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 To Suzanne, who opened my eyes to the wonders of bird behaviour
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 CONTENTS
Introduction
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PART ONE: TYPES OF BIRD BEHAVIOUR

Chapter 1: Movement
• Feathers and flight
• Swimming and diving
• Walking and running
• Flocking
• Roosting and sleeping
Chapter 2: Feeding
• Food types and feeding methods
• Predators
• Specialist feeders
• Drinking
Chapter 3: Breeding
• Timing
• Territory and song
• Courtship, display and mating
• Nest-building
• Egg laying and incubation
• Parental care and fledging
• Hybridisation
• Unusual breeding behaviour
• Polygamy
Chapter 4: Migration and navigation
• Why do birds migrate?
• How do birds navigate?
• Migration strategies
• Unusual migration
Chapter 5: Distribution and range
• Habitats and their influence on behaviour
• Range
Chapter 6: Life and death
• Moult
• Bathing, preening and feather care
• Sight, hearing and smell
• Excretion
• Temperature regulation
• Birds and weather
• Disease and death
 PART TWO: FAMILIES AND SPECIES
• Ducks, Geese and Swans
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• Gamebirds
• Divers and Grebes
• Seabirds
• Herons and Egrets
• Raptors
• Rails and Crakes
• Waders
• Gulls and Terns
• Pigeons and Doves
• Owls, Cuckoo and Nightjar
• Parakeet, Kingfisher and Dipper
• Woodpeckers
• Swift, Swallow and Martins
• Larks, Pipits and Wagtails
• Thrushes and Chats
• Robin, Dunnock and Wren
• Warblers
• Flycatchers
• Tits, Nuthatch and Treecreeper
• Shrikes
• Starling
• Crows
• Sparrows and Buntings
• Finches
Glossary
Useful addresses
Further reading
Acknowledgements
 Introduction
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Snow Buntings often spend the winter on shingle beaches

Studying bird behaviour is one of the most fascinating and potentially rewarding
aspects of watching birds. But where do you start? At first, understanding what birds
are doing, and more importantly why, can be confusing – especially if you are a
newcomer to birding. Is the aspect of behaviour you are witnessing a normal part of
daily life, or something unusual? Will your presence disturb the bird and force it to
behave out of character? And how do you interpret some new or different aspect
of behaviour you have not witnessed before?
Hopefully, this book will provide some of the answers to these and many other
questions. Its purpose is threefold:

i) To provide an introduction to the various different forms and aspects of bird

behaviour, categorised by subject
ii) To indicate specific types of behaviour characteristic of certain species or family
groups
iii) To be a work of reference – use the index to look up either a particular species, or
a specific aspect of bird behaviour

The book is divided into two parts, each of which can be read independently, or you
can cross-refer between them.

Part 1 covers the various types of bird behaviour, such as flight, courtship, predation
and migration, loosely grouped under the chapter headings of Movement, Feeding,
Breeding, Migration and Navigation, Distribution and Range, and Life and Death.
This provides a quick and easy reference to specific behaviours.
 Part 2 is arranged by families, or groups of similar birds, such as seabirds. This includes
the 200 or so species that you are most likely to encounter in Britain, some common,
others scarce, with details of behaviour common to a particular species or group.
This enables you to look up particular species and get some insight into their
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behaviour, though for reasons of space this cannot possibly be comprehensive. If

you are interested in following up the behaviour of a particular species or family,
details of suitable works can be found in the Further Reading section at the back of
the book.

For much of the second half of the 20th century, thanks to major advances in field
guides and optics, birding focused mainly on two related aspects: identification and
rarities. While these are both fascinating and important, for a long period they came
to dominate birders’ minds at the expense of another vital aspect of understanding
and enjoying birds, that of studying and interpreting their various behaviours.
With the recent gradual decline of rarity-ticking (‘twitching’), and a more
enlightened attitude towards the pastime of birding as a way of getting back in
touch with nature, the study of bird behaviour is due a renaissance. This book is a
small contribution towards encouraging all birders to take a closer interest in what to
me personally is by far the most fascinating aspect of watching birds: their
behaviour.
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Blackbirds sing on spring evenings from the roofs of houses

 Code of Conduct
When watching birds, the welfare of the bird must always come first. Deliberately
flushing a bird in order to identify it, getting too close in order to get a good view or
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a photograph, or disturbing a nesting bird are all unacceptable. Indeed causing

disturbance to a Schedule 1 breeding bird at or near the nest is not just wrong but
illegal. (For details of birds on Schedule 1 visit the RSPB website.)

A pair of Fulmars during their elaborate courtship display

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Like many hole-nesting birds, Blue Tits readily take to using nestboxes
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Redwings often visit gardens during hard winter weather, to feed on windfall apples
 PART ONE:
TYPES OF BIRD BEHAVIOUR
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The first half of this book deals with the different types of bird
behaviour. For the sake of convenience, these are divided into six
chapters, each of which deals with a range of related aspects of
behaviour:

1 MOVEMENT
• Feathers and flight
• Swimming and diving
• Walking and running
• Flocking
• Roosting and sleeping

2 FEEDING
• Food types and feeding methods
• Predators
• Specialist feeders
• Drinking

3 BREEDING
• Timing
• Territory and song
• Courtship, display and mating
• Nest-building
• Egg laying and incubation
• Parental care and fledging
• Hybridisation
• Unusual breeding behaviour
• Polygamy

4 MIGRATION AND NAVIGATION

• Why do birds migrate?
• How do birds navigate?
• Migration strategies
• Unusual migration
 5 DISTRIBUTION AND RANGE
• Habitats and their influence on behaviour
• Range
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6 LIFE AND DEATH

• Moult
• Bathing, preening and feather care
• Sight, hearing and smell
• Excretion
• Temperature regulation
• Birds and weather
• Disease and death

To find information about particular species you may also want to refer
to the second half of the book, which deals with behaviour on a family-
by-family basis.
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 Chapter 1
Movement
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Feathers and flight

One of the characteristics of birds that separates them from most other animals
(apart, of course, from bats and many insects) is their ability to fly. They are able to
do so because of their unique body structure: a light, hollow skeleton supporting
feathers, enabling them to get and stay airborne. That said, different groups of birds
have evolved many different ways to fly, including soaring, gliding and flapping with
the help of the wind, and using air currents such as thermals.
Birds are able to fly because over many millions of years their bodies have
undergone particular adaptations: most importantly the evolution of feathers. These
light, versatile structures, probably evolved from reptilian scales, were present in
some dinosaurs and today are unique to birds. The flight feathers in the bird’s wings
and tail are stiff and long, enabling birds to gain and maintain lift and manoeuvre
themselves through the complexities of air currents once aloft. In addition, a bird’s
skeleton is also highly adapted to flight, with strong but hollow bones carrying the
minimum of extra weight, meaning that birds are by far the lightest animals for their
body size. A Mute Swan, for example – one of the world’s heaviest flying birds –
weighs a mere 10–15kg compared with well over 100kg for a similar-sized mammal.

A Great Shearwater lives up to its name, gliding low over the waves

The classic flight mechanism is flapping: moving the wings up and down to gain lift.
It is generally used for short, direct flights – for example, a songbird moving from tree
 to tree – as it consumes a lot of energy. Once aloft, or when travelling for any
distance, most birds prefer to use less energy-expensive methods of moving through
the air, including gliding and soaring. Seabirds such as albatrosses and shearwaters
are the world’s greatest gliders, taking advantage of updraughts from the ocean
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surface to maintain their position just above the waves, where they can move
forward using minimal energy, and hardly flapping their wings for many hours on end.
Raptors such as hawks, buzzards and eagles also use gliding flight, during which
they put their wings in a position which reduces surface area and allows rapid
forward movement while maintaining lift.

Raptors such as these Common Buzzards use various flying techniques, including flapping, soaring and hovering

Raptors also spend much of the time soaring, a flight style particularly common
amongst large, heavy birds, which otherwise would struggle to stay airborne for any
length of time. When soaring, a bird like a Common Buzzard will spread its wings as
wide as possible, maximising their surface area, then take advantage of thermal
currents of rising warm air to gain height. Once aloft, it can circle around for some
 time, again using the minimum of energy. Soaring is generally used to maintain
altitude rather than move any distance.
To see the difference, watch a Sparrowhawk as it soars overhead on broad,
outstretched wings; then see how it changes its wing angle, narrows the wings, and
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glides rapidly across the sky, appearing quite different in shape from before.
Scientists have compared flight with other mechanisms of locomotion such as
walking or swimming, and revealed that it is extraordinarily efficient in comparison.
For example, Usain Bolt – the fastest sprinter on the planet – covers the ground at
about five body-lengths per second, while the world’s fastest land animal, the
Cheetah, can manage 18 body-lengths per second. But a flying bird can reach up to
70 or even 80 body-lengths per second, comparable with a jet aircraft. This not only
allows birds to get to their destination quickly, it also enables them to cover vast
distances, especially on migration, when even a small bird such as a Swallow needs
to travel thousands of kilometres.

Sparrowhawks have a characteristic flight style, alternating a series of flaps with a short glide

Swimming and diving

Of course, not all birds spend the majority of time in the air. Many waterbirds live
most of their lives in an aquatic habitat, and have adapted their physiology and
behaviour accordingly. At its simplest, this involves adapting flight techniques when
swimming underwater – watch film of auks or penguins underwater and you will see
what I mean. Their wings, which look pretty useless above the surface, are
transformed into efficient propellers, enabling them to cover distance and
manoeuvre themselves in a very different, and much denser, medium than the air.
Other birds stay mainly on the surface, or divide their time between land and
 water. Wildfowl such as ducks, geese and swans have adapted to a life spent on
water by evolving a number of features, such as fully webbed feet, and oil glands
with which they waterproof their feathers on a regular basis to keep them sleek and
in good condition. Other waterbirds have different adaptations to their aquatic
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lifestyle: grebes and Coots have only partly webbed feet, while Cormorants do not
have waterproof feathers, so have to stand for long periods drying their wings in their
characteristic outstretched pose. However, the lack of waterproofing is an
advantage when they dive in shallow water, as they are less buoyant than ducks, so
are able to fish in shallow waters without being pushed upwards to the surface.
Waterbirds from unrelated groups often show very similar features and superficial
appearance, so Coots and Moorhens look more like ducks than like other members
of their family, the rails and crakes. This is due to a process called convergent
evolution, in which external factors dictate the morphology of a bird or other
organism, leading it to superficially resemble unrelated species that share the same
habitat and lifestyle.

Gannets feed by plunge-diving straight down into the water at high speed

Diving is another behaviour shown by different, unrelated groups of birds, including

divers, grebes, many kinds of ducks, and seabirds such as auks. Again, these species
share similar features: a long, streamlined body, webbed or partially webbed feet for
underwater propulsion, and legs situated well back on their body, meaning that for
most of these birds, getting about on land proves very difficult indeed.
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Auks like this Razorbill appear clumsy in the air, but their short wings are excellent for swimming underwater

Walking and running

For many landbirds, the best way to travel short distances without using too much
precious energy is also the simplest: to walk, hop or run. This is especially true of
ground-feeding birds, such as finches, sparrows and thrushes. Different groups use
different methods: so tree-dwelling birds such as finches tend to hop when on the
ground, while larks and pipits, which spend much more of their time on the ground
itself, will walk or run.
Other groups, such as gamebirds, rails and crakes, spend the vast majority of time
on the ground, and are well adapted to running and walking, often hiding in dense
cover and only using flight as a last resort. One North American gamebird, the
Mountain Quail, even migrates on foot, travelling several thousand metres down the
mountain to the valleys in autumn, and back again the following spring.
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Red-legged Partridges spend much of their lives on the ground, walking and running

Flocking
Birds are, by and large, sociable creatures, and many different species gather in
flocks, either occasionally or on a regular basis. Flocks occur for various reasons: for
example, to maximise chances of finding food, to keep warm, or to avoid predators.
It is important to understand that in all these cases the urge to flock must come from
each individual, and the advantages of joining a flock must outweigh the
disadvantages (such as increased competition) for that individual, rather than the
group as a whole.
Flocking also occurs as a by-product of the concentration of food supplies. For
example, a rubbish tip will attract the local gulls, which will fiercely compete for the
available food.
Flocking is much more widespread outside the breeding season, for the simple
reason that during the nesting period most birds are in pair bonds with one or more
members of the opposite sex, and duties such as incubation and feeding the young
preclude joining others in flocks. Once breeding is over, songbirds often gather in
small family parties or loose flocks of a dozen or more, but while food is plentiful and
there is plenty of cover to avoid predators, there is no pressing need to form larger
groups.
Once winter arrives, however, factors such as the reduced amount of daylight in
which to find food motivate individuals to seek out others. So from late autumn you
often see flocks of tits travelling through woods in search of food, and keeping
together by uttering brief contact calls. Flocks like this have been shown to be more
efficient in finding food and avoiding predation, thus making it a benefit for each
 individual bird to join. Seed-eaters such as finches, sparrows and buntings do the
same.
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Many species of songbird, such as these Starlings, roost together for safety and warmth

Starlings also gather in spectacular pre-roost displays at dusk on winter evenings

Waders and wildfowl also form large flocks outside the breeding season. In most
cases this is because their food is very plentiful in specific areas such as mudflats or
estuaries, but not found elsewhere. Flocking has the added advantage of making
each bird less vulnerable to predators such as birds of prey, which may be confused
 by the swirling mass of birds, and unable to focus on a particular individual. It only
takes one bird to spot a hunting Peregrine, and give an alarm call, and the whole
flock can take to the air, wheeling from side to side in an effort to confuse the
attacker.
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A few species only form large flocks occasionally, such as a feeding frenzy of gulls
behind a trawler, or a gathering of Magpies in an area with a high population of the
species. Again, to do so must confer an advantage, however small, on each
individual – otherwise they will disperse and search for food on their own.
The avian habit of forming flocks can be a great help to birdwatchers, especially in
woodland or farmland habitats. At first, it can sometimes seem as if there are no
birds present at all. But watch for movement, and listen for the contact calls made
by members of a flock, and sooner or later you’ll come across the flock itself.
To observe flocking at its most spectacular, you will need to visit certain specific
habitats, such as estuaries, traditionally managed farmland, or a specific site for a
goose or Starling roost. Make sure you check details such as tide tables or the time
the sun sets, as these can be critical: arrive too early and the birds will still be out
feeding in the marshes or fields; arrive too late and you will have missed the
spectacle.

Roosting and sleeping

Flocking is often the prelude to roosting: either for the night, as in most groups such
as gulls, crows and Starlings; or because the high tide has temporarily covered up
the birds’ food supply, as in the case of waders. Roosting confers many of the same
advantages as flocking: notably warmth during cold nights, and safety in numbers
against predators.
The majority of the world’s birds follow a typical circadian cycle, linked to the 24-
hour rhythm of the day. Thus as evening approaches, diurnal species like the Starling
leave their feeding areas and gather together at a single roosting place, where they
will spend the hours of darkness. Starling roosts have been known to contain several
million birds, making them an awe-inspiring sight, especially as they wheel about the
sky in vast flocks just before and after sunset. Whether or not this behaviour has any
hidden purpose, such as communicating the whereabouts of food resources, is not
clear.
Communal roosting like this takes place for several reasons. The first of these is
safety: by joining together with others, an individual bird has a far greater chance of
avoiding predators. A second, particularly during the winter months, is warmth – by
huddling together, birds are better able to conserve valuable body heat.
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Jackdaws and Rooks often gather in winter evenings at large, noisy roosts
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Pied Wagtails gather in winter roosts in towns to keep warm and avoid predators

Birds that do not usually form flocks during daylight hours often roost together: for
 example, Pied Wagtails, which tend to feed singly or in pairs during the day, come
together in roosts of 50 or more birds at night. Wrens, normally pugnacious and
solitary birds, will also gather together, especially during very cold winter weather,
when several dozen birds have been found huddling together in a single nestbox!
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A characteristic prelude to roosting is a flight line, in which hundreds or even tens

of thousands of individuals can be watched as they make their way from their
daytime feeding areas to their roosting site. This is especially prevalent amongst gulls,
which can be seen following strictly defined routes each morning and evening as
they travel between roosting and feeding areas, sometimes a distance of many
miles. Other birds that regularly follow flight lines include crows and thrushes.
Not all birds roost communally in large groups. Many songbirds choose to spend
the night either on their own or in a loose flock, though the same factors of safety,
security and warmth are just as important. A small number of birds, such as owls and
nightjars, are predominately nocturnal, and so roost by day. Owls tend to roost
singly, and can sometimes be hard to locate. However, they are creatures of habit,
and will often occupy the same roosting place from day to day and even year to
year, providing they are not disturbed, making them relatively easy to find once you
know a regular site.
Once at a roost, birds often seem so noisy that you wonder how they can ever get
any sleep. This may be because the human notion of eight hours of uninterrupted,
deep sleep is quite different from the experience of most birds. Even when safely
together in a roost, birds always need to be wary of potential predators, so they
tend to ‘cat-nap’, often tucking their head under their wing, and sleeping while
standing up. Some birds, notably Swifts, appear to be able to sleep on the wing, but
due to the difficulty of actually observing this phenomenon it has not been shown
how they do so.
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Long-eared Owls are one of our most elusive resident species, but can sometimes be found at their daytime roost

Not all birds sleep at night. Those dependent on the state of the tides for their
feeding, especially waders such as sandpipers and plovers, must attune their bodily
rhythms to tidal rather than diurnal cycles, and can often be seen fast asleep during
broad daylight. Conversely they, and other species such as ducks, often feed by
 night, especially if there is a full moon to enable them to find their prey more easily.
Many coastal species of waders, such as the Dunlin, Oystercatcher and Knot, are
only able to feed when the tide is out, exposing the food-rich mudflats of estuaries
and saltmarshes. So as high tide approaches, they need to find a suitable place to
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roost. Being in the right place at the right time when thousands of waders come to
roost can be an unforgettable experience. Two or three hours before high tide, as
water starts to cover their feeding areas, they begin to form large flocks. This is often
the best time to observe them, as they wheel around the sky or move from place to
place.
Then, as the tide finally reaches its height, they gather together in vast numbers,
either occupying the few small areas of mud left uncovered by the sea, or roosting
on nearby non-tidal areas such as gravel pits. Once settled, they rest and sleep for
several hours, before the waters recede and they are able to feed once again.

Many waders such as Dunlin sleep during the day when high tides mean they are unable to feed
 Chapter 2
Feeding
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Food types and feeding methods

One of the ways in which birds have adapted particularly widely is in their feeding
methods. Between them, the world’s birds eat almost anything: from shellfish to
seeds, berries to bees, and nuts to nectar. Some even eat other birds! So it is hardly
surprising that the various species and families have adapted to feed in many
different ways, and in doing so have developed an extraordinary range of differently
shaped bills.
Even within a single group, such as the songbirds, there is a vast array of different
feeding methods. Seed-eaters such as finches, sparrows and buntings may prise
their food from the heads of fruiting plants, or simply pick up seeds from the ground.
Some, like the House Sparrow, have all-purpose bills designed to enable them to
take a wide variety of different seeds; while others, like the Goldfinch, have highly
specialised long, slim bills which have evolved to obtain seeds from plants such as the
teasel, which other finches find it impossible to get to. The most specialised seed-
eaters of all, crossbills, have evolved an extraordinary and unique bill in which the
tips of the mandibles cross over, enabling them to prise open pine cones and obtain
the seeds.
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Goldfinches have a needle-sharp bill, perfect for prising the seeds out of teasels

Insect-eaters, too, have evolved a wide range of feeding methods. Many warblers
obtain their food by gleaning: working their way around the leaves, twigs and
branches of a tree, picking up tiny insects as they go. Goldcrests have developed
this into a method known as ‘hover-gleaning’, in which they flutter like a
hummingbird while seizing tiny morsels from the tips of leaves.
Flycatchers, as their name suggests, launch themselves into mid-air, grab a flying
insect, then return to their perch to devour it. Bee-eaters do the same, knocking the
bee to stun or kill it and remove the sting before consuming it whole. Meanwhile
flying hunters such as Swallows, martins and Swifts have broad, wide mouths which
enable them to engulf flying insects in mid-air.
Other songbirds are omnivorous, and have more generalised bill shapes and
feeding methods. Tits can take seeds and insects, and mainly feed their young on
caterpillars. Members of the crow family such as the Jay and Magpie will eat a very
wide variety of foods, and have all-purpose bills to do so. Thrushes also take a variety
of food, but have fairly long bills enabling them to catch earthworms, while they are
also able to eat berries in winter. The ability to vary diet from season to season is a
crucial factor in survival, especially for those birds that, although insect-eaters in
spring and summer, stay put in northern latitudes for the winter. A good example is
the Blackcap, which in winter will change its insectivorous diet to one of seeds and
berries, enabling it to overwinter in Britain.
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Spotted Flycatchers launch themselves from a favourite perch to catch flying insects
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Blackbirds love to feast on juicy berries, which provide plenty of energy

Many of these more versatile species have adapted very readily to food provided
in artificial feeders by us. Once, this habit was confined to tits and sparrows on
hanging feeders, and Starlings, Robins and a few other species on bird tables. But a
revolution in the design of bird feeders and the quality and variety of food has
enabled many more species to feed in this way. Today it is a common sight to see
quite specialised feeders such as woodpeckers on bird feeders.
Wildfowl, too, show a range of different feeding methods. Many species of swans,
geese, and ducks such as Wigeon regularly graze on grass or other crops such as
sugar beet (often to the annoyance of farmers). Others, especially the so-called
‘dabbling ducks’ such as Mallard, Teal and Pintail, dabble for morsels of food on the
surface of water, while the Shoveler has a feeding method all its own. Swans dip
their long necks below the water surface, while ‘diving ducks’ such as Tufted Duck
 and Pochard dive down beneath the surface to find their food.
More than any other group of birds, waders show great adaptability when it
comes to feeding methods, as shown by their great variety of bill sizes and shapes.
Many, including common species such as Sanderling and Redshank, have fairly
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straight, longish bills, to probe beneath the mud or pick items off the surface. Others,
including the Curlew and Avocet, have longer, curved bills, used to probe for
lugworms in the case of the Curlew or sift the water for tiny invertebrates in Avocets.
Watching a variety of waders feeding is an object lesson in how evolution produces
different body shapes from the same basic design.
Seabirds have also evolved a wide variety of ways to obtain food. Some, like the
Gannet and many species of terns, fly over the water, then plunge down to obtain
food. Others, such as auks, swim on the surface, and then dive down, sometimes
hundreds of metres below. Gulls are generalists, either grabbing morsels from the
surface or leaving the sea altogether to feed in fields or even rubbish dumps, where
they feast on our household food waste.

