Vedas

“Veda” and “Vedic” redirect here. For other uses, see to Greek (ϝ)εἶδος “aspect”, “form” . Not to be confused
Veda (disambiguation) and Vedic (disambiguation). is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect
tense véda, cognate to Greek (ϝ)οἶδα (w)oida “I know”.
The Vedas (/ˈveɪdəz, ˈviː-/; [1]
Sanskrit: वेद véda, Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, etc., Latin
videō “I see”, etc.[19]
"knowledge") are a large body of texts originating in
ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts The Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means
constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the “knowledge”, but can also be used to refer to fields of
oldest scriptures of Hinduism.[2][3] Hindus consider the study unrelated to liturgy or ritual, e.g. in agada-veda
Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means “not of a man, “medical science”, sasya-veda “science of agriculture”
superhuman”[4] and “impersonal, authorless”.[5][6][7] or sarpa-veda “science of snakes” (already found in the
[8] early Upanishads); durveda means “with evil knowledge,
Vedas are also called śruti (“what is heard”) literature, [20]
distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are ignorant”.
called smṛti (“what is remembered”). The Veda, for or- A related word Vedena appears in hymn 8.19.5 of the
thodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, Rigveda.[21] It was translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith as
some way or other the work of the Deity.[9] In the Hindu “ritual lore”,[22] as “studying the Veda” by the 14th cen-
Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited tury Indian scholar Sayana, as “bundle of grass” by Max
to Brahma.[10] Muller, and as “with the Veda” by H.H. Wilson.[23]
There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India.
the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda.[11][12] Each Veda Marai literally means “hidden, a secret, mystery”.[24][25]
has been subclassified into four major text types – the In some south Indian communities such as Iyengars, the
Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas word Veda includes the Tamil writings of the Alvar saints,
(text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic- such as Divya Prabandham, for example Tiruvaymoli.[26]
sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on ritu-
als, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads
(text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual
knowledge).[11][13][14] Some scholars add fifth category –
2 Chronology
the Upasanas (worship).[15][16]
Main article: Vedic period
The various Indian philosophies and denominations have
taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of In-
dian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts.[27] The
authority are classified as “orthodox” (āstika). Other Samhitas date to roughly 1700–1100 BCE,[28] and the
śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, “circum-Vedic” texts, as well as the redaction of the
Buddhism and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic
as authorities are referred to as “heterodox” or “non- period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium
orthodox” (nāstika) schools.[17] Despite their differences,BCE, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.[29] The
just like śramaṇa traditions, various Hindu traditions Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composi-
dwell on, express and teach similar ideas such as karma tion of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the
(retributive action) and moksha (liberation) in the fourthvarious shakhas all over Northern India which annotated
layer of the Vedas – the Upanishads.[17] the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their
meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and
Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologi-
1 Etymology and usage cally, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel
gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400
BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Near East-
The Sanskrit word véda “knowledge, wisdom” is derived ern Mitanni material of the 14th century BCE the only
from the root vid- “to know”. This is reconstructed as epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the
being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯ eid-, Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE (Patañjali) as a
meaning “see” or “know”.[18] terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and
The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯ eidos, cognate 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for

1
2 3 CATEGORIES OF VEDIC TEXTS

the Atharvaveda.[30] available in several recensions (śākhā). In some con-

Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tra- texts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhi-
dition alone, preserved with precision with the help of tas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart
elaborate mnemonic techniques. A literary tradition set from the Rigvedic hymns, which were probably es-
in only in post-Vedic times, after the rise of Buddhism in sentially complete by 1200 BCE, dating to c. the
the Maurya period, perhaps earliest in the Kanva recen- 12th to 10th centuries BCE. The complete corpus
sion of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield's Vedic
oral tradition predominated until c. 1000 CE.[31] Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000 padas
(metrical feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four
Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript mate- Samhitas.[36]
rial (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts
rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.[32] • The Brahmanas are prose texts that comment and
The Sampurnanand Sanskrit University has a Rigveda explain the solemn rituals as well as expound on their
manuscript from the 14th century;[33] however, there are meaning and many connected themes. Each of the
a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal that are Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas
dated from the 11th century onwards.[34] or its recensions.[37][38] The Brahmanas may either
form separate texts or can be partly integrated into
the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the
3 Categories of Vedic texts Aranyakas and Upanishads.

• The Aranyakas, “wilderness texts” or “forest

treaties”, were composed by people who meditated
in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the
Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpre-
tations of ceremonies, from ritualisitic to symbolic
meta-ritualistic points of view.[39] It is frequently
read in secondary literature.

• Older Mukhya Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka,

Chandogya, Kaṭha, Kena, Aitareya, and
others).[40][41]

The Vedas (sruti) are different from Vedic era texts such
as Shrauta Sutras and Gryha Sutras, which are smriti
texts. Together, the Vedas and these Sutras form part of
the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.[41][42][43]
While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceased
with the end of the Vedic period, additional Upanishads
Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari were composed after the end of the Vedic period.[44]
The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads, among
The term “Vedic texts” is used in two distinct meanings:
other things, interpret and discuss the Samhitas in philo-
sophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract con-
1. Texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic cepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the
period (Iron Age India) self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, one of the
major trends of later Hinduism. In other parts, they show
2. Any text considered as “connected to the Vedas” or evolution of ideas, such as from actual sacrifice to sym-
a “corollary of the Vedas”[35] bolic sacrifice, and of spirituality in the Upanishads. This
has inspired later Hindu scholars such as Adi Shankara
to classify each Veda into karma-kanda (कर्म खण्ड,
3.1 Vedic Sanskrit corpus action/ritual-related sections) and jnana-kanda (ज्ञान
खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related sections).[15][45]
The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes:

