Mapping For Change PDF

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participatory learningandaction
54 Mapping for change:

practice, technologies
54 and communication
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April 2006
54
Participatory Learning and Action, Rocamora, Jayatissa Samaranayake, governance. We strive to reflect these
(formerly PLA Notes and RRA Notes), is Madhu Sarin, Daniel Selener, Anil C Shah, values in Participatory Learning and Action.
published three times a year in April, Meera Kaul Shah, Marja Liisa Swantz, For further information about IIED and the
August, and December. Established in Peter Taylor, Tom Wakeford, Eliud Sustainable Agriculture, Biodiversity and
1988, Participatory Learning and Action Wakwabubi and Alice Welbourn Livelihoods (SABL) Programme, contact
enables practitioners of participatory Cover illustration: Regina Faul-Doyle IIED, 3 Endsleigh Street, London WC1H
methodologies from around the world Design and layout: Smith+Bell 0DD, UK.
to share their field experiences, Printed by: Russell Press, Nottingham, UK Tel: +44 20 7388 2117
conceptual reflections, and There is no copyright on this material Fax: +44 20 7388 2826
methodological innovations. The series is and recipients are encouraged to use it Email: [email protected]
informal and seeks to publish frank freely for not-for-profit purposes only. Website: www.iied.org
accounts, address issues of practical and Please credit the authors and the
immediate value, encourage innovation, Participatory Learning and Action series. Participatory development
and act as a ‘voice from the field’. Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) is
We are grateful to the Swedish Contributing to the series an umbrella term for a wide range of
International Development Cooperation We welcome contributions to similar approaches and methodologies,
Agency (Sida) and the UK Department Participatory Learning and Action. For including Participatory Rural Appraisal
for International Development (DFID) for information and guidelines, please see (PRA), Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA),
their continued financial support of the inside back cover. Participatory Learning Methods (PALM),
Participatory Learning and Action. Participatory Action Research (PAR),
This special issue has been co-produced Subscribing to Participatory Learning Farming Systems Research (FSR), Méthod
with the Technical Centre for and Action Active de Recherche et de Planification
Agricultural and Rural Development To subscribe, please complete the Participative (MARP), and many others.
(CTA) ACP-EU. We would also like to subscriptions form at the back of this The common theme to all these
thank the Centre for International issue or contact: Research Information approaches is the full participation of
Forestry Research (CIFOR), Environmental Ltd. (RIL), Grenville Court, Britwell Road, people in the processes of learning about
Research Mapping and Information Burnham, Buckinghamshire SL1 8DF, UK. their needs and opportunities, and in the
Systems in Africa (ERMIS Africa), the Tel:+44 1628 600499; action required to address them.
International Institute for Geo- Fax: +44 1628 600488; The methods used range from
Information Science and Earth Email: [email protected] visualisation, to interviewing and group
Observation (ITC), the Secretariat of the Website: www.researchinformation.co.uk work. The common theme is the
Pacific Community – EU/SPC promotion of interactive learning, shared
Development of Sustainable Agriculture Back issues knowledge, and flexible, yet structured
in the Pacific (DSAP) project, and the Back issues 1-50 in PDF format are now analysis. These methods have proven
Christensen Fund for their support for available to download free of charge valuable for understanding local
this special issue. The views expressed in online. To purchase back issues of perceptions of the functional value of
this publication do not necessarily reflect Participatory Learning and Action please resources, processes of agricultural
the views of the funding organisations or see the green order form at the end of intervention, and social and institutional
the employers of the authors. this issue. All IIED publications, including relations.
Editors: Holly Ashley, Nicole Kenton and Participatory Learning and Action back In recent years, there has been a
Angela Milligan issues, are available through: number of shifts in the scope and focus of
Strategic Editorial Board: Ivan Bond, Earthprint Limited, Orders Department, participation:
Andrea Cornwall, Nazneen Kanji, Samuel PO Box 119, Stevenage, Hertfordshire • emphasis on sub-national, national and
Musyoki, Jethro Pettit, Michel Pimbert SG1 4TP, UK. international decision-making, not just
and Cecilia Tacoli Tel: +44 1438 748111 local decision-making;
International Editorial Advisory Board: Fax: +44 1438 748844 • move from projects to policy processes
Oga Steve Abah, Jo Abbot, Jordi Surkin Email: [email protected] and institutionalisation;
Beneria, L. David Brown, Andy Catley, Website: www.earthprint.com • greater recognition of issues of
Robert Chambers, Louise Chawla, Bhola We regret that we are unable to difference and power; and,
Dahal, Qasim Deiri, John Devavaram, supply, or respond to requests for, free • emphasis on assessing the quality and
Charlotte Flower, FORCE Nepal, Ian hard copies of back issues. understanding the impact of
Goldman, Bara Guèye, Irene Guijt, participation, rather than simply
Marcia Hills, Enamul Huda, Vicky IIED is committed to promoting participation.
Johnson, Caren Levy, Sarah Levy, Zhang promoting social justice Recent issues of Participatory Learning
Linyang, Ilya M. Moeliono, Humera and the empowerment and Action have reflected, and will
Malik, Marjorie Jane Mbilinyi, Ali of the poor and continue to reflect, these developments
Mokhtar, Seyed Babak Moosavi, Neela marginalised. It also and shifts. We particularly recognise the
Mukherjee, Trilok Neupane, Esse Nilsson, supports democracy and importance of analysing and overcoming
Zakariya Odeh, Peter Park, Bardolf Paul, full participation in power differentials which work to exclude
Bimal Kumar Phnuyal, Peter Reason, Joel decision-making and the already poor and marginalised.
Number 54
April 2006
THEME SECTION
CONTENTS
1. Overview: Mapping for Change – the emergence of a new practice
Jon Corbett, Giacomo Rambaldi, Peter Kyem, Dan Weiner, Rachel Olson,
Julius Muchemi, Mike McCall and Robert Chambers ..........................................13
TOOL-BASED CASE STUDIES
2. Using Community Information Systems to express traditional knowledge
embedded in the landscape
Jon Corbett and Peter Keller................................................................................21
3. Resource use, development planning, and safeguarding intangible cultural
heritage: lessons from Fiji Islands
Photo: Johan Minnie
Giacomo Rambaldi, Silika Tuivanuavou, Penina Namata, Paulo Vanualailai,

Sukulu Rupeni, and Etika Rupeni ........................................................................28
4. Finding common ground in land use conflicts using PGIS: lessons from Ghana
Peter A. Kwaku Kyem..........................................................................................36
5. Is there life after tenure mapping?
A camera crew films Peter Poole ..........................................................................................................41
participants during ISSUE-BASED CASE STUDIES
the Mapping for
Change conference 6. PGIS as a sustained (and sustainable?) practice:
First Nation experiences in Treaty 8 BC, Canada
Craig Candler, Rachel Olson, Steven DeRoy, and Kieran Broderick ......................51
7. A participatory approach to monitoring slum conditions:
an example from Ethiopia
Tsion Lemma, Richard Sliuzas and Monika Kuffer ..............................................58
8. Capacity development and PGIS for land demarcation:
innovations from Nicaragua
Sylvanie Jardinet ..................................................................................................67
9. The power of maps: cartography with indigenous people
in the Brazilian Amazon
The inhabitants of Moikarakô, Pascale de Robert, Jean-François Faure
and Anne-Elisabeth Laques ................................................................................74
10. Land and natural resource mapping by San communities and NGOs:
experiences from Namibia
Julie Taylor and Carol Murphy with Simon Mayes, Elvis Mwilima,
Nathaniel Nuulimba and Sandra Slater-Jones ....................................................79
11. Participatory GIS and local knowledge enhancement for community carbon
forestry planning: an example from Cameroon
Peter A. Minang and Michael K. McCall..............................................................85
THEORY AND REFLECTIONS FROM PRACTICE
12. Mapping projects: identifying obstacles, finding solutions
Mac Chapin ........................................................................................................93
13. Mapping power: ironic effects of spatial information technology
Jefferson Fox, Krisnawati Suryanata, Peter Hershock and
Albertus Hadi Pramono ......................................................................................98
14. Practical ethics for PGIS practitioners, facilitators, technology intermediaries,
and researchers
Giacomo Rambaldi, Robert Chambers, Mike McCall and Jefferson Fox ..........106
1
CONTENTS
15. Precision for whom? Mapping ambiguity and certainty in (Participatory) GIS
CONTENTS
Mike McCall ......................................................................................................114

GENERAL SECTION
16. The world in a suitcase: psychosocial support using artwork with refugee children
in South Africa
Glynis Clacherty ................................................................................................121
17. The role of local elites in development projects: an experience from Sudan
Dipankar Datta ..................................................................................................128
REGULARS
Editorial ......................................................................................................................3
Tips for trainers
The Snowball technique
Mike McCall, Holly Ashley and Giacomo Rambaldi ..........................................135
In Touch....................................................................................................................138
RCPLA Pages ............................................................................................................148
2
editorial
Welcome to issue 54 of Participatory Cooperation (CTA). It is based on readers with a good overview of the
EDITORIAL
Learning and Action – and a warm articles that were submitted to or work of practitioners from across the
welcome to all our readers, old and presented at the Mapping for globe, using different tools and
new. Change International Conference on approaches, and for different issues.
This has been an exciting year for Participatory Spatial Information We also wanted to include some
the PLA Editorial team so far. In the Management and Communication. more reflective articles, discussing
last issue, we reported on our new The conference was held at the issues that PGIS practitioners face
team of International Editorial Kenya College of Communication of today.3
Advisors. The team has been making Technology, in Nairobi, Kenya, To achieve this, we used various
a wonderful contribution to the series 7th–10th September 2005.2 online, free facilities to keep in
– and we are grateful to them all for The conference was an exciting regular contact and to share our
their new ideas and hard work in opportunity for participatory thoughts and ideas with one another.
reviewing articles, providing practitioners from around the world After the conference, a special email
feedback, and encouraging new to come together to share their group was established for the team.4
authors to write for us. We have experiences, learning and reflections We also used a free online file-
recently set up a new email group on the use of mapping and related sharing facility, where we could
and forum for our International spatial technologies for development. upload and share documents online.
Editorial team and look forward to Holly Ashley attended the The team participated in several
exploring other communication and conference, which was a great online conference call meetings, to
networking tools in the future. opportunity to learn about this choose which articles to include.5
We have also been working hard growing community of practice. And more than 20 people voted on
to plan future special issues of the the title for this special issue, using
series. Issues in the pipeline include Communicating and networking: a an online survey facility.6
community-based natural resource challenge for the guest editors These communication and
management in southern Africa (PLA Producing this special issue has been networking processes have
55, December 2006) and community a particular challenge. Our characterised the production of this
radio. international guest editor team special issue, both before and after
For those of you with online members live and work around the the conference. It has allowed the
access, our 50th issue special, Critical world, in Africa, Australia, Canada, PLA Editorial team to explore and
reflections, future directions is now Europe, and the USA. Over the last develop these new and innovative
available to download for free seven months, all have worked ways of working together, which we
online.1 We are also working hard to tirelessly in shaping this special issue, aim to continue using to work with
improve our guidelines for authors and we have used an innovative authors and guest editors in the
and have plans to improve our process of e-participation, future.
website. Look out for updates in the communication and networking.
next issue and on our website Over 50 papers were presented at Introducing the guest editor team
www.planotes.org. the conference, representing a wide We have been privileged to work with
spread of practice. Our remit was to an exceptional international team of
Themed section select papers that would provide our guest editors. The team comes from a
2
The conference was organised by the Technical
Mapping for change: practice, Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) 3 For more details about the final selection of
technologies and communication ACP-EU; International Institute for Geo-Information articles, please see the overview article for this
Science and Earth Observation (ITC); Environmental special issue.
This special issue has been co- Research, Mapping and Information Systems in 4 D Groups ‘Development through Dialogue’ (see
published with the Technical Centre Africa (Ermis Africa); International Institute of Rural www.dgroups.org)
5 Skype is an online facility that enables you to make
Reconstruction – Africa Regional Center (IIRR-
for Agricultural and Rural Africa); Lands and People Information Sharing free calls over the Internet to anyone else who also
Society (LAPIS); GIS for Developing Countries has Skype. You can hold conference calls, and use
(GISDECO) Network; and West Virginia University, Skype instant messaging/chat facilities. See
1 Visit www.iied.org/NR/agbioliv/pla_notes/
Office of International Programs and Department of www.skype.com
pla_backissues/PLA50_000.html 6 See www.surveymonkey.com
Geology and Geography. (http://pgis2005.cta.int/)
3
EDITORIAL
A view from inside

one of the main
plenary session at
the Mapping for
Change conference
Institute for Geo-Information

EDITORIAL
Sciences and Earth Observation (ITC)

in the Netherlands, where he has
been involved in training, researching
and project activities in participatory
spatial planning and natural resource
management policies and planning.
Julius Muchemi is the Executive
Director of Environmental Research
Mapping and Information Systems in
Africa (ERMIS Africa), Kenya. Since
the 1990s, he has been engaged in
Photo: Johan Minnie
PGIS/community mapping initiatives

to develop compatible, spatial-based
solutions for securing territories,
cultures and commonly shared
resources among indigenous people
in Africa. He is currently setting
variety of backgrounds, with a range can enable local communities to grounds for a PhD in Traditional
of expertise and experience in the document, store, manage and Spatial Knowledge Systems in Eastern
field of mapping for change. communicate their culture, language, and Central Africa.
Giacomo Rambaldi works for the history and Traditional Ecological Peter Kwaku Kyem is an Associate
Technical Centre for Agricultural and Knowledge (TEK). He is also Professor of Geography at Central
Rural Cooperation (CTA) in the interested in how geographic Connecticut State University, USA.
Netherlands. Giacomo has worked in representation of community Peter is a Ghanaian with a GIS
community mapping in developing information using ICTs can Professional Certificate (GISP)
countries since the late 1980s. In strengthen communities and increase obtained from the GIS Institute (USA)
2000, he launched Participatory their influence over regional decision- and a PhD in Geography from Clark
Avenues www.iapad.org, a website making processes. University, Worcester, Massachusetts,
dedicated to sharing knowledge on Rachel Olson is a citizen of the USA. His research interests focus on
community mapping. In 2004, he Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in First Nation in the participatory GIS applications, conflict
launched the Open Forum for Yukon Territory. Her experience with management and PGIS applications
Participatory Geographic Information community mapping began in 1997 in resource and environmental
Management and Communication with the Halfway River First Nation, in management. Peter has also
(www.PPgis.net). His expertise Northeastern British Columbia. authored several articles on
includes visualising indigenous spatial Rachel has worked with several First community-based GIS applications.
knowledge for improving Nations communities on projects Daniel Weiner is Professor of
communication, participatory spatial relating to traditional land uses, Geography and Director of
planning; and networking, environmental health, and oral International Programs at West
information management and history studies. Recently, she has Virginia University. He received a PhD
communication. worked with the Aboriginal Mapping in Geography from Clark University in
Jon Corbett has worked with Network, completing an evaluation 1986. Dan’s research focuses on the
Indigenous peoples in Indonesia and and a strategic plan for the Network. political ecology of development in
in British Columbia on issues relating Mike McCall has been involved in the Appalachian and Southern
to resources and their sustainable participatory spatial planning, African regions and participatory
management. He is exploring how especially participatory mapping and Geographic Information Systems.
participation and information GIS, for over a decade. Since 1993, Robert Chambers has worked in a
communication technologies (ICTs) Mike has worked at the International variety of areas, including canal
4
EDITORIAL
The conference participants gather for

a group photo at the end of the
conference at the Kenyan College for
Communication Technology, Nairobi.
Photo: Jeroen Verplanke

EDITORIAL
irrigation management, community psychosocial support to refugee In Touch
forestry, perceptions of poverty, and children in South Africa. This article Much of our In Touch section is
creativity and pluralism in was originally published in devoted to the wealth of resources
participatory methodologies. His ChildrenFIRST, South Africa. The available to PGIS and mapping
current interests include community- second is by Dipankar Datta. practitioners. We also present a short
led total sanitation; poverty Dipankar reflects on important report from Susanne Schnuttgen and
immersions for professionals; lessons learnt, when observers Nigel Crawhall, about a new
institutional learning and change in argued that a project designed to UNESCO initiative related to Cultural
agricultural research; and, how we reach the extreme poor in Northern Mapping.
know – or think we know – about Sudan had been ‘hijacked’ by the
things in development. local elite. RCPLA pages
Aside from the time given freely Find out the latest news from our
by our guest editors and authors, we Regular features partners and colleagues from the
are grateful for the generous support Resource Centres for Participatory
from our donors (see inside front Tips for trainers Learning and Action Network.
cover for details). For this issue, we present the
Snowball technique. This method International editorial advisory
General section was used at the Mapping for Change board
Here we present two articles. The conference during parallel working In the last issue we introduced our
first is by Glynis Clacherty. Glynis group sessions and was very effective readers to most of our new
writes about the innovative and in facilitating discussions. Read how it international editorial advisory board.
inspiring Suitcase Project, and how it was done, and what the participants We are also pleased to welcome to
has used artwork to provide themselves thought of the approach. the team Meera Kaul Shah. Meera is a
5
EDITORIAL
freelance participatory development more information, please contact co- those relevant to science and
EDITORIAL
consultant and trainer. She is involved Editor Nicole Kenton, email: technology. CTA’s work incorporates
in developing and promoting [email protected] new developments in methodologies
participatory approaches in project and cross-cutting issues such as
design and implementation, About CTA gender and social capital.
developing accountable and The Technical Centre for Agricultural
transparent public delivery systems, and Rural Cooperation (CTA) was Next issue
and participatory policy research. established in 1983 under the Lomé Our next issue will be published in
Previously she worked with Aga Khan Convention between the ACP December 2006 (Participatory
Rural Support Programme, India, (African, Caribbean and Pacific) Learning and Action 55). This will be
where she helped pioneer, with Group of States and the European a special issue on the experiences of
others, participatory rural appraisal Union Member States. Since 2000, it practitioners involved in community-
methodology. Her publications include has operated within the framework based natural resource management
The Myth of Community: Gender of the ACP-EC Cotonou Agreement. in southern Africa.
Issues in Participatory Development CTA’s tasks are to develop and Finally, many thanks to all the
(co-edited) and Embracing provide services that improve access to authors, guest editors and reviewers
Participation in Development: Wisdom information for agricultural and rural who contributed so much to this
From the Field (co-edited). development, and to strengthen the special issue. As Giacomo Rambaldi
capacity of ACP countries to produce, noted in his closing words at the
Forthcoming: Mapping for acquire, exchange and utilise conference:
Change multi-lingual CD-ROM information in this area. CTA’s What strikes me is that we have
In addition to this special issue, the programmes are designed to: provide been using the word ‘learning’ so
Participatory Learning and Action a wide range of information products frequently here, and that we want to
Mapping for Change CD-ROM is an and services and enhance awareness share. Networking and communication
exciting multi-lingual project that will of relevant information sources; has emerged as the leading way
soon be available. It will contain PDF promote the integrated use of forward – and the platforms for
versions of articles from this special appropriate communication channels sharing are there. Now it’s our
issue and other key multimedia and intensify contacts and information responsibility to make this work.
resources. Various organisations are exchange (particularly intra-ACP); and We hope that this special issue
already supporting this exciting develop ACP capacity to generate and helps to share the wealth of
project, and we are seeking additional manage agricultural information and knowledge and learning that was
contributions. To contribute, or for to formulate ICM strategies, including brought to the conference.
6
glossary
Air photographs or aerial culturally distinct understanding of 'counter-maps', greatly increase the
GLOSSARY
photographs: Remote-sensing landscape and include information power of people living in a mapped
photographs taken from an airplane that is excluded from mainstream area to control representations of
(source: IAPAD). maps, which usually represent the themselves and their claims to
Asset allocation mapping (AAM): this views of the dominant sectors of resources. Local people may exert
enables communities to make society. This style of map can control directly by making their own
informed decisions over the allocation therefore pose alternatives to the maps or entrust a representative of
of their territorial assets. To do this, languages and images of the existing their choice, such as a local NGO, to
they need not only to arrive at their power structures. Community maps perform the task. [...] Counter-maps
own evaluations of these assets but often differ considerably from thus have the potential for
also to understand the multiple values mainstream maps in content, challenging the omissions of human
assigned to their assets by others: to appearance and methodology. settlements from forest maps, for
map the ways in which assets are Indicators used to recognise and contesting the homogenisation of
perceived, evaluated, imagined by an denote community maps include the space on political, zoning, or property
unfamiliar and mutating array of following: maps, for altering the categories of
external interests (source: Peter • Community mapping is defined by land and forest management, and for
Poole). the process of production. expressing socio-spatial relationships
Attribute data: Information about a • Community maps are planned rather than depicting abstract space
feature on a map or thematic around a consensus based goal and in itself (Peluso, 1995). Counter-
information (source: IAPAD). strategy for use and made with input mapping can be used for alternative
Base map: A map that contains from a community in an open and boundary-making and 'to depict
geographical reference information inclusive process. strategies of resistance: where to
on which attribute data may be • Community mapping is defined by block [...] unwise development, to
plotted to make thematic maps the content of the maps, which identify landscapes that have been
(source: IAPAD). depict local knowledge and damaged, to describe alternatives to
Cartography: The art or science of information and are often aimed at the incremental destruction of
making maps (source: IAPAD). addressing local issues. They contain sustaining habitats' (Aberley, 1993:4)
Cognitive map: a term introduced in the community’s place names, Cultural mapping can be used for
the 30s by pioneer learning symbols, and priority features and making intangible heritage and local
researcher, Edward Tolman, to represent local knowledge systems. and indigenous knowledge systems
describe what rats must have in their • Community mapping is not easily visible and understandable. It
minds to successfully navigate mazes necessarily defined by the level of should be demand driven,
when routes are blocked or explored compliance with formal cartographic contextualised and community owned
from different points. Although conventions. Nor are they confined by and controlled. It should create
learning is from traversing routes, formal media: a community map may intercultural dialogue and allow
mental representations appear to be a part of a GIS or a drawing in the communities – and especially elders –
integrate route experience into survey sand. to reflect on their own knowledge
or overview knowledge. The term has Community Information Systems (CIS) and listen to each other. Respectful
been extended to humans to mean a are map-based multimedia cultural mapping can reinforce a
schematic mental representation of information systems in which local community’s consciousness of its
the geographic world, usually the knowledge is documented by specific cultural traditions, resources
network of paths and nodes that community members using digital and institutions, and also of land use
enable navigation. The nature, video, digital photos and written text, practices, education, health, conflict
coherence, flexibility, perspective, and stored on computers and managed prevention etc. It should enable
accuracy of these representations are and communicated through the communities to be better prepared to
continuing topics of research. interface of an interactive map express their rights, visions and
Community mapping: Community (source: Jon Corbett). priorities – especially when
maps often represent a socially or Counter maps: Alternative maps, or confronted with development
7
GLOSSARY
interventions initiated by a third party. map phenomena, understand spatial knowledge that we are aware of,
GLOSSARY
Digitise: To convert an image, such as relationships among phenomena, have reflected upon and can easily
a map into a form that a computer derive new information, and facilitate capture in verbal, textual, physical or
can store and manipulate through the geographic problem solving. visual formats, and that transforms
use of special software (a computer Geographic Information Systems into information (source: IAPAD).
programme). Digitising is usually done (GIS), the Global Positioning System Legend: The part of a map (or an
manually, with a digitising tablet, but (GPS), and satellite/aircraft remote additional sheet) that explains what
simply scanning the image may be sensing and imaging are examples of the symbols on the map mean
suitable for some purposes (source: Geographic Information Technologies (source: IAPAD).
IAPAD). used for digital mapping, spatial Local knowledge: ‘…is the sum total
Ephemeral map: A temporary map analysis, and other applications of the knowledge and skills which
such as a ground map. Intended to be requiring location-based information people in a particular geographic area
kept for a short time only. This most and analysis. possess, and which enable them to
basic mapmaking method consists of GPS (Global Positioning System): get the most out of their natural
drawing maps on the ground. A system of artificial satellites and environment. Most of this knowledge
Informants use raw materials like soil, ground units that enables a user with and these skills have been passed
pebbles, sticks and leaves, to a portable receiver to determine down from earlier generations, but
reproduce the physical and cultural absolute locations with good accuracy individual men and women in each
landscapes in the manner they (source: IAPAD). generation adapt and add to this
perceive them to be. Such ephemeral Knowledge can be considered as how body of knowledge in a constant
maps disappear in a puff of wind. we understand, give meaning, adjustment to changing circumstance
Acquired knowledge is memorised by perceive or interpret the world around and environmental conditions’
participants and mentally recomposed us (Leeuwis, 2004). Knowledge is (source: IKDM, 1998).
when needed (source: Rambaldi et al, what we store in our mind and what Local spatial knowledge (LSK) ‘…
2005). leads us to take decisions, act and describes home and action space, is
Ethics: (see practical ethics) react to stimuli received from the innate and sustained knowledge
Geo-referenced: Refers to a map or external world. Knowledge is very about the land, identifies issues of
photo that has been geographically subjective and builds up in immediate significance, and encodes
corrected, so that every point on it everybody’s mind through a the information about the
shows absolute location. For example, continuous learning process involving, environment in a language a region’s
air photos and satellite images are among others, concrete experiences, inhabitants understand’ (Duerden and
geo-referenced to correct for scale interaction and communication with Kuhn, 1996). It includes:
distortions inherent in the process of others, observations and reflections, • specific technical knowledge known
collecting data through remote formation of concepts and their only (or in detail, primarily) to the
sensing (source: IAPAD). testing. Three types of knowledge can local people, e.g. local knowledge of
Geographic Information Systems be distinguished: soils, plants, water sources,
(GIS): a computer-based system • Unconscious knowledge is medicines. Similar to the concept of
designed to collect, store, manage characterised by perceptions/motives indigenous technical knowledge (ITK).
and analyse spatially referenced that we are not aware of. • spatial knowledge representing
information and associated attribute • Tacit knowledge corresponds to different viewpoints and
data. knowledge that we are not understandings of local actors,
GIT (Geographic Information immediately aware of, on which we (different from the dominant ‘official’
Technologies): a set of computer tools base our day-to-day actions. This type view). These different viewpoints can
(hardware and software), techniques of knowledge can be elicited through be reflected in counter maps.
and geographic data used to collect, in-depth discussions and interactive • mental maps, which are not usually
store, edit, query, manage, analyse exercises including the use of 3D based on standard geometry.
and/or display geographically models, or mental maps. • spiritual or mystical spatial
referenced information in order to • Explicit knowledge is the knowledge associated with cultural
8
GLOSSARY
spaces, particularly with specific areas acronym, e.g. Participatory Rural and geo-referenced relief models.
GLOSSARY
of land or resources. This may be Appraisal (PRA) (source: Leeuwis, Essentially based on indigenous
interpreted as cosmovisions, which 2004). spatial knowledge, land use and
commonly incorporate the origin Methods can be seen as a particular cover, and other features are depicted
myths of indigenous, natural mode of using media and media by informants on the model by the
resource-dependent, cultures. combinations within the context of a use of pushpins (points), yarns (lines)
Map: A picture of the land, a map is a confined activity. A method can (but and paints (polygons). On completion,
graphic representation, often two- need not) be an element in a a scaled and geo-referenced grid is
dimensional, of some part (or all) of methodology. Examples of methods applied to facilitate data extraction or
the Earth’s surface. There are many include a workshop, a discussion importation. Data depicted on the
different kinds of maps (source: group, a farm visit, priority ranking model are extracted, digitised and
IAPAD). etc. (an element of e.g. PRA) (source: plotted. On completion of the
Map scale: The reduction needed to Leeuwis, 2004). exercise the model remains with the
display a representation of the Earth’s Mosaicing: Mosaicing is the process community (Rambaldi and Callosa-
surface on a map. A statement of a of assembling a series of images and Tarr, 2002a)
measure on the map and the joining them together to form a PGIS (Participatory GIS): PGIS is an
equivalent measure on the Earth’s continuous seamless photographic emergent practice in its own right. It
surface, often expressed as a representation of the earth’s surface. is a result of merger between
representative fraction of distance, These can be done manually on aerial Participatory Learning and Action
such as 1:10,000 (one unit of photos or digitally with remote (PLA) methods with Geographic
distance on the map represents sensing images and scanned aerial Information Technologies (GIT). PGIS
10,000 of the same units of distance photos or digital aerial photos facilitates the representation of local
on the Earth) (source: IAPAD). (source: Silika Tuivanuavou). people’s spatial knowledge using two-
Media: mass, interpersonal or hybrid Orthophoto: A perspective aerial or three-dimensional maps. These
media are basis devices that help to photograph contains image map products can be used to facilitate
combine different communication displacements caused by the tilting of decision-making processes, as well as
channels for the ‘transportation’ and the camera and terrain relief support communication and
exchange of ‘textual, visual, auditive, (topography). It does not have a community advocacy.
tactile and or olfactory signals. Hence uniform scale. Distances cannot be PGIS practice is geared towards
different media can be used in the measured on a conventional aerial community empowerment through
context of methods and photograph like one can do on a tailored, demand-driven and user-
methodologies (source: Leeuwis, map. In an orthophoto the effects of friendly applications of these geo-
2004). tilt and relief are removed from the spatial technologies. Good PGIS
Mental maps: an alternative term for aerial photograph by the rectification practice is flexible and adapts to
cognitive map. A map that represents process. Therefore an orthophoto is a different socio-cultural and
the perceptions and knowledge that a uniform-scale photograph or biophysical environments. It often
person has of an area (source: IAPAD). photographic map. Since an relies on the combination of ‘expert’
Mental maps are associated with all orthophoto has a uniform scale, it is skills with local knowledge. Unlike
cultures, ages, genders, types of possible to measure directly on it like traditional GIS applications, PGIS
people, though there are big cultural other maps. An orthophoto may serve places control on access and use of
differences in how significant they are as a base map onto which other map culturally sensitive spatial data in the
as spatial representations. information may be overlaid (source: hands of those communities who
Methodologies are basically more or U.S. Geological Survey). generated it.
less a series of predefined steps, Participatory 3D Modelling (P3DM): PGIS spatial analysis uses the
procedures and activities. Each step This method integrates indigenous functionality and data associated with
can involve the use or one or several spatial knowledge with data on GIS technology to explore community
methods. Methodologies are often elevation of the land and depth of the driven questions. In the process, local
known under a particular label or sea to produce stand-alone, scaled spatially referenced as well as non-
9
GLOSSARY
spatial data are integrated and questions of deep and abiding are depicted by the use of natural
GLOSSARY
analysed to support discussion and personal and common concern. materials or more frequently by
decision-making processes. The Practical ethics requires resource coloured marker pens or chalk.
spatial analytic functionalities allow managers who engage in mapping to Participants usually have a range of
much easier and rapid analysis by the follow clear protocols for explaining choices regarding what materials to
users, of e.g. time and cost functions, complex consequences of mapping to use for the drawing and how to
of separation and contiguity, and of rural communities. This protocol visualise desired items. Features are
the effects of barriers and buffers requires outside actors to exaggerated in size to match the
(source: Rambaldi et al, 2005). communicate clearly with each importance participants attach to
PPGIS (Public Participation GIS) has community, clarifying the them. If properly facilitated, the
evolved in the North as an purpose/objectives of collecting process is documented and records
intersection of participatory planning information, agreeing with villagers are kept in terms of the keys
and Geographic Information on what information can be mapped, necessary for interpreting depicted
Technologies and Systems (GIT&S). It and explaining potential symbols. The lack of a consistent scale
makes use of increasingly consequences of recording the and geo-referencing of the data
sophisticated approaches. In inner community’s spatial information on leaves room for subjective
cities and indigenous communities maps that can then be copied and interpretation of the final map. A
where technical competency and cost distributed outside the community. scale sketch map is a sketch given
have been barriers to GIS Most importantly, outside facilitators scale by fitting it onto a topographic
implementation, PPGIS applications must communicate to villagers that map without a field survey (source:
occur within several organisational they can agree to accept or reject the Rambaldi et al, 2005).
arrangements including: community- mapping exercise. Spatial Information Technologies =
university partnerships with inner city Remote sensing: The process of Geographic Information Technologies
communities (Ghose 2001; Craig and gathering information about the Technologies consist of widespread
Elwood; 1998); grassroots social Earth from a distance. Such data is patterns of material and conceptual
organisations (Sieber 2001); and commonly gathered by satellite or air practices that embody and deploy
Internet-based PPGIS (Carver et. al. (aerial) photography (source: IAPAD). particular strategic values and
2001; Craig et al., 2002). These Resolution: The smallest distance or size meanings (Hershock 1999).
organisations combine GIS with a of object that can be seen in an image Technologies are complex systems
host of modern communication (as acquired, for instance, through promoting and institutionalising
technologies to facilitate dialogue and remote sensing) (source: IAPAD). relational patterns aimed at realizing
data usage among local groups. Scale mapping is a more sophisticated particular ends. Technologies cannot
Equity issues are frequently addressed, method of sketch mapping, aimed at be value neutral, and do not occur in
particularly the spatial implications of generating geo-referenced data to isolation from one another but in
‘environmental justice’, usually closely facilitate discussions and allow families or lineages (Shrader-Frechette
associated with discriminatory zoning community members to develop and Westra 1997; Hershock 1999).
of ethnic groups (source: Rambaldi et maps that can stand the scrutiny of Quote from Mapping Power: 2004
al, 2005). adversarial parties. The method is Fox et al.)
Practical ethics focuses on based on effective selection of Tools are products of technological
understanding and addressing symbols and colours for depicting processes. They are used by individual
difficult and controversial social issues indigenous spatial knowledge on persons, corporations, or nations, and
arising in such fields as politics, transparencies superimposed on a are evaluated based on their task-
economics, technology, healthcare, geo-coded and scaled map (source: specific utility. If tools do not work,
business, environmental conservation Rambaldi et al, 2005). we exchange them, improve them,
and education. Ethics more broadly Sketch map: A method for mapping adapt them, or discard them (source:
investigates the meaning of the good, on paper. A drawing of a place or Fox et al., 2004).
emphasising the role of values in area, not drawn with accurate or Tools and techniques are particular
raising and critically responding to measured scale or direction. Features ways of operating a method.
10
GLOSSARY
Whether something is defined a s a throughout the Canadian Arctic and is Transect: Surveying in a straight line
GLOSSARY
method or a tool is often debatable; now a mandatory element of over 50 across the land, usually for the
the boundaries are not sharp. A territorial negotiations under way in purpose of mapping or recording
ranking exercise, for example, can British Columbia. Tenure mapping is information along the line. Transects
involve drawing a matrix in the sand about the past; asset allocation are often conducted for a resource
and using pebbles or stones as mapping is about the future (source: inventory (source: IAPAD).
counters, or be conducted on a sheet Peter Poole). Visual approximation: This is a
of paper using stickers or markers. Thematic map: A map that depicts process where map readers or map
Similarly a farm visit in which farmers’ specific themes or sets of information; makers make an approximation of a
problems are discussed can be for example, forest type, land use, position of an object – or important
conducted in various modes historical migration, property feature, or an area of the object –
(persuasive, participatory, counselling, ownership, or animal habitat (source: just by looking at the feature on the
etc.) (source: Leeuwis, 2004). IAPAD). map and plotting that feature
Tenure mapping: this refers to a distinct Topographic map: A contour map that digitally in relation to other existing
genre of cartography that seems to shows human-made and natural features. It also refers to mapping of
have its roots in the cartographic physical features. A topographic map the new objects by mentally
evidence assembled in the early 1970s at a scale of 1:10,000 to 1:50,000 deducing the position and size of the
by Inuit and Cree in Quebec. This would be a good base map (source: object in relation to mapped
method was soon adopted by the Inuit IAPAD). features.
REFERENCES GiacomoRambaldi_etal_%20PaperVersion_ ‘Participatory Spatial Information

Aberley, D. (1993). Boundaries of Home: 09a.pdf Management and Communication in
Mapping for Local Empowerment. British Ghose, R. (2001) ‘Use of Information Developing Countries.’ Paper presented at
Columbia: New Society Publishers. Technology for Community Empowerment: the Mapping for Change International
Carver, S. (2001) ‘Participation and Transforming Geographic Information System Conference (PGIS’05), Nairobi, Kenya, 7-10
Geographical Information: a position paper.’ into Community Information Systems.’ September 2005. Available online:
Paper presented at the ESF-NSF Workshop on Transactions in GIS 5: 2 www.iapad.org/publications/ppgis/
Access to Geographic Information and Hershock, P. (1999) Reinventing the Wheel: A GiacomoRambaldi_etal_ PaperVersion_09a.pdf
Participatory Approaches Using Geographic Buddhist Response to the Information Age. Shrader-Frechette, K. and Westra, L. (Eds.).
Information, Spoleto, 6-8 December 2001. Albany: State University of New York Press (1997) Technology and values. Lanham, MD:
Craig, T. Harris and D. Weiner (Eds.) (2002) IKDM (1998) ‘Editorial.’ Indigenous Rowman and Littlefield.
Community Participation and Geographic Knowledge and Development Monitor 6(2)1 Sieber, R. (2001) ‘Geographic Information
Information Systems. Taylor and Francis: Leeuwis, C. (2004) Communication for Rural Systems in the Environmental Movement.’
London Innovation: Re-thinking Agricultural In (Eds.) W. Craig, T. Harris and D. Wiener
Craig, W. and S. Elwood. (1998) ‘How and Extension. Oxford. Blackwell Science. Community Participation and Geographic
why community groups use maps and Peluso, N. (1995) ‘Whose Woods Are These? Information Systems. Taylor and Francis:
geographic information.’ Cartography and Counter-Mapping Forest Territories in London.
Geographic Information Systems 25:2 Kalimantan, Indonesia.’ Antipode. 27 (4): pp. For a more comprehensive glossary of
Duerden, F. and R.G. Kuhn. (1996) 383-406. community mapping terms, visit:
‘Applications of GIS by Government and First Rambaldi G. and Callosa-Tarr J. (2002) www.iapad.org/glossary/default.htm. Most
Nations in the Canadian North.’ Participatory 3-Dimensional Modelling: definitions found on IAPAD are adapted with
Cartographica 33:2 Guiding Principles and Applications. ASEAN permission from:
Fox, J. Suryanata, K., Hershock, P., Pramono, Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation Flavelle, A. (2002) Mapping Our Land: A
AH. (2004) ‘Mapping Power: ironic effects of (ARCBC), Los Baños, Philippines. Guide to Making Your Own Maps of
spatial information technology.’ Available Rambaldi G., Kwaku Kyem A. P.; Mbile P.; Communities and Traditional Lands. Lone Pine
online: www.iapad.org/publications/ppgis/ McCall M. and Weiner D. (2005). Foundation. See www.iapad.org/flavelle.htm
11
Overview: Mapping for
1
THEME SECTION
Change – the emergence of
a new practice
by JON CORBETT, GIACOMO RAMBALDI, PETER KYEM, DAN WEINER, RACHEL OLSON,
JULIUS MUCHEMI, MIKE McCALL and ROBERT CHAMBERS
Background them to influence policy decisions through owning and using
The Mapping for Change International Conference on Partic- the data’ or whether ‘a “participatory GIS” would simply be
ipatory Spatial Information Management and Communica- extractive’?
tion brought together 154 people from 45 different countries These fundamental questions still exist, particularly for
and nations with practical experience in implementing Partic- digital tools. But practitioners have now had more than a
ipatory GIS (PGIS). decade to develop and apply these tools, as well as to
What unites these practitioners is their belief that PGIS
practice (Box 1) can have profound implications for margin- Box 1: PGIS: an emergent practice
alised groups in society: PGIS is an emergent practice in its own right. It is a result of a merger
• it can enhance capacity in generating, managing and between Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) methods with
communicating spatial information; Geographic Information Technologies (GIT). PGIS facilitates the
representation of local people’s spatial knowledge using two- or three-
• it can stimulate innovation; and ultimately,
dimensional maps. These map products can be used to facilitate
• it can encourage positive social change. decision-making processes, as well as support communication and
The tools generated and used in this practice can become community advocacy.
interactive vehicles for networking, discussion, information
exchange, analysis and decision-making. PGIS practice is geared towards community empowerment through
tailored, demand-driven and user-friendly applications of these geo-
When PGIS practice first began to move from the non-
spatial technologies. Good PGIS practice is flexible and adapts to
digital to the digital realm in the mid 1990s, concerns arose different socio-cultural and biophysical environments. It often relies on
over the feasibility of applying relatively complex PGIS tools the combination of ‘expert’ skills with local knowledge. Unlike
in a participatory manner. In their paper titled ‘Participatory traditional GIS applications, PGIS places control on access and use of
GIS: opportunity or oxymoron?’ Abbot et al (1998) identified culturally sensitive spatial data in the hands of those communities who
generated it.
and debated the ‘benefits and problems of a participatory
GIS approach’. They asked whether Geographic Information Adapted from Rambaldi et al. (2005)
Systems (GIS) can be used by local people, ‘empowering
13
1Corbett, Rambaldi, Kyem, Weiner, Olson, Muchemi, McCall and Chambers
Box 2: Some participatory tools and methods used in the practice

