significant in the case of values of c and with Ø. While the value of c
drastically reduces with increase in i.w.c., the effect on Ø- value is just
opposite. i.e. the value of Ø goes on increasing with increase in the
initial water content of the grout, except in the case of fine sand.
¾ Among the two accelerators tried, the reduction in Ø- value is more with
the addition of Calcium Chloride compared to Sodium Silicate but the
greater increase in cohesion intercept results in increased shear strength.
223
Chapter-7
¾ The use of triethanolamine as a retarder causes only a marginal

reduction in Ø- value which is compensated by the increase in cohesion
intercept. The addition of even a very small percentage of tartaric acid
(around 0.5%) brings down the Ø- value by 10 %, but the same amount
of reduction is experienced only at high percentages (8 to 10%) of
triethanolamine. Hence these results also confirm that one has to be very
careful in the use of tartaric acid as a retarder along with cement grouts.
¾ The use of optimum dosage (0.05 %) of the detergent (fluidiser) will not
adversely affect the values of the shear strength parameters.
¾ Unlike other admixtures, the addition of aluminium powder increases

the Ø- value of the cement grouted sand. The use of optimum dosage
(0.005 %) will also not adversely affect the cohesion intercept.
¾ Eventhough there is a marginal decrease in cohesion initially (at around

2%), increase in percentage of aluminium sulphate increases the
cohesion intercept and the effect of curing period also significantly in
the case of aluminium sulphate.
¾ A comparison between the effects of the two antibleeders i.e.,

aluminium sulphate and bentonite on the cohesion intercept shows that
the effect of aluminium sulphate is to increase the cohesion whereas
bentonite causes a slight reduction in the value of cohesion intercept.
But the Ø- value after an initial reduction, increases with increase in
percentages of these two admixtures.
224
¾ When lime is used as a grouting material the cohesion intercept

increases with increase in lime content and curing period, but decreases
with increase in the initial water content.
¾ The Ø value remains more or less constant at the initial stages, but the
value increases at higher lime contents (beyond 15%). Another
interesting observation is that in the case of lime also, the value of Ø
increases with increase in water content, which is not in line with the
variation of c value.
¾ The marginal improvement in the values of the shear strength

parameters compared to the tremendous improvement when the loose
sandy soil is grouted with lime and cement respectively, confirms the
superiority of cement over lime in grouting granular beds.

Determination of shear strength through direct shear test is a time
consuming process and at higher cement contents it is very difficult to conduct
this test till the failure at lower normal loads occurs. It is also difficult to collect
three to four identical samples after grouting. Compressive strength tests were
done on the grouted samples with the objective of arriving at some simple
correlation between the compressive strength and the shear strength of grouted
samples, since this test is very simple and can be done very accurately,
irrespective of the cement content. The conclusions drawn from the test results
are,
¾ Compressive strength goes on increasing with increase in percentage of

cement content and curing period. Also, as in the case of shear strength,
225
Chapter-7
the compressive strength also decreases with increase in initial water

content.
¾ The compressive strength increases with increase in cement content for

all the three sand fractions – i.e. fine, medium and coarse sand.
Eventhough the coarse fraction shows less strength than the fine &
medium sand at lower cement contents, it overtakes the other two, as the
cement content increases (beyond 15%).
¾ A comparison between the performance of calcium chloride and sodium

silicate (accelerators) on the compressive strength shows that calcium
chloride is preferred over sodium silicate as an admixture, along with
cement grout.
¾ Among the retarders, the reduction in strength is much less in the case of
triethanolamine compared to tartaric acid. Further the property of
triethanolamine in reducing the viscosity of cement grouts can be taken
advantage of in using this as an admixture along with cement grout.
¾ Use of aluminium powder (expander) in cement grouts does not affect

the compressive strength.
¾ The effect of both the antibleeders - aluminium sulphate and bentonite -

on the compressive strength of cement grouted sand is almost the same.
Eventhough there is an initial reduction in strength at smaller
percentages, it picks up strength as the percentage increases. Hence,
both these admixtures can be used as antibleeders along with cement
grouts without adversely affecting the compressive strength.
226

Attempts to correlate the results from compressive strength and shear
strength tests yield the following very useful relationships.
¾ Correlation between the cohesion intercept c and compressive strength p

of the grouted soils gives an excellent straight line relationship with a
high correlation coefficient of 0.95 as,
¾ The relationship between the angle of shearing resistance Ø and the

compressive strength p is a non linear one and the equation is
with a correlation coefficient of 0.83
¾ The relationship between shear strength and compressive strength p is

given by the following equation.
with a high correlation coeff. of 0.96
7.7 Studies on cement grouted sand beds