• The Samhitas (Sanskrit saṃhitā, “collection”), are 3.2 Shruti literature

collections of metric texts ("mantras"). There are
four “Vedic” Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Main article: Śruti
Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are
 3

The texts considered “Vedic” in the sense of “corollaries the modern era, raising significant debate on parts of
of the Vedas” is less clearly defined, and may include nu- the text which are believed to have been corrupted at
merous post-Vedic texts such as the later Upanishads and a later date.[52][53] The Vedas each have an Index or
the Sutra literature. Texts not considered to be shruti are Anukramani, the principal work of this kind being the
known as smriti (Sanskrit: smṛti; “the remembered”), or general Index or Sarvānukramaṇī.[54][55]
texts of remembered traditions. This indigenous system Prodigous energy was expended by ancient Indian cul-
of categorization was adopted by Max Müller and, while ture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from
it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. As Axel generation to generation with inordinate fidelity.[56] For
Michaels explains:[40]
example, memorization of the sacred Vedas included up
to eleven forms of recitation of the same text. The texts
These classifications are often not tenable were subsequently “proof-read” by comparing the differ-
for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not ent recited versions. Forms of recitation included the
only one collection at any one time, but rather jaṭā-pāṭha (literally “mesh recitation”) in which every two
several handed down in separate Vedic schools; adjacent words in the text were first recited in their orig-
Upanişads ... are sometimes not to be dis- inal order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally
tinguished from Āraṇyakas...; Brāhmaṇas con- repeated again in the original order.[57] That these meth-
tain older strata of language attributed to the ods have been effective, is testified to by the preservation
Saṃhitās; there are various dialects and lo- of the most ancient Indian religious text, the Rigveda, as
cally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. redacted into a single text during the Brahmana period,
Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the divi- without any variant readings within that school.[57]
sion adopted by Max Müller because it follows
the Indian tradition, conveys the historical se- The Vedas were likely written down for the first time
quence fairly accurately, and underlies the cur- around 500 BCE.[58] However, all printed editions of the
rent editions, translations, and monographs on Vedas that survive in the modern times are likely the ver-
Vedic literature.”[40] sion existing in about the 16th century CE.[59]

The Upanishads are largely philosophical works, some in

dialogue form. They are the foundation of Hindu philo- 5 Four Vedas
sophical thought and its diverse traditions.[46][47] Of the
Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the cen- The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (turīya)
tral ideas of the Upanishads are at the spiritual core of viz.,[62]
Hindus.[46][48]
1. Rigveda (RV)
2. Yajurveda (YV, with the main division TS vs. VS)
4 Vedic schools or recensions
3. Samaveda (SV)
Main article: Shakha 4. Atharvaveda (AV)

The four Vedas were transmitted in various śākhās Of these, the first three were the principal original di-
(branches, schools).[49][50] Each school likely repre- vision, also called "trayī vidyā", that is, “the triple sci-
sented an ancient community of a particular area, or ence” of reciting hymns (Rigveda), performing sacrifices
kingdom.[50] Each school followed its own canon. Multi- (Yajurveda), and chanting songs (Samaveda).[50][63] The
ple recensions are known for each of the Vedas.[49] Thus, Rigveda is the oldest work, which Witzel states are prob-
states Witzel as well as Renou, in the 2nd millennium ably from 1900 BCE to 1100 BCE period. Witzel, also
BCE, there was likely no canon of one broadly accepted notes that it is the Vedic period itself, where incipient lists
Vedic texts, no Vedic “Scripture”, but only a canon of var- divide the Vedic texts into three (trayī) or four branches:
ious texts accepted by each school. Some of these texts Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.[50]
have survived, most lost or yet to be found. Rigveda that Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text
survives in modern times, for example, is in only one ex- types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the
tremely well preserved school of Śåkalya, from a region Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies such as newborn
called Videha, in modern north Bihar, south of Nepal.[51] baby’s rites of passage, coming of age, marriages, retire-
The Vedic canon in its entirety consists of texts from all ment and cremation, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices),
the various Vedic schools taken together.[50] the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and
Each of the four Vedas were shared by the numerous sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing medita-
schools, but revised, interpolated and adapted locally, tion, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[11][13][14] The
in and after the Vedic period, giving rise to various Upasanas (short ritual worship-related sections) are con-
recensions of the text. Some texts were revised into sidered by some scholars[15][16] as the fifth part. Witzel
4 5 FOUR VEDAS

