CHAPTER 2

WORLD HERITAGE SITES

2.1 Introduction

Around the world, there are a number of cultural and natural heritage sites that are

claimed as special and important to all people (UNESCO,2003). Among these sites,

some are considered to have outstanding values to the humanity. A site is called a World

Heritage (WH) site when it is put on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization‟s (UNESCO) World Heritage List for its outstanding universal

value (OUV).

This chapter discusses about World Heritage (WH) sites, which requires an essential

understanding of outstanding universal value (OUV) that was defined in the Convention

1972 in the first part. This is follows by identification of heritage cities in Asia and

Pacific regions. This part also outlines the general characteristics of Melaka and George

Town WH cities- properties area and their cultural properties. This background is

important as it partly contributes to the significance of the cultural properties with three

criteria demonstrate at both Melaka and George Town World Heritage (WH) sites,

which are the subjects to the second part. The last part of this chapter discusses on

guidelines (internationally) on the conservation of historic cities to understand the

reason for continuous presence of an increasing challenges in monitoring the state of

conservation, as both cities constantly faced development pressures, where the

authenticity and integrity for the inclusion of cultural properties on the WH list is

affected.

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2.2 World Heritage Sites

Heritage, in the context of conservation, means our legacy from the past, what we live

with today and what we pass on to future generation. Our cultural and natural heritage is

both an irreplaceable source of life and inscription (UNESCO, 2004).

World Heritage (WH) site is the term applied to sites with outstanding universal value

(OUV) for cultural or natural significance, which are included in the World Heritage

List. The WH site is either an area or structure designated by UNESCO as being of

global significance and conserved by a country that has signed a United Nations

convention promising for its protection. Therefore, WH sites belong to all the peoples of

the world, regardless of the territory on which they are located (UNESCO, 2005). WH

sites in Malaysia are equally belong to Malaysian and other people from India or China,

as mentioned in the General Conference of the United Nations Education, Scientific and

Cultural Organization meeting, 1972. As the Convention stated:

Without prejudice to national sovereignty or ownership, constitute a world heritage

for whose protection it is a duty of the international community as a whole to
cooperate (UNESCO, 1972).

Fielden & Jokilehto (1993) supported that WH, either cultural property or natural

property, is an invaluable and fragile treasure that cannot be replaced once it is gone.

The lost of cultural heritage will led to the lost of heritage not only to the country, but

also to the international community. However, there should be some common reference

in order to justify issues of internationally-shared assessments. There are relevant

documents to be referred to. They are:

l) Universal Declaration of Human Rights, where everyone has the right to a standard

of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family,

including food, clothing, housing, medical care and social services. The United

31
 Nation Millennium Declaration defines the fundamental value of humanity is

referred to freedom, equality, solidarity, tolerance, respect for nature and shared

responsibility.

Therefore, values are not there to serve philosophers or theologians, but to help people

live their lives and organise their societies. Globalisation is a phenomenon that has

brought people closer to each other. At the same time, the people do not have balance

share of benefits and burdens of this globalization.

ii) The World Heritage Convention (UNESCO, 1972) notes that universal value is a

notion of universality, where the heritage of humanity is a product of culture and the

well-being of all human society. And also recognised by;

 The UNESCO Declaration on Cultural diversity (UNESCO, 2001).

 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of Cultural Expression (UNESCO,

2005) that recognizes the commonality of the heritage of humanity in maintaining

pace by contributing to the solidarity and tolerance, as well as calling for shared

responsibility.

The universal value of cultural and natural heritage has gradually found its modern

recognition in the international doctrine. In the context of WHC, the definition was

given in 1998:

The requirement of OUV characterizing cultural and natural heritage should be

interpreted as an outstanding responsible to the issues of universal nature common to
or addressed by all human cultures (WHC, 1998).

32
 According to the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage

Convention (UNESCO. 2012, Paragraph 155; p. 29):

OUV should include a summary identifying the criteria under which the property was
inscribed, including the assessments of the conditions of integrity or authenticity, and
of the protection and management in force and the requirements for protection and
management (UNESCO, 2012, p. 29).

Definition of OUV means “cultural and/or national significance which is exceptional as

to transcend national boundaries and to be of common importance for present and future

generations of all humanity” (UNESCO, 2008). Jokilehto (2006) defines the concept of

value is produced through cultural-social process, learning and maturing of awareness.

Jokilehto (2010) again stressed that from the cultural point of view, OUV is not in the

technical globalisation of building forms and techniques, but rather in the culturally

varied expression that have been safeguarded in older historic cities (UNESCO, 2010,

p.55).

Until the end of 2004, in Decision 6 EXT.COM 5.1, the World Heritage Committee had

decided that all nominated sites must be of "outstanding universal value" and meet at

least one of the ten criteria made by the Government of the country where the site is

located. Therefore, the site should meet one or more of the following criteria and the test

of authenticity.

Table 2. 1: Summary of criteria of outstanding universal value (OUV)

Categories Criteria

Cultural Heritage (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)

Natural Heritage (vii), (viii),(ix), (x)

33
Those ten criteria as the references for the Committee to justify the inclusion in the list

only in exceptional circumstances or in conjunction with other cultural or natural

criteria.

A. Cultural Criteria

There are six criteria as the references for the Committee to justify the inclusion in the

list only in the exceptional circumstances or in conjunction with other cultural heritage

criteria (UNESCO, 2012):

(i) To represent a masterpiece of human creative genuine, or

(ii) To exhibit an imprint interchange of human values, over span of time or within a
cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture, monumental arts,
town-planning and landscape design; or

(ii) To bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a

civilization which is living or which has disappeared; or

(iii) To be an outstanding examples of a type of building or architectural ensemble or

landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history; or

(v) To be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement or land-use

which is representative of a culture (or cultures), especially when it has become
vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change; or

(vi) To be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas,
or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal value
significance (the Committee considers that this criterion should justify inclusion
in the list only in exceptional circumstances or in conjunction with other criteria
cultural or natural) (UNESCO, 2008, p.20-21)

B. Natural Criteria

There are four criteria as the references for the Committee to justify the inclusion in the

list only in the exceptional circumstances or in conjunction with other natural heritage

criteria (UNESCO, 2008):

(vii) To be outstanding examples representing major stages of Earth‟s history,

including the record of life, significant on-going geological process in the
development of landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features;
or

34
 (viii) To be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and
biological process in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water,
coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals; or

(ix) To contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural

beauty and aesthetic importance; or

(x) To contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ
conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened
species of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or
conservation (UNESCO, 2012, p.20-21)

The sites selected for the WH listing are inscribed on the basis of their merit to represent

the best and the most important examples of our cultural and natural heritage. To be

deemed of outstanding universal value, a property must also meet the conditions of

integrity and/or authenticity and must have an adequate protection and management

system to ensure its safeguarding Operational Guidelines (OG) (UNESCO, 2012).

To be listed in the World Heritage List, the towns are not only being recognized for

their architecture interest as a basis, but attention is also given to the basis of the values

from criteria (vi) as mentioned in Paragraph 77 (vi) of Operational Guidelines 2012. For

inscription in the list, organization of spaces, structures, materials, form and function of

the group of buildings which ever necessary must be presented as one. They are

categorized into four types:

a. Towns which are typical of a specific period or culture, which have been preserved
as a whole and remained unaffected by any development;

b. Towns that picture the changed of characteristic lines though sometimes in the
mist of exceptional natural surroundings with spatial arrangements and structures
that are typical to that history. Clearly defined the historic part that being
precedence over the contemporary environment;

c. As the definition “Historical centre” but now being enclosed within modern
cities(as a case of Macao Historical Centre). It is crucial to draw lines precisely to
limit the historical dimensions and to make suitable provision for its surroundings;

d. Due to nature, sectors, areas or built structures that survive may provide evidence
of character of historic town which has disappeared (case of Historical City of
Melaka, left with A Famosa). These surviving areas or buildings witness
sufficiently to testify the former whole of the area. (UNESCO, 2012).