Unlike most ducks, Wigeon often graze on grassy wet meadows

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Knots have an ‘all-purpose’ bill which they use to feed in mud or shallow water

Teal are dabbling ducks, feeding from the surface of the water
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Oystercatchers, despite their name, feed mainly on other marine molluscs such as mussels

Predators
In a sense, any bird that feeds on any other living creature is a predator. However, in
general we reserve the term ‘birds of prey’ for two unrelated but superficially similar
groups: day-flying raptors and owls.
The first of these groups includes a wide range of different species with an equally
wide range of hunting and feeding methods: eagles, hawks, Common Buzzard,
harriers and Red Kite, falcons (which although superficially similar to hawks are
actually in a quite different taxonomic order), and the fish-eating Osprey. They all
share the characteristic traits of fierce talons to catch and grip their prey, and a
sharp, hooked beak to tear it apart for feeding. However, they hunt and catch their
victims in a wide range of different ways.
One of our commonest and best-known birds of prey, the Kestrel, often hunts by
hovering motionless over a grassy verge, then plunging down to catch an
unsuspecting vole. In contrast, the Hobby grabs insects such as dragonflies, or even
small birds like martins, in mid-air, while the Peregrine hunts by ‘stooping’ from a
great height down onto its prey.
Sparrowhawks use their short wings and long tail to manoeuvre their way through
dense woodland or garden foliage, ambushing their target; while larger raptors such
as eagles and buzzards fly much higher above their territory, searching for food. The
Osprey hunts in a unique way for a raptor: plunging feet first into a lake to grab large
fish in its talons.
Owls are mainly nocturnal, and tend to hunt by watching and waiting from a tree
 or post (Tawny and Little Owls), or gliding low over open ground (Barn Owl).
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One folk-name for the Kestrel is ‘windhover’, from its habit of hovering in mid-air to hunt its prey
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Little Owls feed on a range of prey including small mammals, beetles and earthworms

Specialist feeders
A few species have evolved highly specialised feeding methods: either to exploit a
particular kind of prey (for example Bee-eaters and bees), or to gain access to a
food resource that would otherwise be denied to them. So Kingfishers sit on perches
above streams and ponds, then plunge below the surface to grab small fish,
behaviour not shared with any other British bird.
 Sometimes a bird may adopt feeding methods quite different from its relatives. For
example, another aquatic bird, the Dipper, is related to the thrushes, yet it has
evolved to exploit a very different environment from their terrestrial one. Dippers live
on fast-flowing streams and rivers, and perch on rocks before plunging right beneath
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the surface of the water to search for small aquatic invertebrates.

Perhaps the most bizarre, yet highly effective, feeding method of all is known as
kleptoparasitism, or, as it is often called, piratical behaviour. It is commonly practised
by skuas, some species of gulls and sometimes birds of prey, and involves one or
more birds chasing an unfortunate victim (usually of another species such as a small
gull or tern), and forcing it to either drop, or in some cases regurgitate, its food,
which the chasing bird then seizes and swallows.

Kingfishers are the ultimate river hunter: plunging into the flowing waters to grab an unsuspecting fish

This behaviour is often observed in seabird colonies, where species such as the
Arctic Skua (or ‘Parasitic Jaeger’ as it is known in North America) make the lives of
terns very difficult indeed. A similar opportunistic form of piracy is practised by many
species of the crow family, especially Magpies, which will take the opportunity to
seize food from other birds, or even from mammals such as Foxes, if they get the
chance.
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Great Skuas – also known as ‘bonxies’ – are kleptoparasites, chasing other seabirds to steal their food

Drinking
It is easily forgotten that as well as feeding, birds also have to drink. In fact some
species, especially insect-eaters, obtain much of the moisture they require from their
food, and may only have to drink every one or two days. However, seed-eaters such
as finches and sparrows have to compensate for the lack of moisture in their food
by drinking at regular intervals. They do so either by visiting streams, ponds or
puddles, or by coming to artificial sources of water such as garden ponds and
birdbaths.
Birds are unable to swallow in the way we can, so need to drink in particular ways.
These include sipping a drop of water into the bill, then tilting their head back to
allow the liquid to pass down their throat; others do a form of sucking which involves
vibrating the tongue to pump water back into the gullet. Drinking birds are very
vulnerable to attack by a predator, so they are often extremely wary, taking only a
sip or two before looking round to make sure they are still safe.
A few species, notably Swallows, drink on the wing, swooping down to the water
and skimming the surface as they go. This has the added advantage of reducing the
risk of being caught by a predator.
Seabirds, especially ocean-going species such as shearwaters and petrels, have
another problem: how to obtain water while at sea. They have evolved a way to
drink seawater safely, using salt glands to remove the excess salt. This enables them
to stay away from land for many weeks or even months on end.
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Willow Warblers, like other small birds, need to drink and bathe regularly
 Chapter 3
Breeding
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Timing
In spring, the thoughts of young men turn to love, along with the rest of the animal
kingdom – and birds are no exception. During a brief few months at the start of the
year, they must make hay while the sun shines: or to put it more specifically, they
must breed.
This is a complicated business which in general goes like this: the male bird must
stake out a territory, fight off rival males, and find a partner (or partners). The pair
then engage in complex courtship rituals, build a nest, and mate; the female then
lays her eggs and incubates them (sometimes with the male’s help). Once they
hatch the real work begins, as the young constantly demand to be fed. Finally, the
young fledge and leave the nest, though even then they may require parental care.
No wonder birds look tatty and exhausted by the time midsummer comes!

Mute Swans are usually faithful to their partners for life

Not all birds breed at the same time of year, by any means. Resident birds such as
the Blue Tit and Blackbird habitually breed a month or more earlier than migrants like
the Willow Warbler or House Martin, though this is not always the case. Some
migrants, such as the Chiffchaff, arrive back in March and get down to breeding
 straight away, while residents like the Yellowhammer may not start until June.
Crossbills may lay eggs in January, while the first brood of Mallard ducklings often
appears well before Easter. On the other hand some species, especially pigeons and
doves, appear to breed virtually all year round!
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Some species may have several broods a year (like the Blackbird, which can have
up to five, and may be nesting virtually continuously from March to August!). Others
may have failed to breed at their first attempt, and try again much later – I once
saw a brood of Great Crested Grebe chicks hatch in mid-September, and still survive
the winter unscathed.
In recent years timing of the start of the breeding season has changed. Climate
change means that the start of spring comes a week or more earlier to many parts
of Britain, and the birds have reacted accordingly, laying eggs up to two weeks
earlier than 30 years ago. Indeed, the discovery of this phenomenon, using data
collected by generations of amateur birders, was one of the first pieces of empirical
evidence that global climate change was real rather than hypothetical.
With the recent onset of mild winters, some common species may even be
tempted to begin nest-building before Christmas, though a cold spell will soon put a
stop to this.
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This fledgling Blackbird has just left the nest, and is still dependent on its parents for food

Territory and song

A spell of mild weather in February, and our woods and gardens are suddenly filled
with the sounds of spring. Song Thrushes sing their repetitive tune from the tops of
roofs; Great Tits bounce around the blossoming bushes, calling ‘tea-cher, tea-cher’;
and deep in the undergrowth, tiny Wrens explode in a frenzy of song.
Even the arrival of late-winter snow and ice may only bring a temporary halt to the
chorus. Whatever appearances suggest, spring is here, at least for the birds. But to
paraphrase the 1950s pop song, why do birds sing in the first place?
Broadly speaking, birdsong has two main functions: to defend a territory and
attract a mate. Male birds generally arrive back on their breeding grounds earlier
than their mates, and spend the first few days moving around their new territory,
establishing the boundaries and advertising their presence to all-comers – especially
rival males of the same species.
Some species, notably the Robin, also sing during the autumn and winter, as unlike
 most songbirds they also hold winter territories. On a cold, dull day theirs may be the
only sound to be heard, but on a bright, sunny day in February all kinds of other
singers join the chorus, in anticipation of the breeding season to come.
Birdsong has a second, equally important function: to attract a mate. As the
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females leave their winter quarters and return to their breeding habitats, males are in
desperate competition, for those that fail to breed run the risk of dying before they
can pass on their genes. This is especially true for many songbirds, whose life
expectancy is only a year or so.

Robins sing virtually the whole year round, as they hold territories in autumn and winter as well as spring and summer

One noticeable thing about birdsong is that in general, the best singers have the
dullest plumages. The Robin is a notable exception, but how about the Blackbird,
Nightingale and Marsh Warbler? The explanation is obvious when you think about it:
birds with brightly coloured plumages don’t need to sing a complex song to attract
a mate; those that are dull brown or black do! And of course the opposite applies:
birds with bright plumages such as the Bee-eater or Kingfisher have no need for a
complex, melodious song.
Along with food and habitat, birdsong is one of the most important factors in the
ecological isolation of different species. This was first discovered by the great 18th-
century naturalist Gilbert White, who managed to distinguish between the three
species of ‘willow-wrens’ (Chiffchaff, Willow Warbler and Wood Warbler) by listening
to their distinctive songs.
 Courtship, display and mating
Once a singing male has attracted a mate, the serious business of courtship and
pairing gets underway. After feeding, courtship is probably the most important
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aspect of bird behaviour. It takes all kinds of forms, and far from being confined to
what we think of as spring, can begin as early as January.
Many species pair up during the winter when they are in flocks, while others, such
as the Mute Swan, form lifelong pair bonds, which usually only end when one of the
partners dies. Other species, such as the Osprey, form an attachment to a nest; and
as a result often breed with the same partner from the year before.
Great Crested Grebes have one of the most spectacular of all courtship displays.
The two birds face each other in the water like a pair of teenage lovers, rubbing
their bills together and shaking their heads in a ritualised pantomime to cement the
pair bond.
If you’re really lucky, you may even see them go on to perform the memorable
‘Penguin Dance’, during which both birds gather water weed in their bills, then
appear to stand up in the water, frantically paddling with their legs while waving the
weed in each other’s faces. Whatever turns them on, I suppose...
One of the easiest courtship rituals to observe is that of the Feral Pigeon. The male
puffs himself up like a prizefighter, then performs a little dance around the female,
who generally looks singularly unimpressed by all the fuss. There may then be a
quieter period during which the male feeds the female, or they preen one another.
Only then, once the pair bond is fully formed, will the male will attempt to copulate
with the female, though as often as not she will foil his advances.
A stunningly beautiful bird, the Avocet, performs another wonderful display. The
male approaches the female tentatively, dipping his decurved bill into the water as
if attempting to feed. Then, when he judges that she is receptive to his advances, he
leaps onto her back, mates in a second or two, and jumps off. This is followed by an
extraordinary little ritual, in which he runs forward away from her pecking at the
water, while she carries on feeding.
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Feral Pigeons, like other species of pigeon and dove, have complex courtship displays
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 Avocets pair up in spring, bowing to one another to cement the pair bond
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Great Crested Grebes have one of the most complex courtship displays of any British bird, known as the ‘penguin
dance’

All this palaver has a serious purpose, of course. The male who can most impress
the female is the one who will get the chance to mate and reproduce. And the
female is under pressure too. She must choose the healthiest-looking male, to
increase her chances of producing a long line of descendants. Courtship rituals may
look like a bit of fun, but to the birds themselves, they truly are a matter of life or
death.

Nest-building
Once the courtship ritual is over, and the pair bond is strong, nest-building usually
begins. To say ‘building’ is actually not always accurate, as many species simply
deposit their egg or eggs on a suitable level surface. This is especially true of colonial
species such as seabirds: a Guillemot lays its egg in a depression on a cliff shelf; the
egg itself is pear-shaped, so if accidentally nudged it rolls in a very tight circle and
does not fall off. Other birds such as Stock Doves, most tits and Starlings lay their
eggs inside a hole in a tree, requiring the minimum amount of ‘building’ effort.
But for most birds a nest is required in order to keep the eggs safe and allow them
to be incubated. Nests come in a whole range of shapes and sizes, and also vary in
the amount of care and attention taken to make them.
The ‘classic’ songbird nest is that made by species such as the Blackbird or Song
Thrush: a neat cup of woven grass or small twigs lined with mud. Larger birds, such as
 the Wood Pigeon, make a much tattier-looking nest from twigs, which often looks so
flimsy you can see the eggs through it from beneath! One of the most ornate and
complex structures is that built by the Long-tailed Tit: a ball of hair, moss and
feathers (up to 2,000 in a single nest), held together by lichen. It is this amazing nest
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that gave the species the old country name of ‘bumbarrel’.

Puffins nest in old rabbit burrows, where their single egg and chick can be safe from predators

Other small birds, such as warblers, often nest on the ground, or build their nest in
the fork of a tree. Goldcrests hang their tiny nest and its precious contents on the
end of a twig, the structure being so light it manages to stay put.
Waterbirds such as Coots and grebes build floating nests out of aquatic
vegetation; in the case of the Great Crested Grebe, once the eggs are laid the
adults use vegetation to cover them up when they leave the nest to search for food.
The largest nest of any British bird belongs to the Golden Eagle: a bulky structure
of twigs up to 3 metres across and 5 metres deep. One of the smallest is that made
by the Wren, but there is a catch: the male must make several nests before the fussy
female is satisfied and chooses the best one in which to lay her eggs.
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Grey Herons are one of the earliest birds to begin breeding, in noisy colonies known as heronries
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The Long-tailed Tit builds one of the most complex of all bird nests, made from feathers, lichen and spider’s webs

Egg laying and incubation

Once the nest is built, the female can lay her eggs: anything from one (most
seabirds), three to five (many waders) or four to 12 (songbirds and wildfowl) to 20 or
more (gamebirds such as the Pheasant). These are generally laid one per day, with
incubation usually beginning the day after the final egg is laid and the clutch is
complete.
This is a risky time for the birds, as there are many predators for whom a clutch of
eggs makes a tasty meal, such as Jays, Magpies and squirrels. The weather can play
a part too, especially a cold snap, or heavy rain, which can cool the eggs and kill
the embryos inside. So incubation is a full-time job for most birds: it is either carried
out by the female alone (as in many lekking species such as the Ruff, Capercaillie
and Black Grouse), the female with the help of the male bringing food (most
 songbirds), or by both sexes (most seabirds). In two rare British breeding species,
the Dotterel and the Red-necked Phalarope, the roles are completely reversed, and
it is the male who incubates the eggs while the female goes off on her own (see p.
44).
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The period of incubation varies greatly: from just 11 days for the Lesser Whitethroat
and Skylark, to an astonishing 54 days in the case of the Manx Shearwater, and even
longer for some Fulmars. For most songbirds the usual incubation period is around
two weeks; ducks, waders and gamebirds about three to four weeks; birds of prey,
four to seven weeks; while seabirds have the longest incubation periods, of between
four and almost eight weeks. This may be because the young need to be born with
fat deposits so that they can go several days without food when their parents are
away at sea.

Carrion Crows are famous for stealing eggs from other birds’ nests
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Like many seabirds, Fulmars only lay a single egg, which they incubate for up to eight weeks

The timing of incubation is usually fixed so that the young hatch out within a few
hours of one another, meaning their fledging date will also be approximately the
same. Exceptions include the larger birds of prey such as eagles, which lay two eggs
but incubate the first one immediately, so that it hatches a day or two before the
second.

Parental care and fledging

Once the young have hatched, the hard work really begins. Young birds can be
divided into two very distinct groups: those that are born blind and remain in the nest
for several weeks, requiring constant care and feeding from their parents; and those
that leave the nest straight away, able to walk and in some cases also swim, and find
food for themselves or with the help of their parents. The first group, which includes
all the passerine birds (or songbirds) are known as altricial, or nidicolous, species;
while the second group, which includes wildfowl, waders and gamebirds, are known
as precocial (or nidifugous) species. Some groups of birds, such as gulls and terns,
are known as semi-precocial, as they are born able to see and with a downy coat,
but stay in or very near the nest and are fed by their parents for some days after
hatching. When the chicks hatch it is crucial that they know who their parents are,
so they can follow them as they search for food. So the chick ‘imprints’ on the first
 living creature it sees – usually its mother or father.
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These Swallows are about to leave the nest, which looks as if it will soon be too small to accommodate them

Interestingly, all these strategies work very well; indeed, for them to be adopted by
such a wide range of different species they must be advantageous in an
evolutionary sense. For songbirds, which tend to hide their nest away in foliage or
holes in trees, the altricial strategy means that their young are kept safe from
predators, while they collect food in the immediate area of the nest. For aquatic
birds such as ducks, and other precocial species such as gamebirds, all of which
nest on the ground or on water, the strategy is equally sensible, enabling the young
to range far and wide in search of food while avoiding predators by swimming,
running or hiding.
Fledging is a term that technically only applies to altricial birds, and refers to the
period when the baby birds have acquired their first feathers (juvenile plumage), and
are able to leave the nest and fly. Even at this time most baby songbirds are highly
dependent on their parents for food and safety, and despite the adults’ best
attentions this is the time when the death rate is the highest.
Fledging is also, however, used to describe a similar process in precocial species:
this time not the point at which they leave the nest (which is immediately or a few
hours after hatching), but the point at which they lose their downy plumage, acquire
their first proper feathers and are able to fly.
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Arctic Terns often attack visitors who venture too close to their nests, eggs and chicks

Like incubation periods, the time taken to fledge varies enormously from species to
species and group to group. Most young songbirds fledge roughly two to three
weeks after hatching, though this period can range from just 11 days for the Lesser
Whitethroat and 12 days for the Dunnock, to 24 days for the Swallow. Crows stay in
the nest even longer, with young Jackdaws and Carrion Crows taking up to five
weeks to leave.
 For larger birds the fledging period can be much longer. Once again, seabirds
hold the record, with young Manx Shearwaters taking up to ten and a half weeks.
The young ultimately must leave the burrow or starve, as the parents stop feeding it
a few days before it reaches fledging age.
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Hybridisation
One of the most puzzling things facing a relatively inexperienced birder is coming
across a bird which, although it doesn’t match any species in the field guide,
appears to have some of the characteristics of two other species. Sometimes these
are birds with plumage aberrations, such as leucistic or melanistic birds. But in other
cases they may be hybrids.
The extent of hybridisation varies dramatically between different species and
groups. In some families, including many songbirds, it is virtually unknown; while in
others, notably wildfowl, it is very common indeed. For example, there are many
recorded instances of hybrid ducks and geese, some of which have caused
confusion amongst even very experienced birders, as they tend to resemble a third
species rather than either of their parents (as in Tufted Duck x Pochard hybrids
which look like a rare American vagrant, the Lesser Scaup). Geese are particularly
prone to hybridisation, both between two wild species, and one wild and one
domestic bird. Birds of prey rarely hybridise in the wild, but misguided falconers often
artificially pair species, including such bizarre couplings as a Merlin x Peregrine.
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Ruddy Ducks are now being eradicated from Britain as this non-native species was causing problems by hybridising
with a rare European relative, the White-headed Duck

Hybridisation may appear to be a futile gesture, as the offspring tend to be

infertile (indeed, the definition of a ‘proper’ species used to be that if it hybridises
with a close relative the young are not fertile). However, in a few cases the two
parent species share enough genes to result in a stable hybrid population being
formed, which may ultimately evolve into a new race or species.
Perhaps the best-known recent case of large-scale hybridisation is between the
North American Ruddy Duck and the rare White-headed Duck in southern Spain.
Escapee Ruddy Ducks from exotic wildfowl collections in Britain prospered in the wild
and spread southwards across Europe, potentially threatening the entire south-west
European population of the White-headed Duck through hybridisation. As a result,
the feral Ruddy Ducks are in the process of being eradicated from Britain and
Europe to prevent the loss of their sibling species.
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This young Cuckoo, being fed by its Reed Warbler foster-parent, is now almost too big to fit into its nest

Unusual breeding behaviour

A few species reverse the usual male/female roles when breeding. In Britain this is
practised by two scarce breeding waders, the Red-necked Phalarope and Dotterel.
In these species the sexual roles are reversed to such an extent that it is the female
who sports the brighter plumage and takes the lead in courtship. In common with
some other waders, the female then lays her eggs and leaves all the duties of
incubation and care of the young to the male, while she seeks a second male. In
some cases female Dotterels have been recorded mating first in Scotland, then
 leaving the male to incubate the eggs while they fly to Scandinavia to mate once
more and raise a second brood.
Perhaps the best-known form of ‘aberrant’ breeding behaviour is the practice of
laying eggs in other birds’ nests, known as brood parasitism. This is found in several of
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the world’s bird families, but only one species does it in Britain: the Cuckoo.
Cuckoos arrive back from their African winter quarters in May, and immediately set
about the task of mating and laying eggs. But unlike conventional species the female
Cuckoo does not build a nest herself, but lays her egg in that of a host species
(almost always the same species in whose nest she was herself raised). The
commonest hosts in Britain are the Reed Warbler, Meadow Pipit and Dunnock.
First, she removes an egg already laid by the host, before depositing her own
(which is usually patterned to match the host’s egg) with great speed. Once
hatched, the young Cuckoo instinctively ejects any remaining eggs and/or chicks,
gaining a monopoly of its parents’ attention. The Cuckoo and its hosts are engaged
in a constant form of escalating warfare, which the Cuckoo appears to be winning:
by this method the female can lay up to 20 eggs, and still leave for Africa well before
her offspring have even fledged.

Polygamy
Polygamy (having multiple partners) is practised by many different species. The male
Corn Bunting, for example, practises polygyny, sometimes having seven or more
females nesting within his extended territory. In waders such as the Sanderling, the
females practise polyandry, pairing sequentially with more than one male. It used to
be thought that while only a few birds (such as Mute Swans) pair more or less for life,
most are at least seasonally monogamous, the pair staying faithful to each other for
the duration of a full breeding season.
However, scientists have recently discovered that many birds that appear to form
monogamous pair bonds are not so faithful to their mates as was once thought. For
example, the male Dunnock jealously guards his spouse, who will often mate with
any other single males in the immediate area. Male Dunnocks have even resorted to
tugging the sperm out of the female’s cloaca, before re-mating to ensure that it is
their offspring that are hatched.
In other cases females will take a single partner to share nest-building and
incubation duties, but still try to mate with as many males as possible. The idea is that
by doing so the female maximises her chances of producing the healthiest and fittest
young, and passing on her genes to future generations. Males, however, must guard
their mate to ensure that they do not become cuckolds to someone else’s young.
For even where a pair appears to be monogamous, DNA studies have revealed that
the eggs in a single clutch may have different fathers, due to the female mating
clandestinely with other males.
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Corn Bunting males are polygynous, and may have as many as seven different females at the same time
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Dunnocks practise a complex range of sexual behaviours, with liaisons outside the main pair bond very common
 Chapter 4
Migration and navigation
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Why do birds migrate?