notes that the rituals, rites and ceremonies described in linguistics in Rigveda and those found in ancient central
these ancient texts reconstruct to a large degree the Indo- Asia, Iranian and Hindukush (Afghanistan) regions.[73]
European marriage rituals observed in a region spanning
the Indian subcontinent, Persia and the European area,
and some greater details are found in the Vedic era texts 5.2 Samaveda
such as the Grhya Sūtras.[64]
Main article: Samaveda
Only one version of the Rigveda is known to have sur-
vived into the modern era.[51] Several different versions
[74]
of the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda are known, and The Samaveda Samhita consists of 1549 stanzas,
many different versions of the Yajur Veda have been taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the
[40][75]
found in different parts of South Asia. [65] Rigveda. The Samaveda samhita comprises two
major parts. The first part include four melody collec-
tions (gāna, गान) and the second part three verse “books”
(ārcika, आर्चिक).[75] A melody in the song books corre-
5.1 Rigveda
sponds to a verse in the arcika books. Just like Rigveda,
the early sections of Samaveda typically begin with Agni
Main article: Rigveda
and Indra hymns but shift to abstract, and their meters
too shifts in a descending order. The later sections of the
Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of non-Eternity): Samaveda have least deviation from substance of hymns
they derive from Rigveda into songs.[75]
Who really knows? In Samaveda, some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated
Who can here proclaim it? more than once.[76] Including repetitions, there are a to-
Whence, whence this creation sprang? tal of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension
Gods came later, after the creation of this universe. translated by Griffith.[77] Two major recensions have sur-
vived, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its
Who then knows whence it has arisen? purpose was liturgical, and they were the repertoire of the
Whether God’s will created it, or whether He was mute; udgātṛ or “singer” priests.[78]
Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows,
He only knows, or perhaps He does not know.
5.3 Yajurveda
—Rig Veda 10.129.6-7[66]
Main article: Yajurveda
[67]
The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest extant Indic text.
It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and The Yajurveda Samhita consists of prose mantras.[79] It is
10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were said by
mandalas).[68] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such
deities.[69] as those before the yajna fire.[79]
The books were composed by poets from different The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda samhita
priestly groups over a period of several centuries from includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow
roughly the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda.[80]
(the early Vedic period), starting with the Punjab (Sapta Unlike the Samaveda which is almost entirely based on
Sindhu) region of the northwest Indian subcontinent.[70] Rigveda mantras and structured as songs, the Yajurveda
The Rigveda is structured based on clear principles – the samhitas are in prose and linguistically, they are differ-
Veda begins with a small book addressed to Agni, Indra ent from earlier Vedic texts.[81] The Yajur Veda has been
and other gods, all arranged according to decreasing total the primary source of information about sacrifices during
number of hymns in each deity collection; for each de- Vedic times and associated rituals.[82]
ity series the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones;There are two major groups of texts in this Veda: the
yet, the number of hymns per book increases; finally, the “Black” (Krishna) and the “White” (Shukla). The term
meter too is systematically arranged from jagati and tris-“black” implies “the un-arranged, motley collection” of
tubh to anustubh and gayatri as the text progresses.[50] verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the “white” (well ar-
In terms of substance, the nature of hymns shift from ranged) Yajurveda.[83] The White Yajurveda separates
praise of deities in early books to Nasadiya Sukta with the Samhita from its Brahmana (the Shatapatha Brah-
questions such as, “what is the origin of the universe?, mana), the Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita
do even gods know the answer?",[66] the virtue of Dāna with Brahmana commentary. Of the Black Yajurveda,
(charity) in society,[71] and other metaphysical issues intexts from four major schools have survived (Maitrayani,
its hymns.[72] Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya), while of the White
There are similarities between the mythology, rituals and Yajurveda, two (Kanva and Madhyandina).[84][85] The
5.5 Embedded Vedic texts 5

youngest layer of Yajurveda text is not related to rituals mana text, most of which have been lost.[102] A total of
nor sacrifice, it includes the largest collection of primary 19 Brahmana texts have survived into modern times: two
Upanishads, influential to various schools of Hindu phi- associated with the Rigveda, six with the Yajurveda, ten
losophy.[86][87] with the Samaveda and one with the Atharvaveda. The
oldest dated to about 900 BC, while the youngest Brah-
manas (such as the Shatapatha Brahmana), were com-
5.4 Atharvaveda plete by about 700 BC.[103][104] According to Jan Gonda,
the final codification of the Brahmanas took place in pre-
Main article: Atharvaveda Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).[105]
The substance of the Brahmana text varies with each
The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to the Veda. For example, the first chapter of the Chando-
Atharvan and Angirasa poets. It has about 760 hymns, gya Brahmana, one of the oldest Brahmanas, includes
and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the eight ritual suktas (hymns) for the ceremony of mar-
Rigveda.[88] Most of the verses are metrical, but some riage and rituals at the birth of a child.[106][107] The first
sections are in prose.[88] Two different versions of the text hymn is a recitation that accompanies offering a Yajna
– the Paippalāda and the Śaunakīya – have survived into oblation to Agni (fire) on the occasion of a marriage,
the modern times.[89][88] The Atharvaveda was not con- and the hymn prays for prosperity of the couple get-
sidered as a Veda in the Vedic era, and was accepted as a ting married.[106][108] The second hymn wishes for their
Veda in late 1st millenniun BCE.[90][91] It was compiled long life, kind relatives, and a numerous progeny.[106]
last,[92] probably around 900 BCE, although some of its The third hymn is a mutual marriage pledge, between
material may go back to the time of the Rigveda,[93] or the bride and groom, by which the two bind themselves
earlier.[88] to each other. The sixth through last hymn of the first
The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the “Veda of magi- chapter in Chandogya Brahmana are ritual celebrations
cal formulas”,[94] an epithet declared to be incorrect by on the birth of a child, and wishes for health, wealth and
other scholars.[95] The Samhita layer of the text likely prosperity with a profusion of cows and artha.[106] How-
represents a developing 2nd millennium BCE tradition ever, these verses are incomplete expositions, and their
of magico-religious rites to address superstitious anx- complete context emerges only with the Samhita layer of
iety, spells to remove maladies believed to be caused text.[109]
by demons, and herbs- and nature-derived potions as
medicine.[96][97] The text, states Kenneth Zysk, is one of
5.5.2 Aranyakas and Upanishads
oldest surviving record of the evolutionary practices in
religious medicine and reveals the “earliest forms of folk
Further information: Vedanta, Upanishads and
healing of Indo-European antiquity”.[98] Many books of
Aranyakas
the Atharvaveda Samhita are dedicated to rituals with-
out magic, such as to philosophical speculations and to
theosophy.[95] The Aranyakas layer of the Vedas include rituals, dis-
cussion of symbolic meta-rituals, as well as philosophical
The Atharva veda has been a primary source for infor-
speculations.[110][111]
mation about Vedic culture, the customs and beliefs, the
aspirations and frustrations of everyday Vedic life, as well Aranyakas, however, neither are homogeneous in con-
as those associated with kings and governance. The text tent nor in structure.[110] They are a medley of instruc-
also includes hymns dealing with the two major rituals tions and ideas, and some include chapters of Upanishads
of passage – marriage and cremation. The Atharva Veda within them. Two theories have been proposed on the ori-
also dedicates significant portion of the text asking the gin of the word Aranyakas. One theory holds that these
meaning of a ritual.[99] texts were meant to be studied in a forest, while the other
holds that the name came from these being the manu-
als of allegorical interpretation of sacrifices, for those in
5.5 Embedded Vedic texts Vanaprastha (retired, forest-dwelling) stage of their life,
according to the historic age-based Ashrama system of
5.5.1 Brahmanas human life.[112]
The Upanishads reflect the last composed layer of texts
Further information: Brahmanas in the Vedas. They are commonly referred to as
Vedānta, variously interpreted to mean either the “last
The Brahmanas are commentaries, explanation of proper chapters, parts of the Vedas” or “the object, the high-
methods and meaning of Vedic Samhita rituals in the est purpose of the Veda”.[113] The concepts of Brahman
four Vedas.[100] They also incorporate myths, legends and (Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (Soul, Self) are central
in some cases philosophy.[100][101] Each regional Vedic ideas in all the Upanishads,[114][115] and “Know your
shakha (school) has its own operating manual-like Brah- Ātman” their thematic focus.[115][116] The Upanishads
6 6 POST-VEDIC LITERATURE