THEME SECTION
Ephemeral mapping: this most basic method involves drawing maps on the ground. Participants use raw materials like soil, pebbles, sticks and
leaves to represent the physical and cultural landscape.
Sketch mapping is a slightly more elaborate method. A map is drawn from observation or memory. It does not rely on exact measurements, such as
having a consistent scale, or geo-referencing. It usually involves drawing symbols on large pieces of paper to represent features in the landscape.
Scale mapping is a more sophisticated map-making method aimed at generating geo-referenced data. This allows community members to develop
relatively accurate scaled and geo-referenced maps, which can be directly compared with other maps.
3D modelling integrates spatial knowledge with elevation data in order to produce three-dimensional stand-alone, scaled and geo-referenced relief
models. Geographic features relating to land use and cover are depicted on the model by the use of pushpins (points), yarns (lines) and paints
(polygons). When the model is finished, a scaled and geo-referenced grid is applied to facilitate data extraction or importation. Data depicted on the
model can be extracted, digitised and plotted.
Photomaps are printouts of geometrically corrected and geo-referenced aerial photographs (orthophotographs). Orthophoto-maps are a source of
accurate, remotely sensed data that may be used for large-scale community mapping projects. Community members can delineate land use and other
significant features on transparencies that have been overlaid on the photomap. Information on the transparencies can be scanned or digitised and
geo-referenced later. Remote sensing images at a suitable scale are an increasingly appropriate alternative, when they can be easily and freely (or very
cheaply) downloaded from the Web (Muller et al., 2003).
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) have become more affordable, and their use has spread rapidly among NGOs and community organisations. GPS
is a satellite-based positioning system that can tell you your exact location on the earth using a known co-ordinate system such as latitude and
longitude. The technology is often used for the demarcation of areas of land where access to and control over natural resources are in dispute. Data
recorded are frequently used to add accuracy to information depicted on sketch maps, scale maps, 3D models and other less technology-rich
community mapping methods.
Map-linked multimedia information systems are similar to GIS technologies but simpler to understand and manage. Local knowledge is
documented by community members using digital video, digital photos and written text, stored on computers and managed and communicated
through the interface of an interactive, digital map. By clicking on features of the interactive map the other multimedia information can be accessed.
GIS is a computer-based system designed to collect, store, manage and analyse spatially referenced information and associated attribute data. GIS
technology is increasingly being used to explore community-driven questions. In the process, local spatially referenced, as well as non-spatial, data are
integrated and analysed to support discussion and decision-making processes. ‘Mobile GIS’ has become much better adapted to participatory and local
community use since the development of GIS software designed to work with hand-held computers or laptop computers in the field.
Adapted from Rambaldi et al. (2005) and Corbett (2005)
continue their exploration of older, non-digital PGIS tools. use often (but not always) involves the incorporation of many
The Mapping for Change conference has allowed practition- of the preceding tools, resulting in approaches where multi-
ers to share their experiences, both successes and failures, ple tools are used (Box 2).
and identify lessons learnt over this period. The contents of
this special issue mark how PGIS practice has matured. It has Description of the conference
begun to develop a set of ethics and effective methodolo- The Mapping for Change conference took place over an
gies that are based on first-hand experience. These ethical intense three days. It included 12 plenary presentations
considerations will help to guide both new and experienced followed by discussions, and 32 presentations delivered
practitioners alike to ensure that local communities can during parallel sessions. These were followed by working
develop and communicate their own data – and ultimately group discussions based on assigned tasks and questions. The
influence larger decision-making processes. results of the working group discussions were then presented
A broad range of tools and methods are available to prac- in a plenary session, and further debated.
titioners and community representatives. These range from The initial objectives of the conference organisers were
low-tech sketch mapping to hi-tech geo-spatial technologies to enable participants:
and multimedia. As these tools increase in complexity, their • to share experiences and define good practice for making
14
Overview: Mapping for Change – the emergence of a new practice
1
Robert Chambers Peter Kwaku Kyem,

presenting his member of the
paper to the organising committee,
conference on a plenary session
participants panel
THEME SECTION
Photos: Johan Minnie
geographic information technologies available to margin- for good practice.
alised groups in society; and • Sharing experiences relating to PGIS practice. These
• to set the foundation for the establishment of regional included ways of representing local spatial knowledge,
networks and resource centres in order to promote and claiming land and managing resources, issues related to
support good practice in PGIS. participatory process, and ideas on how to support the
The intended objectives of the conference were fully safeguarding of cultural heritage.
realised. From Kenya to Canada, Indigenous and First Nations • Building solidarity and a common vision among PGIS prac-
participants, representative organisations and researchers alike titioners. This included the development of a way forward
all shared their experiences of PGIS initiatives. Working groups for enhancing networking and communication, drafting
responding to specific tasks brought participants together to regional strategies for supporting the practice, and identi-
engage in collaborative learning on issues including: fying key terminology for donors and international devel-
• Enabling and disabling environments for PGIS, focusing on opment agencies in order to encourage their support for
policies and funding that support or weaken the chances the practice.
Guidelines for good PGIS practice under different socio-
Box 3: What do we mean by good practice? political contexts in developing countries are discussed on
Good PGIS practice should be careful, user-driven/user-centred, and the Open Forum on Participatory Geographic Information
ethically conscious. The ‘participatory’ aspect means that the Systems and Technologies www.ppgis.net. Giacomo
community takes as high as possible a degree of control over decision- Rambaldi, Mike McCall, Robert Chambers and Jefferson Fox
making processes, managerial power and responsibility during all the sum up these views in their article in this special issue on
different stages involved.
page 106.
15
A plenary session panel,

Mapping for Change
conference. From left to right:
Peter Poole, Dave de Vera,
Giacomo Rambaldi, Reiko
Yoshida and Mike McCall
Box 3: The three Ts
THEME SECTION
Transparency
Transparency refers to the type of communication necessary for good
PGIS practice. It implies clarity, accountability, the use of simple and
understandable language, and transparent procedures such as open
meetings. It respects the need for communities engaging in the process
to be informed of all the potential drawbacks that might be associated
with the application of the tools.
Photo: Johan Minnie

Time
Enough time is needed at the onset to build meaningful relationships
between technology intermediaries and recipient communities. It is
needed during implementation to maximise the positive impacts
derived from PGIS initiatives and to enable local communities to take
ownership over the tools. There needs to be a clear recognition of the
need for a substantial investment of time. Tight time frames, imposed
to meet outsider agendas, often serve to undermine a project. They sent the broad application of a number of approaches and
might also disempower communities by preventing them from fully tools in various socio-economic and geographic settings by
understanding the technologies or fully exploring the potential benefits
practitioners sharing a considerable depth of experience. We
from their application and use.
hope that these papers communicate a flavour of the enthu-
Trust siasm and innovation generated during the conference.
Trust refers to the relationship between the different groups and This special issue is particularly timely as it also highlights
individuals. It is a critical ingredient for undertaking PGIS. Barbara and documents a significant coming-of-age in PGIS practice.
Misztal (1996) writes that trust makes life predictable, it creates a
It presents examples of the use and application of both old
sense of community, and it makes it easier for people to work together.
The need for trust appears to exert a discipline on practitioners. as well as cutting-edge tools applied in new contexts – as
Without the appropriate behaviour and attitudes for developing this well as in innovative and fun ways. It also represents a meta-
trust, PGIS practice is difficult indeed. morphosis from a scattering of disparate and unconnected
projects, organisations and individuals that use these tools,
Transparency and Time being prerequisites for establishing Trust.
to the creation of a networked and united community of
practitioners.
Transparency, time, and trust
A number of important themes relating to good practice Structure of the special issue
emerged from conference presentations, posters, workshops The articles in this special issue are divided into three broad
and discussions. These can be summarised as the need to groups:
consider PGIS as a practice – going beyond participatory • articles that focus on providing a case study relating to the
mapmaking and involving additional dimensions of network- application of a specific PGIS tool in a grassroots setting;
ing and communication and building on the ‘three Ts’ – trans- • articles that focus on the integration of multiple tools to
parency, time, and trust – the first two being conditions for address specific issues being faced by a community; and
the last. • articles that are more theoretical, and associated with issues
Trust was a key term used throughout the conference. including ethical considerations, potential pitfalls and other
Maps are potentially such powerful tools. They have the lessons learnt from experiences gained through long-term
ability to influence, for good or bad, the outcomes of deci- application of PGIS tools.
sion-making processes. So trust between outsider facilitators
and local people becomes a critical condition for success. Tool-based case studies
As the practices associated with PGIS innovate and evolve, it
Description of this special issue is interesting to see examples of how specific tools are being
The articles in this special issue of PLA are drawn from papers modified and employed to address the issues faced by local
and posters presented at the Mapping for Change confer- communities – and to understand whether they are being
ence. The authors focus on case studies and experiences from useful and/or successful in helping to achieve their objectives.
the developing world and Canadian First Nations. They repre- Jon Corbett and Peter Keller introduce a participatory
16
1
Jon Corbett and Participants deep

Rahab Njoroge in discussion
outside the KCCT. during a working
group session.
THEME SECTION
Photo: Jeroen Verplanke
Photo: Johan Minnie

map-based multimedia information system. This became ical site for learning about sustained, as well as sustainable,
known by participants in the communities as a Community practice.
Information System (CIS). In their approach, traditional Tsion Lemma, Richard Sliuzas and Monika Kuffer present
knowledge is documented by community members using an example from Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PGIS practice was
digital video, audio-recording, digital photos and written text, used in multi-stakeholder decision-making relating to improv-
and stored on computers. It is managed and communicated ing slum monitoring mechanisms. Their approach incorpo-
through the interface of an interactive map. The authors rates locally relevant and spatially detailed information
showcase the CIS using a case study from Indonesia. gathered through focus group discussions, field observation
Giacomo Rambaldi, Silika Tuivanuavou, Penina Namata, with community members, and visual image interpretation
Paulo Vanualailai, Sukulu Rupeni, and Etika Rupeni compare using satellite images and aerial photographs.
the use of Participatory 3D Modelling (P3DM) and participa- Sylvia Jardinet’s paper tells us about Communitarian
tory orthophoto mapping in Fiji. They explain how P3DM was Cartography. She presents an example of a use for PGIS and
effective in supporting collaborative resource planning and GPS that is oriented towards the prevention and resolution of
the documentation of cultural heritage. As the authors conflicts related to land and natural resource access and use.
demonstrate, P3DM has proved to be a user-friendly medium The cooperative of Gaspar Garcia Laviana in Telpaneca,
for generating, analysing and communicating local knowl- Nicaragua, has produced a geo-referenced map of their
edge. community. A public file of their properties is available and
Next, Peter Kyem explores the role of PGIS in mediation can be consulted by any member of the cooperative.
and how the technology can be used to promote consensus The inhabitants of Moikarakô, Pascale de Robert, Jean-
building. Using the example of Kofiase in Southern Ghana, François Faure and Anne-Elisabeth Laques share their experi-
he identifies how PGIS applications helped conflicting stake- ence related to supporting the Kayapó peoples in Brazil in
holders find a pathway to compromise and overcome their making maps of their traditional land use management areas.
disagreements. These maps are made from satellite imagery and ground
truthed using GPS. They describe how the Kayapo took the
Issue-based case studies process into their own hands and redirected it, to produce
PGIS practice often evolves to address specific issues being and use maps as political tools to highlight the territorial and
faced by a community. This means that multiple tools might social unity that the Kayapó Peoples wish to emphasise.
be used together, or in sequence to deal with those issues. Julie Taylor and Carol Murphy, Simon Mayes, Elvis Mwilima,
Craig Candler, Rachel Olson, Steven DeRoy, and Kieran Nathaniel Nuulimba and Sandra Slater-Jones share their expe-
Broderick document the history of PGIS practice in the Treaty riences, including the opportunities and threats, of mapping
8 area of British Columbia, Canada. The authors describe the the San territories in the Caprivi Region of Namibia. They note
range of different practices from community mapping the potential of PGIS practice to expose and address the
through to PGIS development and application, and method- complex and politicised issues of identity, rights and land.
ologies used. The authors identify the Treaty 8 area as a crit- They further identify how these maps can have multiple
17
Conference organiser Giacomo

Rambaldi addresses participants
at the Mapping for Change
conference
applications, including the strengthening of practitioners to develop critical clarity with
THEME SECTION
local rights and capacity to manage an envi- respect to mapping, based on a comprehensive
ronmentally important conservation area. understanding of both intended and likely
Peter Minang and Mike McCall examine unintended consequences of certain actions.
how PGIS facilitates the use of local/indigenous Mike McCall raises important questions
knowledge in community forestry planning for about the issues of certainty and precision
Photo: Johan Minnie

carbon sequestration. Accessing payments for within the practice of PGIS. The terms have
environmental services such as carbon mitiga- become of great significance in the realm of
tion requires extensive and expensive technical more technical GIS application, yet Mike asks
information for baselines and monitoring, whether it is misleading to misrepresent
which local communities often lack. Commu- fuzzy, ambiguous reality as precise or accu-
nity spatial knowledge can be a vital source of rate – especially when PGIS represent data
information, but the local knowledge representations need acquired using participatory methodologies, that represent
to be translated into a format appropriate for accessing local interpretations of certainty, reliability, and relevance.
Kyoto Protocol and other carbon funds. The authors explore No papers at the conference specifically addressed ethics
the extent to which PGIS can enhance the use of local and in PGIS practice. But ethics emerged as one of the main cross-
indigenous knowledge in the carbon certification processes. cutting concerns of the conference participants throughout.
Issues raised included the costs of wasting people’s time, of
Theory and reflections from practice raising expectations that are not met, of endangering people
It is too easy when sharing experiences relating to PGIS prac- through the information they show, of the practice being
tice to focus on success stories, and for practitioners to be used to extract information and/or put it in the public domain
hesitant in engaging in critical reflection relating to their own which outsiders would then exploit, as well as of the practice
work. This final grouping of articles addresses some impor- actually creating conflicts and demanding precision where
tant but little discussed issues relating to perennial problems fuzziness might be more appropriate. Participants recognised
with the practice. These issues include potential pitfalls that the need to formulate commonly recognised practical ethics
projects might face, the concerns surrounding precision, and that would help guide the community of practitioners.
the ethics of the practice. Giacomo Rambaldi, Robert Chambers, Mike McCall and Jeffer-
Mac Chapin shares a wealth of practical experience relat- son Fox’s paper attempts to compile a number of the ethical
ing to problems that often arise in community mapping proj- issues raised, both during the conference and also from
ects and how to avoid them. In particular he cautions the further discussion among practitioners and researchers via
reader to invest time in the planning of projects, and notes different channels.
the important role of project leaders in guiding the work to Finally, in the In Touch section, Susanne Schnuttgen and
a successful outcome. Nigel Crawhall report on a new UNESCO initiative related to
Peter Poole describes two strategies for organising tenure Cultural Mapping. They highlight some of the lessons learnt
mapping projects: partial participation – where the commu- among Indigenous and First Nations’ Peoples in Canada,
nity learns to gather traditional knowledge using interviews New Zealand, the Philippines and Southern Africa as
and sketch mapping, but where all computerised aspects of presented at a recent meeting held in Cuba (New Perspec-
map-making are outsourced – versus complete participation, tives on Cultural Diversity: The Role of Communities
where community members are trained in all aspects of map 7th–10th February 2006). Experiences and ethical concerns
making. He illustrates his article using a number of case that emerged from the Mapping for Change Conference
studies from around the world, before going on to raise were discussed and contributed to the formulation of
important questions over the sustainability of such projects. UNESCO’s declaration on Cultural Mapping.
Jefferson Fox, Krisnawati Suryanata, Peter Hershock and
Albertus Hadi Pramono raise a number of important ethical Conclusion
issues related to the adoption of PGIS technologies in Asia. This special issue helps to build recognition of a growing
Despite a number of successes they note that the adoption community of PGIS practice in developing countries. It also
of these tools does not always have a positive desired effect. contains a wealth of practical, hands-on advice from some
The authors lay out a number of potential pitfalls. They urge of the most experienced members of this maturing discipline.
18
1
Rachel Olson presents

her paper during a
main plenary session
This issue not only presents success stories, it also raises issues
THEME SECTION
of where and why projects might fail, and provides advice
on how to avoid potential pitfalls. It provides sage advice on
the need to focus on developing trust – both by giving the
process the time that it requires to build this trust, as well as
by paying attention to the importance of transparency in all
interaction.
We feel that this special issue should be of great use to
practitioners, including local and Indigenous communities,
as well as other organisations and individuals wanting to
practice PGIS. It is also relevant to students and researchers
working in academic fields associated with the practice.
The Mapping for Change conference was a wonderful
opportunity to bring people together to share experiences
and ideas, as well as to solidify and encourage a wider inter-
Photo: Johan Minnie
national network of communities, practitioners and

researchers alike. The Guest Editors of this special issue hope
that the conference – as well as this compilation of articles
that have resulted from the event – will also help to bring
recognition to a growing community of practice.
CONTACT DETAILS Dan Wiener, REFERENCES

Jon Corbett, Director of International Programs, Professor of Corbett J. M. and C. P. Keller (2005). ‘An
Department of Geography, Geography, analytical framework to examine
University of Victoria, West Virginia University, empowerment associated with participatory
PO Box 3050, G-15 White Hall, geographic information systems (PGIS).’
Victoria, BC, P.O. Box 6214, Cartographica 40/4 91-102
CANADA, V8W 3P5. Morgantown, Rambaldi, G., Kwaku Kyem, A.P., Mbile, P.,
Fax: + 1 250 721 6216 WV 26506-6214, McCall, M., and Weiner, D. (2005).
Email: [email protected] USA. ‘Participatory Spatial Information Management
Email: [email protected]; and Communication in Developing Countries.’
Giacomo Rambaldi, Fax: + 1 304 293 6957 Paper presented at the Mapping for Change
Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural International Conference (PGIS’05), Nairobi,
Development (CTA), Julius Muchemi, Kenya, 7th–10th September 2005
Wageningen, Environmental Research Mapping and Infor- Misztal, B. (1996) Trust in Modern Societies.
THE NETHERLANDS, mation Systems in Africa (ERMIS), Cambridge: Polity Press
Email: [email protected] PO Box 12327 Nakuru, Muller D. and Wode B. (2003). Methodology
Gate House 3rd Floor, Rm 308, for Village Mapping Using Photomaps. Social
Peter A Kyem, Mburu Gichua Road, Forestry Development Project (SFDP) Song Da,
Associate Professor of Geography at Central Nairobi, Vietnam
Connecticut State University, KENYA.
1615 Stanley Street, Email: [email protected]
New Britain,
CT 06050, Michael K. McCall,
USA. International Institute for Geo-Information
Email: [email protected] Science and Earth Observation (ITC),
P O Box 6,
Rachel Olson, 7500 AA ,
Independent Researcher, Enschede, THE NETHERLANDS.
102-8408 92nd Avenue, Email: [email protected]
Fort St. John,
BC, V1J 6X2, Robert Chambers,
CANADA. Institute for Development Studies, University of
Email: [email protected] Sussex,
Brighton, BN1 9RE,
UNITED KINGDOM.
Email: [email protected]
19
theme section
TOOL-BASED
CASE STUDIES
20
Using Community Information
2
THEME SECTION
Systems to communicate
traditional knowledge
embedded in the landscape
by JON CORBETT and PETER KELLER
Introduction “The technologies used were selected

Including indigenous peoples and their knowledge in deci-
on the basis of their appropriateness for
sion-making is increasingly seen as pivotal for achieving
sustainable development and the conservation of biodiver- recording and communicating land-
sity. But indigenous communities often remain isolated from related traditional knowledge, as well
decision-making processes. Their knowledge remains an
as their simplicity and low cost”
under-utilised resource despite recognition of the positive
contribution that it could make (Lawrence and Warren, 1999;
Bhattarya, 2004). One reason for this is the communication traditional ties with lands and resources. So the ability of
constraints that exist between indigenous communities and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) tools to store, retrieve,
decision makers. analyse and present spatial (or land-related) information has
Many indigenous communities also face the accelerating made this genre of ICTs of particular interest. Yet GIS requires
loss of their traditional knowledge. This is due to rapid a steep learning curve, a strong commitment to keeping soft-
economic, political and cultural changes at the global – and ware and operator skills current, and a deep wallet.
local – level. Not only is better communication needed with Also, much land related cultural information is shared in
outsiders. indigenous communities see an equally important the form of stories and legends, using metaphor and sophis-
need to communicate their knowledge within the commu- ticated local terminology (Johnson, 1992). Much of this
nity, particularly between generations. Increasingly, they are essential cultural context might be lost if the information is
using digital information communication technologies (ICTs) presented using two, or even three, dimensional maps – or
for a range of different purposes to facilitate this exchange even transcribed to written text. Can GIS succeed in express-
and communication of information, for example, on land use ing the unique relationship between people and place? Or
planning, advocacy, and documentation of intangible cultural does it mould indigenous peoples’ knowledge into a more
heritage. Western conception of space? (Harley, 1988; Rundstrom,
Many rural and indigenous communities have strong 1995; Kyem, 2004).
21
Figure 1: Location of the CIS project
THEME SECTION
This article examines alternatives to typical GIS. Using the – and expressing this to outsiders – is now of great signifi-
example of a participatory action research project in Indone- cance. It might impact on their rights to secure land tenure
sia that we were involved in, we consider how to support and/or harvesting rights to resources. So CIS was examined
indigenous communities in expressing, documenting, visual- as a potential tool to express this relationship and communi-
ising and communicating their traditional and contemporary cate it to people outside the community.
land related knowledge using geographic ICTs. The technolo-
gies used were selected on the basis of their appropriateness Defining a Community Information System
for recording and communicating land-related traditional In our project, a Community Information System (CIS) is
knowledge, as well as their simplicity and low cost. The final defined as a digital map-based multimedia information
product was called a Community Information System (CIS). system. Community members document their knowledge
using digital video, digital photos and written text. It is stored
Developing a CIS in West Kutai on a computer and managed and communicated through
Our project took place in West Kutai in the province of East the interface of an interactive map. The digital hyperlinked
Kalimantan, Indonesia (see Figure 1). We collaborated with map of the communities’ traditional lands consists of points,
two neighbouring Benuaq Dayak villages, Benung and Tepu- lines and polygons that could be clicked on to link the viewer
lang, the University of Victoria in Canada, Konsorsium Sistem to related multimedia and textual information.
Hutan Kerakyatan – Kalimantan Timur (SHK-KalTim, a local Participatory processes were central to this CIS project.
non-governmental organisation), and the Centre for Inter- Community members shaped the CIS objectives and deter-
national Forestry Research (CIFOR). The project ran in the two mined what information to record. Community operators
participating communities for a period of 20 months. were then trained in the use of the equipment for informa-
Villagers in both communities still follow a traditional way of tion gathering, editing and management.
life. Their culture, language, and traditional knowledge (adat) The role of external technology intermediaries was to
are very similar. introduce the project, to facilitate the early stages, to supply
Recently, significant political decision-making has been the necessary technologies, and to train community
decentralised to the district level. The issues of land owner- members in their use. They took care to foster a feeling of
ship and resource rights are at the forefront of the political community ownership over their CIS, to ensure that the
agenda in Indonesia, particularly in areas where natural project was not overwhelmed by an outside agenda. All the
resources remain plentiful. For the inhabitants of Benung and information and tools used by the communities for this
Tepulang, proving their relationship to their traditional lands project have remained with the two communities.
22
Using Community Information Systems to communicate traditional knowledge embedded in the landscape
2
Figure 2: Example of a CIS, including the interactive map, digital photos and digital video
THEME SECTION
The project process Figure 3: Flow diagram showing the steps followed in the
The flow diagram in Figure 3 outlines the steps of the partic- development of the CIS
ipatory process used. Each step is described in more detail
below. Entire community
Introducing CIS to the community Introduction

Community Community
The first step was to introduce the CIS concept to the two to
decision-making evaluation
communities. We discussed how the systems might benefit community
the community, and asked the community, as a whole,
whether they wanted to take part in this research project.
This was done using community meetings. We showed them
examples of a CIS and demonstrated potential applications Community Information Information
operators Training editing and
using drama skits and hand-drawn diagrams. We made it gathering
management
clear that this was a research project and that there was no
certainty that it would in any way benefit the community.
Both communities agreed to participate.
23
2Jon Corbett and Peter Keller
Table 1: Matrix used to structure the process of decision-making in developing a CIS in Benung
THEME SECTION
What information? Information source Responsibility
The history of how the village and the longhouse Lama (male) Nado (male)
came into being Djung (male)
Ipuy (male)
Ranaq (male)
Village boundaries Lama (male) Kitong (male)

Djung (male) Djung (male)
Ipuy (male)
Banyak (male)
The village potensi (a term used to describe the Nado (male) Not known
economic potential of the village resources). Mino (male)
Djung (male)
Culture, including belian healing ceremonies. Ramid (male) Not known

Lama (male)
Lasa (male)
The ladang process All villagers Kitong (male)

Djung (male)
Community decision-making computer equipment.1 These community operators were

The initial introductory meeting was followed up by a series selected during the community meetings, using village-
of community gatherings facilitated by members of SHK- generated nominations and an open vote. The limitations of
KalTim. Using decision-making matrices (see Table 1 for an the equipment meant that a maximum of three people could
example of the matrix developed in Benung), community be trained. These operators received an intensive four-week
members determined: computer training programme. As they had never used the
• what information to collect; equipment before, their training began with basic computer
• who in the community would act as the source of that and file management skills. They then received training in
information; how to capture, edit and process digital video and images
• who in the village was to be responsible for collecting that and link them to a digital map of their traditional lands. This
information; map had been produced earlier in collaboration with SHK-
• when they were to collect that information; KalTim, using participatory mapping processes, and was digi-
• who in the village would be trained initially in the use of tised by community members.
the video, camera and computer equipment; After the initial training, less intensive training for
• how the data would be managed and communicated; computer operators and other people interested in the CIS
• who would have access to the information stored on the continued for another ten months.
computer; and
• how the equipment would be stored, maintained and used Information gathering
by community members. Information gathering began soon after the community had
determined what type of information to include in their CIS.
Capacity building The technology intermediaries began by briefly demonstrat-
Once the initial community decision-making was completed, ing the main features of the video and camera equipment,
training began. The training was divided into two sessions. before handing them over to the community. Afterwards, the
The first session was open training for anybody in the village technology intermediaries continued to provide ongoing
who wanted to learn how to use the camera and video
equipment. The second session taught community operators 1 The university researchers had requested that at least one operator be a
(two men and one woman in each village) to use the woman.
24
2
assistance with using the equipment. This training approach “Information gathering began soon
THEME SECTION
was referred to as ‘learning by doing’ and allowed for skill
sharing in a practical and applied manner. This style of train-
after the community had determined
ing proved very effective. what type of information to include in
their CIS. The technology intermediaries
Information editing and management
Early information gathering overlapped with initial intensive
began by briefly demonstrating the
computer training. We planned this deliberately so that the main features of the video and camera
computer operators could be trained in video and photo- equipment, before handing them over
graphic editing and file management whilst using relevant
information that could be immediately included in the CIS.
to the community”
Soon after information gathering, villagers could see the
information displayed and accessed through the map inter- recording promises made by a timber buyer to community
face. leaders and recording evidence of illegal logging on commu-
nity lands. But both documentary examples had a risk
Evaluating the CIS Content attached to them. Community members were very conscious
Community members regularly gathered to view the CIS data of not widely sharing the information relating to the illegal
and to discuss the quality and content of the images and logging for fear of the information generating unnecessary
video. These gatherings were informal forums, though facil- conflict.
itated by a technology intermediary. They allowed community
members to suggest how to improve the training, the infor- Political information
mation gathering process, types of information to gather, and This includes statements made by people within the commu-
the editing, management, and presentation of the informa- nity to mobilise political support for a cause, and/or to create
tion. This was an important a feedback loop. It improved the alliances with more powerful stakeholders. For example, the
quality and content of information being documented and community made a video explaining their views on why they
stored within the CIS. should be allowed to harvest timber using traditional
For example, the community made recommendations for management systems, showing what practices they would
more training to improve video sound quality. They had been employ. This video explained the management process to
unable to hear a certain elder speaking clearly on video. As outsiders, including members of the regional government.
a result, the operators requested a special training session for
this. Commercial information
Some video information was stored and distributed on Video
Uses of Community Information Systems Compact Disc (VCD) to groups outside the village that had
Over 18-months, the technology intermediaries monitored requested it. The operators were paid 200,000 Rupiah
the computers in Benung and Tepulang. Both communities (approximately US$50) per VCD produced. These VCDs
documented, produced and stored large quantities of infor- included the process of carving a large commemorative
mation. It can be broadly classified into four major categories: wooden statue and the documentation of several traditional
ceremonies.
Cultural information People in both Benung and Tepulang varied in how they
This includes intangible cultural heritage information, e.g. thought the CIS should be used depending on their gender,
descriptions of traditional land and resource use systems, age and status in the community. Younger and middle-aged
traditional dances and songs, and ceremonies that were men were more focused on documenting and communicat-
recorded as community and family mementos. ing information about boundaries and land uses, evidence of
illegal incursions by other villagers, and political statements
Documentaries about the community’s vision for ecosystem-based logging.
This includes information recorded at specific events in antic- Some of this information was instrumental in resolving
ipation that this might be useful for communication with disputes over illegal logging in the traditional lands of
outsiders or as evidence in the future. Examples include Benung. Elders and women in both communities were
25
2Jon Corbett and Peter Keller
“Benung’s overall computer usage computer usage while technology intermediaries were away.
THEME SECTION
The main reason was because of a conflict between commu-

remained high afterwards, as members nity members, due to one operator’s monopolisation of the
continued to gather video and computer. This conflict was linked to a wider, pre-existing
photographic information and store it power struggle taking place within the community. Sustain-
ability of the project appears less likely in Tepulang.
on the computer. They also found new Overall, the sustainability of CIS appeared less depend-
and innovative ways of using the CIS” ent on technology and related skills and more on:
• the pre-existing conditions such as the level of community
cohesion;
concerned about the loss of traditional knowledge, particu- • the maturity of the operators;
larly local history, culture and customary laws, and used the • the level of leadership provided in the project by the village
system to record these types of information for future gener- leaders versus outsiders; and
ations. • the commitment to applying participatory approaches that
gives the whole community the ability to influence the
Evaluating Community Information Systems development and use of the CIS (see Box 1).
Over a 20-month period, both villages created a functional
map-linked CIS. However, not all the information was
managed and accessed using the interactive map interface. Box 1: Feedback from Benung
Community members, computer operators and outsiders ‘I think the process has been good because it has always relied on
positively evaluated the map interface, both as a useful community meetings. By including as many people as possible, the
organisational tool for land-related information, and as a way benefits are spread to many more people. It is very important to
engage the community and to be as open as possible, as many projects
of enabling people to explore and learn about the commu-
do not do this; they only visit the village chief. By being open and
nities’ relationship with the land. But computer use statistics honest with the village they will be more likely to support the
showed that the map interface was little used by community programme.’ (Ori, 33, Benung).
members. This is partly because it was easier to access
specific multimedia information directly (and in particular Conclusion
video files) using the default file management software. Our experiences working with the communities in Benung
Villagers also tended to want to access specific things – rather and Tepulang have shown that the CIS has been useful to
than take a guided tour of the CIS via the map interface. The them. The capacity existed within the communities to use
interface might have been more important if the CIS the tools as well as plan, build and manage the system. But
contained more location-specific information that needed to pre-existing community dynamics and political structures
be organised and managed spatially. were very important. Without support from the leaders and
To be sustainable, the participating communities must elders, others would have been less likely to invest the time
also be able to manage and maintain the equipment, and required to create CIS. This is an important consideration for
continue adding information to the CIS system after the tech- other groups wanting to establish a similar project. There
nology intermediaries have left. Benung’s overall computer must be a functional and respected leadership and they need
usage remained high afterwards, as members continued to to be seen to be supportive of a CIS project.
gather video and photographic information and store it on The participatory process and decision-making was vital.
the computer. They also found new and innovative ways of It contributed to the communities taking ownership over
using the CIS. For example, they began to package and sell the CIS and wanting to continue to develop and add infor-
their skills to outsiders using VCDs to generate some cash mation to the system. In particular, it was important to
income – an additional incentive to use and maintain the CIS include women as computer operators. The women in
equipment. A strong indicator of sustainability was Benung’s Benung and Tepulang gathered cultural and historical infor-
willingness to pay for the repair of the video camera when it mation that might not otherwise have been gathered or
was broken, as well as update computer supplies. Long-term included in the CIS. In fact, the women’s recordings of their
sustainability of CIS therefore seems quite likely in Benung. traditional songs gained much recognition throughout
In contrast, Tepulang showed a significant drop in West Kutai, and the songs were even played on the local
26
2
radio station. So it is very important that these tools and interface for the CIS.
THEME SECTION
technologies do not become the exclusive domain of the Decision makers in rural and marginalised areas of devel-
men in the community. oping countries increasingly recommend policies that
Our experiences demonstrated that multimedia tools promote technological adoption (Davison et al. 2000).
were a helpful medium to represent the relationship between However, despite their enthusiasm it is important for policy
the communities and their traditional lands. Whilst the map makers to remember that the focus should remain on
component of the CIS was less important for community people, organisations and processes rather than the tech-
members, they still felt that it was an important and worth- nologies themselves. The challenge is to introduce and use
while tool for managing and communicating information to ICTs that are relevant and suit the needs of local communi-
outsiders. So we recommend that generating maps for the ties – and to recognise that the technologies are only tools to
CIS should be an integral part of the process. Maps gener- facilitate a broader social process of communication for self-
ated by outsiders or companies should not be used as the determination in development.
CONTACT DETAILS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES

Jon Corbett and Peter Keller This paper presents findings from a collabora- Bhattarya, N. T. S. (2004). ‘Integrating Indige-
Department of Geography tive research project. The authors of this paper nous Knowledge and GIS for Participatory
University of Victoria acknowledge the other collaborators including Natural Resource Management: State-of-the-
PO Box 3050 the community members of the villages of Practice.’ The Electronic Journal on Information
Victoria, BC, Canada, V8W 3P5 Benung and Tepulang, the Samarinda based Systems in Developing Countries 17(3): 1-13
Fax: + 1 250 721 6216 Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) Davison, R., D. Vogel, R. Harris and N. Jones
Email: [email protected] Konsorsium Sistem Hutan Kerakyatan, Kali- (2000). ‘Technology Leapfrogging in Develop-
Email: [email protected] mantan Timur (SHK-KalTim), and the Centre ing Countries – An Inevitable Luxury?’ The
for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in
authors also recognise the funders of this Developing Countries 1(5): 1-10
project, the CGIAR-Canada Linkage Fund Harley, J. B. (1988). Maps, Knowledge and
(CCLF), established by the Canadian Interna- Power: The Iconography of Landscape. D.
tional Development Agency (CIDA). Cosgrove. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press: 277-312.
Johnson, M. (1992). Lore: capturing traditional
environmental knowledge. Ottawa: IDRC.
Kyem, P. A. K. (2004). ‘Of intractable conflicts
and participatory GIS applications: the search
for consensus amidst competing claims and
institutional demands.’ Annals of the Associa-
tion of American Geographers 94 (1): 37-57
Lawrence, A. and K. Warren (1999). Research-
able constraints in participatory forest
management: a survey of issues and options.
University of Reading, Forestry Research
Programme (FRP) of the Department for Inter-
national Development: 78.
Rundstrom, R. A. (1995). ‘GIS, Indigenous
Peoples, and Epistemological Diversity.’ Cartog-
raphy and Geographic Information Systems
22(1): 45-57
27
3
Resource use, development
THEME SECTION
planning, and safeguarding

intangible cultural heritage:
lessons from Fiji Islands
by GIACOMO RAMBALDI, SILIKA TUIVANUAVOU, PENINA NAMATA,

PAULO VANUALAILAI, SUKULU RUPENI and ETIKA RUPENI
Introduction “Mapping is a fundamental way for
The Fijian Government supports the involvement of local
communities in the development and management of
displaying spatial human cognition and
ecotourism activities. It also supports the conservation of Fiji's for communicating on issues related to
biodiversity, natural environment, and indigenous Fijian territory”
culture and tradition (Ministry of Planning, 2001).
The Ecotourism and Village-based Tourism Policy and
Strategy for Fiji (2000), addresses the need for integrated communication. Some efforts have been made by govern-
village-level planning. It notes that ecotourism involves both ment and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to intro-
biodiversity and cultural heritage protection. This has impli- duce participatory spatial planning and monitoring methods.
cations for stakeholders’ involvement, including those But most village communities still rely on traditional gather-
holding customary use rights on land and marine resources, ings and conversation to share recollections of space as the
as well as government agencies and independent organisa- basis for analysis.
tions.1 In Fiji the use of community-based geo-spatial informa-
Regulatory, legal and cultural frameworks support native tion technologies to support collective informed decision-
communities in taking the lead in managing and protecting making is still in its infancy. Local knowledge is scattered
these resources. But actual implementation depends on a between individuals and rarely collated, geo-referenced or
number of factors. Available spatial data are often of poor visualised using maps. Mapping is a fundamental way for
quality, outdated or incomplete. Historic data on the occur- displaying spatial human cognition and for communicating
rence, distribution and access to natural resources are orally on issues related to territory. Lacking a tested practice for
transferred or in a manner unsuitable to detailed spatial plan- producing community-generated maps impacts on increas-
ning, systematic monitoring and effective bottom-up ing community involvement in spatial decision-making. This
1 Native Fijians are the custodians of 87% of Fiji’s land area and of all the coastal
is a critical entitlement when natural resources are distributed
and marine environments up to 12 miles offshore. over vast areas.
28
Resource use, development planning, and safeguarding intangible cultural heritage: lessons from Fiji Islands
3
Figure 1: Where Ovalau and Beqa Islands are located Figure 2: Villagers working on an orthophoto
Photo: Giacomo Rambaldi

THEME SECTION
Silika Tuivanuavou
Scope of the case study workshop in Rukua Village intended to produce the outline
This paper focuses on two community mapping exercises of a management plan. It relied on the use of composite
done on Beqa and Ovalau Islands. Both encompass land and orthophoto3 and Qoliqoli maps in situ (at village level); and
marine territories. While the methods used differed (aerial geographic information systems (GIS) ex situ (in the capital
orthophoto-mapping in Beqa and Participatory 3D modelling city, Suva).4
in Ovalau), the objectives were similar – developing collabo- The event was presented as the start of a process of
rative natural resources management and development plans sustainably managing natural resources, sharing benefits, and
based on customary values and practices and the use of minimising conflict arising from shared resource uses.
modern geo-spatial technologies. The preparatory phase took two months. Organising the
This paper compares critical steps of the two methods workshop involved a series of coordinating meetings,
and the human dynamics, which emerged during the course procurement, and two on-site visits of a high-ranking govern-
of the processes. ment official native to the Island. Preparing the orthophoto
map took a month and involved scanning, rectifying, geo-
Background referencing and making a mosaic of six aerial photos.
Beqa Island (Figure 1) has a landmass of 37 km2 and is The workshop involved 62 villagers. They depicted the
surrounded by a lagoon and coral reefs. It has steep slopes distribution, use of, and access to land and coastal resources,
and a limited area suitable for agricultural production. including taboo and heritage sites. They used a 1986
According to the Bureau of Statistics, in 1996 the total popu- 1:50,000 marine map outlining customary fishing rights and
lation was 1,239 people living in eight villages. a 1:11,900 scale composition of 20-year old geometrically
Ovalau Island (Figure 1) is a volcanic island of 109 km2 rectified aerial images.
surrounded by lagoons and coral reefs. In 1996 its population Participants worked in seven discussion groups, formed
was 8,625 people living in 27 villages. The island has pristine according to existing Qoliqoli. The groups located and anno-
ecosystems, lush tropical forest cover, fertile farmland, tated different features on the respective portions of the map
numerous freshwater sources and rich fishing grounds. and aerial image (Figure 2).
The participants were enthusiastic about the process. But
Process there was an incomplete briefing on the fact that the aerial
photos were 20 years old and a lack of adequate supplies.
Beqa Island Facilitators failed to provide transparencies to depict differ-
In September 2004, the Ministry of Tourism, the Beqa Island
2 Qoliqoli is the vernacular of ‘traditional fishing grounds’. The Qoliqoli are made
Tourism Council, the University of the South Pacific (USP) and out of many Mataqali (land and water owning units).
the Native Land Trust Board (NLTB) assisted the residents of 3 Geometrically rectified aerial photographs placed in a map coordinate system.
4 According to the plans, the GIS facility would have received and processed data
the island in initiating a participatory process. This was aimed resulting from the village exercise, produced thematic maps and returned these to
at developing a Qoliqoli Management Plan.2 The two-day the community for further use in the planning process.
29
3Giacomo Rambaldi, Silika Tuivanuavou, Penina Namata, Paulo Vanualailai, Sukulu Rupeni and Etika Rupeni
Box 1: Participatory 3D modelling Figure 3: Elders working on the model

