12 Packed Towers

12.1  DEVICE TYPE

Packed towers are gas absorption devices that utilize internal media of a variety of
types to enhance the mass transfer of gases into an absorbing liquid. Please also see
filament/mesh scrubbers (Chapter 9), which share many of the same design and use
characteristics of the packed tower.

12.2  TYPICAL APPLICATIONS AND USES

For both air pollution control and recovery of process gases, packed towers are one
of the most common mass transfer devices in current use.
They are used for control of soluble gases such as halide acids (such as HF and
HCl) and to remove soluble organic compounds such as alcohols and aldehydes.
When the scrubbing solution is charged with an oxidant such as sodium hypochlo-
rite, they are used to control sulfide odors from wastewater treatment facilities and
rendering plants. They are used to absorb and concentrate acids for recovery. When
gases and aerosols are both present, the packed tower is frequently used ahead of
aerosol collectors such as fiberbeds and wet electrostatic precipitators (WESPs).
Packed towers are also used as gas coolers and condensers (Please see Chapter 22
on energy recovery). They sometimes are used after a hot gas quencher to act as a gas
cooler. Some are fitted with ceramic packing that can resist temperature extremes.
When fitted ahead of a Venturi scrubber to function as a water vapor condenser/
absorber, the packed tower becomes a critical part of a flux force condensation sys-
tem for particulate control. The tower in this case acts as both an acid gas absorber
and a direct contact vapor condenser.
They are also used after Venturi scrubbers on medical waste incinerators to con-
trol acid gases such as HCl.
To control the combined vent gases from semiconductor manufacturing, large
packed towers are used. Called house scrubbers, they clean the small concentrations
of acid gases usually using pH control and neutralization with caustic. In contrast,
the same industry uses small packed towers at specific tools in a point-of-use con-
figuration. The point-of-use scrubbers are designed to treat the specific emissions
source and often vent into a combined ventilation system, eventually leading to a
house scrubber. The emissions are effectively double scrubbed before the carrying
gas is released to atmosphere.
Pulp and paper mills often use packed towers for bleach plant applications to control
chlorine and chlorine dioxide where fibers or chemical scaling is minimal. Fluidized
bed type scrubbers are used in cases where fibers or scaling are known challenges.

113
114 Air Pollution Control Equipment Selection Guide

12.3  OPERATING PRINCIPLES

As mentioned in Chapter 1, absorbers function by extending the surface of a solvent (usu-
ally water) so that the mass transfer of a gas into that solvent is enhanced. The mass trans-
fer of a gas into the liquid is limited by the gas/liquid interface conditions. Only a certain
mass of gas can move into the liquid per unit area. Once into the liquid, only a certain
amount of dissolved gas can remain, per unit volume. Therefore, to effectively remove
the gas, one must have sufficient liquid surface area and an adequate volume of liquid.
The packing (or medium) in a packed tower provides the liquid-extending func-
tion to increase its area. The liquid inlet system provides the adequate volume. By
selecting the proper type and amount of media, the conditions can be created for
optimum mass transfer. The result is a tower containing the design amount of media
(or an excess) irrigated by the design amount of liquid (or an excess). If the gas flows
vertically, the tower may contain just a few feet of this medium, or over 50 feet of
medium, depending upon the absorption characteristics of the contaminant and the
neutralizing capability of the liquid. Towers may also be required in series to reach
the desired gas outlet conditions.
Packed towers are essentially probability machines. The individual contaminant
gas molecule is in contact with the descending liquid for only a fraction of a sec-
ond. By increasing the number of chance such random contacts through increasing
the height of the packed bed, the chances that the molecule will be absorbed are
increased. If you do not absorb it now, you might absorb it later. Also, it takes time
for the gas to diffuse to the liquid surface. If one gives such diffusion more time by
letting the gas move slowly through a long contact bed, one increases the chance of
successful absorption.
The standard vertical (counterflow) packed tower has the components shown
in Figure 12.1. The vessel contains a grid that supports the packing medium. The
medium is irrigated from above by a liquid distribution device (usually a spray header
or headers). The liquid hits the medium and high surface area liquid films and/or drip
points are formed as the liquid flows over and through the medium. The gas, flowing
in the opposite direction as the liquid, is caused to take a tortuous path through the
medium, thus bringing the gas close to the absorbing liquid. The gas contacts the
liquid surface and, if the liquid is not saturated with the contaminant, is absorbed. If
some contaminant is already present in the liquid, not all of the contaminant gas will
be absorbed. Therefore, a large volume of packing is often used so that, particularly
at the top of the packed tower, the scrubbing liquid can absorb and retain the gas. If
not, the removal efficiency of the packed tower will be reduced.
A crossflow arrangement (Figure 12.2) is similar except that some of the gas and
liquid move concurrently and that the liquid is rejected downward along the entire
vessel path length. For gases that are absorbed and react with dissolved compounds,
the crossflow and counterflow towers behave similarly. If the gas does not react with
chemicals in the liquid, the crossflow tower can demonstrate a reduced efficiency
since the liquid is carried, with its dissolved gas cargo, toward the gas discharge
point, creating a vapor pressure condition that favors the gas. This means that the
liquid may not have the same absorption capacity in the crossflow design as in the
counterflow design when no liquid phase reaction occurs.
Packed Towers 115