are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Sutras. Naturally classified
its diverse traditions.[46][117] Of the Vedic corpus, they with the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works ex-
alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the ist for each of the four Vedas. However, only the litera-
Upanishads have influenced the diverse traditions of ture associated with the Atharvaveda is extensive.
Hinduism.[46][118]
Aranyakas are sometimes identified as karma-kanda (rit- • The Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a very late text
ualistic section), while the Upanishads are identified as associated with the Rigveda canon.
jnana-kanda (spirituality section).[15][119] In an alternate
classification, the early part of Vedas are called Samhitas • The Gobhila Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a short metrical
and the commentary are called the Brahmanas which text of two chapters, with 113 and 95 verses respec-
together are identified as the ceremonial karma-kanda, tively.
while Aranyakas and Upanishads are referred to as the • The Kātiya Pariśiṣṭas, ascribed to Kātyāyana, con-
jnana-kanda.[120] sist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the
fifth of the series (the Caraṇavyūha)and the Kā-
tyāyana Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa.
6 Post-Vedic literature
• The Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda has 3 parisistas The Āpas-
tamba Hautra Pariśiṣṭa, which is also found as the
6.1 Vedanga second praśna of the Satyasāḍha Śrauta Sūtra', the
Vārāha Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa
Main article: Vedanga
• For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected
Six technical subjects related to the Vedas are tradition- as 72 distinctly named parisistas.[122]
ally known as vedāṅga “limbs of the Veda”. V. S. Apte
defines this group of works as:
6.3 Puranas
“N. of a certain class of works regarded as Main article: Puranas
auxiliary to the Vedas and designed to aid in the
correct pronunciation and interpretation of the
text and the right employment of the Mantras A traditional view given in the Vishnu Purana (likely
in ceremonials.”[121] dating to the Gupta period[123] ) attributes the cur-
rent arrangement of four Vedas to the mythical sage
Vedavyasa.[124] Puranic tradition also postulates a sin-
These subjects are treated in Sūtra literature dating from
gle original Veda that, in varying accounts, was divided
the end of the Vedic period to Mauryan times, seeing the
into three or four parts. According to the Vishnu Pu-
transition from late Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit.
rana (3.2.18, 3.3.4 etc.) the original Veda was divided
The six subjects of Vedanga are: into four parts, and further fragmented into numerous
shakhas, by Lord Vishnu in the form of Vyasa, in the
• Phonetics (Śikṣā) Dvapara Yuga; the Vayu Purana (section 60) recounts
a similar division by Vyasa, at the urging of Brahma.
• Ritual (Kalpa) The Bhagavata Purana (12.6.37) traces the origin of the
primeval Veda to the syllable aum, and says that it was
• Grammar (Vyākaraṇa)
divided into four at the start of Dvapara Yuga, because
• Etymology (Nirukta) men had declined in age, virtue and understanding. In a
differing account Bhagavata Purana (9.14.43) attributes
• Meter (Chandas) the division of the primeval veda (aum) into three parts
to the monarch Pururavas at the beginning of Treta Yuga.
• Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) The Mahabharata (santiparva 13,088) also mentions the
division of the Veda into three in Treta Yuga.[125]
6.2 Parisista
6.4 Upaveda
Main article: Parisista
The term upaveda (“applied knowledge”) is used in
Pariśiṣṭa “supplement, appendix” is the term applied traditional literature to designate the subjects of cer-
to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing tain technical works.[126][127] Lists of what subjects
mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts are included in this class differ among sources. The
logically and chronologically prior to them: the Samhitas, Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas:[128]
 7

• Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Rigveda Ralph T. H. Griffith also presented English translations
of the four Samhitas, published 1889 to 1899.
• Architecture (Sthapatyaveda), associated with the
Yajurveda. Voltaire regarded Vedas to be exceptional, he remarked
that:
• Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda), associ-
ated with the Samaveda The Veda was the most precious gift for
which the West had ever been indebted to the
• Medicine (Āyurveda), associated with the Athar- East.[138][139]
vaveda .[129][130]