THEME SECTION
Participatory 3D modelling (P3DM) is a communicative facilitation

method. It supports collaborative processes related mainly to resource
use and tenure. It aims to facilitate grassroots participation in spatial
problem analysis and decision-making.
P3DM integrates people’s knowledge and spatial information (contour

lines) to produce stand-alone scale relief models. These have proved to
be user-friendly. They are relatively accurate data storage and analysis
devices and at the same time excellent communication media.
The difference between an ordinary contour map and a 3D relief model

is the vertical dimension. This provides important cues to stimulate

memory and facilitates the establishment of spatial associations
(Rambaldi et al., 2002).
ent information layers. Instead data were depicted directly

onto the photos using black pencils, but since the images
were printed in grey-tones the pencil marks were difficult to
read. Those working on the black and white marine maps
found it easier, as the pencil was clearly visible.
The exercise resulted in seven separate sets of annotated But due to lack of funding, the Department of Tourism
orthophoto and Qoliqoli maps. No comparison between the did not return to the island. No validation of the maps took
outputs occurred at the workshop. So the actual planning was place and no management plan was produced.
deferred until after the seven sets had been compiled in a GIS.
The villagers could easily relate to aerial photographs, but Ovalau Island
experienced some difficulties in respect to scaling. They In January 2005 a similar process involving a number of agen-
would tend to oversize items depending on how important cies began on Ovalau Island.5 The exercise started with a
they were to them (e.g. their own farms). three-month intense design phase, followed by a four-month
To brief villagers about follow-up ex-situ activities, facili- period during which the organisers conducted networking
tators transferred some data from one annotated photo to a and coordination activities and procured materials, including
GIS and showed them the resulting output. They explained topographic and bathymetric data.6 They prepared base
that they would complete the data extraction and consoli- maps, mobilised stakeholders during a series of 27 village
dation processes back in their offices and then return to consultations, organised the logistics, and outlined commu-
discuss the results. At the time of writing, the data was digi- nity entry and exit strategies, including the discussion of
tised and a total of 60 legend items were identified. appropriate attitudes and behaviours, respect of rituals, and
But those involved in data extraction said the process was possible follow-up actions which could eventually address
difficult. It involved three people: the first person looked at new emerging realities.
the orthophoto map. The second person identified corre- The actual P3DM exercise took place in Levuka in April
sponding features from the legend. The third person was 2005. The event lasted for 11 days. During the first three
responsible for on-screen digitising, matching individual days, twenty-nine students and six teachers from local high
features sketched on the maps with landmarks identified on schools attended to construct the model (Rupeni et al. 2005).
the digital geo-referenced orthophoto map. They had to try
to accurately reproduce both the size and location of these 5
Fiji Locally Managed Marine Areas Network (FLMMA), WWF-South Pacific
Programme, Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA),
features. Features that were found to be overlapping on Native Land Trust Board (NLTB), National Trust of Fiji, Development of Sustainable
different annotated orthophoto- and/or qoliqoli maps were Agriculture in the Pacific (DSAP) Project (SPC-DSAP) and Lomaiviti Provincial
Council.
selectively digitised. Discrepancies were noted down, ready 6 Bathymetry is the underwater equivalent to topography. A bathymetric map
to be raised at the follow-up workshop. This was where the gives the depth contours of the soil, rock, sand, etc. at the bottom of a body of
water such as an ocean or a lake.
verification of all captured data would have been done.
30
3
Figure 4: Mental transect walk along the landscape of Figure 5: Transect diagram presentation
the 3D model
Photo: Penina Namata

THEME SECTION
Photo: Penina Namata
Afterwards, 82 village representatives, mainly elders, depicted through the same process. Afterwards, these assessments
their spatial knowledge in three partially overlapping shifts were consolidated, reviewed and subjected to a problem tree
of 1.5 days each (Figure 3). analysis. Here, community-based solutions were put forward
The process was guided by a group of facilitators with to address the root causes of perceived problems.
backgrounds in collaborative natural resource management, The four assessments were then presented to the
cartography, GIS and community work. The P3DM exercise community. Taking stock of these scenarios, participants
and follow-up activities focused on ensuring local ownership concluded that the best approach was to collaborate island-
of both process and outputs. Once completed, the model wide ‘as one people’ and to create a Vanua ko Ovalau
displayed a wealth of spatial information with a legend Resource Management and Action Plan.7
containing 79 different features and a total of 83 places of
cultural heritage significance. Mapping out cultural heritage
In July 2005 the facilitators brought together 135 repre- During the mapping workshop, an interesting collaboration
sentatives from all villages for five days to conduct a vision- developed amongst the older and younger generations. The
ing and planning workshop. The objective was to develop an youth did manual assignments (painting, writing labels, fixing
action plan that would address collectively perceived natural yarns) while the elders advised on names, distribution of
and cultural/resource-related problems and opportunities. natural resources and harvesting grounds, and places of
Activities included 12 mental transect walks (Figure 4). historic and cultural significance. On several occasions the
Participants split into groups based on their geographic elders started narrating stories and legends, generally asso-
origin, professional background, and experience. There were ciated with natural phenomena, features of the landscape,
three groups for each of the four districts, each assigned natural resources and people.
different tasks. The first group assessed the land habitats, the On the mental transect walks, participants described
second assessed marine habitats, and the third identified cultural heritage sites including old villages and fortifications,
potential economic, cultural, social and environmental devel- hunting caves and fields, old burial grounds, and natural
opment opportunities. features associated with historic events, myths and rituals.
Each group nominated a highly knowledgeable elder as They also mentioned less location-specific legends associated
leader, and one documenter. Using the 3D model as a visual with resource management practices.
and tactile reference, each group selected its transect itiner- In parallel to the description and assessment of the terres-
ary. Using a wooden stick (Figure 4), leaders mimicked the trial and marine environments, cultural heritage features were
walk, pointing at and naming different habitats and relevant added to the transect diagrams. Participants felt they deserved
species found there, and describing their status, opportuni- special recognition both at regional and national levels in
ties and threats. The groups discussed the findings until they
reached consensus. This was noted down by the documenter 7 For Fijians, ‘vanua’ refers to the peoples, the land, the sea and everything they
on the transect diagram (Figure 5). All 12 groups went contain.
31
Box 2 Box 3
THEME SECTION
I learnt new things about my village. I learnt names of places, names we To take different perspectives on a 3D model, I move my eyes, turn my
do not use anymore, names that our elders used and I am so glad that I head, move my body; my brain automatically updates all that information
and future generations have learnt and will use them again. so I don't lose orientation.
Statement by one elder participating in the P3DM exercise in Levuka, Tversky, personal communication, 2005.
Fiji, 12 April 2005
terms of cultural identity building and as opportunities to with a 1.5 vertical exaggeration to purposely enhance the
pursue development initiatives focusing on cultural tourism. perception of slope, elevation and depth. Being able to see
a relief model from different angles helped participants to
The Ovalau Resource Management Plan acquire different perspectives and easily comprehend of the
After it was endorsed by the elders, the plan was presented entire landscape (Box 3).
to the Lomaiviti Provincial Council. Beqa Island is characterised by steep slopes. This was not
As a follow-up to the workshop, the facilitators consoli- perceivable from the aerial photos and so not discussed in
dated data from the transect diagrams and notes, as well as spite of being of great importance to the islanders in terms
the visions, dreams and recommendations into a document. of soil erosion and water conservation, access and economic
This was returned to the Ovalau residents for validation and development.
endorsement. The resulting Vanua ko Ovalau Resource
Management Plan now guides island-wide sustainable Surfacing tacit knowledge
management of natural resources and cultural heritage, and Provided there is adequate facilitation, the three-dimen-
is a reference for future development. sional nature of relief models enhances discovery learning
through sensorial (visual and tactile) experiences.8 This stim-
Considerations and lessons learnt ulates confrontational feedback, which in turn promotes
It is hard to compare the two exercises. Both benefited from debate and learning (Rambaldi et al, 2002) wherein elders
substantially different financial and technical inputs. But reflect on their own knowledge and listen to each other.
considering the similar objectives and participating commu- This makes tacit knowledge (knowledge everybody has, but
nities, and by comparing the two processes and outcomes, is not aware of) become coherent and identifiable for the
some useful lessons can be learnt. holder of that knowledge. This can be missed using other
techniques. It is the link between memory, land and 3D
Project conceptualisation maps that creates a particular focus (Crawhall 2006,
The Ovalau exercise was better prepared in terms of design, personal communication).
procurement and financial forecast. Budgetary provisions
were made from the onset to ensure that both the mapping Spotting error and change
and the visioning/planning workshops took place. But this On Beqa Island, the photos the participants used were 20
was not the case in Beqa where financial resources were years old. But they were not alerted to this fact. Over that
lacking at the start of the process. This example raises an period, land use and cover and eventually the coastal line
important issue: when technology and development inter- could have changed, but participants’ made no specific
mediaries venture into community-based initiatives, they comment on changes. It is fair to assume that the visual
need to be in the position of assisting participating commu- power of the information in the images may have led to a
nities until completion of the agreed processes. passive acceptance of what was displayed.
In Ovalau, participants started working on a blank 3D
Spatial learning and interpretation of space model. So they were less biased when depicting their
In the two exercises the visual aid offered to informants mental maps. Participants spontaneously initiated a critical
differed substantially. review of the landscape and identified several topographic
features they could disagree with. These included e.g. a
Understanding the landscape
8
The Ovalau 3D model was constructed at 1:10,000-scale and See www.iapad.org/p3dm.htm for more information on discovery learning.
32
3
Figure 6: Informants spot a missing peak and add it to the blank 3D model. Note: the landmark is missing on the official
THEME SECTION
topography of the island.

missing peak (Figure 6), rock outcrops at sea, changes in in both exercises. They noted the fun of discovery and learn-
the coastline (reclaimed areas) and insufficiently deep navi- ing while interacting with both the photomaps and the 3D
gation channels. model.
In Beqa, participants experienced difficulties in rendering But when relating the levels of enjoyment to the number
natural or physical features close to scale. They tended to of calls necessary for participants to stop working (e.g. for
remarkably exaggerate these. No support to assist mental meals), the Ovalau exercise definitely ranked as the one
processing of areas was provided. The issue was of less of a where participants felt the most excited.
problem in Ovalau, because a purposely-prepared quick
reference scaling guide (Figure 7) was provided. Replicability
In both exercises the role of intermediaries was pivotal in
Visual access introducing and using community-based geo-spatial infor-
When working in a participatory mode in a remote village, mation technologies. In Ovalau, specific attention was paid
there is a substantial difference in looking at an aerial photo to giving the villagers control over the process. In fact, during
and at a relief model. Arguably, a photo is flat. It is best the mapmaking exercise one elder from group one intro-
viewed from the top. It is of no additional advantage to look duced newcomers from group two to the task. Consequently
at it from a different angle. But a 3D model can be observed one elder from group two did the same for group three. In
from different angles (bird’s eye view) with enormous advan- the process, facilitators progressively stepped back and
tages in terms of spatial learning (Box 3). handed over control to locals while maintaining a critical role
in ensuring consistency in the use of codes, in regularly
Broadening perspectives updating the legend, and in calling participants’ attention on
At the visioning and planning stages, a 3D model – showing ‘drawing/painting close to scale’.
physical, biological, economic and cultural landscapes of While replicability at local level is welcome, it is crucial to
both land and sea – helped participants to consider Ovalau decide on which level to focus in terms of building capacity
holistically. They no longer viewed it from a purely adminis- – and for what purpose. The Ovalau exercise had a specific
trative perspective. This led to the adoption of a compre- regional capacity building component. Both technology inter-
hensive island-wide development and management plan. mediaries from government and NGOs benefited from
hands-on training in P3DM and related GIS applications. This
The fun factor has resulted in two major P3DM exercises being planned in
Villagers and other stakeholders participated enthusiastically Fiji and Papua New Guinea for 2006.
33
Figure 7: Quick reference guide 1:10,000 scale when data from the photomaps or 3D models needs to be
THEME SECTION
imported into a GIS environment. This is the phase, where

external support is usually needed.
Procedural issues
A pre-requisite for good practice is to leave the outputs of
any mapping exercise with those who made them: the
villagers. Facilitators should make their own copies and
ensure that village representatives are in a position to oversee
the transfer, manipulation and further analysis of the data in
the context of the recipient GIS.
On Beqa Island, after a traditional farewell ceremony,
facilitators left the village together with all maps, aerial
photographs and the legend. This is a problem inherent to IT-
assisted participatory mapping. Often little is left with the
community after its effort and no long-term empowerment
stems from the exercise. Valuable community knowledge is
carried away and the community loses control over its
storage and usage.
But on Ovalau Island, the 3D model, legends and
unused coding means were left with the Provincial Council,
the body entrusted by the traditional leaders to cater for its
maintenance and updating. A comprehensive activity report
was compiled soon after the workshop and distributed to
representatives of all stakeholders involved, including
schools.
The same applied to the planning workshop, where the
transect diagrams were copied and the originals left with the
Giacomo Rambaldi
community.
For planning purposes, annotated aerial photographs
and/or transparencies are of limited use to the community
until converted into thematic maps. So sometimes the
community outputs need to be taken away from the village
for processing. This is potentially disempowering, as local
Ovalau community members were trained in dealing with spatial knowledge is taken away by outsiders (although
the 3D model itself; using codes; updating the legend; temporarily). A 3D model, due to its sheer size and weight,
importing and exporting data; and all actions necessary for must remain where it was made and – if not hijacked by
nurturing and putting the model to work to serve the island’s village elites – becomes integral to the local cultural and intel-
community. lectual ‘landscape’. It is available for local use in a variety of
Students and teachers learnt on the job and got excited contexts.
about replicating the process elsewhere. In agreement with
the local council, the schools were given leftover materials Concluding note
to construct smaller models of the school areas. It appears that the Ovalau exercise benefited from careful
Both methods depend on quality organisation and planning and implementation in addition to the adoption of
professional facilitation. Provided communities have access a more demanding, but ultimately more user-friendly P3DM
to e.g. orthophotos or base maps, organised groups (e.g. medium, favouring visual access and spatial learning.
community-based organisations) can master the processes. Similar to many community mapping exercises carried out
The bottleneck may lie at the end of the mapmaking process, around the globe, the Beqa exercise raised a number of
34
3
ethical questions about the building blocks of participation: “During the mapping workshop, an
THEME SECTION
ownership, empowerment, control, access and use, and
appropriation of local spatial knowledge. These and other
interesting collaboration developed…
ethical issues have been discussed in more detail in the article The youth did manual assignments
published on page 106 of this issue (Rambaldi et al, 2006). (painting, writing labels, fixing yarns)
The authors believe that participatory approaches are
open ended and based on continuous innovation and
while the elders advised on names,
change. ‘Conclusions’ are never ‘real conclusions’ – and this distribution of natural resources and
fact should be considered as the beauty of innovation. The harvesting grounds, and places of
conclusions are therefore kept short to give more space to
the lessons learnt.
historic and cultural significance”
CONTACT DETAILS REFERENCES

Giacomo Rambaldi, Rambaldi G., R. Chambers and M. McCall
Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural (2006). Practical ethics for PGIS Practitioners,
Development (CTA), Facilitators, Technology Intermediaries and
Wageningen, Researchers. PLA 54: ..-..
The Netherlands, Rambaldi, G. and J. Callosa-Tarr (2002). Partici-
Email: [email protected] patory 3-Dimensional Modelling: Guiding Prin-
ciples and Applications. ARCBC: Los Baños,
Silika Tuivanuavou, Philippines. Available online:
Native Land Trust Board (NLTB), www.iapad.org/p3dm_guiding_principles.htm
PO Box 116, Rambaldi, G. (2002). Giving Voice to the
Suva, Unspoken: A 20-minute video showing the
Fiji, hands-on aspects of Participatory 3D Model-
Email: [email protected] ling and Participatory GIS in Vietnam. Available
online: www.iapad.org/p3dm_video.htm
Paulo Vanualailai, Etika Rupeni and Penina Rupeni S., G. Rambaldi , S. Tuivanuavou, A.
Namata Makutu, A. Tawake, S. Lolohea, E. Rupeni, A.
WWF Fiji, Mangal and B. Aalbersberg (2005). Report on
Private Mail Bag, the Participatory 3D Modelling & Participatory
Suva, GIS Exercise held on Ovalau Island, Fiji. WWF-
Fiji SSP
Available online: www.iapad.org/
Sukulu Rupeni publications/ppgis/ovalau_report_revised_
Institute of Applied Sciences, 20050720.pdf
University of the South Pacific,
Suva,
Fiji
35
4
Finding common ground in
THEME SECTION
land use conflicts using PGIS:

lessons from Ghana
by PETER A. KYEM case study from Ghana to illustrate the methodology. It

includes practical ways that PGIS applications can be adopted
to promote consensus building.
Introduction
Participatory Geographic Information System (PGIS) applica- Conflict and social interaction
tions can equip community-based organisations with tools A conflict involves at least two parties who have a mutual
for structuring resource management practice to make it problem of (e.g. resource scarcity). Often in a conflict there
open and iterative. However, the support for public involve- is behaviour (or a threat of action) designed to control or
ment has opened up the process to conflicts. The participa- gain at another party’s expense (Steele, 1976). If left unre-
tory approach makes it possible for conflicting perspectives to solved, the disagreement can generate disharmony and in
be integrated. extreme cases, cause a complete breakdown of the social
As communities come together to try to pursue common organisation. But if the conflict is managed in a timely way,
goals, conflict over resources has greatly increased. This is it can lead to long-term peace and cooperation among the
partly because with forest-based resources, the actions of one disputants.
group (e.g. farmers) can create unforeseen impacts on other In a non-violent situation, conflict can be a positive force
groups (e.g. loggers). Resource scarcity caused by a rapid for social change. The absence of conflict in a local organi-
environmental change or unequal resource allocation can sation would probably suggest that some members are being
increase demand and so create conflicts. As PGIS applications suppressed, or subordinating their views or wishes to others.
become more widespread in rural development, the effec- A conflict can reveal potential disagreements amongst
tive and peaceful management of local resources depends members of a local PGIS organisation. But it can also be used
on the ability to identify conflicts and adopt strategies that to encourage amicable resolution. Conflicts have additional
prevent disagreements from becoming intractable disputes. benefits for group cohesion. Resolving disputes can give rise
But can the interests that drive resource conflicts be to new rules of engagement and institutions that might not
addressed by PGIS applications? Can Geographic Informa- only help govern group behaviour, but could also be used to
tion Systems (GIS) and related spatial technologies help stake- resolve further conflicts. Group cohesion is often strength-
holders resolve resource conflicts? This article describes a ened when a conflict provides a safety valve to clear pent up
GIS-based strategy for managing land use conflicts using a feelings – in a less destructive manner than might otherwise
36
Finding common ground in land use conflicts using PGIS: lessons from Ghana
4
Figure 1: The multi-dimensional decision space of a land Box 1: Using GIS to create multi-dimensional decision
THEME SECTION
use conflict spaces
Explaining the educational role of GIS in decision-making, Eastman
255
conflict and others (1993) describe a multi-dimensional decision space. This is

non-conflict region where two conflicting interests form opposite axes (see Figure 1). To
resolve conflicting interests, the authors rank criterion scores in two
suitability maps and then allocate them according to an objective scale
ranging from 0-255. As the figure shows, dividing up the decision
non-conflict region
Objective 2
space among the two competing objectives produces four main

unsuitable regions. These include:
choices • an area selected for objective one only and hence non-conflicting;
• an area selected for objective two only and hence non-conflicting;
• a sizeable area not selected by either objective (unsuitable choice);
and
• an area selected by both objectives one and hence in dispute
(conflict zone).
O Objective 1 255
negotiating joint values. GIS applications can help to facili-

have occurred without the conflict. So conflict is not always tate the formation of strategic alliances that could help
the opposite of cooperation: a conflict can be transformed resolve disagreements.
into a positive force to assist mediation efforts.
Practical GIS contributions to mediation
GIS and conflict management A mediator can use GIS to help change different stakehold-
The need for GIS capabilities to develop strategies for managers’ attitudes towards each other. This might pave the way
ing land use conflicts has arguably never been greater than for conflict resolution. A PGIS application can help break
today. Conflicts of interests threaten resource institutions down communication barriers and minimise the psychologi-
throughout the developing world. But the use of maps to cal and emotional pressures that hinder stakeholders’ free
facilitate consensus building is not new. Community devel- expression of their viewpoints. For example, the technology
opment shows a long history of using maps in negotiations can be applied to create opportunities for stakeholders to
and in resolving conflicts. When the making of community jointly collect and analyse data, share resources, and
maps is automated as is done in a GIS, one is able to create exchange ideas about a conflict condition. PGIS applications
more complex maps and also update existing maps more have the added advantage of providing a record of the medi-
rapidly and consistently than before. If it is applied creatively, ation process that can be conveniently replicated, stored and
the GIS technology can facilitate the resolution of resource shared with all stakeholders. So, if used effectively in the
conflicts. PGIS applications can support cooperative mediation process, GIS technology and applications can
approaches to conflict through the analysis of maps and by promote discussions that may lead to a deeper understand-
emphasising mutual relationships and common interests, and ing of the conflict situation and help prepare stakeholders for
cultivating shared interests between parties. a mutual agreement.
At times, parties take a more competitive approach to A PGIS expert might use the technology to influence
using PGIS. For example, a resource shortage can compel stakeholders’ attitudes and behaviour in different ways. For
groups in a community to focus entirely on their own means example:
of survival and their own self-interests and values. But in • an educational tool to show how the technology can help
many communities, opposing groups often find it necessary stakeholders learn about the conflict;
to make adjustments in their values to maintain cordial rela- • to motivate the parties to consider each others’ demands
tionships between them. So conflict management can be more favourably;
seen as an effort to manage a tension between the move to • undertake an institution building process intended to foster
create joint values and find middle ground, and the urge to cooperation between stakeholders; and
claim independent rewards. When conflict is seen in this light, • by helping to transform stakeholders’ interests into values
communication between stakeholders becomes necessary for that support the final resolution of the dispute.
37
4Peter A. Kyem
Experiences from Kofiase, Southern Ghana Figure 2: Best 350 hectares for logging in the Aboma
THEME SECTION
Here I describe how GIS was adopted to mediate a conflict Forest Reserve
between local groups competing for access to local forest
resources in Ghana.
Using GIS as an educational tool

PGIS can be used to create awareness about a conflict situa-
tion. The GIS applications can help stakeholders get past the
preconceptions they bring to a mediation process, and learn
to understand each other’s perspectives to facilitate consen-
sus building. This was the case in a conflict management
project which I organised among groups competing for forest
resources in a village in Southern Ghana (Kyem, 2003).
Ghana’s forests were originally preserved to meet the
future demand for wood in the country. But the forest later
became the main source of capital for economic develop- Figure 3: Best 400 Hectares for Preservation in the
ment. Recently, dwindling food resources in the forest Aboma Forest Reserve
communities has increased competition for the scarce forest
resources. One area is Kofiase in the Ashanti Region. When
a local businessman attempted to log the timber in a local
forest, some inhabitants of the community opposed him.
Sustained opposition to the logging caused a rift between
the town’s inhabitants. Some supported the venture and
some wanted to preserve the partly degraded forest to
protect the resources that formed the backbone of the local
economy.
While working on ways to facilitate collaboration between
forestry officials and the people of Kofiase to prepare them
for joint rehabilitation of the local Aboma forest, I became
aware of the disagreement and decided to attempt a resolu-
tion of the conflict using GIS (see Box 1 and Figure 1). Figure 4: Conflict Map; Aboma Forest Reserve
After meeting representatives of the two sides to secure
their consent for the project, I organised a meeting for the
parties. At this meeting, representatives of the two interest
groups articulated their demands and decided on conditions
that would fulfil their goals in the mediation. Two compet-
ing demands were outlined:
• a request to preserve the partly degraded Aboma forest
reserve and its resources; and
• a demand to log the timber that remained in the forest.
After further discussions with the parties, we identified some
criterion factors for generating maps. The factors included:
• roads that led to the forest;
• towns and villages near the forest;
• a slope map of the forest land; • a map of private farms within the forest reserve.
• a land cover map of the forest; The factors were digitised from official maps of the forest
• a map of the timber resources; and processed in the GIS to produce the criterion maps. We
• a map of the forest showing streams; and then analysed the criterion maps using GIS to create suit-
38
Finding common ground in land use conflicts using PGIS: lessons from Ghana
4
ability maps for logging (Figure 2) and forest preservation impact that each group’s demand could have on the liveli-
THEME SECTION
(Figure 3). hood needs of the other group and on the forest resources
The two suitability maps represented demands to log in general. The parties also worked on the potential impacts
and preserve the local forest. Borrowing from the multi- that wildfires and the activities of chainsaw operators could
dimensional decision space concept explained in Figure 1, have on resources being demanded by the stakeholders.
we ranked the criterion scores in the two suitability maps Through such GIS analyses and map displays, the stake-
and then combined the two maps to create a conflict map holders were able to recognise for themselves how a
(Figure 4). prolonged conflict could jeopardise the interests of their
After that I used the conflict map to facilitate discussions opponents as well as their own long-term interests in the
between the stakeholders. First, we used the conflict map to forest. It was clear from the degree of cooperation between
identify the conflict zone as well as areas of opportunity for the parties after the project that the PGIS applications had a
maximising joint gains within the forest. We visited the forest great impact on stakeholders’ understanding of the conflict
to confirm the divisions revealed in the conflict map. As situation. As such the parties agreed to compromise on some
shown in Figure 4, a large portion of the forest was out of the issues that divided them. Soon after the project therefore, the
competition because it was unsuitable for the two preferred chief and elders of the town were able to bring the parties
activities. The parties’ interests rather overlapped at the together for the final resolution of the conflict even though
southwestern portion where timber (as well as several non- their earlier attempts failed to end the dispute.
timber forest products) was found. Often in land use
conflicts, only a small portion of the land will be involved in Institution building using GIS
a dispute. Yet this is rarely recognised and might hardly ever GIS-based conflict management strategies bring different
be noticed in a non-GIS environment. groups together to collect data and process them. Joint visits
In further discussions using the conflict map, I was able to to sites and group participation in PGIS exercises encourages
shift the stakeholders’ attention from deadlocked positions stakeholders to develop trust, cordial relations and friendships
onto specific zones in the forest where their interests over- between them. In Kofiase, I observed that the GIS applications
lapped. The stakeholders were also able to find out on their promoted mutual trust and the open exchange of ideas. These
own the impact that their demands on the forest had on friendships can later become the building blocks for collabo-
each other’s interests. Finally, I took the parties through a ration and a foundation for building compromise solutions.
mapping exercise that focused on different scenarios for
resolving the conflict through trade offs. The trade off was Realigning interests that sustain conflict
done by combining the two suitability maps in different ways The most promising – and very difficult – task I encountered
to create new conflict maps in which some high criterion in Kofiase was resolving the basic value differences that
scores in one map were substituted for some low scores in sustained the dispute. Although stakeholders retained differ-
the other suitability map. This exercise presented different ent views about the conflict, their varied perspectives had to
ways for resolving the conflict through consensus. It also be reconciled before the dispute could finally be resolved. It
opened new paths for the amicable resolution of the dispute. took a long time for the disagreement between the parties in
Kofiase to be resolved completely. The GIS applications were
Using GIS as a motivational tool important but several other factors also contributed. For
The right motivation can prompt stakeholders to take actions example, advice and exhortations by the local chief and heads
that can facilitate the resolution of a conflict. In Kofiase, I of the various clans in the town played a very important role.
realised from the beginning that the disputed forest resources Also, the town’s inhabitants realised that the conflict was
were threatened by wildfire and by chainsaw operators in the making it difficult for them to cooperate and work together
area. So I worked with the parties to create a risk map that on development projects that benefited all of them.
revealed potential hazards that could strike the forest
resources if they prolonged the conflict. This revelation, Conclusion and ways forward
coupled with memories of previous wildfire damages to the In matters of land use conflicts, the cooperative and compet-
forest, caused some stakeholders to reconsider their itive forces that drive a conflict are present and intertwined.
demands and to agree to work to protect the forest. When we see a conflict from this perspective, GIS applica-
Later, we used GIS to create maps that revealed the tions can help stakeholders explore the conflict situation, by
39
4Peter A. Kyem
learning more about the conflict, building respect and coop- But these problems with PGIS applications do not have to
THEME SECTION
eration between them, and preparing them for a mutual limit the proven capabilities of the technology in facilitating
agreement. mediation efforts. Practitioners should be vigilant, resourceful
PGIS applications can be beneficial in mediation but there and innovative in their use of GIS as a tool for intervention.
is a need for caution about the limitations of GIS. Far from As land use conflicts intensify and demands for participa-
being a perfect interventionist tool, GIS technology is subject tory decision-making in resource management increases,
to some restraining factors. For example, the brightly many resource managers will resort to PGIS applications for
coloured GIS maps produced for group discussions can solutions. Unfortunately, many of today’s GIS software appli-
distract stakeholders’ values. They can obscure, rather than cations are not suitable for use in conflict management proj-
illuminate, the true basis of their decisions. Unfamiliarity with ects. In part, this is because they do not have procedures for
computers (as we observed in Kofiase) can also restrict fair handling the subjective preferences of stakeholders. Creating
and open discussions. As a result, PGIS applications alone a supportive environment for managing resource conflicts
might not bring a conflict to a final resolution. Several factors does not only require funds and computer hardware enhance-
unrelated to the PGIS applications also exert an influence on ments. Most importantly, simple GIS procedures are needed
the choices stakeholders make to resolve or intensify a to effectively involve all stakeholders in the decision-making
conflict. For example, in Kofiase, the advice and exhortations process. To make such decision support tools effective and
from leaders in the community played an important role in easy to use by resource managers in communities through-
the final resolution of the conflict. As a result, if the conflict out the developing world, the procedures must be iterative,
resolution is based entirely on PGIS applications, some valu- simple, and easy to use. Appropriate GIS procedures can be
able voices may be filtered out. Or alternative representations designed to support the drive to create opportunities for
that might be crucial for a successful outcome might be public participation and the management of resource conflicts
excluded. in local communities.
CONTACT DETAILS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT REFERENCES

Dr. Peter A Kyem I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers Berry, J.K. (1995) Spatial Reasoning for
Associate Professor of Geography whose input helped to strengthen ideas Effective GIS. Fort Collins, CO: GIS World
Central Connecticut State University presented in this paper. Books
1615 Stanley Street Eastman, J. R., Kyem, P.A.K., and Toledano, J.
New Britain (1993) GIS and Decision Making. Geneva:
CT 06050 UNITAR
USA. Kyem, P.A.K. (2000) ‘A Choice Heuristic
Email: [email protected] Algorithm for Managing Land Resource
Allocation Problems Involving Multiple Parties
and Conflicting Interests.’ In Transactions in
GIS 5 (2): 113-132
Kyem, P.A.K (2004) ‘Of Intractable Conflicts
and Participatory GIS Applications: the Search
for Consensus amidst competing claims &
Institutional Demands.’ In Annals of the
Association of American Geographers 94(1)37-
57
Obermeyer, N. J. and J. Pinto (1994) Managing
Geographic Information Systems. New
York: Guillford
Steele, J. L. (1976) ‘Conflict Resolution.’ In
Operational Research Quaterly Vol 27 (1) ii p.
221-230. Stevens and Sons Ltd
Warner, M. (2000) ‘Conflict Management in
Community-based Natural Resource Projects:
an Experience from Fiji and Papua New
Guinea.’ Overseas Development Institute
Working Paper 135. ODI: London
40
Is there life after tenure
5
THEME SECTION
mapping?
by PETER POOLE “Official reaction varies from denial to

criminalisation. But the most serious
Introduction problem is sustainability. Tenure maps
Tenure maps are made with the intent of producing legally are one-shot affairs: they get things
acceptable evidence of prior land use and occupancy, to
be used in national or global negotiations. Two strategies going but cannot keep them going. What
for organising tenure mapping projects are in play. One can community mapping teams do next
builds local capacities in gathering traditional knowledge and who will support it?”
via interviews and sketch maps – but out-sources the
computerised aspects of map-making to official carto-
graphic agencies. Tenure mapping
The other uses the community requirement for a tenure This article focuses on community mapping projects, initiated
map as a context to initiate a graduated training process and controlled by indigenous communities and their associ-
aimed at competence in – and control of – the entire ations. The production of geographically accurate ‘tenure
mapping process. Community-based teams learn to use GPS maps’ assists a graduated process of capacity building –
to produce geographically accurate field maps. A simple aiming to enable communities and associations to control the
computer plus printer set-up has enabled some indigenous entire map-making process and to produce maps that both
associations to set up their own mapping units. rival official cartography and are accepted legal tender.
Official reaction varies from denial to criminalisation. ‘Tenure mapping’ is a distinct genre of community
But the most serious problem is sustainability. Tenure maps mapping. It is rooted in the cartographic evidence assembled
are one-shot affairs: they get things going but cannot by indigenous communities in northern Canada, initially,
keep them going. What can community mapping teams Inuit, Cree and Settler peoples, in preparation for negotiating
do next and who will support it? To this point, commu- the formal recognition of their ancestral territories. Two land-
nity mapping has followed the development parable mark combinations of maps and supporting documentation
about teaching fishing instead of giving fish. But what if define the genre:
there are no fish? • The Inuit Land Use and Occupancy Study (Milton et al,
41
5Peter Poole
Map 1: Guiana Shield tenure

THEME SECTION
1976), which covered Inuit territory; and, map and producing a final tenure map – a process that
• Our Footsteps Are Everywhere (LIA, 1977), which covered requires a computer, printer and appropriate software.
the lands occupied by Inuit and Settlers in Labrador. The essential data in those early Arctic examples of tenure
Tenure mapping was developed by the Inuit and Cree in mapping were all contributed by community members. But
Arctic Quebec, to oppose a land settlement by the impend- the final conversion of reams of sketch maps and notebooks
ing James Bay Hydro-Electric Project (Kemp and Brooke, into scaled and printed maps was out-sourced to a group of
1995). Indigenous peoples in Yukon and the western sub- experts, mostly geographers and anthropologists, and to
arctic soon adapted it, and tenure mapping is now a manda- commercial printers. During the early 1970s, this was
tory component of over 50 territorial negotiations in British unavoidable. But by the 1990s, the costs and versatility of
Columbia. computer graphics systems and software meant that map
production was a feasible proposition, if not directly to
Two map-making strategies: self-sufficiency or communities, then to their associations or support NGOs.
outsourcing Nevertheless, some mapping projects continue to
The distinctive attributes of tenure maps include: outsource this phase, usually to government cartographic
• the restoration of indigenous place names; agencies, or universities, e.g. the Maya Atlas (Chapin and
• signifying ownership; Threlkeld, 2001; TMCC, 1997).
• the symbolisation of hunting and gathering ‘map biogra- During the 1990s, an alternative approach used these
phies’; technical advances to explore whether the entire map-
• signifying land use; and making process could be localised. This methodology evolved
• spiritual and ancient sites, as evidence of occupation ‘since from a series of tenure mapping projects in the Guiana Shield
time immemorial’. countries of Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil and Suriname,
Gathering this essential data constitutes the first phase supported by the Forest Peoples Programme (FPP) in collab-
of tenure mapping. The second phase is scaled map compi- oration with community associations (see Map 1).1
lation. This includes transferring field data to a scaled base 1
See www.forestpeoples.org
42
Is there life after tenure mapping?
5
Map 2: Making a tenure map in three stages
THEME SECTION
Past and present tenure mapping projects source maps’ from the official cartography. These maps were
To maximise community engagement, use robust manual then cut and pasted together. A major factor in choosing
methods instead of those requiring sophisticated equipment, source maps was that the mosaic to be traced was slight less
climate control or a stable energy supply. For example, tracing than 36 inches (90cm). This width matched both standard
was chosen over digitisation, and simple graphics software large format scanners and printers. The resulting field map
over geographic information systems (GIS). Since accurate was printed in two halves and taped together. By tracing only
tenure maps can be produced without GIS, this was not an the rivers and contours, official names and infrastructure
imperative: some mapping groups used it; some didn’t. With were effectively deleted from the source maps. This produced
these objectives in view, a complementary two-phase map- a ‘no-name’ map, ready to receive data gathered by the field-
making methodology evolved. mapping team (see Map 2, left and centre panels).
In the second phase, a community-based mapping team
A localised methodology for tenure mapping (usually 6-12 people) is trained to do interviewing and sketch-
This methodology is illustrated in Map 2, where FPP and mapping with informants, map reading and log-book
Kuyujani, a Ye’kuana-Sanema NGO, collaborated to map keeping, navigation with global positioning system (GPS)
their adjoining territories in the Caura watershed of the units, and how to develop an appropriate map legend. After
Venezuelan Amazon. four- to six-weeks training, the teams spend several months
In the first phase, project partners roughly defined the gathering field data and manually placing it on the no-name
‘survey area’ and selected the most useful ‘topographic field map. In the final phase the legend symbols and names
43
5Peter Poole
Map 3: NaturalVue 2000 rectified Landsat-based image map of Saramaka