35
Listing of historical centre and historical areas is only done when they consist of a large

number of ancient buildings of monumental importance, which provide the

characteristic feature of the area. Another aspect for nomination as in the Operational

Guidelines, 2012 p. 88 of Annex 3 is:

Properties that are located within the limited space but have great influence on the
historical planning (UNESCO, 2012).

(iii) New towns of the twentieth century which paradoxically have something in
common with both the aforementioned categories: while their original urban
organization is clearly recognizable and their authenticity is undeniable, their future
is unclear because their development is largely uncontrollable

Presently, only small or medium size urban areas are given the preference for inscription

on the World Heritage List. This is because mega cities cannot provide sufficient and

satisfactory information for their inscription. (UNESCO, 2008). Jokilehto (2007) further

commented as saying:

Our modernity depends on our values and culture, as well as being based on our
inheritance from the past, just architecture in other period. Assessing the significance
of something usually take time in the case of modern heritage (Jokiletho, 2007 :108).

In a view of listing each historic town as the world heritage site, it brings a big impact
for the future. „Listing‟ means that a step forward on legislative and administrative
measure are taken to ensure the protection of historical built structures and its
surrounding environment. Awareness among the local community is important not only
to the conservationist that adore the conservation of heritage.

As of September 2012 (since 1972), there are 962 properties in 190 countries that have

been inscribed on the World Heritage List, including 745 cultural, 188 natural and 29

mixed properties as shown in Table 2.2. This list includes 34 sites of World Heritage

properties threatened by serious and dangers such as development projects, armed

conflict, or natural disaster .

36
 Table 2.2: Number of properties inscribed on
World Heritage List at 2012
(Source: UNESCO, 2012)

Type of property Total number

Cultural properties 745

Natural properties 188

Mixed cultural and natural
29
properties
Total 962

These countries have been divided by the World Heritage Committee into five zones:

Africa, Arab states, Asia and Pacific, Europe and North America, and Latin America and

Caribbean. Table 2.3 shows the tabulation of the World Heritage sites (WHS) and WH

towns according to five zones.

Table 2.3: Tabulation of WH Sites around the world in 2012

Source: World Heritage Centre,
UNESCO and OWHC, 2013 (reproduced by Author,)

(OWHC)
Cultural
Natural

Mixed

States

Town
Total

Zone/Classification

Africa 33 42 3 78 9% 27 11
Arab States 4 60 1 65 7% 16 20
Asia Pacific 48 129 9 186 21% 27 25
Europe & North
56 375 9 440 50% 49 142
America
Latin America &
35 83 3 121 14% 25 40
Caribbean
Total 188 745 29 992 100% 145 238

European countries have the highest number properties inscribed, either natural or

cultural heritage on the WHL, which contributes about 50% of the total sites. This is

followed by Asia and Pacific countries with 21% sites and 14% from Latin America and

37
Caribbean, while Africa and Arab States are not less important 9% and 7% respectively,

of the total sites inscribed on the list as being mentioned earlier. For WH cities, most of

them are located in the European and North America (142 sites), followed with a big gap

by cities in Latin America and Caribbean (40 sites), and closely followed by cities

located in Asia and Pacific (27 sites), Arab States (20 sites) and historical cities in Africa

(11 sites).

2.3 World Heritage Cities in Asia and Pacific Region

To date, there are 27 countries in Asia and Pacific Region inscribed on World Heritage

List. China and India are two countries remain with the highest heritage properties

inscribed in this region. Out of 188 properties, only 28 are categorized under historic

town. The sites can be referred to World Heritage Center website.

(www.worldheriatgecenter.com)

Table 2.4: List of World Heritage sites/cities in Asia and Pacific Region
Source: World Heritage Centre, 2013 (reproduced by Author)
Year of
Item Properties/Country Criteria
inscription
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
1 1979 The Katmandu Valley, Nepal √ √ √

2 1979 Yandong, South Korea √ √

3 1979 Chengde, China

4 1997 Lumbini (Patan), Nepal √ √

5 1993 Historic Centre of Bukhara, Uzbekistan √ √ √

The Complex of the Hue Monuments,
6 1993 √
Vietnam
The Historic Monuments of Ancient
7 1994 √ √
Kyoto, Japan
8 1995 The Town of Luang Prabang, Laos √ √ √
The Historic Villages of Shirakawa-go
9 1995 √ √
and Gokayawa, Japan
10 1997 The Old Town of Lijiang, China √ √ √

11 1997 The Ancient City of Ping Yao, China √ √ √

38
 Table 2.4 continued

The Historic Monuments of Ancient

12 1998 √ √ √ √
Nara, Japan

13 1988 The Sacred City of Kandy, Sri Lanka √ √

The Old Town of Galle and Its

14 1988 √
Fortifications, Sri Lanka
15 1999 The Historic Town of Vigan, Philippine √ √

The Ancient Town of Hoi An, Vietnam

16 1999 √ √
The Historic City Of Hoi An (2008)

17 2000 Historic Centre of Shakhrisyabz √ √

18 2001 The City of Samarkand, Uzbekistan √ √ √

19 2004 Bam and Its Cultural Landscape, Iran √ √ √ √

The Historic Centre of Macao, China
20 2005 √ √ √ √
SAR

Historic Cities of the Strait of Malacca:

21 2008 √ √ √
Melaka and George Town, Malaysia
Total 1 13 9 19 3 5

Source: UNESCO, 2011 (reproduced by Author)

The first site in Asia and Pacific region that was inscribed on the WH list was the

Katmandu Valley, Nepal in 1979. During the inscription, the site was known as the

Katmandu Valley World Heritage Site (KVWHS). The site consists of seven monument

zones with three historical palaces: Kathmandu, Patan and Baktapur, with two of those

are Hindu Centres and also Buddhist Centres. This was followed by the Complex of the

Hue Monument in Vietnam fourteen years later in 1993 and then by ten others in 2000.

The cities were inscribed in the new millennium, starting with the City of Samarkand in

Uzbekistan, which was inscribed in 2001. The Historic Centre of Macao, China SAR

was inscribed in 2005 and the latest was the Historic Cities of the Strait of Malacca,

Malacca and George Town, Malaysia was inscribed in 2008.

39
In Asia, there are a number of non-monumental sites and historic towns that have been

recognized for the value of their urban setting and for their human traditions such as the

Historic City of Hoi An, Vietnam, Historic City of Vigan, Philippines, and Historic

Centre of Macao, Macao. Table 2.5 shows the tabulation of historic cities in Asia, while

Figure 2.1 shows ASEAN countries and the location of WH sites (including Malaysia).