Rigveda manuscripts were selected for inscription in

6.5 “Fifth” and other Vedas
UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2007.[140]
Some post-Vedic texts, including the Mahabharata, the
Natyasastra[131] and certain Puranas, refer to themselves
as the "fifth Veda".[132] The earliest reference to such 8 See also
a “fifth Veda” is found in the Chandogya Upanishad in
hymn 7.1.2.[133] • Hindu philosophy
• Historical Vedic religion
Let drama and dance (Nātya, नाट्य) be
the fifth vedic scripture. Combined with an • Pandit
epic story, tending to virtue, wealth, joy and
• Shakha
spiritual freedom, it must contain the signifi-
cance of every scripture, and forward every art. • Vedic chant
Thus, from all the Vedas, Brahma framed the
Nātya Veda. From the Rig Veda he drew forth
the words, from the Sama Veda the melody, 9 Notes
from the Yajur Veda gesture, and from the
Atharva Veda the sentiment.
[1] “Veda”. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.
— First chapter of Nātyaśāstra, Abhinaya
Darpana [134][135] [2] see e.g. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 3; Witzel,
Michael, “Vedas and Upaniṣads”, in: Flood 2003, p. 68;
MacDonell 2004, pp. 29–39; Sanskrit literature (2003) in
Philip’s Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09
"Divya Prabandha", for example Tiruvaymoli, is a term
for canonical Tamil texts considered as Vernacular Veda [3] Sanujit Ghose (2011). "Religious Developments in An-
by some South Indian Hindus.[25][26] cient India" in Ancient History Encyclopedia.

Other texts such as the Bhagavad Gita or the Vedanta Su- [4] Vaman Shivaram Apte, The Practical Sanskrit-English
tras are considered shruti or “Vedic” by some Hindu de- Dictionary, see apauruSeya
nominations but not universally within Hinduism. The
[5] D Sharma, Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader,
Bhakti movement, and Gaudiya Vaishnavism in particular Columbia University Press, ISBN , pages 196-197
extended the term veda to include the Sanskrit Epics and
Vaishnavite devotional texts such as the Pancaratra.[136] [6] Jan Westerhoff (2009), Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka: A
Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press,
ISBN 978-0195384963, page 290

7 Western Indology [7] Warren Lee Todd (2013), The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śān-
tideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World, ISBN
978-1409466819, page 128
Further information: Sanskrit in the West
[8] Apte 1965, p. 887
The study of Sanskrit in the West began in the 17th [9] Müller 1891, pp. 17–18
century. In the early 19th century, Arthur Schopen-
hauer drew attention to Vedic texts, specifically the Up- [10] Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in
anishads. The importance of Vedic Sanskrit for Indo- the Mahābhārata Bruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass,
pages 85-86
European studies was also recognized in the early 19th
century. English translations of the Samhitas were pub- [11] Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cam-
lished in the later 19th century, in the Sacred Books of the bridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, pages
East series edited by Müller between 1879 and 1910.[137] 35-39
8 9 NOTES

[12] Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha- [30] Witzel, Michael, “Vedas and Upaniṣads”, in: Flood 2003,
Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und p. 68
Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A
history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhi- [31] For the possibility of written texts during the 1st century
tas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden BCE see: Witzel, Michael, “Vedas and Upaniṣads”, in:
1975, 1977 Flood 2003, p. 69; For oral composition and oral trans-
mission for “many hundreds of years” before being written
[13] A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction down, see: Avari 2007, p. 76.
to Scriptures and Theology, ISBN 978-0595384556,
pages 8-14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of [32] Brodd, Jefferey (2003), World Religions, Winona, MN:
Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978- Saint Mary’s Press, ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5
0195332612, page 285
[33] Jamison, Stephanie W.; Brereton, Joel P. (2014). The
[14] Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Rigveda. vol. 1. Oxford University Press. p. 18. ISBN
Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978- 978-0-19-972078-1.
3447016032
[34] “Cultural Heritage of Nepal”. Nepal-German Manuscript
[15] A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Preservation Project. University of Hamburg. Retrieved 4
Scriptures and Theology, ISBN 978-0595384556, pages November 2014.
8-14
[35] according to ISKCON, Hindu Sacred Texts, “Hindus
[16] Barbara A. Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcend- themselves often use the term to describe anything con-
ing the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New nected to the Vedas and their corollaries (e.g. Vedic cul-
York Press, ISBN 978-0791416402, pages 351-357 ture)".
[17] Flood 1996, p. 82
[36] 37,575 are Rigvedic. Of the remaining, 34,857 appear in
[18] Monier-Williams 2006, p. 1015; Apte 1965, p. 856 the other three Samhitas, and 16,405 are known only from
Brahmanas, Upanishads or Sutras
[19] see e.g. Pokorny’s 1959 Indogermanisches etymologisches
Wörterbuch s.v. u̯ (e)id-²; Rix' Lexikon der indogermanis- [37] Klaus Klostermaier (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Sec-
chen Verben, u̯ ei̯d-. ond Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN
978-0791421093, pages 67-69
[20] Monier-Williams (1899)
[38] Brahmana Encyclopedia Britannica (2013)
[21] Sanskrit: यः समिधा य आहुती यो वेदेन ददाश मर्तो
अग्नये । यो नमसा स्वध्वरः ॥५॥, ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं ८.१९, [39] Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and
Wikisource Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-
[22] K.F. Geldner, Der Rig-Veda, Harvard Oriental Series 33- 3447016032, page 424-426
37, Cambridge 1951
[40] Michaels 2004, p. 51.
[23] HH Wilson, Rig-veda Sanhita Sixth Ashtaka, First Ad-
hayaya, Sukta VII (8.19.5), page 291, Trubner London [41] Witzel, Michael, “Vedas and Upaniṣads”, in: Flood 2003,
p. 69.
[24] Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Rev-
elation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Car- [42] For a table of all Vedic texts see Witzel, Michael, “Vedas
olina Press, ISBN 978-0872499652, pages 194 and Upaniṣads”, in: Flood 2003, pp. 100–101.