It has been estimated that as many as five billion birds, of more than 200 different
species, undertake the twice-yearly journey between Eurasia and Africa. These
include such diverse groups as waders and warblers, swallows and terns, proving
beyond doubt that as an evolutionary strategy, migration is a success.
But why do birds migrate? What is the point of leaving a comfortable home in
Britain, and heading thousands of miles south, facing all kinds of hazards along the
way? And if a bird manages to survive this perilous journey, and reach its winter
home, what impels it to come back here the following spring? Why not just stay put
the whole year round?
The traditional reason given is that these birds are unable to survive the northern
winter, and must head south to find food. This is true, as far as it goes, but it is only
half the story.

These Starlings may have travelled across the North Sea from Scandinavia or Russia to spend the winter in Britain
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Although it weighs barely an ounce, this Swallow will fly thousands of miles to Africa and back

In fact to view migratory birds as ‘our’ birds heading south for the winter is to put
the cart before the horse. Species like swallows, warblers and flycatchers originated
in Africa, and first headed north to avoid competition with other species there. By
travelling northwards, they found ‘spare’ ecological niches where they could breed
and raise their young, with the advantages of abundant food, long hours of daylight,
and fewer competitors.

Sedge Warblers make the journey to West Africa in one or two giant leaps each autumn
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British Blackbirds stay put for the winter – but is that a riskier strategy than migrating?

But at the start of autumn, as the temperature begins to drop, the insects on
which so many of these species rely for food begin to disappear. Meanwhile, the
days get shorter, so there is less and less time available to forage for scarcer and
scarcer resources. So for many insect-eaters there are only two choices: either stay
put and starve to death, or head south for the winter. To survive, they developed
adaptations including longer wings, a range of navigational devices, and the
capacity to store large amounts of fat for the migratory journey.
We often assume that migrants face far greater dangers than resident species, but
in fact the opposite may be true. Migration expert Peter Berthold has pointed out
that while summer migrants such as the Sedge Warbler tend to produce a single
brood of young, resident species like the Wren or Blackbird raise two or more broods,
some species laying more than a dozen eggs at a time. This would suggest that
staying put during the northern winter leads to a higher mortality rate than the
journey back and forth to Africa.
The Swedish scientist Thomas Alerstam has gone even further, turning the question
on its head. He asks why, given the obvious advantages of migration, any birds
pursue the resident strategy at all. As he puts it: ‘Why do not all birds migrate?’

How do birds navigate?

Ever since the Ancient Greeks tied messages to the legs of migrating birds, in the
hope of discovering where they spent the winter, man has been fascinated by bird
migration. Even now, when you look at a Willow Warbler or House Martin, it is hard to
 believe that such a tiny bird is capable of travelling such great distances across the
globe.
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Millions of House Martins migrate to Africa, and yet we have very little idea exactly where they spend the winter

Indeed, until relatively recently the prevailing theory suggested that like many
mammals, birds spent the winter months in hibernation. Sightings of Swallows
gathering over water in autumn reinforced this theory, with observers claiming to see
the birds plunge beneath the surface of water. Even the great 18th-century
ornithologist Gilbert White subscribed to this theory, at least in part, though he did
have his doubts.
Yet as long ago as the days of the Old Testament people suspected the truth: that
birds travel south in autumn to avoid the colder months. The best evidence for this
early belief in migration is from the Book of Jeremiah: ‘Yea, the stork in the heavens
knoweth her appointed times; and the turtle-dove and the swallow and the crane
observe the time of their coming.’
The concept that birds ‘know the time of their coming’ is surprisingly close to the
truth. Many birds time their journeys by changes in day-length, though local factors
such as weather conditions also dictate timing of departure. Day-length affects the
birds’ endocrine system, producing hormones that stimulate them to prepare for the
long journey ahead, for example by putting on extra fat supplies. Once they have
returned, the same glands are responsible for prompting the onset of the breeding
cycle.
Once on their way, birds use a complex hierarchy of cues to enable them to find
their way, rather than relying on a single navigational method. These include
 navigating by the stars and sun, as the old sailors used to do, using polarised light,
and of course the earth’s magnetic field, which all enable them to head in the right
direction. Once they get much closer to home, they rely on more visual cues such as
local topography, often following coastlines or rivers to steer them to their
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destination.

Raptors such as this Montagu’s Harrier migrate by day

None of these methods is infallible. Some birds, particularly juveniles undertaking

their first migratory journey, appear to have something wrong with their internal
‘clock’, and may head in entirely the wrong direction. Others are diverted off course
by unusual weather conditions, especially cloud and rain, which make it impossible to
use visual cues such as the stars or topography. Some groups of birds, especially
migrants crossing large areas of water, appear to be ‘drifted’ off course by
crosswinds, though they are usually able to reorientate themselves successfully.

Migration strategies
Not all birds migrate in the same way, or using similar strategies. Some, like warblers
and chats, migrate by night, spending the day feeding or sheltering from predators.
Others, like Swallows and raptors, travel by day, feeding as they go.
Some, like the Knot and Sedge Warbler, choose a ‘long-haul’ strategy, putting on
vast amounts of fat before completing their journey in a few huge leaps of hundreds
or even thousands of miles at a time. Others, like the Swallow, potter along from
place to place and take several weeks or even months to complete their journey.
Across the Atlantic Ocean, the North American warblers choose to fly across wide
expanses of sea in order to shorten their journey; whereas other species, especially
 large birds of prey such as eagles and buzzards, try to avoid crossing water at all,
instead concentrating in huge numbers at land crossings such as Gibraltar, Eilat in
southern Israel, and the Bosphorus in Turkey.
Each of these strategies has its advantages and disadvantages, but each has
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evolved over many generations to suit the particular species. It is only in recent
years, with ringing studies and the ability to radio track species such as the Osprey
and Cuckoo, that we have begun to understand the subtleties of migration strategy.
As technology advances we may soon even be able to track the smallest migrants
such as the House Martin, to discover where they go when they leave our shores.
Not all species use the same strategy for both the outward (autumn) and return
(spring) migrations. For example, those North American warblers which head over
the open ocean in autumn follow a quite different route in spring, heading along the
coast in short hops. This is because in spring there are no suitable tailwinds to enable
them to cross the ocean in the two or three days needed to reach landfall.
This strategy, known as ‘loop migration’, is also followed by several European
species, such as the Red-backed Shrike. In autumn, they take a south-easterly route
out of Europe, via the eastern Mediterranean, to winter quarters in Central and
Southern Africa. In spring, they return by an even more easterly route, across the
Arabian Peninsula, probably because meteorological factors make this course more
favourable. British Sand Martins, too, follow an anti-clockwise route, heading south
via Iberia and north-west Africa, but returning via the central Sahara, Italy and
central Europe.
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Sand Martins are one of the earliest migrants o return to Britain, usually reaching our shores in March
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Cranes travel in flocks, with experienced birds guiding the youngsters along their route

Even within a particular species, different populations pursue different strategies.

One of the most fascinating of these is known as ‘leapfrog migration’, and involves a
population breeding at a higher latitude ‘leapfrogging’ over a population of the
same species which breeds at a lower latitude. So, for example, Arctic populations
of waders such as the Ringed Plover migrate all the way to sub-Saharan Africa, while
birds breeding in southern Scandinavia only travel as far as southern Europe or North
Africa. British-breeding Ringed Plovers follow an even more sedentary strategy, being
more or less resident, although some do move westwards to areas of milder winter
weather.
Thomas Alerstam has proposed two possible explanations for the existence of
leapfrog migration, both to do with competition and timing. The first theory suggests
that more southerly birds finish breeding earlier, and move to the nearest available
suitable wintering areas. More northerly birds finish breeding later, and by the time
they travel south these areas are already ‘full’, being occupied by the southerly
breeders. This forces the northern populations to head farther south still, until they
come across somewhere to spend the winter.
The second, more plausible, theory is to do with the timing of breeding itself.
Alerstam suggests that it is crucial for birds breeding in temperate zones to winter
near their breeding grounds, as the start of their breeding season may vary
considerably, being primarily determined by local weather conditions.
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Whimbrels migrate in small flocks to West Africa and back

In contrast, Arctic breeders have only a narrow window of opportunity during

which conditions are suitable to breed. Therefore they must return to their breeding
grounds at more or less the same time every year, whatever the weather conditions.
They rely on a sophisticated internal timing mechanism to tell them when to return,
so have no need to spend the winter close to their breeding areas.

Unusual migrations
Not all migratory journeys go to plan. Indeed one of the most fascinating areas of
birding is observing what happens when things go wrong.
One of the commonest migration-related phenomena is that of ‘falls’: a sudden
and unexpected arrival of migrating birds, usually, though not always, at a coastal
‘hotspot’. Falls are generally weather-related, as it usually takes some sort of adverse
weather conditions to concentrate the birds and force them to land. For example,
during the autumn, migrant songbirds usually depart from Scandinavia during
anticylonic weather, which provides clear skies and light following winds to help
them on their way. If conditions remain good, they will cross the North Sea, and
make their way along the coasts of continental Europe, towards Africa.
But when low-pressure systems are present over the North Sea, migrants often get
disoriented, and blown off course by the strong winds. Many fall exhausted into the
sea and die. But others carry on and, with luck, make landfall somewhere along the
coasts of eastern Britain.
Most songbirds migrate by night, so falls often occur in the early hours of the
 morning. Some can be spectacular, involving many thousands of birds of many
different species. But if you want to experience the thrill of seeing a fall, you have to
be quick. Once the birds have rested, fed, and recovered their strength, they’re off
again, impelled by that mysterious migratory urge.
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Another phenomenon occurs in spring, and is known as ‘overshooting’. This involves

those species that return each year to breed around the shores of the
Mediterranean or in France, such as various species of heron and egret, Black-
winged Stilt, Red-rumped Swallow, Woodchat Shrike, Alpine Swift, Hoopoe and Serin.
The key factor in overshooting is the weather conditions, not just here but further
south, over continental Europe. Ideally, there should be a large area of high
pressure, or anticyclone, situated over the northern shores of the Mediterranean,
with its northern limits reaching southern Britain. As the birds arrive at or near their
normal breeding grounds, the clear skies and light, southerly winds allow the birds to
continue past their destination.
Apart from the meteorological factors, why do birds overshoot at all? One possible
explanation is that a tendency to overshoot is genetically programmed, it being a
potential advantage for the bird concerned to discover somewhere new to breed.
Over the past few years there have been several nesting attempts by overshooting
Black-winged Stilts, with a pair successfully fledging young in 2014, showing that for
some birds at least, the pioneering spirit can lead to success, and may eventually
lead this Mediterranean species to colonise Britain permanently.
In a sense, all vagrant birds are ‘lost’ birds, which will usually perish, but just
occasionally they form the pioneering contingent of a new colonist. In recent years
former vagrants such as Cetti’s Warbler, Mediterranean Gull, Great White and Little
Egrets have all become regular British breeding species, and others such as Cattle
Egret, Glossy Ibis and White Stork look set to follow.
Another form of pioneering spirit can be seen in those few species which are
‘irruptive’: that is, they occasionally leave their normal breeding and wintering areas
to arrive elsewhere in huge numbers. Of these the commonest and most familiar in
Britain is the Common Crossbill, which regularly turns up in midsummer, and may
arrive in large numbers in areas previously devoid of birds. Crossbills generally stay
put until the following year, when after breeding early in the New Year they head off
again on their nomadic journeys. Another irruptive species, the Waxwing, is an
autumn and winter visitor here. In some years thousands may arrive; in others hardly
any. The size of Waxwing irruptions is governed by the availability of berry food on
their northern breeding grounds.
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Hoopoes are a regular spring visitor to southern Britain, especially during periods of fine weather over mainland
Europe
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Crossbills are an ‘irruptive’ species, undertaking irregular migrations driven by the search for new sources of food

Two other species, the Nutcracker and Pallas’s Sandgrouse, are much more
occasional irruptive visitors, though when they do occur it can be in huge numbers,
to the delight of twitchers.
Not all birds migrate huge distances. An often overlooked phenomenon is known
as ‘altitudinal migration’. As its name suggests this involves a journey from higher to
lower altitudes, usually to spend the winter months where there are more accessible
food supplies. Although these journeys may seem insignificant in terms of distance
travelled, they often involve a major change of lifestyle. So in winter the Skylarks
breeding on Britain’s upland moors and mountains head to the lowlands, often
gathering in flocks near the coast. Even the true ‘high-altitude’ species such as the
Ptarmigan will make local movements down the mountain, especially if heavy snow
covers their food supplies.
One species makes a doubly unusual migratory journey, moving both downwards
to lower altitude, yet also northwards for the winter. The Water Pipit breeds in the
high Alps and Pyrenees, yet a small part of this population spends the winter in
southern Britain, usually near fresh water where they can feed on insects.
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Sooty Shearwaters migrate northwards and pass through British offshore waters each autumn
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Ptarmigan are not strictly migrants, but during hard winter weather they may move down to lower altitudes from
their mountain home

But for perhaps the most dramatic migratory strategy we must turn to three
species of seabird, the only ones to reverse the prevailing north–south migratory
trend. Wilson’s Storm-petrel and Great and Sooty Shearwaters all breed in the
 southern hemisphere, then head north across the Equator to spend their ‘winter’ (our
summer) in the northern hemisphere, before returning south during our autumn in
time to breed once again.
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 Chapter 5
Distribution and range
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Habitats and their influence on behaviour

At first sight, a bird’s habitat may not seem to have much direct influence on its
behaviour, but a closer look reveals all sorts of subtle effects. For example, wader
species that feed mainly on coastal marshes and estuaries are highly influenced by
the twice-daily movements of the tide, as we have seen. The need to feed at low
tide and roost at high tide influences their entire diurnal rhythms, which must be
changed accordingly.
The feeding methods of birds of prey are also influenced by their habitat. In areas
where they mainly prey on lightweight items such as Ptarmigan, Golden Eagles may
nest fairly high up a mountainside; but in the west of Scotland, where they feed
mainly on heavy prey such as Rabbits, they need to build their nest at low altitudes in
order to carry their prey down the hillside rather than up, which would use more
energy. Sparrowhawks have evolved a compact shape with rounded wings and long
tail in order to manoeuvre themselves through dense foliage; while falcons such as
the Hobby, which hunts aerially, are more streamlined in shape.

Golden Eagles are one of the few species that can survive all year round on the high tops of Scottish mountain
ranges
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Nightingales have a rich, complex song, which carries well through their dense woodland habitat

Birdsong, too, is influenced by habitat. Indeed, it might even be argued that the
different varieties of song have evolved to suit different habitats. Woodland species
like the Blackbird, Blackcap and Nightingale tend to have rich, fruity songs, in order
to penetrate the foliage around them to the greatest effect. With so many surfaces
to absorb sound, a powerful song is the only way to ensure that the message is
properly heard.
Species that live in marshes and reedbeds adopt a different strategy. Many of
their songs, from species as diverse as warblers and crakes, are monotonous,
rhythmic and repetitive. In fact they are often more similar to those of marsh-
dwelling species of amphibians or insects than to other songbirds. Many years ago,
the natural history sound recordist John Burton compared the songs of Savi’s and
Grasshopper Warblers with amphibians such as the Marsh Frog, and insects like the
Wart-biter Bush Cricket, and concluded that their songs and calls had evolved in
parallel, to suit the acoustic nature of the habitat: it seems that monotonous sounds
are more effective in monotonous habitats.
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The Grasshopper Warbler has a continuous, buzzing song, rather like an insect such as a bush-cricket
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The Mediterranean Gull has expanded its range northwards in recent decades to become a regular British
breeding bird

Finally, where birds choose to nest influences their behaviour and appearance to a
large degree, especially regarding whether birds show sexual dimorphism (different
plumages for males and females). For example, hole-nesting birds like the tits and
Tree Sparrow can afford to have a brightly coloured plumage even in females, as
they are not vulnerable to predators on the nest; while birds that nest in more open
areas such as House Sparrows, larks and pipits tend to be brown and streaky in
colour for effective camouflage. In open-nesting species where only the female
incubates, such as ducks, the males are often bright and colourful while females are
duller and cryptically marked; whereas large, aggressive species such as Mute Swans
can afford to be showy and noticeable!

Range
The great ornithologist James Fisher once wrote that a bird does not have a range,
only a ‘current range’. He was referring to the fact that during as short a period as a
single human generation – as little as two or three decades – the range of a
particular species can alter dramatically, either expanding to colonise new areas, or
contracting and disappearing from former haunts.
Even since the late 1960s, during the 40-plus years that I have been watching birds,
I have witnessed a number of dramatic changes in the range and status of our
breeding, migratory and wintering birds. Some of these, like the declines of farmland
 species such as the Skylark, Yellowhammer and Grey Partridge, are caused almost
entirely by outside influences such as modern farming methods, and are therefore
outside the scope of this book. Another, more positive change has been the
welcome increase in the population and range of birds of prey such as the Buzzard
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and Hobby, this time due to the banning of harmful pesticides such as DDT, and legal
protection against persecution. But other changes in range are more complex, and
may be influenced either wholly or in part by the behaviour of a particular
population of birds.
Perhaps the best-known examples of dramatic range changes are those sudden
expansions of species such as the Little Egret and Mediterranean Gull, which have
colonised Britain as breeding species in the last two or three decades. Again, human
influence may be a factor, with climate change giving a helping hand to both these
species. But other factors may also be at work: notably some kind of genetic
mutation that allowed individual birds of each species to act as pioneers, followed
by an eventual full-scale colonisation.
Another example involves a common British breeding species which now also
winters here in good numbers. Twenty or 30 years ago wintering Blackcaps began to
be reported in various parts of the country. At first most people assumed these were
‘our’ breeding birds that had decided to stay put for the winter; but studies then
revealed that these were actually German Blackcaps. Instead of migrating south-
west to spend the winter in Spain, Portugal or North Africa, they had instead headed
in a north-westerly direction and ended up in Britain.
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Like many ground-nesting birds, Skylarks have a brownish plumage which acts as camouflage against predators
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The Hobby, an agile, migratory falcon, has enjoyed a population boom in recent years
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Little Egrets are now a familiar sight in wetlands throughout southern Britain, having colonised from across the
Channel in recent years
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Blackcaps are now regular winter visitors to Britain from Central Europe, thanks to a run of mild winters and the food
provided by garden owners

Two factors enabled these birds to survive: first, mild winter weather prevented
mass death by starvation; and second, the German birds adapted their feeding
behaviour in order to take advantage of the plentiful seeds and other foods
provided by us. As a result, they survived and thrived, and returned to Germany to
breed ahead of their rivals. Twenty years later, and the entire population from this
region now spends the winter in Britain.
As climate change adds yet another factor to the myriad influences on the range
and distribution of Britain’s birds, birders can look forward to many changes during
the next few decades – some for the better, others for the worse. For example, Bee-
eaters, which have already bred twice in the past decade or so, may become
permanent colonists, while to the north we may lose Arctic species such as the Snow
Bunting.
 Chapter 6
Life and death
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This may seem to be rather a forbidding section: the very title may put some readers
off. And it is certainly true that not all the subjects covered lend themselves to
careful field observation. Nevertheless, all these are part of a bird’s lifecycle, and
therefore vital to an overall understanding of bird behaviour in its broadest sense. I
have tried to avoid too many technical terms (though some are inevitable), and
where possible to give examples when a particular type of behaviour can be
observed.