Figure 2.1: Map of ASEAN countries and location of WH sites

Table 2.5 : Tabulation of World Heritage cities in South East Asia

Source: UNESCO, 2011 (reproduced by Author)

World heritage sites

No Countries
Natural Heritage Cultural Heritage
- 1 Angkor Watt (1992)
Cambodia
1
1 Ujong Kulon National Park
(1991)
2 Komodo National Park
2 Indonesia -
(1991)
3 Lorentz National Park
(1999)
- 1 Town of Luang Prabang (1995)
3 Laos 2 Vat Phou and Ancient Settlement
(2001)

40
 Table 2.5 continued

1 Gunung Mulu National 1 Historic Cities of the Straits of

Park (2000) Malacca: Malacca and George
4 Malaysia
2 Kinabalu Park (2000) Town (2008)
2 Lenggong (2012)
-X -X
5 Myanmar
1 Tubbataha Reef Marine 1 Baroque Churches (1993)
park (1993) 2 Historic City of Vigan (1999)
2 Rice Terrace of cordilleras
6 Philippines (1995)
3 Pueto-Princesa River
National Park (1999)

1 Thungyai-Huai Sanctuaries 1 Historic Towns of Sukhothai

(1991) (1991)
7 Thailand
2 Ban Chiang Archaeological 2 Historic City of Ayutthaya
Sites (1992) (1991)
1 Ha Long Bay (1994/2000) 1 Complex of Hue Monuments
2 My Son Sanctuary (1999) (1993)
8 Viet Nam
3 Phong Nha Ke Bang 2 Historic City of Hoi An (1999)
National Park (2003)
13 11
Total

Source: UNESCO, 2011 (reproduced by Author)

There are 24 heritage sites in the Southeast Asia as of 2009, with the first inscription

was the Complex of the Hue Monuments, Vietnam in 1993 as the World Heritage Cities.

However, the Town of Luang Prabang, Laos that was inscribed on the World Heritage

List in 1995 is an active living city unlike Vietnam, which was presented by ancient

monuments. In 1999, Vigan and Hoi An were listed on the World Heritage List. Both

cities are active living settlements from the 16th centuries to the present days. The

Historic Cities of the Strait of Malacca: Melaka and George Town, Malaysia were

inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2008.

2.4 World Heritage City of Melaka and George Town

In July 2008, Melaka and George Town are historical towns that were jointly inscribed

on the World Heritage List under criteria (ii), (iii) and (iv) of Operational Guidelines

41
2005 (UNESCO, 2008) UNESCO (2008) stated that both Historic Cities of Melaka and

George Town are two of the most extensive historic port settlements in Malaysia. Their

urban fabrics, dating from the 16th century for Melaka and 18th century for George

Town, together with the monumental facades and the urban pattern, are still largely

intact, which constitutes a cultural property of interest and mankind. The areas designed

for cultural properties are Historical City of Melaka in Melaka and Historical City of

George Town in Penang.

2.4.1 Historical City of Melaka

The Core Zone of the Historical City of Melaka comprises of two major areas:

 St Paul‟s Hill Civic Centre Zone, which has a number of government buildings,
museum, churches, urban square and original fortress town from the 16th century of
Portuguese and Dutch Period.
 Historic Residential and Commercial Zone have more than 600 shophouses,
commercials and residential buildings, religious buildings and tombs on four mains
streets, which are Jalan Tun Tan Cheng Lock (Heeren street), Jalan Hang Jebat
(Jonker Street), Jalan Tokong/Jalan Tukang Emas/ Jalan Tukang Besi and Jalan
Kampong Pantai, as well as on four perpendicular streets of Lorong Hang Jebat,
Jalan Hang Kasturi, Jalan Hang Lekiu and Jalan Hang Lekir.

The Core Zone is protected by 134.03 hectares of Buffer Zone, bordered by Jalan
Merdeka, Jalan Laksamana, Jalan On Kim Wee, Jalan Tan Cheng Yan, Jalan Munshi
Abdullah, back lots of Kampong Banda Kaba, Jalan Chan Koon Cheng and Jalan
Merdeka. Figure 2.2 displays the conservation area in Historical City of Melaka with its
distinctive flavour, buildings characteristic, socio-fabric and cultural ambience.

42
 Figure 2.2.: Map of properties area in Malacca
(Source : Gov. of Malaysia, 2007)

2.4.2 Historic City of George Town

The Core Zone of the Historical City of George Town covers an area of 109.38 hectares,
bordered by the Strait of Malacca on the north-eastern cape of Penang Island, Lorong
Love (Love Lane) to the north-west and Gat Lebuh Melayu and Jalan Dr. Lim Chwee
Leong to the south-west corner. There are more than 1,700 historic building within this
Core Zone align on four main streets of Pengkalan Weld, Lebuh Pantai, Jalan Masjid
Kapitan Keling and Lorong Love and several perpendicular streets of Jalan Tun Syed
Sheikh Barakbah, Lebuh Light, Lebuh Bishop, Lebuh Gereja, Lebuh China, Lebuh
Pasar, Lebuh Chulia, Lebuh Armenian and Lebuh Aceh.

The Core Zone is being protected by150.04 hectare of Buffer Zone (this zone does not to
include sea buffer), bounded by stretch of sea area around the harbour, Jalan Perangin to
the south-west corner and Jalan Transfer to North –west corner. Figure 2.3 displays the
conservation area in Historical City of George Town, Penang.

43
 Figure 2.3. Map of properties area in George Town
(Source : Gov. of Malaysia, 2007)

The cities of Melaka and George Town still maintain their architectural heritage

including various types of heritage buildings such as traditional Malay houses,

traditional shophouses, terrace houses, Malay mosques, churches, Chinese temples,

Hindu temples and Colonial buildings from the periods of Portuguese, Dutch and

British. Apart from the heritage buildings, the cities of Malacca and George Town also

retained some of their existing old roads, streets, river, open spaces and town squares.

The properties of each city comprises of core and buffer zones, in which the total

number of buildings for both cities can be summarized shown in Table 2.6

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 Table 2.6 : Total properties area and total number of buildings in Melaka and George
Town
Source: Government of Malaysia, 2007

Area Core Area Buffer Total Total

Name Zone (ha) Zone (ha) Area Buildings
(ha)
38.62 134.03 172.65 1,878
Melaka
(22.36%) (77.64%) (100%)
George 109.38 150.04 259.42 4,665
Town (42.16%) (57.84%) (100%)
Total Area 148.00 284.07 432.07 6,543
(ha.) (34.25%) (65.75%) (100%)

2.5 Outstanding Universal Values (OUV) of Cultural Properties at World

Heritage Cities of Melaka and George town

The outstanding universal value (OUV) is important as it partly contributes to the

significance of the sites and keeping its value intact and challenges due to the

development pressures and tourism. The introduction of uncontrolled activities on site

might affected the integrity and authenticity of the properties on sites. This will affect

the OUV, which is responsible to keep the WH cities listed under UNECSO.

By definition and categories according to Operational Guideline January 2008,

historical towns and town centre, which are still inhabited and which, by their very

nature, have developed and will continue to develop under the influence of social-

economic and cultural change, may face the situation that renders the assessment of their

authenticity more difficult and any conservation policy more problematical.

The significance of historical towns and town centres were examined under the factors

as outlined in the Operational Guidelines, January 2005, Annex 3

To qualify for the inscription, towns should compel recognition because of their

architectural interest and should not be considered only on the intellectual grounds of the

role they may have played in the past or their value as historical symbol under criterion

45
(vi) for the inscription of cultural properties, as referred to Operational Guidelines in

Paragraph 77 (vi)

a. Towns which are typical of specific period or culture;

b. Towns that have evolved along characteristic lines and have preserved;
c. Historic centres that cover exactly the same area as ancient towns and now
enclosed within modern cities; and
d. Sectors, areas or isolated units which even in the residential state, but they have
survived.

The significance of the cultural properties with three criteria is demonstrated at both

cities of Malacca and George Town World Heritage (WH) sites.