[25] John Carman (1989), The Tamil Veda: Pillan’s Interpre- [43] The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is incorporated in A Vedic
tation of the Tiruvaymoli, University of Chicago Press, Word Concordance (Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa) pre-
ISBN 978-0226093055, pages 259-261 pared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in
five volumes in 1935-1965. Its scope extends to about 400
[26] Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Rev- texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides
elation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Car- some “sub-Vedic” texts. Volume I: Samhitas, Volume II:
olina Press, ISBN 978-0872499652, pages 43, 117-119 Brahmanas and Aranyakas, Volume III: Upanishads, Vol-
[27] Merchant, Minhaz. “Why Muslims and Christians are ume IV: Vedangas; A revised edition, extending to about
safer in India than most places on earth”. DailyO.in 1800 pages, was published in 1973-1976.
-online opinion and commentary platform. Retrieved
[44] Flood 2003, pp. 100–101
2010-08-19.
[28] Lucas F. Johnston, Whitney Bauman (2014). Science and [45] Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara’s Introduction at
Religion: One Planet, Many Possibilities. Routledge. p. Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pages
179. 1-5; Quote - “The Vedas are divided in two parts, the
first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called)
[29] Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates, according to purva-kanda, and treats on ceremonies; the second part
which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 is the jnana kanda, the part which contains knowledge,
BCE over a period of several centuries. Flood 1996, p. also named uttara-kanda or posterior part, and unfolds the
37 knowledge of Brahma or the universal soul.”
 9

[46] Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of [63] MacDonell 2004, pp. 29–39
Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN
978-0226618470, pages 2-3; Quote: “The Upanishads [64] Jamison and Witzel (1992), Vedic Hinduism, Harvard
supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of University, page 21
the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most
well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also [65] Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its
become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hin- Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997,
dus.” p. 286

[47] Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian The- [66] • Original Sanskrit: Rigveda 10.129 Wikisource;
ory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State • Translation 1: Max Muller (1859). A History of
University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791410806, Ancient Sanskrit Literature. Williams and Norgate,
page 39; Quote: “The Upanishads form the foundations London. pp. 559–565.
of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of
the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or • Translation 2: Kenneth Kramer (1986). World
the inner self and the cosmic self."; Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Reli-
Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Re- gions. Paulist Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-8091-2781-4.
ligions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210 • Translation 3: David Christian (2011). Maps of
Time: An Introduction to Big History. University
[48] Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford of California Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-520-
University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, page 3; Quote: 95067-2.
“Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is ac-
cepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upan- [67] see e.g. Avari 2007, p. 77.
ishads that have continued to influence the life and thought
of the various religious traditions that we have come to [68] For 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses and division into ten
call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence mandalas, see: Avari 2007, p. 77.
of Hinduism”.
[69] For characterization of content and mentions of deities in-
[49] Flood 1996, p. 39. cluding Agni, Indra, Varuna, Soma, Surya, etc. see: Avari
2007, p. 77.
[50] Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its
Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, [70] see e.g. Avari 2007, p. 77 Max Müller gave 1700–1100
pp. 257–348 BCE, Michael Witzel gives 1450-1350 BCE as terminus
ad quem.
[51] Jamison and Witzel (1992), Vedic Hinduism, Harvard
University, page 6 [71] Original text translated in English: The Rig Veda, Man-
dala 10, Hymn 117, Ralph T. H. Griffith (Translator);
[52] J. Muir (1868), Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and
C Chatterjee (1995), Values in the Indian Ethos: An
History of the People of India - their religion and institu-
Overview, Journal of Human Values, Vol 1, No 1, pages
tions at Google Books, 2nd Edition, page 12
3-12
[53] Albert Friedrich Weber, Indische Studien, herausg. von at
Google Books, Volume 10, pp 1-9 with footnotes (in Ger- [72] For example,
man); For a translation, Original Sanskrit Texts at Google Hymn 1.164.34, “What is the ultimate limit of the
Books, page 14 earth?", “What is the center of the universe?", “What is
the semen of the cosmic horse?", “What is the ultimate
[54] For an example, see Sarvānukramaṇī Vivaraṇa Univ of source of human speech?"
Pennsylvania rare texts collection Hymn 1.164.34, “Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the
earth?", “How could the unstructured universe give ori-
[55] R̥ gveda-sarvānukramaṇī Śaunakakr̥tāʼnuvākānukramaṇī gin to this structured world?"
ca, Maharṣi-Kātyayāna-viracitā, OCLC 11549595 Hymn 1.164.5, “Where does the sun hide in the night?",
“Where do gods live?"
[56] (Staal 1986)
Hymn 1.164.6, “What, where is the unborn support for
[57] (Filliozat 2004, p. 139) the born universe?";
Hymn 1.164.20 (a hymn that is widely cited in the
[58] Avari 2007, pp. 69–70 Upanishads as the parable of the Body and the Soul):
“Two birds with fair wings, inseparable companions; Have
[59] Michael Witzel, “Vedas and Upaniṣads”, in: Flood 2003, found refuge in the same sheltering tree. One incessantly
p. 69, Quote: "... almost all printed editions depend on eats from the fig tree; the other, not eating, just looks on.";
the late manuscripts that are hardly older than 500 years” Sources: (a) Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations
Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, ISBN
[60] Nair 2008, pp. 84-227.
978-0595269259, pages 64-69;
[61] Joshi 1994, pp. 91-93. Jan Gonda, A History of Indian Literature: Veda and Up-
anishads, Volume 1, Part 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
[62] Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 3; Witzel, Michael, ISBN 978-3447016032, pages 134-135;
“Vedas and Upaniṣads”, in: Flood 2003, p. 68 Rigveda Book 1, Hymn 164 Wikisource
10 9 NOTES