Moult
Birds do not keep all their feathers for the whole of their lifetime. Indeed, most
undergo an annual moult, during which all or part of their plumage is replaced by
spanking new feathers, giving the bird a better chance of survival.
Moult is vital for several reasons. The first, and most important, is to enable birds to
fly as well as possible: old, broken or worn feathers reduce efficiency, and can lead
to the bird being less able to find food, or more vulnerable to attack by a predator.
Therefore having the best possible quality of plumage is absolutely vital. The second
reason is that old, worn feathers are less efficient as insulators, and in cold winter
weather the quality of a bird’s plumage can make a major difference between life
and death. Finally, old and worn feathers tend also to fade in colour and brightness,
and for many birds, the quality of plumage, and in particular specific colours and
markings, is what helps them to attract the best possible mate.
So for all these reasons, an annual moult is essential. But when should they carry
out this potentially life-threatening process? The problem with even a partial moult is
that during the intermediate stage when some feathers are old ones, and others
new, the bird is at its least effective in terms of flight, keeping warm or attracting a
mate.
For this reason, almost all birds undergo their major moult after the end of the
breeding season, but before the onset of autumn and winter, when food resources
are scarcer and the temperatures are lower. There are other advantages to
moulting in late summer, especially for small songbirds: feeding a brood of hungry
young will have left their plumage in an exceedingly tatty state; there is plenty of
foliage in which to hide to avoid predators; and there is a plentiful and freely
available supply of food.
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These young Starlings have just fledged and left their nest; later they will moult into the familiar adult plumage

So don’t be surprised when, after months of songbird activity in your garden or

local park or woodland, everything suddenly goes quiet and the birds appear to
have vanished. They are probably still around, just laying low!
Another group of birds that moults in mid to late summer are the ducks. Males of
many species go into a state known as ‘eclipse’ plumage, a dull camouflaged body
plumage superficially similar to the females, though usually with a few clues as to the
bird’s true identity. Male Mallards lose their glossy green head pattern, while male
Tufted Ducks go from smart black-and-white to a dusky grey-brown and off-white
colour scheme, rather similar to their mates. This often confuses inexperienced
birders, who may think that all the males have vanished. The change occurs because
during the moult the ducks become temporarily flightless, and so are vulnerable to
predators – colourful, attention-grabbing plumage is a bad idea when you cannot
fly. Then, from roughly early August onwards, the males reappear in their fine new
feathers, as if by magic. Because of their vulnerability at this time, some ducks
including the Shelduck gather in huge flocks for safety against predators.
Other birds are unable to enjoy the luxury of flightlessness, as they must constantly
catch prey, so instead they moult gradually. Day-flying birds of prey such as hawks
and Common Buzzards follow this pattern, gradually shedding and regrowing their
flight feathers in systematic order, but never losing so many at once that their flight
ability is compromised. For this reason some raptors may be in a virtually permanent
state of moult.
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Male Mallards adopt a plumage known as ‘eclipse’ when they moult during the summer months
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A juvenile bird such as this Black-headed gull can be tricky to identify, as it doesn’t look much like its parents
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Juvenile Robins do not show the familiar red breast of the adult birds

Young songbirds hatched in the spring also undergo a period of moult: first from
the downy covering into their first true plumage, known as ‘juvenile’; then, usually a
few weeks later, into the full adult garb. So baby Robins pass from downy fluff into
the spotted browns and buffs of juvenile plumage, finally emerging, around two
months after fledging, into the glorious adult plumage complete with orange-red
breast.
For long-distance migrants such as the Whitethroat, moult is a vital prelude to
achieving the best possible physical condition to travel thousands of miles south after
breeding.
Some species undergo more than one moult a year, into and out of what used to
be called ‘summer’ and ‘winter’ plumages, but are now usually referred to as
‘breeding’ and ‘non-breeding’. Species that follow this pattern include divers,
grebes, gulls and terns. As well as these two stages, gulls also go through a number
 of other plumages during the three or four years it takes them to reach full maturity.
These moults can lead to confusion amongst birders as the differences between
plumages can be quite subtle, and not all birds follow exactly the same stages.
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Bathing, preening and feather care

Closely related to moult is the whole business of caring for feathers, involving a range
of behaviours such as bathing (in dust and/or water), preening, and general feather
maintenance.
Birds must bathe regularly in order to keep their plumage in tip-top condition, and
free from dirt and parasites. They do so in a number of ways, of which the most
commonly observed is simple bathing in shallow water, usually accompanied by a
complex and choreographed set of movements designed to cover the whole of the
bird’s plumage with water in the most efficient and effective way possible. Virtually
all species of bird bathe, but a small minority sometimes do so not in water, but in
dust. At first this seems bizarre: after all, how can covering your feathers with dust
keep them clean? Yet it does appear to work, apparently by removing oil, grease
and parasites from the plumage. House Sparrows are particularly fond of ‘dusting’.
Some birds, especially small songbirds, tend to bathe in a shallow puddle or the
edge of a pond or stream; others, including waders, may do so in deeper water. True
waterbirds such as ducks, grebes and Coots will bathe while swimming, submerging
part of their body under the surface and letting the water wash over them until they
are clean. Water is not always necessary to keep the plumage clean. Some birds
‘bathe’ by allowing ants to swarm all over their feathers; the formic acid from the
ants kills pests such as mites and ticks. Others use smoke, which has a similar effect.
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Birds such as this Chaffinch bathe regularly to keep their feathers clean and neat

Cormorants need to hold their wings out to dry as, unlike ducks, they do not have waterproof feathers

After bathing, especially on a fine, warm day in spring or summer, birds often
spend time sunbathing, enabling them to dry off their feathers and heat themselves
 up; Blackbirds are particularly fond of this. Other birds, notably Cormorants, hang
out their wings to dry in the sun and wind; something they have to do because unlike
those of ducks and other waterbirds, their feathers are not waterproof.
Following a bath, birds also spend time tidying up their plumage by preening,
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usually with their bills but occasionally also scratching with their feet. Preening is vital:
it puts the feathers back where they should be, straightens out any problems, and
allows the bird to remove any dirt or parasites which may have survived the bathing
process. Some species, especially waterbirds, secrete oil from a gland near the
upper base of the tail, which they use to waterproof and lubricate their plumage.

Barn Owls use their acute sense of hearing to hunt their prey in the long grass

Sight, hearing and smell

Of all the senses, birds rely most on sight: a critical factor in the ability to find food,
 avoid predators, and assess a potential partner in courtship rituals. One of their most
developed abilities is that of ‘visual acuity’ – or being able to differentiate between
tiny differences – for example telling the difference between tiny particles of dirt
and those of food. Even day-old chicks have been shown to be able to tell the
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difference between very similar objects, and to differentiate between subtle shades
of colour.
Indeed, birds’ colour vision is superb – another vital requirement, especially when
searching for a mate, where tiny differences in the colour and brightness of a male’s
plumage enable the female to judge his state of health, and therefore whether he
will make the best father for her young.
One way in which birds’ eyesight differs greatly from ours is the position of the
eyes. Most birds have eyes on either side of their face, which gives them excellent
all-round vision for detecting food or predators, but means that they lack the
binocular vision we take for granted, and which helps us judge perspective. The
obvious exceptions to this rule are the owls, which have both eyes facing forward,
enabling them to pinpoint and catch their prey more easily.
Another way in which birds differ from us is their ability to see ultraviolet light,
enabling them to appreciate colours and shades that we are unable to see. This is
especially useful for birds that feed on fruit and flowers, such as hummingbirds. The
ability to detect ultraviolet light may also help migrating birds, especially when cloud
cover obscures the sun.
Hearing is another vital sense for many birds, especially predators such as owls,
which may hunt almost entirely using sound cues, especially if their prey is under
snow or dense foliage. The ability to detect distant calls and songs is also vital, either
to enable birds to hear warning calls as a predator approaches, or for females to
hear distant males. Birds also have an extraordinary ability to differentiate sounds –
especially useful for colonial-nesting seabirds such as gulls, petrels and shearwaters,
where the returning adult finds the nest by listening for the young birds’ calls.
Finally, smell is also used by particular groups of birds to find food. Seabirds have
an especially well-developed sense of smell, a vital ability when food resources may
be many miles apart at sea.
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Like other seabirds, Storm-petrels are able to find food at sea by smell

Excretion
Just like any other living creature, birds must get rid of waste products, which would
otherwise build up in their bodies and cause harm.
Unlike mammals, birds excrete their urine and faeces through the same opening,
the cloaca, which is also involved in the reproductive process. Birds’ excretory
products vary considerably, depending on their diet: seed-eating birds produce dry
droppings, those that eat moist food with a high water content, such as fruit and
insects, produce wetter droppings. Sometimes droppings can actually be dangerous
to our health, with colonies of Feral Pigeons in particular carrying lung diseases such
as psittacosis, which in some cases can prove fatal.
Another way in which birds excrete is through their glands. True seabirds such as
shearwaters and petrels have adapted ways of expelling excess salt from their food
and the seawater they drink, which otherwise might build up in their bodies and kill
them. They do so by means of glands just above their bills, which get rid of up to 90
per cent of the salt in their diet. Owls find it hard to digest the skin, bones and fur
from their prey; so they get rid of these in the form of pellets which they cough up
through their mouth.
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Manx Shearwaters spend much of their life out at sea, returning to their breeding colonies after dark, where they
find their youngsters by listening to their calls

Temperature regulation
Like all ‘warm-blooded’ animals, including humans, birds have the ability to regulate
their body temperature by means of internal processes, rather than having to rely on
external factors such as the sun, as do ‘cold-blooded’ creatures such as reptiles and
amphibians. The process of temperature control is known as thermoregulation, and it
enables them to manage their body temperature in response to changes in the
outside environment.
Nevertheless, birds can suffer problems with both overheating and severe cold,
and have adopted a range of different behavioural strategies to deal with these.
Small birds such as songbirds are especially vulnerable to rapid changes in
temperature, as their larger surface area to volume ratio means that their bodies
lose or gain heat much more quickly than those of larger birds.
During spring or summer mornings, species such as the Blackbird will warm up their
bodies by sunbathing, spreading out their feathers in order to gain maximum benefit
from the sun’s rays. Later in the day, if the weather gets very hot, they must reduce
their body temperature or risk overheating. They may do so by bathing, but because
they do not have sweat glands, they cannot sweat away moisture to keep cool as
we do. Instead, they have to pant to allow heat to escape from their throat and
breathing passage. They may also seek shade, which explains why small birds are
 often very hard to see during hot summer days, staying in cover except at dawn or
dusk when they emerge to feed.
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Blackbirds warm up on cool days in spring by sunbathing

Cold weather creates a very different problem: the rapid loss of heat from the
unfeathered ‘bare parts’, such as the bill, legs and feet. To counter this many small
birds will roost together, huddling up as close as possible in order to take advantage
of their collective body warmth. During the short winter days birds retain heat by
fluffing out their feathers, trapping pockets of warm air beneath. This may give them
a very different appearance from normal, and make identification difficult.
Waterbirds, such as ducks, geese and swans, generally find temperature
regulation easier, as during very hot weather they can simply immerse themselves in
cooler water. In severe cold they conserve heat by standing on one leg on the ice,
which reduces heat loss through their feet.
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Mallards, like other waterbirds, may find it hard to find food when ponds and lakes ice over
 Birds and weather
As the great American bird artist Roger Tory Peterson once said: ‘Birds have wings –
they travel.’ By spending so much of their lives in the air, birds are surely influenced
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by the weather more than almost any other living creature.

As a result, birds have gained a reputation as excellent weather forecasters. They
often alter their behaviour as a result of changes in weather conditions, so by
observing this, our ancestors were able to predict the coming weather for
themselves. Much of this knowledge has been passed down from generation to
generation in rhymes and proverbs, which make up a unique body of weather
folklore.
For example, the ‘tumbling’ behaviour of Rooks in autumn is supposed to foretell a
change in the weather, probably because this behaviour tends to occur during
windy conditions, which usually signify the coming of a depression. Insect-eating
birds, such as Swallows and martins, also change their behaviour depending on the
current weather: during settled spells of high pressure they feed on insects high in
the sky, while during changeable periods of low pressure they tend to come lower,
following their insect prey. By observing this behaviour it is possible to forecast the
following day’s weather with some accuracy.
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The Mistle Thrush is sometimes known by the old folk-name ‘Stormcock’, because of its habit of singing during bad
weather

Robins, like other garden birds, survive hard winters thanks to the food we provide in our gardens
 Other species of bird are often associated with rain, such as woodpeckers, whose
habit of calling and drumming before the arrival of bad weather has given them the
name ‘rain bird’ in many parts of Britain, Europe and North America. In Shetland, the
Red-throated Diver’s habit of calling when rain is expected has earned it the folk
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name of ‘rain-goose’.
Birds are also affected by extremes in weather, with harsh winter weather perhaps
the most serious threat. Small birds such as the Wren and Robin are particularly at
risk, as they must eat around one quarter of their body weight every single day if
they are going to survive. When the ground is covered with a layer of snow, or when
freezing temperatures cause branches and twigs to ice over, then they simply
cannot get to the seeds or insect food they require. As a result, many species
change their behaviour, with normally shy birds such as woodpeckers and Nuthatch
becoming far more confiding, often visiting bird tables to get access to a ready
supply of food.
During the breeding season the weather can also affect birds. For early breeders,
such as the Blackbird, a late cold snap may reduce their food supplies at a crucial
time. Later on in the spring, cool wet weather in May and June will reduce the
chances of eggs hatching, and even if they do, the parents may not be able to
obtain enough food to satisfy their hungry chicks. This is especially crucial for insect-
eating species such as tits and warblers, or birds on the northern edge of their range
in Britain, such as Golden Oriole.

Golden Orioles are one species widespread in continental Europe that may do well in Britain in the future because
of climate change

Every spring and autumn, migrating birds travel huge distances across the globe,
as they seek out the very best places to breed and to spend the winter. Along the
 way, they encounter all kinds of weather, from helpful following winds to potentially
fatal gales, storms and hurricanes. Many fail to survive the journey; those that do
need a mixture of instinct, good luck and an ability to deal with weather systems,
which has evolved over many generations.
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In spring, returning migrants often delay their arrival by a week or more, as they
wait for good weather over the Channel to allow them to make the crossing safely.
Easterly winds may bring drift migrants across the North Sea, blown off course on
their journey from mainland Europe to Scandinavia, to land on our east coast.
In autumn small birds run even greater risks from the weather. Migrants heading
south from Scandinavia wait for a cold front, with clear skies and following winds,
ideal for crossing the North Sea. But sometimes they get things wrong, encountering
poor weather associated with depressions, and becoming disoriented. Many perish,
falling exhausted beneath the waves. But others fly on through the wind and rain,
making landfall on Britain’s east coast, to the delight of birders dedicated enough to
venture out in the bad weather. Even more extraordinary is the annual arrival of
North American passerines in Britain, swept across the North Atlantic by strong
westerly gales, to arrive exhausted in vagrancy hotspots such as the Isles of Scilly.
In the longer term, global climate change threatens to affect the lives of birds
more than any other factor. We have already seen some species, such as Great
White Egret, Little Egret and Mediterranean Gull, shift their breeding ranges
northwards as a result of climate change. Breeding species such as the Bearded Tit,
Hobby and Nightjar, once confined to southern Britain, are now beginning to extend
their ranges northwards. Meanwhile, at the other end of the country, three birds of
the high tops, the Snow Bunting, Dotterel and Ptarmigan, are likely to disappear as
British breeding birds, as a result of major habitat change.
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Bee-eaters may eventually colonise Britain as a result of global climate change

But every cloud has a silver lining, and in this case it comes in the form of new
species colonising Britain from the south, and possibly also from the east. These may
include such exotic creatures as the Hoopoe and Bee-eater, both of which now
breed within reach of Calais, as well as less glamorous birds such as the Great Reed
Warbler, and the Black Kite, one of the world’s most adaptable and successful
raptors.
If we do gain a more continental climate, then several species with a more
easterly distribution, such as Common Rosefinch and River Warbler, could find
eastern Britain a suitable place to colonise. Whatever happens, Britain’s birders can
 look forward to an exciting time in the next half-century.
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Bird feeders can spread disease amongst songbirds such as these Great and Blue Tits

Disease and death

Like all creatures, birds suffer their fair share of disease. Indeed, along with killing by
 predators, and lack of food, disease is one of the three major causes of death in wild
birds. Those especially at risk include young birds just out of the nest, whose immune
system may not be quite so well developed as that of the adults; and older birds,
whose bodies may have been weakened by the toll of raising successive broods of
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young.
Another problem is epidemic diseases, which affect colonial species such as
seabirds, and sociable ones such as Starlings and House Sparrows. Diseases such as
salmonella have increased in recent years due to the artificial concentration of birds
brought about by our enthusiasm for feeding them – a very good reason to keep
your garden bird feeding station clean and replace old or mouldy food regularly.
Many bird species also carry unwelcome guests in the form of parasites. These may
be either endoparasites such as liver flukes or tapeworms, which live inside the bird’s
body; or ectoparasites such as fleas, feather lice and mites that live on the outside,
usually underneath the feathers. Many of these parasites are unique to particular
species of birds, and have co-evolved with them over many thousands of years. They
may cause some harm, leading to death in a few cases, but for most host species
appear to be accepted as an occupational hazard.
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Like other seabirds, Gannets sometimes wash up dead on the shoreline, having perished at sea

Occasionally an epidemic of disease will devastate a bird population, such as the

waves of botulism that occasionally affect waterbirds of several different species,
causing widespread death. Fortunately these outbreaks are relatively rare, and in
the longer term most populations appear to bounce back from the epidemic, and
recover their former numbers within a few years.
As to the difficult question of how long birds live, a general rule of thumb is that the
larger the bird, the longer it is likely to live. A rough rule is that average longevity is
correlated with body weight, using a complex mathematical formula. Using this, a
species weighing approximately 32 times as much as another will live for around
twice as long.
So most songbirds such as the Robin and Blue Tit have a mean longevity of only
 one or two years, and a maximum lifespan, in a very few cases, of perhaps seven to
ten years. There are, of course, a few individual exceptions to the rule of live fast, die
young: ringing recoveries have included a Blackbird and Starling aged 20 years, a 16-
year-old Swallow and a 15-year-old Great Tit.
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Oystercatchers are one of our longest-lived waders – one survived for at least 16 years

Birds of prey such as eagles do not become fully mature for five or more years
after hatching, and may live as long as 20 or even 30 years. Surprisingly, perhaps, the
oldest recorded wild British birds are somewhat smaller in size: an Oystercatcher
which survived for 36 years after being ringed (a good advert for a shellfish diet!),
and a Fulmar which lived for an incredible 50 or more years.
Birds that generally live longer tend to follow a strategy of small clutch sizes
followed by a long period of parental care (as in many seabirds), as opposed to
large clutches and early fledging (as in most songbirds).
Finally, there are always exceptions to the longevity rule – for example when birds
are kept in captivity. Safeguarded from predators, disease and other life-threatening
factors, some can live as long as their owners. The record goes to a Sulphur-crested
Cockatoo in London Zoo, known to have been more than 80 years old when it died
in 1982.
 PART TWO:
FAMILIES AND SPECIES
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This section of the book deals with behaviour family by family, and
species by species. There will inevitably be some overlap with Part 1,
but by grouping together related species I am able to cover distinctive
behaviour patterns such as flocking by tits in winter, or the different
methods of feeding adopted by different groups of ducks. It covers
both typical and some unusual aspects of behaviour, and includes the
200 or so species you are most likely to encounter in Britain.

Other reasons for grouping by family include:

• To provide an easy, quick reference to a particular group or species

• To give helpful hints and tips to aid identification
• To give a deeper insight into particular behaviours associated with
particular groups of birds

Note: in some cases I have grouped similar families together for ease
of use, such as the section on Seabirds, which includes unrelated
species such as shearwaters and auks, which share the same habitat
and are likely to be seen together. The same applies to the section on
Swift, Swallow and martins.
 DUCKS, GEESE AND SWANS
Ducks, geese and swans together make up a large and diverse group of
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birds generally known as wildfowl or waterfowl. These species have long

been associated with humans – some are domesticated, while others are
frequently hunted. Hence many species have developed an
understandable wariness of human beings!

Ducks
Around 20 species of ducks are regularly seen in Britain, and can be put in different
categories depending on their behaviour and habits.
First are the ‘dabbling ducks’, so-called because of their habit of feeding by
working their bills along the surface, as well as ducking their heads under, or
occasionally up-ending to take food. This category includes some of our most familiar
species as well as one much less widespread one: Mallard, Shoveler, Wigeon, Pintail,
Gadwall, Teal, and the scarcer Garganey.
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Pintail feed by ‘up-ending’ in shallow water to find aquatic plants and invertebrates
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Teal, like most waterfowl, struggle to find food when freezing weather makes ponds and lakes ice over

Each feeds in slightly different ways: for example, the Shoveler sweeps its bill
through the water, filtering out tiny morsels, whereas the Wigeon usually feeds on
grass, by grazing on land. Gadwalls often accompany Coots, and appear to take
advantage of the fact that by diving the Coot stirs up the water, bringing morsels of
food to the surface for the Gadwall to feed on. Pintail, Teal and Garganey are
generally shy, often flying when they detect your presence; whereas Mallards in
town parks will generally allow a close approach – indeed most people’s first
experience of ‘bird behaviour’ is when they feed the ducks as a child! However, they
may need to avert their eyes if the male Mallards display their frankly shocking
mating behaviour, during which several males often gang up on a single female.
Then there are the ‘diving ducks’: Tufted Duck, Pochard and Scaup. The first two
species are common in Britain, especially during the winter when the breeding
population is far outnumbered by immigrants from the north and east. Both usually
live on inland waters, and dive for food, often going quite deep underwater. The
Scaup is a more seagoing species, though can also be found on reservoirs and gravel
pits, especially those near the coast.
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Tufted Duck are ‘diving ducks’, which go below the surface of the water to find food

Another group of diving ducks are sometimes referred to as ‘seaducks’, and

include Goldeneye, Eider, Common and Velvet Scoters, and Long-tailed Duck.
These, as their name suggests, are generally found around the coasts, where they
often form large flocks offshore, sometimes consisting of several different species, all
diving for food (mainly molluscs on the sea bed). Goldeneyes and Eiders can also be
seen courting in early spring, throwing their heads back in display and uttering
extraordinary calls.
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With his smart black-and-white plumage, this male Eider is very different from the browner females

Three other species are named after their characteristic bills with serrated edges:
the ‘sawbills’. The group includes Red-breasted Mergansers, Goosanders and
Smew. Like the seaducks, they dive for their food – fish which are gripped in the saw
teeth of the bill. Red-breasted Merganser and Goosander both breed in Britain,
generally on fast-flowing upland rivers or lakes, though in winter Goosanders visit
deep lakes and Red-breasted Mergansers are usually found near the coast or
offshore. Smew is a winter visitor, and prefers gravel pits, though it is a shy bird and
often vulnerable to disturbance.
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Red-breasted Merganser is one of three British species of ‘sawbill’ ducks, so-called because of their distinctive
slender bill with serrated edges

Finally, there are three ‘miscellaneous species’: the Mandarin Duck, Ruddy Duck
and Shelduck. Mandarin and Ruddy Ducks are both introduced species, and each
displays some fascinating behaviour, especially during their courtship displays.
However, the Ruddy Duck is now on its way out as a British bird, having been culled
to prevent it flying off to Spain and interbreeding with the much rarer White-headed
Duck. The Shelduck is not really a duck at all, but intermediate between ducks and
geese. It is generally found around the coasts, especially on marshes and estuaries,
where it may gather in large flocks.
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Originally introduced here from China and Japan, the male Mandarin is one of the most colourful and distinctive of
all Britain’s birds

Geese
Wild geese are among the best loved of all British birds, especially when they gather
in huge flocks in winter. However, the introduced Canada Goose is one of the most
loathed of all birds.
Eight species of goose live in or regularly visit Britain, of which four are collectively
known as ‘grey geese’. This category includes Greylag, White-fronted, Pink-footed
and both ‘tundra’ and ‘taiga’ subspecies of the Bean Geese. The latter four species
are all winter visitors to Britain, arriving in autumn from their breeding grounds to the
north and east, and spending the winter months feeding in large, noisy flocks,
generally on farmland but also on coastal marshes. The Greylag Goose breeds in
northern Britain, but in recent years a large feral population has established itself in
the south. Geese tend to be creatures of habit, feeding in their favourite areas by
day, and as night approaches moving away to roost in large flocks nearby, often
near water. Geese usually migrate in large flocks, flying in V formation (which
increases efficiency and reduces exhaustion) with a leader in front, to guide them
along the route.
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White-fronted Geese travel to Britain in autumn from their breeding areas to the north, and spend the winter here

Two other species of geese, Barnacle and Brent, are smaller and more distinctive in
appearance. Barnacle Geese have similar habits to the grey geese, but as with
Greylags a feral, non-migratory population is now at large in southern Britain. Brent
Geese visit in winter and prefer coastal marshes and estuaries, where flocks feed on
eelgrass and other vegetation. They can also often be seen on grassy areas such as
golf courses and playing fields, especially at high tide.
The two remaining species are both introduced: Canada and Egyptian Geese.
Both were originally brought here as ornamental wildfowl in the grounds of stately
homes, but have since escaped and spread, and are both now firmly established as
British breeding species. Canada Geese form large, noisy flocks, and can sometimes
drive away other species of wildfowl. Egyptian Geese are spreading rapidly from
their original release site in Norfolk, and are now at large over much of southern and
eastern England. Despite their name, Egyptian Geese are not really geese at all, but
are in their own separate genus. They breed early in the year (a hangover from their
native home in Africa) and nest in holes in trees, from which the chicks jump soon
after hatching.
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The Canada Goose is a familiar non-native species of waterfowl throughout much of lowland Britain

Swans
Three species of swan are found in Britain: one resident, the Mute Swan, and two
primarily winter visitors, Bewick’s and Whooper Swans (though Whooper does breed
occasionally in northern Scotland).
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The Mute Swan is the largest and heaviest British breeding bird

Mute Swans are one of our most familiar birds, and also our largest and heaviest
bird. Although they often allow quite close approach, they can be dangerous,
particularly to small children, though the oft-quoted remark that ‘they can break a
man’s arm’ is an urban myth. Mute Swans generally pair for life, and breed at the
same site each year, building a huge nest out of twigs. Sadly these nests are often
accessible to human vandals and animal predators, though if the pair is successful
they usually manage to raise a large brood of cygnets. Despite their name, Mute
Swans do utter various sounds; the name derives from the fact that unlike Whooper
and Bewick’s swans they do not usually call in flight.
Whooper and Bewick’s Swans arrive in large flocks each autumn: Whoopers
 migrate from Iceland at incredibly high altitudes, while Bewick’s make an even longer
journey here from Siberia. Both enjoy the benefits of Britain’s mild winter climate,
where plenty of food is available. They usually gather in traditional sites, though small
flocks can be found feeding in fields away from these. Dusk is a good time to see
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them in large numbers, as they gather together to roost for the night. At various
Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust centres, such as Welney in Norfolk and Slimbridge in
Gloucestershire, you can also see them being fed under floodlights during the winter
months.
 GAMEBIRDS
Ten species of gamebird breed in Britain, five of which were introduced
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here, a statistic which reflects these birds’ importance as objects of quarry

or ornament. Two ornamental species are Golden and Lady Amherst’s
Pheasants, both of which are highly localised – indeed Lady Amherst’s
may now be extinct as a British breeding bird, with just one recent sighting
at its former stronghold in Bedfordshire.