THEME SECTION
Wanhati Mapping team, Saramaka informants
44
5
are placed, in appropriate layers over the base map layer in Box 1: Mapping to prevent asset stripping in Saramaka
THEME SECTION
the graphics file (see Map 2, right panel). Territory
As this methodology improved during the Guiana Shield Saramaka Territory in central Suriname is experiencing asset stripping
mapping projects, a complementary organisational arrange- from two quarters: old-fashioned loggers from the north; and newly
ment evolved. This reflected how mapping technologies and fashioned conservationists from the west. The 20,000 Saramaka, from
skills could be localised. Community-based mapping teams 63 communities along the Suriname River, recently discovered that the
government had let concessions to their forests to Ji-Shen, a Chinese
learnt to gather and map original and unique field data sets,
logging company. The Saramaka mapping project’s strategy is to
and association-based mapping units; were able to produce ensure that the government respects treaties that already
field base maps for the teams and then to transfer and print guarantee tenure. Then a few weeks after the Saramaka map was
final maps. published, Conservation International Suriname (CIS) announced an
In Venezuela, the Ye’kuana-Sanema tenure-mapping initiative to extend the Central Suriname Nature Reserve into the
territory. While awaiting a decision from the Inter-American Court of
project led to the Kuyujani mapping unit, which has since
Human Rights, Wanhati, the Association of Saramaka Authorities, has
assisted other peoples to map their territory. In Guyana, the taken counter-measures to both threats. One is a high-resolution aerial
Akawaio-Arecuna Upper Mazaruni tenure-mapping project survey of the impacts of the Ji-Shen logging. The other is the
led to a mapping unit operated by the Amerindian Peoples development of a conservation and management plan which
Association, which then went on to train community teams challenges that produced by CIS – and will be based on the high
resolution aerial images of villages and their surrounding lands shown
to complete the other Guyana mapping projects shown in
in Map 3. For both environmental impact assessment and biodiversity
Map 1, as well as the Marowijne mapping project in Suri- conservation, image maps at both levels of detail are superior to
name. In Suriname, although there are no association-based topographical maps.
mapping units as yet, the teams trained in the Marowijne and
Saramaka and tenure mapping projects continued to train Outsourcing means there is no training beyond the gath-
other community mapping teams – in the Cottica and West ering of local data through interviews and sketch maps.
Suriname projects respectively. Although important aspects, this process stops short of trans-
But this method works best in the landscape where it ferring this data to final maps, as well as printing them. Should
originated. In tropical rainforests with dense drainage the communities wish to make another map, or revise their
patterns, the mapping teams can easily track themselves on completed map, or should other communities wish to make
the no-name field maps. Maps of barren landscapes have a similar map, they would be again need assistance from offi-
few location clues. A new generation of satellite-based cial cartographic agencies and raise the funds needed.
image-maps now offers an affordable alternative, not only When communities depend on external map-making
for barren landscapes. Map 3 compares a NaturVue 2000 agencies, issues of map ownership may arise. The agency
image map (www.earthsat.com) of a section of Saramaka may want to restrict the circulation of the maps. The commu-
territory (Box 1) with its field and final map versions, and nities may claim that not all their collected data appears on
compares satellite-derived visual data with that gathered by the final map. In Suriname, some of the Trio informants, to
airborne cameras, to a ground resolution of 5cm. Projects 9 and 10 in Map 1, claim that some of their camp-
sites in the Central Suriname Nature Reserve did not appear
Self-sufficiency and outsourcing: for and against on the final, printed versions (author). If these maps had been
Some argue that outsourcing will prompt government offi- produced by an indigenous mapping unit, this could have
cials to favour claims to territory or resource access arising been rectified in a few minutes.
from tenure maps. But this has yet to be widely demon- The Apalia-Tirio-Wayana-Kaxuyana map in the Brazilian
strated. In Suriname, for example, government cartographers sector of the Guiana Shield (Map 1:13), coordinated by the
collaborated on the production of two tenure maps of adja- Amazon Conservation Team (ACT) is an excellent tenure
cent Trio territories (Map 1: 9 and 10) even though the map.2 But the Brazilian government retains strict control over
government has yet to accept the principle there is anything its distribution. Printed maps can only be obtained with offi-
to negotiate. In fairness, neither have any of the ten self-suffi- cial permission. There are also high costs: the million dollar
ciently produced tenure maps prompted formal negotiations Apalia-Tirio-Wayana-Kaxuyana map costs more than the
over these ancestral territories. The Venezuelan projects (Map other 12 Guiana Shield mapping projects combined (author).
1: 1 and 2) have come closest, as they have at least become
2
the subject of negotiations. See www.amazonteam.org
45
5Peter Poole
In fact, the costs for self-sufficient projects have gradually short-term production of a one-time tenure map to long-
THEME SECTION
declined – as local mapping units assume larger responsibil- term capacity development in environmental data gathering.
ities. This suggests a comparative advantage for locally based This approach would address practical problems of steward-
mapping groups. ship and turn tenure maps into databases, combining tradi-
tional knowledge with direct observation – and which inform
Tangible and intangible results of tenure mapping local agendas that compete with those of outside agencies.
The capacity-building approach to tenure mapping produces Sustainability lies not in the distant prospect of a land
more than just a tenure map. The two most tangible results settlement, but in how communities can immediately capi-
are: talise on the potential which emerges during the time it takes
• a traditional knowledge database of the territory; and to train community-based mapping teams. The information-
• community-based field mapping teams qualified to main- gathering process also reflects an intense local curiosity:
tain and expand that database. about alternative ways to generate income from traditional
Alongside these are other important intangible results. resources, and about the motivations and agendas of
One is the confidence that flows from being able to make outsiders with an evident interest in their territory. Both
maps as accurately as the official cartographers. The other is community leaders and mappers are inspired by the realisa-
that the community and the mapping teams are the authors tion that they have acquired skills that could be put to work
of the map – which in some countries is likely to aggravate immediately.
the mapping establishment: surveyors and officials.
Although often hostile, both official and surveying indus- Funds for sustainability – and who gets them
try reactions to community mapping are a testament to its The global conservation community has convincingly demon-
effectiveness. For example, in Malaysia, the Sarawak govern- strated the funds various donors will give, not for specific
ment criminalised community mapping after the Iban projects but for managed programmes. Substantial sums are
community of Rumah Nor used GPS mapping to win a case given to global conservation organisations. For example, the
against Borneo Paper and Pulp.3 World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Amazon Region Protected Areas
Programme (ARPA), committed to protect 12% of the Brazil-
Problems of marginalisation and sustainability ian Amazon, received US$370 million over 10 years. But
Negotiations over ancestral lands usually take place either at indigenous groups and communities receive only relatively
national government level, or in global forums. Such nego- meagre amounts allocated to ‘small grant funds’: such as the
tiations can last indefinitely. They also take place in distant World Bank Indigenous Peoples Fund, with a maximum of
cities and require the kind of legal and political expertise that US$30,000. However helpful, such funds are not geared for
communities rarely possess, and minimise the possibility of sustainability.
active community participation. Communities, once central But few indigenous peoples’ organisations and support
to the tenure-mapping process, become marginalised. NGOs elect to compete for them. Over the last few years,
Self-sufficiency in community map-making does not some indigenous organisations and their support NGOs have
automatically trigger sustainability. Tenure mapping can be embarked on a global-scale effort to change the relationship
inspirational and build capacity. But it is typically a one-off between the global conservation community, through inter-
activity. And communities who want to continue developing ventions to advance ‘rights-based conservation’, e.g. at the
local capacities in resource management or conservation Biodiversity Convention COP or the World Conservation
often encounter a funding vacuum. Human rights-oriented Union (IUCN) meetings. But like tenure negotiations, this
donors that support tenure mapping are often unqualified campaign is conducted in distant forums – beyond the reach
or uncomfortable about supporting resource management of communities.
projects – especially when ‘too technical’. Environmental Indigenous communities are clearly disadvantaged.
donors rarely support indigenous projects, unless embedded Although regularly featured in conservation proposals,
in ‘community-based-conservation’ projects managed by communities have not yet organised amongst themselves to
global conservation NGOs. generate the kinds of large-scale, long-term proposals and
One key to sustainability is to shift the focus from the programmes that donors are willing to support. Such funding
could give communities the prospect of real long-term
3See brimas.www1.50megs.com sustainability. However, there are a number of comparative
46
5
Map 4: Caribou movements in Nunavik
THEME SECTION
47
5Peter Poole
Box 2: Lessons from Inuit and Cree Territories tages: their intimate familiarity with their territory, and knowl-
THEME SECTION
The most important lesson learned from the Nunavik experience is that the edge of their traditional assets. This localised capacity –
Indigenous peoples must first and foremost have control of their own acquired in the course of tenure mapping – is pivotal in stew-
information (Kemp and Brooke, 1995).
ardship, for protected area and species conservation and also
These following examples indicate what can be accomplished when in dealing with other external resource interests.
raw data is collected and converted into applicable information. Some indigenous groups are starting to think on larger
scales, in order to match, or pre-empt, the landscape-scale
In 1975, the Inuit organisation Makivik, created by the James Bay conservation projects being proposed for their territories.
Agreement, Quebec established the Kuujuac Environmental Research
Both the Wapisiana in Guyana and the Saramaka in Suriname
Centre. It was committed to training Inuit in wildlife field research and
to ensuring that traditional knowledge is combined with scientific field (Map 1: 4 and 8) are currently motivated to contemplate such
data in environmental management.4 The Centre stipulated that ‘counter-proposals’.
visiting scientists must employ qualified local field assistants and In the Philippines, many coastal communities have set up
consult with hunters over their intentions. Map 4 shows 20 years of locally managed marine protected areas, such as the Balian-
hunters’ observations of seasonal caribou movements, gathered by the
gao Protected Landscape and Seascape dedicated to
centre.
mangrove and coral reef recovery (Guzman, 2004). Recog-
Then in the 1990s, the Grand Council of the Crees in Quebec created a nising the need to coordinate actions with their neighbours,
GIS archive to oppose the James Bay II Hydroelectric Project (James communities sharing a common coastline are joining up to
Bay I led to the 1975 settlement). Hydro Quebec had insisted that the become coastal conservation regimes (Christie et al, 2002).
land to be flooded was unused. The next day, the Cree Hunter Support
One doctrine driving global conservation is that people
Programme GIS printed reams of maps and records based on the
hunting records. This was evidence that the forests had been in active and biodiversity conservation are inherently incompatible.
use for 20 years. Conservationists hold the main cards: access to funds, scien-
tific expertise, and a largely uncontested reputation as plan-
etary saviours. But, ten years ago, the World Watch Institute
advantages that communities could use as building blocks estimated that the current process of territorial negotiations
towards developing their organisational and institutional in America would lead to 13% of the continent falling under
capacities. some measure of indigenous control – including 33% of the
Amazon (Alan Therberge, pers. comm.). But what indigenous
Comparative advantages of land-based communities peoples elect to do with their recovered territories is of great
in conservation practice consequence for biodiversity conservation. That is their card.
Conservation is an information-intensive activity. Its ultimate
purpose is to enable communities to maximise their control Increasing security of tenure: rights-based and asset-
over the flow of environmental information that affects their based strategies
territories. These information skills qualify community These two strategies have essentially the same goal: security
mapping teams to assume a broad spectrum of responsibil- of tenure and control over territorial assets. Rights-base
ities in on-the-ground conservation. strategies seek comprehensive legal recognition of commu-
Most science-based conservation focuses on biodiversity nal title to ancestral lands through state-level negotiations.
inventories, and the assessment and long-term monitoring Asset-based strategies are more pragmatic and incremental,
that informs the planning and management of protected extending control asset by asset.
areas and endangered species. And it requires specialised There are other differences. Asset-based strategies are
analysis done by universities and zoological and botanical locally controlled and invite all community members to
gardens. engage directly. They are dynamic while rights-based strate-
But gathering the data required needs different and more gies can be limiting – for example by halting resource devel-
practical talents and capacities. This is a comparative advan- opment until a settlement is reached. And land rights
tage for community-based groups that have learnt to gather negotiations can take a long time; it took Inuit twenty-five
and map geographically accurate environmental data. It years to negotiate Nunavut. Asset-based strategies can be
should also enable communities to capitalise on other advan- put into effect immediately.5
4 5 See
See: www.itk.ca www.nunavut.ca
48
5
Asset-based strategies do recognise the crucial impor- those indigenous peoples, let alone agree to negotiate over
THEME SECTION
tance of secure tenure (Adamson et al, 2005). But they treat their territories. And outside America, this is the exception
the existing asset control regime as a starting point from rather than the rule.
which to gain community control over assets. This promotes Interestingly, in Africa, where the chances of negotiating
community-scale asset development, impact assessment, indigenous land title are slight, community and participatory
shareholder activism, financial leveraging, exercising intellec- mapping is now enabling communities to respond more
tual property rights, limiting the extraction of resources, and effectively to perceived threats to their lands, sometimes
securing community assets by setting up protected areas. turning the instruments of global conservation to their own
Rights-based strategies also depend upon a readiness to advantage.
negotiate by the state. For example in America, some If there is life after tenure mapping, perhaps it is likely to
campaigns that were initiated by tenure maps (Map 1) started be found in countries where the chances of negotiating
over ten years ago. But governments have yet to recognise indigenous land title are virtually zero.
CONTACT DETAILS REFERENCES steps are Everywhere. LIA: Labrador

Peter Poole, Adamson, R. (2003) ‘Land Rich and Dirt Poor: Milton et al (1976) Inuit Land Use and Occu-
Local Earth Observation, the Story of Indian Assets.’ Native Americas, pancy Project, Vol. I; Land Use and Occupancy,
Amsterdam, Summer 2003 Vol. II; Vol. III, Land Use Atlas. Milton Freeman
THE NETHERLANDS. Adamson R., Warner, R., and Kanegis, A. Research Limited, Indian & Northern Affairs:
Email: [email protected] (2005) Asset Building in Indigenous Communi- Ottawa; INA publication
ties.) Toledo Maya Cultural Council (1997) Maya
First Nations Development Institute: Fredericks- Atlas. North Atlantic Books: Berkeley, Califor-
burg. See: www.firstnations.org nia
Chapin, M. (2005) ‘A Challenge to Conserva-
tionists.’ World Watch 17: 6
Chapin, M. and Threlkeld (2001) Indigenous
Landscapes: A Study in Ethnocartography.
Centre for the Support of Native lands
Christie P, White A, Deguit E. (2002) ‘Starting
point or solution? Community-based marine
protected areas in the Philippines.’ Journal of
Environmental Management
de Guzman, AB. (2004) ‘A Fishery in Transi-
tion: Impact of a Community Marine Reserve
on a Coastal Fishery in Northern Mindanao.’
Philippines EEPSEA Research Report
Kemp, WB. and Brooke, LF. (1995) ‘Towards
Information Self-Sufficiency.’ In Geomatics,
Who Needs It? Cultural Survival Quarterly 18:4
Labrador Inuit Association (1977) Our Foot-
49
theme section
ISSUE-BASED
CASE STUDIES
50
PGIS as a sustained (and
6
THEME SECTION
sustainable?) practice:
First Nation experiences in
Treaty 8 BC, Canada
by CRAIG CANDLER, RACHEL OLSON, STEVEN DEROY, and KIERAN BRODERICK
Introduction Box 1: Treaty 8 and First Nations

Participatory GIS (PGIS) has been present in Canada for the First Nations is a common title used in Canada to describe the various
past three decades. Some trace its roots back to the work societies of Indigenous peoples of North America, who are not of Inuit
of Franz Boas, who recognised that ‘the recording of locally or Métis descent. The collectively used term for all three groups is
used place-names can be used to explicate the systematic Aboriginal Peoples or First Peoples.
nature of Aboriginal land use’ (Natcher, 2001). However, the
Treaty 8 refers to the agreement signed in 1899 between First Nations
first systematic study recognisable as a form of PGIS was the of northern Alberta, northwestern Saskatchewan, the southwest
Inuit Land Use and Occupancy Project (Freeman, 1976). The portion of the northwest Territories, and the Queen of England. It was
project interviewed hundreds of Inuit in the early 1970s and later followed by Adhesions in the northeastern portion of British
resulted in over two hundred maps of seasonal subsistence Columbia in 1900. Treaty 8 encompasses a landmass of approximately
840,000 square kilometres, and is home to 39 First Nations
activities. Freeman’s work was followed shortly by the work
communities. In this paper, we focus on the region of British Columbia.
of Hugh Brody and the Union of BC Indian Chiefs in the
Treaty 8 area of what is now northeastern British Columbia
(see Box 1). This resulted in the publication of the book Maps sustained – and hopefully sustainable – practices.
and Dreams (Brody, 1981) and signalled the beginning of After thirty years, issues of aboriginal land and resource
PGIS in the Treaty 8 area. While the history of participatory rights continue. But the dialogue between First Nations in
mapping in Treaty 8 has not been smooth, northeastern BC northeastern BC and the Canadian state has shifted from
has experienced a very long history of sustained PGIS appli- one about treaties and litigation to what has become known
cation. as ‘consultation’ regarding resource development decisions.
This long history of participatory mapping, or traditional Within this new era of consultation the value of good quality
use study (TUS) as it is more commonly called in the area, participatory mapping is increasing in importance while the
has played a major role in the development of this practice challenges of building and maintaining a quality PGIS within
in Canada and beyond. It makes Treaty 8 BC a critical site First Nations communities continue.
for learning about participatory mapping and PGIS as In this, and every, context, it is important to remember
51
6Craig Candler, Rachel Olson, Steven DeRoy, and Kieran Broderick
Map of Treaty 8 territory

in Canada. Map produced
by Steven DeRoy and
Donovan Cameron, Treaty
8 Tribal Association
THEME SECTION
that lines on maps have power. The creation of maps is and areas using paper, mylars, and digital geographical infor-
embedded in historical, social, and political contexts that mation systems (GIS) for more than thirty years.1 We use the
cannot be separated from the maps themselves. Recognis- term Traditional Use Studies (TUS) as a comprehensive term
ing and turning the power of maps towards indigenous
goals, the Cree, Beaver, Dene, Sekani and Saulteau commu- 1 A mylar is a clear film plastic sheet, or acetate, that can be placed over paper
nities of Treaty 8 have been making their own lines, points maps and written on with permanent markers to collect data.
52
PGIS as a sustained (and sustainable?) practice: First Nation experiences in Treaty 8 BC, Canada
6
Treaty 8 First Nation

members at a
Traditional Use Study
training session
Rather than being born from and integrated within indige-
THEME SECTION
nous structures of knowledge, they involve a set of non-
indigenous priorities and technologies that are as likely to
disintegrate indigenous structures of knowledge, society
and power as they are to support them. But, just like dream
maps, PGIS must, in some way, form a bridge between
worlds by communicating between ideas of space and time.
Modern PGIS in Treaty 8 BC: 1974 to 2003

In the early 1970s, a massive oil and gas pipeline was
proposed for the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains.
This pipeline was built to link resources in Alaska to markets
Photo: Steve deRoy
in the continental United States. To support their arguments

against the project, the Union of BC Indian Chiefs (UBCIC)
and the Treaty 8 Tribal Association hired researchers led by
Hugh Brody to systematically document the land use activ-
ities of local First Nations based on their knowledge and use
of the land. Brody’s mapping was designed to inform the
to explain the processes of participatory mapping. As Tobias Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry. Members of the Treaty 8
simply explains, ‘think of it as the geography of oral tradi- First Nations, many of them now elders themselves, worked
tion, or the mapping of cultural and resource geography’ directly with Brody as research assistants and interpreters to
(Tobias, 2000). interview elders and community members and map the
importance of the land to local economies and livelihoods.
The indigenous mapping tradition This mapping project was the first of its kind in BC. It formed
Any history of mapping in the Treaty 8 area needs to begin a critical part of the foundation for later TUS and PGIS
with an acknowledgement that Treaty 8 First Nations are not related work in northeast BC and elsewhere.
strangers to the idea of mapping and documenting the way TUS research in northeast BC was sporadic after Brody’s
they use and understand their territories. Given the proper work. Through the 1980s and early 1990s, participatory
contexts, and the proper respect, elders from any of the mapping played a major role elsewhere in BC through legal
Treaty 8 communities may speak of a long tradition of spir- cases such as Delgamuukw (Sparke, 1998).2 But only a
itual map making. Long before oil companies and anthro- handful of small mapping projects took place in northeast-
pologists introduced paper maps, local spiritual leaders were ern BC (see Walde and Candler, 1996). Brody’s maps disap-
dreaming their way through sacred landscapes of trails and peared from Treaty 8 territories shortly after they were
forests. They returned to their families and loved ones with completed and the systematic, regional approach to TUS
spiritually powerful ‘dream maps’ recorded in drum songs that was taken in the 1970s was replaced by smaller proj-
and drawn on moose or elk skins (Riddington 1988; 1990). ects. These projects had modest budgets involving single
These provided an indigenous record of human experience communities mapping out their own interests in response
within a spiritually charged landscape, marking important to particular proposed resource development projects. The
places and experiences, and providing a tangible connection projects were funded by either government or industry inter-
between this world and the next, as well as between the ests in order to fulfil vague legal requirements to ‘consult’.
storied past and the always-changing future. Some of these Little was left with the communities in the way of a lasting
sacred maps, and the skills to read them are still kept by legacy.
elders of the Treaty 8 communities. Both the maps, and the In the mid-1990s, a company proposed to harvest a
elders who understand them, continue to provide a precious large area of forest across from the reserve lands of the
resource for those in need of guidance. Halfway River First Nation, one of the more remote commu-
But PGIS maps are a very different kind. Rather than
2
Delgamuukw was a Supreme Court judgment that marked for the first time, at
written on skins or in the memories of elders, they use GIS a national and constitutional level, an explicit recognition of Aboriginal title
software, computer memory and database programmes. existing within the Canadian legal system.
53
Elder Max Desjarlais from the

Moberly Lake First Nation,
Treaty 8, British Columbia
Box 3: The Treaty 8 Tribal Association

THEME SECTION
The Treaty 8 Tribal Association (T8TA) represents six First Nations in

Northeastern British Columbia. It acts as a coordinator, a facilitator,
and technical support on various issues as mandated from time to time
by the Council of Treaty 8 Tribal Association Chiefs.
nities of Treaty 8. The crown required the company to

consult with the community. But the community refused to
cooperate with the company because, at that time, ‘consul-
tation’ was just a formal step towards the approval of the
cutting permits. The community chose to express their
opinion by setting up a blockade instead.
Because the community refused to cooperate, and
because Brody’s work had been largely done with the
Halfway River First Nation, the company commissioned a
report on the community’s traditional land use based on
Brody’s published work, without speaking with a Halfway
River member. The report found no evidence in Brody’s exist-
ing maps that the area of the proposed cut block was of any
great significance to the traditional practices of the Halfway
River people. The logging company delivered the report to
both the provincial government and to the Halfway River
First Nation. Based on the report, the provincial government
considered ‘consultation’ to have taken place and approved
Photo: Steve deRoy

the cut block. So the Halfway River First Nation launched a
court injunction against the development. After a difficult
court battle, they won the case on the grounds that ‘consul-
tation’ with First Nations had not been ‘meaningful’.
It was within the context of new court decisions and
increased oil and gas developments that the Treaty 8 Tribal
Association (T8TA) made a renewed effort in the late 1990s inal paper base maps that had been made more than two
to have local community’s values recognised in resource decades earlier. These were repatriated back to the archives
management decisions. The organisation pushed for funds of the T8TA for safekeeping.
from the provincial government and received enough money The T8TA TUS involved extensive training of local
to initiate the Treaty 8 Tribal Association (T8TA) TUS in 1998 researchers followed by more than a year of careful inter-
(see Box 3). viewing, mapping and documentation. Mapping interviews
The initiative involved the combined efforts of four of were held with individual elders and community members
the seven Treaty 8 First Nations. The four communities and documented on mylar map overlays at a scale of
agreed to work with the T8TA to document their interests 1:50,000. Interviews were audio taped and later digitised as
over the entire Treaty 8 BC region using a single consistent .mp3 files and, where necessary, transcribed. Points, lines
set of methods. The work involved locating archival and and polygons noted on base maps were digitised at the
historical documents, including Brody’s work, other TUS T8TA regional office and annotated using a combination of
work, and archaeological reports, and combining them with GIS and database software. The four communities mapped
the map biographies and traditional knowledge of Treaty 8 more than 28,000 TUS locations. Mapping interviews were
elders and community members within a single digital GIS. supplemented with life history interviews and elder’s circles
Through a detailed search of at the offices of UBCIC in where more general traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)
Vancouver, the T8TA was able to locate a few of Brody’s orig- was recorded. All of the materials produced were duplicated
54
6
and stored by the Treaty 8 Tribal Association. Each commu- “As First Nations people are said to
THEME SECTION
nity received a complete set of their own data for ongoing
use, as well as a complete workstation with basic GIS soft- ‘carry maps of their homelands in their
ware. At least two community members from each First heads’, PGIS enables First Nations to
Nation received training in TUS interviewing, GIS operation, carry evidence of this knowledge,
digital map making, and verification of site locations with
the use of a global positioning systems (GPS). whether it be to the negotiating table
While the T8TA TUS was successful in many ways, it was or to a community gathering and use it
not able to negotiate a final information sharing and protec- to strengthen their voices, now and for
tion agreement (FIPSA) with the government of BC. Despite
numerous attempts, the T8TA and the provincial govern- future generations”
ment could not agree on how the information collected
through the TUS should be used and maintained into the
future. The T8TA sought to negotiate a relationship that from the forestry and mining industries, BC Hydro, or many
would see the information used on an ongoing basis in other proposals for development. In most cases, Doig River
resource management decisions. The T8TA wanted its use First Nation received incomplete application packages and
to be facilitated and overseen by a First Nations regional lacked the necessary information, tools and time to make
office that would sustain itself through charging fees for the informed decisions.
services and data that it provided. In the absence of such an Recognising the importance of empowering the commu-
ongoing First Nations presence, it was feared that any data nity land use offices to make informed decisions relating to
shared with the province would be misinterpreted and development activities, the Treaty 8 Chiefs signed memo-
misrepresented against the interests of the Treaty 8 First randum of understanding agreements with the BC Ministry
Nations. In particular, there was concern that once the of Energy and Mines.3 As part of these agreements, the
province had the data they would use it as a substitute for communities would gain an opportunity to harness GIS tech-
meaningful and consultative engagement with First Nations nology to help manage geographic data at the local level.
on projects of economic importance. In the absence of an Recognising community challenges, both industry and
information sharing and protection agreement, the data government support Treaty 8’s initiative to ameliorate the
collected through the T8TA TUS was not shared with the consultation process, increase local capacity, and develop
province. It remained housed within the T8TA and was new decision support tools and to create a T8TA centralised
shared only with the four participating First Nations. data repository. In hopes of incorporating TUS data collected
from numerous research projects in the past, seven out of
Current PGIS in Treaty 8 BC the eight BC Treaty 8 communities received state-of-the-art
The present goals and vision for the future of the Land and mapping hardware and software from the BC Oil and Gas
Resources Department of the T8TA is to create a centralised Commission.
land use office that supports the First Nation offices through At the community land use offices, personnel are respon-
the use of GIS and PGIS practices. A community user needs- sible for evaluating impacts to cultural uses and values, using
assessment was completed in 2004, evaluating the current TUS data as an indicator. This evaluation process requires
state of GIS in the communities. Despite all previous efforts lands’ staff to review policies, overlay TUS map layers with
to maintain GIS with the communities, the 2004 survey proposed development, and field crews sent to the proposed
revealed a lack of technical expertise in using GIS technolo- site for assessment. When TUS sites have been identified
gies. Presently, within community land offices, where GIS within the area of proposed development, global positional
and PGIS take place, there is the overwhelming task of systems (GPS) are used to gain a precise location of where
dealing with referrals and applications for development. TUS data may be located. However, new data presently
Using GIS and PGIS effectively and efficiently in this process being collected by elders and monitors is not being trans-
becomes another challenge faced by communities. ferred into a digital format at this time.
For example, the Doig River First Nation received 908 Oil
3 First Nations communities operate under a general administration, under the
and Gas applications in 2004, each with a 10-day decision direction of the Chief and Council, which often includes health, education, and
turn-around. The 908 referrals do not include applications land use offices as part of the organisation.
55
“Lack of information and the capacity its responsibilities for maintaining and protecting valuable
THEME SECTION
PGIS data and resources seriously.

to analyse it constrains the ability of • It is critical that local indigenous interests remain in control
the communities to respond to requests of the data produced by a PGIS.
from industry and government for input • In the case of Treaty 8 BC, where individual First Nations
are very small, the regional stability of the T8TA has
on proposed development” proven instrumental for sustaining the legacy of past PGIS
efforts. With this said, the T8TA also continues to be chal-
lenged with representing the diverse interests of its
Many challenges arise when trying to create capacity membership.
with GIS technology at the local level. Factors that • Building capacity at the community level is also important
contribute to this are lack of staff, heavy workloads, limited and valuable, even in cases where this capacity cannot be
funding, and a lack of community involvement, among sustained over the long-term.
others. Community effectiveness is limited by lack of access • It is critical to understand that maps are only indicators of
to current and relevant data. Lack of information and the the living knowledge that exists in communities. While
capacity to analyse it constrains the ability of the communi- there are still elders able to speak, maps must not become
ties to respond to requests from industry and government the authorities.
for input on proposed development. • There is a future for PGIS mapping, but is sometimes diffi-
So as part of a training strategy, using PGIS, four of the cult to anticipate where that future will lead a commu-
communities have engaged in the development of a 40- nity. One of the key questions that remains to be
layer atlas. This atlas blends scientific and cultural knowl- answered in the Treaty 8 is whether or not there is finan-
edge for each of the community’s critical use areas, or areas cial viability for PGIS beyond the occasional funding of
of significant importance to the community. The time that mapping projects.
is set aside to develop this product is minimal, due to refer- • Successful PGIS must deliver high quality products
ral demands. In time, an atlas depicting forestry, environ- through following a consistent and documented set of
mental, ecological, industrial, and cultural values can be methods. It must be based on good quality research that
incorporated into the decision mechanisms that support or leaves a clear paper trail.
restrict development activities. • It is critical that PGIS be community-initiated and partici-
The T8TA is in the process of linking each of the patory. But it is equally critical that it balances community
regional communities to a centralised land use office. This involvement with quality outputs and realistic expecta-
office will house a repository of spatial data, including TUS tions.
and TEK datasets. Gaps in information relating to TUS data
can then be identified and strategies can be developed for Conclusion
further research. Using GIS technology, T8TA can then Since the first TUS in the Treaty 8 area in 1974, PGIS has
begin to incorporate these vital datasets into community proved itself as a valuable tool in communicating First
planning tables and support negotiations efforts. Nations relationship to and interests on the land. Through
the changing political, social, cultural and ecological envi-
PGIS as a sustained practice ronments, PGIS has been able to adapt and maintain an
Consideration of the past thirty years of PGIS activity in important role. Though the urgency and need for TUS and
the Treaty 8 area seems to provide several lessons regard- PGIS has ebbed and flowed over the years, we have shown
ing the nature of PGIS as a sustained, and hopefully how the legacy of TUS in Treaty 8 is strong and how these
sustainable practice: maps remain important and powerful. As First Nations
• TUS often comes in waves of activity followed by periods people are said to ‘carry maps of their homelands in their
of relative inactivity. Maintenance of a sustained and heads’ (Tobias, 2000), PGIS enables First Nations to carry
sustainable PGIS involves anticipating and preparing for evidence of this knowledge, whether it be to the negoti-
the low points of PGIS activity. ating table or to a community gathering, and use it to
• Sustaining the legacy of PGIS through periods of low strengthen their voices, now and for future generations.
activity requires an institutional organisation that takes Mahsi cho! (Thank you!)
56
6
THEME SECTION
Craig Candler Brody, H. (1981). Maps and Dreams. Douglas
Anthropologist and McIntyre: Vancouver and Toronto.
Golder Associates Freeman, M.M.R. (1976). Report, Inuit Land
2640 Douglas Street Use and Occupancy Project (3 Vols.)
Victoria, BC Department of Indian Affairs and Northern
V8T 4M1 Development: Ottawa.
Canada. Natcher, D. (2001). ‘Land Use Research and
Email: [email protected] the Duty to Consult: a Misrepresentation of
the Aboriginal Landscape.’ Land Use Policy 18
Rachel Olson (2001)
Independent Researcher Ridington, R. (1988). Trail to Heaven. Douglas
102-8408 92nd Avenue & McIntyre: Vancouver
Fort St. John, BC Ridington, R. (1990). Little Bit Know
V1J 6X2 Something: Stories in a language of
Canada anthropology. Douglas & McIntyre: Vancouver
Email: [email protected] Sparke, M. (1998). ‘A Map that Roared and an
Original Atlas: Canada, Cartography, and the
Steven DeRoy and Kieran Broderick Narration of Nation.’ Annals of the Association
Treaty 8 Tribal Association of American Geographers 88(3)
10233 100th Avenue Tobias, Terry N. (2000). Chief Kerry’s Moose: a
Fort St. John, BC guidebook to land use and occupancy
V1J 1Y8 mapping, research design and data collection.
Canada Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs and
Emails: [email protected], Ecotrust Canada: Vancouver
[email protected] Walde, K. and C. Candler (1996) ‘Long Time
Ago People: A Traditional Use Study for the
Dene Tsaa Tse K’nai (Prophet River) First
Nation.’ Unpublished report. Heritage North
Consulting Ltd: Fort St. John, BC.
57
7
A participatory approach to
THEME SECTION
monitoring slum conditions:

an example from Ethiopia
by TSION LEMMA, RICHARD SLIUZAS and MONIKA KUFFER
Introduction Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia – a large city with a high
The eradication of slums is currently on the global agenda. proportion of slum households.
One of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is to We used rapid urban appraisal methods, supported by
‘achieve significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 GIT tools to map and analyse the slums. The methods and
million slum dwellers, by 2020’ (UNDP, 2003). Efforts are techniques used included focus group discussions, field
being made to localise the MDGs. But in many developing observation with community members and local experts, and
cities, the scarcity of relevant data – coupled with lack of both visual image interpretation using satellite images and aerial
human and financial resources for data collection and analy- photographs. The approach has potential for replication and
sis – is a significant constraint. up-scaling to produce a city-wide database of slums that
The large-scale implementation of slum upgrading and could be used to monitor the effectiveness of ongoing
improvement programmes is one of the biggest challenges upgrading projects.
that communities and municipalities in developing countries
face today. Such programmes aim to overcome diverse prob- Background
lems such as poor housing conditions, limited access to One important prerequisite for improving slum conditions is
improved water and sanitation, insecure tenure, hazard risks, local intervention strategies that build on adequate and
and high unemployment. timely available information that spatially locates slum areas
In this article, we describe a participatory approach that – but which also reflects their diversity in a local context. The
could improve slum monitoring processes. It involves various use of performance targets such as the MDGs requires a
actors with local knowledge and uses Geographic Informa- workable monitoring mechanism so that the societies
tion Technology (GIT). The approach reduces resource involved can measure its progress.
requirements while providing locally relevant and spatially Addis Ababa has estimated population of over 3 million,
detailed information. The data can be used for both planning with ten sub-cities. Between 85% and almost 100% of its
and monitoring the effectiveness of slum intervention proj- population are slum dwellers (UN-Habitat, 2004). But the
ects. This low cost participatory approach has been tested in central government has only recently given urban develop-
58
A participatory approach to monitoring slum conditions: an example from Ethiopia
7
Photo 1: A street
scene in Addis
Ketema sub-city
Photo: T. Lemma
THEME SECTION
ment issues any attention, as agriculture is still the dominant implementation and resource mobilisation is prepared on the
source of livelihoods for most Ethiopians. lowest administrative level, or kebele, and is based on
The neglect of urban issues has had severe consequences community participation. There are 203 kebeles in the city.
for the physical, social and economic development of Addis The sub-city level is not very involved in this process.
Ababa (Solomon, 2005). Recently, the national government The importance of the kebeles is rooted in the reform of
and the local government of Addis Ababa have formulated the administrative structure in 2003. This emphasised decen-
policies to target urban poverty reduction and slum upgrad- tralisation and public participation. But the programmes on
ing by: poverty reduction and slum upgrading increase the need for
• providing infrastructure; detailed information on slum areas. So information is
• improving tenure security; required to gain a better understanding of the complexity
• improving water supply and sanitation; and diversity of such areas – and to support the more strate-
• improving housing conditions; and gic allocation of scarce resources for slum upgrading.
• improving the urban environment (e.g. improving the solid The local demand for information on slum areas goes
waste management). beyond the simple classifications that characterise most parts
(AAWSA, 2004; HDPO, 2004; MOFED, 2002). of Addis Ababa as ‘slums’. This demand reflects the views
Main strategic decisions about slum intervention and and needs of the inhabitants. It calls for ‘high-resolution’ as
budget allocation are still done at the city level. The actual well as qualitative information (Kumar, 1987). Because fast
59
7Tsion Lemma, Richard Sliuzas and Monika Kuffer
Photo 2: Participants of a city-

level professional focus group
marking slum areas on a
satellite image of Addis Ababa
Box 1: An example of questions to explore how people

THEME SECTION
understand the term ‘slum’

