Comparing Neo-Kantians Ernst Cassirer A
Comparing Neo-Kantians Ernst Cassirer A
Comparing Neo-Kantians Ernst Cassirer A
Published in Occasional Papers in Sociology (nr. 49), Department of Sociology,
University of Manchester, 1996.
.
Comparing NeoKantians: Ernst Cassirer and Georg Simmel
by Frédéric Vandenberghe *
Abstract
In this working paper, the author does four things: (i) presenting neoKantianism as a form
of postHegelian philosophising, he inquires whether it has any implications for sociology;
structuralist analysis of the concept; (iii) he compares Simmel's vitalist theory of culture with
Cassirer's philosophy of symbolic forms and, finally (iv) he tries to put sociology back on the
Kantian tracks of practical philosophy.
1) NeoKantianism and Sociology
*
Jean Monnet Fellow at the European University Institute in Florence. An earlier version of this paper was
presented at the Midterm Conference of the Research Committee on the History of Sociology of the
International Sociological Association which took place in Amsterdam, 1618 May 1996. I am very glad that
Peter Halfpenny has kindly accepted to publish this paper in this series, as it testifies of my temporary presence
as a lecturer at the University of Manchester. I would like to thank Pete Martin and Stephen Turner for their
helpful comments, and Anna Grimshaw for her linguistic assistance and, more generally, for her gentle
presence as well.
2
In an interview, Michel Foucault once declared: "Nous sommes tous néokantiens". 1
We are all neoKantians or aren't we? That is the question. To find out, we must, of course,
first inquire what neoKantianism is. NeoKantianism (or neocriticism, as it is often called)
2
is best characterized, I think, not as a philosophy, but as a certain way of postHegelian and
postmetaphysical philosophising which takes its cue from Kant drawing on Kant is
3
obviously not the same and doesn't have the same implications as, say, drawing on Spinoza or
Hegel. Any reasonably good encyclopaedia of philosophy will tell you that neoKantianism
has to be defined in plural. It refers to a group of professoral, purely academic movements (or
Germany somewhere between 1850 and 1920. These had little in common beyond a strong,
almost visceral reaction against the speculative idealisms of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel, and
a conviction that philosophy could and should be a rigorous science. This can only be the
case, it is argued, if philosophy returns to the spirit and method of Kant, as laid out in the
that will be able to present itself as a science. The two most distinguishing characteristics of
the Kantian revival of the late 19 th. Century are thus: rejection of the metaphysical systems
of absolute idealism, and orientation around the fact of science and culture in an attempt to
uncover their conditions of possibility.
Trendelenburg, Prantl, Fisher, Helmholtz, Meyer, Haym, Ueberweg, Lange, Cohen,
Natorp, Windelband, Rickert, Cassirer, Lask those names of once famous neoKantians
probably don't ring any bells anymore, apart from the last ones maybe. So far as an
intellectual movement can be said to have a beginning and an end at a specific moment of
time, neoKantianism began with the publication at Stuttgart in 1865 of Kant und die
Epigonen by Otto Liebmann, a minor philosopher, whose motto "Back to Kant!" ("Also muß
auf Kant zurückgegangen werden!") , which closed every chapter of the book, has become
famous. It died at Davos in 1929 with the ominous dispute which opposed Ernst Cassirer's
epistemological interpretation of Kant to Heidegger's ontological one. Opposing Cassirer's
5
neoKantian interpretation of the Kantian doctrine as a general theory of knowledge, more
Heidegger reinterpreted Kant, primarily and basically, as an attempt to found metaphysics
from within an existential analysis of the finitude of Dasein. Kant or Nietzsche? this
5
The protocols of the meeting, written by Bollnow and Ritter, have been published in the fourth edition of
Heidegger, M.: Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik, Frankfurt/Main, 1973, pp. 246268. The waning of neo
Kantianism is linked, on the intellectual level, to the rise of existentialism and phenomenology and, on the
historical level, to the forced exile and prosecution of its Jewish representatives.
4
nagging question, which once opposed Cassirer and Heidegger, and which nowadays opposes
(Erkenntnisfrage) receded.
Whereas Hegel, Schelling, Fichte, and others had used the words of Kant while being
alien to their spirit, the neoKantians were, on the whole, faithful to the spirit while being
revisionists with respect to the letter. Hermann Cohen, for instance, presented an
interpretation of Kant which was so idealistic that it simply tended to merge into a form of
neoPlatonism; Friedrich Paulsen, on the other hand, interpreted Kant in such a way that he
appeared as a student of Hume, and he drove Kant's complicity with positivism to the point
that eventually Comte almost appeared as his student. Of the scholars we're going to consider,
neither Georg Simmel nor Ernst Cassirer accepted the positivist reinterpretations of Kant.
Because of the complexity and the internal tensions in Kant's philosophy, particularly those
Kantians brought home the same message from the Sage of Königsberg, and the diversity of
their teachings was as great as their quarrels were notorious. Using military metaphors,
Marck says that "the different columns of neoKantianism were united in their attacks and
marched separately" . In any case, when it came to the critique of absolute idealism, which
6
6
Marck, S.: "Am Ausgang des jüngeren Neukantianismus", in Öllig, H.L. (Hg.): Materialien zur
NeukantianismusDiskussion, Darmstadt, 1987, p. 20.
5
Idealismus"), the neoKantians marched in line to rehabilitate philosophy in the form of a
critical analysis of the conditions of possibility of knowledge, and, more generally, of culture.
By “absolute idealism” I mean the postKantian systematic philosophies of Fichte,
Schelling and Hegel. These can be defined by three theses, liberally drawn from Hegel. 7
Absolute idealism defends: 1) the unity of being and thinking, 2) the unity of the true, the
good and the beautiful, and 3) the philosophical system as science of the absolute.
Ad 1) Unity of Being and Thinking: Absolute idealism does not oppose the common
sense idea that knowledge and being are different, but it grasps their interplay as a dialectical
unity, or, as Hegel said in his Wissenschaft der Logik, as "the identity of the identity and the
nonidentity", which admittedly can only be explicitated in terms of the Absolute. According
to Hegel, the absolute is the Idea, and the Idea can only be understood as Reason (Vernunft),
that is as identity of the subject and the object, of the ideal and the real, of thought and being,
or to say the same in better known terms, of the rational and the real. Against this reduction
8
of ontology to logic, which deduces Being from thinking, the neoKantians firmly believe
7
Cfr. Schnädelbach, H.: Philosophie in Deutschland 18311933, Frankfurt/Main, 1991, pp. 1721.
8
The locus classicus where Hegel expresses most bluntly the identity of the real and the rational is the Preface
to his Philosophy of Law (Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts, in Werke, Band 7, Frankfurt/Main, 1970, p.
24): “Was vernünftig ist, das ist wirklich, and was wirklich ist, vernünftig” “What is rational is real, and what
is real is rational”.
6
with Kant that “only the critical way remains open". Philosophy has to take an
9
epistemological turn. Concretely, it means that, instead of making dogmatic claims about the
nature of Being, of the "things in themselves", philosophy has to ask itself what statements
about Being, about objects of knowledge in general signify and how knowledge of objects of
experience is possible. This epistemological turn is precisely what is implied by Kant's so
called "Copernican revolution": instead of starting with the objects of knowledge, instead of
starting with an ontology, philosophy has really to start with an analysis of the genesis and
the structure of the subjective constitution of the objects of knowledge. Kant has nicely
expressed this idea as follows: "The proud name of an ontology that presomptuously claims
to supply, in systematic doctrinal form, synthetic a priori knowledge of things in general ...
has to make modestly place for a mere analytic of the understanding” (KrV, B 303).