Their better-known relative, the Common Pheasant, was also introduced, probably
by the Romans, but for food rather than pleasure. It has since become our most
widespread gamebird, and one of the commonest species of all, largely because up
to 35 million young birds are released each year for shooting. Pheasants are birds of
woodland and woodland edges, and are often very approachable, though when
surprised they fly away noisily. Females are often more skulking, especially during the
breeding season.
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The Lady Amherst’s Pheasant, originally brought here from Asia, is now doomed to disappear as a British breeding
bird in the next few years

The two species of partridge, Grey (or English) and Red-legged (or French), are
often seen together, though the introduced Red-legged is usually bolder and more
inclined to sit out in the open. Both species can be very wary, and with good reason:
partridge shooting is a popular sport. Early mornings and evenings are the best time
to look for them, especially on the edges of fields near cover such as long grass and
hedgerows. Their tiny relative, the Quail, is a rare summer visitor to southern Britain,
mostly in arable fields. It is hardly ever seen; if you come across it at all it is usually by
hearing its distinctive call, sometimes transcribed as ‘wet-my-lips’.
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Grey Partridges are declining faster than almost any other British bird, due to loss of habitat and food on farmland

The four members of the grouse family are a contrasting bunch in appearance,
habitat and behaviour. The Red Grouse is the species most often shot, and lives
exclusively on open moors in northern and western Britain. Red Grouse are always
very wary, often sitting tight before exploding in a flurry of wings and disappearing
low over the horizon. Listen out for their calls if you want to locate them. Black
Grouse and Capercaillie are both birds of the forest, though Black Grouse also live
on more open moors.
Both species partake in ‘lekking’ in early spring, in which a number of males
compete in a communal display in order to attract females. Sadly, because both
species are now rapidly declining it is not advisable to visit their leks, as this can
cause disturbance. Indeed, even walking through their habitat at this time of year is
now actively discouraged. Your best chance to observe their extraordinary and
wonderful behaviour is to visit a site where the birds can be viewed from a hide or
the road.
The other grouse species, the Ptarmigan, is a bird of the high Scottish
mountaintops. In winter it moults into a white plumage for camouflage amongst the
snow, while in spring, summer and autumn it goes through phases of grey and brown
to match the boulders amongst which it nests. Ptarmigans can be very
approachable, but beware of disturbing them by approaching too closely.
 DIVERS AND GREBES
Divers and grebes are both families of waterbirds, characterised by their
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ability to swim and dive. Unlike true wildfowl (ducks, geese and swans),
grebes only have partially webbed feet. In both divers and grebes the legs
are placed towards the rear of their body, making them well adapted to
water but clumsy on land.

Two species of diver, Red-throated and Black-throated, breed in Britain, while the
third, Great Northern, is a regular winter visitor. However, all three species are more
likely to be encountered outside the breeding season, generally offshore, though
occasionally on inland gravel pits or reservoirs. They are generally identified by their
distinctive outline, with strong dagger-like bill, and a low profile in the water.

The Red-throated Diver is the commonest member of its family to breed in Britain

As their name suggests, they dive frequently, often for long periods of time, and
are highly mobile underwater, sometimes reappearing a considerable distance from
where they originally dived. Despite their appearance they are strong flyers, usually
flying low over the waves in a very direct manner.
During the breeding season they nest at the edge of small lochs, where they may
draw attention to their presence by their plaintive calls. Indeed, in Shetland, the
Red-throated Diver is known as the ‘rain goose’ because of its supposed habit of
calling when it is going to rain! Remember that nesting divers are easily disturbed,
and never approach too closely.
Grebes are mainly birds of fresh water, especially during the breeding season. Two
 species, Little and Great Crested, are common British breeding birds, while the other
three, Slavonian, Black-necked and Red-necked, are rarer and more localised. All
grebes have ornate breeding plumage and impressive courtship displays, during
which they ‘dance’ in the water, rising up almost vertically or pursuing each other in
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pair-bonding movements, sometimes offering each other pieces of weed as a token

of their affection.

Our two smallest grebes: Little (top), and Black-necked (left, non-breeding; right, breeding plumage)

In winter all grebes apart from Little Grebe may also be found on the sea, usually
close inshore. All five species dive for food throughout the year. During the breeding
season Great Crested Grebes often cover up their eggs with weed to deter
predators, a habit which leads to the pale eggs becoming stained a greenish colour.
Once hatched the young will frequently hitch a ride on their parents’ backs, always
 a memorable sight.
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 SEABIRDS (SHEARWATERS, PETRELS, GANNET,
CORMORANTS, SKUAS, AUKS)
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This collection of different families has one thing in common: they are
generally found either around our coasts or out at sea (though in recent
years the Cormorant in particular has ventured inland to breed).

Shearwaters and petrels are ‘true’ seabirds, spending virtually the whole of their lives
at sea, and coming ashore only to breed. Four species breed in Britain and Ireland:
Manx Shearwater, European Storm-petrel, Leach’s Storm-petrel and Fulmar. The first
three visit their island breeding colonies only at night, to avoid predators such as
gulls, and as a result can be hard to see. All the petrels, like their relatives, are very
long-lived; one Fulmar ringed on Orkney was known to be well over 50 years old.

Well over three-quarters of the global population of Manx Shearwaters breed in Britain

Manx Shearwaters, as their name suggests, glide on stiff wings low over the sea,
and can be observed doing so either from the coast or from a boat, especially
during the evenings when they gather offshore before returning to their breeding
colony. The two species of storm-petrel are more pelagic in their behaviour, and are
only usually seen from land during onshore gales in autumn, when they may appear
in quite large numbers. The European Storm-petrel is a tiny bird with a weak,
fluttering flight; while its larger cousin Leach’s Storm-petrel has a more deliberate
flight action, often said to be like that of a nightjar, with flaps punctuated by long
glides. The Fulmar superficially resembles a gull, but a closer look reveals the
characteristic ‘tube nose’ which marks it out as a member of the petrel family, and
in flight its superb aerobatic ability makes it a joy to watch.
 The Gannet is Europe’s largest and most impressive seabird, especially when seen
at its huge nesting colonies off the Welsh, Scottish and northern English coasts. It is
superbly adapted for aerial diving, plummeting from a great height into the water in
order to catch fish. At breeding colonies you can also watch the birds displaying,
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squabbling and fighting over their tiny territories.

The Gannet is Britain’s largest seabird

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Gannets nest in vast colonies numbering thousands of birds, known as gannetries

The Cormorant and Shag are coastal species, but the Cormorant is also a
common sight inland, especially on rivers and gravel pits. Both species are
accomplished divers for fish, but because they do not have waterproof feathers
they must stand around afterwards drying their wings in a characteristic pose. Both
are also communal breeders: Shags on cliffs with other seabirds, and Cormorants in a
variety of places including trees, where they build untidy nests out of sticks.
Skuas are related to gulls and terns, but are more coastal in distribution than most
of their relatives. Both British breeding species, Great and Arctic Skuas, feed by
stealing from other birds, a habit known as kleptoparasitism. At seabird colonies they
can often be seen chasing birds like Kittiwakes or terns in order to get them to
regurgitate and drop their food! If you venture close to a skua breeding colony
watch out for another unpleasant habit: that of attacking intruders by flying towards
them at great speed – a really frightening experience. Outside the breeding season
skuas may also be seen offshore, from any of our coasts. Skuas are also fierce
predators: Great Skuas will attack and kill smaller seabirds such as Guillemots and
Kittiwakes.
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The Arctic Skua comes in two distinct colour forms: dark-morph (shown here) and light-morph

Auks are the northern hemisphere equivalent of penguins, and have many similar
characteristics – though unlike penguins they have not lost the ability to fly.
Generally, though, they are rather ungainly in the air, and also unsuited to land; their
real home is underwater, where they can dive to great depths in search of food.
There are four British breeding species, Guillemot, Razorbill, Puffin and Black
Guillemot. Guillemots and Razorbills nest on steep sea-cliffs, laying a single egg on a
narrow ledge; Puffins make burrows, while Black Guillemots breed in holes or crevices
amongst boulders. Outside the breeding season all auks become more pelagic in
behaviour, heading out to the open sea. Occasionally a storm will drive them on to
the coasts or even far inland, in what is known as a ‘wreck’.
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The Puffin takes the prize as Britain’s favourite seabird, even though many people have never seen one, as these
birds nest on remote offshore islands and sea-cliffs
 HERONS AND EGRETS
The three regular British breeding species of heron and egret, Grey Heron,
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Bittern and Little Egret, are representatives of a large family of long-legged

waterbirds found mainly in warmer parts of the world.
The Grey Heron is one of our largest flying birds, and is a familiar sight either
overhead or standing stock-still by the side of a lake or river, hunting its aquatic prey.
Herons fish mainly by stealth: waiting and watching, followed by a swift stab with
their sharp, powerful bill. They nest in large colonies (‘heronries’), and are very early
breeders, often starting in January and having young in the nest by March.
The Bittern is one of our shyest and most elusive birds. Dwelling in reedbeds, it rarely
shows itself, only occasionally appearing at the edge of the reeds, or seen briefly in
flight as it travels the short distance from one part of its territory to another. In winter
Bitterns can be more visible, especially during harsh weather, when they emerge
from their reedbed home to feed. Another good time to look for Bitterns is during
May and June when they are busy feeding young.

The Bittern – an elusive, reed-dwelling member of the heron family – is making a comeback after coming close to
extinction in Britain a couple of decades ago

The Little Egret is a recent colonist as a British breeding bird, and like many of its
relatives it nests colonially in trees. However, you are much more likely to see it
hunting for fish and aquatic invertebrates at low tide in coastal harbours or areas of
inland water near coasts. At high tide Little Egrets come together to roost,
sometimes in quite large flocks.
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Our commonest heron, the Grey Heron is found in a wide range of wetland habitats

In recent years several other species of heron and egret, along with other large
and long-legged wading birds, have bred here, and may be on the verge of
colonising permanently. These include Cattle Egret, Great White Egret and Little
Bittern, all of which have successfully bred on the Somerset Levels, and Spoonbill,
White Stork and Glossy Ibis, which have bred or attempted to breed in eastern
England. The Common Crane – Europe’s tallest bird at well over a metre high – also
now breeds regularly in East Anglia after an absence of more than 400 years, while
released birds have now begun to breed in the West Country too. Soon, perhaps,
we will witness the spectacular courtship dance performed by flocks of Cranes at
 their breeding sites.
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 RAPTORS
Raptors, or day-flying birds of prey (excluding owls), are a diverse group,
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which includes some of our best-known and most magnificent species,

such as eagles, hawks and falcons. Fifteen species breed in Britain, though
a number of these have a very restricted range, and are unlikely to be
seen without special effort.

Starting with the largest raptors, two species of eagles breed here: Golden and
White-tailed. Golden Eagles are mainly confined to Scotland and Ireland, though a
lone male still holds territory in the Lake District. These are magnificent birds, which
cover a vast territory and are never easy to find. In a suitable area look out for them
soaring on huge wings over crags and mountains, though bear in mind that they tend
to nest at lower levels than you might expect, to avoid having to carry prey
upwards! Like all large birds of prey they make use of thermals and are more likely to
be seen soaring in warmer weather. Golden Eagles usually have two young, but
usually the larger one ends up getting the majority of the food, so that its smaller and
weaker sibling starves to death, in a process known as ‘Cainism’ after the Biblical
story of Cain and Abel, in which one brother slew another.

The White-tailed (or Sea) Eagle is a fine example of a species that has been successfully reintroduced in Britain
after an absence of many years

The White-tailed or Sea Eagle went extinct as a British breeding bird in the early
 20th century, due to persecution. Since being reintroduced, the species is now
thriving on the rocky shores of western Scotland and the outlying islands, and is now
being reintroduced to areas on the east coast of Scotland as well. White-tailed
Eagles regularly follow fishing trawlers, consorting with the much smaller gulls to take
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a share of the fish thrown overboard, and can also be seen loafing around on
mudflats, especially on the Hebridean island of Mull, where there are watchpoints to
view the nests too.
The Osprey is our other fish-eating raptor, catching its prey by a feet-first plunge
over lakes or shallow seas. As long-distance migrants, Ospreys are regularly seen in
southern Britain on their journeys to and from Africa, sometimes hanging around
wetlands for days or even weeks. They often perch on prominent posts or trees. Most
breed in Scotland but there are a few pairs in England and Wales.

The Osprey (left) feeds on fish, while the Common Buzzard (right) has a wide-ranging diet including rabbits,
earthworms and carrion

The Common Buzzard is our commonest large raptor, and can often be seen on a
fine day soaring high over woods, especially in western Britain. Sometimes mistaken
for an eagle, its wing-shape is in fact quite distinctive: it usually holds its wings bowed
with the tips upward, and occasionally even hovers rather clumsily. The similar-looking
but not closely related Honey-buzzard is a rare and shy bird that feeds mainly on the
grubs of wasps and bees. It is a summer visitor; the best chance of seeing one is to
visit known breeding sites in late May when the birds are displaying. Unlike the
Common Buzzard it generally soars on flat wings.
Harriers and kites are superficially similar birds, with long wings and a habit of flying
low over the ground. The Red Kite gave its name to the child’s toy, and you can see
why: this is one of our most graceful and acrobatic birds of prey, often seizing food
 from the ground without landing. Like Common Buzzards they will sometimes hover as
they look for their prey. Having been reintroduced into parts of England and
Scotland, Red Kites are now thriving and can even be seen coming into gardens for
food in areas such as the Chilterns.
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Marsh Harriers are birds of reedbeds and other wetlands, and like all harriers they
fly low on V-shaped wings while hunting. Hen Harriers breed on moorland, though
winter in wetland areas. Both species are often best seen coming into reedbed
roosts in late afternoon during the winter. Montagu’s Harrier is a very rare British bird,
generally nesting in open farmland, over which it hunts on narrow wings that give it a
buoyant flight.

The female Montagu’s Harrier looks very different from her grey-coloured mate

The two hawks are both birds of wooded and forested areas. The commoner
Sparrowhawk has made a comeback since declining due to agricultural pesticides
that accumulated in its prey, and is a familiar sight in towns and suburbs. Often
merely glimpsed as it passes by, its fast, low flight, using hedges or buildings as cover,
is designed to surprise small birds. Sparrowhawks also have short, rounded wings and
a long tail to manoeuvre through foliage, which gives them a very distinctive flight
action out in the open: a short series of flaps followed by a glide. If you are lucky, a
Sparrowhawk may visit your garden and seize an unsuspecting songbird before your
very eyes, then sit nearby and pluck it ready for eating. Goshawks, by contrast, are
generally elusive and hard to see, despite their large size. They are forest-dwellers,
and the best way to catch sight of them is in late winter and early spring, when on a
fine day pairs will display above the forest canopy.
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Once confined to a small area of mid-Wales, the Red Kite has now successfully been reintroduced to much of
lowland Britain

The falcons are distinct from other raptors and belong to a different taxonomic
order. Four species breed in Britain, of which by far the most common (though now
sadly declining) is the Kestrel. Kestrels are generally seen hovering, a high-energy
hunting strategy that enables them to catch their favourite prey of voles. They may
also be seen soaring, gliding or simply sitting on a post or in a tree resting or watching
out for prey. Our largest falcon, the Peregrine, hunts even more spectacularly: flying
high in the sky before plummeting down at great speed onto an unsuspecting
pigeon or other bird. Peregrines are the fastest moving creatures in existence,
reaching speeds of more than 200 miles per hour when ‘stooping’. They can also be
seen hunting low over marshes in winter and moors in summer, often putting other
birds into a blind panic. In recent years they have moved into city centres and now
nest on large buildings such as church spires, from where they sit and survey their
territory.
Our smallest falcon, the Merlin, nests on moorland and winters on the coast. It is
another opportunistic hunter, which like the Peregrine chases and catches its prey
with an amazing turn of speed. Finally, the Hobby, a summer visitor to Britain, hunts
either by hawking for dragonflies (which it grabs in its talons and transfers to its bill to
eat, hardly breaking its flight pattern) or searching for flocks of Swallows and martins,
 which it chases and seizes in flight. Look out for Hobbies on fine days in late April and
May when groups often come together to hunt, especially over wetland areas.
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 RAILS AND CRAKES
There are just five species of rails and crakes found in Britain, showing very
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different behaviour. Two species, Coot and Moorhen, are relatively open in
their habits; while the remaining three, Water Rail, Corncrake and Spotted
Crake, are shy and elusive, with the latter two species often proving
almost impossible to see.

The Coot is such a common and widespread species in Britain it would be easy to
take it for granted. Yet when watched closely its behaviour is fascinating, especially
during courtship, when males will fight sometimes to the death. They do so by leaning
back into the water and using their feet and claws as weapons. During the breeding
season the Coot is one of the easiest birds to observe without disturbance: its nest is
easily found, and once the eggs have hatched the chicks and adults appear to be
well used to human beings. The young often beg their parents for morsels of food,
and the pair can have their work cut out keeping the hungry chicks satisfied. On land
or in flight Coots appear relatively clumsy.

Coot (left) and Moorhen (right) are both members of the rail family that have adapted to life on the water

The Moorhen shows very similar behaviour to the Coot, though instead of diving for
food it picks items from off or just beneath the water’s surface. Moorhens also
frequently feed on land, often on areas of damp grass by water. As they walk they
often bob their tail and head in a characteristic manner. Moorhens rarely seem to
fly, preferring to paddle rapidly across the water or dive into cover when alarmed.
Oddly, Moorhens are sometimes seen climbing trees, and on occasions even nest
there. During the breeding process, the youngsters from an earlier brood sometimes
help their parents with the new family.
The Water Rail is a much more terrestrial bird than its two aquatic cousins,
generally hiding away in dense reedbeds or other fringe vegetation around the edge
of ponds or lakes. Its long legs and large feet do allow it to wade and swim, but it is
really designed to squeeze through narrow gaps in reeds, its body being laterally
compressed to enable it to do so quickly and easily. Water Rails hunt their prey
avidly, spearing it or seizing it in that long, sharp bill. They rarely fly, generally flapping
a few yards before reaching cover. They do not appear to fear humans and can
give excellent views, especially if you are patient and prepared to wait.
 The Spotted Crake looks much like a smaller, stouter-billed Water Rail, and inhabits
the same semi-aquatic habitat of dense vegetation. However, it is even more
skulking, and often the only clue to its presence is its characteristic whiplash call. It is
a long-distance migrant, wintering in tropical Africa.
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The Spotted Crake is one of the most elusive of all British birds, but can sometimes be seen well on migration in
autumn

The Corncrake was once known as the Landrail, which gives a clue as to its
terrestrial lifestyle. Once widespread throughout Britain, it has suffered from the
spread of modern farming and is now confined to the extreme north and west of
Scotland and parts of Ireland. There, its call may be a ubiquitous ‘sound of summer’,
but seeing the bird presents a far greater challenge. Corncrakes are ventriloquial, so
pinpointing their position in long vegetation is almost impossible; best to wait
patiently and hope the bird eventually shows itself. Early in the season, when the
birds arrive back from Africa and the vegetation has not yet fully grown, is the best
time to try to get a good view.
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The Corncrake was once found across much of Britain, but is now largely confined to the extreme north-west of
Scotland
 WADERS
There are 30 or so species of waders that regularly breed, migrate through
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or winter in Britain. Dividing them up into groups on behavioural factors is

bound to be somewhat artificial, but for ease I have chosen a range of
categories, some artificial, others based on classification.