• How is ‘slum’ defined in the local context of Addis Ababa?
a) Are there official definitions related to slums that are used for policy
purposes or other official use?
b) Is there a local language term used (for example, like cherekabet for
informal settlements)?
c) If not, how would you define slum in a local context?
• What characteristics do slum areas have?
• What are the most common characteristics (list and prioritise
accordingly)? Why?
Addis Ketema is part of the old city centre and is domi-

nated by a mixture of commercial activities and deteriorat-
Photo: R. Sliuzas
ing residential areas. It includes the largest market place of

the nation, Merkato, and the intercity bus terminal. Kebele
14 is one of the most densely populated areas within Addis
Ketema, with approximately 700 inhabitants per hectare.
but also reliable data collection methods are needed, we Methodology

found participatory assessment to be a highly appropriate Acquiring comprehensive slum information for slum improve-
methodology for slum surveys. This approach focuses on ment in cities like Addis Ababa is entwined with issues of
local people’s perceptions of slums and their diverse charac- extreme resource constraints, data limitations and the hetero-
teristics. We used participatory approaches that incorporate geneous characteristics of the city. We employed rapid
the use of Geographic Information Technologies (GIT) such as appraisal techniques, integrating local knowledge with GIT
high resolution QuickBird satellite imagery and aerial photo- using a participatory approach. This approach is preferable
graphs at scale 1:10,000.1 as it is cheap to build, easy to use, robust and flexible in its
This approach could be an alternative to overcome the application (Sliuzas, 2004). Through focus group discussions,
lack of conventionally available data for local upgrading strate- direct field observation, and visual image interpretation
gies (Sliuzas, 2004). The approach offers several advantages complemented by secondary data we were able to generate
over conventional, more technocratic approaches such as: both spatial and non-spatial information on slums in the form
• its timeliness and low cost; of thematic layers in a GIS environment.
• the increased ownership of the data collection process and
the revealed problems; Using focus groups
• the local learning that results from participation; and Focus group discussions were held at city, sub-city and kebele
• a greater ease of embedding locally generated information level with different types of participants. This enabled us to
in institutions such as city and sub-city authorities and observe the differences in the competencies and knowledge
community-based organisations (CBOs) (Turkstra and between professionals, technicians and residents. We held
Raithelhuber, 2004). ten focus group discussions involving three to eight partici-
In this article, we describe the work carried out in Addis pants each. Similar sets of open-ended questions (checklists)
Ketema sub-city and Kebele 14.2 This kebele was selected to were developed and used (see Box 1).
demonstrate the different levels of information that can be It was essential to form a shared conceptual base for
obtained from local knowledge in combination with satellite identification, characterisation and analysis of slums. So
imagery and aerial photos. during the focus group discussions, slums were defined in
the local context. Indicators considered relevant by each
1 For more information about very high resolution satellite imagery visit one of group were developed (e.g. access route condition, access
the following websites: www.terraserver.com/; www.digitalglobe.com (QuickBird) to improved water and sanitation). The indicators then
or www.spaceimaging.com (Ikonos).
2 The full study covered three sub-cities and four kebeles and is reported in provided a basis for conducting slum identification. In addi-
Lemma, 2005. tion, existing interventions in slums were discussed and
60
7
Figure 1: Some sketch map outputs from focus groups for slum identification at sub-city and city level
Photo: T. Lemma
THEME SECTION
related problems were identified (e.g. affordability of So groups were asked to classify the identified areas contain-
improved water). ing slums into one of three classes:
Organisations and administrative offices involved in the • Low (5-20% slum houses)
physical development of slums were selected at all adminis- • Medium (21-74% slum houses)
trative levels. The local authority focus group participants • High (75-95% slum houses)
were experts involved in municipal works such as urban plan- The delineation of slum areas by lower level focus groups
ning, urban management, land administration, housing (i.e. sub-city and kebele) were more detailed than that
development and water supply. Six experts in urban planning obtained from city level groups (see Figure 1). The lower level
and urban infrastructure from Addis Ketema sub-city partic- groups were better able to discuss the prioritisation of specific
ipated in the sub-city level focus group discussion. At kebele areas, according to the severity of problems, with selected
level, three representatives from the Kebele Development variables.
Committee were identified and invited to participate, as they
were all key actors in slum upgrading projects. This commit- Direct field observation
tee has an important role in raising local funds, mobilising We also used direct field observation for primary data collec-
and organising the community, prioritising needs, and raising tion within the city. This approach was used for three differ-
funds via NGOs. ent purposes:
Each focus group was asked to discuss and agree on a • To better understand and describe the diversity of physical
set of variables that could be used to characterise slums in conditions and characteristics of the slum areas and in order
their area. They were then asked to identify and delineate to validate delineation of the slum areas done by the experts.
slum areas within the city, the sub-city or the kebele based on • To identify areas of inadequate water supply with the help
the agreed characteristics. Each delineation was done on a of field technicians from the water and sewerage author-
piece of tracing paper overlaying a QuickBird satellite image, ity. The existing water supply map does not indicate the
scale 1:15000, that included the sub-city boundary. This layout of the water pipe to individual housing units. It was
process involving considerable discussion and exchange of not possible to get the spatial information from the second-
local knowledge by all group members (see Photo 2). ary data. So field technicians were chosen for their richer
An important characteristic of Addis Ababa is that there knowledge of areas with limited piped water supply. As the
is a high degree of spatial mixing between slum and non- technicians were sometimes unable to indicate problem
slum areas. This often makes it impossible to separate slum areas on the image or maps, field observation was chosen
and non-slum areas at the working scale used for this study. as a means of data capture for this variable.
61
Public water tap Typical street after first

in Kebele 14 level improvement
THEME SECTION
Photo: T. Lemma
Figure 2: Examples of slums delineated by T. Lemma on a QuickBird image of 2002:
• To identify and describe specific problem areas with the small, densely distributed houses). As Addis Ababa has been
help of the kebele neighbourhood development commit- growing spontaneously without any significant guiding plan
tee. It was easier for the committee members to indicate or standards for many years, irregular layout and high density
specific problem areas through direct field observation are two key manifestations of poor living conditions in the
rather than relying solely on the QuickBird image. built environment of the city.
Based on two elements of image interpretation pattern
Visual image interpretation and size, we identified groups of buildings with an irregular
Image interpretation was very effective for capturing data layout and lacking open space (see Figure 2). We also used
that could not be easily captured using field observations or the QuickBird image and aerial photographs when clarifica-
in focus groups. The focus group discussions revealed key tion was needed. This process of data capture has helped in
visual image interpretation elements for slum identification filling the data gaps that remained after the focus groups and
and delineation (i.e. irregular street and building pattern and field observation (e.g. due to poor accessibility).
62
7
Figure 3: Overview of the data collection and integration tion strategies and programmes in the local context.
THEME SECTION
process The focus groups identified and prioritised poor sanita-
tion, poor housing conditions and poor access routes as the
main physical manifestations of slums in Addis Ababa. Water
supply was not included into the first rank of slum indicators
because of the widespread nature of this problem, i.e. water
supply problems are also common in newly developed
middle class residential areas, which the focus group
members do not consider to be slums.
- -
We can’t show all results in this article. But we will give
an example of the data collected for two variables in Addis
Ketema: poor housing conditions and poor access roads (see
figure 4). Although substantial data on slums, policies, and
intervention programmes is captured at city level, these
examples show that the diversity of local living conditions is
lost at higher spatial (administrative) levels. Even in a
centrally located and relatively well established central area
such as Addis Ketema, there are substantial differences
between the data derived on housing and access conditions
from the different levels. Clearly the level of detail increases
from city to sub-city to kebele level. But we also observed
inconsistencies between the different levels. Areas consid-
ered by one level to have serious problems with poor
housing or access may be excluded from higher or lower
level representations.
There are several disconcerting features of such differ-
Integrating multi-source slum data ences that can be illustrated by comparing the city and sub-
The identified set of slum variables was established and delin- city levels. The sub-city level is mainly concerned with the
eated through a combination of the three methods. Focus implementation of various plans formulated at city level.
groups, image interpretation and field observation were all However, these results reveal that even there, the two levels
supported by available secondary data. In producing the final may not have a common view of the problems and their
data products, the initial classification by the focus groups spatial extent. This could lead to miscommunication and
was adopted as the major source because of the richness and excessive or inadequate resource allocations for plan imple-
detail that was available from the various groups. An mentation. Our focus groups revealed that with the excep-
overview of this process is shown in Figure 3. The final tion of the higher management staff, sub-city staff tended
product was a set of delineations of problem (slum) areas, to be less well-informed concerning areas of the existing
with deficiencies related to housing condition, sanitation, policy and strategy, as well as the future plans of the govern-
access routes, tenure security and water supply. ment in relation to slums.
At kebele level, the residents of the area have been
Discussion of results directly involved through the neighbourhood development
The focus group approach that we used provided an oppor- committee, so more detailed data could be captured.
tunity for direct learning by the study team. It allowed for However, the neighbourhood development committee is
an adaptive methodological approach. Minor deficiencies even less knowledgeable than sub-city staff on the existing
in the pre-set discussion guide were revealed and we made and future government plans and strategies for the specific
some adjustments during a group meeting while maintain- area. There are apparently significant weaknesses in the flow
ing the main framework of each focus group. We then of information and sharing of knowledge between adminis-
acquired information about the local views of slum defini- trative levels and these weaknesses are apparent in both
tion, slum characteristics, and also existing slum interven- directions (i.e. top-down and bottom-up).
63
Figure 4: Comparison of problem area delineation (housing and access route conditions) at three administrative levels
THEME SECTION
64
7
Figure 5: Aerial photo of Kebele 14
THEME SECTION
Clearly, more detailed data could be captured at lower Conclusions

administrative and community levels, enabling a deeper We acquired a richer understanding of slums and their char-
understanding of the multifaceted nature of specific slum acteristics through the combination of focus group discus-
areas. Such detailed information on slums is essential for sion, field observation and image interpretation. This
local level decision-making and to form local policies experience has shown that it could be an effective, econom-
through which sectoral or geographically targeted inter- ical and reliable method that is suitable for replication and
ventions can be planned and implemented. Each level has its adoption throughout the city.
own role in slum improvement. So the inclusion of all admin- In particular, focus group discussions have the potential
istrative levels and the community in data acquisition and for gathering in-depth knowledge and insights in a rapid and
monitoring processes should help develop a more relevant economical way. These methods allow different actors –
and accurate information system on slums in the city. The including the community – to participate and collaborate. It
methodology we used seems to offer some potential for can create opportunities for data sharing and improved
further development and implementation in Addis Ababa. It mutual understanding that is needed for collaborative slum
has at least pointed to weaknesses in information handling upgrading interventions.
and sharing that could potentially undermine the develop- The spatially heterogeneous character of the city often
ment of effective strategies toward the elimination of slums limited the ability of participants to distinguish between ‘rela-
in accordance with the MDG campaign. tively poor’ and ‘relatively rich’ areas by visual image interpre-
65
tation. This was especially problematic for the technicians from maps – gave a rich information base for this analysis. It has
THEME SECTION
the water and sewerage authority. There are many small areas the potential to create a basis for learning about the opin-
without access to these services scattered throughout the city. ions, intents and needs of various technical and resident
So it was important to crosscheck the information derived from groups. This can be a first step toward a better understand-
the focus group discussions and the field observations. ing the different perceptions of the slum characteristics in
The use of the satellite images with the focus groups was various locations.
not entirely successful. This was due to difficulties that some The problem areas identified at the different administra-
participants – particularly the community representatives at tive levels were not entirely contradictory. But the richness of
the kebele level and the utility company technicians – had in detail obtained at kebele level cannot be matched at higher
interpreting the images. As such imagery has been very useful levels. The information gained at community level is of great
in other studies, it is quite likely that these difficulties could value, especially if scarce resources for slum improvement are
be overcome with increased exposure to such images, partic- to be effectively targeted. The exchange of information
ularly if image scale is increased to make individual houses gained from the different levels will be essential in generat-
more easily visible and recognisable. ing a shared vision and working in a coordinated manner
Integrating methods and techniques had advantages over toward common goals. If community participation is to be
using any single method. The limitation in one method can used in future slum upgrading programmes in Addis Ababa
be amended by the strength of the other. In particular the and elsewhere, the further development of such participa-
interactive participatory mapping done by experts – and the tory approaches to slum monitoring should be encouraged
community representatives’ spatial knowledge translated into and adopted.
CONTACT DETAILS REFERENCES Finance and Economic Development: Addis

Tsion Lemma AAWSA (2004). Sectoral Development Ababa
Addis Ababa City Government, City Manager’s Programme. Addis Ababa Water and Sewage Sliuzas, R. V. (2004). ‘Managing Informal
Office, City Planning Preparation and Authority: Addis Ababa. Settlements, a study using geo-information in
Inspection Department, P.O. Box 10653 AA, Abbott, J. (2003). ‘The use of GIS in informal Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.’ ITC Publication
Ethiopia. Email: [email protected] settlement upgrading: its role and impact on Series 112. Available online:
the community and on local government.’ www.itc.nl/library/Papers_2004/phd/sliuzas.pdf
Richard Sliuzas and Monika Kuffer Habitat International 27(4) Solomon, K. (2005). ‘Housing Development as
International Institute for Geo-Information HDPO (2004). Integrated housing Instrument to Alleviate Urban Poverty (The
Science and Earth Observation (ITC), development programme. Housing Case of Addis Ababa).’ Paper presented at the
Department of Urban and Regional Planning Development Project Office: Addis Ababa. International Conference for Integrating Urban
and Geo-information Management, PO Box 6, Kumar, K. (1987). ‘Rapid, low-cost data Knowledge & Practice, May 29 – June 3, 2005,
7500 AA Enschede, The Netherlands. Tel: +31 collection methods for AID.’ Program Design Gothenburg, Sweden.
53 487444; Fax: +31 53 4874575; Email: and Evaluation Methodology Report 10. AID: Turkstra, J., & Raithelhuber, M. (2004). ‘Urban
[email protected], [email protected] Washington DC slum monitoring.’ Available online:
Lemma, T. (2005) ‘A comparison of http://gis.esri.com/library/userconf/proc04/
methodologies for monitoring slum conditions docs/pap1667.pdf
within millennium development goals: the case UNDP (2003). ‘Millennium Development
study of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.’ UPLA MSc Goals: A compact among nations to end
thesis. , ITC: Enschede. Available online: human poverty.’ Human Development Report
www.itc.nl/library/Papers_2005/msc/upla/ 2003: New York.
lemma.pdf UN-Habitat (2004). Internal report on urban
MOFED (2002). Sustainable development and inequity in Addis Ababa (unpublished).
poverty reduction programme. Ministry of
66
Capacity development and PGIS
8
THEME SECTION
for land demarcation:
innovations from Nicaragua
by SYLVANIE JARDINET
Introduction Box 1:
In early 2004, the Gaspar Garcia Laviana cooperative, located
Vulnerable production systems
in the community of Telpaneca in Nicaragua, requested tech- It relies almost completely on single-crop farming of basic grains. It
nical assistance from Acción Contra el Hambre (ACH) for the depends for cash on the sale of surplus production once the basic
purpose of making an inventory of local land parcels. A project subsistence level has been exceeded.
was designed to seek a local alternative solution, including a
Access, use and tenure of productive land
low-cost methodology with a pronounced social dimension
In Madriz, approximately 9% of current properties stem from the
that would be easily accessible to all local organisations. unfinished 1980s Sandinista agrarian reform process. This left behind
This article describes how they tried out and developed a considerable insecurity in the land tenure system (see Box 2). Short-
methodology called communitarian cartography. This term land leasing arrangements prevent adequate land management
method aims to prevent and resolve conflicts related to land processes or investments in farming. Approximately 25% of small
producers cannot prove their land is entered in the Property Register.
and natural resources’ access and use. It uses dialogue
There is no cadastre system, so existing information regarding property
between all concerned actors and easy handling precision is often erroneous, leading to conflicts over borderlines between
tools (GPS and GIS). properties as well as between municipalities.1
Background Technical and economic limitations in both civil society and among
public authorities in Madriz hamper the use of innovative methods to
The province of Madriz is one of the most vulnerable regions
promote and disseminate local mechanisms that might allow for proper
of Nicaragua. The vulnerability is not only physical and envi- land and natural resources management and territorial planning.
ronmental (prolonged drought). It is also based on some
structural elements (see Box 1).
ACH wanted to help with conflict prevention and resolu- 1 Cadastre: a parcel-based land information system that includes a geometric
tion over resources and to make the process of recognising description of land parcels, usually represented on a cadastral map. In some
jurisdictions it is considered separate from, but linked to, the register of land
producer’s rights more efficient, while simultaneously placing rights and holders of those rights (land register), while in other jurisdictions the
the process within reach of the poor. So ACH designed a pilot cadastre and land register are fully integrated. (FAO, 2002)
67
8Sylvanie Jardinet
Box 2: Agrarian reform in Nicaragua members, and to other families who lived in the community.
THEME SECTION
The cooperative left some areas of coffee and forest to collec-

Nicaragua has a long history of conflicts over property. This reached a
crisis point in the 1970s. After a civil war overthrew President Somoza
tive management to honour their collective debts. The
in 1979, the revolutionary government of the Front Sandinista of leaders expressed the need to make this division of the
National Liberation (FSLN) made agrarian reform a priority. It formerly collective property ‘official’.
orientated land reform in two directions. First, by the creation of big
farming governmental companies built on the base of the properties A detailed description of the experience
expropriated to the family Somoza and his relatives, (APP, Area
Propiedad del Pueblo). Secondly, the rural sector began to organise
The pilot project was born from a request made by the coop-
cooperative production. erative, and the methodology was developed as the project
advanced. The ACH technical team became increasingly
But the land rights distributed by the agrarian reform programme were specialised, and exchanged information with GIS experts in
often incompletely formalised. Some beneficiaries even lacked deeds order to address any problems.
to their land. After the government changed in 1990 and the transition
back into a market economy began, severe disputes over property
The cooperative leaders defined the project, after they
rights ignited. Land distributed during the Sandinista period became had presented it to all the cooperative members. A meeting
hotly contested as the new government actively sought to safeguard and public assembly was held with the community (approx-
the interests of the pre-Sandinista owners. A substantial fiscal cost was imately 200 people). At the beginning, some had doubts. But
incurred to compensate former owners for lost land (Broegaard et al, afterwards, everybody agreed to participate. Details of the
2002; Iram, 2000; Corral, 1999; Baumeister,1999).
project and its origin were explained, along with develop-
ment activities and expected outputs. This allowed ACH to
project with a more integral and innovative focus. answer questions about the process and to organise how the
In 2002, ACH carried out a study on land tenure and the community would participate. Landowners interested in
market for land in Madriz. The ACH team then developed a helping the technical team were identified in order to start
participatory cartography model to be used as a tool for local the first trial geo-referenced survey.
natural resources and land management. These activities in Two teams of six or eight people were created (one or
turn led to the onset of a process of reflection with local two cooperative directors, the land owner, two or three
organisations and small farmers (producers). people owning adjoining land, and two witnesses). These
The study found that: teams were trained by a technical team to use Geographic
• In Nicaragua, half the farmers do not own the land they Positioning System (GPS) equipment, Geographic Informa-
work, or own only small, low quality parcels. Inappropriate tion Systems (GIS), and in participatory mapping and land
land use, poor access and the lack of articulation between surveying techniques. The teams were maintained through
national land policies and local land rights practices have the duration of the project. Women took part in the process
led to serious conflicts over land tenure. as owners and as neighbours. At first, they sent their sons to
• The legalisation and registration of rural property, particu- act as representatives on their behalf. But after a discussion
larly smallholdings, is prohibitively expensive. with the cooperative we insisted that it was important for the
• There is a demand from communities and cooperatives for women to also participate.
adequate solutions to local management and physical plan- The first survey involved geo-referencing points at rivers,
ning of the territory. roads, agricultural parcels, forested areas and homes in the
The Gaspar Garcia Laviana cooperative was established community. This information allowed us to test the initial work,
on land expropriated during the agrarian reform process, and correcting errors, and generating some degree of critical discus-
specialises in the production of coffee and basic grains sion with local leaders. Valuable information was obtained for
(beans, maize, sorghum). Lacking government aid, the coop- validating the way in which the methodology was being applied
erative faced problems in accessing credit. In addition, the (groundtruthing).2 This made it possible to calibrate the topo-
former owners returned and claimed the land, and were later graphic map being used and obtain reference points for the
indemnified. So the members of the cooperative began to community. This activity was very important at the beginning,
divide the land among themselves, while keeping the overall because it allowed us to set working precedents before embark-
property intact under the original title. Two kinds of parcels ing on the measurement of the actual agricultural parcels.
were distributed, for coffee or basic grains production. 2
See e.g. www.missiongroundtruth.com/groundtruth.html for a description of
Gardens were also ‘privatised’ to the families of cooperative how groundtruthing works.
68
Capacity development and PGIS for land demarcation: innovations from Nicaragua
8
Box 3: Variables Figure 1: Map showing the boundaries of the various
THEME SECTION
parcels, identified by owner
• Date
• Name of owners
• Zone
• Size of area estimated by the owner
• Years of use
• Current crops sowed
• Production per crop
• Organic
• Observations ref. natural resources
• Observations ref. conflicts
• Observations ref. possible loss of GPS signal3
• Probability of error as estimated by GPS equipment
Before any land surveying took place, the cooperative and
Source: ACH
farmers decided what information they need. They created a
field form to record descriptive information for each parcel, and
a database in which to store the information once collected.
The database was jointly designed with producers, based
Figure 2: Land use map
on the needs they expressed. It collected information regard-
ing measurements, agricultural production, and the presence
of conflicts concerning the land use and natural resources.
Box 3 lists the variables contained in the database.
Once trial activities concluded and meetings had been
held, the teams of owners, witnesses and owners of adjoin-
ing land came together to carry out geo-referenced surveys
of the parcels, to create maps showing how the properties
fitted together. The witnesses were important, as they were
able to testify that the land belonged to the owner and to
guarantee that the process of delimitation was done well.
We developed three different classifications for the land
parcels and data gathered:
Source: ACH
• perimeter of the cooperative;

• boundary limits between communal areas, forests and
protected land; and
• property lines between parcels owned by producers who
are cooperative members. the owners themselves took measurements, using GPS
For the first stage, we established that the cooperative equipment in the presence of all other neighbouring owners
consists of 890.5 hectares, with a perimeter of 26km. This and two witnesses, who certified the information being regis-
took several days, and 12 producers participated. Two people tered. This aimed to ensure that these boundaries were
held the GPS equipment and took readings, while another respected and to prevent further conflict. Following that, the
two cleared the underbrush in areas that were difficult to information about the parcel was entered into a field form.
access. Several producers in charge of different zones partic- The map shows the boundaries of the cooperative, using
ipated in establishing the borderlines between community for its background a topographic map at a scale of 1:50 000.
spaces and protected areas, which totalled 80 hectares and GIS thematic maps were generated (scale 1:5000), using
were sub-divided into twelve areas. Map Maker Pro software (see Figure 1). Several thematic
Finally, to establish exact boundaries between the parcels, maps were generated on subjects such as land use, organic
agriculture or the sub-division of parcels by size and function
3 ACH technical team were monitoring the loss of GPS signal during the survey (see Figure 2).
69
8Sylvanie Jardinet
Figure 3: The complete set of parcels of the Gaspar Garcia Laviana Cooperative
THEME SECTION
Source: ACH
An important result of the project is a map of the parcels parcels within the cooperative. Attendance at these semi-
owned by members of the community. These are repre- nars was exceptional. Participation was very constructive.
sented on a geo-referenced map of the Santo Domingo The process appears to have been successful in resolv-
community. On that map (scale 1:5000) are the 688 parcels ing conflicts over land use. The inventory of parcels revealed
that make up the cooperative, including eight forested several conflicts existing at the cooperative (see Box 5).
areas and the important points such as rivers, roads and These were either resolved when the land was surveyed in
footpaths (see Figure 3). The type of crops being grown or the presence of witnesses at the moment of surveying, or
soil use in each area of the cooperative can also be seen during assemblies of members of the cooperative.
(coffee, basic grains, unused), along with land not yet incor- After the land parcel surveys were done, the technical
porated to the cooperative and land for which individual team and the leaders of Santo Domingo discussed how to
titles have been granted. organise the information collected – and afterwards, how
Along with the process of compiling data, it was impor- the information would be accessible for the community.
tant to organise legal seminars for community members This discussion built on the earlier development of the field
and cooperative leaders (see Box 4). These explained legal forms. The leaders of the community decided to order the
issues about the collective title and individual use of land information in a general and individual manner.
70
8
Box 4: Related workshops Feedback from the community was gathered during
THEME SECTION
different workshops and debriefing meetings with techni-
ACH has organised other workshops in the community, tackling other cal staff and leaders. This has been ongoing since the
subjects of communal interest and concerns, such as legal rights over
natural resources in rural areas. Other legal issues discussed included project began. The ACH technical team has presented the
the rights of Indigenous people, property rights, access to and land use, results to the community in a general assembly and has
water, and forestry resources (fuelwood, animal life, vegetative accompanied the cooperative in the presentation of the
material) that are used by different people sharing the same rural results and their use. Once the project concludes, the
territory (owners, producers, users). The information was presented Gaspar Garcia Laviana cooperative will continue to promote
with a historical perspective, always relating rights, laws and practices.
This allowed participants to exchange opinions and reflections, based the prevention and protection of communal areas and has
on concrete examples taken from the territory and the community. already presented its inventory of parcels to the Telpaneca
Another workshop subject was the Nicaraguan law pertaining to the mayor’s office.
national cadastre, its objectives and functions, and laws relating to the
combination of individual and communal rights in the management of A paper registry of properties
land and local resources.
Each owner that worked on the GPS survey received a
boundary certificate, reflecting the features of his/her
parcel. It is just a certificate, as the demarcation limits have
Box 5: Different conflicts related to natural resources use not been validated by National Cadastre Institution
(INETER). However, since the start of 2006, ACH has been
Resource Conflict Nº of cases in discussions with INETER about a forthcoming cadastre
Disagreement in the drawing property lines 15 project. INETER are interested in the approach that we have
Land Movement of monuments or landmarks 5
piloted. This will hopefully lead to some official recognition
Use of rights of way 2
Appropriation of unallocated parcels 2 and help to validate our community cartography approach.
Conveyance of land not paid 1
Advance of agricultural frontier into 17 A public file of the properties ‘measured’
forestland A printed file was made including all the information
Forest Use of forestland on individual parcels 12
pertaining to the parcels and given to the cooperative. The
Disagreement on land use near property lines 3
Dispute over water use rights 2 file is made up of a copy of each Boundary certificate for
Water Poor management of wells on individual 3 the individual parcels. This information will be in the coop-
parcels erative’s ‘public domain’ and can be consulted by any
member.
Figure 5: Boundary certificate The database

The information collected during project implementation
means there is now a database recording information that
has been discussed, and on which the producers have
reached consensus about.
Impact
The experience has created a demand for education and
assistance at the local level. This has come from the three
mayor’s offices, two municipal development associations,
indigenous people living in the province of Madriz, and
from the national level Land Group.
Source: ACH
The cooperative Administrative Board now has a prop-

erty registry that can be updated, including the maps made
and a database. Members of the community also received
some legal training and an experience in conflict resolution
that should allow them to deal adequately with any future
71
8Sylvanie Jardinet
Presentation of the
results in an assembly
of members of the
cooperative
some training and technical assistance. The technology
THEME SECTION
used is accessible and inexpensive. The Mapmaker software

that we used is free, or at least low in cost when compared
to other GIS software. The purpose of involving the mayor’s
offices in the process was to strengthen sustainability, as
they also have tools and their own safe installations at
which to store information and to follow up on results.
Regarding the duration of leases and security of tenure:
in this case neither issue was addressed. But both have
been improved by the fact that individual boundaries inside
of the cooperative’s common title of property have been
defined and are now known by all the members – so there
Photo: ACH
is more transparency. When there is no assembly to adju-

dicate (such as in a cooperative), the discussion could be
organised in a community meeting with the leaders of the
community.
problems regarding environmental and legal management
(inheritances, buying/selling, etc.). The participation of the Conclusion
entire community throughout has meant it has taken of This activities developed in the community of Santo
ownership of the project. Domingo corresponded to a demand for an adequate,
One direct result is that the cooperative is now working local and a low cost solution to deal with land use, the
with local authorities to manage municipal ordinance. This local resolution of conflicts, and also for a local mechanism
is to help ensure the protection of the forest area of Santo for territory planning. The cost per hectare, unlike large
Domingo with the local authorities. land surveys, has been very low (approximately US$7–10
This project has also had a positive impact on the organ- per hectare including training and participation). In
isation of the cooperative. It has helped to clarify the differ- Telpaneca, the cost of legalisation is around US$70 per
ences between individual areas and public areas. The Manzana (0.7ha). But first, the cooperative had to identify
cooperative has become a local reference, and other coop- the boundaries of each of its members. This demarcation
eratives have asked for technical assistance. The idea of is the first step before starting any legalisation process.
local technical staff is being developed in a national One cadastre specialist told me that costs for international
programme of training of local mapping technicians and projects are around US$100/ha. Similar experiences in
the Gaspar Garcia Laviana cooperative has a potential tech- Africa appear to cost around US$17.
nician for this programme trained by ACH. It should be added that the cooperative is well organ-
Land demarcation, done in a participatory way, allows ised and its members are very much involved. These were
transparency. It can show how repartition between also key factors in the success of this experience. We believe
members has been done. For example, after the land that to replicate this experience, others should focus on
demarcation process, some women approached the leaders both community organisation and leadership. To succeed,
of the cooperative. They had realised that women had the methodology needs the strong participation of the
received less land and that their plots were not of as good community throughout the process. In Santo Domingo,
quality. Also, in the majority of the cases, conflicts were participation was important. But equally so was the involve-
about access to resources. For example, owners wanted ment and motivation of the cooperative leaders. At the end
water sources on their plot of land, or owners, with prop- of the project, they followed with the presentation of
erties near the forest area, wanted to enlarge their plot of results to local authorities of the province of Telpaneca and
land by deforesting. they succeeded in having a municipal ordinanced that
This experience was implemented as a pilot project, with a mentioned that the community was in charge of manag-
methodology that has been directly applied by ACH tech- ing the forest area.
nical staff. The aim is that in the future, local organisations This project has also the potential to be replicated, as
and institutions will be able to do the same thing after both the context and the participatory approach can be
72
8
easily adapted. Since this first experience, the methodology sion, an exchange of views, and broad consensus within
THEME SECTION
has also been used in the demarcation of limits in the the community about the final boundary maps. All these
community of Las Sabanas in Madriz, with local authorities’ elements tend to strengthen the concept of social partici-
contribution. pation as an important mechanism to find lasting and
It also has the potential for local participatory manage- sustainable solutions. Furthermore, recognising all the
ment of natural resources. It allows for graphic reconnais- actors involved in decision-making could be the best way to
sance work, and promotes participatory discussions about generate positive changes – not only in the management of
situations. The process also led to a spirit of positive discus- natural resources but also in sustainable territory planning.
CONTACT DETAILS REFERENCES FAO (2002). ‘Land tenure and rural

Sylvanie Jardinet Acción Contra el Hambre (2004). Land development.’ Land Tenure studies. Roma:
Email: [email protected] surveying by small farmers for land and natural FAO.
Tel/Fax: +505 278 52 30 resources management at local level. Video Gonda, N., Pommier, D. (2004). Conflict
Managua: Acción Contra el Hambre. prevention and resolution regarding land and
Baumeister, E. (1999). Las iniciativas natural resources: practical mapping and GPS
campesinas y la sostenibilidad de los resultados manual for organizations working in local
de la reforma agraria en el salvador, nicaragua development. Managua: Acción Contra el
y honduras. UNRISD Papel de Discusión No. Hambre.
105. IRAM (2000). Estudios sobre la tenencia de la
Broegaard, R., Heltberg, R., Malchow-Møller, tierra. Contrato de consultaría No. OPA-001-
N. (2002). Property Rights and Land Tenure 2000
Security in Nicaragua. Copenhagen: Centre for
Development Research.
73
9
The power of maps:
THEME SECTION
cartography with indigenous

people in the Brazilian Amazon
by THE INHABITANTS OF MOIKARAKÔ, PASCALE DE ROBERT, JEAN-FRANÇOIS FAURE

and ANNE-ELISABETH LAQUES
Introduction Figure 1: Map showing Terra Indigena Kayapó (TIK) in the

This article describes work with and by the Kayapó - south of Pará State in the Brazilian Amazon
Mebêngôkre Indians living in Moikarakô, a village of about
220 inhabitants. It is located in the middle of the Terra Indi-
gena Kayapó (TIK), an Indian reserve in the south of Pará
State in the Brazilian Amazon (Figure 1). The work was part
of a collaborative Brazilian-French research programme
dealing with social and spatial dynamics in the Brazilian
Amazon.1 The original objective of the study was to show the
extent of deforestation around the TIK and to spatialise natu-
ralist knowledge related to gardens and forests around one
of the villages of the TIK. However, when the Kayapó realised
the power of these documents, they wanted to construct
another kind of map representing the whole indigenous terri-
tory, and decided to give a political orientation to their carto-
graphic work. In order to address a specific demand from the
1 The research focuses on the evolution of natural resource exploitation by

indigenous communities impacted by new relationships with global society
(integration in the market, sedentarisation, etc.). The two programmes
‘Mondialisation, mouvements associatifs et développement durable/local en
Amazonie’ (1999–2003) and ‘Áreas protegidas, transformações socioeconômicas Kayapó people that was not planned in the initial project, we
e desenvolvimento sustentável na Amazônia’(2004–2006) have been the
collaborative work of the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) and brought in two geographers and an anthropologist to work
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (LAGET/UFRJ). with us.
74
The power of maps: cartography with indigenous people in the Brazilian Amazon
9
Box 1: Indigenous territories (ITs) of the Brazilian Amazon Box 2: Deforestation in the Amazon
THEME SECTION
The 1988 Brazilian Constitution recognised historic rights for Deforestation is continuing. Last year, between August 2003 and
indigenous people in their traditional territories. Today there are 627 August 2004, an area of 26.130 km2 was deforested in the Brazilian
indigenous territories (ITs) in Brazil, covering 12% of the national Amazon. The two States with the highest deforestation rates are Pará
territory and supporting about 370,000 individuals. The ITs cover 21% State and Mato Grosso State, also the biggest soybean producer. At
of the Amazon. Amerindian peoples have won exclusive use rights over present, the total amount of deforested lands in the Brazilian Amazon
407 ITs, representing about a million square kilometres, mainly covered is up to 680.000 km2, representing 17% of its total forest cover.
by forests.
The ITs are acting as a barrier to frontline deforestation, even more so The Kayapó had little contact with the rest of Brazilian
than other protected areas like National Parks (Nepstad et al., 2006). society until the construction of inland Amazonian roads in
Most of the Amerindians are still living in the Amazonian forest, using the 1970s. These roads cut across their traditional territory
traditional systems of natural resources exploitation adapted to their and attracted migrants and gold miners to the region. Even
environment. The changes they are presently experiencing, such as
increases in population and sedentarisation, are new challenges for though the Kayapó people are not very numerous (about
indigenous people. Most of them also have to deal with illegal 7300 individuals today) they became famous in the 1980s
resource predation in their territories and a lack of State intervention because of their very efficient fight for their territories and
and of basic public services. rights (Turner, 1999).
Their protests were reported in the international media and
In all cases, cultural diversity constitutes a rich potential in order to
develop alternatives: there are 220 different indigenous groups accelerated the process of recognition for their ITs. Neverthe-
speaking 180 different languages in Brazil. less, the Terra Indigena Kayapó continues to be invaded today,
especially for illegal logging of mahogany (Swietenia macro-
phylla), one of the most valuable timber species of the world.
Background There are many different areas in the seven ITs inhabited
Firstly, it is important to understand the context in which this by Kayapó, in both Pará State and Mato Grosso State. Most
project took place. To do this, we will present some basic of them were legally registered between 1980 and 1990. Our
information about the Kayapó People, whose territory is work is concentrated in one of the most important ITs: the
located near the so-called ‘deforestation arc’ – the frontline Terra Indígena Kayapó (TIK), which has eight principal villages.
of forest destruction (by cutting and fire) in the Amazon (see It covers 32.840 km2 of tropical forest, located near a very
Box 1). Then, we will describe how the cartographic demands active agricultural front: the south Pará State deforestation
occurred and evolved as the Kayapó began understanding arc.
the power of the documents they were creating using satel-
lite imagery. Finally, we will present the cartographic results An indigenous territory surrounded by grasslands
and new methodological challenges. The conclusion high- Using satellite imagery, we can easily observe the progress of
lights the prospects of pursuing this study further through a deforestation around the Kayapó IT (see Figure 3 and Box 2).
comparative project between the Yanomami and Kayapó In the North and the East, the Kayapó IT is completely
Peoples. surrounded by vast grasslands belonging to big ranches, the
fazendas, and smaller grassland areas planted by migrants.
Which territory for the Kayapó? These migrants come from others regions of the country,
The Kayapó call themselves Mebêngôkre, meaning the longing for better living conditions in the Amazon. Conflicts
‘people of the water hole’. Most of them are living in ecosys- over land appropriation are extremely violent to the north-
tems of dense tropical forests on both banks of the Xingu west of the Kayapó reserve, and have intensified on a recent
River. They practise slash and burn agriculture, hunting and deforestation front. This is a classic scenario, and explains
fishing. The villages usually have between 100 and 1000 why the IT now resembles a forest island in a sea of grass-
inhabitants and tend to be politically autonomous from one lands.
another. The population consists almost exclusively of Most of the relations the Kayapó have with the regional
Amerindians, with the exception of a few teachers and society are concentrated in the cities bordering the TIK. Inside
nurses. Mebêngôkre-Kayapó are well-known for their polit- their territory, they also maintain spodaric relationships with
ical activism, their knowledge of their own environment, their loggers or miners and a continued contact with missionaries
body-painting skills and their feather-based artwork. (Catholics and Protestants), NGOs and public institutions (e.g.
75
9 the inhabitants of Moikarakô, Pascale de Robert, Jean-François Faure and Anne-Elisabeth Laques
The Kayapo meet

to discuss the
mapping processes
Fundação Nacional do Índio, FUNAI). As the pressure on land
THEME SECTION
grows, control and management over the land becomes

more and more fundamental. It is in this particular context
that our cartographic experience takes place.
How the people of Moikarakô became cartographers
One more scientist in the village...
Photo: Pascale de Robert

When the anthropologist came to the village for the first
time, the people of Moikarakô had already had some expe-
rience with scientists (biological research). So before autho-
rising the new research to begin in 1999, they proposed a
deal. They stated: ‘We’ll teach you our “culture” but we also
want to learn about yours’. One way that this was done was
to bring the village some books, papers and maps, and these
were presented to everybody in the ngob, a collective house Mapping our land
in the centre of the village. During a traditional celebration where people from many
As there are very few and imprecise maps of the region, we villages came to Moikarakô, the Kayapó decided we had to
used satellite imagery of the Terra Indigena Kayapó , with stop mapping the forest. At this time, in 2000, they had
closeup images of their village. We used four images from many reasons to feel insecure and suspicious of non-Indian
Landsat 7 satellite data sets in the mapping of Indian territories. society (illegal sale of their land, a malaria epidemic, logging
Women and men in Moikarakô reacted with great inter- activities, Brazil 500th anniversary festivities...). Under-
est. They were able to recognise important places and objects standing the power of maps, they chose to give a political
on the image: river contours are very easily identified by the orientation to their geographical activity. The new map
people of the forest, who use canoes in many travels. The should represent all the Kayapó villages and the correct
Kayapó were shocked by the contrast between the forest limits of the reserve – but not the botanic knowledge of the
(shown in green) and the grasslands (shown in pink) Kayapó People.
surrounding their territory. The external pressure seemed As researchers, we had to change our initial project objec-
much more threatening when observed on satellite pictures. tives and timelines. What this in fact meant, was that the
For all these reasons, we decided to work with satellite Kayapó had appropriated the project for themselves. During
imagery and give a special importance to mapping in the this inter-village reunion and later, as they had various oppor-
research process. So the project developed directly from the tunities to meet with each other, Kayapó leaders (adult men)
interest demonstrated by the Kayapó . reformulated a demand for the production of a political map
that could give to the Mebêngôkre people’s territorial iden-
Mapping our forest tity and recognition.
On a village scale, we mapped different categories of vege- At this phase of the project, in 2000, appropriation
tation or spaces used or named by the Kayapó. We used a processes of mapping techniques and participation were
Global Positioning System (GPS) only to collect data on a strengthened. We were still working on transparent images
few strategic points. Men identified, for example, different that allowed people who wanted to participate to draw. This
types of primary and secondary forests. Women had more step involved the majority of adults, including elders who do
to say about gardens and domestic spaces. Interactive not draw, but knew the history of the group better. As the
photo-interpretation was performed with the Kayapó, using mapping activities restarted, the Indians had re-appropriated
the Mebêngôkre classification system, linking colour the tools introduced by the scientists in order to meet their
patches and discontinuities with known vegetation or land- own objectives.
scape types. For many people in Brazil, the Kayapó are still recognised
But this research was suddenly stopped one year later as famous warriors, as they were in the past. Maps have
when the Kayapó changed their point of view on participa- become just one of the new arms they are now using to fight
tive cartographic work. for their people and their territory.
76
The power of maps: cartography with indigenous people in the Brazilian Amazon
9
Figure 2: The people of Moikarakô designed their first map in 2001. Their objective was to show it to the outside world,
THEME SECTION
in order to support the political attempts by their leaders to reclaim indigenous rights.
Mebêngôkre nho puka: the map of the Kayapó accompany the maps, the Kayapó made documents to
Indigenous Territory clearly integrate and show different land uses over time, and
The people of Moikarakô designed their first map in 2001. Mebêngôkre political histories within the spatial representa-
Their objective was to show it to the outside world, in order tions of their territory. One of them gives the traditional
to support the political attempts by their leaders to reclaim stories of the migrations and separations of the Mebêngôkre
indigenous rights (Figure 2). During the second stage, from group from the mythical site of Pukatoti to the actual village
2001 to the present day, other maps were created for inter- of Moikarakô.
nal use, essentially for the younger generation, who work Another was called ‘Walking with the ancestors’ and was
and walk less within the landscape than the older genera- first drawn to respond to the gap they were observing in
tion. Maps were created in order to partially track and tran- regional maps. The IT Kayapó appeared as empty, as a ‘virgin
scribe oral history. For example space’, which might appear as ‘natural’ to the rest of Brazil-
• a toponymic map entitled ‘To know all places of our land’; ian society. The Kayapó understood that, on a map, a lack of
and place names could be interpreted as a lack of human pres-
• maps showing the separations and migrations of the ence. To fill their maps to show Mebêngôkre occupation,
Kayapó-Gorotire people. they worked together with elders. The elders were remem-
These maps always used satellite imagery as a base. To bering the oral history of the group, while young men were
77
9 the inhabitants of Moikarakô, Pascale de Robert, Jean-François Faure and Anne-Elisabeth Laques
situating the places and writing them down on the image. in their daily activities will make it possible for them to map
THEME SECTION
The resulting map is like ‘virtual trekking’ for these young the main types of geographic objects they recognise.
individuals, who now are sedentarised. We would like to conclude by describing a project on
Women have not participated as of yet. Usually it is the which we are presently working.3 The project is a compara-
men who have a more expansive experience of the territory, tive research initiative between two Brazilian indigenous terri-
because their collective hunts mean they live far away in the tories that are very distant and different: the Yanomami
forest and only move to their wife’s village when they marry. Indigenous Territories (State of Roraima, North of Brazil) and
In the past, the men also went to tribal wars. But now they the Kayapó IT (State of Pará). These two Indigenous Territo-
have involvement with other, non-Indian people living in the ries are very large (96.650 km2 and 32.840 km2). The two
city. native Indian groups have a common experience of territorial
Time and space are not independent dimensions in and environmental conflicts, as well as of governmental and
indigenous representations of the world. For researchers and non-governmental sustainable development actions.
scientists, the challenge is to find a way to adapt carto- Principally, the project gives the opportunity for a mean-
graphic language in order to better transcribe the indige- ingful interaction between Amerindians who want to share
nous vision of indigenous peoples’ territory, space and the cartographic knowledge they have developed separately
nature. We aim to create ‘moving maps’, showing dynam- and with different methods and objectives in the last few
ics and integrating changes in space representations, and years. The idea is for them to think together about how to
‘speech maps’ because of the importance given to tradi- use the technical resources offered by satellite imagery for
tional speech by the Kayapó.2 their common interests, in order to:
• improve their autonomy in terms of mapping techniques;
The need to exchange cartographic know-how: • improve their territorial management capacity;
Kayapó meet the Yanomami • build self-made documents showing social and spatial
Kayapó leaders brought their maps to the city of Brasilia dynamics within and between the groups;
when they met with officials of FUNAI (Fundação Nacional • produce new types of information for the young and future
do Indio), a public Brazilian institution responsible for generations; and
handling indigenous matters. In the village, they also used • stimulate dialogue between local populations, institutional
maps for their children’s education. They were filled with and non-governmental actors.
pride when the first map they made was published in a
famous French journal, the Courrier International (De Robert,
3 Peuples autochtones et conservation des forêts tropicales: Exemples et points de
Faure & Laques, 2005). Soon, the use of GPS by the Kayapó vue de deux sociétés amérindiennes d'Amazonie brésilienne, Yanomami et
Kayapó. Bruce Albert (IRD),François-Michel Le Tourneau (CNRS, IRD), Pascale de
2
For example, we have used Power Point. It is quite simple to use even if, for the Robert (IRD), Anne Elisabeth Laques (IRD, Université d’Avignon). Research
moment, the Kayapó don’t have much experience in using computers. Program ATI, IRD, France, 2005-2006.
CONTACT DETAILS REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Pascale de Robert, Jean-François Faure, Anne- De Robert, P., Faure, JF., Laques, AE. (2005).
Elisabeth Laques ‘Cartographie des Terres Indigènes Kayapo,
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Para, Brésil’. Courrier International,
Unité ESPACE (US140), Hors série n. 2005-1.
Centre IRD de Cayenne (ex ORSTOM), Nepstad,D. & Alii. (2006). ‘Inhibition of
Route de Montabo BP 165, Amazon Deforestation and Fire by Parks and
97323 Cayenne cedex, Indigenous Lands.’ Conservation Biology 20(1).
FRENCH GUYANA. Turner T. (1999). ‘La lutte pour les ressources
Fax: 05 94 31 98 55. de la forêt en Amazonie : le cas des indiens
Email: [email protected] and Kayapó au Brésil, Nature sauvage, nature
[email protected] sauvée?’ Écologie et peuples autochtones.
Ethnies Documents, 13 (24-25).
78
Land and natural resource
10
THEME SECTION
mapping by San communities
and NGOs: experiences from
Namibia
by JULIE TAYLOR AND CAROL MURPHY WITH SIMON MAYES, ELVIS MWILIMA,
NATHANIEL NUULIMBA AND SANDRA SLATER-JONES
Introduction Figure 1: Map showing location of Caprivi region, Namibia