[73] Michael Witzel, The Rigvedic religious system and its [91] Alex Wayman (1997), Untying the Knots in Buddhism,
central Asian and Hindukush antecedents, in The Vedas Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120813212, pages 52-
- Texts, Language and Ritual, Editors: Griffiths and 53
Houben (2004), Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9069801490,
pages 581-627 [92] “The latest of the four Vedas, the Atharva-Veda, is, as we
have seen, largely composed of magical texts and charms,
[74] (from sāman, the term for a melody applied to metrical but here and there we find cosmological hymns which an-
hymn or song of praise, Apte 1965, p. 981. ticipate the Upanishads, -- hymns to Skambha, the 'Sup-
port', who is seen as the first principle which is both the
[75] Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its material and efficient cause of the universe, to Prāna, the
Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, 'Breath of Life', to Vāc, the 'Word', and so on.” Zaehner
pp. 269–270 1966, p. vii.
[76] M Bloomfield, Rig-veda Repetitions, p. 402, at Google [93] Flood 1996, p. 37.
Books, pages 402-464
[94] Laurie Patton (2004), Veda and Upanishad, in The Hindu
[77] For 1875 total verses, see numbering given in Ralph T. World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Rout-
H. Griffith. Griffith’s introduction mentions the recension ledge, ISBN 0–415215277, page 38
history for his text. Repetitions may be found by consult-
ing the cross-index in Griffith pp. 491-99. [95] Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāh-
maṇas, Vol 1, Fasc. 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN
[78] Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), Sound and 978-3447016032, pages 277-280, Quote: “It would be
Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of incorrect to describe the Atharvaveda Samhita as a col-
Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978- lection of magical formulas”.
3110181593, page 381
[96] Kenneth Zysk (2012), Understanding Mantras (Edi-
[79] Michael Witzel (2003), “Vedas and Upaniṣads”, in tor: Harvey Alper), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-
The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (Editor: Gavin 8120807464, pages 123-129
Flood), Blackwell, ISBN 0-631215352, pages 76-77
[97] On magic spells and charms, such as those to gain better
[80] Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig health: Atharva Veda 2.32 Bhaishagykni, Charm to se-
Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, ISBN 978-0595269259, cure perfect health Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sa-
pages 273-274 cred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press;
see also chapters 3.11, 3.31, 4.10, 5.30, 19.26;
[81] Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its On finding a good husband: Atharva Veda 4.2.36 Stri-
Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, jaratani Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books
pp. 270–271 of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; Athar-
vaveda dedicates over 30 chapters to love relationships,
[82] Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its sexuality and for conceiving a child, see e.g. chapters
Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, 1.14, 2.30, 3.25, 6.60, 6.78, 6.82, 6.130-6.132; On peace-
pp. 272–274 ful social and family relationships: Atharva Veda 6.3.30
Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the
[83] Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1,
East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press;
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 217-
219 [98] Kenneth Zysk (1993), Religious Medicine: The History
and Evolution of Indian Medicine, Routledge, ISBN 978-
[84] Michaels 2004, p. 52 Table 3
1560000761, pages x-xii
[85] CL Prabhakar (1972), The Recensions of the Sukla Ya- [99] Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its
jurveda, Archív Orientální, Volume 40, Issue 1, pages Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997,
347-353 pp. 275–276
[86] Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads, Moti- [100] Klaus Klostermaier (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Sec-
lal Banarsidass (2011 Edition), ISBN 978-8120816206, ond Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN
page 23 978-0791421093, pages 67-69
[87] Patrick Olivelle (1998), Upaniṣhads, Oxford University [101] Brahmana Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)
Press, ISBN 0-19-282292-6, pages 1-17
[102] Moriz Winternitz (2010), A History of Indian Literature,
[88] Michaels 2004, p. 56. Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643,
pages 175-176
[89] Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Ori-
gins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, ISBN 978- [103] Michael Witzel, “Tracing the Vedic dialects” in Dialectes
0143099864, pages 136-137 dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris,
1989, 97–265.
[90] Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Ori-
gins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, ISBN 978- [104] Biswas et al (1989), Cosmic Perspectives, Cambridge
0143099864, page 135 University Press, ISBN 978-0521343541, pages 42-43
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[105] Klaus Klostermaier (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Sec- [120] Stephen Knapp (2005), The Heart of Hinduism: The East-
ond Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN ern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination,
978-0791421093, page 67 ISBN 978-0595350759, pages 10-11
[106] Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, [121] Apte 1965, p. 387.
Part I, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVII with foot-
note 2 [122] BR Modak, The Ancillary Literature of the Atharva-
Veda, New Delhi, Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan,
[107] Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, 1993, ISBN 81-215-0607-7
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, page 63
[123] Flood 1996, p. 111 dates it to the 4th century CE.
[108] The Development of the Female Mind in India, p. 27, at
Google Books, The Calcutta Review, Volume 60, page 27 [124] Vishnu Purana, translation by Horace Hayman Wil-
[109] Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and son, 1840, Ch IV, http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/
Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978- vp078.htm
3447016032, pages 319-322, 368-383 with footnotes
[125] Muir 1861, pp. 20–31
[110] Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and
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3447016032, page 424-426 [127] Apte 1965, p. 293.
[111] Barbara A. Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcend-
[128] “Upaveda”. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 7 De-
ing the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New
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[113] Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 1, Oxford University
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ture’s Medicine. Lotus Press. p. 11. Retrieved 6 January
[114] Mahadevan 1956, p. 59. 2015.
[115] PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, [131] Paul Kuritz (1988), The Making of Theatre History, Pren-
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[132] Sullivan 1994, p. 385
[116] WD Strappini, The Upanishads, p. 258, at Google Books,
The Month and Catholic Review, Vol. 23, Issue 42 [133] Sanskrit original: Chandogya Upanishad, Wikisource;
[117] Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian The- English translation: Chandogya Upanishad 7.1.2, G Jha
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the inner self and the cosmic self.";
Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Re- [136] Goswami, Satsvarupa (1976), Readings in Vedic Litera-
ligions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210 ture: The Tradition Speaks for Itself, S.l.: Assoc Publish-
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[118] Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford
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“Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is ac- thor, editor) (2002). The essential Max Müller: on lan-
cepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upan- guage, mythology, and religion. Illustrated edition. Pal-
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[138] “A Critical Study of the Contribution of the Arya Samaj
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ceremonial part, also (called) purva-kanda, and treats on Royal institution of Great Britain in 1861 [and 1863], Vol-
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posterior part, and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or [140] http://hinduism.about.com/od/scripturesepics/a/rigveda.
the universal soul.” (Translator: Edward Roer) htm
12 12 EXTERNAL LINKS