Plovers
Plovers are a diverse group of waders, which nevertheless share some obvious
characteristics, including a short, straight bill, usually used for picking items of food
off the surface of mud or the ground; shortish legs and a characteristic ‘stop-and-
start’ running action; and long wings, often used for epic migratory journeys.
The two smallest plovers in Britain are the Ringed and Little Ringed, and they have
very similar feeding habits. The Ringed Plover tends, however, to be a bird of coastal
areas, often found in the company of other small waders, though preferring to feed
singly. The Little Ringed Plover colonised Britain between the wars, using newly dug
reservoirs and gravel pits as nesting areas. Both species have very interesting
breeding habits, including the famous ‘distraction display’, in which the bird will call
plaintively while dragging its wing along the ground to draw predators (or human
beings) away from its nest or chicks.
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The Ringed Plover has a short, stubby bill which it uses to pick up morsels of food from the surface of mud

Two larger species, Grey and Golden Plovers, also form a ‘pair’; however, despite
their similarity of appearance they have rather different habits. Grey Plovers are
winter visitors to coastal marshes, usually seen singly or in loose groups; whereas
outside the breeding season Golden Plovers form flocks, often with Lapwings. During
the breeding season Golden Plovers will also perform the distraction display to ward
off predators on their moorland habitat.
The Lapwing is many people’s favourite wader, and with good reason: as well as
being stunningly beautiful, it also shows fascinating behaviour. Outside the breeding
season Lapwings form huge flocks, gathering on farmland or coastal marshes to feed.
They do so in characteristic plover style: taking a few rapid steps forward, pecking
briefly at a morsel of food, then running forward once again, constantly on the
lookout for more to eat. When disturbed Lapwing flocks rise up into the sky calling in
alarm. When courting, Lapwings perform a wonderful aerial display, tumbling through
the air like acrobats. Their young are, like all wading birds, precocial (able to leave
the nest immediately) and cryptically coloured to avoid being spotted and caught
by predators.
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With its pied plumage and distinctive crest, the Lapwing is one of our most easily identified breeding birds

The final representative of the plover family is the Dotterel. Confined as a breeding
bird to the highlands of Scotland, the Dotterel is occasionally seen in southern Britain
as a migrant, on its way back in spring from its African winter quarters. Amazingly
flocks (or ‘trips’) of Dotterels are creatures of habit, often turning up in the very
same field, on virtually the same day, from spring to spring. Once they reach their
breeding grounds Dotterels live up the origin of their name (it means ‘stupid fool’) by
being extraordinarily tame, often approachable to within a few feet (though this is
not advisable when the birds are breeding).

The Dotterel is unusual in that the female has a brighter plumage and takes the lead in courtship
 Small waders
This is a diverse group whose species have little in common, behaviour-wise, apart
from their size.
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The smallest of all are two species of stint: Little and Temminck’s. These tiny waders
are most often encountered on migration, as they feed frantically to build up fuel
before the next leg of their journey between the Arctic and Africa. Another long-
distance migrant, Curlew Sandpiper, whose name derives from its decurved bill, may
accompany them. Like its much commoner relatives, Dunlin, Knot and Sanderling, it is
a consummate traveller. Dunlins and Knots gather in huge flocks to feed and roost,
crowding together for safety against predators as the waters rise at high tide. In
flight, flocks of Knots appear to be controlled by some unseen hand, as they twist
and turn through the air with extraordinary coordination. Sanderlings gather in much
smaller groups on the tideline, racing away from the incoming water like little
clockwork toys, their legs going like the clappers!

Our smallest regularly occurring wader, the Little Stint is a passage migrant through Britain, mainly seen in late
summer and early autumn

Two distantly related species, Purple Sandpiper and Turnstone, are often seen
together on rocky shores, mainly in winter. They use their short, powerful bills to pluck
molluscs and other invertebrate prey from rocks. Turnstones are often seen in coastal
resorts, where they can be amazingly tame, even scrounging chips from bemused
holidaymakers.
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Waders such as Knots gather in vast flocks, especially when high tide forces them off their feeding areas and
towards a roost

Three other species, Common, Wood and Green Sandpipers, are usually
associated with fresh water, though on migration they also occur near the coast.
Common Sandpiper invariably bobs up and down when feeding, a useful
identification point (though Green can do the same thing). Green Sandpipers tend
to sit tight until flushed, and then fly away calling noisily; whereas Wood Sandpipers
behave more like a small ‘shank’, wading in deeper water with an elegant
movement and action.
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Common Sandpipers are often found on streams and rivers, where they bob up and down while searching for food

Medium waders
These four medium-sized waders are often encountered in a range of habitats and
locations. The three ‘shanks’, Redshank, Greenshank and Spotted Redshank, are all
long-legged waders with fairly long bills, and usually feed on mud or near the edge of
water. The Redshank is the classic ‘all-purpose’ wader, adapted to a range of
habitats, especially outside the breeding season. Its habit of taking flight and calling
in alarm as soon as it is approached has earned it the nickname ‘sentinel of the
marsh’. In the breeding season Redshanks call incessantly, often perching on fence
posts to get a better view of danger. Greenshank and Spotted Redshank are both
more specialised feeders, with the Spotted Redshank’s long legs and bill enabling it
to wade quite deep into the water, making it appear more like a godwit in habits.
The ‘odd man out’ is the Ruff, which can bear a superficial similarity in structure,
build and habits to the Redshank, especially outside the breeding season, when it
shares the same habitat. Ruffs also feed in drier areas, however, such as ploughed
fields. In the breeding season the Ruff’s behaviour is radically different: males (which
are much larger than females) develop a splendid headdress and gather in leks to try
to woo the females. After mating with her chosen male, each female incubates her
eggs and rears the chicks alone.
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Ruffs gather during the breeding season at a ‘lek’, but this is a rare sight in Britain as very few pairs nest here

Large waders
This collection of birds includes the two godwits and the Curlew and Whimbrel, as
well as oddities such as the Stone-curlew, Oystercatcher and Avocet.
The two species of godwit, Bar-tailed and Black-tailed, are both large, long-legged
wading birds characteristic of coastal wetlands. They generally gather in flocks,
Black-tailed feeding methodically in deep water, while Bar-tailed prefers sandy
shores and mudflats.
The Curlew and Whimbrel both have long, decurved bills that they use to probe
into mud or soil to find invertebrate food. During the breeding season both have
delightful display flights, uttering their haunting calls as they fly overhead. In winter
Curlews may gather in quite large flocks on estuaries or mudflats, or to feed in
flooded fields. Whimbrels migrate to Africa, often stopping off at coastal sites on
their way to refuel. In spring they may also be seen in fields as they stop to feed on
their journey north.
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With its long legs and bill, the Bar-tailed Godwit is able to feed in shallow water and probe deep into the mud for
food

The Stone-curlew is not a curlew at all, but a member of an African family known
as the ‘thick-knees’ due to their peculiar anatomy. It is a bird of dry farmland and
heath, and its large, staring eyes give away that it is mainly a crepuscular feeder.
Stone-curlews are brilliantly camouflaged, especially during the day when they
crouch in furrows, and are often only visible when they run from spot to spot on their
long legs.
The Oystercatcher is a classic bird of coastal areas, found in a variety of sandy and
muddy habitats where it can form huge flocks, especially at high-tide roosts. In the
breeding season it frequents very different habitats including the edge of lochs and
rivers, or grassy fields, sometimes far inland. Their ‘piping display’, in which several
birds will conduct what looks like a coordinated dance while uttering loud, piping
calls, is a great spectacle.
Surely our most elegant wading bird, the Avocet has an extraordinary upcurved
bill, which it uses in a unique way. Instead of poking, picking or probing the mud, it
sweeps its bill from side to side through water to filter out tiny aquatic organisms.
Avocets often feed in groups, but during the breeding season they can get very
territorial and aggressive when an intruder or potential predator comes near.

Snipe and Woodcock

Snipe, Jack Snipe and Woodcock are three species with long bills, short legs, cryptic
plumage and similar feeding habits.
 The Snipe is generally found in damp grassy areas, wet meadows or marshes,
feeding close to cover and probing its very long bill deep into the mud. It is easily
alarmed, flying away fast and high on rapidly beating wings. During the breeding
season it has an amazing ‘drumming’ display, in which it flies high into the sky before
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plummeting earthwards, making a strange noise by vibrating its tail feathers.

Snipe are able to probe their long bills deep into the earth even when the ground is covered with snow

Its smaller relative, the Jack Snipe, is far less easily seen, usually sticking very close
to cover. One way to tell the two species apart is the Jack Snipe’s characteristic
bobbing action, as if its body is mounted on springs. The Jack Snipe stays put almost
until it is trodden on, before flying silently away very fast and low, and soon taking
cover.
The Woodcock is, as its name suggests, a bird of woods and forests, where it can
be very difficult to see. Birds generally sit tight, relying on their cryptic plumage for
protection. Your best chance of observing a Woodcock is during the ‘roding’ display
on a fine evening in spring or early summer, when males fly around the tops of trees
flicking their wings and calling; or in autumn and winter, when feeding birds may be
 flushed from a damp patch in a wood.
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This Woodcock is beautifully camouflaged as it crouches down amongst dead leaves on the forest floor
 GULLS AND TERNS
Seven species of gulls and five terns regularly breed in Britain, while a
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number of other species occur on passage or as regular winter visitors.

There was a time when birders largely ignored gulls, perhaps because they
are common and familiar, but also because they exhibit a bewildering
range of different plumages that can be confusing. Yet gulls are one of
these easiest groups of birds of all to study, and close attention really does
pay off.

The species most likely to be encountered, especially inland, is Black-headed, which

has adapted so well to living alongside humans it is now a familiar sight in a whole
range of habitats including gardens. Other species such as Common, Herring and
Lesser Black-backed are also increasingly found inland, with the two larger species
even nesting on city roofs and feeding on landfill sites nearby. Watch out for all four
species flying into their roosts, especially on winter evenings when the numbers
involved can run into the thousands.
Nesting colonies of gulls are also fascinating to watch, with every kind of breeding
behaviour including complex courtship displays, mating, territorial squabbles and of
course the raising of chicks, an avian soap-opera free for anyone to enjoy. Larger
gulls, including Herring and Great Black-backed, often hang around on the edge of
Black-headed Gull colonies, ready to nip in and grab an egg or a chick that has
been left alone for a moment or two. Watch also for parent birds returning to their
young: they go through ritualised bonding before the adult finally regurgitates their
catch for the hungry chick.

The Great Black-backed Gull is the largest species of gull in Britain

 The Kittiwake is one of the most marine of all gulls, nesting mainly on rocky cliffs,
though also sometimes choosing warehouses on docksides. It is a sociable bird, and
at its large colonies it constantly utters the cry that gives it its name.
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Kittiwakes nest on narrow ledges, yet still manage to do their courtship displays there

Gulls can also be watched feeding, either opportunistically or when following a

fishing boat to catch cast-offs. Looking closely through a feeding flock is a good way
to pick up rarer species such as Glaucous and Iceland Gulls.
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The Common Gull has a distinctive mid-grey back, black wingtips edged with white, and a greenish-yellow bill

Two other species of gull are regular passage migrants or visitors: Mediterranean
and Little Gulls. The former species, though scarcer, also breeds here in small but
increasing numbers, usually among breeding Black-headed Gulls. Little Gulls have a
very buoyant, rather tern-like flight.
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The Mediterranean Gull is a relatively recent colonist to Britain, having first bred here in the late 1960s

Terns are, as one writer once said, ‘gulls that have died and gone to heaven’. With
their buoyant flight and graceful appearance they really do put clumsy gulls to
shame. Common Terns are now often encountered inland, either on passage or
breeding, especially on islands or artificial nesting rafts on gravel pits and reservoirs.
Like gulls they have complex courtship rituals. Their close relative, Arctic Tern, has a
much more coastal distribution and nests in large colonies, usually on offshore islands.
If you make the mistake of getting too close the defensive parents will often mob
you, even drawing blood with that dagger-like bill. Sandwich Terns are also birds of
the coast, more gull-like in appearance than their relatives. Little Terns are delightful
little birds, which nest on undisturbed shingle beaches around our coasts. Like other
terns they can be watched hunting for food by plunge-diving into water. Roseate
Terns are the rarest of our breeding species, found in a few colonies off the north-
east coasts of England and Scotland.
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The largest British breeding tern, this Sandwich Tern is bringing back food for its hungry chick
 PIGEONS AND DOVES
There really is no clear difference between pigeons and doves, apart from
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the fact that doves tend to be smaller and more delicate. There are five
British species, three of which are almost ubiquitous: the Woodpigeon,
Collared Dove, and the street Feral Pigeons which descend from
domesticated Rock Doves. A few wild Rock Doves still live on remote
coasts in northern and western Scotland. The Stock Dove is widespread
but often overlooked, and the Turtle Dove, the only migratory member of
its family in Britain, is much scarcer than formerly.

The Feral Pigeon is one of the commonest British birds, yet paradoxically it is virtually
ignored by birders, thanks presumably to its dubious origin as a domesticated
species. Yet if you want to observe bird behaviour at close quarters it is one of the
best species to choose: widespread, used to humans and fascinating to watch. In
early spring look out for males performing their courtship display to nonchalant
females. To see the wild ancestor of this bird, the Rock Dove, you will need to travel
to outlying islands and headlands in north-west Scotland, where the last remaining
purebred birds still hold their own. These are much shyer than their feral
descendants, flying away as soon as you get near.
The Woodpigeon, originally a bird of woodlands and farmland, has adapted very
well to living alongside humans in cities, towns and gardens. It is not the most
graceful of birds, but like all successful species has learned to be versatile in its
feeding and breeding habits.

The Wood Pigeon is one of the commonest birds of the British countryside
 A relatively recent colonist from Europe (having arrived in the 1950s), Collared
Doves have become a familiar bird of towns and suburbs, especially well-wooded
ones. They often visit bird tables, though like all pigeons they remain constantly wary,
always on the lookout for danger. They nest throughout the year, and can have eggs
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or chicks in the nest in the middle of winter.

Stock Doves may prove to be hard birds to find; they keep themselves to
themselves for much of the year, though on fine days in spring look out for pairs
displaying over woodland. They will also visit gardens in some areas. Outside the
breeding season Woodpigeons, Feral Pigeons and Stock Doves may join together in
flocks to feed, especially on farmland.
The smallest British member of the family, the Turtle Dove, is a very shy bird, best
detected by its purring call in May and June, after it has arrived back from Africa.
Turtle Doves may be seen more easily on autumn migration, when they leave woods
and heaths and feed on farmland and coastal areas. However, in the past few
decades the population has plummeted and the Turtle Dove is now absent from
many of its former haunts.

The delicate and beautifully-marked Turtle Dove is now threatened with extinction as a British breeding bird, thanks
to modern farming methods
 OWLS, CUCKOO AND NIGHTJAR
This miscellaneous group of non-passerine birds includes our largest family
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of nocturnal birds, the owls, with five British breeding species; and the only
British representatives of two worldwide families: the nocturnal, summer-
visiting Nightjar, and another summer visitor that lays its eggs in other birds’
nests, the Cuckoo.

Owls are difficult to observe, largely because they are either nocturnal or
crepuscular in habits, and even those species that do fly by day may be hard to find.
Once seen, they are unmistakable: a combination of shape, forward-facing eyes and
behaviour marks them out as unique. Owls have adapted to fit specific habitats, and
as a result it is rare to see more than one species in the same place. During the
daytime, a roosting owl can often be located by watching and listening for small
birds agitatedly mobbing the intruder in their midst.
Our commonest species, the Tawny Owl, is also one of our most secretive: it is
highly sedentary, spending most of its life in the same small territory, which it gets to
know very well indeed. This is essential for a bird that is almost entirely nocturnal. As a
result the best way to find this species is to listen for its characteristic hooting and
ʻke-vickʼ calls in late winter or early spring, when birds are marking out their territory
prior to breeding. Once you have found a territory look for suitable nesting holes,
usually halfway up a mature tree, and hope that you are lucky. Another way to find
Tawny Owls, especially outside the breeding season, is to search for a roosting bird.
During the daytime Tawny Owls sit tight, usually in a hollow in a tree trunk, and once
you have found them may be easily visible.
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The Tawny Owl is the commonest British owl, and also one of the most sedentary and nocturnal
 Barn Owls exploit a quite different habitat: open farmland, ideally of a more
traditional nature, with older buildings where they can enter and make their nest.
They are often seen at dawn or dusk, hunting like white ghosts over fields and
marshes in search of their favourite prey of voles. With their soft plumage designed to
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allow silent flight, Barn Owls are especially vulnerable to getting wet and may miss a
night’s hunting if there is heavy rain. So if it has rained for a day or two and then
stopped, that is a good time to look out for them as they will be eager to resume
hunting. If you do find one you will marvel at its silent, slow and agile flight, with a
short, strongly flapping hover preceding the plummet to earth to catch its prey.

The Barn Owl hunts by floating low over the ground, on soft, silent wings

Little Owls are the most diurnal owl species (along with Short-eared). They were
introduced to southern Britain from continental Europe during the nineteenth
century, and have become an established and generally welcome member of our
avifauna. Little Owls frequently perch on the sides of trees (especially oak), or on
stumps, fence posts or the roofs of farm buildings, where they sit and wait before
plunging down to catch their prey of insects, worms and small rodents. They are
often found in parks, though an early morning visit is a good idea as too much human
activity around may disturb them, causing them to retreat to their hiding places.
Long-eared and Short-eared Owls form a ‘species pair’, yet have quite different
habits. Like the Little Owl, Short-eared is primarily diurnal, and will hunt low over
moors and marshes on long, lazy wings, often looking more like a harrier than an owl.
This makes it probably the easiest owl species to see well. Long-eared Owls are a
 complete contrast: almost entirely nocturnal, and very hard to see. However, you
may be lucky enough to discover (or find out about) a daytime roost, where up to a
dozen birds will spend the daylight hours huddled together in dense scrub.
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The ‘ears’ on a Long-eared Owl are in fact tufts of feathers, and do not help the bird hear

The Nightjar is another difficult bird to see: you have to find a suitable lightly
 wooded heath or young conifer plantation, mainly in the south of Britain, and wait
patiently at dusk – preferably on a fine evening between mid-May and July. If you
are lucky, you will witness the incredible sight of this extraordinary bird gracefully
hawking for insects, or a male in display, flashing the white patches on his wings while
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uttering his churring song. During the day Nightjars roost on heather or on the
ground, and should not be disturbed.

Nightjars hunt by night, using their exceptional eyesight to catch moths and other insects

The Cuckoo is our only parasitic breeding bird, each female laying up to 20 eggs in
different nests of her host species, a strategy which maximises the chances of
breeding success. Cuckoos parasitise a particular host species (the one in whose
nest they were born), the three most common in Britain being Meadow Pipit,
Dunnock and Reed Warbler. The female Cuckoo ejects one of the host’s eggs
before depositing her own.
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The Cuckoo is the only British bird that lays its eggs in other birds’ nests

Once hatched, the Cuckoo chick grows very rapidly, ejecting any remaining eggs
or chicks, and being fed frantically by the unsuspecting host parents until it becomes
far too big for its tiny nest. Meanwhile the parent Cuckoos depart for Africa in June
or July without ever seeing their offspring, which having fledged manages to find its
way south by itself. Watch out for Cuckoos in late April or early May, when males
have just arrived back and are easier to see as they sing from prominent places to
attract a female.
 PARAKEET, KINGFISHER AND DIPPER
Another motley collection of birds: two linked by their gaudy colours, and
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the other a passerine that thinks it is a waterbird.

Parakeets really have no place in a book about British birds; apart from the fact that
they have somehow become an established part of our avifauna during the past six
decades or so, descended from escapees in south-eastern England. The original birds
have thrived, bred and spread, and the current population is more than 17,000,
showing how well the species has adapted to its new surroundings. Originally from
northern India, the Rose-ringed (or Ring-necked) Parakeet is a highly adaptable
species, able to withstand extreme cold and to exploit artificial and natural food
resources, including food put out for the birds by us. Its favourite habitat is large
wooded parks, where it nests in holes in trees (possibly threatening native hole-
nesting species such as the Jackdaw, Stock Dove and Starling). Parakeets are easy
to see, thanks to their habit of flying in flocks while uttering noisy high-pitched
contact calls. If you spend time watching them you’ll see they are fascinating birds,
exhibiting the agility, intelligence and sophisticated social life that make parrots such
an interesting family. At dusk they fly overhead in large flocks, on their way to a
communal roost.
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A familiar sight on bird-feeders in the London suburbs, the Rose-ringed Parakeet is exceptionally agile and
acrobatic

The Kingfisher is even more striking than the parakeets; indeed it has no rival for
the position of our most colourful native species. A much smaller bird than many
people expect, it can also be elusive, often only seen as it flies away in a flash of
blue and orange. However, find a regular site and you may be lucky enough to get
excellent views of the bird feeding by plunging into the water for small fish and other
aquatic life. Kingfishers nest in holes in sandy banks, and although the nest itself is
hidden underground the birds can be observed going to and fro.
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The Kingfisher is one of the most beautiful of all Britain’s birds, though it is often hard to see as it can be quite shy

The Dipper is unique: a songbird that hunts for its food underwater. Superficially
resembling a huge wren, its aquatic habits and black-and-white coloration have
earned it the folk-name of ‘water ouzel’. Dippers prefer fast-flowing streams and
rivers, and once you have found them will provide hours of entertainment as they fly
to and fro, perch on rocks bobbing up and down, or plunge beneath the water in
order to catch their aquatic food. They nest underneath the banks in a crevice or
hole, and the young leave the nest before they are fully fledged, and are fed by the
parents.
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The Dipper is the only British songbird that can dive under water to feed
 WOODPECKERS
Britain has only three native species of woodpecker, compared with 10 in
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continental Europe – and until recently (when Great Spotted colonised for
the first time) none in Ireland! The reason is simply that as poor flyers and
largely sedentary species, woodpeckers only spread north and westwards
slowly after the end of the last Ice Age. Three pioneering species (plus the
Wryneck, now almost extinct in Britain) managed to cross the land bridge
to England before the sea cut us off from the continent, while none quite
managed to reach Ireland before it too became an island. Woodpeckers
excavate a new nest hole every year, so the old, disused holes are vital to
other species of hole-nesting bird including Starling, Jackdaw and the
introduced Rose-ringed Parakeet.
Two out of three British woodpeckers are relatively common and easy to see. Our
largest species, the Green Woodpecker, is a bird of relatively open grassy areas with
scattered trees, such as large parks, where it can be seen on the ground, feeding on
its favourite food of ants. It also visits large open lawns, but is quite shy and will
always be on the lookout, so don’t approach too closely. This species drums less
often than its ‘spotted’ relatives, and is best located by its far-carrying laughing call,
which earned it the folk-name of ‘Yaffle’, and is supposed to forecast rain.

