Macromolecule:

polysacharide, polypeptide
– protein and lipids
REZI RIADHI SYAHDI, M.FARM.
What is a macromolecule?

 Large molecules made up of smaller building blocks or subunits

 They are polymers made up of monomers!

 Carbohydrate, protein, nucleic acid, lipid

 Monomer

 A building block for macromolecules

 Its like one brick in a brick wall
 Each brick is a link to a larger wall full of bricks
Carbohydrates

 STRUCTURE:
 Contain mostly Carbon, Hydrogen, & Oxygen (CHO)
 Most carbohydrates have the composition of 1C:2H:1O ratio
 1:2:1 ratio is seen in glucose C6H12O6

 FUNCTION:
 Provide our cells with fuel (energy) to perform all cellular activities
 Also provide strength and structure to cells and other organisms (ex:
insects)
Polysaccharides- complex carbs

 When large numbers of simple sugars (monosaccharides) are joined

together

 What is the polymer? What are the monomers?

 Depending on what monosaccharides make up the

polysaccharide, they can function as stores of energy or as
structural material
Carbohydrates

 Disaccharides—two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis

 Examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose
 Dehydration
synthesis
H 2O
Hydrolysis

Glucose Fructose Sucrose Water

Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis of a molecule of sucrose
Form follows function…

 Form follows function

 Phrase often used in biology meaning that the structure of an organism
will evolve to best fit its function!
 Ex: Sharks are streamline in order to swim quickly through the water to
catch prey (Streamline form evolved as a predation advantage)
 Carbohydrates main function is energy!
 How does this relate to the structure of a carbohydrate?
 Carbs have a lot of C-H bonds, & when they are broken, a lot of energy
is released!
 This chemical energy can be used to make ATP!
 Energy from disaccharides &
polysaccharides is harder to obtain

 First must break the bond between the individual sugar molecules &
then those sugar molecules can be broken down (C-H bonds will
release energy)

 Starch is a polysaccharide consisting of 100+ glucose molecules

joined together in a line
 Starch is the form of energy storage in plants (corn, rice, grains,
potatoes)
 Starch can still be used as energy, but it takes longer to break it down…
why?
 Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides
• are formed when many
monosaccharides are joined
together.
• include amylose, amylopectin,
cellulose, and glycogen, which
are polymers of D-glucose and
differ by branching and types of
glycosidic bonds. α-D-Glucose

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Other Complex Carbohydrates
• Chitin
– Forms outer shell of insects and crustaceans
– What is the function of chitin?
• Cellulose
– Most prevalent compound on earth!
– Forms plant structures
– Indigestible to humans- but still important… Do you know why?
• Roughage- actually scrapes your digestive tract walls to rid them of any
unwanted/harmful products of digestion

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Polysaccharides in animals and plants
• Glycogen: animals store glucose in the form of the
large, complex molecule – glycogen

• Starch: plants store glucose molecules in the form

of starch.

• Cellulose: large polysaccharide made by plants,

which provide strength and rigidity to plant cells.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Starch

Starch is
• a storage form of glucose in plants, found as insoluble
granules in rice, wheat, potatoes, beans, and cereals.
• composed of two kinds of polysaccharides: amylose and
amylopectin.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Starch: Amylose

Amylose, which makes up about 20% of starch, consists of 250 to

4000 α-D-glucose molecules connected by α-(1 4)-glycosidic
bonds in a continuous chain. Polymer chains of amylose are coiled
in a helical fashion.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Starch: Amylopectin

Amylopectin
• makes up as much as 80% of starch.
• is a branched-chain polysaccharide.
• contains glucose molecules connected by α-(1 4)-
and α-(1 6)-glycosidic bonds.

Starches hydrolyze easily in water and acid to give

smaller saccharides, called dextrins, which then
hydrolyze to maltose and finally glucose.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Starch: Amylopectin

In our bodies, these complex carbohydrates

• are digested by the enzymes amylase in saliva and
maltase in the intestines.
• provide about 50% of our nutritional calories from the
glucose obtained in digestion.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
Cellulose

The polysaccharide cellulose is composed of glucose

units connected by β-(1 4)-glycosidic bonds.
Animal Starch: Glycogen
Glycogen is
 a polymer of glucose that is stored in the liver
and muscle of animals.
 hydrolyzed in our cells at a rate that maintains
the blood level of glucose and provides energy
between meals.
 similar to amylopectin but more highly branched.

