Transformer

Transformer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the electrical device. For the media and toy franchise, see
Transformers. For other uses, see Transformer (disambiguation).
Pole-mounted distribution transformer with center-tapped secondary winding used to
provide "split-phase" power for residential and light commercial service, which in
North America is typically rated 120/240 V.[1][2]
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy

between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current
in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn
induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or "voltage" in a second coil. Power
can be transferred between the two coils through the magnetic field, without a
metallic connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered
in 1831 described this effect. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the
alternating voltages in electric power applications.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885,

transformers have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and
utilization of alternating current electrical energy.[3] A wide range of
transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications.
Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in
volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons.
Contents
1 Principles
1.1 Ideal transformer
1.2 Real transformer
1.3 Transformer EMF equation
2 Basic transformer parameters and construction
2.1 Polarity
2.2 Effect of frequency
2.3 Energy losses
3 Construction
3.1 Cores
3.2 Windings
3.3 Cooling
3.4 Insulation drying
3.5 Bushings
4 Classification parameters
5 Types
6 Applications
7 History
7.1 Discovery of induction
7.2 Induction coils
7.3 First alternating current transformers
7.4 Early series circuit transformer distribution
7.5 Closed-core transformers and parallel power distribution
7.6 Other early transformer designs
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links
Principles
Ideal transformer equations (eq.)

By Faraday's law of induction:
V S = − N S d Φ d t {\displaystyle V_{\text{S}}=-N_{\text{S}}{\frac {\mathrm {d}

\Phi }{\mathrm {d} t}}} V_\text{S} = -N_\text{S} \frac{\mathrm{d}\Phi}{\mathrm{d}t}
. . . (1)[a]
V P = − N P d Φ d t {\displaystyle V_{\text{P}}=-N_{\text{P}}{\frac {\mathrm {d}

\Phi }{\mathrm {d} t}}} V_\text{P} = -N_\text{P} \frac{\mathrm{d}\Phi}{\mathrm{d}t}
. . . (2)
Combining ratio of (1) & (2)
Turns ratio = V P V S = − N P − N S = a {\displaystyle ={\frac {V_{\text{P}}}

{V_{\text{S}}}}={\frac {-N_{\text{P}}}{-N_{\text{S}}}}=a} {\displaystyle ={\frac
{V_{\text{P}}}{V_{\text{S}}}}={\frac {-N_{\text{P}}}{-N_{\text{S}}}}=a} . . . (3)
where
for step-down transformers, a > 1

for step-up transformers, a < 1
By law of conservation of energy, apparent, real and reactive power are each
conserved in the input and output
S = I P V P = I S V S {\displaystyle
S=I_{\text{P}}V_{\text{P}}=I_{\text{S}}V_{\text{S}}} {\displaystyle
S=I_{\text{P}}V_{\text{P}}=I_{\text{S}}V_{\text{S}}} . . . (4)
Combining (3) & (4) with this endnote[b][4] yields the ideal transformer identity
V P V S = I S I P = N P N S = L P L S = a {\displaystyle {\frac {V_{\text{P}}}

{V_{\text{S}}}}={\frac {I_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{P}}}}={\frac {N_{\text{P}}}
{N_{\text{S}}}}={\sqrt {\frac {L_{\text{P}}}{L_{\text{S}}}}}=a} \frac{V_\text{P}}
{V_\text{S}} = \frac{I_\text{S}}{I_\text{P}}=\frac{N_\text{P}}
{N_\text{S}}=\sqrt{\frac{L_\text{P}}{L_\text{S}}}=a . (5)
By Ohm's law and ideal transformer identity
Z L = V S I S {\displaystyle Z_{\text{L}}={\frac {V_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{S}}}}}

Z_\text{L}=\frac{V_\text{S}}{I_\text{S}} . . . (6)
Apparent load impedance Z'L (ZL referred to the primary)
Z L ′ = V P I P = a V S I S / a = a 2 V S I S = a 2 Z L {\displaystyle
Z'_{\text{L}}={\frac {V_{\text{P}}}{I_{\text{P}}}}={\frac {aV_{\text{S}}}
{I_{\text{S}}/a}}=a^{2}{\frac {V_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{S}}}}=a^{2}{Z_{\text{L}}}}
Z'_\text{L} = \frac{V_\text{P}}{I_\text{P}}=\frac{aV_\text{S}}
{I_\text{S}/a}=a^2\frac{V_\text{S}}{I_\text{S}}=a^2{Z_\text{L}} . (7)
Ideal transformer
Referring to the two schematic models pictured below, an ideal transformer is a