Clean Gas Outlet

Demister Pad

Liquid Inlets
Contact Bed

Contaminated
Gas Inlet

Recycle Section

FIGURE 12.1  Vertical counterflow packed tower components (Bionomic Industries, Inc.).

There are hundreds of types of packed tower packing material that forms the
packed bed. Figure  12.3 shows a variety of basic types of dumped type packing
media. These media may be made from thermoplastic material such as polypropyl-
ene, metals such as stainless steel or corrosion resistant alloys, or even in the form
of cast ceramics. Figure 12.4 shows media offered by RVT Process Equipment, Inc.,
and Figure 12.5 shows media designed and supplied by Lantec Products, two of the
leading domestic suppliers of this type of media.

Spray

Packed Section

Gas Inlet Gas Outlet

View Port
Mist Eliminator
Recirculation Sump
Pump
Epoxy Coated
Steel Base

FIGURE 12.2  Crossflow packed tower components (Bionomic Industries, Inc.).

116 Air Pollution Control Equipment Selection Guide

Intalox Saddle Berl Saddle Tellerette

Pall Ring Lessig Ring Raschig Ring

FIGURE 12.3  Dumped type packing media (Bionomic Industries, Inc.).

You can see by the designs that certain configurations produce large surface films
and others have small holes or openings that form numerous drip points. In general,
where scaling can occur, packing with large openings that produce drip passages
rather than film surfaces are used because scaling is a surface phenomenon. The
various vendors seek to combine a balance between mass transfer enhancement and
plugging and scaling resistance. The resulting packing must be structurally sound as
well because the material rests on and is supported by the medium beneath it. In a
more subtle manner, the packing must resist side-to-side motion under the influence
of gas or liquid flow. If the packing moves around easily, valleys or mounds of pack-
ing can form in the tower, upsetting its performance.

FIGURE 12.4  RVT packed tower hiflow media (RVT Process Equipment, Inc.).
Packed Towers 117

FIGURE 12.5  Lantec packed tower media (Lantec Products, Inc.).

Media can also be in the form of shaped and/or perforated panels. This is called
structured packing because the media are structurally self-supporting. Figure 12.6
shows a type of structural packing. The plastic versions are cousins to cooling
tower fill, and many look like corrugated plastic panels. Other fill material is made
of woven mesh, much like the mesh used in a mesh pad droplet eliminator. This
type of medium is used in distillation columns and applications, in general, where
no solids are present. If solids are present, the medium can act as a liquid filter
and plug.

FIGURE 12.6  Structured ceramic packing (Lantec Products, Inc.).

118 Air Pollution Control Equipment Selection Guide

12.4  PRIMARY MECHANISMS USED

Gas absorption in a counterflow (vertical gas flow) packed tower is dictated by the
equilibrium conditions between the contaminant gas and the absorbing liquid. The
overall controlling mechanisms are ruled by the solubility of the gas in the liquid and
by any reactions that may be caused to occur in the liquid with a reacting chemical. If
the gas reacts with a chemical forming a lower vapor pressure compound, the equi-
librium shift favors further absorption. If the absorbed gas builds up in the liquid, the
equilibrium shifts to inhibit subsequent absorption.
Diffusion is used to move the gas to the liquid surface. At or near the liquid sur-
face, phoretic forces such as thermophoresis or diffusiophoresis may be in play.
In essence, however, packed towers are equilibrium and probability machines.
The overall gas/liquid equilibrium controls the design of the tower. Because the
gas is absorbed at the liquid surface, the more liquid-to-gas interactions that can
be caused to occur, the greater the probability of absorption. The more difficult the
absorption, therefore, the greater the medium depth. This increases the number of
contact possibilities, thus increasing the likelihood that a contact will be successful
and the gas will be absorbed.