The enlistment of Melaka and George Town into the World Heritage List is based on the

criteria stated in Paragraph 77 of the Operational Guidelines for the implementation of

the World Heritage Convention, under criteria (ii), (iii), and (iv) of the Operational

Guideline 2005, which can be summarised as:

 The influence of the civilisation exchanged;

 The exchange of civilisation, cultures and religions; and
 The shophouses as an outstanding example of an architectural type.

2.5.1 The Influence of The Civilisation Exchanged

Criteria (ii): To exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time

or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology,

monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design.

Melaka and George Town represent exceptional example of multi-cultural trading towns in
East and Southeast Asia, forged from the mercantile and exchanges of Malay, Chinese and
Indian cultural and three successive European colonial powers for almost 500 years, each
with its imprints on the architecture and urban form, technology and monumental art. Both
towns show different stages of development and the successive changes over a long span of
time and are thus complementary (Gov. of Malaysia , 2007).

46
The Historical Cities of Melaka and George Town are few historic cities in the world

that experienced a succession of a colourful past from the Malay Sultanate, the Chinese,

the Portuguese, the Dutch, the British and the post-colonial period, with each of this

period managed to inscribe its print on the scroll of its evolution. However, in terms of

its urban form, none of this age succeeded in erasing the imprint of its predecessors.

Although the physical evidence of the Malacca Malay Sultanate is not available, ancient

graveyards and tombstones belonging to the warriors of the Sultan such as Hang Jebat

and Hang Kasturi that can be found in the Core Zone of Malacca provide evidence of the

period. The Portuguese who comes from a unique Eurasian community who speaks an

ancient dialect of the Portuguese language and profess the Roman Catholic faith; they

also left behind the inherited ruins of the church on St. Paul's Hill and the remains of the

'Porta de Santiago' (Figure 2.4), the only artifact left of the infamous 'Fortaleza de

Malacca'.

Melaka is unique in being the only town in Malaysia to have been ruled by three
Western colonial powers. Already a wealthy port and an important centre of trade by
the early 16th century, it attracted Westerners who came to the East to set up trading
posts. In 1511, a fleet led by Alphonso d'Alburquerque, the Portuguese Viceroy of
India, conquered Malacca, thus establishing a long period of colonial rule which
began with the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch, then the British, that lasted for
almost 450 years. The most tangible legacy of the colonial period are a number of
buildings which exhibit the architectural styles of the colonials (UNESCO, 2008).

47
 Figure 2.4: Ruins of St. Paul Church, Melaka
(Gov. of Malaysia,2007)

The Dutch legacy can be seen in the design of the town square, surrounded by

architectural masterpieces in the form of the Old Dutch administrative building called

Stadthuys, the Christ Church and the Post Office building. The Dutch also left behind a

unique array of townhouses in Heeren Street and Jonker Street, as well as an urban

pattern that is unique due to the regulations imposed on the buildings fronting a street

(Gov. of Malaysia, 2007).

The British, who ruled Penang (George Town) from 1786 and Melaka from 1824 until

the country reached independence in 1957, left with a morphological framework that

influences the modern city today, as well as excellent administrative and religious

buildings, and also an administrative and legal system used by the independent Malaysia

(Gov. of Malaysia, 2007)

During the 171 years of British occupation in Malaya (1786-1957), they left a profound

influence on the country's political system, administration, architecture and lifestyles of

48
the country. Many great buildings, mainly public, administrative and religious buildings

are still standing in their original glory days in both Melaka and George Town. One of

them is the St. George's Church (Figure 2.5), the State Assembly Building in George

Town, built in early 19th century according to the Anglo-Indian classical style, which

features triangular pediment and cylindrical columns and the City Hall of George Town

in classical style (Gov. of Malaysia, 2007).

Figure 2.5: St. George's Church, George Town, Penang (Author, 2009)

During this period (19th century), the Malayan 'bungalow' emerges, which is a mixture of

European and local features, such as timber posts and thatched roofs. This include the

shophouses and temples built by the Chinese immigrants who were mainly brought in by

the British to help open-up the mining lands, and later the Indian temples were built by

the Indian community who came to Malaya to help the British in rubber plantation and

49
involved in the works of building infrastructure (Gov. of Malaysia, 2007). Figure 2.6

shows Syed Al-Attas Mansion, which is one of the Malay bungalow buildings found in

the George Town WH city.( Khoo, 2007)

Figure 2.6: Syed Al-Attas Mansion (Author, 2009)

Juxtaposition of different building styles and typology from those built by the

Portuguese, the Dutch, the British, the Malay, the Chinese and the Indian mainly, has

created rich mixture of urban fabric, both in Melaka and George Town. They remained

as multi-cultural heritage towns until the present days, thus justify for the outstanding

story of interchange of human values over the countries.

2.5.2 The Exchange of Civilisation, Cultures And Religions

i. Religious Buildings

Criteria (iii) : To bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition

or to a civilization which is living or which has disappeared.

50
 Malacca and George Town are living testimony to multi-cultural heritage and
tradition of Asia and European colonial influences. This multi-cultural tangible and
intangible heritage is expressed in the great variety of religious buildings of different
faiths, ethnic quarters, the many languages, worship and religious festivals, dances,
costumes, arts and music, food and daily life (UNESCO, 2008).

The Historical City of Melaka and George Town represent exceptional example of a
multi-cultural trading towns in East and Southeast Asia, forged from the mercantile and
civilization exchanges of Malay, Chinese, Indian and European cultures.

Being the seat of the first well-documented Malay Sultanate and the centre of Malay
empire, Malacca became the founder of Malay and customs. The founding of Malacca
and the height of its glory was never short of its legendary tales, which were held almost
as sacred narratives by the Malay society until today. In spite of the fact that Melaka had
lost the Sultanate and was ruled by four colonial administrations, she has actually not
lost her lustre. Different architectural designs of buildings and traditional crafts that
remained are testimony of the wealth of historical phases of the past. Similarly in the
Historical City of George Town, there are different communities, such as the Malays,
Chinese, Indians, Arabs, Baba-Nyonya Peranakan and Eurasians. These different types
of population, each practicing their own cultural and beliefs, are the strongest factor of
the cities attraction today (Gov. of Malaysia, 2007).

As a place where the greatest religions and cultures met, as well as have their built
forms, both retaining clear identities and allowing a fusion of ideas unified through a
predominant respect for scale and continuity. This makes the urban landscape of value,
not only the buildings as such, but their juxtaposition within the historical urban fabric
of both cities.

The different cultural groups and traditions have helped to enrich further the beautiful

traditions and customs of these historic cities. The fact that these various peoples are

living side by side with one another but practicing their own individual traditions and

51
customs, make both Melaka and George Town as the most vibrant and interesting living

multi-cultural heritage towns in East and Southeast Asia.

Within the Core and Buffer Zones of Melaka and George Town, there are 57 (20 in

Malacca and 37 in George Town) religious buildings, mainly Malay mosques, Chinese

temples, Indian temples and churches. Most of these religious buildings are located on

the same road, in particular on Masjid Kapitan Keling Road or only a couple blocks

away between each other. All of these buildings are still functional as they were

hundreds of years ago, where the communities perform prayers and other religious

activities on daily basis.

There is a special place in Penang, dubbed as the „Street of Harmony‟. Here, houses
of worship representing various world religions are lined up along an axis. The place
illustrates a history of peaceful religious co-existence and cultural exchange among
the followers of the great faiths of Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, as well as
the Chinese religion, which combines Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism (Khoo
Salma Nasution 2007)

Some of the important religious buildings in George Town are presented in Table 2.7.