This Kantian motif of the substitution of ontology by an analytic of understanding
appears again and again in philosophical critiques of sociology. The charge is always the
same: hypostasis of the concept. Just witness the following series of that selfsame reproach of
ontological subreption: Marx attacks Hegel, Simmel and Weber curse Marx, Parsons
criticises Weber, Habermas blames Parsons, and in the same way as all the others have
criticised their illustrous predecessors, Honneth has recently complained that Habermas
surreptitiously substitutes his analytic concepts to reality. This series of unending criticisms
can be explained (among other things) by the two following reasons:
9
Kant, I.: Kritik der reinen Vernunft (from now onwards: Krv) in Werke, Band 4, Darmstadt, 1983, B 884.
7
Firstly, in so far as the collision of ontological discourses is concerned, one should
notice with Cassirer that “the conditions of scientific production differ from those of critical
reflection”. Indeed, given that we cannot use our intellectual functions to construct the
10
reality of experience and at the same time submit them to a critical investigation, an
incommensurability exists between the operational ontology of the working sociologist and
whether they want it or not, ontological affirmations in a vaguely Hegelian way they talk
about "stratification", “revolutions", "political systems" and so on, assuming that those
abstractions correspond to something real out there. Philosophers or, given that philosophers
don't really seem to care about sociology, philosophically inclined sociologists, when they
critically discuss and analyse the theories of others, take a Kantian posture in order to debunk
them: they often charge that sociologists confound categories of thinking with the things
themselves, commiting thus the "fallacy of the transcendental subreption" (KrV, A 643). In
this respect, two opposing strands can be distinguished in classical German sociology: the
neoHegelian strand, as represented by neo and paraMarxists, from Marx himself to Lukács
and the Frankfurt School, and the neoKantian (or neoNietzschean) strand, as represented by
bourgeois sociologists like Simmel and Weber the second strand charging that the first one
is hypostatizing thought; the first one attacking the second strand for its incapacity to mediate
the facts in a dialectical way.
10
Cassirer, E.: Substance et fonction. Eléments pour une théorie du concept, Paris, 1977, p. 244.
8
Secondly, passing from the collision of ontological discourses to the absence of any
consensus concerning the empirical referents of the discourses, one can only notice the
babylonian confusion which reigns among sociologists. Thus, where individualists declare in
truly Thatcherian fashion that only individuals (and families) are real and that society does
not exist (in scholastic terms: society as ens rationis), collectivists reply that society exists,
even more, that, given that it is society that constitutes individuals, it is more real than
individuals (society as ens realis or even ens realissimum). Halfway between the
individualists and the collectivists, interactionnists maintain for their part that neither society
nor individuals are real, save by their mutual implication. Given that ontological
controversies cannot be solved consensually by theoretical discussions, one should not expect
that they will come to a close. When we see, for instance, that realist scholars like Harré and
Bhaskar, who share after all a common philosophical platform, cannot even agree on the
ontological status of collective entities, we can only predict that the attacks in terms of
hypostasis of concepts will not abade. 11
Ad 2) Unity of the true, the good, and the beautiful: As a philosophy of the absolute
Idea, Hegel's absolute idealism interprets the unity of thought and Being, of the rational and
the real, of the subject and the object as the unity of the true, the good and the beautiful. Thus
absolute idealism rehabilitates the scholastic tenet according to which ens et verum et bonum
11
Compare, for instance, Harré, R.: Social Being, Oxford, 1979, pp. 3743 and 139160, where he claims that
references to macrocollectivities can only have a rhetorical status, with Bhaskar, R.: Dialectics. The Pulse of
Freedom, pp. 38204, where he tries to develop the idea that voids do exist and that they have causal powers.
9
accepted as the last word of philosophy. Metaphysics, ethics and aesthetics; theoretical and
practical philosophy are integrated in an all encompassing system which pretends to absolute
society, is gone for good. As a result of the transition from a simple to a complex society
(which can be simply or reflexively rationalised ), from "mechanic" to "organic" solidarity,
12
the differentiation of the "valuespheres" has become a social fact. The autonomisation of
science, religion, ethics, aesthetics, politics and economics cannot be reversed. We just have
to accept, as Weber said quoting Baudelaire, that "something can be true, although it is
inquired into the conditions of possibility of science, ethics and aesthetics, philosophy has
now to extend its reach and submit all valuespheres to a critique. It is the task of philosophy
to develop a critique of reason in all its extension from a critique of pure reason (Kant) to a
critique of historical reason (Dilthey) and a critique of culture as such (Cassirer).
translate the Heidelbergian notion of "valuespheres" into the more systemic one of "social
12
Cfr. Beck, U., Lash, S. and Giddens, A.: Reflexive Modernization, Cambridge, 1994.
13
Weber, M.: Wissenschaft als Beruf, in Gesamtausgabe, Abteilung I, Band 17, Tübingen, 1992, p. 100.
10
subsystems" to see that many current sociologies can claim a neoKantian pedigree. This is
not only the case, however, with neofunctionalist analyses of subsystems, whether those are
Wittgensteinian analysis of language games, Walzer’s theory of the spheres of justice, or
Boltanski and Thévenot’s presentation of different axiological “cités” can be seen as so many
functional differentiation of society, we also see the old Marxian problem of the
"determinations in the last instance" and other "overdeterminations" reemerge. Sociologies
namely that society can no longer be conceptualized in terms of the “moral unity” of the
subject and the object, and which consequently refuse to engage in politics which advocate
the elimination of the state or the market can also be seen as legitimate successors of Kant.
More generally, every sociology which accepts the differentiation of valuespheres and the
relative autonomy of the subsystems whether those are autopoietic or not, and which
refuses the eliminative reductionism of the "last instances" can claim a neoKantian pedigree.
Ad 3) Systematic philosophy as science of the Absolute: A philosophy, which takes
the divine point of view of the union of thought and Being, of the subject and the object, of
the true, the good and the beautiful, can only expose its knowledge in an absolute, all
14
Cfr. Lyotard, J.F.: Le différend, Paris, 1983; Walzer, M.: Spheres of Justice, Oxford, 1983; and Boltanski,
L. and Thévenot, L.: De la justification. Les économies de la grandeur, Paris, 1991.
11
encompassing totality, that is: in a system. In order to be scientific (in the Hegelian sense of
the word) such a system has to be all encompassing. It cannot accept anything which falls
outside of its reach, and, therefore, as soon as it has spotted an element which escapes its grip,
it has to spiritualize and incorporate it in its system, almost in the same way, according to
Adorno, as a wild animal devours its prey. Kant firmly rejected the idea of the all
15
encompassing scientific system as a mystic fiction. The incorporation of knowledge in an
encyclopaedic, selfdeploying, emanative totalising idealistic system cannot be the aim of
philosophical systems shows that the claims of absolute idealism are preposterous. Instead of
spiritualizing the sensible, philosophy has to respect it in its content. In this regard systems
are like concepts (KrV, B 75): without experience they remain empty. The period of idealistic
discipline, that is as a critical theory of knowledge.
Although nowadays nobody takes the pretension of Hegel's scientific system seriously
anymore, the critique of identitymetaphysics has potentially wide ranging implications for
sociology. By definition, sociology is an empirical discipline, but this definitional statement
doesn't say anything about the degree of "empiricity" as such. The hatred of the conceptual
which we find, for instance, in the symbolic interactionism of a Herbert Blumer or the hyper
15
“The system is the stomach which has become spirit” cfr. Adorno, T.W.: Negative Dialektik, in
Gesammelte Schriften, Band 6, 1973, Frankfurt/Main , p. 33.
12
empiricism which is characteristic of Harold Garfinkel's latest version of ethnomethodology
can, to a certain extent, be seen as sociological versions of Kant's rejection of metaphysics.