The glucose units in glycogen are joined by α-(1

4)-glycosidic bonds, with branches attached by α-
(1 6)-glycosidic bonds that occur every 10–15
glucose units.
White vs. whole grain
White vs. whole grain

 White bread is a simple carbohydrate (little nutritional

value, digested more quickly, converted to fat more
quickly)
 Whole grain bread is a complex carbohydrate (high
in fiber, vitamins and minerals, provide more energy,
digested slowly)
Concept Map
Lipids

 Structure:
 Made primarily of CHO
 Just like carbs but in different proportions
 Come in a variety of structures, making them harder to define

 Function:
 Contain more stored energy than carbohydrates

 Characteristics of lipids:
 Not soluble in water… what does this mean?
 Greasy to touch
 Nonpolar
3 Types of Lipids

 Fats
 Long term energy storage & insulation

 Sterols
 Regulate growth & development
 Ex: cholesterol, sex hormones

 Phospholipids
 Form cell membranes that enclose cells, providing a barrier
Fats
 Glycerol head region and 2-3 long fatty acid tails
 The fatty acid tails are hydrocarbons
 Hydrocarbons = chain of a dozen or so carbons bonded
together with 1 or 2 hydrogen atoms on each carbon atom
 Triglycerides are fats that have 3 fatty acid hydrocarbon
tails
 The chemical breakdown of fat molecules release more
energy than carbohydrates
What does “partially hydrogenated”
mean?
 A liquid unsaturated fat (like
vegetable oil) has had H
added to it to make it more
saturated.
 Changes the texture and
consistency of the food
 Gives chocolate that melt in
your mouth texture
 It is less healthy though
because saturated fats are
more likely to accumulate in
your blood vessels since
they’re less reactive
 Structural formula of a
saturated fat molecule.

(a) Saturated fat. At room temperature, the

molecules of a saturated fat such as this
butter are packed closely together, forming
a solid.
 Structural formula of an
unsaturated fat molecule.

(b) Unsaturated fat. At room temperature,

the molecules of an unsaturated fat such as
this olive oil cannot pack together closely
enough to solidify because of the kinks in
some of their fatty acid chains.
Lipids Nonhydrolyzable Lipids
Lipids Hydrolyzable Lipids

30
Complex lipids

Subclassified according to the type of prosthetic

group

Phospholipids Glycolipids Lipoproteins

Sources:
Phospholipids
Phospholipids
They are found in all
cells (plant and animal), may be
milk and egg-yolk in classified on the
the form of lecithins.
Structure: basis of the type
phospholipids are of alcohol
composed of: present
1. Fatty acids (a
saturated and an
unsaturated fatty
acid).
2. Nitrogenous base
(choline, serine,
threonine, or
ethanolamine).
3. Phosphoric acid.
4. Fatty alcohols
(glycerol, inositol or
sphingosine).
A. Glycerophospholipids B. Spingophospholipids

 Phosphatidylcholine
 Phosphatidyl
ethanolamine
 Spingomyelins
 Phosphatidyl serine
 Phosphatidyl inositol
 Plasmalogens
 Cardiolipins
 Glycolipids
Classification:
According to the number and nature
of the carbohydrate residue(s) present
in the glycolipids the following are
1. Cerebrosides. They have one
galactose molecule (galactosides).

2. Sulfatides. They are cerebrosides

with sulfate on the sugar (sulfated
cerebrosides).

3. Gangliosides. They have several

sugar and sugaramine residues.
Definition:
Lipoproteins are lipids combined with
proteins in the tissues. The lipid
Lipoproteins
component is phospholipid, cholesterol
or triglycerides. The holding bonds are
secondary bonds. Lipid with
They include: prosthetic
group PROTEIN
1. Structural lipoproteins:
• These are widely distributed in tissues being present in
cellular and subcellular membranes.
• In lung tissues acting as a surfactant in a complex of a
protein and lecithin. In the eye, rhodopsin of rods is a Chylomicrons
lipoprotein complex. Very low density
lipoprotein
2. Transport lipoproteins: (VLDL)
These are the forms present in blood plasma. Low density
 They are composed of a protein called apolipoprotein and lipoprotein (LDL)
different types of lipids. (Cholesterol, cholesterol esters, High density
phospholipids and triglycerides). lipoprotein (HDL)
As the lipid content increases, the density of plasma
lipoproteins decreases
Lipids Hydrolyzable Lipids