Our largest member of its family, the Green Woodpecker often feeds on the ground on ants

Of the two black-and-white woodpeckers, the Great Spotted is by far the

commonest and most frequently seen. It drums more often than the other two
species, and can also be detected by its penetrating ‘chip’ call. Great Spotted
prefers more dense woodland than the Green, but is also a frequent visitor to
 gardens, where it will readily feed on bird feeders. It can also prey on birds, raiding
nests and nestboxes for chicks. Look out for its undulating flight pattern.
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Great Spotted Woodpeckers are now a familiar sight in parks and gardens, including those in towns and cities

The smallest European woodpecker, Lesser Spotted is far more elusive. Indeed, it
behaves much more like a passerine than a woodpecker, creeping around the
topmost branches of a tree like a Treecreeper or Nuthatch (which it resembles in
size if not appearance). Your best chance of seeing it is in early spring when birds are
calling and drumming; or in winter, when they often tag along on the edge of a tit
flock as it passes through woodland in search of food. Nevertheless you rarely get
good views of this species.
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The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker is our smallest, rarest and most elusive woodpecker
 SWIFT, SWALLOW AND MARTINS
Despite a superficial similarity, Swifts are not at all closely related to
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hirundines, the group that includes Swallow and martins. Nevertheless I

have treated them together for the sake of convenience, as they share
similar behavioural traits.

Swifts are among the most incredible birds in the world. They are the ultimate flying
machines, able to stay aloft for months (even a year or more), and only landing to
breed. Even then a Swift will never intentionally land on the ground, as its tiny legs
placed at the rear of its body mean that it can never take flight again under its own
steam. As a result Swifts nest in crevices in high buildings, where they can cling easily
to the walls and ‘fall’ back into the air. They return en masse in late April or early
May, appearing in huge numbers over reservoirs and marshes where they can find
plenty of insect food to refuel after their long journey from tropical Africa. Then they
disperse to towns and cities throughout the country, where they spend the evenings
chasing each other across the skyline, uttering the screams that gave them the folk-
name ‘the devil bird’.
Swifts usually begin nesting in May, but if bad weather arrives will often disappear
for days or even a week or more, their young staying torpid in the nest until the
adults return and begin feeding them again. Once the young leave the nest they are
entirely independent of their parents, foraging for tiny flying insects on their own. The
sight of Swifts flying high for insects on a warm summer’s evening is one of the most
characteristic scenes of summer life, and when they suddenly disappear in August
the urban landscape seems a poorer place without them.
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The Swift is the most aerial of all British birds, spending virtually the whole of its life in the air
 Of the three true hirundines, the House Martin is the Swift’s urban and suburban
companion, nesting under the eaves of houses. As its name suggests, it has adapted
brilliantly to live alongside humans, having originally nested in caves and on the sides
of cliffs. The birds arrive back in late April, check out their nesting sites, then often
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disappear for a week or so to feed on nearby lakes or reservoirs. Once they return
they get down to repairing and rebuilding their old nests, or starting new ones from
scratch, using mud collected from a nearby stream, building site or farmyard. They
will also readily take to artificial nestboxes, especially useful when a supply of mud is
not easily available. They are wonderful birds to observe as they go to and fro to
feed their hungry young, though their noisy calls can wake you up early. On fine
summer evenings (and indeed well into the autumn) they can be seen hawking for
insects, sometimes high in the sky.

House Martins build their nests out of tiny pellets of mud

Sand Martins are birds of gravel pits, quarries, undercliffs and riverbanks; anywhere
where they can burrow into a soft bankside and raise their families. They are very
early arrivers, often here by mid-March, and like other hirundines they feed over
water where there is a plentiful supply of small flying insects. If you find a colony it will
give you hours of fascinating observation.
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Sand Martin (left) and Swallow (right) are both summer visitors to Britain, spending the winter in sub-Saharan Africa

The Swallow is not only a sign of summer, but also one of our best-loved birds. Its
graceful flight and habit of nesting close to human habitation (especially in
farmyards) makes it a familiar and welcome summer visitor. Swallows will build their
nests in buildings and barns, and can easily be detected by their noisy calls. They
tend to hunt lower than martins, often skimming the grass in between farm animals
that attract insects. In late summer and early autumn look out for gatherings of
Swallows and martins as they perch on telegraph wires prior to migration, filling the
air with their contact calls.
 LARKS, PIPITS AND WAGTAILS
Three groups of birds, two of which (larks and pipits) are not related but
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superficially resemble each other; and two of which (pipits and wagtails)
are related but at first sight may appear quite different. However, a closer
look reveals similarities in structure and behaviour.

There are three species of larks found in Britain, two breeders and one wintering. Of
these by far the most common is the Skylark, one of our best-known and best-loved
birds, which sadly in recent years has undergone a decline in numbers. Nevertheless
it is still widely distributed in the countryside, in various habitats from lowland farms to
upland moors. It is most famous for its extraordinary song-flight, during which the bird
rises so high in the sky it may become almost invisible, pouring its heart out in a
continuous song before plummeting down to earth. Once on the ground, it generally
lands some distance from its nest and runs the last few metres, making it hard to
discover the location of the nest. Outside the breeding season Skylarks form large
flocks which range over stubble fields to feed. They may also undertake local
movements, especially during hard weather in winter.

The Skylark (left) and Woodlark (right) both have beautiful songs that are widely celebrated in poetry and music

The Woodlark, despite its name, is actually a bird of open heath with a few
scattered trees. Once threatened with extinction as a British breeding bird, it has
made a remarkable recovery in recent years, thanks partly to the felling of conifer
populations and the creation of more open heath. It has a beautiful song, often
uttered early in the spring from a song-post on a bush or tree.
The Shore Lark is a winter visitor to Britain, and as its name suggests is found on
sandy shores and coastal saltmarshes. It usually forms loose flocks, often associating
with Skylarks and Snow and Lapland Buntings.
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The Meadow Pipit is one of the most widespread of all Britain’s breeding birds, found in a wide range of upland and
lowland habitats

Our three breeding species of pipits exploit a wide range of habitats. The Meadow
Pipit is highly adaptable and catholic in its choice of habitat, and is a typical bird of
moors, heaths and grassy fields. In winter it also comes down to the coast, where it
may be confused with its much more specialised relative the Rock Pipit. This species
is unique amongst British birds in that it is the only songbird to have an exclusively
coastal breeding distribution. Tree Pipit is more a bird of heathland and the edge of
woodland plantations, performing its song-flight from a high perch, and launching
itself into the air before parachuting down again.
Finally, the Water Pipit is also unique: it is the only British songbird to arrive from the
south as a non-breeding visitor. Breeding in the high mountains of Europe, it spends
the winter in a range of habitats including riverside, watercress beds and marshes. All
pipits are gregarious birds, often forming loose feeding flocks.
Of our three wagtail species, the Pied Wagtail is by far the most widespread and
adaptable. It seems to love concrete and tarmac, often being the only bird to walk
around this unpromising ‘habitat’, apparently picking up tiny morsels of insect food
 while bobbing its tail. It will also regularly visit garden lawns. Pied Wagtails roost in
some unusual places, such as trees in the centre of city squares and shopping
centres, or factories, where they take advantage of extra warmth provided by
industry or retail outlets. In flight they give a characteristic ‘chis-ick’ call.
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Pied Wagtails are one of the most familiar of all town and city birds, found in parks, gardens and roadsides

Yellow and Grey Wagtails can be confused on first view, as both have plenty of
yellow in their plumage; however, they are structurally quite different with the Grey
much longer-tailed. Yellow Wagtails are summer visitors, generally seen on marshes
and flooded fields (an increasingly scarce habitat), while Grey Wagtails are resident,
and are closely associated with running water such as streams or rivers, though they
can also be found round the edge of reservoirs and ponds. Both feed in the
characteristic manner of their family.
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Despite its bright lemon-yellow colour, this is actually a Grey Wagtail

 THRUSHES AND CHATS
In this group I include a dozen familiar and not-so-familiar species, including
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six ‘true’ thrushes, and six smaller species known as ‘chats’, which are
closely related to each other. Chats have much in common behaviourally
with the thrush family, although recent DNA studies show they are actually
more closely related to the flycatchers. A seventh chat, the Robin, is dealt
with in the following section.

Of the thrushes, the most familiar must surely be the Blackbird. Found throughout
Britain apart from some upland areas (where it is replaced by the Ring Ouzel), it is a
common and familiar resident in towns, suburbs and the countryside, and is
particularly partial to nesting in gardens. Early in the year listen out for the deep, fluty
song of the male, or the angry chattering call as it chases away potential rivals.
Blackbirds are highly territorial, and the male will continue singing even when he is
feeding chicks. The female is a much less obvious bird, which generally feeds by
creeping around in the undergrowth. In autumn Blackbirds often feed on windfall
apples, alongside other thrushes.
The Ring Ouzel is the upland equivalent of the Blackbird, so is mainly seen in
northern and western Britain. It is a summer visitor, and may sometimes be found on
migration in lowland habitats, which it tends to visit year after year. Like the Blackbird
it is an excellent songster, perching high on bushes and rocks in order to deliver its
song.

The Ring Ouzel is the highland version of its cousin the Blackbird, found on moors and mountains in northern and
western Britain

The Mistle Thrush and Song Thrush are often confused, though their size and
 plumage details are fairly distinctive. Behaviourally, too, they differ: the Song Thrush
prefers more wooded habitats and gardens, generally singing from the top of roofs;
while the Mistle Thrush is a bird of open parkland with scattered trees which it uses as
song-posts. The Mistle Thrush also has the reputation of singing before and during
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bad weather, which earned it the country name of ‘Stormcock’. Outside the
breeding season Mistle Thrushes often gather in flocks, calling as they fly overhead in
search of open areas of grass to feed. In winter they defend berry bushes against all-
comers. Song Thrushes tend to be shyer and more solitary, leaving gardens for
nearby wooded areas. Song Thrushes are avid consumers of snails, breaking their
shells on a large stone known as an ‘anvil’ in order to get at the juicy contents.
In autumn these native species are joined by our two ‘winter thrushes’, the
Redwing and Fieldfare. In some ways these are the northern equivalents of the Song
Thrush and Mistle Thrush respectively. Both species travel in loose flocks, sometimes
with each other, and raid berry bushes or feed in the open in fields. They also
migrate in flocks, calling to each other as they pass overhead, often at night.
Our first two species of chats each exploit slightly different habitats. Whinchats are
birds of upland areas such as moors, though on migration they can be seen almost
anywhere. Stonechats are more associated with gorse and heathland habitat, but
those birds that do not migrate will spend the winter in more general habitats such
as near reedbeds. Whinchats all migrate to sub-Saharan Africa for the winter.
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The Whinchat was once found throughout much of Britain, but has now been driven back into the uplands due to
habitat loss and lack of food

A close relative, the Wheatear, is also a migrant, arriving back as early as March. It
is also a bird of moorland areas, though is often found on beaches and other coastal
areas during migration, feeding on the ground. Its name has nothing to do with
wheat – it is a corruption of an Anglo-Saxon word meaning ‘white-arse’, which when
you see the bird flicking its tail and wings to reveal its white rump seems very
appropriate.
The names of two other chats, the redstarts, also derive from Anglo-Saxon, ‘start’
 meaning ‘tail’. The reddish-brown tail is an obvious identification feature. The
Redstart is a summer visitor, and mainly found in mature broad-leaved woodland,
where its song is often the first clue to its presence. It can be a shy bird, but may be
seen visiting its nest hole. Like other chats and thrushes it may be found in a wider
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range of habitats on migration. Its scarcer cousin, the Black Redstart, has more
peculiar tastes in terms of habitat. On the continent it is a bird of rocky slopes, cliffs
and towns, but in Britain it prefers to breed in industrial areas such as building sites
and even nuclear power stations, having colonised via bombsites after the Second
World War. In autumn and winter birds often disperse to coastal areas, and are
generally found near water where they can find insect food.
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The Redstart (top) and Black Redstart (bottom) both have red tails – the word ‘start’ derives from an Anglo-Saxon
word meaning ‘tail’

Another chat is the bird celebrated more than any other by poets and writers: the
Nightingale. It is a paradoxical bird: one with a stunning song yet a drab plumage
and shy, retiring habits. Your best chance of seeing one is when the males arrive
back in late April and early May and begin singing to defend a territory and attract
a mate, often sitting right out in the open. Once the females arrive and they pair up
the males become incredibly shy, singing from the centre of dense foliage in their
woodland habitat or on the edge of heaths. At this stage they may simply be
 impossible to see, but they sound wonderful. As you might expect they do sing at
night, though they often give plenty of song during the daylight hours as well.
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The Nightingale is justifiably the most famous songster in Britain, though its population has declined in recent
decades
 ROBIN, DUNNOCK AND WREN
These three familiar garden species are among our commonest and best-
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known birds, and each provides a perfect opportunity to study fascinating

behaviour at close quarters, often from the comfort of your home.
The Robin, which is a species of chat, regularly wins polls of Britain’s best-loved bird,
yet is perhaps the most aggressive of all our songbirds, with rivals fighting viciously,
sometimes even to the death. Once they have established their territory they will
defend it violently, with both sexes being strongly territorial. Robins nest in a wide
variety of places, including bizarre locations such as toilet cisterns, under the bonnet
of vehicles, and at the top of drainpipes. They will also readily take to nestboxes.
Once hatched the young may appear in your garden, looking quite unlike their smart
red-breasted parents. In autumn our native Robins are joined by continental
immigrants, which often appear in quite large numbers on the east coast during
‘falls’ brought about by the right weather conditions. Robins are one of the very few
birds that sing all year round (even at night, which often leads to out-of-season
claims of Nightingales). They do so in order to defend a territory in autumn and
winter; and unusually amongst British birds, female Robins also hold a territory and
sing at this time of year.

The Robin has been closely associated with Christmas and the Festive Season for more than a century, partly
because of its confiding habits

The shy, unobtrusive Dunnock has a torrid sex-life. Both sexes are often
polygamous, having a main ‘alpha’ partner but also a regular ‘beta’ partner on the
sly, and a male may follow his mate about to try to prevent her from mating with
 other males. He will even use his bill to remove sperm from her cloaca. Singing male
Dunnocks often pick elevated and prominent song-perches. Otherwise they tend to
creep about flower borders like little mice, occasionally venturing out onto the lawn
to pick up seeds dropped from a feeder or bird table.
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The Dunnock was once known as the ‘Hedge Sparrow’, even though it is actually a member of the accentor family

Wrens are also very territorial, and like the Dunnock the male becomes highly
visible in early spring, often singing right out in the open, with an incredibly loud song
for such a small bird. Male Wrens often build several proto-nests, from which the
female chooses the best and completes it before laying her eggs. Outside the
breeding season Wrens hop about unobtrusively in search of insect food, and in
harsh winter weather will often roost in empty nestboxes, with several birds huddling
together for warmth.
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The Wren is now Britain’s commonest bird by far, with at least seven million breeding pairs
 WARBLERS
There are 13 regular breeding species of warbler in Britain, and two species
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of warbler-like ‘crests’. Most are summer visitors, and all 15 can be

grouped into three categories by habitat.

Wetland warblers
This category includes five species that are habitually associated with wetland areas
during the breeding season, though the actual habitat varies from species to
species. The classic ‘reedbed’ species is the Reed Warbler, which as its name
suggests lives almost exclusively in reeds, where it makes its nest by weaving grasses
around the reed stems. It can be heard delivering its distinctive, repetitive song from
mid-April, though birds may be reluctant to show themselves, especially in windy
weather when they tend to stay low down in the reeds.

Reed Warblers come north from Africa each spring to breed in Britain’s reedbeds
 Its close relative the Sedge Warbler shares its reedbed habitat, though tends to sit
on a more prominent perch such as a small bush in order to deliver its song. Males
also launch themselves into the air in a song-flight, parachuting down to their perch
as they sing.
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Very similar in appearance to the Reed Warbler, the Marsh Warbler is much rarer
in Britain, and prefers damp wooded habitat on the edge of ponds and streams. It is
a highly accomplished mimic, and the song may include an incredible variety of
snatches from the songs of other birds – not just British species but those
encountered on its African winter quarters as well.
Grasshopper Warbler is so-named after its extraordinary reeling song, which
sounds like a cross between an insect and a fishing reel. It too prefers a less ‘wet’
habitat, and is often found in quite dry bushy areas near the edge of marshy ones. It
tends to sing most at dawn, dusk and even through the night, and although not
usually easily visible, once discovered may allow quite a close approach.
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Although Blackcap (top) and Garden Warbler (bottom) are different in appearance, they have remarkably similar
songs

The final ‘wetland’ species, Cetti’s Warbler, is a fairly recent colonist to Britain, and
unlike most other warblers it is a resident species. Its presence is usually noted when it
sings its incredible explosive, richly melodious song. Occasionally the bird may show
itself, sometimes even giving good views, but it is usually frustratingly hard to locate.

Scrub warblers
This category covers warblers of the genus Sylvia, a largely Mediterranean group of
 birds of which five species breed in Britain.
The most familiar of these is probably the Blackcap. Not only is it a common
summer visitor, found in a variety of rural and suburban habitats including large
gardens, but in recent years a population from central Europe has also begun to
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spend the winter in Britain, often visiting gardens in search of food. The Blackcap is a
fine songster, often compared with the Nightingale, though without the same range
and beauty. Garden visitors have become quite adaptable, feeding on bird tables
and feeders, though the birds that are here in summer mainly live in woodland areas.
Its sibling species, the Garden Warbler, is not a very frequent garden visitor,
despite its name. It prefers fairly open woods, but because of its retiring habits,
unmarked plumage and very similar song to the Blackcap it is often overlooked. The
song tends to be faster, less varied and lacking the fluty tones of its commoner
relative.
The two whitethroats also form a species pair, separated by their different choice
of habitat. The Common Whitethroat is found in a range of habitats including heath,
hedgerows, farmland and parks, and draws attention to its presence by singing its
rapid, scratchy song either from a prominent perch or from mid-air in a steeply rising
song-flight. After the breeding season it may be found feeding on berries in
preparation for its long journey to sub-Saharan Africa.
The Lesser Whitethroat is far more elusive than its cousin, and its presence may
only be detected by its sharp, dry call or fairly distinctive rattling song, emanating
from dense scrub or bushes.

The Lesser Whitethroat is one of the most skulking British warblers, though males do sometimes sing out in the open
 The final member of this group, the Dartford Warbler, is a truly resident species, on
the northern edge of its range in Britain. It prefers gorse and heathland as a breeding
species, often singing prominently from the top of bushes, especially during fine
spring weather. Outside the breeding season some birds disperse to less specialised
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habitat, including bracken and parkland.

Leaf warblers and crests

The three British ‘leaf’ warblers are well known to be so similar that they were not
told apart until the 18th century, when Gilbert White distinguished between the
species. In fact with modern identification techniques and optics (which of course
White did not have) the three species are fairly straightforward to identify. They also
display quite different behaviour.
The Willow Warbler and Chiffchaff are the two most similar species of the three. As
well as their very distinctive songs, they also exploit rather different habitats, with
Willow Warbler preferring heathland as well as mixed woodland, and Chiffchaff often
found on the edge of woodland. Both are active feeders, and on migration can be
found in unusual habitats such as coastal scrub and even gardens. Chiffchaffs also
winter in good numbers, especially in the milder south-west, and are often found
near water where they can be seen hunting for insects.

Chiffchaff (left) and Willow Warbler (right) are best told apart by their very distinctive songs

The Wood Warbler is a larger, brighter bird and has a very distinctive singing
behaviour: shivering its wings in time with its delightful song, then flying a short
distance to another part of its territory and starting to sing again elsewhere in the
woodland canopy.
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The Wood Warbler is a summer visitor to western Britain, often found in oakwoods and other ancient woodlands

The two ‘crests’ are very active, tiny birds (the smallest in Europe), constantly on
the move in search of tiny insects. Both are found in a variety of woodlands, though
Goldcrests have a preference for conifers and will often hunt deep inside the foliage
and so can be hard to see. Listen out for their distinctive calls and song, which are
often the best way to find them. Firecrests tend to move on more quickly from tree
to tree than Goldcrests, and are often found in autumn and winter near the coast,
or near water, where a milder climate encourages more insects. Both species will
follow flocks of tits in winter.
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The Goldcrest is Britain’s smallest bird, weighing barely five grams – the same as a sheet of A4 paper or a 20 pence
coin
 FLYCATCHERS
Two species of flycatchers, both summer visitors, breed in Britain.
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The Spotted Flycatcher is the most widespread, found in a range of lowland habitats
including rural gardens and woods. Like all members of its family it lives up to its
name, sallying forth from a branch or twig to catch small flying insects in its bill,
before returning to its perch. Spotted Flycatchers are among the latest migrants to
return, and once here they nest in crevices in walls, open ledges or in tree-forks.
The Pied Flycatcher is, by contrast, a hole-nester, and prefers mature mixed
woodlands, mainly in the western half of Britain. Like its relative it also flycatches for
food. Both species may turn up in unusual places during migration.
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Pied Flycatchers readily take to breeding in nestboxes, especially where holes in trees are in short supply
 TITS, NUTHATCH AND TREECREEPER
This set of woodland species often spend time in close proximity, especially
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during autumn and winter when they will form mixed flocks comprising
several different species, to hunt for insect food. During this time of year
the wood may seem empty until you hear some tiny, high-pitched contact
calls by which these little birds stay in touch with each other and signal a
new food resource to their fellow travellers.

There are six ‘true’ tits in Britain, together with two similar species that also bear the
name. The true tits include some of our commonest garden birds together with much
scarcer species. Great, Blue and Coal Tits are all common and widespread, and
often visit gardens to supplement natural food sources, or to nest, often in artificial
nestboxes. Their feeding behaviour delights many a home-owner as they squabble
with each other to get the best position on the hanging feeder, then extract a
morsel of peanut or energy-rich seed. Great Tits are the top dogs in the hierarchy,
though Blue Tits often sneak in cheekily under their bills, as it were. Coal Tits tend to
hang back and are a bit shyer.