However, rejection of metaphysics is one thing, trying to empirically grasp the “things
themselves” is another. Between the concept and its empirical content, there’s always a
hiatus irrationalis, and it cannot be breached, not even by respecification. There’s always an
16
empirical remainder which necessarily escapes the concept. From this perspective, the
ethnomethodological attempt to get rid of the concept and to identify empirically the non
identical remainder appears paradoxically as an empiricistic avatar of identity metaphysics.
critique of absolute idealism. In summary, I propose, therefore, to define it as a form of post
interdependent moments: first, the rejection of Hegelian identity metaphysics, second, the
primacy of epistemology as methodological form of this scientific philosophising, and, third,
the primacy of culture in general and science in particular as content of the philosophical
critique. In so far but only in so far as we, as philosophically inclined and somewhat sceptical
sociologists, all reject the metaphysics of identity and want to establish sociology on sound
epistemological foundations, we can indeed agree with Foucault and claim that we are all
neoKantians.
16
Cfr. Garfinkel, H.: “Evidence for locally produced, naturally accountable phenomena of Order*, Logic,
Reason, Meaning, Method, etc. in and as of the essential quiddity of immortal ordinary Society, (I of IV): An
Announcement of Studies”, Sociological Theory, 1988, 6, pp. 103106.
13
2) From Substance to Relations and Functions
The two principal schools of the neoKantian movement are the logistic or Marburg
School, led by Cohen and Natorp, and the axiological or Southwest (Baden) School, led by
Windelband and Rickert. They are divided on whether the spirit of Kantian philosophy is best
furthered by inquiry into logic and the foundations of the natural sciences, or by inquiry into
the theory of value and the foundations of the cultural sciences. Ernst Cassirer belonged to the
Marburg School, but in his philosophy of symbolic forms, he made significant contributions
to the foundations of the cultural sciences. In 1943, he wrote a tribute to his jewish mentor
Hermann Cohen, whose works were then banned and burned by the fascists. In this article,
Cassirer tells us that as a young student he failed to penetrate Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.
Neither Paulsen nor Simmel, whose lectures he attended in Berlin, could help him further.
But Simmel put him on the track of Cohen's interpretation of Kant. Here is Cassirer's
testimony:
"I made a second attempt, says Cassirer, to find a clue in the labyrinth of the Critique of
Pure Reason by attending the lectures of Georg Simmel. And here I was lucky from the
beginning. Simmel was a very original and penetrating thinker. He worked in almost all the
fields of modern philosophy, and later he became one of the first founders of philosophical
14
sociology. At that time, however, he was still a young Privatdozent who delivered his lectures
before a small but very interested and attentive audience. In one of the first hours he gave a
short bibliography of the literature on Kant. And it was on that occasion that I first heard the
name of Hermann Cohen. Simmel emphasized how much he himself owed to the study of
Cohen's books, but he immediately added that those books, in spite of their real sagacity and
profundity, suffered from a very grave defect. They were written, he said, in such an obscure
style that as yet there was probably no one who had succeeded in deciphering them. That was,
of course, a great paradox that could not fail to make an impression on the mind of a young
man". 17
Prompt in acting, as suits a boy of nineteen, Cassirer bought Cohen's book Kants
Theorie der Erfahrung, and began to study it. Later onwards he moved to Marburg and quite
quickly he established himself as Cohen's leading student. In contrast to the Southwest School
concerned with the reformulation of philosophy as axiologics, the Marburg School of Cohen
and Natorp oriented itself towards the natural sciences with the aim to develop a theory of the
principles of science and, more generally, of all culture. The main thesis of Cohen's
panlogistic transcendental philosophy is that the objects, including the objects of experience,
are not given, but that they are generated (erzeugt) by a prioric subjectivity. Thought accepts
remainder. In every given, thought discovers a generation (Erzeugung). Thought generates
content as well as form, and, according to Cohen, the content of selfcontained thought is
reality itself as object of knowledge. Taking his cues from his study of the history of
differential calculus, Cohen ends up stating that every fact is generated by thought and
determined by its position in a logically necessary scheme. This idea of the functional
determination of facts by the conceptual field in which they are generated will be developed
theory of the concept, I want to consider Simmel's relativist theory of knowledge.
In so far as Georg Simmel appears at all in the typologies of neoKantianism, he is
usually classified as the solitary founder of the school of relativist or sociological neo
Kantianism. Among the neoKantians, Simmel is without any doubt the least systematic one.
As the unifying theme of his thought different notions and motifs have been proposed from
the metaphor of the door and the bridge (Freund) to the concept of the individual law (Dahme
and Rammstedt) and the opposition of life and forms (Jankélevitch, Naegele, Kantorowicz). I
think, however, that the essence of his thought is best captured by the metaconcept of dualism
Simmel's thought is that the coexistence of polarities, which logically suppose each other in
their mutual opposition, is constitutive of life itself. "It is the essence of human life, he says
18
I have worked that out in my Ph. D. Cfr. Vandenberghe, F.: La réification. Histoire critique de la sociologie
allemande. Vol. 1: De Marx à Lukács, Paris, forthcoming, ch. 3. An English translation should appear as well at
the University of Minnesota Press.
16
towards the end of his Soziologie, that the vital conditioning of its particular moments is the
existence of its opposite". In his work the principle of dualist structuration manifests itself in
19
3 different ways:
1) In his formal sociology, the dualist principle functions as a synthetic principle of
the forms of sociation. The forms of sociation always appear as a more or less fragile
synthesis of opposing tendencies. Fashion, for instance, is presented as a form of sociation
which allies the tendency to emulate the group and the tendency to distinguish one's self from
it; subordination appears as a form which brings together submission and resistance; conflict
as a union of tendency to intergroup opposition and intragroup integration, and so on. In any
case, in Simmel's sociology, the social forms are synthetically determined by an alliance of
polarizing forces.
regulative principle. Simmel's theory of knowledge is clearly indebted to Kant. In accord with
Kant, Simmel "exterminates" the ontological concepts of metaphysics, or better he transforms
them into regulative concepts which fulfill a useful heuristic function by directing and
organising the conceptual exposition and the empirical research in a systematic way.
According to Simmel, the world is much too complicated to be grasped from a single point of
19
Simmel, G.: Soziologie. Untersuchungen über die Formen der Vergesellschaftung, Frankfurt/Main, 1992, p.
685.
17
view or to be deduced from a single principle. Therefore, he rejects every form of prima
philosophia, that is every form of absolute idealism which deducts the ontic totality from an
According to Simmel, no first principle can ever serve as a bedrock for thought. "Relativism,
he says in his book on Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, denies that the relativity of being has to
be carried by an absolute". No philosophical system can possibly incorporate the totality of
20
Being. At the limit, every first principle finds its complement and its foundation in its
opposing principle. Ultimately, the subject depends on the object, and vice versa, with the
result that the closure of thinking is rejected ad infinitum. The opposition of the opposing
decomposed in a and b. ... a can only find its foundation in b and in its turn b can only find its
foundation in a". Each of the terms enters thus in a relation of reciprocal substitution and, as
21
a result, the opposition is dissolved into interaction. For heuristic purposes, Simmel advises
us to conceive the world alternatively from the premisses of idealism and materialism, of
rationalism and empiricism, of holism and individualism. In any case, the world is
conceivable from within a multiplicity of unilateral perspectives, each of which projects unity
adequatio rei et intellectus. Thus, none can pretend to cognitive hegemony.
20
Simmel, G.: Schopenhauer und Nietzsche, Hamburg, 1990, p. 70.
21
Simmel, G.: Das Individuum und Freiheit. Essais, Frankfurt/Main, 1993, p. 108.
18
Simmel is not only a neoKantian, he's also a influenced by Nietzsche's and Bergson's
thought which, instead of following the flux of life, freezes it conceptually. Moreover, he also
rejects any form of conceptual substantialism which hypostatises thought and substitutes its
objectivating abstractions to reality, taking thus for real what is only an imposition of
mummified concepts on reality. In modern culture, Simmel perceives, however, an evolution
towards the dissolution of things and substances into relations. Modern science, for instance,
less and less apprehends phenomena as particular substances and more and more as
movements whose carriers have no longer qualities:
"Science, says Simmel somewhere in his Philosophy of Money, tries to express the properties
which inhere in the things as so many quantitative determinations and, thus, as relative
determinations; instead of the absolute stability of organic, psychic, moral and social
formations, science teaches us an ongoing evolution in which each element occupies a well
limited place, which can only be determined by a relation to a before and an afterwards; it
renounces to the being in itself of the things, and limits itself to establish the relations which
unite them with our mind, as they are seen from the point of view of the mind". 22
Later, he links this relativist dissolution of things and substances to the growing
abstraction and spiritualisation which characterises modernity. We no longer have to do with
22
Simmel, G.: Philosophie de l'argent, Paris, 1987, p. 86.