12.5  DESIGN BASICS

The contaminant solubility, vapor pressure characteristics, and the scrubbing liq-
uid’s capacity for that contaminant control the actual amount of packing needed in a
packed tower. Packing selection is covered in detail in books specifically devoted to
mass transfer (see Appendix A) and is beyond the scope of this book.
A method has been developed to compare various packing types. This param-
eter is called the packing factor, and you will see specific packing factors published
for various packing types. Most packing vendors, however, will provide for you the
estimated packing quantity for their specific packing after you submit the gas flow
and scrubbing liquid characteristics to them. Some will even design towers for you.
It is advised, however, that you solicit the assistance of an experienced packed tower
vendor before committing to a tower selection. These devices are more complicated
than they appear to be on the surface.

12.5.1  COUNTERFLOW
Gas inlet velocities are usually 40 to 55 ft/sec in packed towers. The inlet velocity is
usually dictated by common ventilation system design practice. In vertical counter-
flow tower designs, the vessel gas velocity is 3 to 8 ft/sec. The upper limit is dictated
by the flooding characteristics of the packing.
Any packing can flood. Flooding occurs when the gas kinetic energy is sufficient
to hold up all of the scrubbing liquid. The liquid spreads out across the tower seek-
ing some means to drain but cannot. The pressure drop of the tower starts to swing
or surge and the hydraulics become unstable. For most gas absorption problems at
near-ambient conditions, at approximately 8 ft/sec, the tower might flood. Packing
vendors perform tests on their packing and determine flooding velocities and gas
Packed Towers 119

FIGURE 12.7  Injection type packing support (RVT Process Equipment, Inc.).

mass flow rates for their various packing types. The designer sizes the vessel to stay
below that flooding point.
Ironically, most mass transfer operations reach their peak efficiency just before
flooding occurs. Mechanically, however, the stability of the tower decreases as one
approaches flooding. A compromise is needed. Most towers are designed for less
than 80% of predicted flooding.
To support the packing, flat or curved injection type grids are used. Figure 12.7 is
a rendering of an injection type grid. The curved surfaces allow the ascending gas to
be injected into the packing not on one plane but over a deep zone. The gas can enter
the packing at an angle, thereby allowing the liquid to drain more readily.
If dumped type packing is used, hold-down grids are often used to hold the pack-
ing within the required absorption zone.
The liquid itself is distributed by spray headers as shown in Figure  12.8 or by
distribution weirs as shown in Figure 12.9. Care is taken with spray type distribu-
tors to make certain that the spray patterns overlap but don’t impact the vessel wall
excessively. If the liquid hits the wall, it forms sheets of liquid on the wall that are
largely ineffective in absorption because it only attains the area of the vessel wall
itself. Many vendors of packed tower internals offer proprietary liquid distributors.
These designs often have their roots in distillation towers and are highly engineered
(and tested) to produce a uniform liquid loading. If spray headers are used, the liquid
velocity is 4 to 8 ft/sec. Free-flow fittings to distributor trays are in the 3 to 4 ft/sec
range, sometimes lower.
Packing is usually irrigated at a minimum of about 6 to 8 gallons per minute
(gpm) of liquid per square foot of packing. It is not unusual to irrigate at over 20 gpm
per square foot to make certain that all of the packing is wetted. If the packing is not
fully wetted, the performance of the scrubber will be reduced.
If a packing depth of more than about 10 feet is required, redistributors or rosettes
are used to pull liquid from the wall toward the center. The gas velocity through the
packing causes the pushing of the liquid toward the wall. The velocity tends to be
120 Air Pollution Control Equipment Selection Guide

Nonclogging Type
Spray Nozzle

FIGURE 12.8  Retractable liquid distribution headers (Bionomic Industries, Inc.).

slightly higher at the center than the wall; thus, the liquid is ejected toward the wall.
The rosettes act as baffles to direct the liquid back toward the vessel center, thereby
keeping all of the packing wetted.
The upper surface of the packing and its liquid distributor generate residual drop-
lets that are controlled by a mist eliminator. Mesh pads are often used when the
gas stream is clean (no solids) or chevrons when some particulate may be present.

FIGURE 12.9  Liquid distribution weir boxes (RVT Process Equipment, Inc.).