theoretical, linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled.[5] Perfect
coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding inductances
and zero net magnetomotive force.[6][c]
Ideal transformer connected with source VP on primary and load impedance ZL on
secondary, where 0 < ZL < ∞.
Ideal transformer and induction law[d]
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic

flux in the transformer core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the
secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a
varying EMF or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction.
The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of infinitely high
magnetic permeability[e] so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to the primary
winding and load impedance connected to the secondary winding, the transformer
currents flow in the indicated directions. (See also Polarity.)
According to Faraday's law, since the same magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer,[8] a voltage is induced in
each winding, according to eq. (1) in the secondary winding case, according to eq.
(2) in the primary winding case.[9] The primary EMF is sometimes termed counter
EMF.[10][11][f] This is in accordance with Lenz's law, which states that induction
of EMF always opposes development of any such change in magnetic field.
The transformer winding voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly proportional to

the winding turns ratio according to eq. (3).[12][13][g] common usage having
evolved over time from 'turn ratio' to 'turns ratio'. However, some sources use the
inverse definition.[14][h]
According to the law of conservation of energy, any load impedance connected to the
ideal transformer's secondary winding results in conservation of apparent, real and
reactive power consistent with eq. (4).
The ideal transformer identity shown in eq. (5) is a reasonable approximation for
the typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both
being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio.
By Ohm's law and the ideal transformer identity:
the secondary circuit load impedance can be expressed as eq. (6)

the apparent load impedance referred to the primary circuit is derived in eq.
(7) to be equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load
impedance.[15][16]
Real transformer
Leakage flux of a transformer
Deviations from ideal transformer
The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects in real
transformers:
(a) Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consisting of[17]
Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage applied in the

transformer core, and
Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to
the square of the transformer's applied voltage.
(b) Unlike the ideal model, the windings in a real transformer have non-zero
resistances and inductances associated with:
Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings[17]

Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding only
resulting in primary and secondary reactive impedance.
An illustration of parasitic capacitance in a transformer.
(c) similar to an inductor, parasitic capacitance and self-resonance phenomenon due

to the electric field distribution. Three kinds of parasitic capacitance are
usually considered and the closed-loop equations are provided [18]
Capacitance between adjacent turns in any one layer;

Capacitance between adjacent layers;
Capacitance between the core and the layer(s) adjacent to the core;
The transformer model with capacitance is quite complicated, and is rarely

attempted; even the ‘real’ transformer model’s equivalent circuit does not include
the parasitic capacitance. However, the capacitance can be measured by comparing
open-circuit inductance to a short-circuit inductance.[further explanation needed]
transformer capacitance test
Leakage flux
Main article: Leakage inductance
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding
links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux
traverses paths that take it outside the windings.[19] Such flux is termed leakage
flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled
transformer windings.[11] Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored
in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It
is not directly a power loss, but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing
the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage,
particularly under heavy load.[19] Transformers are therefore normally designed to
have very low leakage inductance.
In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air
gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer
design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply.[11] Leaky transformers
may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric
arcs, mercury- and sodium- vapor lamps and neon signs or for safely handling loads
that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.[20]
Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-
frequency transformers in circuits that

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Transformer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy

Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885,

Ideal transformer equations (eq.)

V S = − N S d Φ d t {\displaystyle V_{\text{S}}=-N_{\text{S}}{\frac {\mathrm {d}

V P = − N P d Φ d t {\displaystyle V_{\text{P}}=-N_{\text{P}}{\frac {\mathrm {d}

Combining ratio of (1) & (2)

Turns ratio = V P V S = − N P − N S = a {\displaystyle ={\frac {V_{\text{P}}}

for step-down transformers, a > 1

V P V S = I S I P = N P N S = L P L S = a {\displaystyle {\frac {V_{\text{P}}}

By Ohm's law and ideal transformer identity

Z L = V S I S {\displaystyle Z_{\text{L}}={\frac {V_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{S}}}}}

Apparent load impedance Z'L (ZL referred to the primary)

Referring to the two schematic models pictured below, an ideal transformer is a

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic

The transformer winding voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly proportional to

By Ohm's law and the ideal transformer identity:

the secondary circuit load impedance can be expressed as eq. (6)

Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage applied in the

Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings[17]

An illustration of parasitic capacitance in a transformer.

(c) similar to an inductor, parasitic capacitance and self-resonance phenomenon due

Capacitance between adjacent turns in any one layer;

The transformer model with capacitance is quite complicated, and is rarely

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