In Caprivi, a region in northeastern Namibia, which borders
in the south with Botswana (Figure 1), a partnership between
the Namibian NGO, Integrated Rural Development and
Nature Conservation (IRDNC), the international NGO Conser-
vation International (CI), and local communities has been
developed. This has resulted in the evolution of a Participa-
tory Geographic Information Systems (PGIS) mapping
method. This is coming to be known as Participatory
Orthophoto1 Mapping.
This method is being used to promote community-based
natural resource management (CBNRM) on communal land.
It uses information obtained from village mapping workshops
to produce computer-generated maps. Although participa-
tory methods – including mapping – are not new to Namib-
ian CBNRM, NGO facilitation and technical expertise have Participatory mapping has been used in southern African
allowed hand drawn maps to be imported into Geographic CBNRM projects to empower local people to articulate their
Information Systems (GIS) in a cost effective way, with many spatial thinking, and to make decisions about managing
potential uses. natural resources in a sustainable way. In all participatory
mapping contexts, however, the implications of such activi-
1 An orthophoto is a uniform-scale photograph or photographic map. Since an
ties are social and political as well as environmental. This
orthophoto has a uniform scale, it is possible to measure directly on it like other
maps. An orthophoto may serve as a base map onto which other map participatory orthophoto mapping method (Box 1) was first
information may be overlaid (Source: U.S. Geological Survey). developed and used by IRDNC in East Caprivi.
79
10 Julie Taylor and Carol Murphy with Simon Mayes, Elvis Mwilima, Nathaniel Nuulimba and Sandra Slater-Jones
Box 1: Summary of generic Participatory Orthophoto Box 2: Conservancies in Namibia

THEME SECTION
Mapping procedure
A ‘conservancy’ in the communal land tenure areas of Namibia is a
• An orthophoto base map is prepared that shows important local common property resource management institution. It consists of a
features such as villages, schools, water points and place names self-defined community, within a defined geographical area, that
(GPS used to locate features). jointly manages, conserves and uses wildlife and other resources.
• A series of mapping workshops are held in villages where local
people build up a map of their area on the ground. This is then
significant national rural development movement. It aims to
carefully recorded by a few individuals onto paper for ease of
transfer onto the orthophoto base map. This is the ‘participatory’ return to communal area residents ownership and control of
aspect of the mapping. Local people decide what is important to resources, and rights to share and/or receive benefits. For
them, not outsiders. wildlife and tourism, the conservancy system (Box 2) has
• On the same day as each workshop, data from the particular village provided the necessary supportive legal framework.
area is transferred on to the orthophoto base map as accurately as
possible. Examples of the kind of data shown are farmland areas or
veld food gathering areas. The history of participatory mapping in the CBNRM
• Data from the orthophoto base map is digitised (sometime tracing programme and in Caprivi
overlays are used to help simplify the digitising process). Within this CBNRM programme, West Caprivi presents a
• GIS maps are produced from the layers of data digitised e.g. a map particularly complex case. The area’s unique social, political
to show farmland areas.
and economic history has made the local Khwe people one
of the most marginalised minority groups in Namibia. Like
IRDNC is now using this method to assist local commu- other San groups, Khwe people stand out because of their
nities residing in a national park, commonly known as West extreme poverty, political alienation, and a variety of social,
Caprivi, to map out important socio-historical data and liveli- educational and health problems. Suffering from displace-
hood activities. West Caprivi differs from East Caprivi in that ment, repeated experiences of war, unrest and stigmatisa-
the land is state owned and regulated. It also differs in terms tion, the Khwe have struggled for recognition and autonomy
of the ethnicity of its residents. The majority of the residents from the state and other ethnic groups. Today, a significant
of West Caprivi belong to a marginalised San group, the portion of their historical territory lies within the boundaries
Khwe, whilst the minority are Hambukushu. Through this of the West Caprivi Game Reserve, which was declared a
mapping project, which is still in its early stages, IRDNC aims park in 1963. Because this area is a protected area, rather
to foster collaborative decision-making and community- than a communal land, the Khwe have been unable to form
based conservation in West Caprivi. a conservancy. IRDNC has promoted CBNRM in West Caprivi,
In the complex setting of West Caprivi uncertainty and a residents’ Trust has been created, representing both
surrounds mapping activities. Whilst many Khwe people the Khwe majority (80%) and the Hambukushu minority
consider mapping as a means to secure their rights within (20%). But so far, the residents have derived limited benefits
the park, some government authorities perceive mapping as from CBNRM. The Khwe in particular often feel somewhat
a means to improve regulation. disillusioned and marginalised by other more powerful actors.
This article looks at the implications of producing land The broader backdrop to the mapping plan shows overlap-
and natural resource use and distribution maps in this area ping interests in land, natural resources and Khwe indigenous
through a participatory process. The mapping is intended to knowledge. Interested groups include: NGOs and govern-
serve a dual purpose. IRDNC aims to strengthen Khwe rights ment agencies involved in CBNRM and Transboundary
in the area by documenting socio-historical data, and also Natural Resource Management; Khwe people concerned
aims to assist the residents’ Trust in their management of about their visibility and self-determination; and entities such
natural resources. This article also draws on comparable expe- as the Kuru Family of Organisations, which openly supports
riences of mapping projects facilitated by the Kuru Family of San Peoples’ causes.
Organisations (KFO) among San Peoples in neighbouring Local activities and aspirations of Khwe people have
northern Botswana. shaped the emergence of mapping in West Caprivi. Khwe
representatives have often talked about mapping their terri-
Community-based natural resource management in tory to record historical names and features in order to share
Namibia and West Caprivi their fast-disappearing knowledge with younger generations.
Since 1990, Namibia’s CBNRM programme has grown into a By proving their historical occupation and detailed spatial
80
Land and natural resource mapping by San communities and NGOs: experiences from Namibia
10
Participatory Orthophoto
mapping in action:
Members of the West Conservancy members
Caprivi residents’ copying their ground map
Trust learn about onto paper ready to be
maps made by Khwe transferred to the
people in Botswana orthophoto base map
THEME SECTION
Photo: Richard Diggle, IRDNC.
Photo: Sandra Slater-Jones

knowledge of their customary territory, Khwe representatives and topographical features) in community conservation
have also sought to strengthen the position of their tradi- areas.
tional leadership in their struggle for recognition by the State
as a Traditional Authority. Producing maps through Participatory GIS
Recently, there has been increased use of GIS in CBNRM The early stages of the PGIS mapping in West Caprivi took
at the national level. To acquire regional overviews of wildlife place as a collaborative exercise between Park residents and
densities and human-animal conflict, and to promote conser- authorities, in so far as data were generated jointly through
vancies as resource management institutions, the national GPS supported fieldwork. Hand drawn maps were upgraded
CBNRM programme has worked with IRDNC. The into a GIS through geo-referencing map data using Partici-
programmes collects and manages data, primarily on wildlife, patory Orthophoto Mapping.
but also on existing human settlements and infrastructure. Using GPS point data to produce a specially prepared
Incorporated into a single national GIS, this data is accessible orthophoto base map, this method ensures visualisation and
to the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET), all service recording of indigenous spatial knowledge in cost and time
providers, and local rural representatives. It is used for effective ways. This ideally maximises the participation of
management planning and collaborative decision-making. local people in data gathering and recollection, and builds
Such planning includes land-use zoning, and sharing infor- on synergies deriving from the input of GIS expertise by local
mation with potential investors such as tourism operators or NGO staff. The maps, once completed, are intended to assist
trophy hunters. In Caprivi, from IRDNC’s perspective, the local communities with a range of management decisions,
intended primary beneficiaries and users of GIS maps are the as they have in East Caprivi, and to facilitate communication
area’s residents. about land use amongst community members and between
IRDNC developed its PGIS methodology with the strong communities and outsiders. For example, locally generated
support of the Mapping and Natural Resource Information maps can assist communities in interacting with private
Unit (MIU) in the Namibia Nature Foundation, an NGO based sector tourism operators and in making decisions on the allo-
in the capital, Windhoek. This facility houses the databases, cation and maintenance of tourism sites, hunting, cropping
promotes the use of GIS and provides training and backup and grazing areas.
facilities for NGOs that assist emerging conservancies with The methodology for West Caprivi builds on village
land use planning. The unit maintains a system called Conser- mapping workshops and field data collection to collate and
vancy Information (COINFO). This allows spatial and other visualise indigenous spatial knowledge, including local
data to be centrally updated and used in the countries’ far- names, natural resources that residents depend on for their
flung regions. The MIU provides services to collect and digi- livelihoods (e.g. grazing, farmlands and useful wild plants),
tise baseline data (i.e. boundaries, roads, tracks, boreholes, distribution of wildlife, and migration routes. To ensure that
81
Table 1: : Mapping Activities and Outcomes since 2003

THEME SECTION
Year Activity Material Outputs Outcomes
2003 PRA entry-level field assessment in East Caprivi to Hand-drawn maps of the area Decision to create geo-referenced
start a new transboundary conservation project. rich in detail but indecipherable maps to share with outsiders.
to outsiders. ‘Participatory Orthophoto Method’ is
developed.
2004 Geo-reference hand-drawn maps of two Computer-generated maps Conservancy land zoning for wildlife
conservancies in East Caprivi. showing local place-names and and tourism.
local resource use.
Conservancy land use and

2005 As above in two additional conservancies in East As above. management planning.
Caprivi.
2006 Building on plans made in 2004-05, geo-referenced (Future) As above. (Intended) Co-management of Park
over 200 water pans, collected local place-names, with government authorities.
and documented resource use in West Caprivi. Four
village workshops held. GIS maps in preparation.
information contained in maps is inclusive and comprehen- Box 3: Participatory Mapping among San People in
sive, widespread representation of age and gender has been neighbouring Botswana
encouraged. But the equal participation of women remains The complexity of the West Caprivi case resonates with experience of
a challenge due to cultural norms whereby meetings and mapping in the NG13 and NG1 areas in northern Botswana. The Kuru
workshops tend to be seen as a male domain. Family of Organisations has recognised that maps can be powerful
During on-site mapping exercises, residents are first tools for protecting heritage, making land claims, and fostering
community development.
invited to draw a map of the local area and its natural
resources on the ground. The activity is facilitated through As with oral history collection, the process of mapping has brought
the use of visual aids such as animal figures, which are placed about many intangible benefits, including inter-generational
on the ground map to represent wildlife distribution. reconciliation, cultural empowerment, and psychosocial progression.
Once natural resources have been spatially represented The documentation of culture (dancing, healing practices, story-telling)
and cultural knowledge about nature, including through mapping, is a
on the ground map, this information is simultaneously copied crucial tool for development.
onto paper. At the end of the day, data from these maps are
painstakingly transferred by community participants onto a by NGO staff, and are taken away, to be later digitised on
specially prepared orthophoto base map marked with previ- screen for the final map production. Whilst some decen-
ously geo-referenced point data (e.g. village names, schools, tralised GIS expertise has been developed at the NGO level,
shops or, in the case of West Caprivi, water pans) to help technical backup is still needed from the Mapping and
orientation. Standardised colour coding is used to promote Information Unit, and shortages of expertise at NGO level
accurate data visualisation. may hinder wider use of the procedure.
Depending on the size of the area, a series of work-
shops are held to compose the whole area as a mosaic on Lessons learnt
the base map. These workshops take at least one day each The mapping project spans a three-year period but is very
and have so far taken place in each of the four major settle- much a part-time activity. (see Table 1). The main constraint
ments. Far more time-consuming has been the geo-refer- to making faster progress is lack of availability of technical
encing (using a GPS) of approximately 200 water pans GIS expertise. The long-term plan is to produce maps for all
throughout the park by IRDNC and knowledgeable of the conservancies in Caprivi.
community representatives. In the absence of roads, the Ideally, the mapping method will ensure optimal partici-
geo-referencing of just three pans may take a whole day. pation to record Khwe indigenous knowledge to a level of
Tracing paper overlays are produced from these base maps detail not previously achieved. For example, water pans are
82
Land and natural resource mapping by San communities and NGOs: experiences from Namibia
10
very important features in the Khwe landscape, and the geo- “Participatory mapping in West Caprivi
THEME SECTION
referencing of 200 pans, based especially on elderly people’s
knowledge, is unprecedented. This information will ideally is taking place in a complex setting.
benefit both Khwe communities and Park authorities in What became clear in the early planning
natural resource co-management. A significant number of stages was that different parties with
management activities in the Park are already carried out by
community members, in collaboration with the Ministry of interests in West Caprivi – namely the
Environment and Tourism (MET). Most prominent are the Khwe communities, the residents’ Trust,
thirty Community Game Guards, most of whom are Khwe, the Ministry of Environment and Tourism
who are active in anti-poaching, confiscation of illegal
weapons, and wildlife monitoring. (MET), and IRDNC – had different
Participatory mapping in West Caprivi is taking place in expectations from the process”
a complex setting. What became clear in the early planning
stages was that different parties with interests in West
Caprivi – namely the Khwe communities, the residents’ Our young people will keep this [map] as history. When-
Trust, MET, and IRDNC – had different expectations from the ever another community wants to take the land, they can
process. Although the different groups shared some inter- say, no, this land belongs to the Khwe community. This is
ests, e.g. seeing maps as a CBNRM tool for communication, where the murambas [fossil drainage lines] are, which
negotiation and joint management, their expectations have been named by our fathers. It will give them power.
diverged in other respects. Khwe understandings and expec-
tations of mapping, in the early stages of the process, To the Khwe, maps are inherently political, revealing West
appeared to be quite different from those of MET. For Khwe, Caprivi’s contested power relationships over land, resources
mapping represents an opportunity to affirm their identity, and leadership. Mapping constitutes an opportunity for the
assert ownership of land, enhance visibility and challenge Khwe to challenge dominant power hierarchies. Indeed, this
inequality. On the other hand, some MET representatives is evident in the case of Botswana’s northern Kalahari, where
expected mapping outcomes to include increased surveil- Khwe attempts to regain control over traditional lands have
lance and monitoring of the Park with regard to both human been bolstered by the inclusion of ‘traditional land-use maps’
and wildlife activity. in land-lease applications put forward to Government.
This divergence of expectations was not consciously Simultaneously, the maps, drawing substantially on Khwe
addressed in the project preparation, and may pose some knowledge, may reveal new information to both the MET
challenges, for example, ensuring that Khwe expectations of authorities and to the Trust about plant and animal resources
the process are realistic, and ensuring clear communication and where they are harvested. To this extent, MET and the
among stakeholders. Furthermore, maps cannot be inte- Trust’s Community Game Guards may be able to pinpoint
grated into co-management plans until the capacity of the these activities and negotiate with Park residents about
newly formed residents’ Association has been strengthened. access to – and use of – resources, and increase anti-poach-
This in itself is a complex process. The Association Board, ing activities. For some residents, this regulatory outcome
comprising ten village representatives, was elected in late may be perceived as negative, given the widespread poverty
2003 with the aim of creating a legal body to facilitate the in Khwe communities and their reliance on the Park’s natural
return of financial benefits from natural resources to local resources for survival. For IRDNC, however, MET’s support for
communities in the park. However, the Association was only the mapping process is noteworthy, and positive in terms of
officially recognised by MET in February 2006, and the board creating viable co-management structures.
members still require considerable training, for example, in
financial management. Conclusions and ways forward
The history of the Khwe, together with local social and This paper has considered some of the implications of partic-
political dynamics, makes mapping an appealing prospect for ipatory mapping in West Caprivi, including the opportunities
this marginalised group, as revealed by interviews carried out and threats that such mapping may present. In line with
in 2004 and as evidenced by San experiences in Botswana other San cases in the region, Khwe understanding of
(Box 3). As one Khwe headman stated: mapping recognises its potential to expose and address the
83
complex and politicised issues of identity, rights and land. PGIS must be practiced in ways that will create positive
THEME SECTION
IRDNC believes that the West Caprivi maps can have outcomes for local communities, especially the Khwe. Addi-
multiple applications, including the strengthening of local tional NGO and community-level GIS expertise is sorely
rights and capacity to manage an environmentally important needed. However, care must be taken as the involvement of
conservation area. On the one hand, mapping offers the outsider technicians may result in external manipulation of
prospect of increased visibility and power for the margin- data in ways that may not suit local needs. Furthermore,
alised Khwe, because maps can serve to capture and opera- government recognition of the maps and the information they
tionalise resource rights, as they have done for conservancies contain must be encouraged. The power of participatory
on communal land. mapping can only be fully harnessed when an enabling regu-
At the same time, Khwe expectations may at times differ latory environment is in place, accompanied by strong institu-
from those of the residents’ Trust, environmental NGOs, or tional support and political will to partner with communities,
government. One way forward in this respect will be IRDNC’s with the objectives of improving their livelihoods and at the
successful facilitation of an interface between different same time ensuring measured and sustainable resource
agendas (those of government, NGO, community Associa- management. Where these conditions are not all present, as
tion, and other community representatives) in a productive is likely, they should remain goals to work towards.
way that will both foster CBNRM goals and improve the The West Caprivi mapping project has to incorporate the
socio-economic status of West Caprivi’s residents. needs and desires of stakeholders having different expecta-
Greater communication between different parties will be a tions. IRDNC faces the challenge of facilitating this conver-
requisite part of this process. The existence of maps containing gence. A critical examination of the increasing use of GIS in
indigenous knowledge will not in itself ensure a positive CBNRM, and its potential to democratise resource manage-
outcome for local people, as has also been noted by the Kuru ment, calls for caution as well as celebration. In the case of
Family of Organisations in Botswana (Box 3). This has implica- West Caprivi, as for northern Botswana, clear strategies
tions for both the empowerment of local communities such as regarding the use of maps and sound institutional support
the Khwe, and the transfer of natural resource management are needed if positive social, environmental and political
from state to civil society, which is what CBNRM promotes. outcomes are to be achieved.
CONTACT DETAILS Elvis Mwilima, BIBLIOGRAPHY

Julie Taylor, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, CI and IRDNC (2004). Standard Operating
Doctoral Candidate, Department of Interna- P Bag 1020, Procedure for Community Mapping of Existing
tional Development, Ngweze, Land Use Patterns. Unpublished document.
Oxford University, Namibia. IRDNC and CI (2003). Land Use Mapping
United Kingdom. Workshops – Kasika Conservancy, October
Email: [email protected] Nathaniel Nuulimba, 2003. Unpublished case-study document
Letloa Trust, IRDNC and CI (2004). Land Use Mapping
Carol Murphy, Kuru Family of Organisations, Workshops – Impalila Conservancy, April 2004.
Transboundary Technical Facilitator, Box 472, Unpublished case-study document.
IRDNC, Shakawe, Taylor, J.J. (2004). Fieldwork Activities and
PO Box 1050, Botswana. Issues Researched for MPhil Thesis on Land
Ngweze, Email: [email protected] Mapping in West Caprivi. Unpublished
Namibia. abridged report submitted to IRDNC,
Email: [email protected], Fax: +264 66 Sandra Slater-Jones, September 2004.
252518 Conservation International, Taylor, J.J. (2005). Land, Resources, and
Transfrontier Conservation Area Unit, PostNet Visibility: The Origins and Implications of Land
Simon Mayes, Suite 292, Mapping in Namibia’s West Caprivi. MPhil
Namibia Nature Foundation, Private Bag X15, Thesis, Oxford University.
Mapping and Natural Resources Information Somerset West,
Unit, South Africa.
PO Box 245, Email: [email protected]
Windhoek,
Namibia.
84
Participatory GIS and local
11
THEME SECTION
knowledge enhancement for
community carbon forestry
planning: an example from
Cameroon
by PETER A. MINANG and MICHAEL K. MCCALL
Introduction “This information could be provided

This article explores how participatory GIS (PGIS) can add through remote sensing, GIS and other
value to indigenous knowledge for use in carbon planning
within the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the geographic evidence. But most rural
Kyoto Protocol. Accessing payments and benefits for envi- communities in developing countries lack
ronmental services such as carbon mitigation requires enor- this sort of information…Participatory
mous amounts of technical information – which local
communities in developing countries often lack. Local spatial use of indigenous spatial knowledge in
knowledge and indigenous knowledge can be vital sources PGIS could meet these gaps”
of information – but there is still a divide between local and
scientific knowledge.
In this article we try to explore the extent to which PGIS countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to 5%
can enhance the use of local and indigenous knowledge in below 1990 levels by 2012 (UNFCCC, 1997).1 There are three
the CDM certification processes. We report on part of an flexible mechanisms to help industrialised countries meet
ongoing study, working with a long-time partner, the Bimbia their targets, one of which is the CDM which includes the
Bonadikombo community, located in Cameroon’s Southwest development of greenhouse gas mitigation projects in the
Province. The study is researching possibilities for including forestry sector in developing countries. CDM also aims to
carbon forestry as an objective in a community forest contribute to sustainable development in the project host
management plan. The results would be used to develop countries.
strategies relevant for CDM requirements and community To meet these objectives, there are a number of require-
forest management in general. ments that project developers (which may include commu-
CDM information demands 1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. See:
The Kyoto Protocols set out specific targets for industrialised www.unfccc.int
85
11Peter A. Minang and Michael K. McCall
Figure 1: Framework for organising indigenous knowledge

THEME SECTION
nities) must fulfil in a forestry project development document. and other geographic evidence. But most rural communities
These include: in developing countries lack this sort of information.
• a general description of the project; Combined with a lack of foundation geographic data, poor
• information about land and resource rights; Internet access, and a lack of technological resources and
• methodologies for measuring biomass and carbon base- know-how, including power supply problems, these factors
lines; hamper the use of geographic information technologies.
• methodologies for monitoring and verification; Participatory use of indigenous spatial knowledge in PGIS
• calculations of how much greenhouse gas will be removed; could meet these gaps.
• environmental impacts; and
• stakeholder comments (Lee, 2004). Local and indigenous knowledge
Much of the relevant information in the project document Local knowledge has some significant characteristics:
needs to be represented spatially including: • it is a (spatial) information system that develops from the
• the boundaries of the project area; close relationship between local people and their land and
• the status of land and resource ownership and entitle- natural resources;
ments; • members of the community are expert repositories for
• evidence that the project area has not been deforested over different categories of data, according to their experience
the last fifty years (a CDM Certification requirement); and social status, e.g. what land is used for what purposes
• the inventory plots and comparison or control sites; and when;
• baseline evidence (current uses, physical state of forest, • originally, the local community ‘owns’ the knowledge,
forest change history); and • it is a ‘scientific’ system in that it consists of classification
• environmental impacts of the project. structures and employs particular methodologies (e.g. oral
These could be provided through remote sensing, GIS histories); and,
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Participatory GIS and local knowledge enhancement for community carbon forestry planning: an example from Cameroon
11
Box 1: CDM requirements and local knowledge Table 1: Summary of PGIS process in Bimbia
THEME SECTION
Bonadikombo
CDM information requirements Related local/indigenous knowledge
Phases/ I. Understanding local II. GPS point survey and
Project Boundary Local land use policy/rules Elements knowledge mapping
Participatory Sketch mapping
State of forest in Dec 1989/or 50 Oral history of forest evolution, tools involved Transect walks GPS survey
years ago changes Semi-structured GIS (done by an external
interviews researcher)
Inventory and comparison or Local botanical and biophysical Focus group discussions
control plots knowledge
Actors NGO; Ministry of Forests Four farmers/hunters;
Baseline evidence Traditional land/forest quality staff; chiefs; 14 farmers, Ministry of Forest staff;
indicators hunters; charcoal community forest
burners; women (6); operations committee
Environmental impacts Traditional land/forest quality community forestry staff members
indicators
GIT tools Topographic sheets; GPS; GIS mapping
Situation of land/resource Traditional land/resource tenure GIS maps of Bimbia
ownership Bonadikombo forest
• it is holistic because it is used for decision-making in over- Outputs Community forest use GPS points of farm
lapping areas, such as agriculture, food, healthcare, natural sketch map; use rights locations; GIS maps of use
perception maps; rights perceptions
resource management, etc. descriptions of use rights
Some relevant weaknesses of indigenous and local
knowledge include: Degree of Interactive Consultation
• communities find it hard to predict what will happen when participation Facilitation Facilitation
conditions are new or changed;
• there are deficiencies in ways that information is stored and urban settlement. Limbe and the surrounding areas have a
communicated; and, population of about 123,900 inhabitants. Bimbia
• there is little quantification of information for analysis. Bonadikombo is a highly heterogeneous complex of many
Box 1 gives an example of how CDM information require- villages and plantation workers camps. The community has
ments can be matched to local knowledge. been managing a 3700 ha Community Forest since mid-
In our case study, we used a framework for organising 2002. An elected community forest management council
indigenous knowledge (see Figure 1) based on Harmsworth manages the forest on behalf of the community. This council
(1998) in which we considered land and resource ownership reports to the Ministry of Forests and Wildlife (MINFOF)1
rights an important area to focus on. This was reinforced by based on the terms of the management agreement signed
an analysis of a carbon plantation project in Uganda (FERN with government.
2000), which reportedly failed due to deficiencies in under- In Cameroon, following the 1974 land ordinances all
standing and working with local land and resource tenure. forest areas without statutory titles are ‘communal’ and
therefore subject to local traditional resource rights regimes.
An example from practice: integrating PGIS and LSK These forest areas fall under the recognised sovereignty of
in community carbon planning community chiefs who have certain political and legal, as well
To investigate how PGIS could employ local spatial knowl- as attested ritual powers over it.
edge in CDM project planning, we worked with a long-time We asked the Bimbia Bonadikombo community to partic-
partner, Bimbia Bonadikombo community, located in ipate because of their previous experience in using PGIS
Cameroon’s Southwest Province, on an interactive process methods. They were interested and willing to participate.
(see Table 1). Our main focus was land and forest resource The first step was to find out detailed information on LSK
ownership and rights, and access to use of forestland. through a combination of oral history, historical timelines and
Bimbia Bonadikombo community is partly peri-urban in
character and located on the fringes of the Limbe (Victoria) 1
Until 2004, since this study, MINFOF was known as MINEF (Ministry of
Environment and Forests.
87
Figure 2: Prevailing resource use regimes in Bimbia Bonadikombo

THEME SECTION
Partial Rights MINEF
Usufruct Rights Only
All Access on Permission
Recognised Occupancy
Access on Permission
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11
sketch mapping in focused group discussions. This took “This approach could help in terms of
THEME SECTION
approximately three months. Examples of focus groups
discussions included traditional land tenure access rights and
creating more reliable data outputs, and
farmer access rights and responsibilities. The elderly also encouraging capacity building and
discussed the historical evolution of forest tenure and user learning processes”
rights. Table 1 summarises the process in terms of the phases
and the tools, actors, outputs and the degree of participa-
tion elicited. The GPS training took two days and the GPS tional procedure, usually:
field surveys were spread over three weeks. All GIS maps (e.g. • firstly, by virtue of first occupation for very old family lineages;
Figure 2) in the process were produced outside the commu- • secondly, by community members by birth, marriage or co-
nity and brought back for validation because GIS facilities optation following local access practice through family
were not available in the community. lineage, elders or traditional councils; and
The process was facilitated by one of the authors, a • thirdly, strangers or non-natives can pay tribute to the rulers
research assistant and the community forest manager. We to be granted usufruct.
coordinated the planning, advised on the tools to be used, We can see on this basis that chiefs recognise some
provided GPS devices and working material, and helped to patches of forest areas as legally occupied. When we
ensure full participant involvement in the sessions. We compare these results to the community forest regime map,
worked with the forest management council to choose the we see that various uses are permitted in almost half the
participants. Each village and user group representative in the forest area, but this implies that hundreds of farmers currently
forest management council worked with their village or using the forest are considered illegal as they do not have
group to identify participants for each activity. permission from the community chiefs to use the land.
These results explain current conflicts experienced in
Results and discussion community forest management as well as poor farmer adher-
ence to agreed rules. As a result, a negotiation process for
What were the main results? joint issuance of permits between the forest management
Figure 2 shows land/forest use and control rights as viewed council and community chiefs is now ongoing. A farmer
by the three key groups of forest stakeholders. The maps education programme and a conflict management mecha-
resulted from the PGIS process described in Table 1. It pres- nism are also planned in view of the first five-year review of
ents various interpretations of tenure rights as seen by local the community forest management plan in mid-2007.
MINFOF staff, the community forest management council
and the traditional authorities (chiefs). Has this approach added value to the data?
The community forest management regime shows two We compared three characteristics of the community data
types of area. One is for conservation purposes, which is only on land use, before and after the study, to investigate
open for usufruct rights (basic collection and gathering for whether the form, content, and quality of the data were
subsistence purposes). The remaining areas are for access for more likely to be acceptable for CDM project requirements.
logging, farming (not more than 1 ha per person) and agro-
forestry activities that can be carried out with permission from Form
the community forest management council. The main contribution of PGIS to local knowledge in this
MINFOF staff argue that the management council and study was the transformation of local knowledge into digital
local ministry staff should issue all forest use permits jointly. map formats. Information on land use history and tenure
But the community forest management council believes that rights was previously in unconsolidated written and oral
the Manual of Procedures and Norms for the management forms. This means that the results can now be documented,
of community forests gives them full control and manage- and also shared more widely using digital media.
ment authority over the forest.
The traditional regime shows that a few farms and other Content
forms of occupancy within the community forests are illegal. Communities were able to include local place and stream
The chiefs argue that access rights to the use of forest land names, footpaths, village boundaries and other features not
for either agriculture or collection must be subject to tradi- previously included in official maps. For example, the evalu-
89
ation raised community concerns on the omission of local sequestered, or emissions avoided, by the project would be
THEME SECTION
information such as caves and mangroves they thought had ‘leaked’ or lost elsewhere and would be untraceable.
ecotourism potential. PGIS introduces the advantage of easy
updates for omitted items. Equity
Figure 2 shows diverse tenure rights perspectives that had Another implication could be on equity. Most farmers have
never been seen before. This approach shows overlaps and failed to pay a registration fee of about 2000 FCFA (US$4)
conflicts between these stakeholders in a new way. The infor- to the Bimbia Bonadikombo Forest Management Council.
mation will be used to commence a conflict management This is because they think traditional authorities consider
process as communities can identify with the results. them ‘illegal occupants’ of their land and so could impose
prohibitive occupancy charges once they have registered. In
Quality the case where these many farmers who are considered
Though products from the study showed better or improved illegal do not receive any share of the carbon benefits there
representation of community knowledge than any existing would be serious consequences for their livelihoods. This
maps, PGIS could not completely resolve the representation of could instigate forest users to rebel against the project,
fuzzy land rights issues such as inheritance and power over leading to project failure. It is necessary to develop a benefit
resource use rights. Figure 2 does not show us how much sharing mechanism in which all would participate in order to
power each stakeholder wields or how power is shared. We have everyone feel secure and motivated.
also found that there is confidential and sensitive information
such as hereditary rights that cannot easily be captured in Participation
spatial format. So mapping alone is not sufficient for repre- Although the original project aimed to implement an effec-
senting all the dimensions of land rights. One way of solving tive, participatory process, the main problems found in ensur-
this would be to use linked text files to map objects such as ing proper participation were:
land parcels explaining these resource rights and storing them • the insufficient number of women included in the process;
in protected layers accessible only to designated persons or and
with permission, as suggested in Harmsworth (1998). • it was difficult to bring together older persons in peri-urban
Bimbia Bonadikombo.
Has this approach been an example of good Despite their predominant role in forest product harvest-
practice? ing, women were reluctant to participate in the study partly
We examined the relevance, equity, participation, learning because they were very busy at that time of year. Assembling
and facilitation aspects of the process, to evaluate whether older persons in Bimbia was difficult due to their dispersion
the project was an example of good PGIS practice. and their varied occupations. This made some group discus-
sions irrelevant since elderly participants are critical for
Relevance discussing history of land use and tenure rights. To overcome
The resulting forest use rights information was found to be this, more individual interviews of women and older people
extremely relevant to CDM criteria, and for being able to were done in a bid to complete and triangulate the necessary
predict the impacts on the community of implementing a information. For similar projects, it would be important to
CDM project. For example, the implications of duality of take this factor into consideration at the start of the process.
national vs. local forest tenure systems are serious, and the
conflicts between them need to be understood. ‘Communal Learning
tenure’ can imply free-for-all in the minds of users who claim An important process benefit for communities is their
rights because it is national land. This has implications for acknowledgement of knowledge sharing on the history of
leakage in carbon projects.2 The restraining management land use and tenure rights. Many group members, espe-
measures that result from carbon projects like the CDM cially the young, mentioned that the process had enabled
being adopted could lead to users relocating to other areas them to learn from the old, meanwhile the old who could
they deem ‘communal’. This would mean that carbon not go to the forest anymore were amazed and alarmed at
2 ‘Leakage’ is a CDM requirement that any decrease or increase in carbon the forest changes especially the extent of deforestation.
benefits outside the project accounting boundary as a result of carbon project The PGIS process reinforces and enhances local knowledge
activities must be accounted for. analysis and transfer.
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Conclusion have to be used alongside other more discursive tools
THEME SECTION
Our experience suggests that using PGIS with communi- and techniques in order to adequately represent power
ties can add value to local knowledge in support of the and inheritance dimensions of land/forest tenure rights;
Clean Development Mechanism. This approach could help • Facilitation needs to be more persistent in aspects relat-
in terms of creating more reliable data outputs, and ing to the involvement of women and the elderly in such
encouraging capacity building and learning processes, processes to enable contribution to learning, empower-
especially in analysing critical CDM criteria such as leakage, ment and equity; and,
risk of project failure, and sustainable development • That if PGIS facilitation focuses on the who, what, why,
impacts. where and when issues of participation – rather than
The study showed that the current land and forest use having precise maps of land and resource rights – it is
rights system in Bimbia Bonadikombo could hamper more likely to better enhance local knowledge to be
community participation in carbon management and forest used for CDM purposes and for resource management
management participation in general. Most users of the in general.
forest are considered illegal and hence would not be More importantly, our experience showed that there is
considered direct benefactors from Carbon credits. This great potential in the use of PGIS for the purposes of
may be a demotivating factor for forest users. enhancing local knowledge use. The approach is worth
However, we did learn that: replicating and we hope to learn more as the body of
• Participatory mapping (notably in two dimensions) would knowledge grows with many more experiences.
CONTACT DETAILS REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Peter A. Minang and Michael K. McCall Abbot, J., Chambers, R., Dunn, C., Harris, T.,
International Institute for Geo-Information Merode, E. d., Porter, G., Townsend, J.,
Science and Earth Observation Weiner, D., de Merode, E., (1998).
(ITC) ‘Participatory GIS: opportunity or oxymoron?’
PO Box 6 PLA Notes33. IIED: London
7500 AA FERN (2000). Sinking the Kyoto Protocol. The
Enschede Links between forests, plantations and carbon
THE NETHERLANDS. sinks. FERN: Moreton-in-Marsh, UK.
Fax: +31 (0) 53 4874575 Harmsworth, G.(1998). ‘Indigenous
Email: [email protected] and [email protected] Knowledge and GIS: a method and a
framework.’ Indigenous Knowledge and
Development Monitor 6 (3).
Lee, M. K. (2004). CDM Information and
Guidebook. Second Edition. United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP): Roskilde,
Denmark
Minang, P. A., McCall, M. K., Skutsch, M. M.,
Verplanke, J. J. (2005).’Clean Development
Mechanism data support infrastructure for
LULUCF implementation: an inventory
perspective from Cameroon.’ Submitted to
Global Environmental Change.
Sirait, M., Prasodjo, S., Podger, N., Flavelle, A.,
Fox, J. (1994). ‘Mapping customary land in
East Kalimantan, Indonesia: a tool for forest
management.’ Ambio 23 (7)
91
theme section
THEORY AND
REFLECTIONS
FROM PRACTICE
92
Mapping projects: identifying
12
THEME SECTION
obstacles, finding solutions
Mac Chapin presents

his article to the
by MAC CHAPIN participants at the
Mapping for Change
conference.
Introduction
Mapping projects with communities, especially if they are to
be genuinely ‘participatory’ (a word with many meanings),
are far more complex, and difficult, than many of us would Photo: Giacomo Rambaldi
like them to be. Because they are complex, and because they
characteristically involve a collection of people and institu-
tions, there are areas where things can go wrong. I want to
note several of these danger zones, and then briefly discuss
ways you might try to avoid them.
The nature of maps

