Diagnosis and Treatment

of Female Sexual Dysfunction

JENNIFER E. FRANK, MD, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Appleton, Wisconsin
PATRICIA MISTRETTA, MPAS, Martin Army Community Hospital, Fort Benning, Georgia
JOSHUA WILL, CPT, MC, USA, Evans Army Community Hospital, Fort Carson, Colorado

Female sexual complaints are common, occurring in approximately 40 percent of women. Decreased desire is the
most common complaint. Normal versus abnormal sexual functioning in women is poorly understood, although the
concept of normal female sexual function continues to develop. A complete history combined with a physical exami-
nation is warranted for the evaluation of women with sexual complaints or concerns. Although laboratory evaluation
is rarely helpful in guiding diagnosis or treatment, it may be indicated in women with abnormal physical examination
findings or suspected comorbidities. The PLISSIT (Permission, Limited Information, Specific Suggestions, Intensive
Therapy) or ALLOW (Ask, Legitimize, Limitations, Open up, Work together) method can be used to facilitate dis-
cussions about sexual concerns and initiation of treatment. Developments in the treatment of male erectile dysfunc-
tion have led to investigation of pharmacotherapy for the treatment of female sexual dysfunction. Although sexual
therapy and education (e.g., cognitive behavior therapy, individual and couple therapy, physiotherapy) form the basis
of treatment, there is limited research demonstrating the benefit of hormonal and nonhormonal drugs. Testosterone
improves sexual function in postmenopausal women with hypoactive sexual desire disorder, although data on its
long-term safety and effectiveness are lacking. Estrogen improves dyspareunia associated with vulvovaginal atrophy
in postmenopausal women. Phosphodiesterase inhibitors have been shown to have limited benefit in small subsets of
women with sexual dysfunction. (Am Fam Physician 2008;77(5):635-642. Copyright © 2008 American Academy of
Family Physicians.)

F
Patient information: emale sexual dysfunction is a com- and abnormal sexual function and use het-
▲

A handout on this topic is plex and poorly understood condi- erogeneous populations.5,6 The most com-
available at http://family
doctor.org/612.xml.
tion that affects women of all ages. mon sexual complaint in women is decreased
Sexual function has been recon- desire, followed by orgasmic dysfunction.3,4
The online version ceptualized as a cyclic (rather than a linear) Table 1 presents prevalence data for female
of this article
includes supple- process that emphasizes social, psychologi- sexual dysfunction disorders.6,7
mental content at http:// cal, hormonal, environmental, and biologic
www.aafp.org/afp. factors.1 Sexual problems can be classified as Definition and Classification
sexual complaints, dysfunction, or disorders. Traditionally, female sexual dysfunction has
Disorders encompass dysfunction associated been classified into four categories by the
with personal distress; therefore, abnormal Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
function or sexual discontent can exist with- Disorders, 4th ed. (DSM-IV): sexual desire,
out a disorder being present.2 sexual arousal, orgasmic, or sexual pain dis-
orders.7 However, the definition of normal
Prevalence female sexual functioning has been critically
Female sexual complaints are common; the examined, and the accepted definition and
1992 National Health and Social Life Survey classification of female sexual dysfunction
showed a prevalence of 43 percent.3 A more have subsequently been revised.1
recent international survey of 27,500 men In 2004, the Second International Con-
and women 40 to 80 years of age found that sensus of Sexual Medicine accepted revised
39 percent of sexually active women reported definitions of female sexual dysfunction
a problem with sexual activity.4 It is difficult (Table 2 8). Noting whether symptoms, which
to accurately determine prevalence because may meet the definition for a sexual dysfunc-
studies use different definitions of normal tion, cause distress allows the physician to
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Physician
 SORT: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Evidence
Clinical recommendations rating References

Local estrogen therapy is recommended for the treatment C 8

of dyspareunia associated with vulvovaginal atrophy.
Testosterone added to hormone therapy improves sexual B 25-29
function in surgically or naturally menopausal women.
Sexual pain disorders should be treated with a C 9
multidimensional and multidisciplinary approach if the
cause is unknown or not easily treated.