The Blue Tit is one of the commonest and most familiar British breeding birds, especially in gardens

Outside the garden all three species are found in mixed woodland, with Coal Tits
also having a liking for coniferous forest. In the woods they are joined by Marsh and
Willow Tits, a sibling pair of species that look very alike. Marsh Tits also visit gardens
from time to time, but mainly inhabit dry wooded areas, while Willow Tits prefer
 damp woods, often close to water. All these species may join tit flocks in winter,
though Willow do so more rarely; and all nest in holes or cavities in trees. The final
‘true’ member of the family, Crested Tit, is confined to the Scottish pine forests,
though there it will behave in true tit fashion, nesting in holes in trees and joining
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feeding flocks, even coming to artificial feeders where provided. Willow and Crested
Tits both excavate their own nest holes in rotten wood; unusual behaviour for such
tiny songbirds.

Although superficially similar, given good views Coal (top) and Marsh (bottom) Tits are easy to tell apart

Another species, Long-tailed Tit, comes from a different family, but to all intents
and purposes behaves like the other tits, especially when feeding. Long-tailed Tits
often travel in flocks of up to a dozen or more birds, usually related to each other,
 calling constantly as they move acrobatically through the foliage. If you are patient
and still they will often come very close. Unlike other tits they make their own nest
out of moss and lichens, which looks like a ball with a small entrance hole. All these
woodland tits will often respond if you try ‘pishing’ – making a hissing or squeaking
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noise – which seems to arouse their curiosity and brings them closer.
An eighth British ‘tit’ is not a tit at all, but in its own unique family. The Bearded Tit
(also known as the Bearded Reedling) is a bird of reedbeds, where it spends virtually
its whole life. It is a beautiful and elegant bird, often seen in small parties which are
usually found by listening for their distinctive, dry metallic ‘pinging’ calls. On a calm
day you may get good views as birds climb to the tops of reeds; but if it is windy you
don’t stand much of a chance.
The Nuthatch and its relatives are unique: the only birds that can walk down, as
well as up, a tree trunk. They do so by using their formidable claws. The Nuthatch is
rather like a miniature woodpecker in appearance and habits, moving up and down
tree trunks to find food, and nesting in holes, which it adjusts to fit if they are too
large by plastering mud around the entrance. Nuthatches live up to their name (it
means ‘nut hack’) by opening the shells of nuts by wedging them into a crevice in a
tree and then hammering them with that powerful bill.
The Treecreeper is often seen alongside Nuthatches and tits. It is an easily
overlooked bird, creeping like a mouse around the branches and twigs to find insect
food, and only reluctantly flying to the next tree. It habitually climbs in spirals, going
around the back of a trunk or branch, and then reappearing around the front again.

Crested Tits (left) are confined to the forests in and around Speyside, while the Treecreeper (right) can be found in
woodlands throughout much of Britain
 SHRIKES
Two species of shrikes are occasionally seen in Britain: one irregular breeder
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now usually seen as a migrant; and another regular but very scarce winter
visitor.
The Red-backed Shrike earned the country name of ‘butcher bird’ from its
unpleasant but fascinating habit of impaling its prey on thorns. Sadly it was lost as a
British breeding species during the 1980s, probably due to a combination of modern
farming methods reducing the number of large insects, and climate change, which
brought wetter summers at the time of the species’ decline. However, in recent
years a handful of pairs have bred in southern England, and with global warming
potentially leading to a more benevolent summer climate for the species, it could
return permanently. Its larger relative, the Great Grey Shrike, may be seen in winter
at regular haunts on heaths in southern and eastern Britain, though has declined in
recent years. It too sits on high, prominent posts and hunts for food by diving down
on small mammals and birds.

The Red-backed Shrike may now be making a slow comeback as a British breeding bird, having disappeared
during the late 20th century
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The Great Grey Shrike is a scarce and much sought-after winter visitor to Britain
 STARLING
One of the commonest and most taken-for-granted of British birds, the
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Starling is also one of our most fascinating in terms of its habits.

Starlings are often taken for granted, even though they are both attractive and fascinating

Starlings are intelligent and sociable birds, with complex breeding and flocking
behaviour. In the breeding season males sing from perches on trees and especially
roofs, delivering a song extraordinary for its mimicry – not just of other birds but also
of car alarms, mobile phones and a host of other mechanical objects.
Outside the breeding season roving flocks of Starlings feed in gardens (especially
on open lawns and bird tables), playing fields and farmland, probing short grass for
invertebrates. They also come together – especially in winter – at dusk, forming
huge, noisy flocks. These were once a common sight in many urban areas as well as
the open countryside, but in recent years the species has declined severely, and not
as many sites host large flocks as they once did.
 If you do know a site, plan to visit an hour or so before dusk, and marvel at the
birds’ behaviour as they swirl around in the sky, with small groups joining every minute
or so, before they finally settle on a building or in the trees. A truly amazing
experience.
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 CROWS
The eight British breeding species of crows are among the most intelligent
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of all birds, and display a wide range of fascinating behaviour. Crows are
especially curious birds, known for their ability to learn innovative new
behaviour; and also, less endearingly, for preying on other birds, their
chicks and eggs.

There are three species of large, black crow. The Carrion Crow is the classic member
of the group, with its adaptability and omnivorous habits making it widespread
throughout Britain, apart from the extreme north and west where it is replaced by a
very similar but black-and-grey species, the Hooded Crow. Both are the duckers and
divers of the bird world, always on the lookout for an opportunity, though this often
involves muscling in on smaller birds. Both often gather in large flocks to feed or roost,
and will also mob birds of prey without compunction.

The all-black Carrion Crow is the commonest and most familiar member of its family in much of Britain

The Rook is a gentler bird, usually found in more rural areas where it gathers to
breed early in the year at its famous rookeries. Rooks are also famous for their
‘tumbling’ behaviour during windy days in autumn, which is supposed to foretell
unsettled weather to come. The biggest crow of all is the Raven, a magnificent bird
with glossy black plumage and a commanding stature. Ravens are birds of the
uplands, and will nest early in the year on prominent crags, from where they survey
their little world. However, in recent years they have also made a comeback in
lowland Britain, thanks to a reduction in their persecution. They are also supreme
flyers, often courting high in the air.
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The Raven is the largest British crow, and has recently made a comeback, spreading back to south and east Britain

Two smaller black crows, the Jackdaw and the Chough, are also fascinating birds.
Jackdaws are real comedians, often associating with their larger relatives in search
of food on farmland or in open parks. Their characteristic call is what gave them their
name, as it is for their rarer relative the Chough (originally pronounced ‘chow’, which
mimics their call). Choughs are also comical birds to watch as they walk around on
short grass on their huge red feet, poking that long, red, decurved bill into the soil to
get at their food.
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The Jackdaw is the smallest ‘all-black’ crow, told apart by its small size, grey nape and beady pale eye

The remaining two members of the crow family are more colourful, or at least
strikingly patterned, than their mainly dark relatives. The Jay is a familiar, if rather shy,
garden bird, which often hangs about in trees and bushes before swooping quickly
down to take food, either from a bird table or a nest. In autumn numbers are
boosted by continental immigrants.
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The Jay may be bright and colourful, but it is also very shy, so can be overlooked

The Magpie is often portrayed as a villain because of its habit of taking eggs and
young chicks from songbirds’ nests, but like all predators its numbers are governed
by its prey, not the other way round. Therefore although its behaviour can seem
cruel (though in reality it is only doing what Magpies have to do to feed their own
young) it has no lasting effect on songbird populations. Magpies are sociable birds,
usually travelling in pairs or small groups, which are supposed to bring the observer
good luck (seeing a lone bird, conversely, is said to bring bad luck).
 SPARROWS AND BUNTINGS
These two families of seed-eating birds are closely related, and share
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many aspects of their behaviour with each other, so I have treated them
together for the purposes of this book.
Our two species of sparrows have both declined strongly in recent years, due to
modern farming methods and various other reasons. House Sparrows were once so
common as to be virtually ignored, but since their decline birders have begun to
study them in greater depth. One possibility is that being sociable birds they need
several pairs in an area to stimulate each other to breed; and because of declining
numbers there are simply not enough birds in some areas to sustain a viable breeding
population.
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The House Sparrow has suffered a major decline in the past fifty years, and has now vanished from many of our
urban areas

If this is the case we may see the species suffer the same catastrophic decline as
its more rural relative, the Tree Sparrow. The population of this species has
plummeted by more than 90%, partly due to modern farming methods not leaving
enough grain on the fields for the birds to eat in winter. Both species will join with
other seed-eating birds outside the breeding season. Tree Sparrows mainly breed in
holes in trees, while House Sparrows are more adaptable, nesting in holes in buildings
 as well as trees.
Five species of buntings regularly breed in Britain. Three are widespread, while the
other two are confined to particular areas of the north and south. The
Yellowhammer is the most common and widespread, though like all farmland species
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it has declined in recent years. It is fairly easily seen where present, perching on
hedgerows or bushes and singing its famous ‘little-bit-of-bread-and-no-cheese’ song.
In winter it joins forces with other buntings and finches to feed on stubble fields. Its
much rarer and more localised relative, the Cirl Bunting, is confined to south-west
England where it requires a traditional farmland habitat all year round. Its behaviour
is very similar to its commoner relative.

The Yellowhammer is a member of the bunting family, found mainly on farmland

The other common species of bunting are both farmland birds to a degree. The
Corn Bunting is a common sight in some areas of lowland Britain where it perches on
wires or poles to sing its characteristic ‘key-jangling’ song. However, it has also
declined and may be absent from former haunts. Its breeding behaviour is
fascinating: males pair with several females, and have to work hard to keep away
rivals. The Reed Bunting, as its name suggests, is more a bird of wetlands, though it
also uses farmland to breed. Reed Buntings have begun to visit gardens in recent
years, even feeding on bird tables.
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The Corn Bunting may look rather dull, but it has a very interesting sex-life, with males pairing with several females at
once

The remaining British bunting is confined as a breeding bird to the high Arctic–
alpine habitat of Scottish mountains, but in winter flocks gather around our coasts.
The Snow Bunting is a real specialist, able to breed farther north than any other small
bird; though in autumn it migrates south to milder climes. Winter flocks feed on
shingle beaches and saltmarshes, appearing quite inconspicuous while feeding, but
showing an explosion of white when they take off. Snow Buntings can be very
approachable in winter, especially when feeding on leftover food near the
restaurant on the high tops of the Cairngorm mountains in Scotland.
 FINCHES
Finches form a large family of more than 100 species, yet just 13 species
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breed in Britain – and that includes the taxonomically dubious Scottish

Crossbill, which may prove to be less than a full species, and the Parrot
Crossbill, which is an irruptive breeder, far commoner in some years than
others.
The remaining 11 include some of our commonest and best-known birds, of which
the Chaffinch is the most widespread and numerous. Like other finches it is a seed-
eating specialist, able to eat a wide range of seeds, though like many seed-eaters it
feeds its young on soft-bodied insects. Chaffinches form large flocks outside the
breeding season, often associating with other species including their northern
equivalent the Brambling. A rare breeding species here, Bramblings are abundant in
northern Europe, and variable numbers arrive each autumn to seek out their
favourite food of beechmast.
The other common finches include a generalist, the Greenfinch, and a specialist,
the Goldfinch. Greenfinches eat a wide variety of seeds, and are particularly partial
to artificial feeders containing either sunflower seeds or peanuts. As a result they are
frequent garden visitors, and often stay to breed, the male performing his attractive
display flight while singing as he flies. Goldfinches have a needle-sharp bill, ideal for
prising the tiny seeds out of plants such as teasels, which they love. Listen out for the
birds’ tinkling calls as they fly overhead.

The Goldfinch is one of our most colourful and attractive songbirds, with a delightful, tinkling song

A much more recent garden visitor is the Siskin. Once confined to coniferous
forests, mainly in northern Britain, the Siskin spread southwards a few decades ago
and quickly adapted to feeding in gardens, where it is now a regular visitor. Siskins
are lively little birds, which outside gardens tend to flock together near water, where
 they often join Lesser Redpolls feeding on alder cones. Lesser Redpolls will also visit
gardens, and otherwise are generally found in damp woods. In the breeding season
Siskins head north to breed in the pine forests of Norway and Scotland, while Lesser
Redpolls breed on heathland.
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Another ‘pair’ is the Linnet and the Twite, the latter sometimes known as the
‘Mountain Linnet’ because of its preferred habitat. Linnets are birds of farmland and
heath, flocking in autumn and winter and pairing up in spring when the male adopts
his splendid breeding garb. Twite also form flocks in winter, heading away from their
hilly breeding areas towards the coast, where they often join with Snow Buntings.

This male Linnet is sporting his colourful breeding plumage, with pink patches on the forehead and breast

The three finches with the biggest bills and toughest appearance are the Bullfinch,
Hawfinch and Common Crossbill. The Bullfinch uses its powerful bill to feed on fruit
buds, though it also eats other berries and seeds. It generally appears in pairs or small
family parties, and is a shy bird, often overlooked. But for shyness, the Hawfinch takes
the prize: despite being our largest finch, with a bill so powerful it can crack cherry
stones, it is hardly ever seen even when present in wooded habitat. Hawfinches are
best looked for at known sites in winter, when they gather in small flocks and are
easier to see, as the trees are bare. The Common Crossbill (and its relatives) has a
unique bill, with the tips of the mandibles crossed over to enable it to extract seeds
from pine cones and other coniferous fruits. Crossbills are nomadic, and are the only
species which migrates just once a year, moving in late summer to new feeding
areas in different parts of Europe – so one year there may be hundreds of birds, the
next year none.
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The Hawfinch is Britain’s largest member of its family, but is sadly now in decline
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With his black, grey and bright pink plumage, the male Bullfinch is handsome and distinctive
 GLOSSARY
Aberrant Individual bird that shows an unusual or abnormal characteristic compared
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to others of its species: for example, a leucistic (unusually pale) or melanistic

(unusually dark) specimen.

Adaptation Evolutionary development of a particular characteristic to fit a change

in the environment, such as a change in migratory habits, or tendency to breed
earlier in response to climate change.

Alien A species that has been introduced into an environment from abroad: for
example, Canada Goose and Ruddy Duck, which originate from North America, or
Rose-ringed Parakeet, which comes from Asia. Often also known as ‘introduced’.

Altricial A bird that hatches in the nest and remains dependent on its parents for
food and care (also known as nidicolous). This applies to all passerine birds, for
example.

Circadian Relating to the rhythms of the day: for example, the patterns of being
awake or asleep.

Crepuscular A species which usually is most active at dawn and dusk, such as
Spotted Crake.

Diurnal Generally active during the day, as opposed to at night (nocturnal).

Eclipse A camouflaged plumage acquired by male ducks during the mid to late
summer moult, when the birds often become flightless for a short time.

Feral A species or population that was originally kept by humans, but following
accidental release is now living freely in the wild. Examples include Greylag Goose
and Rose-ringed Parakeet.

Fledging The point at which (mainly) songbirds leave the nest and are ready to fly.
Also used to describe the point at which precocial birds such as gamebirds or
waders moult into their first proper plumage.

Habitat A particular place or area where creatures such as birds live: e.g. woodland,
heathland. Characterised by distinctive vegetation and soil, and often also by
climate.

Incubation The period during which a bird sits on its eggs, in order to provide the
warmth necessary for development of the embryo. Irruptive A species that
periodically invades an area where it is not normally found, usually in order to find
 food, such as Crossbill, Waxwing or Nutcracker.

Jizz A birder’s term for the ‘general impression’ given by a bird, even if it is too
distant or badly lit for details of plumage and coloration to be detected.
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Longevity The length of time that a bird lives.

Migratory A species or population which undertakes (usually twice-yearly) medium or

long-distance movements between separate breeding and wintering grounds.

Morphology The external shape and form of a bird or other living organism.

Moult The process of shedding old, worn feathers and regrowing new ones.

Passerine The taxonomic order containing the perching birds; also known as
songbirds.

Polygamous A mating system in which either one male breeds with several females
(polygyny); or one female breeds with several males (polyandry).

Precocial A bird that can see, walk, feed itself, and in some cases swim soon after
hatching (also known as nidifugous). Examples include ducks, gamebirds and waders.

Predator Any bird that hunts and kills other vertebrate animals in order to feed.

Race (See Subspecies)

Reintroduced A formerly native bird which, having disappeared from Britain (or part
of Britain), has been brought back by human agency, such as the White-tailed Eagle
in Scotland and the Red Kite in England and Scotland.

Sedentary A bird that spends all or most of its life in the same area; as opposed to
migratory.

Subspecies A distinctive population of a particular species, which has diverged

enough to be distinct from others of the same species, but is not yet so different as
to be classified as a full species. Sometimes known as race.
 USEFUL ADDRESSES
RSPB (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)
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The Lodge, Sandy, Beds SG19 2DL

Tel: 01767 680551
www.rspb.org.uk

The RSPB is Britain’s leading bird and wildlife conservation organisation, with well over
one million members. It runs more than 200 bird reserves up and down the country,
and has a national network of members’ groups. Members receive four copies of
Nature’s Home magazine each year, while new members receive a gift on joining.
The junior arm of the RSPB, Wildlife Explorers, is for members aged 4–19.

BTO (British Trust for Ornithology)

The Nunnery, Thetford, Norfolk IP24 2PU
Tel: 01842 750050
[email protected]
www.bto.org

The BTO offers birdwatchers the opportunity to learn more about birds by taking
part in surveys such as the Garden BirdWatch or the Nest Record Scheme. BTO
members also receive a bi-monthly magazine, BTO News.

WWT (Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust)

Slimbridge, Gloucestershire GL2 7BT
01453 891900
[email protected]
www.wwt.org.uk

The WWT is primarily dedicated to conservation of the world’s wetlands and their
birds. It runs nine centres in the UK, including the London Wetland Centre and the
famous headquarters at Slimbridge in Gloucestershire. Members receive a quarterly
magazine, Waterlife, and get free entry to WWT centres.
 FURTHER READING
The World of Birds
By Jonathan Elphick (2014, Natural History
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Museum)

Bird Sense
By Tim Birkhead (2013, Bloomsbury)

Collins Field Guide to Bird Songs and Calls

(book & 3 CDs)
By Geoff Sample (1996, Collins)

CJ Wildlife
The Rea, Upton Magna, Shrewsbury SY4 4UR
Tel: 0800 731 2820 (Freephone)
[email protected]
www.birdfood.co.uk

CJ Wildlife (formerly CJ WildBird Foods) is one of Britain’s leading suppliers of bird

feeders and foodstuffs, via mail order. The company produces a free handbook of
garden feeding, containing advice on feeding garden birds, and a catalogue of
products.

WildSounds
Cross Street, Salthouse, Norfolk NR25 7XH
Tel: 01263 741100
www.wildsounds.com
Wildsounds is one of Britain’s leading mail-order suppliers of bird books, CDs and other
products.

Subbuteo Natural History Books Ltd

The Rea, Upton Magna, Shrewsbury SY4 4UR
Tel: 0870 010 9700
www.wildlifebooks.com
[email protected]

Subbuteo Books provides a fast, helpful and reliable mail-order service for books on
birds and other aspects of natural history, including those on garden birds. Free
catalogue available on request.

NHBS
1–6 The Stables, Ford Road, Totnes,
Devon TQ9 5LE
 Tel: 01803 865913
www.nhbs.com

An online natural history, science and environment bookstore

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Bird Migration: a general survey

By Peter Berthold (2001, Oxford University Press)

The Migration Atlas

By Chris Wernham et. al
(2002, T & AD Poyser)

Bird Atlas 2007-11

By Dawn Balmer et. al
(2012, BTO)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
At Bloomsbury, many thanks to Jane Lawes and Nigel Redman for producing the
revised edition of this book, and also to Susan McIntyre for designing the book,
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Krystyna Mayer for copyediting and Liz Shaw for proofreading.

As someone who has watched birds for virtually the whole of my life, I should like to
thank all my companions in the field – both long-term friends and casual
acquaintances – who have prompted my interest in bird behaviour over the years.
These include Daniel Osorio, Neil McKillop, Bill Oddie, Nigel Bean, Nigel Redman,
Jackie Follett, Rod Standing and Graham Coster.

And as always, to my wife Suzanne, whose ability to see what I often miss has
opened my eyes to a whole new world of birds and their habits.
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 The Wildlife Trusts
The Wildlife Trusts are the UK’s largest people-powered organisation caring for all
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nature – rivers, bogs, meadows, forests, seas and much more. We are 47 Wildlife
Trusts covering the whole of the UK with a shared mission to restore nature
everywhere we can and to inspire people to value and take action for nature for
future generations.
Together we care for thousands of wild places that are great for both people and
wildlife. These include more than 760 woodlands, 500 grasslands and even 11 gardens.
You’re away from your nearest Wildlife Trust nature reserve and most people have
one within a few miles of their home.
Our goal is nature’s recovery – on land and at sea. To achieve this we rely on the
vital support of our 800,000 members, 40,000 volunteers, donors, corporate
supporters and funders. To find the Wildlife Trust that means most to you and lend
your support, visit wildlifetrusts.org/your-local-trust
Importantly, we encourage people to experience wildlife for themselves. We
believe that a deeper appreciation for nature conservation can start with a book
such as this one by Stephen Moss. We need more people to understand and value
the birds and other wildlife that are to be found in our countryside.
Understanding Bird Behaviour introduces the reader to the habitats and
characteristics of birds in life – how and why birds feed, preen, and react with others
of their kind. The author compares such behaviour as courtship, fledging, flight and
migration among many different species, and investigates the instincts and
circumstances that trigger these behaviours.
Few realise just how endangered much of our British wildlife is. In recent years,
once-common bird species such as the sparrow and Starling have declined, mainly
due to the demands of that modern human living has placed on habitats.
The Wildlife Trusts believe, however, that it is not too late. Much can still be done
to reverse the losses of the past, and we all have a part to play in making this
happen. One way is to contact your local Wildlife Trust for information on wildlife
activities and volunteering opportunities, and on local wild places. Help us to protect
wildlife for the future and become a member today! Visit www.wildlifetrusts.org for
further information. The Wildlife Trusts is a registered charity (number 207238).
We hope that, with the help of this book, you have fun learning more about birds
and their behaviour!
 T his elect ronic edit ion published in 2015 by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

Bloomsbury Nat ural Hist ory

An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

50 Bedford Square 1385 Broadway

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BLOOMSBURY and t he Diana logo are t rademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

First published 2015

© t ext , St ephen Moss, 2015

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