First, there is confusion over the matter of what maps are. Africa. The same thing has been done all over the globe for
The confusion comes from the fact that they are both ‘tech- centuries and has resulted in the definition of empires and
nical’ and ‘political’ in nature. Professional cartographers tend nation states. Maps are today being used by governments
to see them as technical, for they are concerned with the and multinational corporations to define concessions for
production of maps. Drafting maps is a technical exercise that timber, mining, petroleum companies – and conservationists
demands specialised skills, technical skills. I will return to this are using them for roping off land for wildlife reserves and
point later. protected areas.
The political nature of maps surfaces when they are put In the past, maps were wielded solely by governments
to use. This is especially the case when maps are used to and elites for these purposes, and cartography was dubbed
claim or defend land, and to consolidate political power. In ‘the science of princes.’ Today, however, indigenous and
the late 19th century, the Europeans took the map of Africa traditional peoples have begun to utilise maps to protect and
and divided it into their ‘possessions’. This was done with a legalise their own homelands. This has been a true revolu-
map, and this division of the spoils took place in Europe, not tion in the way maps are being used.
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12Mac Chapin
“Mapping projects with communities, a bit rocky, but we learnt from them, and subsequent efforts
THEME SECTION
have gone smoothly. We have used the same general method-

especially if they are to be genuinely ology everywhere. The technical core consists of a sequence
‘participatory’ (a word with many of three workshops interspersed by two field periods stretch-
meanings), are far more complex, and ing out over three to four months. Teams of village
‘Researchers’ work closely with cartographers to bring
difficult, than many of us would like community sketch maps containing local knowledge of the
them to be” landscape together with aerial photographs, satellite images,
and base maps. This process is very intense, with considerable
amounts of time spent gathering data in the field; checking
Maps also have other uses. They can be used as a basis and cross-checking existing cartographic information with
for discussion, for negotiation, and for conflict management village sketch maps; and constructing new maps that are full
and resolution. They provide a visual picture of landscapes that of cultural information on significant physical features and
everyone can understand – unlettered elders and even land use and at the same time geo-referenced. Lots of back
government officials – and allow everyone to participate in and forth, back and forth. The result is a set of maps produced
reasoned discussions of often-contentious issues, such as land by the villagers and their leaders with assistance from cartog-
rights and ownership of resources. In our work, we have raphers that are both highly detailed and accurate.
found that both governments and indigenous and traditional
peoples are in favour of this approach. It leads to quiet, Project planning
reasonable talk rather than to confrontation, which usually Whatever methodology is to be used, projects need to be
raises suspicion and causes unnecessary difficulties. Negotia- carefully planned. First, the core project team must be pieced
tion is far more effective than confrontation. With this in together. In Native Lands’ scheme, there is a community unit,
mind, present mapping projects as technical exercises – the a technical (cartographic) unit, and an administrative unit.
construction of maps with the use of field data – that will aid They all have their work to do and they all have to coordi-
the process of discussing land use, land rights, and other nate with each other. It is extremely important that the
issues. administrative unit is strong. It will handle relatively complex
Second, view participatory mapping projects as social- logistics: travel, hiring, payments and reimbursements, sched-
organisational enterprises, not as exercises in technology uling of activities, rental of facilities, procurement of materi-
transfer. View them as community-based projects that just als and equipment, and so forth. Decisions have to be made
happen to have a technical component; don’t conceive them in timely fashion, people have to be managed, and in the
as technical projects that are set in communities. The more swirl of activity once a project is underway things often
villagers and their leaders have control over management of become confused – especially if there is no effective admin-
projects, and the more they are able to direct activities, the istrative unit in place. I cannot stress this point enough.
more participatory the projects will be. Technicians – GIS Both the community unit and the technical unit must be
specialists and cartographers – should not be running strong, but the administrative unit is the real key to success. It
mapping projects. Villagers and their leaders should be at can be assembled in several different ways. Whatever works
the helm, for the purpose of projects of this sort is to best. For example, the mapping project we assisted with the
produce maps that they can call their own. You want to Kuna in Panama was run by a small team, put together by the
establish in them a sense of ownership; without this, they Kuna General Congress. It was made up of all Kuna, with the
will usually do nothing with the maps. Another way to exception of one of the cartographers, who was an employee
conceptualise this is by seeing mapping projects as run by of the National Geographic Institute. In West Papua, the project
local people with technical assistance from cartographers. was run by a Papuan NGO that had deep roots in the commu-
They are not projects run by cartographers and GIS special- nities being mapped; assistance was given to them by the
ists with local informants. British agency DFID (Department for International Develop-
Let me give an example of this. My organisation, Native ment). In Cameroon, the project was administered by a bi-
Lands, has developed a methodology over the past dozen or national (Cameroonian-British) organisation called the Mount
so years that has been used in various corners of Latin Cameroon Project. In the Darién region of Panama, the project
America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. The earliest projects were was administered by a non-indigenous NGO.
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Mapping projects: identifying obstacles, finding solutions
12
Mapping in
progress in
Papua New
Guinea
The political dimension
THEME SECTION
We all know that maps are not just neutral pieces of paper
with lines drawn on them. Otherwise, why would we spend
our time making them? Maps are powerful documents that
are used for a variety of political purposes. This being the
case, one must anticipate possible sensitivities on at least two
fronts: among the communities being mapped and with
government authorities. People in the communities will be
suspicious of the project, since they have never done anything
similar before and they are traditionally suspicious of
outsiders. They don’t know who will control the maps when
they are finished. People in government will often, if not
always, see community mapping as a potential threat, as part
of a campaign for land rights and empowerment.
This is all very natural, to be expected. So what can be
done to dispel these suspicions?
Ground preparation
It is necessary to do careful ground preparation before the
mapping itself begins. This can be time-consuming, and to be
effective it should be time-consuming. Some people want to
Photo: Native Lands

begin mapping right away, but this approach should be avoided.
It is often a tendency of technical people, who just want to get
things moving. But the preparatory work must be done, and
although it will take some time, it will save time in the end. It will
reduce tensions substantially and allow the process to run more
smoothly. It should be carried out on at least three fronts.
forming the methodology, ground preparation in the
Visit the communities to be mapped communities was weak, and we suffered the consequences.
Most likely, nobody in the communities has ever done Some communities refused to cooperate when the time
anything of this sort before. Nobody knows what is going to came, and one community said it would participate only if it
happen, what the methodology is, why the project is being was paid money. Considerable catch-up had to be done, and
undertaken. They have had little exposure to maps and don’t this was extremely time consuming.
know what practical purpose they serve. Yet now they are Note that even with this kind of ground preparation,
being expected to select a representative from among their villagers will generally remain on their guard, especially in
ranks as the village ‘Researcher.’ This person will gather infor- regions where they have been manhandled by outsiders
mation from knowledgeable people in the communities and (usually government or industry, or both). This was the case
place it on a sketch map. This information – the community’s when we worked in West Papua, for example, where there is
information – may then be taken to a workshop outside the open conflict between the Indonesian government and local
community and poured into new maps with the help of communities. With the initial ground preparation we were able
cartographers. Villagers need to know what all of this is. They to move forward with the project, but villagers were not
need to have questions answered and discussed. Otherwise, completely trusting and forthcoming with information until late
they will be hesitant to participate, and it is only through in the sequence of activities. Trust had to be built over time.
ample participation that the project will function.
Project leaders need to visit the communities and explain Contact government agencies
all of this to villagers, community by community, and allow It is extremely important that the government is informed as
time for discussion. They need to enlist community leaders in to what is going on. This is doubly true in countries with
this effort. In a couple of earlier projects, when we were still conflict and difficult relations between indigenous peoples
95
12Mac Chapin
A group photo of the

mapping project team
in Papua New Guinea
THEME SECTION
Photo: Native Lands
and the government. Because of potential political sensitivi- are underway to observe the process in full swing. This is a
ties, there must be transparency and openness on the part key point: make sure the government observes and even
of project leaders. If the government isn’t in on the project, participates without taking control of the project. Doing this
it could either: will serve to diminish tensions and set up the project for
• oppose and block the project; or follow-on negotiations and discussions.
• refuse to accept the maps as legitimate when they are
finally produced. Enlist the collaboration of the government mapping agency
We have solved this problem by having the project or agencies
leaders, along with the cartographers and community Give them a demonstration of the methodology and invite
leaders, give different ministries and agencies demonstrations them to lend some of their cartographers to work on the
of the methodology; a little ‘dog-and-pony’ show of how the project. In some cases this will be easier than others. But we
process works, technically. This is an opportunity to talk about have found that when government cartographers see what
the utility of maps as tools for negotiation and conflict reso- the project will be doing and have a demonstration of the
lution, for planning for better management. All of these are methodology, they jump at an opportunity to join the project
preferable alternatives to violence, which often accompanies team. Few of them ever work with field data. They spend
disputes over land and resources and is accentuated if there most of their time copying old maps for different purposes,
is no map, no common ground, for discussion. Then invite not very challenging. The creation of new maps with field data
government representatives to visit the workshops when they and crosschecking with satellite images and aerial photo-
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Mapping projects: identifying obstacles, finding solutions
12
graphs is an attractive proposition – especially if they are being “The political nature of maps surfaces
THEME SECTION
paid a little extra for participating. And remember, they will
see the project as something technical rather than political. when they are put to use. This is
This is important for several reasons. especially the case when maps are used
First, in many countries the bulk of the mapping resources to claim or defend land, and to
– base maps, air photos, and satellite images – are only acces-
sible through government agencies. And they usually have consolidate political power”
some of the best cartographers – although this is changing
with modern technology and the rise of consulting firms that
deal with mapping. tively complex task because it involves constructing a map that
Second, participation on the part of the official govern- contains a wealth of information.
ment mapping agency lends credibility to the maps. It gives Second, village leaders need to be fully in touch with all of
the maps an ‘official’ stamp – and indeed, all of the groups these details, for they need to make decisions on them. One
we have worked with seek to have the official seal of the crucial area is the need to do thorough proofreading of the
government mapping agency on the finished maps. This of names and locations of features. People in the printing facil-
course is important when the maps are put to use for legal ity are unfamiliar with most of the names on the maps, for
and political purposes. Without this collaborative relation- most if not all of them are in a language (or languages) they
ship, government frequently rejects the maps out of hand. don’t understand. If they are the only people who view the
maps before they go into final production, the likelihood that
Production of the final maps errors will creep in is huge. So as the maps are being put
Another danger area resides in the space after the formal together for printing, community leaders fluent in the
fieldwork and workshops have come to a close and the language should be periodically brought in to review the
project team is looking at the task of producing the final process and make corrections.
maps. In earlier projects we operated with the assumption Third, the participation throughout of community researchers
that at this point virtually all of the work was pretty much and leaders, along with their final approval of the details of the
finished and it would be an easy matter to take the last drafts maps, assures their ownership of the final products.
and have them converted into polished maps. This proved
not to be the case, and we suffered the consequences. Conclusion
Several points can be made in this regard. These are some of the major areas that in our estimation can
First, make sure there is sufficient money in the budget to cause problems in participatory mapping projects. We have
have the project director, several technicians, and community seen difficulties arise, in our own projects and in the projects
leaders stay on for as long as six months to shepherd the map of others, when there is weak ground preparation and plan-
through the final stages of design and production. Hopefully, ning of activities is haphazard and faulty. There are, of course,
there has been some discussion of what the map will look like other problem areas where breakdowns can be found, but
– how the legend will be configured, what colours will be these are the keys to success. The greater the participation
used, what kind of paper, whether or not photos will be on of villagers in the project, the greater will be its chance of
the map, size, number of maps at different scales, and so forth unfolding smoothly. Beyond this, careful planning and thor-
– during the course of the workshops. At this point, every- ough ground preparation will ease tensions with communi-
thing has to be decided upon, a designer has to be found, ties and the government and allow the project to make it
and plans need to be put in place for printing. This is a rela- through to the end without major difficulties.
CONTACT DETAILS
Mac Chapin,
The Center for the Support of Native Lands,
3503 North 13th Street,
Arlington,
Virginia 22201,
USA.
Email: [email protected].
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13
Mapping power: ironic effects of
THEME SECTION
spatial information technology
by JEFFERSON FOX, KRISNAWATI SURYANATA, PETER HERSHOCK and

ALBERTUS HADI PRAMONO
Introduction “Participants also discussed the

The recent growth in the availability of modern spatial infor- processes by which empowerment
mation technology (SIT) and geographic information systems occurred – and who was empowered.
(GIS), low cost global positioning systems (GPS), and remote
sensing image analysis software – as well as the growth of Mapping enhanced tenure security in
participatory mapping techniques – has enabled communities Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and the
to make maps of their lands and resource uses, and to bolster Philippines. Yet it also benefited local
the legitimacy of their customary claims to resources. For
example, over the last several decades, participatory mapping governments by providing them with
has led to the successful demarcation of land claims that led free information”
to:
• the signing of treaties (e.g. between Nisga’a people and
the government of Canada); Yet, the impacts of widespread adoption of SIT at the local
• compensations for land loss (e.g., Native Americans of the level are not limited to the intended objectives. Harris and
US; Maori peoples of New Zealand); and, Weiner (1998) argue that mapping technologies both simul-
• the formation of indigenous territory and government (e.g., taneously empower and disadvantage indigenous communi-
Nunavut territory in northeastern Canada). ties. Other researchers suggest that GIS technology privileges
Evidence of the perceived power of this technology to ‘particular conceptions and forms of knowledge, knowing,
counterbalance the authority of government mapping agen- and language’ and engenders unequal access to information
cies was vividly demonstrated in the Malaysian state of (Mark et al., n.d). Rundstrom (1995) views GIS as incompati-
Sarawak. Recently, a bill was introduced in the state legisla- ble with indigenous knowledge systems and as separating the
ture to regulate the activities of land surveyors and to declare community that has knowledge from information. So tensions
community-mapping initiatives illegal. exist between new patterns of empowerment yielded through
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Mapping power: ironic effects of spatial information technology
13
Sharing the maps with the

community for their input
and verification
THEME SECTION
Photo: Martin Hardiono
SIT and broader social, political, economic, and ethical rami- university researchers that have used SIT extensively in their
fications of the technology. To date, most research on the community-based work.
social and ethical implications of spatial information technol- These people represented eight groups in seven coun-
ogy has been conducted in North America. tries (Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines,
This article – and the research project on which it is based Thailand, and the United States). After discussing potential
– emerged out of common and yet distinct concerns among ethical issues associated with the use of SIT, workshop
the authors that spatial information technologies – at least participants spent a year conducting research at their
in certain contexts and at certain scales – can lead to conse- respective field sites. Participants later reassembled to write
quences that raise important ethical questions. In order to papers based on what they learnt from their research. These
test and further refine our ideas about the socio-ethical impli- papers were published by Fox et al. (2005).1 This article
cations of SIT deployment, we convened a workshop. We summarises the product of this work.
invited 23 participants, including officials from non-govern- 1
Available online: www.eastwestcenter.org/
mental organisations (NGOs), project staff members, and res-rp-publicationdetails.asp?pub_ID=1719
99
13Jefferson Fox, Krisnawati Suryanata, Peter Hershock and Albertus Hadi Pramono
Collecting and
verifying map data
with villagers
THEME SECTION
Tools, technologies and ironic effects • the advertising and marketing of these tools; and
To critically assess the impacts of SIT, we need to clarify the • a reframing of the politics of development.
relationship between tools and technologies. Tools are prod- As a technology, SIT transforms discourses about land
ucts of technological processes. They are used by individuals, and resources, the meaning of geographic knowledge, the
corporations, or nations, and are evaluated on their task- work practices of mapping and legal professionals, and, ulti-
specific utility. If tools do not work, we exchange, improve, or mately, the very meaning of space itself.
discard them. In contrast, technologies consist of widespread There are two major implications of the tool/technology
patterns of material and conceptual practices that embody distinction. First, while we can refuse to use a tool, there are
and deploy particular strategic values and meanings. no clear exit rights from the effects of heavily deployed tech-
A hand-held GPS unit is a tool. Individuals using GPS units nologies – even if individuals choose not to use the tools
assess them in terms of their reliability, technical specifica- produced by those technologies.
tions, and features. By contrast, SIT as a whole consists of a Second, critical evaluation of a technology must go
complex system of material and conceptual practices. They beyond assessing how well relevant tools perform, to exam-
include: ining the changes that a technology brings about within and
• the extraction of raw materials; among societal systems and values. For example, although
• their manufacture into tools like GPS units; one can choose to not own or use a personal computer,
• the storage of information in databases; computing technology is so widely deployed that it is not
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possible to avoid its effects. In practical terms we cannot “…if villagers engage in mapping to
THEME SECTION
escape from the computerised world – we have no exit
rights. If viable exit rights do not exist for a technology, then
increase the security of their land claims,
we cannot evaluate the ethical implications of that technol- they need to follow through with land
ogy in terms of how well the tools serve individual users. titling. But the land titling process is
Rather, we can only evaluate the technologies in terms of
how they transform the quality of relationships constituting
controlled by outside authorities, and
our situation as a whole. These relationships include those has significant implications for the
we have with our environment; with one another; with our villagers’ relations to the land, their
own bodies; and with our personal, cultural, and social iden-
tities. In short, technologies must be evaluated in explicitly
neighbours, and their community”
social and ethical terms.
Critical histories of technology deployment suggest that
when deployment of a technology reaches a certain level of ment and deployment. With regard to SIT, we suspect that
intensity and scale it effectively undermines the possibility of the widespread adoption of this technology will disadvantage
exercising exit rights with respect to it. It then generates small, local communities that have limited access to SIT rela-
problems of the type that only that technology or closely tive to other actors and stakeholders, as well as limited (mate-
related ones can address. These distinctive patterns of ironic rial, conceptual, and professional) resources for making use
(or ‘revenge’) effects have wide-ranging, systemic ramifica- of SIT in advocacy, legislative, and regulatory settings.
tions well outside the technology sector (Hershock 1999; Increased dependence on SIT will transform the relationships
Tenner 1996). between human actors and their spatial environments in ways
For example, automotive transportation technologies that correlate with loss of the indigenous spatial practices that
were originally adopted to make transportation faster and were originally to be conserved through their deployment.
easier. Their widespread adoption, however, transformed both
environmental and social realities in ways that eventually Grassroots realities: SIT in local contexts
generated problems – for example, inhospitable urban sprawl,
traffic gridlock, and massive air pollution – that could only be Why map?
addressed through more and better transportation technol- The case study writers agreed that spatial information is
ogy. At present scales of deployment and social, economic, useful for a variety of purposes. Communities can better plan
and cultural embedding, transportation technology and the the management of their resources, monitor the implemen-
tools associated with it are no longer truly elective. tation of development projects, and resolve resource conflicts
Ironic effects demonstrate the fallacy in assuming that within their own communities. Maps give community
what is good for each of us will be good for all. The individ- members more knowledge about their resources, so they can
ual user of tools is not a suitable unit of analysis in critically respond better to problems. For example, in the California
assessing technologies. In addition, new technologies are case study, the authors found that GIS helped local people to
practically built from ‘the ground up’ by bringing together be more aware of their resources. This has led to greater
knowledge and materials in novel ways. But once they are sophistication in public discussions among communities and
fully realised, the technology begins exerting ‘downward with public and private resource management.
causation’ on its component systems, bringing them into The opening of political space following shifts – such as
functional conformity with its own systemic needs. That is, the new decentralisation policy in Indonesia and the recog-
the ironic effects generated by technologies are not inciden- nition of indigenous rights in the Philippines – provided a
tal consequences, but are rather systematically conducive to context in which mapping became a critical tool for negoti-
the further deployment of that technology and/or affiliated ation with other groups, including neighbouring communi-
technologies. ties and the state. Mapping re-inserted user communities’
Following this argument, once spatial information tech- existences onto ‘empty’ state maps and thus strengthened
nologies cross the threshold of their utility, these technologies their claims to lands and other resources. In this way, SIT is
will become practically imperative and will begin generating viewed as a tool of empowerment and mediation for local
ironic or revenge effects that require their further develop- communities.
101
The final
map product
THEME SECTION
102
13
Participants also discussed the processes by which “Sketch mapping and 3D maps are
THEME SECTION
empowerment occurred – and who was empowered.
Mapping enhanced tenure security in Indonesia, Thailand,
easier to understand and are effective in
Cambodia and the Philippines. Yet it also benefited local engaging even illiterate villagers in
governments by providing them with free information. In conversations regarding natural resource
Sarawak, a community map was instrumental in the legal
victory of an Iban village against a tree plantation corpora-
management. But these maps are often
tion. But this rights-through-mapping legal power was considered to have limited credibility”
quickly curbed as the 2001 Land Surveyors law was passed
to regulate community mapping.
Others have cautioned that it can be difficult to deter- tional ways of governing human environment interactions
mine who ‘owns’ the maps and the information they and seeing the world, than they do in communities where
contain. Fox (2002) argues that if local people do not have legal rights exist. For example, if villagers engage in mapping
control of their maps, they may not be any better off than to increase the security of their land claims, they need to
they were before their lands were mapped. The case study follow through with land titling. But the land titling process
writers from Sumba noted that the NGOs and mapping facil- is controlled by outside authorities, and has significant impli-
itators that make the maps also control the SIT databases – cations for the villagers’ relations to the land, their neigh-
and hence control who has access to the maps. bours, and their community.
Even if the community can control the maps, it is impor- Mapping efforts initiated to recognise collective rights to
tant to understand: land resources can lead to land privatisation that is in practice
• the multiple interests and actors found within communi- exclusive rather than inclusive. One participant from Indone-
ties; sia told a story of a woman who facilitated the mapping of
• the processes by which decisions are made within commu- her village and then sold the land to outsiders. Participants
nities; and pointed out that mapping also disadvantaged nomadic
• the political and economic relationships between commu- groups that do not claim exclusive territories and therefore
nities and other social actors. are generally not represented in the mapping process.
The case study writer from Sarawak provided an example Case study writers from Malaysia, Indonesia and Thai-
in which entrusted community leaders colluded with a corpo- land reported that customary boundaries were traditionally
ration, using community maps to support the corporation’s flexible. These boundaries responded to changing needs
plan to lease customary lands for an oil palm plantation. within the community and extended across and overlapped
NGOs that initiate or sponsor community mapping projects administrative boundaries as well as the boundaries of
play key roles in influencing which actors benefit from the neighbouring communities. Participants observed that
adoption of SIT. For example, PPSDAK, a Kalimantan-based these boundaries have become less flexible today and often
NGO chose to revitalise traditional customary institutions cause disputes where they overlap with those established
(adat), entrusting them with control of the maps, while by neighbours. They noted, however, that changes in the
Koppesda, a Sumba-based NGO chose to support a func- sense of place and boundary conceptions are not exclu-
tional committee on forest conservation, therefore bypass- sively caused by mapping activities. They are also affected
ing traditional leaders. The implications of these decisions by changes in the political economic context, such as
can be far reaching in the restructuring of power relations expansion of roads, markets, decentralisation policy, land
and property institutions that govern resource access and util- tenure, and other factors.
isation.
SIT and NGOs
Impacts on communities’ values We define non-governmental organisations (NGOs) as organ-
For many indigenous groups in Asia, the use of SIT in partic- isations that:
ipatory mapping is intended to ‘re-insert’ their existence onto • work on a voluntary basis;
maps – to claim rights that had not been acknowledged by • rely on external funding;
the state. When resource rights have not previously been • work with the poor and marginal members of society;
recognised, mapping activities have greater impact on tradi- • have a small staff; and
103
“…the more we map, the more likely it is Summary

THEME SECTION
We do not seek to discredit the use of spatial information

that we will have no choice but to map” technology in community-based management. Rather we
seek to understand the social and ethical implications of this
• have a flexible, not-for-profit, independent, and non-parti- technology so that those who choose to use it to meet social
san nature. objectives can do so wisely and with an understanding of the
Participants in the workshop felt that while their decisions unintended consequences that may accompany its use.
to adopt SIT as an important component of their activities It is important to understand that SIT comes in a variety of
varied, reasons external to the NGOs were at least as impor- forms, and its conceptual and technical accessibility to partic-
tant as those from within. Donors, and how NGOs perceive ipating communities could be uneven. Sketch mapping and
donors’ priorities, have a relatively large influence on many 3D maps are easier to understand and are effective in engag-
NGOs. One case study writer describes how consultants from ing even illiterate villagers in conversations regarding natural
international organisations proved to be instrumental for resource management. But these maps are often considered
NGOs in Indonesia in their choice of mapping strategies. to have limited credibility – a perception that markedly reduces
Another writer describes how the shift from sketch mapping their effectiveness when negotiating territorial rights with
to GIS in Indonesia was influenced by discussions with these outside interests. However, efforts to ‘formalise’ SIT – moving
international actors. away from sketch mapping toward technical cartographic
Success in using maps as tools for negotiating land rights mapping and GIS – also have limitations. The case studies
in Indonesia and Malaysia has led to increased demand for revealed that in remote villages in Asia, adoption of techno-
mapping by neighbouring communities. Case study writers logically complex SIT could marginalise many of the targeted
from both countries argued that this has created a shortage communities. Participatory mapping proponents therefore
of technically trained people, and that it is difficult to acquire must strike a balance between producing maps and spatial
and keep trained staff. There is also a gap in expectations information that are ‘credible’ and remaining relevant to
and work culture between staff members trained in SIT villagers in solving their immediate problems.
sciences and those trained in social sciences that could lead Reflections by practitioners in the project case studies
to the separation of participatory mapping activities from the identified several ironic effects of mapping that could under-
broader objective of NGOs. mine the goals of community-based management. While
Recognising the potential socio-ethical impacts of SIT, mapping is useful for bounding and staking claims to ances-
there was a strong consensus among workshop participants tral or traditional territories, it also facilitates a shift toward
that advocates of participatory mapping need a clear proto- exclusive property rights. It provides outsiders with a legal
col to follow when introducing SIT into a village. This proto- means to gain access to common property resources.
col should require outside actors to communicate clearly with Common property resources are managed through rules and
each community prior to the mapping project. The NGO practices that enable sustained control of knowledge about
must clarify the purpose/objectives of collecting information. the location of valuable resources. By making knowledge
They must agree with villagers on what information can be accessible to all, mapping weakens existing common prop-
mapped, and explain potential consequences of recording erty management systems. Mapping generally promotes
the community’s spatial information on maps that can then practices that shift attention and concern away from a fluid
be copied and distributed outside the community. Most human/environment relationship to a relationship with quan-
importantly, outside facilitators must communicate to tifiable limits implied by boundaries/borders. So the newly
villagers that they can agree to accept or reject the mapping acquired authority to define and exert control over the use of
exercise. space has begun to compromise the customary uses and
Finally, participants felt that unlike in North America, the governance systems it was intended to protect.
use of SIT at the community level in Asia has largely been The adoption of SIT and participatory mapping in Asia
limited to producing one-time maps and neglecting the has increased the capacity of indigenous groups and local
reality that working with spatial information is a process communities to assert territorial rights and to promote
requiring revisions and changes. So far, too little attention decentralisation of resource governance and management.
has been given to building local capacity to revise and re-map But the adoption of this technology has increased the need
as circumstances change. for the further adoption of SIT by other rural communities,
104
13
practically eliminating exit options. unintended consequences of our actions. Resource managers
THEME SECTION
As workshop participants concluded, the more we map, who engage in mapping must do so with clear protocols for
the more likely it is that we will have no choice but to map. explaining these often quite complex consequences to rural
Yet, we submit that this need not be seen as a caution communities prior to the mapping exercise. Meeting this
against mapping. Rather, it can be seen as an injunction to challenge will require not only building technical skills, but
develop critical clarity with respect to mapping – based on a also transferring skills for looking critically at context and for
comprehensive understanding of both intended and likely identifying factors needing response.

Jefferson Fox Fox, J. (2002). ‘Siam Mapped and Mapping in
Senior Fellow, East West Center Cambodia: Boundaries, Sovereignty, and
1601 East West Road Indigenous Conceptions of Space.’ Society &
Honolulu, HI 96848 Natural Resources, 15(1) 65-78.
USA Fox, J., K. Suryanata, and P. Hershock (Eds)
Email: [email protected] (2005). Mapping Communities: Ethics, Values,
Practice. Honolulu: East-West Center.
Krisnawati Suryanata Harris, T. and D. Weiner (1998).
Associate Professor of Geography, University of ‘Empowerment, Marginalization and
Hawaii at Manoa “Community-Integrated” GIS.’ Cartography &
2424 Maile Way GIS, 25(2), 67-76.
Honolulu, HI 96822 Hershock, P. (1999). Reinventing the Wheel: A
USA Buddhist Response to the Information Age,
Email: [email protected] Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Mark, D., N. Chrisman, A. Frank, P. McHaffie,
Peter Hershock and J. Pickles. (n.d). The GIS History Project,
Project Fellow Available online:
East West Center www.geog.buffalo.edu/ncgia/gishist/bar_
1601 East West Road harbor.html.
Honolulu, HI 96848 Rundstrom, R.A. (1995). ‘GIS, Indigenous
USA Peoples, and Epistemological Diversity.’
Email: [email protected] Cartography & GIS, 22(1), 45-57.
Tenner, E. (1996). Why Things Bite Back:
Albertus Hadi Pramono Technology and the Revenge of Unintended
PhD Candidate in Geography, University of Consequences, New York: Knopf.
Hawaii at Manoa
2424 Maile Way
Honolulu, HI 96822
USA
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Practical ethics for PGIS
THEME SECTION
practitioners, facilitators,
technology intermediaries and
researchers
by GIACOMO RAMBALDI, ROBERT CHAMBERS, MIKE MCCALL AND JEFFERSON FOX
Introduction “Practitioners, researchers and activists

In 1998, geographers in Durham convened a workshop to
consider the implications of GIS in terms of power and partic- in different parts of the world have
ipation. The ensuing and widely cited paper ‘Participatory tested and developed a range of
GIS: opportunity or oxymoron?’ (Abbot et al., 1999) called integrated approaches and
for caution and exposed the risks inherent in visualising place-
specific local knowledge and making it available for public methodologies, which led to many
consumption, without ensuring sufficient control of the innovations within what is now termed
process and outputs by legitimate custodians of such knowl- as Participatory GIS (PGIS) practice”
edge.
Since then, spatial information technologies and data
have become increasingly accessible to the wider public. Prac- quality, lenders’ and donors’ enthusiasm and drives to
titioners, researchers and activists in different parts of the disburse, versus participation and the empowerment of those
world have tested and developed a range of integrated who ought to be empowered.
approaches and methodologies, which led to many innova- Fox et al (2005) concluded after a two year study of
tions within what is now termed as Participatory GIS (PGIS) participatory mapping projects in Asia, that:
practice. SIT transforms the discourse about land and resources,
PGIS has its roots in Participatory Learning and Action the meaning of geographical knowledge, the work practices
(PLA) and in Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). It combines of mapping and legal professionals, and ultimately the very
participatory mapping visualisations, spatial information tech- meaning of space itself.
nologies (SIT), spatial learning, communication and advocacy. The paper further argues that ‘Communities that do not
The practice takes many different forms and raises and faces have maps become disadvantaged as rights and power are
all the tensions, trade-offs and dilemmas of quality with increasingly framed in spatial terms’ (Fox, 2005:7) and
spread – standardisation versus creativity, speed versus concludes on a critical note that mapping has become neces-
106
Practical ethics for PGIS practitioners, facilitators, technology intermediaries and researchers
14
Participatory mapping
for good change: notes
from Robert Chambers’
presentation at the
conference
facilitation, influence who takes part, what is included, the
THEME SECTION
nature of outcomes, and power relationships. Much depends
on the behaviour and attitudes of facilitators – and on who
controls the process.
Stepping stones towards good practice

It appears that there is a seemingly unstoppable excitement
about geo-referencing our human physical, biological and
socio-cultural worlds and making the information accessible
in the public domain. Stunning innovations (e.g. Google
Earth) are now available to all those with adequate access to
the Internet or modern spatial information technologies. At
the same time the recent International Convention for the
Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage1 which supports
the inventorying of intangible heritage, raises sharp ethical
issues for those involved in geo-referencing peoples’ knowl-
edge and values.
Photo: Johan Minnie/Jeroen Verplanke
In this context, the pathway leading towards PGIS good

practice, is scattered with critical stepping stones all calling
attention to troubling dilemmas and overarching issues about
empowerment, ownership and potential exploitation, and
leading to the ‘Who?’ and ‘Whose?’ questions (see Box 1).
If carefully considered by technology intermediaries, the
‘Who?’/’Whose?’ questions may induce appropriate attitudes
and behaviours in the broader context of good practice.
A guide towards good practice and PGIS ethics

In a participatory context, spatial information technologies
sary – as failing to be on a map corresponds to a lack of proof (SIT) may be used at community level by members of the
of existence, and to own land and resources. Overall, this community itself, technology intermediaries (facilitators, prac-
must be framed in the need for developing ‘critical clarity titioners and activists) and researchers. It can be used at a
with respect to mapping based on a comprehensive under- community level by community workers, activists, social
standing of both intended and likely unintended conse- scientists, anthropologists, conservationists and the like who
quences of our actions’ (Fox et al. 2005). As Alwin Warren have acquired SIT skills or who may team up with people
(2004) put it ‘Maps […] are inseparable from the political and having an IT professional background. Alternatively SIT can
cultural contexts in which they are used’. be introduced at a community level by IT people with inter-
In the 90s, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) spread with est in mapping social, cultural and bio-physical territorial
alacrity and consequently suffered from massive abuse – features and who may team up with professionals from social
particularly when lenders and donors began to require large and environmental disciplines.
scale PRA projects. Of all the visual methods that have taken Each profession and culture carries moral parameters and
off and been widely adopted, participatory mapping – with codes of ethics. As PGIS is understood as a multidisciplinary
its many variants and applications – has been the most wide- practice it is meant to respond to a blend of different moral
spread, not only in natural resource management, but also in rules. This guide to good practice is intended to provide non-
many other domains (McCall 2006). With mapping as one exhaustive guidelines for making appropriate ethical choices
element, there are now signs of a new pluralism and creative
1 The UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural
mixing of different elements in participatory methodologies.
Heritage was signed in Paris on 17 October 2003 and has entered into force on
The medium and means of mapping, whether ephemeral, April 20, 2006 after ratification by thirty States. Visit:
paper or GIS, or on-line mapping, and the style and mode of http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001325/132540e.pdf
107
14Giacomo Rambaldi, Robert Chambers, Mike McCall and Jefferson Fox
Box 1: Compilation of ‘Who?’ and ‘Whose?’ Questions for those practicing or wanting to practice PGIS. These guide-
THEME SECTION
(different sources) lines are not meant to be exhaustive, as each culture and situ-
ation may have its own moral imperatives. It is the obligation
• Stage I: planning
of the individuals to make their best judgement to ensure
Who participates? good practice. In this context the following guiding princi-
Who decides on who should participate? ples should be taken into consideration:
Who participates in whose mapping?
… and who is left out? Be open and honest
Who identifies the problem?
Whose problems? This applies right from the beginning, and throughout the
Whose questions? process. Practitioners must explain clearly and in the local
Whose perspective? language(s) the strengths and limits of their ability to influ-
… and whose problems, questions and perspectives are left out? ence outcomes, and while the potential benefits of PGIS are
explained, no claims must be made for results that are not
• Stage II: the mapping process
within the power of the facilitators or their organisation to
Whose voice counts? Who controls the process? achieve.
Who decides on what is important?
Who decides, and who should decide, on what to visualise and Purpose: which purpose? and whose purpose?
make public? Be certain and clear about the purpose – why do people get
Who has visual and tactile access?
Who controls the use of information? involved in this particular exercise? Before embarking on the
And who is marginalised? process, discuss openly the objectives of the PGIS exercise
Whose reality? And who understands? and what the different parties may expect from it.
Whose reality is expressed?
Whose knowledge, categories, perceptions? Obtain informed consent
Whose truth and logic?
Whose sense of space and boundary conception (if any)? As in any research with people, participation must be volun-
Whose (visual) spatial language? tary. In order for participation to be voluntary, the participant
Whose map legend? needs to know what kind of map is going to be made
Who is informed what is on the map? (Transparency) (showing them an example would be ideal), the type of infor-
Who understands the physical output? And who does not? mation that will be on the map, and the possible implications
And whose reality is left out?
of the maps being made public. People must agree to partic-
• Stage III: resulting information control, disclosure and ipate and be able to withdraw at any time without prejudice.
disposal Obtaining informed consent should be set in advance.
Who owns the output?
Who owns the map(s)? Do your best to recognise that you are working with
Who owns the resulting data? socially differentiated communities and that your presence
What is left with those who generated the information and shared will not be politically neutral
their knowledge? PGIS is always a political process and will, therefore, most
Who keeps the physical output and organises its regular updating?
likely have unintended consequences for the communities
Whose analysis and use?
Who analyses the spatial information collated? you work with regarding the complex issues of who is
Who has access to the information and why? empowered and who might actually be disempowered. Be
Who will use it and for what? aware that the internal workings of socially differentiated
And who cannot access and use them? communities are very context dependant and unpredictable.
• Ultimately …
Avoid raising false expectations
What has changed? Who benefits from the changes? At Any process of analysis facilitated by an outsider is liable to
whose costs? raise expectations of some benefit, even when the outsider
Who gains and who loses? explains that he/she has no provisions for follow-up and few
Who is empowered and who is disempowered?
concrete changes may follow from his/her visit. Disappoint-
ment and reinforced disillusion with visitors and organisa-
108
14
The all-
important
‘Who?’/
‘Whose?’
questions
vention schedule. Take advantage of the non-negotiable
THEME SECTION
clause proposed on page 112.
Invest time and resources in building trust

Trust between insiders and outsiders (technology intermedi-
aries) is the building block upon which good PGIS practice is
founded.
Avoid exposing people to danger

Villagers in a country in Southeast Asia working on a 3D
model pointed to the hideouts of rebel groups, incurring
immediate danger. Using audio-visuals, villagers in Indonesia
documented their traditional logging practices. The regula-
tory environment changed putting them in a position of ille-
gality.
Be flexible
Despite the necessity for a long-range vision, the approach
should remain flexible, adaptive, and recursive, without stick-
ing rigidly to pre-determined tools and techniques, or blindly
to the initial objectives of the mapping exercise (participation

is two-way learning between several sets of ‘experts’, scien-
tific or NGO outsiders, and community insiders).
Consider using spatial information technologies that can

be mastered by local people (or local technology
intermediaries) after being provided sufficient training
The use of GIS is not a must: it is an option. ‘As technology
complexity increases, community access to the technology
decreases’ (Fox, 2005). Ask yourself: is a GIS really necessary?
Would GIS add anything that cannot better be achieved
through other participatory mapping methods?
tions outside the community then follow. Opening up the
space to map local expectations and negotiate the objectives Select spatial information technologies that are adapted to
may reduce the risk of raising unrealistic expectations. local environmental conditions and human capacities
Choose the appropriate spatial information technology with
Be considerate in taking people’s time the objective to grant equal access to and control over it by
The time of poor people is, contrary to some professional at least some of the participants or by community-nominated
belief, often very precious, especially at difficult times of the intermediaries.
year (often during the planting or weeding seasons). Rural
people are often polite, hospitable and deferential to Avoid outlining boundaries except if this is the specific
outsiders, who do not realise the sacrifices they are making. purpose of the exercise
A day of weeding lost at a critical time can have high hidden Boundaries may be fluid, seasonal, fuzzy, overlapping, or
costs in a smaller harvest. moving (see e.g. McCall, this issue). Visualising boundaries
– if not specifically requested by informants to address
Don’t rush specific boundary-related issues – may change the sense
Accept the fact that participatory approaches need time and of space and ignite latent or previously non-existing
are generally slow, and factor the time variable in your inter- conflicts.
109
Work in progress at the

conference: Robert
Chambers’ flipchart
notes on behaviour and
attitudes
Be careful in avoid causing tensions or violence in a

THEME SECTION
community
This occurs, for example with women who take part in
participatory activities, and when the outsiders have left are
abused or beaten by their husbands. This can apply to any
‘lower’/subordinate/disadvantaged group in a community.
Put local values, needs and concerns first

Instances may arise where a course of action is beneficial
to the needs of the associated research effort, but is signif-
icantly counter-productive in meeting the community’s
needs. This is a universal dilemma for all ‘participatory’
programmes – whether the highest priority is on the
outputs, such as the needed maps, or on promoting
empowerment and capacity of the community. The ethical
approach is to find alternative courses of action that are
suitable to the community’s needs. Local people and their
communities are the principals or partners, not the clients.
So PGIS initiatives should emanate from them, not from the
outside. Therefore, participation is essential in the process

of determining the purpose.
Stimulate spatial learning and information generation

rather than mere data extraction for outsider’s analysis
and interpretation
Refrain from extracting or eliciting information only for the
outsiders’ benefit. If research is the only purpose, be open
and honest, seek permission and do your best to share
benefits. This is a major issue with local knowledge of
commercial value.
Do not sacrifice local perception of space in the name of Focus on local and indigenous technical management
precision and spatial knowledge…
Spatial precision is relative and only has value when very …and local expertise, seeking to understand local culture,
detailed data on boundaries or areas is needed. Too often society, spatial cognition, and livelihoods, local resources,
the emphasis is on precise measurements rather than on hazards and options, etc.
seeking and checking what are the spatial phenomena the
people are really talking about, e.g. better to expend effort Prioritise the use of local toponomy…
in understanding different types of overlapping customary …(the meaning of geographic names) to ensure under-
land tenure, than on measuring arbitrary boundaries down standing, ownership, and to facilitate communication
to metres or cm. between insiders and outsiders.
Avoid repeating activities Mapmaking and maps are a means and not an end
Some (doubtless accessible) villages in Malawi are said to Spatial data and maps generated at community level are
have been ‘carpet-bombed’ with PRA, and reportedly inter- intermediate products of a long-lasting and articulated
cept visitors before they enter and negotiate with them – process wherein spatial information management is inte-
while more ‘remote’ villages are never visited. Maps may be grated with networking and communication (e.g. advo-
drawn, and taken away by outsiders, again and again. cacy).
110
14
Building on the
'Who?'/’Whose?’
questions, the
discussion on
ethics continues
Ensure genuine custodianship
THEME SECTION
Ensure that the original physical output of a participatory
mapping exercise stays with those who generated it and
specifically with a trusted entity nominated by the informants.
Taking outputs away – even if for a short time – is an act of
disempowerment. Making copies of community-generated
outputs involves more time spent in the village, additional
efforts, more inputs and financial resources. Meeting this
condition of good practice increases the cost and the time,
but ensures that those who generated the spatial information
are not deprived of their intellectual property (IP) and effort.
Ensure that the intellectual ownership is recognised

Ensure that multiple, full-quality copies of the maps, anno-
tated aerial/satellite images and/or digital data sets remain
with those who expressed and shared their spatial knowl-
edge. Provided you obtain the informed consent of the
knowledge holders, you – as a technology intermediary –
may store selected maps and/or data sets.
Be ready to deal with new realities which will emerge

from the process

Visualising and geo-referencing local knowledge is likely to
change the way space is perceived and understood by both
the informants and the wider public affected by the
mapping exercise. Such changes may influence power rela-
tions and hierarchies, and induce new conflicts or inflame
latent ones. Provisions have to be made to eventually deal
with new conflicting realities.
Observe the processes