A = consistent, good-quality patient-oriented evidence; B = inconsistent or limited-quality patient-oriented evi-

dence; C = consensus, disease-oriented evidence, usual practice, expert opinion, or case series. For information
about the SORT evidence rating system, see page 579 or http://www.aafp.org/afpsort.xml.

assess the clinical importance of the symp- Biology and Pathophysiology

toms.8 Female sexual dysfunction may be fur- A number of potential causative and contrib-
ther defined as lifelong (primary) or acquired uting factors to female sexual dysfunction
(secondary) and as situational (occurs only have been identified (Table 311), reflecting the
in certain circumstances or with certain complex interplay of physiologic, psycholog-
partners) or generalized (occurs in all situa- ical, emotional, and relational components.
tions and with all partners).8,9 Normal sexual function is partially depen-
There have been some concerns that dent on the effects of sex hormones and neu-
female sexual dysfunction, as defined by the rotransmitters on the central and peripheral
DSM-IV and the Second International Con- nervous systems (Table 4 2,11,12).2
sensus of Sexual Medicine, has been created Sexual desire may be the traditional spon-
by the pharmaceutical industry to introduce taneous desire from sexual thoughts, dreams,
pharmacologic treatment into a nonmedical and fantasies; or it may be secondary to cog-
arena, namely sexual functioning.10 nitive motivation.8,13 In some women, par-
ticularly those in long-term relationships,
nonsexual motivators (e.g., emotional close-
Table 1. Prevalence of DSM-IV Female   ness, feeling loved) may lead to sexual desire.1
Sexual Dysfunction Disorders With sexual arousal, the genitals expe-
rience vasocongestion, which promotes
Disorder Estimated prevalence* vaginal lubrication, engorgement, and
Sexual desire disorders lengthening; dilation of the vaginal wall;
Hypoactive sexual desire 10 to 46 percent and engorge­ment of the clitoris and vestibu-
disorder lovaginal bulbs. The physiologic effects of
Sexual aversion disorder Rare arousal are poorly correlated with subjective
arousal. Therefore, a woman with an arousal
Female sexual arousal disorder 6 to 21 percent
disorder may have genital vasocongestion in
Female orgasmic disorder 4 to 7 percent (general population) response to sexual stimuli but not experi-
5 to 42 percent (primary care setting) ence a subjective sense of arousal.1 Women
can have physical satisfaction without expe-
Sexual pain disorders
riencing an orgasm. A positive physical
Dyspareunia 3 to 18 percent (general population)
experience promotes future motivation and
3 to 46 percent (primary care setting)
receptiveness.1
9 to 21 percent (postmenopausal women)
Vaginismus 0.5 to 1 percent (general population) Evaluation and Diagnosis
Up to 30 percent (primary care setting)
Evaluation of sexual complaints may be lim-
ited by time constraints, physician or patient
DSM-IV = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. discomfort, difficulty with diagnosis, lack
*—Based on DSM-IV diagnostic categories. of available referral services, and limited
Information from references 6 and 7. treatment options.14 If time precludes a thor-
ough evaluation at first presentation, the

636  American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 77, Number 5 ◆ March 1, 2008
 Female Sexual Dysfunction

Table 2. Revised Definitions for Female Sexual Dysfunction from the Second
International Consensus of Sexual Medicine

Sexual desire/interest disorder: absent or diminished feelings of sexual interest or desire, absent
sexual thoughts or fantasies, and a lack of responsive desire; motivations for attempting to become
sexually aroused are scarce or absent; lack of interest is considered to be beyond the normal
decrease experienced with increasing age and relationship duration
Subjective sexual arousal disorder: absent or diminished feelings of sexual arousal from any type
of sexual stimulation; however, vaginal lubrication or other signs of physical response occur
Genital sexual arousal disorder: complaints of impaired genital sexual arousal, which may include
minimal vulvar swelling or vaginal lubrication from any type of sexual stimulation and reduced sexual
sensations from caressing genitalia; however, subjective sexual excitement occurs with nongenital
sexual stimuli
Combined genital and subjective arousal disorder: absent or diminished feelings of sexual
arousal from any type of sexual stimuli plus complaints of absent or impaired genital sexual arousal
Persistent genital arousal disorder: spontaneous, intrusive, and unwanted genital arousal in
the absence of sexual interest and desire; arousal is unrelieved by orgasms and persists for
hours or days
Women’s orgasmic disorder: despite self-report of high sexual arousal or excitement, there is lack
of orgasm, markedly diminished intensity of orgasmic sensations, or marked delay of orgasm from
any kind of stimulation
Dyspareunia: persistent or recurrent pain with attempted or completed vaginal entry and/or penile-
vaginal intercourse
Vaginismus: persistent or recurrent difficulties with vaginal entry of a penis, finger, or other object,
despite the woman’s expressed desire to participate
Sexual aversion disorder: extreme anxiety or disgust at the anticipation of or attempt at any sexual
activity

Information from reference 8.