19
things themselves but with secondary symbols, with abstractions which, in terms of content,
have no direct relationship anymore with what they represent. In the same way as token
money without intrinsic value numerically represents the value of things, the quantitative
determinations of science stand for the qualitative ones, and, at the end, it appears that the
ideal of knowledge is to reduce all qualitative determinations of reality to the quantitative
determinations of science. So, we see not only in the sciences, but also in economy a trend
towards "symbolisation" access to reality is mediated by symbols, and those symbols take
the place of objects and values which fall under the senses. As we shall see soon, this will be
systematically worked out by Cassirer.
3) Thirdly and finally, in his metaphysics of life, the dualist principle manifests itself
in a tragic way in the form of an almost cosmic opposition between life and forms. The
tragedy of culture and society, the fact that the sociocultural creations of the human spirit
become autonomous and turn themselves against their creators, is only a particular instance of
the universal tragedy of life, of the fact that life, to express itself, has to pass through forms
which kill life. I'll come back to Simmel's vitalistic philosophy of culture in the next section.
But first I want to go back to Cassirer and show how, in his first writings on the
intuitions about the scientific dissolution of substances in relations and the symbolisation of
20
things into a full blown and systematic theory of the concept. Starting with the idea that
analyses, in the first two volumes of Das Erkenntnisproblem, the history of philosophy and
science, from Nicolas of Cusa to Leibniz and Kant and from Giordano Bruno to Newton. The
progressive dissolution of the Aristotelian concept of the substance and its concomitant
replacement by a functional theory of the concept, which is clearly inspired by a Kantian
thought. Eventually, Cassirer will systematically present the results of his historical study in
Substanzbegriff und Funktionsbegriff (The Concept of Substance and Function), significantly
Fundamental Questions of the Critique of Knowledge).
critique of the traditional Aristotelian theory of the concept. This theory, which is part and
parcel of Aristotle's theory of the syllogism, starts from the assumption that the function of
the concept consists in uncovering, through a process of abstraction, the substantial form of
the things. Reality presents itself to the observing mind as a discrete multitude of existing
things. The activity of the mind consists exclusively in determining and isolating qualitative
23
Before Das Erkenntnisproblem, Cassirer had published a work on Leibniz. He also produced a threevolume
edition of the philosophical writing of Leibniz and a tenvolume edition of Kant's work. Both of those
philosophers were extremely influential for Cassirer to the point that one could both describe him as a neo
Leibnizian and as a neoKantian.
21
elements that are common to the variety of existing things, uniting them into classes, and
repeating this procedure as long as possible. According to Aristotle, the final goal of such a
classification process is to arrive at the most comprehensive and abstract concept in such a
way that the particulars can be subsumed under it. This theory of the concept, which has
reigned for almost two millenia, presupposes that ontology precedes logic; more precisely, it
presupposes an ontology of substantial forms.
According to Cassirer the substantialist theory of the concept is fatally flawed. Its flaw
is double: On the one hand, the common features that are isolated by abstraction are supposed
to correspond to the universals in re, but nowhere among the characteristics of a thing do we
find this abstract similarity. We do not, as Lotze once remarked, form "a class of reddish,
juicy edible things, under which cherries and meat might be subsumed". On the other hand, 24
it is clear that the increasing extension of the concept goes together with a progressive
reduction of its content, with the result that, at the end of the day, the most general concepts
become purely analytic and almost absolutely vacuous. This problem, which was already
clearly spotted by Nietzsche and which will become the central problem of Lask and maybe
also of Adorno, is dubbed by Simmel as the "tragedy of human conceptualisation". 25
24
Lotze, H., quoted by Kaufmann, F.: "Cassirer's theory of Scientific Knowledge", in Schilpp, P. (ed.): The
Philosophy of Ernst Cassirer, Evanston, 1949, p. 189.
25
Simmel, G.: Philosophie de l'argent, p. 259.
22
Against this traditional theory of classes, Cassirer advances the functional logic of
generating relations, which he found at work not only in modern mathematics, but also in the
natural sciences. The logic of relations dissolves the junction between the sciences and the
ontology of the substantial forms. The basic concepts are obtained, not through a process of
abstraction, but through an integrative or synthetic act of the mind which, by offering a
function of the concept is not to bring thought to an ever greater level of generality, but to
bring it to the highest degree of determination. What binds the elements of perception
together is not a common property but a function, that is a general law of arrangement
through which a rule of succession is established:
"It can indeed appear, says Cassirer, as if the work of thought were limited to selecting from a
series of perceptions a, a, ay ... the common element a. ... [However,] that which binds the
series of the elements of the series a,b, c ... together is not itself a new element, that is actually
infused into them, but it is the rule of progression, which remains the same, no matter in
which member it is represented. The function F (a,b), F (b,c) ... determines the sort of
dependence between the successive members". 26
Cassirer's analysis of the concept of function is directed toward the elaboration of a
transcendental logic in which the object is no longer presupposed by logic, but is, so to speak,
26
Cassirer, E.: Substance et fonction. Eléments pour une théorie du concept, Paris, 1977, p. 28.
23
generated by it. Scientific concepts do not stand unrelated to each other, but they are
organised in conceptual “fields” or “figurations” or, to use Cassirer's preferred expression, in
a lawful series of progression which discloses and constitutes a region of reality. The 27
particular object is no longer subsumed under the general. Between the particular and the
interrelation between both. The particular is reduced to an instance of the possible, appearing
at the crossroads as the synthesis of a bunch of relations. The real is thus indeed relational, as
which theory overdetermines the facts, functions and relations have clearly priority over
objects and things. In fact, the passage from a formal logic to a transcendental logic
transforms the substantial unity of the thing into a relational one: "From now onwards, says
Cassirer, the real is dissolved into different relational structures which are mutually
interlinked by a whole system of laws which mutually condition each other". 29
27
This functional view of interrelated (or even internally related) concepts has important implications for
scientific research. The standard Humean view of causality as constant conjunction of events, for instance, has
to go as it is based on he tacit assumption underlying both the conception and the establishment of a law that
the phenomena do not change their properties irreversibly if they are cut off from other connections or from
each other. But they do, and as soon as the hidden ceteris paribus formula is uncovered, the linkage of
independent and dependent variables is revealed to be simply contingent.
28
Bourdieu, P.: Raisons Pratiques. Sur la théorie de l’action, Paris, 1994, p. 17. More than any other
sociologist, Bourdieu, who published most of Cassirer's work in the collection which he directed at the Editions
de Minuit, is influenced by Cassirer in a double way: Firstly, the influence of the relationist conception of
knowledge, which will later be developed into a full blown theory of the properties of the field, is already
manifest in one of his first articles Cfr. Bourdieu, P.: “Structuralism and the Theory of Sociological
Knowledge”, Social Research, 1968, 35, 4, pp. 681706. Secondly, the influence of Cassirer’s philosophy of
symbolic forms is openly acknowledged in his major statement on the intellectual genesis of his notion of
symbolic power. Cfr. Bourdieu, P.: “Sur le pouvoir symbolique”, Annales E.S.C., 1977, 3, pp. 405411. It
would be interesting to further explore Bourdieu’s indebtedness to Cassirer (and Panofsky, his colleague at the
Warburg Institute in Hamburg), but, of course, this cannot be done here.