In order to simulate the grouting process in the field, model tests were
conducted on sand beds prepared in steel tanks in the laboratory. For this
purpose, a grouting set up was designed and fabricated. The grouting nozzle
was designed so as facilitate the flow of the grout smoothly both in the vertical
and lateral directions. The following conclusions were drawn from the results
of the model studies conducted using this set up developed in order to study the
grouting efficiency.
227
Chapter-7
7.7.1 Grouting efficiency from cross section dimensions
¾ A comparison of cross sectional area of grouted mass (medium sand)

with 2, 4 and 6 % cement shows that the effective cross section area of
the mass grouted with 4 % cement is maximum at all depths. A grouted
volume as high as 78 % of the original volume was obtained in the case
of 4 % cement grout, whereas it was only 45 % and 53 % in the case of
2 % and 6 % cement grouts respectively.
¾ In the case of coarse sand also, grouting with 4% cement gave the
maximum areas of cross section, which is less than that of medium sand.
¾ Use of admixtures in cement grout does not enhance the cross section
area of medium sand.
¾ The admixtures used play an important role in increasing the cross

section areas of the grouted mass, in the case of coarse sand. 15 %
bentonite and 0.05 % detergent (by weight of cement) prove to be very
effective along with 6 % cement grout in coarse sand.
7.7.2 Grouting efficiency from actual cement contents
The efficiency of grouting mainly depends upon the penetration of

cement grout through the pores of sand. The following conclusions are drawn
from the results of cement contents determined by chemical analysis on
samples from the grouted mass, in order to assess the quantity of lateral flow of
grout into the soil mass.
¾ 4 % cement grout is more effective in medium sand and coarse sand

compared to 2 % and 6 %, while considering the travel distance of the
grout and the cement contents at various points in the grouted mass.
228
¾ Use of admixtures enhances the lateral flow in the case of both medium
& coarse sand. Aluminium sulphate performs better as an antibleeder
compared to bentonite, when used along with cement grout, in the case
of medium sand.
¾ A combination of 15 % bentonite and 0.05 % detergent along with 6 %

cement grout was found to be very effective in the case of coarse sand.
7.7.3 Grouting efficiency from load tests
The results of a series of load tests conducted on the grouted sand beds
gave the following conclusions
¾ A comparison in the strength behaviour between medium sand and

coarse sand when grouted with 4% cement shows that the strength of the
grouted coarse sand is much higher and it exhibits a brittle type failure.
¾ For coarse sand, a minimum cement content is required for the grouting
to be effective. This may be due to the increased pore space available in
the case of coarse sand compared to medium sand.
¾ Eventhough there is a slight reduction (around 20%) in strength in

medium sand, the admixtures make the grouted sand bed to be more
ductile, thus eliminating the chances of a sudden failure of foundations.
¾ In the case of coarse sand, the admixtures help to increase the load
carrying capacity (twice the strength compared to the sand bed grouted
without admixtures). This can be attributed to the increased lateral flow
of the grout when admixtures are used along with cement in grouting
coarse sand bed
229
Chapter-7
¾ A comparison in strength of the medium sand beds grouted with cement

(grout pumped through grout pump) with that of the uniformly mixed
sand beds (ideal condition) stresses the need for developing more
appropriate grouting tools and methods for making the grouting process
more efficient so that the foundation design can be made more
economical.
7.8 Permeability studies on the grouted soil

The following conclusions are drawn from the results of permeability
tests conducted on sand samples prepared with different grouting materials.
¾ The permeability goes on reducing with increase in cement content.
¾ The effect of the curing period is to decrease the permeability of cement

grouted sand. But at lower cement contents, the permeability remains
more or less constant beyond a curing period of 15 days.
¾ The permeability got reduced by 1/7400th in the case of medium sand

grouted with 25% cement and cured for 28 days.
¾ Addition of small percentages of bentonite along with cement grout

drastically reduces the permeability. A substantial reduction in cost can
be achieved by reducing the cement content and slightly increasing the
corresponding bentonite content to obtain a particular value of
permeability.
¾ Locally available clay (Cochin marine clay) is found to be very effective

in reducing the permeability of sand beds. With higher percentages of
clay, greater permeability reduction is achieved in coarse sand fractions.
230
¾ Among the various grouting materials tried, bentonite is found to be the

most effective in reducing the permeability of granular beds.
¾ The effect of cement is more pronounced, compared to lime, when used

along with clay in reducing the permeability of sandy beds. The
permeability of a sand medium can be reduced to any extent by the use
of a proper combination of locally available clay and cement.
Thus the present study undoubtedly proves the effectiveness of using

grouting as an efficient technique in improving the foundation beds of loose
sandy soils.
231
Chapter-7
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90. Sinroja, J. M., Joshi, N. H. and Shroff, A. V.(2006). “Ground
improvement technique using microfine slag cement grouts” IGC
2006,14-16 December 2006, Chennai, p 661-664
242
References
91. Terzaghi. K., Peck. R. B. and Mesri. G. (1996). “ Soil mechanics in