Packed Towers 121

Mesh pads require a gas velocity of about 10 ft/sec or less. Chevrons permit higher
gas velocity (10–12 ft/sec), but this would require a change in vessel diameter. As
a result, the packed tower vessel is usually designed for about 8 ft/sec or less. If a
chevron is used, its face area is reduced using a blank-off plate.

12.5.2  CROSSFLOW
Gas inlet velocities are in accordance with the counterflow designs. Because the
gas flows side to side in the crossflow design, the liquid is draining out of the gas
stream, so the packing resists flooding. As a result, the crossflow orientation can run
at higher gas velocities.
The box velocity is usually 5 to 10 ft/sec. The liquid loading can be higher than
that used in the counterflow packed tower. This higher liquid capacity can be an
advantage where the gas is only slightly soluble in water (you can use more water).
The droplet eliminator in the crossflow also rejects liquid out of the air stream,
but it ejects it out and down, rather than back into the gas stream. If a chevron is
chosen, it can operate at 12 to 15 ft/sec. If a mesh pad is used, velocities of 8 to 12 ft/
sec and sometimes higher are possible. The mesh pads are often inclined to enhance
draining along its element (the gas drains at an angle given the gas velocity pushing
the liquid to the side). Either of these devices is often mounted in a containing box
with a flanged service cover.
With crossflow designs, a reduction in efficiency can occur if the gas short-cir-
cuits over the top of the packing. To prevent this, vendors use baffles or extend the
packing up into the box area above the packing. Others place a layer of mesh pad
above the packing to offer greater resistance to gas flow. Still others use two or three
different packing sizes so that the gas is pushed lower in the tower. The more resis-
tant packing is placed at the top, near the irrigation headers.
The liquid is distributed much like in a counterflow packed tower at similar veloci-
ties. The liquid header pressure need not be very high since the liquid nozzles are
within a foot or so of the packing. Pressures of less than 10 psig are used firing full cone
nozzles. Some designs use pipes with holes in them, thereby eliminating the nozzles.

12.6  OPERATING SUGGESTIONS

Packed towers, particularly vertical gas flow types, need to be installed vertically. A
plumb line is often used to help set the verticality of the unit.
If the tower is made from fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) and is installed on
a concrete pad, roofing felt (tar paper) is placed under the tower to compensate for
pad irregularities. If the towers are installed on steel plates, roofing felt is also used
to allow the plastic packed tower to expand and contract with minimum chafing on
the plate.
Always plan the surrounding area for packing removal and installation. Sometimes
height constraints eliminate the possibility of using access doors above and below
the packed bed. In this case, the whole top of the tower may have to be flanged and
bolted for removal.
122 Air Pollution Control Equipment Selection Guide

On towers equipped with liquid headers, to access the nozzles, retractable,

flanged headers are suggested. If these headers are plastic and are less than 3 ft long,
they can be cantilevered. If they are longer, they typically need to be extended fully
across the tower diameter and be retained in a socket or similar support. Why? When
the header is pressurized, the reaction force of the liquid ejecting from the nozzle
tends to push the header upward. When unpressurized, the header tends to sag. The
end support reduces both effects.
If caustic is used in packed towers, it should be thoroughly mixed. One way to
do this is to inject it into the liquid recirculation circuit ahead of an in-line mixer.
Another way is to take part of the recycle liquid and divert it into a submerged
sparger located in the scrubber sump. The caustic is injected into this sparger and is
thoroughly mixed in the sump.
Using a differential pressure gauge or transmitter monitoring the bed pressure
drop can reveal the condition of the packed tower. All things being equal, if the pres-
sure drop rises, the bed may be plugging.
Acid washing a scaled-up packed bed can be difficult. It is much like trying
to clean both sides of an umbrella by sending liquid down on it. You can possibly
clean the upward-facing side, but what about the underside? The only truly effective
method is to totally flood the tower with descaling chemical (usually acid for carbon-
ate scale and caustic for silicate scale). The other method is to remove the packing
and wash or replace it. The latter is the most common method.
Care should be taken in packed towers using spray nozzles to provide strainers
to remove or trap solids that could plug the nozzles. Some vendors use removable
perforated plates that trap solids. Others use single or duplex basket strainers.
Packed towers offer efficient control of soluble gases in environments in which
solids plugging, either by solids in the gas stream or by-products of the gas/liquid
reaction, is minimal.