29
Cassirer, E.: Substance et fonction. Eléments pour une théorie du concept, p. 288.
24
By stressing the constructive and synthetic character of science, Cassirer joins not
only the transcendentalism of Kant and Cohen, but also the rationalism of Duhem and
Bachelard. In any case, the function of science does not consist in proposing a copy or a
reflection of sensible reality (exit Abbildtheory):
"All our knowledge, however finished it might be in itself, never delivers us the objects in
person, but only signs of those objects and of their mutual interrelations. ... Thought , instead
of turning itself immediately towards reality, constructs a system of signs and learns to use
those signs as representatives of the objects. ... The scientific concepts appear no longer as
within reality. ... The reality of the objects has dissolved itself in a world of ideal relations,
specifically in mathematical ones". 30
Thus, we pass, to quote Bachelard, "from the substance to the substitute". Scientific
31
knowledge substitutes to the world of the sensible, the ever changing and confusing
impressions of the empiricists, a symbolic system of concepts, laws and relations which does
not so much reflect reality as it conceptually forms or generates it. So, by turning away from
30
Cassirer, E., repectively Substance et fonction, p. 342, Philosophie der symbolischen Formen. Band III:
Phänomenologie der Erkenntnis, Darmstadt, 1954, p. 53, and Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Philosophie und
Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit, Darmstadt, 1971, Band 1, p. 3.
31
Bachelard, G.: Philosophie du non, Paris, 1940, p. 59.
25
the impressions of the senses, by introducing an "epistemological break" with naive realism,
science constructs a dematerialised spiritual or symbolic world. And what the world loses in
terms of substances, it gains in relations. The empirical as such does not disappear, however,
but it reappears as a theoretical effect of a conceptual field, and thus as a scientific symbol.
Indeed, for Cassirer the symbol is nothing else but an empirical content which is
overdetermined by a cultural form. Here, where Cassirer stressed the formative influence of
mind, we already feel that his theory of scientific conceptualisation is inscribed in the larger
framework of a general theory of symbols. Indeed, in so far as the Philosophy of Symbolic
Forms is not only concerned with science but also with myth, religion, art and language, in so
far as it passes from a "critique of reason" to a more general "critique of culture", it can best
be seen, I think, as a kind of "comparative epistemology". I'll come back to that later, but first
I want to switch to Simmel's theory of culture.
3. Life, Forms, and Dialectics
Simmel is quite well known in some sociological quarters as a sociologist of modern,
if not postmodern culture. However, the philosophical underpinnings of his sociology of
culture and modernity, as they are most clearly exposed in his (still untranslated)
Lebensanschauung, his philosophical testament which he wrote on his deathbed, are much
26
less well known. In the second chapter of this book, which bears the Platonist title "The Turn
32
towards the Idea", Simmel developed a vitalist version of the neoKantian theory of the
differentiation and autonomisation of valuespheres. This theory of culture is Kantian in so
far as it is predicated on the somewhat woolly distinction between form and content, and it is
vitalist in so far as it opposes the fluidity of life to the alienating fixity of the forms.
The underlying idea of his theory of cultural forms is that the substrate of life consists
of an infinite multiplicity of contents which, like Kant's "thingsinthemselves", exist outside
of time and space. Simmel calls the totality of free floating contents the "worldstuff"
synthesised into a unity through the intervention of forms. Forms can be looked upon as
principles which are brought to the contents, and by means of which contents are selected and
gathered into a whole. The form, which systematically connects contents by a network of
distinguishes different kinds of forms like knowledge, art, philosophy, religion, ethics, and so
on, and to the extent that each form can organise the contents in its own distinguished way, he
32
Weingartner's excellent systematisation of Simmel's philosophy of culture is still unsurpassed. Cfr.
Weingartner, R.: "Form and Content in Simmel's Philosophy of Life", in Wolff, K. (ed.): Georg Simmel, 1858
1918, Colombus, 1959, pp. 3360 and Experience and Culture. The Philosophy of Georg Simmel, Middletown,
1960, pp. 1584.
27
grasped and systematically synthesised by one specific form, like religion or art, for instance,
they form what Simmel calls a "world" or "worldform":
" A world, in the full sense of the term, he says, is thus a collection of contents in which, in
the perspective of mind, each piece is freed from its isolation and gathered in a unified
system, in a form which is, in principle, capable to contain the known and the unknown". 33
Simmel's worlds may be regarded as languages or language games, each of which is
adequate to refer to all contents. Like the late Goffman, Simmel thinks that contents that are
already formed may be subject to further forming (or "keying") by another principle. Thus, 34
for instance, the contents of a work of art may in turn be reframed by, say, a religious form.
And like Schütz, Simmel thinks that the real world, the practical world of everyday life which
most of the people most of the time consider as the paramount world, is not the only world
but just one world among others. Simmel's main thesis is that selfreferential worlds emerge
35
when forms emancipate themselves from their pragmatic ends. Originally, the forms which
structure the worldstuff are simply means to the ends of satisfying vital needs. Rooted in the
necessities of practical life, they serve the selfconservation of man. Then, when men and
women feel the need to cultivate the forms as such and apply themselves to systematically
33
Simmel, G.: Lebensanschauung. Vier metaphysische Kapitel, München, 1922, pp. 2728.
34
Goffman, E.: Frame Analysis. An Essay on the Organization of Experience, Cambridge, 1974.
35
Schütz, A.: "On Multiple Realities", in Collected Papers, Vol. 1: The Problem of Social Reality, The Hague,
1962, pp. 207286.
28
work out the forms, the forms detach themselves from their primary ends to become ends in
themselves: "First, says Simmel, men know in order to live; but then there are men who live
in oder to know. ... In general, we see in order to live. The artist, however, lives to see". 36
Following Plato, Simmel describes this passage from protoforms to fully fletched cultural
forms as "the great turn towards the idea". In all provinces of life, in art and religion, law and
37
knowledge, the same inversion of ends and means, which consequently leads to a general
spheres. What we can call, following Broch, the "radical logicity" of cultural fragments which
aspire to totality, expresses itself in maxims like "business is business", "war is war", "art for
art's sake", "fiat iustitia pereat mundus", and so on.
Consideration" on the horizontal dimension of the conflict which opposes the different
autonomous valuespheres to each other , Simmel stresses the vertical dimension of the
38
conflict which opposes life to the forms. Although he recognizes that conflicts can emerge
within different valuespheres, he somehow excludes conflicts between them. He seems to
think that religion, science, art, etc., precisely because they constitute totalities sui generis
36
Simmel, G.: Lebensanschauung, pp. 55 and 63. The hidden reference is to Plato’s Phaedo, 99D sq.
37
Idem, p. 37.
38
Weber, M.: "Zwishenbetrachtung: Theorie der Stufen und Richtungen religiöser Weltablehnung", in
Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie, Tübingen, 1966, Band 1, pp. 536573.
29
which can incorporate all contents, can very well peacefully coexist without excluding or
opposing each other. According to Simmel, there can be "no mixing, no overlapping, no
crossing" of worlds and, as a result, there can be no dialectical movement of oppositional
incorporation between the worlds either. In Simmel, there's no dialectic, for instance, of
religion and science. Like sounds and colours, they gently coexist with each other.
If Simmel tends to underplay the conflict between the forms, he tends, on the other
forms. Drawing on Nietzsche, he distinguishes life as the experience of flux what he calls
"morelife" (MehrLeben) to life as form what he calls "morethanlife" (MehralsLeben).
Life is the antithesis of form, but the tragedy of life consists in the fact that, to realise itself,
life has to produce forms and pass though forms which eventually strangle it. The negation
of life is thus inherent to life itself:
"The essence of tragedy, says Simmel, can be determined in the following way: a destiny is
oriented in a destructive fashion against the will to live of an existence, against its nature, its
meaning and its value but, at the same time, we sense that this fate comes from the depth
and the necessity of this existence itself". 39
39
Simmel, G.: Philosophie de la modernité II. Esthétitique et modernité, conflit et modernité, Paris, 1990, p.