52
 Table 2.7. Religious buildings in George Town WH city
Source : Gov. of Malaysia (2007) and (Author 2009)

Church of the Assumption, Lebuh Farquhar St. George‟s Church, Lebuh Farquhar

The oldest Catholic church in Penang, formed in The oldest Anglican Church in Southeast Asia. The
1786 by the Eurasians of southern Thailand and building dates from 1818 and was designed by
Kedah. The church building dates from 1860. The Captain Robert Smith of Madras Engineers, who
church was elevated to the Cathedral of the Diocese painted the famous early views of Penang. The
of Penang in 1955. Anglican follow the tradition developed by the
Church of England.

Hainan Temple, Lebuh Muntri Saint Francis Xavier Church, Penang Road

Also known as the Temple of the heavenly Queen or The church is named after Saint Francis Xavier, the
Thean Ho Keong, this temple is dedicated to the famous „Apostle of the Indies‟ who brought
goddess Mar Chor, the patron saint of seafarers. Christianity to the non-European people of
Built in 1866 by the migrating group from the Island Portuguese Malacca in the 16th century.
of Hainan in South China. This temple was restored
by the craftsmen from China in 1995 with elaborate
stone carvings and swirling dragon pillars.

53
 Table 2.7 continued

Goddess of Mercy Temple, Kapitan Keling Road Carpenters‟ Guild Temple, Love Lane

Founded around c1800, this temple architecture The Carpenters‟ Guild Temple is dedicated to Lo
features a sweeping roof with ornate decorated Pan, deity of carpenters and other building artisans.
copings and ridges. Oracle sticks are a special Many of George Town‟s heritage buildings were
features of this temple. Chinese opera or puppet constructed by the members of this guild. In the
theatre is performed on the granite-paved forecourt 19th century, all Cantonese carpenters coming from
on feast days, three times a year. China would first call at this Carpenter‟s Guild
before proceeding to other towns Malaysia.

Yap Kongsi Temple, Lebuh Armenian Teo Chew Temple, Lebuh Chulia

The Yap clan hails from Hokkien (Fujian province Built in 1870 by the Chinese originating from Teo
in southern China) and the temple is dedicated to Chew community (Chaozhou) in southern China. It
the clan‟s ancestors and patron deities. Next to the is a temple dedicated to the Teo Chew community‟s
temple is the ancestral hall, dating from 1924, patron deity and ancestors. Teo Chew opera and
designed by the Straits Chinese architect Chew Eng music are occasionally performed here.
Eam.

54
 Table 2.7 continued

Cheah Kongsi Temple, Lebuh Armenian Khoo Kongsi Temple, Medan Cannon

A charming double-storey Chinese clan temple with The Khoo Kongsi Temple is one of the best
an open balcony and sweeping roof. British lion- examples of Chinese temple architecture and
heads decorating the temple symbolize the loyalty of craftsmanship in Southeast Asia. Built in 1906, the
the Straits Chinese to the British colonial regime temple displays fine stone carving, wood carving,
during the Straits Settlements day. painting on wood and fresco painting.

Kapitan Keling Mosque, Kapitan Keling Road Acheh Mosque, Lebuh Aceh

Crowned with onion-shaped domes, this mosque is Founded in 1808 by a wealthy Arab merchant
the largest historic mosque in George Town. prince who became the Sultan of Aceh. In the old
Founded in 1801, this mosque has been enlarged days when the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca was
several times. Henry Alfred Neubronner, the made by the ship rather than by airplane, Aceh
German Eurasian architect gave the mosque its Street was the centre of haj travel. Pilgrims came
British Raj Moghul revival appearance and an from North Sumatra and Southern Thailand to
elegant minaret in the 1910s. purchase their tickets, shop and attend religious
classes while waiting for the Haj ship.

55
 Table 2.7 continued

Sri Maha Mariamman Temple, Lebuh Queen Benggali Mosque, Leith Street

Built in 1833, this temple is dedicated to the Hindu The Indians from Bengal first came to Penang in
goddess Sri Maha Mariamman. Historically, it catered the late 18th century as „sepoy‟ and convicts with
to the Tamil community of traders and stevedored the East India Company. This mosque was built
originating from South India. The temple is the focus in 1803 for this Benggali community and has
of two annual festivals, Thaipusam on been active as the centre for the Tablighi
January/February and Chitrapuruam in April/May. movement, where the main languages used are
Urdu, Malay and Tamil.

Similarly, the same type of religious buildings of Malay mosques, Chinese temples,
Indian temples and churches can also be found in the Historical City of Malacca. There
are 20 of these buildings in the Core and Buffer Zones of Malacca. The most important
religious buildings in the Historical City of Malacca are shown in Table 2.8.

56
 Table 2.8: Religious buildings in Melaka WH site
Source: Gov. of Malaysia, (2007) and (Author 2009)

Kampong Keling Mosque Kampong Hulu Mosque

The Kampong Keling Mosque is a Sumatran-style Built in 1720 by Dato Samsuddin Bin Arom, a
building with a three-tiered wooden roof. The mosque representative for the Malays during the Dutch
was built in 1748 and the outer wall was completed in colonial period. During that time, religious
1868. The styling of the building is highly eclectic. It pluralism was allowed to flourish, and the local
is one of the few mosques with a pagoda instead of a populations headed by “Kapitans” constructed
minaret. The arcade around the prayer hall is a series places of worship according to their needs. This
of Corinthian columns, reflecting European influence. building is fairly unusual for a mosque, inspired
obviously more by Sumatran architecture than by
the Arab prototype. The roof is a dome made of
carved sea tones

Francis Xavier Church Christ Church

This Gothic church was built by the French priest Christ Church is the oldest functioning
Father P. Fabre in 1849. It is dedicated to St. Francis Protestant church in Malaysia. The construction
Xavier who was one of the earliest Catholic began in 1741 on the centennial of the Dutch
missionaries active in Southeast Asia. The church sits occupation, and it was completed in 1753. Before
where an old Portuguese mission once stood. this date, the Dutch used the old Portuguese
church atop St. Paul‟s hill for their religious
services. Christ Church bears all the hallmarks of
18th century Dutch architecture: a rectangular
plan, massive walls, red granite plinths and Dutch
roof tiles.

57
 Table 2.8 continued

Cheng Hoon Teng Temple Sri Poyyatha Temple

Cheng Hoon Teng temple was founded in 1645 by Sri Poyyatha is a Hindu temple standing on the
Lee Wei King and is the oldest functioning Chinese same street as Kampong Hulu Mosque and Cheng
temple in Malaysia. The main hall was built by Chan Hoon Teng temple. The coexistence of these
Ki Lock in 1704 and was rebuilt in 1801 by Kapitan three distinct faiths is a testament to the religious
China Chua Su Cheong. Inside the main hall on the pluralism of Melaka. Erected in 1781, this temple
central altar is a statue of Kuanyin, the goddess of enshrines the deity Vinayagar and has become the
Mercy. most important Hindu temple in the Core Zone of
Malacca.

2.5.3 The Shophouses And Townhouses

Criteria (iv) : To be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or

technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human
history.

Melaka and George Town” reflect a mixture of influences which have created a
unique architecture, culture and townscape without parallel anywhere in East and
South Asia. In particular, they demonstrate an exceptional range of shophouses and
townhouses. These buildings show many different types and stages of development of
the building type, some originating in the Dutch or Portuguese periods (UNESCO,
2008).

As the important hubs of both regional and global trade in the Southeast Asia from 16th

to 19th century, the cities of Melaka and George Town still maintain their architectural

heritage including various types of heritage buildings. This includes the traditional

Malay houses, mosques, churches, Chinese temples, Hindu temples, colonial buildings

and large number of shophouses and townhouses.