engineering practice.” John Wiley & Sons. Singapore., INC Newyork.
92. Uppot, J. O. and Stephenson, R. W. (1989). “Permeability of clay under
organic permeants.” J.Geotech.. Engrg., ASCE, 130(10), 115-131.
93. Vadivel, R. (2006). “Ground improvement using jet grout pile for
tunneling in soft marine clay.” Proc. Of the Indian Geotech.
Con.,Chennai, 905-908.
94. Vipulanandan, C. and Orgurel, H. G. (2009). “Simplified relationships
for particle size diatribution and permeation groutability limits for
soils.” J.Geotech. and Geoenvir. Engrg., ASCE.
95. Yilmaz. D., Babuccu. F., Batmaz. S. and Kavruk. F. (2008). “
Liquefaction analysis and soil improvement in beydag dam.” Geotech.
Geol. Eng., 26: 211-224
96. Yoon, S. and Farsakh, M. A. (2009). “Laboratory investigation on the
strength characteristics of cement-sand as base material.” Geotech.
Engr., KSCE J. of Civil Engrg., 13(1), 15-22.
97. Zebovitz, S., Krizek, R. J. and Atmatzidis, D. K. (1989) Injection of
Fine Sands with Very Fine Cement Grout, Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, 115(12), 1717-1733.
243
References
244
PUBLICATIONS
Publications based on the research works
Papers in Journals
1. Improvement of strength of loose sandy soils by grouting. Journal of

Ground improvement, Thomas Telford, London, (Communicated).
2. Effect of water content of grout on strength of grouted soils. Journal of
Civil Engineering Research & Practice, Ghana. (Communicated).
Papers in conferences
1. Improvement of strength parameters of loose sandy soils by grouting.

Indian Geotechnical Conference-2008 Bangalore.
2. Influence of admixtures on strength of cement grouted soils. Indian
Geotechnical Conference-2009 Guntur
3. Improvement of strength parameters of loose sandy soils by lime
grouting. International conference on advances in materials and
techniques in civil engineering (ICAMAT- 2010).
245

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A STUDY ON THE ENGINEERING BEHAVIOUR OF

DIVISION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Sri. Santhosh Kumar. T. G, under my supervision and guidance at School of Engineering,

title or recognition from this or any other institution.

Dr. Benny Mathews Abraham

I, Santhosh Kumar.T.G hereby declare that the work presented in the

Kochi-22 Santhosh Kumar. T.G.

Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................................. 7-36

Chapter 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS .............................................................. 37-60

Chapter 5 STUDIES ON CEMENT GROUTED SAND BEDS ........................... 159-203

PUBLICATIONS ................................................................................................ 245

Ground improvement refers to any procedure undertaken to increase the

lowering of water table prior to excavation has to be carried out by dewatering

Vibro-compaction is used to increase the density of loose sand. This

Grouting is quite a familiar technique in the field of civil engineering,

Grouts can be broadly classified as suspension grouts and solution

Properties of a grout are described in terms of five parameters:

Even though grouting has found several applications in the practice of

Chapter 2 presents a detailed review of the literature available on the

Chapter 4 presents the results of the investigations carried out on

Chapter 4 also presents the results of the compressive strength tests

Chapter 6 presents the results of permeability tests conducted on

Number of conclusions drawn based on the results obtained from the

2.3 Grouting Technique

Grouting is a procedure by means of which grout is injected into voids,

properties, specifically to reduce permeability, to improve strength or to reduce

Grout is injected under pressure into the material to be grouted until it

2.2 Strength improvement on densification

Soil compaction can offer effective solutions for many foundation

Bement and Selby (1997) investigated the compaction settlement of

For cohesionless soils with dominant particle-size increase, the angle of

2.3 Grouting technique

lithicity and impenetrability to the concrete masonry of structures; in mining for

Permeation grouting is commonly used in geotechnical engineering

Compaction grouting could be effectively used to mitigate liquefaction

Microfine cement suspensions with a water: cement ratio of 4 or higher

The concept of a limiting effect or a boundary effect of grouting is of

The procedure adopted for preparation of a grouted bed in the laboratory

Littlejohn (1982), Lowe and Standford (1982) Clarke et al. (1992) De

The safe construction and operation of many structures frequently

Boulanger and Hayden (1995) reported that, in many situations, the

The permeability and strength of grouted sand is strongly influenced by

The groutability ratio is not a universally applicable criterion, and values

The grouting technique in the MRRB project at Kaohsiung City in the

2.4 Grouting materials

Cement based grout mixtures can be investigated in soil laboratories in

of this adhesive force as a function of cement content is based on extensive

The groutability of sand with acrylamide grout was influenced by the

Soil-grout mix called soilcrete was used for ground improvement to

Suspended particles with an equivalent diameter less than about one-

Improving ground strength, considerations should include the ease with

Some recommendation can be advanced regarding the development of a

assure full development of the mechanical properties of the grouted mass

Cement and clay mixtures have found widespread use on Tennessee

Fluidity is an inverse function of initial viscosity, bearing an

The rheological properties significantly influenced the case of

Sinroja et al. (2006) Through their studies using microfine slag

Deere (1982) reported that in a very thin mix with a water-