295.
30
Simmel does not really hesitate to transpose the cosmic tragedy of life to the socio
cultural realm. When his attention turns to the fate of the individual, the drama of life
transforms itself from within into the tragedy of culture and society. Following Hegel,
Simmel interprets culture as a double process of objectivation or exteriorisation of the soul in
objective forms (objective culture) and the inverse process of the subjectivation or
introjection of objective forms in the soul (subjective culture). Objective culture does not,
however, obey to the same laws as subjective culture. According to Simmel, the risk of
alienation is inherent to the process of objectivation itself, because as soon as the cultural
contents are objectivated, they become autonomous, join the world of cultural forms
(Popper's "world 3"), follow their own laws, and, eventually, they become alienated from
their origin as well as from their end from their end, because, ideally, the end of culture is to
objective culture is proportional to the atrophy of individual culture: the more we are
surrounded by cultural objects, the more we are tempted by them, but it is quite clear to
anyone that there's no way we can possibly keep track of and cope with the sheer mass of
culture which crushes us. The same fatal process, which leads to loss of meaning in the
cultural sphere, leads to loss of freedom in the social sphere. In the same way as the value
spheres become autonomous, the spheres of the state and the economy crystallyse into self
referential and selfregulated subsystems. Together, they form society, and society confronts
the individual and crushes him/her.
31
At first view, it seems as if Simmel prolongs the HegelianMarxian critique of the
alienating inversion of the subject and the object. But, whereas for Marx the processes of
alienation, fetichism and reification are economic processes which are historically
determined, for Simmel they are metaphysical processes:
"The fetichistic value, he says, which Marx ascribes to economic objects in the era of
commodity production is only a particular case, somewhat different, of this universal fate of
our cultural contents. Those contents fall prey to the following paradox: they are, for sure,
created by subjects, but in the intermediary phase, when they take an objective form above
and underneath those instances, they evolve according to their own immanent logic, and thus
they alienate themselves not only from their origins but from their ends as well". 40
Simmel has not only dehistoricised Marx's theory of alienation, but he has also fallen prey to
the charm of the Nietzschean fatalism of the amor fati. The dialectic between life and the
forms has come to a standstill. It is precisely at this point, as we shall see, that Cassirer is
going to intervene.
40
Simmel, G.: “Der Begriff und die Tragödie der Kultur”, in Philosophische Kultur, Berlin, 1986, p. 213.
32
If I had to summarize the 1200 pages or so of Cassirer's massively erudite Philosophy
of Symbolic Forms, I would say that it is a work of comparative epistemology in which the
forms of language and myth are treated as forms of knowledge in the first two volumes and,
expressive function (Ausdrucksfunktion) and the representative one (Darstellungsfunktion),
which become the bases for a developmental account of scientifictheoretical knowledge. The
whole project can best be understood, I think, as an attempt to systematically play through
Kant's "Copernican turn". Going beyond Kant's logocentric fixation on scientific knowledge,
Cassirer seeks to uncover the fundamental categories of the constitution of objectivity in the
main spheres of human experience: in science, of course, but also in language, myth, religion,
art, ethics, law, history, and technology. Extending thus the transcendental question well
beyond the scientific domain, "the critique of reason turns into a critique of culture". And in 41
the same way as Substance and Function defended the primacy of function over substance,
the Philosophy of Symbolic Forms advances the primacy of the function over the form, of the
production over the product or, to say the same thing in the words of Wilhelm von Humboldt,
of energeia over ergon.
Starting with the factual multiplicity of systems of the objective spirit, which confront
us as finished products, Cassirer will inquire, in good Kantian fashion, into their conditions of
41
Cassirer, E.: Philosophie der symbolischen Formen. Band I: Die Sprache, Darmstadt, 1964, p. 11.
33
possibility, and interpret science, myth, religion, etc. as so many objectivations, as so many
correspond. So, notwithstanding the fact that the cultural forms always appear in plural, they
still can be unravelled as the modulated expression or objectivation of one single function: the
function of symbolisation. In this sense, one can indeed say with Cassirer that objectivation is
the basic function of mind and that objectivation always implies mediation through symbolic
forms.
With the correlative notions of the "symbolic function" and the "symbolic form" we
have arrived at the very heart of Cassirer's philosophy of culture. The main idea of Cassirer's
theory of the symbol, which is essentially a reshaping of Kant's idea of the schema (KrV, B
consciousness; it is always generated and formed by a spontaneous act of consciousness. We
can never have access to the material contents of the world as such; our experience is always
a synthesis of the ideal and the sensual, of the spiritual and the material. Everything that is, is
synthetic act of symbolic formation which finds meaning in, or imbues meaning to, the
empirically given. To grasp the "wonder" of the fact that the sensory material, simply by
being attended to, is endowed with meaning; to grasp the internal connection which exists
notion of symbolic form, which he defines in the following terms: "Under a symbolic form,
he says, should be understood every energy of mind through which a mental content of
meaning is connected to a concrete, sensory sign and made to adhere internally to it". 42
So, reminding us of Simmel's notion of form, Cassirer, with his notion of symbolic
form, means to refer to the synthetic act of symbolic formation of any given material content
by the human mind. The ideal exists only in so far as, in one way or another, it incorporates
itself in the sensual. If the number of sensory signs or contents is unlimited, the number of
symbolic forms, on the other hand, given that they must be "applicable to any object
whatsoever" , is necessarily limited. Cassirer mentions language, myth, religion, art, science,
43
ethics, law, history, and technology, but, in fact, only the symbolic formation of reality
through language, myth, religion, and science is fully worked out. Symbolic forms are like
windows: they are cultural matrices that open up an understanding of the world; they are
structuring structures of worldmaking; they are ways of objectivation of the world. The
world, whether it is the world of science, the world of myth or the world of language, is
always the modularised crystallisation of the symbolic function. In fact, we could say that in
the same way as the different languages distinguish themselves from each other by means of
their specific way of looking at the world, which is always a way of constituting the world
(cfr. WhorfSapir), so the different symbolic forms, to start with language itself (Humboldt),
42
Cassirer, E.: “Der Begriff der symbolischen Form im Aufbau der Geisteswissenschaften", in Wesen und
Wirkung des Symbolbegriffs, Darmstadt, 1956, p. 175.
43
Cassirer, E.: The Myth of the State, Yale, 1975, p. 34.
35
objectivate the world and mediate access to it in different ways. Maybe we can translate the
contents of one symbolic form into another one, but we always move and remain within a
symbollically constituted world. Without symbolic forms, so much is sure, we simply don't
have a world. To illustrate what he means by symbolic formation, Cassirer devised the
following thought experiment: Imagine a line and consider its particular appearance, its
shape, its spatial and other characteristics. What appears to us as an aesthetic phenomenon
with a certain jagged or flowing form, appears to a cultist from New Guinea as a mark with
magic significance. And if an art historian might think of it as an illustration of a particular
style, to a mathematician it will appear as a graphic expression of the development of the
mathemathical function of the cosinus. 44
In his Essay on Man, Cassirer not only summarizes his philosophy of symbolic forms
for the American public, but he also gives it an anthropological twist. Although he thinks that
the classic definition of man as "animal rationale" remains valid in so far as it expresses a
Indeed, what defines man as man, what sets the human kingdom apart from the animal one, is
not so much the "excentric position" of man, as Plessner thought, nor his "biological
defectiveness", as Gehlen thought, but it is his capacity of "symbolic ideation". Man is that
44
This thought experiment is repeatedly taken up by Cassirer. Cfr.Wesen und Wirkung des Symbolbegriffs, pp.
211 sq.; Symbol, Technik, Sprache, Hamburg, 1985, pp. 5 sq. and Philosophie der Symbolischen Formen, Band
III: Phänomenologie der Erkenntnis, Darmstadt, 1964, pp. 191 sq.