Table 3. Causes of Female Sexual Dysfunction

Cause Examples Sexual symptoms

Hormonal/endocrine Hypothalamic-pituitary axis dysfunction, surgical/ Decreased libido/desire, vaginal dryness,

medical castration, menopause, chronic oral lack of arousal
contraceptive use, premature ovarian failure
Musculogenic Hyper- or hypotonicity of pelvic floor muscles Hypertonicity: sexual pain disorders, including
vaginismus
Hypotonicity: vaginal hypoesthesia, coital
anorgasmy, urinary incontinence associated
with sexual activity
Neurogenic Spinal cord injury; disorders of the central or Anorgasmy
peripheral nervous system (e.g., diabetes, upper
motor neuron injury)
Psychogenic Relationship problems, poor body image, decreased Decreased libido/desire, decreased arousal,
self-esteem, mood disorders, adverse effect of hypoesthesia, anorgasmy
psychotropic medication use
Vasculogenic Diminished blood flow to genitals secondary to Vaginal dryness, dyspareunia
atherosclerosis, hormonal influences, trauma

Information from reference 11.

March 1, 2008 ◆ Volume 77, Number 5 www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician  637
 Table 4. Sex Hormones and Neurotransmitters Involved in Sexual Functioning

Sex hormone or Sexual functioning Type of

neurotransmitter affected effect Comments

Dopamine Desire, arousal Positive May promote willingness to continue sexual activity after
it is initiated
Estrogen Arousal, desire Positive Estrogen deficiency is associated with vaginal atrophy,
decreased lubrication, vasocongestion, and sensation
Nitric oxide Vasocongestion of Positive Adequate levels of estrogen and testosterone may be needed
clitoral tissue for nitric oxide to initiate vasocongestion
Norepinephrine Arousal Positive —
Oxytocin Receptivity, orgasm Positive Associated with increased perineal contractions with orgasm
Progesterone Receptivity Positive May be antiestrogenic
Prolactin Arousal Negative —
Serotonin Arousal, desire Positive and Inhibits norepinephrine and dopamine; may facilitate uterine
negative contractions during orgasm, but also may inhibit orgasm
by different mechanisms
Testosterone Desire, initiation of Positive Low circulating levels of testosterone are not clearly associated
sexual activity with decreased sexual desire12
Vasoactive intestinal Vasocongestion of Positive —
peptide clitoral tissue

Information from references 2, 11, and 12.

complaint should be acknowledged and the family history; and birth control method.
patient should receive follow-up.15 Several medical conditions and medications
Physicians are often uncomfortable with are associated with sexual dysfunction.2,11,19
and poorly educated about obtaining a The PLISSIT (Permission, Limited Infor-
comprehensive sexual history,2 even though mation, Specific Suggestions, Intensive
this is an important component of primary Therapy) model is used to initiate discus-
health care.16 There are a number of vali- sions about sexual dysfunction and its man-
dated self-report and interview-based tools agement.15 The ALLOW (Ask, Legitimize,
for assessing female sexual dysfunction, but Limitations, Open up, Work together) model
they are primarily used in research settings.17 facilitates completion of the sexual history
The Brief Sexual Symptom Checklist is a self- and initiation of treatment or further evalu-
report tool that may be useful in the primary ation. Table 5 summarizes these models.15
care setting18 as an adjunct to a comprehen- Although physical examination findings
sive sexual history.13 The checklist includes are often normal,15 a complete examination,
four basic questions to determine the including a focused pelvic examination, can
patient’s satisfaction with her sexual func- identify pathology and provide patient educa-
tion, details about specific sexual problems, tion about normal anatomy and reassurance
and the willingness of the patient to discuss that no abnormality is present.1 The pelvic
these problems with the physician.18 examination can detect evidence of low hor-
Discussions about sexuality should begin mone levels, infection, hypo- or hypertonicity
with open-ended questions. If a sexual con- of pelvic floor muscles, adhesions, and ten-
cern is elicited, a focused history includes derness. The remaining physical examination
menstrual, obstetric, reproductive, and sex- focuses on mental status; blood pressure and
ual histories; status of current relationships peripheral pulse measurements; and mus-
and sexual activity; family and personal culoskeletal, thyroid, breast, and neurologic
beliefs about sexuality; and history of sex- abnormalities. Table 6 presents an overview of
ual trauma or abuse.2,8 Additional elements abnormal examination findings.2,13,15 Abnor-
of the history include medical and surgical mal findings are more likely in older women,
history; medication use, including over- in women with known gynecologic pathology
the-counter medications and herbal supple- or chronic systemic disease, and in women
ments; alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use; who have not received regular medical care.15