10 References • Zaehner, R. C. (1966), Hindu Scriptures, London:

Everyman’s Library
• Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965), The Practical San-
skrit Dictionary (4th revised & enlarged ed.), Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0567-4. 11 Further reading
• Avari, Burjor (2007), India: The Ancient Past, Lon-
don: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-35616-9 Overviews

• Dundas, Paul (2002), The Jains, Routledge, ISBN • J. Gonda, Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāh-
978-0-415-26605-5 maṇas, A History of Indian literature. Vol. 1, Veda
• Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, and Upanishads (1975), ISBN 978-3-447-01603-2.
Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43878-0 • J. A. Santucci, An Outline of Vedic Literature
• Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Compan- (1976).
ion to Hinduism, Malden, MA: Blackwell, ISBN 1- • S. Shrava, A Comprehensive History of Vedic Liter-
4051-3251-5 ature — Brahmana and Aranyaka Works, Pranava
• Glasenapp, Helmuth Von (1999), Jainism, Moti- Prakashan (1977).
lal Banarsidass, pp. 494–498, ISBN 978-81-208-
1376-2 Concordances
• Holdrege, Barbara A. (1995), Veda and Torah,
SUNY Press, ISBN 0-7914-1639-9 • M. Bloomfield, A Vedic Concordance (1907)

• MacDonell, Arthur Anthony Arthur Anthony Mac- • Vishva Bandhu, Bhim Dev, S. Bhaskaran Nair
donell (2004), A History of Sanskrit Literature, (eds.), Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa: A Vedic Word-
Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1-4179-0619-7 Concordance, Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research In-
stitute, Hoshiarpur, 1963–1965, revised edition
• Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, 1973-1976.
Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-08953-1
• Monier-Williams, Monier, ed. (2006), Monier- Conference proceedings
Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, Nataraj Books, ISBN
1-881338-58-4. • Griffiths, Arlo and Houben, Jan E. M. (eds.), The
Vedas : texts, language & ritual: proceedings of
• Muir, John (1861), Original Sanskrit Texts on the the Third International Vedic Workshop, Leiden
Origin and Progress of the Religion and Institutions 2002, Groningen Oriental Studies 20, Groningen :
of India, Williams and Norgate Forsten, (2004), ISBN 90-6980-149-3.
• Müller, Max (1891), Chips from a German Work-
shop, New York: C. Scribner’s sons.
12 External links
• Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; Moore, Charles A.,
eds. (1957), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy
• Vedas in Hindi and Sanskrit
(12th Princeton Paperback ed.), Princeton Univer-
sity Press, ISBN 0-691-01958-4. • GRETIL etexts
• Smith, Brian K., “Canonical Authority and Social • The Vedas at sacred-texts.com
Classification: Veda and 'Varṇa' in Ancient Indian
Texts”, History of Religions, The University of • Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva
Chicago Press (1992), 103-125.
• Vedas and Upanishads Complete set
• Sullivan, B. M. (Summer 1994), “The Religious
• Glimpses of Vedic Literature - Kireet Joshi
Authority of the Mahabharata: Vyasa and Brahma
in the Hindu Scriptural Tradition”, Journal of the
American Academy of Religion 62 (1): 377–401,
doi:10.1093/jaarel/LXII.2.377.
• Witzel, Michael (ed.) (1997), Inside the Texts, Be-
yond the Texts. New Approaches to the Study of the
Vedas, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora vol.
2, Cambridge: Harvard University Press
 13

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text
• Vedas Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas?oldid=683796995 Contributors: Mav, Arvindn, William Avery, Shii, Ben-Zin~enwiki,
David spector, Youandme, Olivier, Chris Q, Lir, Paul Barlow, Dante Alighieri, Menchi, Yann, Delirium, Ahoerstemeier, Ojs, Glenn,
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load, Ryanaxp, LordSimonofShropshire, Pgan002, Gdm, Tail, Neutrality, Mschlindwein, Didactohedron, Svarma, CALR, Discospinster,
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DGJM, Kishreddy, Lockesdonkey, Priyanath, Deepak~enwiki, Sandstein, Rudrasharman, Langdell~enwiki, RDF, Plurisubharmonic, Chop-
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Shlomke, Coredesat, NongBot~enwiki, Donnoit, Yeditor, Beetstra, SQGibbon, Somkey russell, Peyre, Hu12, Quaeler, Balasubrama-
nian A., Iridescent, Sptata, Catchbarat, Bsskchaitanya, Cbrown1023, Nobleeagle, Aupmanyav, JForget, KNM, Joey80, Mebizzare, Cm-
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13.2 Images
• File:AUM_symbol,_the_primary_(highest)_name_of_the_God_as_per_the_Vedas.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
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SA-3.0 Contributors: Created by Tinette user of Italian Wikipedia. Original artist: Tinette (talk · contribs)
• File:Om_symbol.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Rigveda_MS2097.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://www.nb.no/baser/schoyen/5/5.20/ms2097.jpg Original artist: Unknown
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domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
14 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0