45
Cassirer, E.: An Essay on Man, New Haven, 1972, p. 26.
36
being that has access to reality and to him or herself only in and through symbols. Man is
never confronted with immediate reality, but only with a reality which is symbollically
mediated. Unlike animals, man does not respond immediately to the stimuli of his
environment, but as Mead and Dewey had noted already well before Cassirer, man delays his
response by inserting a complex process of mind and tools which present the world to him
both as will (tools) and as representation (mind). Paradoxically, man can only have access to
reality by distancing himself from it, by inserting a "symbolic net" or a "symbolic system"
between himself and his environment. Without mentioning Simmel's theory of the
Cassirer nevertheless arrives at the same conclusion:
"Long before it enters into those forms, life is in itself oriented toward certain goals. But
knowledge always implies a break with this immediacy of life. ... All knowledge of the world
and all spiritual working on the world requires that the I acquires a certain distance from the
world. ... This acquisition of the 'world as representation' is the goal and the product of the
symbolic forms it is the result of language, myth, religion, art, and theoretical knowledge.
Each constructs its own intelligible realm of internal significance that detaches itself neatly
and sharply from all purely purposive behaviour in the biological sphere". 46
46
Cassirer, E.: Philosophie der symbolischen Formen, Band III, p. 322333.
37
However, unlike Simmel, Cassirer refuses to consider this "turn towards the idea" as a
oneway street in which life alienates itself. Culture does not so much signify the alienation of
life from its origin and its end as it signifies its genuine fulfillment. In accord with Kant,
Cassirer denies that culture's task is eudaemonistic. Culture does not promise happiness, but
gradually it realises freedom. By inserting a middle realm of culture between himself and his
environment, man becomes free as the "power of impression" consciously gives way to the
"power of expression". Through culture man becomes aware of his own formative influence,
47
and, like Hegel, Cassirer is convinced that becoming conscious is the the alfa and the omega
of freedom.
Simmel, however, as we have seen, reached the opposite conclusion: culture is tragic;
it reifies life and alienates man, leading to a generalised loss of meaning and freedom.
Cassirer severely criticises Lebensphilosophie in general and Simmel's theory of the tragedy
of culture in particular. According to Cassirer, the opposition between life and the forms,
48
between culture and the soul, on which Simmel's analysis ultimately rests, is a false one. It is
the triple result of undialectical thought: First, instead of dialectically interrelating the life and
the forms, by showing that they both presuppose each other, Simmel tends to oppose them as
if they were two substances, the one belonging to the subjective, the other to the objective
47
Cassirer, E.: Philosophie der symbolischen Formen, Band II, p. 31.
48
Cfr. Cassirer, E.: "Die 'Tragödie der Kultur' ", in Zur Logik der Kulturwissenschaften. Fünf Studien,
Darmstadt, 1961, ch. 5 and passim; " 'Spirit' and 'Life' in Contemporary Philosophy", in Schilpp, P. (ed.): The
Philosophy of Ernst Cassirer, pp. 857880, and Philosophie der symbolischen Formen, Band I, pp. 48 sq.
38
relapses into a kind of substantialism which he himself had previously overcome. Next, and
more importantly, Simmel treats the cultural forms as finished, almost thinglike entities. If,
instead of considering forms as finished products, we generalise Humboldt's injunction to
immediately assumes a different form. Not only do the forms appear as the expression of
formcreating power, but, given that culture cannot vicariously be understood, we also gain
access from within to the realm of culture. And when we do that, when we actively enter and
take part in the formation of objective spirit, we no longer lose ourselves in an act of
alienation, but we rather find ourselves and our fellowhuman beings in an act of
participation. Then it appears that we not only reproduce cultural forms, but that we are also
produced by them. And by reproducing forms, which are always already there as a legacy of
our predecessors, we not only form ourselves, but we also gain access to a supraindividual,
intersubjective world of meaning which we share in common with our fellow human beings.
Indeed, in so far as culture appears as the common ground of human beings, we can indeed
say with Cassirer that culture in general and language in particular provide "a bridge from
individual to individual". In summary, Cassirer expresses his ideas in a beautiful passage,
49
49
Cassirer, E.: "Davoser Disputation zwischen Ernst Cassirer und Martin Heidegger", in Heidegger, M.: Kant
und das Problem der Metaphysik, p. 264.
39
which not only reminds us of G.H. Mead, but which already anticipates Habermas theory of
communicative action : 50
culture can find neither a place nor a home. In any case, culture is an 'intersubjective world; a
world which does not exist in 'me' but which is accessible to all subjects and in which they
should all participate. But this participation is completely different from participation in the
physical world. Instead of relating themselves to the same spatiotemporal cosmos of things,
the subjects find and unite themselves in their common action. And when they accomplish
medium of the different formworlds, out of which culture is constructed. ... I and Thou are
not ready givens, which, through the effects which they exercise on each other, create the
forms of culture. It rather appears that in those forms and thanks to them both spheres, the
world of I and the one of Thou as well, are first constituted. ...The true 'synthesis' is first
accomplished in the active exchange which we see in typical form in every linguistic
understanding [Verständigung]. The constancy which we need for that is ... the constancy of
meaning". 51
50
Cassirer is very much influenced by Von Humboldt. Reading Cassirer, I have got the feeling that Habermas’
main intuition, according to which the telos of understanding inheres in language as such, can already be found
in Humboldt’s philosophy of language. It would be worthwile to see to what extent Habermas’ Theory of
Communicative Action picks up and systematically develops ideas which Humboldt first formulated in his
famous introduction to the Kawiwork. Cfr. Von Humboldt, W.: “Ueber die Verschiedenheit des menschliches
Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluss auf die geistige Entwicklung des Menschengeschlechts”, in Werke, Band III:
Schriften zur Sprachphilosophie, Darmstadt, 1963, pp. 368756.
51
Cassirer, E.: Zur Logik der Kulturwissenschaften. Fünf Studien, 1961, Darmstadt, pp. 75 and 50.
40
Last but not least, Cassirer criticises Simmel because, like Weber in his treatment of
Culture as a form creating power is at the same time necessarily and really a "formbreaking,
a formdestroying one". There's indeed a tension between stabilisation and creation, between
52
a tendency which leads towards stable and rigid forms, and one which breaks this rigidity
but, unless one wants to ravel in despair, there's no need to assume that the future is closed
off. Instead of mystically yearning for a return, we must rather try to move forwards.
It has been said that Cassirer has always been somewhat "reluctant to accept the
negative". This is true, but if he underplays the tragic opposition of life and form, he
53
nevertheless pays due attention to the opposition between the forms themselves: "The true
place of combat reveals itself, he says, not simply there where the mediacy of the spirit is
fighting the immediacy of life, but rather there where the missions of the spirit itself, in so far
as they always differentiate themselves more finely, at the same time more and more alienate
themselves from each other". 54
52
Cassirer, E.: " 'Spirit' and 'Life' in Contemporary Philosophy", in Schilpp, P. (ed.): The Philosophy of Ernst
Cassirer, p. 879.
53
Kroise, J. M.: Cassirer. Symbolic Forms and History, Yale, 1987, p. 210.
54
Cassirer, E.: Symbol, Technik, Sprache, p. 78.
41
Unlike Simmel, who thought, as we have seen, that the forms do no more oppose each
than "colours and sounds" do, Cassirer stresses the potential of conflict between the forms.
Some of the forms can, others can not, coexist in the same mind or in the same cultural
environment. Language, for instance, lives together with religion peacefully and in fruitful
cooperation; scientific knowledge and technology complement each other, and even tend to
fuse happily into each other. But scientific knowledge and myth are incompatible with each
other and the same is true for religion and secular law, and for technology and ethics as well.