58
The most remarkable type of houses built within the Core Zones of Melaka and George

Town is the shophouses. Currently, there are more than 2,000 shophouses, mostly two-

and three-storey buildings that align on both sides of the street. Most of them are still

function as they were decades ago – the ground floor is used for commercial purposes,

whereas the top floor(s) are residential purposes – some of these shophouses have been

sensitively restored by the local authorities and private individuals for new uses such as

hotels and restaurants.

The emergence of these shophouses can be traced to the influx of Chinese immigrants

from the southern coastal provinces of China in the 18th and 19th century until the World

War II. They brought with them both knowledge and methods of house construction

which are then adapted to the Malaysian urban shophouses.

Generally, these shophouses feature common characteristics :

 Rectangular plan form, measures between 6-7 m wide and 30 meters deep,
sometimes extending to about 60 m deep.
 Always built in rows with uniform facades and continuous covered “five foot way”
in front.
 Brick walls plastered with lime, wooden timber structures and clay roof tiles.
 The shop front on the ground floor has no permanent wall, instead panels of doors
are used to close the shop.
 Jack-roof, an elevated roof segment above the main roof, is used to allow hot air to
escape, as well as to allow light to penetrate the inner rooms.
 Linear plan form, punctuated with one or more open courtyards, allowing natural
ventilation and light to happen.
 The design of the front facades of these shophouses varied, some are much more
elaborated in design, depicting different styles and influences, both western and
eastern styles.
 The front windows are normally full length from floor to ceiling with balustrades;
some finished with fanlights opening at the top and adjustable louvers.

59
Over the decades, the development of these shophouses in terms of their design and

styles have evolved from simple plan with plain façade introduced by the Dutch to more

elaborate facades that features the Malay, the Chinese and the Western motifs and in

many cases are of Eclectic. Generally, they can be grouped according to Table 2.9.

Table 2.9: Styles of shophouses and townhouses within

conservation areas

No. Styles Malacca George Town

1 Dutch Style (17th – 18th century) √ -

Southern China Style (18th – early

2 √ -
19th century)
Early Shophouses Style (1800 –
3 √ √
1850s)
Early Transitional Style (1840 –
4 √ √
1900s)
Early Straits Eclectic Style (1890 –
5 √ √
1920s)
Late Straits Eclectic Style (1920 –
6 √ √
1940s)
Neo-Classical Style (19th – early 20th
7 √ √
century)

8 Art-Deco Style (1930 – 1950s) √ √

9 Early Modern Style (Post War) √ √

The rather large collection of shophouses within the Core and Buffer Zones of Malacca

and George Town, most are still being used as they were initially meant for, which

reflect the design development of these shophouses that were influenced by the marriage

of different cultural tradition of the east and west.

The shophouses and townhouses in the Historical City of Melaka and George Town

shared similar spatial planning, form, architectural design and styles. They can be

divided into at least nine major groups depending on their façade design and the period

they were built, as in Table 2.10.

60
 Table 2.10: Styles of shophouses and townhouses in Melaka and George Town
Source: Gov. of Malaysia (2007)

i. Dutch Style (17th – 18th century) ii. Southern China Style (18th – early 19th
century)
The Dutch style is the earliest type and can only be
found in the Historical City of Melaka, mainly on The Chinese population in Malaysia generally and
Heeren Street. in Melaka particularly, mainly came from Southern
Originally built by the Dutch in the 17th century, China. Like for the Baba Nyonya Museum at
these type of shophouses and townhouses are either Heeren Streets, the architectural tradition followed
one- or two-storey height with simple facade design was a modified version of the “Chinese National”
and limited openings on the upper floor, normally or northern style.
with only one centralized or at the most two This architecture embodies the spiritual notion of
symmetrical windows. harmony with nature. This is manifested in the
The ground floor are mostly now being used as symbolism of the ornaments that are used to
residential rather than shops, with symmetrical convey luck, directions, seasons, the winds and
façade design of centralized door and two-side constellations.
windows. The fundamental concepts of Chinese architecture
The five foot way is not connected to adjacent are the courtyard, with the emphasis on the roof,
buildings, therefore this type of buildings have exposure of structural elements and the use of
private entrance porch. colour.
Structurally, the walls are of dutch brick and Structurally, the walls are of brick and plastered
plastered with lime, with the roof structure is of with lime, while the roof structure is of timber.
timber.

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 Table 2.10 continued

iii,Early Shophouses Style (1800 – 1850’s) iv Early Transitional Style (1840 – 1900’s)

The early form of two storey type of shophouses is The two storey structures are built to the street edge
built to the street edge with recessed ground floor and incorporate a five foot pedestrian walkway,
forming a pedestrian walkway, generally simple in which is subsequently known as „five foot way‟
detail and relatively low in scale. With masonry and is well entrenched in the style by the middle of
dividing wall, they are normally built in rows with the nineteenth century. Expressive gable ends to
simple pitched roof. The façade is means of filling rows. Ornamentation is minimal, with the upper
the space between the two end walls. The upper consoles often enlarged and decorated with floral
floor façade is supported by a squat pillars project motifs, simple decoration to the spandrel, as well as
over the pedestrian walkway and consists mostly of green glazed ceramic vents and plain plasters. The
timber construction with continuous row of panelled usual orders adopted are Tuscan and Doric. Upper
or louvered shutters. The spandrel is of either timber floor openings, with a row of continuous timber
(for the earlier type) or masonry, while the upper shutters are common. Cornices or horizontal
beam is generally placed directly above the window mouldings along the beam make the structure
opening, leaving no room for frieze and with the appear heavy.
exposed roof rafters are bordered by plain masonry Structurally, buildings of this style incorporate the
pilasters at each side and the ground floor has full use of masonry dividing walls with timber upper
width opening. floor, tiled roof and timber beam.
Structurally, buildings of this style incorporate
masonry dividing walls with timber upper floor and
tiled roof.

62
 Table 2.10 continued

v.Early Straits Eclectic Style (1890 – 1920‟s) vi.Late Straits Eclectic Style (1920 – 1940‟s)

The transitional style is characterized by buildings This is the most spectacular style particularly in the
with relatively restrained use of ornaments on its use of ornamentation. The tripartite arrangement of
façade. Doors and windows remain predominantly three windows on the façade reduces the actual wall
timber framed and shuttered, although the use of space to the minimum and provides maximum
glass in small plates on the shutters later became ventilation. In later examples, the wall surface is
common. Transoms are flat ached or semicircular replaced by columns and pilasters framing the
infilled with glass. Vents are employed with an windows. The constrained indigenous façade designs
elegance of economy, architectural composition as is borrowed freely from the various ethnic traditions.
squares or diamond between windows. Ground Chinese panel frescoes are often combined with
floor masonry walls have symmetrical double Malay timber fretworks that fringe the cape of the
doors, a pair of window and bat-shape vents roof. Brightly coloured ceramic tiles and plaster
above. The styles incorporate many of the features delicately moulded into bouquets, freestone, plagues
of the „grand‟ classical style, reinterpreted and and other elaborate ornamentation bear testimony to
adopted to suit the shophouses vernacular, which the artistry of the shophouse builders. The
may include pediments, pilasters, keystones and development of reinforced concrete in the 1910s
arches. From 1910s, the use of reinforced concrete enabled large spans to be achieved and more
allowed wide roof overhangs and more elaborate elaborate cantilevered details to be incorporated into
cantilevered concrete decoration (consoles). This facades.
style exhibits almost exclusively a bipartite Structurally, buildings of this style incorporate
elevation order, i.e. elevation with two windows. extensive use of masonry, with first floor timber
Structurally, buildings of this style incorporate fenestration and tiled roof.
extensive use of masonry with the introduction of
reinforced concrete lintels and beams, timber
upper floor and tiled roofs.