638  American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 77, Number 5 ◆ March 1, 2008
 Female Sexual Dysfunction

Laboratory evaluation is rarely helpful in

guiding the diagnosis or treatment of female Table 5. Models for Initiating Discussion and  
sexual dysfunction. However, a focused Treatment of Female Sexual Dysfunction
evaluation is appropriate, particularly if the
history or examination suggests a medical ALLOW
condition.13 Although some experts advo- Ask the patient about sexual function and activity
cate testing hormone levels in postmeno- Legitimize problems, and acknowledge that dysfunction is a clinical issue
pausal women or in women with decreased Identify limitations to the evaluation of sexual dysfunction
Open up the discussion, including potential referral
desire or arousal,11 there is no reliable cor-
Work with the patient to develop goals and a management plan
relation between hormone levels and sexual
PLISSIT 15
function.12,13,20
Obtain permission from the patient to discuss sexuality (e.g., “I ask all my
patients about their sexuality, is that okay to do with you now?”)
Psychiatric Comorbidities
Give limited information (e.g., inform the patient about normal sexual
Sexual dysfunction may be the manifes- functioning)
tation of psychiatric illness or an adverse Give specific suggestions about the patient’s particular complaint (e.g., advise
effect of psychotropic medication use.11 If a the patient to practice self-massage to discover what feels good to her)
woman has sexual complaints while taking Consider intensive therapy with a sexual health subspecialist
a psychotropic medication, a detailed his- ALLOW = Ask, Legitimize, Limitations, Open up, Work together; PLISSIT = Permission,
tory is necessary to identify the etiology.21 Limited Information, Specific Suggestions, Intensive Therapy.
Use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibi- Information from references 15 and Sadovsky R. The role of the primary care clinician
tors (SSRIs) is a common cause of medica- in the management of erectile dysfunction. Rev Urol. 2002;4(suppl 3):S54-S63.
tion-induced female sexual dysfunction,

Table 6. Abnormal Physical Examination Findings Related to Female Sexual Dysfunction

Finding Potential cause Sexual symptoms

Genitourinary
Cystocele, rectocele, or uterine prolapse — Decreased desire (from embarrassment),
dyspareunia
Fixed, retroverted uterus; nodules; Endometriosis Deep dyspareunia
tenderness along uterosacral ligaments
Hypertonicity of pelvic muscles Vaginismus, vestibulitis Dyspareunia
Sparse pubic hair Low androgen level Decreased desire
Tender points along vulvar vestibule Vestibulitis Dyspareunia
Vaginal discharge Infection Dyspareunia
Vaginal or labial atrophy Low estrogen level Dyspareunia, decreased arousal
Vulvar skin abnormalities Lichen sclerosus, chronic candidal Dyspareunia
vaginitis
Other
Abnormal blood pressure or peripheral Atherosclerotic peripheral vascular Decreased arousal
pulses disease
Galactorrhea Prolactinoma Decreased desire
Musculoskeletal abnormalities Osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, Decreased desire, decreased arousal
other musculoskeletal conditions secondary to difficulty with sexual activity
or embarrassment
Neuropathy Neurologic disorder, diabetes Decreased desire or arousal, anorgasmy
Pallor Anemia Decreased desire or arousal
Thyroid enlargement Hypothyroidism Decreased desire or arousal

Information from references 2, 13, and 15.