In the second and especially in the third volume of the Philosophy of Symbolic Forms,
Cassirer takes the conflicts within and between the forms as the starting point of a
distinguishes three functions of mind, which he respectively names the "expressive", the
"representational" and the "conceptual function". And not unlike Hegel, he describes those
functions as so many dialectical stages in the development of the mind's relationship to its
object. The expressive function, as it most purely represented by myth, is a stage of the
simple unity of symbol and object; no genuine distinction is made between symbol and
object. The representational function, as expressed in language, is a stage of disjunction of
symbol and object; the object is regarded as wholly other than the symbol. The conceptual
55
Cassirer, E.: Philosophie der symbolischen Formen, Band III, p. VI. For an excellent outline of Cassirer's
phenomenology cfr. Verene, P.: "Kant, Hegel, and Cassirer: The Origins of the Philosophy of Symbolic
Forms", Journal of the History of Ideas, 1969, 30, 1, pp. 3346.
42
overcome; the object is viewed as a construction of the symbol, as a symbol of different
order. Moreover, moving from the mimetic to analogical and the symbolic phase, each of the
reunification. Although Cassirer severely criticises Hegel for abolishing the autonomy of the
symbolic forms, he's clearly influenced by him, even to the point that he seems to be caught
in a genuine KantianHegelian dilemma : On the one hand, he follows Kant and recognises
56
the qualitative diversity of the symbolic forms. The symbolic forms are autonomous, self
sufficient objectivations of the spirit; each following its immanent laws and none being
reducible to another one. On the other hand, he follows Hegel, and placing himself explicitly
in the traces of the Phenomenology of Spirit, he transmutes the forms into dialectical
processes and, eventually, ends up considering the functions which they express as so many
phases in the ongoing movement towards greater spiritualisation. It is true that Cassirer's
dialectisation of the conflict between the forms does not end up in a metaphysical philosophy
of history, which substantialises and reifies one of the forms, with the double result that a
symbolic function is transformed into a substance, or maybe better into a subject, and that the
other forms are modalised as so many ways of the essential being of that subject.
56
Knoppe, T.: Die theoretische Philosophie Ernst Cassirer's. Zu den Grundlagen transzendentaler
Wissenschafts und Kulturtheorie, Hamburg, 1992, ch. 9.
43
succession of forms, the immanence and autonomy of the forms singly taken is seriously
called in question.
According to Cassirer, some cultural forms have an immanent tendency to hegemony.
Instead of peacefully coexisting with each other and complementing each other, instead of
accepting their relative position in the whole, some of the forms pretend to absolute validity
and try to subdue the other forms by incorporating their contents. In The Myth of the State,
Cassirer analyses the fascist catastrophe in terms of a pathological, systematically induced
dedifferentiation or fusion of the autonomous symbolic forms. What characterises fascism,
according to Cassirer, is “repressive desymbolisation” : myths are no longer a free product of
57
imagination, but they are "made according to plan". Politicical myths like the myth of race
58
and the myth of the Führer are systematically manufactured and diffused by the media to the
masses. As a result, life is ritualised, the racial community is affectively cathected, the
emotions take precedence over rational faculty, and the individual’s autonomy is abolished.
In fascism, technology and myth are fused, and as they become hegemonic, they paralyse the
oppositional power of the other forms, with the result that no critical instance remains which
can regulate and subdue the hegemonic forms. According to Cassirer, it is the task of the
philosopher and of every citizen to contribute to the development of the critical forces of art,
57
The notion of “repressive desublimation” has been forged by a French scholar as a parallel to Marcuse’s
notion of “repressive desublimation”. Cfr. Gaubert, J.: La science politique d’Ernst Cassirer, Paris, 1996, p.
103, n. 132.
58
Cassirer, E.: The Myth of the State, New Haven, 1973, p. 282.
44
science, and ethics, so that the mythical monsters are continually checked and subdued by
superior forces.
4. Towards a Practical Sociology
Cassirer is a truly cosmopolitan thinker. By taking a critical stand, he has given a
ascertained the primacy of practical reason over pure reason and put his critique of culture on
new praxeological foundations. Using the standard philosophical lingo, one could say that in
his political writings he has developed a critique of practical reason, this last one being
conceived as symbolic reason.
According to Cassirer, the principal aim of all cultural forms consists in the task of
building up a common world of thought and feeling, a world of humanity which pretends to
be a koinon kosmon. Drawing on Humboldt, Cassirer conceives of language, as we have seen,
as the first and decisive step to that common world towards which culture strives. Culture in
general and language in particular provide a common ground of human beings which
connects them to each other. Culture, however, is not a thing, it is a process. As such, it
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individuals who, by appropriating culture, realize themselves. Culture connects, and although
culture is always bound to particular national and even individual conditions, it is potentially
universal. It transcends particular communities and offers a basis for the construction of a
common world. This common world is, however, not a given, it is an idea and an ideal. Like
reason, culture is thus not a given, but a task. In this sense, culture does indeed demand a
system of actions actions that actualise the potential of culture and try to realise the
promises of practical reason.
In accordance with its ultimate vocation, philosophy is the guide and the caretaker of
culture and reason. Its duty is to remind us that we have to struggle for the ideals on which
our culture rests. “In the hour of [fascist] peril, the watchman slept, who should have kept
watch over us”. Nowadays, fascism is gone, but it continually reemerges under different
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guises (nationalism, fundamentalism, etc.). We have to remain vigilant and I like to think that,
as a critical discipline, sociology has its role to play as well in furthering "the unfinished
project of Enlightenment" (Habermas). However, this presupposes that we put sociology back
on the tracks of practical philosophy. All too often, sociology has conceived of itself in a
59
Cassirer, E.: “Critical Idealism as a Philosophy of Culture”, in Verene, D. (ed.): Symbol, Myth, and Culture.
Essays and Lectures of Ernst Cassirer 19351945, New Haven, 1979, p. 65.
60
Albert Schweitzer, quoted by Cassirer in “The Concept of Philosophy as a Philosophical Problem”, in
Verene, D. (ed.): op. cit., p. 60.
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explicitly saying so; in fact, without knowing it and maybe even without wanting it, it has
knowledge only in so far as it pertains to the domain of the phenomenal world; the noumenal
domain of practice, understood in its irreducible moral dimension, cannot aspire to objective
or positive knowledge. Free, practical activity belongs to the realm of freedom, and for Kant
freedom falls outside the scope of science. Here, I want to argue that sociology has chosen the
wrong track and that, instead of taking its cues from the first critique, it should systematically
into the conditions of possibility of autonomous, moral action. Sociology belongs to the
moral sciences. Its object is the subject. It is only by dropping, once and for all, its references
to an ontoepistemological model which doesn't suit its object that it can realise its promises
as a human science, that is as a science of man as a free and moral agent. It is only by
orienting itself towards theCritique of Practical Reason that sociology can pursue its own
project. That project is at once moral and critical. It aims to further the project of
Enlightenment, and to enhance the autonomy of the subject and of society. In short:
confronted with the Kantian opposition between the domain of lawful phenomena, which are
the object of empirical knowledge, and the noumenal domain of ethical and political freedom,
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which is the object of practical philosophy, sociology has to choose, and, if it seriously and
reflexively considers its subject, it has no other option but to become a practical sociology.
For Kant, all practical philosophy is inextricably linked with the question of the
inalienable rights of man. In the question of human rights he finds the completion of practical
philosophy. However, if philosophy wants to realise its goals and enhance the autonomy of
man and society, it has to pass over from a scholastic to a worldly conception of philosophy
(conceptus cosmicus KrV, B 867). Of course, Kant thinks that pure knowledge, knowledge
for the sake of knowledge, is important. And yet he is not satisfied with understanding
philosophy according to the pure scholastic conception of it. Philosophy has to relate itself to
the world. Properly conceived, its task is to connect all knowledge to the essential aim of
human reason itself. Reason is not a given, as Fichte used to say, it is a task. I like to think
that sociology has a role to play here as well. We have to struggle not only to defend the
ideals of reason, but also to realise them.