63
 Table 2.10 continued

vii. Neo-Classical Style(19th – early 20th century) viii. Art-Deco Style (1930 – 1950‟s)

The last phase of European Classicism of the late Art Deco is a decorative style widely used between
18th and early 19th century characterized by the 1930s and 1950s. The style is characterized by
monumentality, with sparingly used of the Orders the use of straight lines (typically three parallel)
of Architecture. Studiously proportioned which arranged either vertically or horizontally in
sometimes incorporate portico, colonnade and conjunction with other geometric elements,
cupola(s) in the design. Evidently, the style which creating a strong vertical and horizontal emphasis
was carried through into the early 20 th century was to the structure. A granulated render adapted from
influenced by the Anglo-Indian Architecture and regionally known as “Shanghai Plaster” was
through colonial British with East Indian Company, introduced at this time and was commonly utilized.
which brought influences practical to their tropical The exuberant classical decoration of earlier style
experience typified by high ceilings, large porches became much more restrained and in many cases,
and painted in pastel or white finishing on exterior was stripped completely.
and interior walls that can be seen in the colonial
government buildings and bungalows for European
masters in all major cities such as buildings along
Weld Quay.
Most non-tropical forms used in the Palladian
system of neo-Greek column, pediments and
fenestration, neo-Roman arches and domes, and
Renaissance parapets, turrets, cupalos, quoins,
espadanas, surrounds, staircases and balconies.
Structurally, buildings of this style are rendered and
reinforced concrete masonry or Shanghai plastered.
The development or reinforcement concrete
resulted in cantilevered sunshades and high
pediment or parapet wall.

64
 Table 2.10 continued

ix. Early Modern Style (Post War)

Following the development in western art and architecture from the end of the 19 th century to its
pinnacles in the 1920s and 1930s, it actually embraces a wide variety of movements, theories and
attitudes, whose modernity resides in a common tendency to repudiate past architecture. Walter
Gropius, Le Corbusier and Mies Van de Rohe were the important figures in the general trend
towards a radically ornamented, simplified approach to architectural style. Built with reason, form
by character and the aesthetic quality that came from the simplicity of their form and the abstract
relationship of solid surfaces and large, clean cut openings rather than from applied ornament or
decoration. The trend soon caught up in the country after the war. Although in moving design
away from the quaint and craftsmanship, the local were adapted to form a unique modern style.

2.6 Challenges and Threats at Melaka and George Town WH Cities

Both cities constantly faced development pressures. The management of the cities at the

hand of local authority must be made fully aware that the cultural values and integrity of

the site depend very much on how they care and manage their buildings in the WHS in

the long term. Cooperation and partnership between the authorities changed with the

responsibility over the WH cities and the private building owners from the basis of a

good working relationship that is vital to keep the values of the WHS intact for future

generations. This was practiced at the Historical Centre of Macao in keeping their

cultural properties. Among the threats to WH cities of Malacca and George Town are

revealed during the interview with the local authority, as discussed in Chapter One.

Comparisons are made with two other WH cities in Asia as shown in Table 2.11.

65
 Table 2.11: Comparison of the threats to other WH Cities in Asia
Source: Visit and Interview in 2008-2009)

Historical
Malacca and Historical City of
Threats to WH Sites Centre of
George Town Hoi An
Macao
The Challenge to Manage Large
1 Area √ √ -
Displacement and Loss of the
2 Residential Population √ √ √
3 Mass Tourism and Its Threats √ √ √
The Challenge of Gentrification
4 √ √ √
in the WHS
Strong Presence of Dilapidated
5 √ - -
and Vacant Premises
Only few
An Absence of An Effective indicators,
6 Monitoring System and Funding √ developed for √
heritage
building only

Table 2.11 shows among the threats revealed from the interview conducted in 2008 at

the visited WH sites, Historical City of Hoi An and Historical Centre of Macao.

(Appendix B)

2.7 Keeping the Authenticity and Integrity of the WH Sites

The concept of authenticity is one of the major prerequisites for inclusion of monuments

and sites on the WH List. In many languages, there is no such word to express the true

meaning of the world „authenticity‟. The interpretation in the American Heritage

Dictionary of English (2000) defines authenticity as “the quality or condition of being

authenticity, trustworthy, or genuine. Meanwhile, Lowenthal (1999) argued in the

context of WH that authenticity once focused on the performance and possession, has

given way to the authenticity of materials and forms, of structure and process, and of

aim and intent, moving from exclusive concerns with buildings and artifacts to broader

considerations of landscape and nature, folk life and folklore, ideas and belief. For the

case of Malacca and George Town, this authenticity will explain on the criteria that are

66
recognised at UNESCO for the living heritage, the urban fabric and the architectural

heritage .

The modern thinkers according to Jokilehto (2006), defined authenticity as works of art

produced through a creative process, which is given specifically to each object.

Authenticity is an issue of the truthfulness of a particular source of information

(Jokilehto, 2006:2). On the other hand, Philippot Director Emeritus of ICCROM defines:

Authenticity of a work of art is a measure of truthfulness of the internal unity of the

creative process and the physical realization of the work, and the effects of it passage
through time (UNESCO, 2006).

It is more difficult to evaluate the authenticity of a historic town than a single building.

The conservation policy for historical city is also more difficult. A historical city is a

big open system that is continuously exchanging energy to its environment, which

means transforming the system is an inevitable fact. If the characters within the system

have no value to the people, they have no reason to exist.

As history is an important source of knowledge for all of us, it is clear that a well-

preserved past makes a solid foundation for better future development. The ultimate

purpose of the historical city preservation is to maintain the past imprint of urban

development as the physical parts of our culture and history. In general, the authenticity

reflects the true nature of the history and relates to real physical existence handed down

from the past (UNESCO, 2001). This is the reason why authenticity is a core spirit of

historic city. WH is a cultural and natural properties inherited by all human being. In

order to keep the authenticity of our world heritage, UNESCO requires the governments

of all the member countries to submit a report every six year. The report must include

the situation of the registered heritage, the conservation condition and the amount of

awareness of the public.

67
The condition of integrity in relation to cultural heritage sites, in reference to built

environment and the issues of integrity is relevant, especially in relation to urban and

regional planning process. Venice Charter refers to integrity in Article 6-Article 14.

Jokilehto (2006) mentioned that the issues of integrity are one of the elements of the

theory of restoration by Cesare Brandi, and it is important in relation to the definition of

the limits of restoration and re-integration of a work of art. Functional integrity

particularly provides the reference for the understanding of the meaning of different

elements in built environment. For example, structural integrity defines the present day

and the elements that survive in today‟s condition from the evolving functions of the

past. Meanwhile, visual integrity is the result of certain process.

The concept of authenticity and integrity in relation to the cultural heritage differs from

each other. Authenticity is related to heritage as a qualifier, while integrity is referred to

the identification of functional and historical condition of the site. At the same time, one

cannot replace the other (Jokiletho, 2008).

Pound (2004:65) stated that the criteria of OUV should provide a framework for

assessing the significance of the site and the value associated with it, where value is

defined as the regard that something is held to deserve the importance or preciousness of

something.

Buildings, towns and cities are frequently inscribed under criterion (iv), which is related

to buildings as pictures of Melaka and George Town. Both cities have also been

inscribed under criterion (ii), which address the importance of the inter-change of human

values. Malacca and George Town are not an exception and are also inscribed under

68
criterion (iii), which address the testimony of the cultural tradition of the multi-cultural

community.