37
Lipoproteins (examples: LDL & HDL)

Lipoproteins consist of a
core of triglycerides and
cholesterol surrounded by
a shell of protein,
phospholipids, and
cholesterol.
Phospholipids orient with
their fat-soluble “tails”
toward the interior of the
lipoprotein and their water-
soluble “heads” toward
the watery environment
outside the lipoprotein
Proteins

 Function:
 Many functions; they are the building blocks of life!
 Make up bones, muscles, skin, feathers; fight microorganisms; control
chemicals in your blood stream; carry oxygen; act as enzymes
 Structural, protective, regulatory, contractile, transport
 Enzymes- start and assist in chemical reactions
 Structure:
 Made from CHO & N and some have S
 Made up of 20 different amino acids (monomers)
Proteins in our Diets

 When we eat proteins, our body recycles the amino acids to make
more proteins
 Proteins can also store energy in their bonds
 Our bodies can make some amino acids, but about half of the 20
cannot be made… where do we get them?
 These a.a. that we can’t make are called the essential amino acids
Categories of Amino Acids
11 Nonessential: The body can make
9 Essential: The body cannot from nitrogen & carbohydrate
make. intermediates.
1. Alanine
1. Histidine
2. Arginine
2. Isoleucine 3. Asparagine
3. Leucine 4. Aspartic acid
5. Cysteine
4. Lysine
6. Glycine
5. Methionine 7. Glutamic acid
6. Phenylalanine 8. Glutamine
7. Threonine 9. Proline
10. Serine
8. Tryptophan 11. Tyrosine
9. Valine
Proteins without Animals

 Amount of protein and amounts of

the amino acids are important
 Most plant sources are low in one
of two of the needed amino acids
 But they can complement each
other
 Complimentary Proteins
Protein Structure

 Proteins are formed by linking amino acids together with a peptide

bond
 Dipeptide
 Polypeptide

Dehydration ynth
S esis Reaction
Primary Protein Structure
 The sequence of amino acids in the
polypeptide chain

 Example: methionine-lysine-
guanine-cysteine-proline-valine
Secondary Protein Structure
 Amino acids in a polypeptide
chain do not remain in a simple
line, but there are corkscrew
twists and pleated folds formed
by hydrogen bonds between
the amino acids in the chain
 Alpha helix
 Beta pleated sheets
Tertiary Protein Structure

 The protein folds and

bends on itself forming a
complex 3D shape based
on the side chain
interactions with each
other and with the
aqueous surrounding
environment
Quaternary Protein Structure
 Some proteins have a quaternary structure if 2 different
polypeptide chains are held together by amino acids from each
 Hemoglobin is made of 4 polypeptide chains
 Protein structure is essential to proper function
Proteins

 Fibrous (structural) proteins

 Appear in body structures
 Exhibit secondary, tertiary, or even quaternary structure
 Bind structures together and exist in body tissues
 Stable proteins
 Examples include collagen and keratin
(a) Triple helix of collagen
(a fibrous or structural
protein).
Proteins

 Globular (functional) proteins

 Function as antibodies, hormones, or enzymes
 Exhibit at least tertiary structure
 Can be denatured and no longer perform physiological roles
 Active sites “fit” and interact chemically with other molecules
Table 2.6 Representative Classes of Functional Proteins.
BIO-MEDICAL IMPORTANCE
Enzymes

 Proteins help initiate and speed up specific chemical reactions in

our bodies
 RNA or protein molecules that act as biological catalysts
 Catalyst – speeds up the reaction by lowering the activation energy

 Essential for cellular function

 They remain unchanged at the end of the reaction, thus can be

reused again and again
ENZYMES
 Active site- a groove in the protein that provides a
place for the participants (reactants or substrate) in
the chemical reaction to nestle

 Each Enzyme bonds with a specific Substrate for form

the Active Site
Figure 2.20 A simplified view of enzyme action.

Product (P)
Energy is e.g., dipeptide
Substrates (S) Water is
absorbed; Peptide
e.g., amino acids released.
bond is bond
formed. H2O

Active site

Enzyme-substrate
complex (E-S)
Enzyme (E) 1 Substrates bind at active 2 The E-S complex Enzyme (E)
site, temporarily forming an undergoes internal 3 The enzyme
enzyme-substrate complex. rearrangements that releases the product
form the product. of the reaction.