March 1, 2008 ◆ Volume 77, Number 5 www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician  639
Female Sexual Dysfunction

although all antidepressant classes can cause HYPOACTIVE SEXUAL DESIRE DISORDER
dysfunction.22 SSRIs most commonly cause Hypoactive sexual desire disorder is the most
delayed or absent orgasm and decreased common type of female sexual dysfunc-
libido.22 The incidence of SSRI-induced tion3,4,15,19 and often has a psychological or
sexual dysfunction is estimated to be 30 to physiologic cause. Nonpharmacologic treat-
50 percent.23 ment is aimed at education, therapy, and
Treatment of medication-induced sexual treatment of contributing factors. As under-
dysfunction includes dosage reduction; drug standing about normal female sexual function
holidays; switching to or adding a medica- develops, it is important to educate women
tion with a lower incidence of sexual adverse about how desire may change with increasing
effects (e.g., bupropion [Wellbutrin], mir- age or relationship duration.8 Therapy empha-
tazapine [Remeron]); behavior strategies; sizes lifestyle changes such as stress manage-
waiting for tolerance to the medication to ment, adequate rest, and regular exercise.15
develop; delaying medication administra- Pharmacologic treatment is limited. One
tion until after sexual activity; and individ- of the most commonly studied medications
ual and couple therapy.21,22 is testosterone. Although decreased androgen
levels do not correlate well with hypoactive
Treatment sexual desire disorder,12 testosterone (usually
Treatment of female sexual dysfunction is 300 mcg daily applied transdermally; trans-
complicated by the lack of a single causative dermal application is not approved by the
factor, limited proven treatment options, U.S. Food and Drug Administration [FDA]
physician unfamiliarity with available treat- for use in women) has been shown to ben-
ments, overlap of different types of dysfunc- efit sexual desire in postmenopausal women
tion, limited availability of treatment, and receiving hormone therapy.25-29 Topical and
limited expertise in the treatment of female systemic estrogen improves vaginal lubrica-
sexual dysfunction.14 Although patient tion in postmenopausal women with vaginal
education and therapy are the foundation atrophy, but the therapy has not been shown
of treatment, limited research has demon- to consistently increase desire or arousal.9,13,30
strated the benefit of pharmacotherapy Phosphodiesterase inhibitors have not been
(see online Table A). shown to improve diminished desire.31 One
small, poor-quality study demonstrated
PATIENT EDUCATION improved desire with bupropion treatment.32
Many women consider normal sexual func-
SEXUAL AROUSAL DISORDER
tion to be the traditional desire-arousal-
orgasm process. Physicians can alleviate Because physiologic and subjective arousal
sexual concerns by educating patients about may be unrelated,8 education is a key com-
what is “normal.” For example, women ponent in the treatment of female sexual
who expect to feel desire for sexual stimu- arousal disorder.15 Another treatment option
lation may be reassured that desire can is the Eros Clitoral Therapy Device, made by
encompass a need for emotional intimacy UroMetric. The device is FDA-approved and
through sexual activity rather than a need is designed to improve arousal by increasing
for sexual activity itself.1 Education about blood flow to the clitoris with gentle suction.11,33
normal anatomy is another important com- Two small, short-term studies have shown that
ponent in addressing sexual concerns. Use the device benefits women with sexual arousal
of a handheld mirror during a gynecologic disorder.33,34 Lubrication may decrease dyspa-
examination can demonstrate to the patient reunia associated with diminished desire.15
normal and abnormal physical findings and Phosphodiesterase inhibitors have been
facilitate a discussion about the physiologic shown to have limited benefit in subgroups
basis of sexual functioning.24 Women may of women with sexual arousal disorder31;
be reassured that normal sexual function- however, most women do not appear to ben-
ing is widely variable.13 efit from the treatment.

640  American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 77, Number 5 ◆ March 1, 2008
 Female Sexual Dysfunction