Other supporting documents namely the Burra Charter, the Nara Document, the Hoi An

Protocol and the Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China can be the

frameworks in exploring possible monitoring indicators at the sites. Through

understanding the authenticity and integrity that formed the significance value of the

site, the baseline information to maintain the UNESCO status of the property is

captured. This aspect will be discussed in Chapter Three.

2.7.1 Authenticity and Integrity of Malacca and George Town WH Cities

The most crucial element is to understand the overall significance value of the sites.

Things to be protected and how to signal the degradation of the physical built

environment due to the rapid development that led to rapid physical expansion that is

mainly uncontrolled by physical development is spoiling the unique cultural and visual

environments (Aauland, 2004:108). The scenario at WH cities of Historical Cities of

Malacca and George Town can be summed up that both cities, largely intact and retain

their integrity and authenticity of the following three significances:

1. Authenticity of the Living Heritage;

2. Authenticity of Urban Fabric; and
3. Authenticity of Architectural Heritage

69
i Authenticity of the Living Heritage

As living heritage towns, both cities are good examples of living heritage cities. The

myriad of peoples, including Malay, Chinese, Peranakan, Indian, Chitty, Portuguese,

Dutch and other Eurasians who still live in the core and buffer zones, are still practicing

their unique traditions and customs, which are normally focused on their religious

centres. This does not include the various public holidays, such as the Eid al-Fitr',

Chinese New year, Deepavali, Christmas, and others, as well as the very rich and varied

tastes of different culinary cultures.

In the daily life, the call of the Muezzin from mosques, the scent of joss sticks from the
Chinese temples or the ringing of bells from the Indian temples, remind us that the
multi-cultural heritage is very much alive in the historic cities of Malacca and George
Town ( Gov. of Malaysia, 2007).

Many festivals are celebrated throughout the year by the local populace, which bears the

testimony to the continuing living heritage of Melaka and George Town. The sites

contain large number of places of religious worship from where processional routes

originate and terminate within the site or at other parts of the cities. The places of

worship are visited by people from other states, including neighbouring countries. Major

religious festivals are gazetted as public holidays so that everyone can participate in the

public celebrations which are held within the historic precincts.

The same juxtaposition of myriad peoples, cultures and languages exists (as it did more

than a hundred years ago), where within their own enclaves, each community still

practices its own traditions and customs. The streets and public spaces, the “living

tissues” of the city, are continually used for some celebration or others, in particular for

the staging of Chinese opera during the festival of the “Hungry Ghosts” and “birthdays”

of deities ( Gov. of Malaysia, 2007).

70
ii. Authenticity of Urban Fabric

The authenticity of the Historical Cities of Melaka and George Town also lies in their

urban morphology. Despite the rapid urban and industrial development that Malacca

and George Town experienced over the past three decades, these historic cities have

largely retained their urban fabric of shophouses with the original street patterns and

their settings of courtyards and open spaces.

In Melaka for example, the Malacca Sultanate was built on Bukit Melaka or now known

as St. Paul's Hill. This was replaced by the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British, who

continued to run their administration on the same locality. Whole and partial structures

of the buildings still stand on this Core Zone. The continuity of such built environment

remains almost intact in the urban centre that dominates the areas around the estuary of

and along the historic Malacca River, which mainly depicts Anglo-Dutch, Straits

Chinese and Islamic architecture (Gov. of Malaysia, 2007).

In George Town, the relationship of the historic island port settlement to the harbour,

now known as Swettenham, is continued although most port activities involving cargo

transportation and haulage have been relocated to Butterworth -on the opposite side of

the channel- due to the need for expansion of the port. Nonetheless, Swettenham Pier

still handles cruise ships and has been expanded as an international cruise centre. As a

living heritage city, some of the older buildings have been replaced to accommodate the

needs of economic growth. Such redevelopments are mostly within the original

footprints or plots, thus continuing the urban structure. The only major fracture in the

urban structure of the city is KOMTAR, which is located on the fringe on the

nomination site. The KOMTAR project was commenced in 1974 by the State

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Government to revive the stagnant economy as it was part of an overall city plan

designed to concentrate urban redevelopment in the selected areas, thus relieving the rest

of the historic island port settlement from development pressure. The rest of its urban

fabric is shophouses, mostly intact in their original design, fronting the narrow streets of

George Town.

iii Authenticity of Architectural Heritage

Both Melaka and George Town have largely retained their architectural heritage in terms

of design, workmanship and material. Large number of colonial buildings built by the

British are still standing in their original condition. In Penang for example, there still

exist many administrative and government buildings built by the British during their 171

years stayed in George Town. Designed in many different styles, some of these

buildings adopted local styles and their planning, such as the use of large and open

verandas and corridors, open spatial planning, raised floors and ventilated spaces (Gov.

of Malaysia, 2007).

Both Melaka and George Town are most remembered with their rows of shophouses

fronting the narrow streets. Most of them are two- and three-storey height, with these

shophouses share similar designs characteristics. The ground floor is designed for public

purposes, mainly shops and offices, where the upper floor(s) are private spaces.

These shophouses also have clear design typology with long and narrow plan. Fronting

the street, the facades are in many different styles and complexities reflecting the period

they were built and the stature of the owners, such as Early Shophouses Style, Early

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Transition Style, Early Straits Eclectic Style, Neo-Classical Style, Art-Deco Style and

Early Modern Style ( Lim, 2006).

Similarly, the numbers of religious buildings, mainly Islamic mosques, Chinese temples,

Indian temples and churches, the majority of them are still in their original state of

condition, which are the testimony of the multi-cultural heritage of Melaka and George

Town.

From the historical point of view, the properties illustrate the development of maritime

urban settlements in the region and the contribution of diverse ethnic and cultural groups

in the layering of the present cities. Meanwhile, the urban characters and layout

demonstrate the application of European geometric patterns to settlements in Asia, with

local characteristics such as the long narrow plots for shophouses and town houses. The

architecture of both cities pictures diverse periods and trends, including Portuguese,

Dutch, Malay, India and Chinese legacies.

The shophouses in both places exhibiting different architectural style (9 types), which is

one of the main features of the properties and it is extremely rich when compared with

other towns in the wider regions. The properties in both cities contain typical urban

architectural units, such as the Chinese “kongsi” or the clan jetties, which enrich the

repertoire of urban and architectural components. Intangible heritage related to the

tangible components is an important feature, illustrating the fusion of different ethnic

communities that generate a specific cultural identity. It can be observed from religious

buildings that portrayed the daily practice of these communities.

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The above statement described the authenticity and integrity that form the OUV of what

Historical City of Melaka and Historical City of George Town compel to be in the

UNESCO list. However, there are challenges to the State Party and responsibility of the

local authorities to ensure this OUV is in place, as globalisation can bring negative

impact to the values of these cultural properties.

2.8 Sub Conclusion

This chapter has discussed the WH Sites, in general, outlined the characteristic of

Malacca and George Town WH cities, and highlighted the three criteria of outstanding

universal values (OUV) in their cultural properties at both sites. There are challenges to

keep this authenticity and integrity intact as time goes by. To avoid further damage from

many threats as spell out above, coupled with absence of monitoring the state of

conservation and indicators for cultural properties that are missing at both sites after the

initial finding of this study, it is then considered crucial to sustain the state of

conservation of the properties obtained from UNESCO in terms of the following: 1)

monitoring strategies; and 2) key indicators. These aspects are analyzed in Chapter Five

and Chapter Six.

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