ORGASMIC DISORDER pain disorders. During the examination, the

Anorgasmy has been successfully treated physician gains permission from the patient to
with directed masturbation, cognitive behav- continue with each step of the pelvic exami-
ior therapy, and sensate focus.35 Cognitive nation, maintaining a willingness to stop at
behavior therapy focuses on decreasing anxi- any point. The physician explains the process
ety and promoting changes in attitudes and of the examination, offers the speculum for
sexual thoughts, which increase the ability to the patient to hold or look at, and teaches the
achieve orgasm and to gain satisfaction from patient how to relax her pelvic floor muscles.24
orgasm.35 Sensate focus is a form of sexual With systematic desensitization, a woman is
therapy that guides a woman and her partner taught relaxation exercises and is gradually
through a series of exercises, moving from exposed to insertion of a finger or vaginal dila-
nonsexual to sexual touching.35 tor.9,38 A Cochrane review of vaginismus treat-
Although a few small studies and case ment determined that there is limited evidence
reports have suggested that phosphodies- from uncontrolled studies demonstrating the
terase inhibitors have a role in the treatment effectiveness of systematic desensitization
of orgasmic disorder, most studies have not with vaginal dilators or hypnotherapy.39
shown a benefit. A pilot study of men and Pharmacologic therapy of sexual pain dis-
women showed that bupropion was effective orders includes treatment of the underlying
for orgasm achievement.36 cause, such as estrogen for vaginal atrophy 8,25
or medication for vulvovaginal candidiasis.
SEXUAL PAIN DISORDERS Vulvar vestibulitis is treated with tricyclic
Dyspareunia has many potential etiolo- and other antidepressants, anticonvulsants,
gies, including infection, vaginal atrophy, and topical agents; however, there are lim-
and endometriosis.24 Addressing the under- ited data to support pharmacologic treat-
lying cause is the first step in treatment. If ment of sexual pain disorders.26
the cause is unknown or not easily treated,
The opinions and assertions contained herein are the pri-
treatment is multidimensional and multidis- vate views of the authors and are not to be construed as
ciplinary and reflects the interplay of physio- official or as reflecting the views of the U.S. Army Medi-
logic, emotional, and relational factors.9,24,37 cal Department or the U.S. Army Service at large.
Physiotherapy (e.g., hands-on techniques,
biofeedback, pelvic floor electrical stimula- The Authors
tion, perineal ultrasonography, use of vagi-
JENNIFER E. FRANK, MD, is an assistant professor in the
nal dilators) is a treatment option for sexual Department of Family Medicine at the University of Wis-
pain disorders such as vulvar vestibulitis and consin School of Medicine and Public Health and is a fac-
vaginismus.9,37 Psychotherapy is tailored to ulty member at the Fox Valley Family Medicine Residency
the patient’s individual issues, and inclusion Program, Appleton, Wis. She received her medical degree
from Boston (Mass.) University School of Medicine and
of her sex partner should be encouraged.9 completed a family medicine residency at DeWitt Army
In the treatment of vaginismus, psycho- Hospital, Fort Belvoir, Va.
therapy addresses the patient’s fears about
PATRICIA MISTRETTA, MPAS, is a physician assistant in the
vaginal penetration and allows her to gain Family Medicine Clinic at Martin Army Community Hospital,
increasing comfort with her genitals and, Fort Benning, Ga. She completed the Emory University School
eventually, vaginal penetration.9 Cognitive of Medicine Physician Assistant Program, Atlanta, Ga., and
behavior therapy (provided in a group set- received her master’s degree in physician assistant studies
from the University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha.
ting over six months) that focuses on pain’s
relationship to anxiety, muscle contractions’ JOSHUA WILL, CPT, MC, USA, is a family physician at Evans
Army Community Hospital, Fort Carson, Colo. He received
relationship to pain perception, and general
his doctorate degree in osteopathic medicine at the Kan-
sexual education has been shown to decrease sas City (Mo.) University of Medicine and Biosciences and
pain with intercourse and improve sexual sat- completed a family medicine residency at Martin Army
isfaction in women with vulvar vestibulitis.38 Community Hospital.
An educational pelvic examination may be Address correspondence to Jennifer E. Frank, MD, Uni-
particularly beneficial in patients with sexual versity of Wisconsin Health Fox Valley Family Medicine

March 1, 2008 ◆ Volume 77, Number 5 www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician  641
Female Sexual Dysfunction

Clinic, 229 S. Morrison St., Appleton, WI 54911 (e-mail: 21. Baldwin D, Mayers A. Sexual side-effects of antide-
[email protected]). Reprints are not avail- pressant and antipsychotic drugs. Adv Psychiatr Treat.
able from the authors. 2003;9:202-210.
22. Werneke U, Northey S, Bhugra D. Antidepressants
Author disclosure: Dr. Frank owns stock in Pfizer, manu- and sexual dysfunction. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2006;
facturer of Viagra. 114(6):384-397.
23. Balon R. SSRI-associated sexual dysfunction. Am J Psy-
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642  American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 77, Number 5 ◆ March 1, 2008