This increases understanding on both sides. Ask questions,
probe, ask for explanations, e.g. why are there regularities
and why anomalies in the results? ated in the mapping process. Prepare in advance for any
desired protection of data layers.
Ensure that the outputs of the mapping process are
understood by all those concerned If applicable, do your best to ensure positive protection of
The legend is the vocabulary by which a map is interpreted. TK, or the creation of positive rights in TK that empower
Ensure that a map legend is developed in close consulta- TK holders to protect and promote their TK
tion by informants and technology intermediaries. In some countries, sui generis legislation has been devel-
oped specifically to address the positive protection of TK.
Ensure defensive protection of traditional knowledge (TK) Providers and users may also enter into contractual agree-
or measures that ensure that IP rights over traditional ments and/or use existing IP systems of protection (WIPO,
knowledge are not given to parties other than the 2006).
customary TK holders
Consider beforehand what are the likely needs for confi- Do not use the practice to support the forced
dentiality of spatial information. Consult informants on displacement of people
how to use, protect, dispose or disclose spatial data gener- Do not ask residents of an area to map out their spatial
111
knowledge if you know that such information may lead to conditions should then be incorporated into the contract
THEME SECTION
their displacement or eviction. Frequently areas found to governing the initiative.

have conservation value are proclaimed as exclusion areas • Facilitators’ training will include modules on personal
for any human settlement and activity, de facto supporting behaviour and attitudes, the ethics of PGIS, and trust
the eviction of people. building.
• PGIS projects should not have time-bound targets for
Acknowledge the informants disbursements or coverage unless these are vital to
If not prejudicial to the security of the informants, and with protect endangered rights of vulnerable people. Proper
their prior consent, include the names of the contributors participation takes time and provision should be made for
to the generated maps and/or data sets. unspent funds to be rolled over from year to year.
• PGIS practice should be limited to a feasible scale and not
Review and revise the maps extended at a pace or over a range that undermines or
The maps are never final or static. They are not ‘cast in prevents genuinely participatory processes.
stone’ – they have to be crosschecked, improved, and • Research and related activities will be based on informed
updated. consent from participants.
Examine international survey guidelines such as the AAA Concluding remarks

Code of Ethics… This document is the result of a debate which started in the
…which reminds anthropologists that they are responsible early and mid 1990s (Turnbull 1989; Bondi & Domosh,
not only for factual content of information, but also the 1992 (a feminist critique); Wood, 1992; Rundstrom, 1995;
socio-cultural and political implications. See NCGIA Varenius2, 1996; Dunn, 1997; Abbot, 1998). This
www.aaanet.org/committees/ethics/ethcode.htm debate has become more critical with the wider adoption
of spatial information technologies in participatory learn-
Consider the GIS Code of Ethics ing and action contexts. The need for practical ethics and
These provide guidelines for the GIS professionals them- a code of good PGIS practice emerged also as a priority at
selves. See www.gisci.org/code_of_ethics.htm the Mapping for Change Conference (IIRR, 2006). From the
halls of Nairobi where the conference took place in Septem-
Proposed non-negotiable conditions for contract ber 2005, issues related to PGIS ethics were uploaded to
negotiation cyberspace and subjected to a wider debate among prac-
In terms of their adoption, some of the guidelines above titioners via the Open Forum on Participatory Geographic
rest with the implementers and are essentially about atti- Information Systems and Technologies (www.PPgis.net).
tude and behaviour. Others may have implications in terms Reactions and comments received were reviewed and care-
of financial and human resources and time needed. Some fully considered and the resulting guidelines reflected in this
preconditions for good practice should be incorporated into paper.
the project design as early as the conceptualisation stage The power of maps, SIT and modern communication
and carried forward into the terms of an eventual contract technologies call for greater responsibility of all those
of services. involved in practicing PGIS. As the famous explorer, ecolo-
Views differ on non-negotiables. One position is that gist, filmmaker and researcher Jacques-Yves Cousteau put
there should be no non-negotiables, but that principles for it:
action should be evolved to fit each context. Another, more Without ethics, everything happens as if we were all
widely held, is that some conditions are so common that passengers on a big truck without driver; and the truck is
non-negotiables are needed to strengthen the hands and driving faster and faster, without us knowing where.
will of those who are negotiating – especially when power-
ful interests are affected. Bearing these qualifications in
mind, the following are proposed non-negotiable condi- 2 NCGIA (National Center for Geographic Information & Analysis) Program
tions, which technology intermediaries could put forward supported research initiative I-19 ‘The Social Implications of How People, Space,
to lender and donor agencies when negotiating contracts and Environment are Represented in GIS’. See
www.nciga.ucsb.edu/varenius/ppgis/papers/index.html
for implementing projects having a PGIS component. These www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/varenius/ppgis/ncgia.html
112
14
CONTACT DETAILS REFERENCES Turnbull, D. (1989/1993) Maps are Territories.
THEME SECTION
Giacomo Rambaldi, Abbot, J., Chambers, R., Dunn, C., Harris, T., Science is an Atlas. Chicago: University of
Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Merode, E. d., Porter, G., Townsend, J., Chicago UP. For: Deakin University, Victoria.
Development (CTA) Weiner, D., de Merode, E., (1998). Warren, A. (2004). Indigenous Mapping:
Wageningen ‘Participatory GIS: opportunity or oxymoron?’ Mapping for Indigenous Advocacy and
THE NETHERLANDS PLA Notes 33. IIED: London. See Empowerment. Conference in Vancouver,
Email: [email protected] www.iied.org/NR/agbioliv/pla_notes/pla_ Canada, April 2004. See www.signup4.com/
backissues/33.html incoming/Draftagenda.pdf
Robert Chambers Bondi, L., and Domosh, M. (1992) ‘Other Wood, D. (1992) The Power of Maps. Guilford:
Institute for Development Studies figures in other places: on feminism, New York, NY
University of Sussex postmodernism and geography.’ Environment Unpublished. Mapping for Change
Brighton, BN1 9RE and Planning D: Society and Space 10 Conference, Nairobi Kenya, Draft Conference
UNITED KINGDOM Dunn CE., Atkins PJ., Townsend, JG. (1997). Report. International Institute for Rural
Email: [email protected] ‘GIS for development: a contradiction in Reconstruction (IIRR): East Africa, Nairobi,
terms?’ Area 29, 151-159 Kenya
Michael K. McCall Fox J. et al. (2005). Mapping power: ironic 2005-2006. Various contributions from
International Institute for Geo-Information effects of spatial information technology in members of the Open Forum on Participatory
Science and Earth Observation (ITC) mapping communities, ethics values, practice. Geographic Information Management and
P O Box 6 East-West Center: Honolulu, USA. See: Communication (www.PPgis.net)
7500 AA www.eastwestcenter.org/ WIPO (2006). Traditional Knowledge.
Enschede res-rp-publicationdetails.asp?pub_ID=1719 www.wipo.int/tk/en/tk, World Intellectual
THE NETHERLANDS McCall, MK. (2006) PGIS–PSP–IK–(CB)NRM: Property Organisation
Email: [email protected] applying Participatory-GIS and participatory UNESCO (2003). Convention for the
mapping to participatory spatial planning and Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural
Jefferson Fox to local–level land & land resources Heritage. See: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/
Senior Fellow management utilising indigenous & local images/0013/001325/132540e.pdf
East West Center spatial knowledge. A bibliography. See
1601 East West Road http://ppgis.iapad.org/pdf/
Honolulu pgis_psp_itk_cbnrm_biblio_mccall.pdf
HI 96848 Rundstrom, R.A. (1995). ‘GIS, indigenous
USA peoples, and epistemological diversity.’
Email: [email protected] Cartography and Geographic Information
Systems 22: 45 -57.
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Precision for whom?
THEME SECTION
Mapping ambiguity and

certainty in (Participatory) GIS
by MIKE McCALL
To know that we know what we know, and to know that we “How important is precision in PGIS
do not know what we do not know, that is true knowledge.
Copernicus
mapping? Maps consist of different
layers of spatial information – such as
Introduction roads, distances between places,
How important is precision in PGIS mapping? Maps consist of
different layers of spatial information – such as roads,
boundaries, physical features or land
distances between places, boundaries, physical features or uses. But how do maps represent fuzzy
land uses. But how do maps represent fuzzy and imprecise and imprecise spatial information, such
spatial information, such as seasonally variable resources? Or
the real effort and drudgery of walking from one place to
as seasonally variable resources?”
another? Or people’s mental maps (images) of places they
like, or are afraid of, or are sacred to them? and ambiguity is critical for PGIS practitioners and spatial
This article explores some issues that are important when decision makers. So the conventional questions of:
considering how precise – or imprecise – a map and the • what degrees of precision or accuracy are needed in partic-
spatial information that it represents should be. It also asks, ipatory mapping? and
who is it important for, and why? • what are the costs of working with lower levels of preci-
Standard GIS approaches can place unnecessary and sion and accuracy?
misleading emphasis on precision, often legitimising elite …need to be replaced by more pertinent questions:
control (by planners or GIS experts) over both spatial knowl- • for what purposes, and under what conditions, is it neces-
edge and the tools used. The flashiness of GIS outputs sary to represent ambiguity and uncertainty?
impresses decision-makers, but it can also create a false • what are the costs of misrepresenting ambiguity and replac-
impression and legitimise what is actually bad data (Abbot et ing it with an unwarranted security of false preciseness?
al, 1998). The political implications of ignoring imprecision This article asks,
114
Precision for whom? Mapping ambiguity and certainty in (Participatory) GIS
15
Cartoon: Holly Ashley

THEME SECTION
Distances seem
'longer' or 'shorter'
depending on the time
and effort involved
• do accuracy and precision have value in a PGIS and plan- networks (e.g. of people, or roads etc.); and
ning context? • we can use it for recording, protecting, exchanging, and
• how do precision and fuzziness, ambiguity and certitude sharing spatial information.
of information function in the context of the tasks and PGIS and P-mapping can be used to handle a range of real
intentions of PGIS? problems and applications of spatial information. For
• can we better represent non-accuracy, imprecision and example:
ambiguity in geo-information? • Adding to conventional information: i.e. recording techni-
cal spatial knowledge of specific resources, e.g. natural
Participatory Mapping and Participatory GIS resource management (NRM) systems, or environmental
Participatory Mapping and PGIS is special, because and social hazards. This is often referred to as ISK – indige-
• it includes information about local interests and priorities; nous or local spatial knowledge. It also incorporates the
• it can be representative of social communities, as well as mapping of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK). There
individuals; are numerous cases of applications to NRM (McCall 2006)
• it involves multiple processes of people’s participation in • Finding out new and unknown information from new
information identification and selection; sources, previously unknown to conventional surveys and
• it contributes to capacity-building: groups can be empow- science, which can be used for making specific claims e.g.
ered, by involvement in P-mapping/PGIS processes; and in to resources, which can then be conventionally mapped.
particular But it may include locations and resources which people
• it elicits local (and indigenous) knowledge. want to keep secret from outside exploitation.
There are also other aspects that add value to the use of GIS: • Alternative competing positions: an explicitly political appli-
• we can use it for spatial analysis of e.g. proximity, buffer cation, this refers to local spatial knowledge of people’s
zones, overlaying different types of land use, efficient interests, priorities, entitlements and values, information
115
15 Mike McCall
that is unrecorded in the standard maps of the ‘powerful’. Box 1: Spatial precision and accuracy
THEME SECTION
This is especially important when made by the relatively

disadvantaged, inarticulate, or dispossessed; and is often In ordinary usage, precision refers to the level of spatial resolution, or,
to the accuracy and reliability of the geo-referencing. And in
termed as ‘counter-mapping’.
measurement terms, accuracy refers to the percentage of real (actual,
• P-mapping is used to discover and interpret people’s named) objects, which can be correctly located on the map. Maps deal
‘natural geography’, or mental maps, including spaces, with two sorts of accuracy:
places and things of cultural value, sacred and historical • representational accuracy (which object?); and,
spaces and cosmovisions.1 These are frequently, but not • positional accuracy (which location?)
Positional accuracy is how well we measure the location of features on
confined to indigenous peoples. This is the most problem-
a map. It depends on how reliable the data source is, the measurement
atic application of P-mapping because it must often handle device used, and how the data has been presented or changed. It is
alternative indigenous spatial concepts. difficult to assess positional accuracy, it can only be checked against
another ‘better’ source.
Spatial imprecision and fuzziness in maps Attribute or representational accuracy, on the other hand, measures the
characteristics of features. It is inevitably affected by people’s
Precision is seen as basic to a scientific approach, like accuracy
understanding, interpretation, and classification of the features shown
and reliability of information; surely we cannot reject it? If on the map. Different people have different interpretations of features.
inaccuracy is a distortion of reality, imprecision is seen as a So it is not only important to understand ‘who chooses the map
failure of observation and measurement. legend?’ but also ‘what do the choosers understand by the symbolism?’
But, we should question why precision is considered a
necessity in Participatory GIS: accuracy, is always more significant than mere quantity of data.
• Spatial reality is not precise: it is always fuzzy and frequently
ambiguous. Uncertainty of spatial information: no clear hard
• So it can be misleading to misrepresent it as being precise boundaries
and accurate – this is ‘false precision’. Are boundaries precise in reality? Boundaries are dynamic,
• There are developing approaches in software and hardware e.g. rivers are seasonal movers, as are wetlands, vegetation
that increasingly allow for fuzzy representations. cover. The same is also true for e.g. social classes or cultural
Spatial imprecision and ambiguity can originate from groups who do not have a unique or fixed location with
various other causes, e.g. precise boundaries, such as women, pastoralists, students,
• the technical limitations of maps; or or, the ‘poorest 10%’. Official maps often fail to reflect this.
• the (mis)interpretation of spatial reality.
At complex political and ideological power levels, the Positional and representational ambiguity – shadows
ambiguity comes from the false precision, which obscures ‘Shadows’ are the external impacts, which are necessary,
local claims and competing viewpoints. inseparable implications of the mapped objects, connected
by real processes – such as ‘downstream’ and ‘upstream’
Scale and resolution are technical constraints impacts, and ecological footprints. Buildings have shadows of
Whether a location is accurately or precisely marked on the light and microclimates of cold and wind; cities have resource
map is related to resolution. Resolution is the ‘size of the impacts; plantations and mines create local and distant
smallest feature in a data set that can be discerned’ and is changes in land use and households; likewise with consumer
chosen by the map maker. Resolution and the scale of the shopping patterns; national economic policies have interna-
display (map or photo) are related. Take a 1:50000 map tional impacts; and we find ecological footprints at all scales.
sheet, the smallest item you can see on it with good eyesight Mapmakers normally ignore the shadows of the located
and luck is 0.5 mm, thus 25 m. square, in practice more likely, objects, although they are inevitable and concrete spatial ‘by-
50 m. square, so a road may appear five times its real width. products’. We need to ask, for whose benefit are these
This also effects the level of map detail – what gets included shadows ignored?
and what gets left out. PGIS practitioners maintain that the
quality of the information, particularly the representational Competing viewpoints and power
Spatial precision is of course needed for certain situations
1 Cosmovisions relate cultural groups to their territories, landscapes and resources e.g. processing legal land claims, or for calculating taxes
in terms of shared histories and practices, sacred values and origin mythologies. owed on land owned. But often, the final map/GIS product
116
15
THEME SECTION
Cartoon: Holly Ashley
Different people have
different interpretations of
features. Who chooses the map
legend? What do the choosers
understand by the symbolism?
also needs to show competing alternative viewpoints of Competing viewpoints can be partially solved by ‘counter
different actors. These might be about resource claims, or maps’, the explicit mapping of the priorities, needs, prob-
development visions. Mapping has always been associated lems, claims, etc. of the disadvantaged and less articulate.
with formalising and legitimising e.g. property relations, Early examples were specifically for women’s maps, such as
ownership, inheritance, social distribution (Wood 1998). But of forest areas for gathering woodfuel, or women’s utilisa-
all too frequently they present only one viewpoint, usually tion of so-called ‘wastelands’ for collecting medicinal plants,
that of those in power and control – ‘possession is 9/10ths of but counter maps are applicable to any power-deficient
the law’ is not just a cliché in NRM. groups (Peluso, 1995).
This can often lead to (sometimes deliberate) disputes and
to conflicts. Reports from many countries, e.g. Philippines, Representing and interpreting ‘fuzziness’
Bolivia, Mexico, give instances of violence arising when Some argue strongly that GIS and local or indigenous knowl-
boundaries are put on maps where none existed before, or edge are inherently incompatible. On the one hand, is the
when local people lose their rights to collect medicinal plants, ultra-precision of the digitised geo-data. On the other hand,
food and building materials, fuel, etc. from forests and there is ambiguity, spirituality and emotion e.g. the use of
‘wastelands’ (e.g. Fox et al. 2005). stories and dance rather than documents or maps as forms
GIS approaches are weak in representing fundamental of knowledge communication. So how do people in a
power relations (cf. Abbott et al., 1998). Standard GIS ‘natural geography’ context regularly handle local spatial
outputs do not reflect actual political processes and the real- knowledge or ISK? What does this imply for using PGIS tools
ities of social-political power. For instance, conventional to represent fuzzy, ambiguous, uncertain spaces?
mapping of land titles over-simplifies overlapping claims from • Maps and GIS can’t be very precise about indistinct descrip-
different stakeholders and reduces them to a simplistic two- tive spatial terms like ‘near’, ‘far’, ‘isolated’, ‘crowded’
dimensional space of ‘private (household) title’ which can (Rundstrom 1995).
lead to exclusion and conflicts. • ‘Real space’, as perceived by people has fuzzy boundaries
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15 Mike McCall
Figure 1: PGIS and the need for precision

THEME SECTION
There is need for more:

Fuzziness Precision
Qualitative Information Quantitative Data
Broad scale Detailed scale
Incorporation Inscription2
Lower resolution Higher resolution
<------------------------------------------------------------------------>
In order to represent:
Ambiguity Certitude
<------------------------------------------------------------------------>
PGIS applications:
Intergener- Culture & Conflict Risk zones NRM Indigenous Hazard Land &
ational heritage analysis & systems knowledge of locations property
knowledge spaces management natural claims
transfer & resources
community
awareness
and flows not well expressed in GIS. Boundaries do not • Our consciousness can operate at several spatial scales
exist in isolation, and are not necessarily seen by neighbours simultaneously; people have the ability to easily jump from
in the same place. one scale to another, e.g. our thoughts can skip instantly
• Local boundaries are not easily translated into digital from finding our car keys to a mental map of the city to
format. ‘Flexible’ boundaries are identifiable, but open to drive through. This ‘jumping scales’ is better represented
change through negotiation or force. ‘Fuzzy’ boundaries by dynamic GIS than by conventional maps.
exist where different social groups have different uses for • Multi-signal, multi-sensual, multi-media. The mental maps
the same, or overlapping areas. and ‘memoryscapes’ inside our heads include sounds and
• Multiple levels of detail, e.g. traditional land users maintain remembered smells and tastes, as well as multiple moving
that hunting, fishing, and collecting do not occur at specific and still images.
sites but over spatial and temporal (seasonal) ranges, which • Decision-making in participatory spatial planning must deal
also have complex social user regulations, and thus do not with incomplete information, i.e. people have to make a
fit into standard resource mapping. guess at missing information using ‘common sense’ rules.
• Real space and distances are tightly coupled with time in • Understanding and interpreting spatial images (maps,
people’s cognition; e.g. traditional words for land areas are photos, etc.) including the concepts of direction, distance,
often related to the time needed for ploughing. density, etc., is culture-specific and language-specific.
• Space is not always the same as distance. Often the most (Rundstrom 1995).
important thing to people is the point of interest, and not • Mental maps are naturally spatio-temporal, i.e. they consider
the spaces between them, e.g. fishermen know individual factors of both space and time. They recognise the flows and
points of significance (e.g. fishing grounds) in fine detail, rates of e.g. physical resources, information, and ideas, as well
with non-linear ‘space jumps’ between them. as the extent of spheres of influence, power, and control, etc.
• Distances are not symmetric, they seem ‘longer’ or ‘shorter’
depending on the time and effort involved, e.g. uphill or When does PGIS need to be precise?
downhill, or, with or against the commuter traffic flow. How do precision and fuzziness, or ambiguity and certitude
• People certainly do not conceptualise space in only two relate to PGIS practice?
dimensions, as do map and aerial photo images. ‘Escaping The figure above shows common applications of PGIS.
this flatland is the essential task of envisioning information
– for all the interesting words (physical, biological, imagi-
2 Many spatial concepts, especially of indigenous peoples, make use of
nary, human) that we seek to understand are inevitably and ‘incorporative’ (stories, dance, etc.), rather than ‘inscriptive’ (documents, maps,
happily multivariate in nature’ (Tufte 1990). etc.), modes of communicating knowledge.
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15
Box 2: Representing ISK and mental maps using PGIS Conclusions
THEME SECTION
needs to: It is better to be roughly right than to be precisely wrong.
John Maynard Keynes
• select the map resolution appropriate to the local context – there
seems to be a window of ‘natural’ scale most appealing to users,
usually large scale, 1:5,000 – 1:20,000, which makes the map display
Precision cannot always be considered a necessity in Partici-
easier to read and understand, and ensures a sufficient level of detail; patory GIS, precisely because spatial reality is not precise: it is
• gather and incorporate qualitative and emotional knowledge by using always fuzzy and frequently ambiguous, although the degree
qualitative rather than quantitative methods (e.g. story-recording, certitude varies with the purpose of the PGIS. Moreover,
sketching, video), and then transferring it into regular maps or digital precision is counter-productive when it is false precision and
geo-information;
• show some areas as fuzzy or multi-layered zones, with fuzzy, blurred,
misrepresents what is fuzzy and ambiguous reality. However,
boundaries, and flexible or multiple boundaries; innovative GIS and visualisation are coming into play, which
• represent long-range visions with fuzzy margins (whether in space, in can handle fuzzy capabilities. Some of the tools and ideas
time, or as objects) to symbolise that they are not yet detailed and able to respond to the needs of ISK are these:
can be changed; • Layering information, even in standard GIS, allows data
• represent some objects or locations as uncertain, hidden (e.g. sacred)
or restricted locations;
from different groups and communities to be recorded. So
• be linked to other information, e.g. using hyperlinks to other comparisons between groups can be easily analysed and
documents or media files; applied in negotiations, contributing to respect and legiti-
• be transparent, e.g. showing multiple land rights and entitlements; macy.
• be able to ‘jump scale’ enabling people to become involved at scales • Dynamic, interactive mapping and multi-media approaches
relevant to their daily lives or long-term interests;
• present counter-maps of disadvantaged social groups and genders;
show multiple views and voices, layers of information, and
• represent flows of physical resources, information, ideas, or flows of layers of time.
influence, power, and control; and • Three-dimensional material models, like the P3DM family,
• be dynamic, showing changes over time in resource management, in give people a bird’s eye view, which literally provides alter-
locations, boundaries, or in conflicts. native viewpoints.
• Features of dynamic animation or flash maps and new
What can we do with imperfect information? graphics software include: e.g. transparent layers, layers
Gathering and assessing information or data using partici- ‘turn-on/off’, shading, fuzzy symbols, blurring boundaries,
patory approaches is closely linked to local interpretations of etc.
accuracy and relevance. How can PGIS tools recognise, • Sound can be added to the display, and interactive hyper-
understand and handle ‘imperfect data’ in all its glorious links can link to other material and websites including
fuzziness, non-exclusivity, ambiguity, and imprecision? Visu- photographs, videos, texts, images.
alisation and GIS technologies which are appropriate for PGIS is eventually developing the potentials to elicit and
understanding mental maps and for handling typical infor- create displays of ambiguous, fuzzy, non-precise – even
mation in participatory spatial planning need different capa- discursive and emotional – spatial knowledge and rich
bilities than are found in standard GIS (see Box 2). pictures of a multi-textured world.
CONTACT DETAILS REFERENCES to local–level land & land resources

Mike McCall Abbot, J., Chambers, R., Christine Dunn, C., management utilising indigenous & local
International Institute for Geo-Information Harris, T., de Merode, E., Porter, G., Townsend, spatial knowledge: a bibliography. Available
Science and Earth Observation (ITC) J., and Weiner, D. (1998). ‘Participatory GIS: online: http://ppgis.iapad.org/pdf/
P O Box 6, 7500 AA opportunity or oxymoron?’ In PLA Notes 33. pgis_psp_itk_cbnrm_biblio_mccall.pdf
Enschede IIED: London. See www.iied.org/NR/agbioliv/ Peluso, NL (1995). ‘Whose woods are these?
THE NETHERLANDS. pla_notes/pla_backissues/documents/plan_ Counter-mapping forest territories in
Fax: +31 (0) 53 4874575 03305.PDF Kalimantan, Indonesia.’ Antipode 27 (4) 383-
Email: [email protected] Fox, J.; Suryanata, K. and Hershock, P. (eds) 406
(2005). Mapping Communities: Ethics, Values, Rundstrom, RA. (1995). ‘GIS, indigenous
Practices. Honolulu HI: East-West Center. peoples and epistemological diversity.’
Available online: www.eastwestcenter.org/ Cartography & GIS 22 (1) 45-57
res-rp-publicationdetails.asp?pub_ID=1719 Tufte, E. (1990). Envisioning Information.
McCall, MK. (2006). PGIS–PSP–IK–(CB)NRM: Graphics Press: Cheshire, CN
Applying Participatory-GIS and Participatory Wood, D. (1998). The Power of Maps.New
Mapping to participatory spatial planning and York, NY: Guilford
119
general section
120
The world in a suitcase:
16
GENERAL SECTION
psychosocial support using
artwork with refugee children
in South Africa
by GLYNIS CLACHERTY
Introduction
This article is about the Suitcase Project, which helps refugee
children to use artwork to share their stories and their feelings.
Open up these suitcases, look inside and find out what

refugees’ lives are like.
Photo: ChildrenFIRST.
Í am going to always take this suitcase with me. I want to go

to Australia and I will take this suitcase for my interview
because it tells my history.
This suitcase is a good memory. I want to keep it for my chil-

dren so they will know what I have done and where I have – they got to know.
been with this suitcase, my life. These are the voices of children who have participated in
an innovative psychosocial support project that has focused
I remember when I left my country there were many people on artwork done on and inside a set of old suitcases.
waiting at the bus and there was a pile of suitcases. My suit- When I met the children in 2000, they were living in two
case reminds me of that time when we were all pushing to large neighbouring apartments used as an informal ‘shelter’
get on the bus and we were afraid and we wanted to get for unaccompanied minors by the Jesuit Refugee Service (JRS).
away because of the war. There were 20 of them aged between six and 18 and they
came from Rwanda, Burundi, DRC, Ethiopia and Angola.
We made these suitcases for some of the people out there. I had been commissioned to do research on xenophobia
There are rich people out there who live large – they don’t for Soul Buddyz (a children’s television series) and had
know how poor people, like refugees, live. They don’t know approached the Jesuit Refugee Service, asking if they could
121
16Glynis Clacherty
The search for an acceptable healing approach

GENERAL SECTION
The children were very sceptical about anything that looked

like ‘healing’. When the group discussed what kinds of activ-
ities they could do together they were quick to say that they
did not want to tell stories about past difficult experiences.
They resisted any sort of ‘feeling expression’ game and told
stories of negative counselling experiences in the past. One
girl summed up her experience of previous counselling,
It didn’t help me. She (the psychologist) just wanted me to cry

about it. I got bored so I did and then she (the psychologist)
felt better.
An approach that helped children deal with the psycho-

help me find a group of children. The research I did with the logical effects of their past and everyday difficulties had to
children highlighted the many difficulties they lived with on be found, but clearly it had to be something different from
a daily basis and their need for psychosocial support. I the conventional counselling model.
decided to stay in contact with the group through informal It was clear that whatever work was done needed to
meetings once every two months. allow for some emotional distance for the children. The chil-
Initially the meetings were purely recreational but through dren needed to tell their stories, but they needed an
this informal contact it soon became clear that many of the approach that would allow them gently – and over a period
children had been psychologically affected by their past expe- of time – to reclaim and integrate their memories and restore
riences of war and displacement. A few were withdrawn and their identities.
interacted little with others. Others demanded attention by At this stage Diane Welvering, an art teacher, joined the
dominating discussions, often behaving inappropriately. project. She used a creative mixed media approach where the
Many of them could not work together in a group; they were children were given many different kinds of techniques and
unable to share art materials or food. materials and were allowed to decide how they would use
It also became clear that most of the children’s present them.
lives were stressful. Many did not have proper identity papers This was when the idea of using suitcases arose. A suit-
and spent their lives dodging the ever-present police who case is about a journey; all the children had taken journeys.
sought out illegal immigrants on the streets of Hillbrow. Three A suitcase also has a face that is open for everyone to see
of the boys had been arrested for not having papers. At least and a hidden space inside that we can choose to expose or
half of the children at this stage did not speak English well not. Would suitcases help some of the children to reclaim the
and struggled to communicate with the others. In addition, memories, both difficult and happy, that they were now
food at home was limited and often not enough for growing choosing to hide? A number of old suitcases were sourced in
teenagers. Most of them also experienced some kind of second-hand shops around Johannesburg. All the suitcases
xenophobia either at school or on the streets. had been on journeys too, so perhaps the children would
The children were ambivalent about their identity as relate to them.
refugees. When they introduced themselves to strangers, By this stage, the group was meeting every Saturday
none of them said they were refugees; none claimed their morning at Barnato Park High School, which is accessible to
home countries. They all said, ‘I am from Hillbrow’ or ‘I am all the children. Each week the art materials were set up in a
South African’. In their attempt to integrate into South large open space and once instructions for the day’s activity
African society, the children had begun to deny their own had been given the children worked uninterrupted for two
identities; only those who were trusted and known could and sometimes even three hours, with support from Diane,
know they were refugees and where they came from. the art teacher.
It soon became clear that outings and games were not While the group worked, some children came out, alone
enough; the children needed some form of psychosocial or in pairs or small groups, to sit under a tree with me to talk
support. about the stories they had represented in their artwork.
122
The world in a suitcase: psychosocial support using artwork with refugee children in South Africa
16
GENERAL SECTION
Table 1: The Suitcase Project process
Theme Description of art activity Purpose Time frame
(approximate as each child
worked at their own pace)
The story of my The children used mixed media such as drawing, The media chosen allowed children to 4 weeks
life now printing, wax resist and painting to make images that tell a story in a picture; they then told
told the story of their present lives. These images were the facilitator about their picture. The
then pasted onto the outside of the suitcase. Three- telling of the story was therapeutic. The
dimensional materials such as beads, card, sand, work began with their present lives, as
shells and found objects were added to the ‘story’. this was less threatening than telling
Children were encouraged to layer their stories. stories about their pasts.
The story of my Using the same materials the children then made Telling about these images was again
life in the past images to tell about the place where they had first therapeutic. Because they were inside
lived and their memories of the past – both good and the suitcase there was also a measure 8 weeks
bad. of emotional distance as each week the
bad memories could be left inside the
suitcase until next week. If children
chose to, they told the stories of their
memories.
At this point, a weekend retreat was held with experienced counsellors and a psychologist. The suitcases formed the core of work done at the
retreat. The retreat focused on traumatic memories.
The story of Firstly, the children produced large pieces of hand-made The tactile nature of the paper-making 6 weeks
my journey to paper and then worked on these in collage with drawn and collage work allowed children to
Johannesburg images and images from magazines to show the spend time thinking and reflecting on
journeys they had made to get to Johannesburg. what for many was the most traumatic
part of their stories.
Where am I Tracing around each other’s bodies, children made large This activity allowed children to move 6 weeks
going to take drawings of their bodies with their suitcases in their from the past to the future. Many
my suitcase? hands and answered the question of where they were began to make concrete plans for the
Looking to the taking their suitcases through layering images on to the next year.
future. body maps.
About once every two months, counsellors from a local ally threatening for the children than telling stories about
mental health centre attended the group. The group then ate their past. The children were encouraged to treat the outside
a simple meal together, sharing with each other and the facil- of the suitcases in a very tactile way using a wide variety of
itators what had happened during the week. found materials. Each child was encouraged to undertake
The artwork activities that form the core of the project this re-invention in their own way, reinforcing the idea that
are described in summary in the table above, along with the the child has the power. At no stage was anyone told what
time frame of the project. to do. The art teacher and facilitator merely encouraged and
As the table shows, the artwork began with suitcases. led the children to a variety of media.
Initially each child chose a suitcase. They were told that there Once the children felt their suitcases were finished on the
was a suitcase just for them and they would know exactly outsides, they began work on the insides. The insides of the
which one it was. Without any of the usual battles over suitcases were about memories of their pasts. This section of
resources, each child in the group chose a suitcase. the work was introduced by encouraging the children to
The project began by working on the outsides of the suit- think of windows into their pasts. They then represented
cases and the children’s lives ‘now’, as this was less emotion- these windows in different media and pasted the pictures
123
16Glynis Clacherty
GENERAL SECTION
inside their suitcases. Again, the multi-dimensional layering

of their stories was encouraged.
Once they felt the insides and outsides were finished
(and this took more than 10 weeks) they began work on a
set of small journals that would go into the suitcases.
Again, the children were encouraged to work in a tactile
way with many different media. This journal work was
ongoing and by this stage, facilitators knew the children
well and were able to direct the work, encouraging chil-
dren gently to work on particular issues that they knew process. One of the central principles was that the facilita-
troubled them. But at all stages, the children decided what tors did not interfere with their art making. It was a private
they wanted to represent. process. While they worked we did not ask questions or give
To keep up interest, personalised, constructed objects advice. Sometimes the art teacher would hand a child a new
were also made from found fragments of clay (baked and material or quietly strengthen a construction without inter-
polished with boot polish), papier-mâché and wire. The fering.
choices of modes of representation and materials to be used Many traditional art therapy approaches work with draw-
were always the children’s own. Every week the suitcases ings and ask children to talk about these drawings. The
were brought to the group so children could keep thinking approach used in this project was very different, but it was
about their own lives, past and present. Children became deeply therapeutic. The layering of the suitcases was a
very fond of their suitcases and the packing away each week concrete expression of the idea of finding many layers to our
in the facilitator’s car was done with great care. In this way, life stories, which is central to narrative therapy.
the children also began to learn about caring for other Sometimes it was clear that individual children were
people’s work. doing deep emotional work while they ‘played’ with the
materials. It was noticed that the more difficult the children’s
Art therapy? past experiences had been, the less confident they were
Because the children were not working with conventional art about ‘playing’ with the art materials. It became apparent
tools that they knew, such as crayons, they were able to that their ‘healing’ could be measured by the extent of their
respond intuitively. Essentially what the children did was engagement with the materials. As they dealt with emotional
‘play’ with the materials and explore their potential. Working issues, over time they became more confident with the mate-
in three dimensions with many, many different materials rials.
allowed them to play more freely as they did not feel scruti- We soon came to realise that no piece of work was made
nised in any way, as might have been the case had they felt lightly; every piece had a story for the child. For example, a
they should ‘draw well’. boy who had survived the Rwandan genocide carefully cut
In addition, the children were always in control of the out pictures of shoes and sandals for an entire workshop and
124
16
GENERAL SECTION
then pasted them on to his map. When he told the story of the focus of the storytelling and this created some measure
his map he said: of emotional distance.
Once the facilitator became a trusted person, almost like
These shoes remind me of walking and walking, and that I a family member, then many more stories were told. In
survived that walking. I was only 10 years old but I survived particular, Rwandan and Burundian children began to tell
the walking. the stories of their pasts and presents only after about six
months. Some took over a year before they felt able to tell
From a narrative therapy perspective, the shoes had their stories.
given an extra layer to his story that showed he was a The children acknowledged the value of the storytelling
survivor and not only a victim. as a healing thing.
Storytelling It is a must to tell because when a problem is in your heart

The artwork was used as a focus for informal storytelling. there is no solution and it makes you angry. But when you
Sometimes in small groups, sometimes alone, children talk, it makes you better.
would bring a piece of artwork and tell the story behind it.
Children were always given the choice to do this. Children For me it is like interesting doing all these things. I used to
were never asked to tell more than the story they had enjoy doing things like this. Memories of life, the workshop
volunteered, details were not probed and if a child chose is about life stories. It is sometimes hard. Our expression
to stop the story this was accepted. The artwork was always when we draw. When we draw, you don’t just draw. We
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16Glynis Clacherty
“Two weeks ago I was amazed when In all cases the children were in control of the exhibition
GENERAL SECTION
and newspaper articles; they could choose to do them or not.

five of the children came to me They were also involved in setting up the exhibitions. This
independently with concrete plans for reinforced the sense of power they had over their lives.
their immediate futures...” This public face of the project was very important for the
children.
draw how we feel at the time. We express our feelings in the I think the exhibition was a cool thing to do because it will
pictures. make people know about what real foreigners are doing –
most people just stay in their offices saying they are helping
In the situation we are in here, in SA as foreigners, it is not foreigners without seeing the real lives of people.
like our country but this reminds of us of our country and
helps us think back to the good things. We were celebs. It made me feel like a VIP cos the time we
wanted to go into the art exhibition this man chased us away,
They saw that talking does help but that it must come he thought we are the street kids. Diane came and said we
later, when they know the person and when they can choose were the ARTISTS! I liked that ‘we were the ARTISTS!’
the time.
I felt good that people were interested in our artwork and
When we talk about our mothers who had passed away it we were not wasting our time.
makes us sad. We need the time to be right to talk about Meeting new people was the best. I met a young lady and
those things. There are certain stories to be told and some her husband and she is an artist too. We met people outside
not to be told. the Hillbrow world.
You work fine because the secret you do is call us one by one Where am I taking my suitcase?
and that makes it easier. Some problems that some of us Once the suitcases were finished, the children began work
have we don’t want anyone to know. Also, you let us decide on large maps in collages on handmade paper, to tell the
and choose to talk. story of their journey to Johannesburg.
The group is presently working on large body drawings,
It is good to give a person time and sometimes when you representing themselves with their suitcases, many making
remember things bad, it is good to give a person chance almost perfect replicas of their suitcases. On the body draw-
before talking. ings they have drawn and painted and printed images that
answer the question: ‘Where are you taking your suitcase?’
Exhibitions We did not have much time to talk through this work to
During the project, the children’s artwork was exhibited find out how helpful the process had been but two weeks
twice. Initially this was done to raise awareness of the lives of ago I was amazed when five of the children came to me
refugee children, but ultimately it also served a therapeutic independently with concrete plans for their immediate
purpose. The exhibitions became a way to integrate the chil- futures. These were all children who were so paralysed by
dren with outsiders and encourage them to be proud of their their past trauma when they joined the group that they could
histories and home countries. Over time, the group became not even commit to coming to the next group meeting, never
very proud of their ability to do art. At the second exhibition, mind thinking about planning for their futures.
they freely opened up their suitcases and shared the contents They now have practical ideas about next year. For
with academics at University of the Witwatersrand who example, two of the boys who are over 18 and at present in
attended the exhibition. Grade 9 and Grade 10 at a local high school were concerned
The project was profiled in the Sunday Times Read Right, about the quality of education they were receiving.
an educational supplement. This again allowed the children I know I am not going to achieve my dreams if I stay in
to be seen, not as refugees only, but as artists, young people that school; even the principal said to me I should find some-
who had something important to say. This built their sense of where else.
self-worth. They had collected information about a local technical
126
16
college where they could receive a qualification in two years some have already done so, though they all maintain some
GENERAL SECTION
and gain entrance to a Technikon. Reducing a year of school- contact. A group of new children has recently been referred
ing is very significant given that they are both 18 already. by the Jesuit Refugee Service and they have already begun
In addition, most of the members of the group are now work on their suitcases.
involved in activities within the local community. Many have But before the initial group disperses, they are writing a
joined a local youth church and are actively involved in the book that will include all the stories told over the last two
Kids’ Week the church runs in Hillbrow. years, as well as photographs of their suitcases. The book will
It is almost time for the initial group to move on, and be published by Double Storey books in 2005.
CONTACT DETAILS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS work of David Tollfree and Narrative

Glynis Clacherty, Reproduced with permission from Psychologists such as Michael White. It draws
PO Box 613 ChildrenFIRST Vol.9:59. See heavily too on the idea of working with and
Auckland Park www.childrenfirst.org.za building resilience in children. If you are
Johannesburg 2006, The UNHCR supported this project during interested in receiving a publication outlining
SOUTH AFRICA. 2003 and 2004, so that the model of this theoretical base as well as more details
Tel/Fax: +27 11 4824083; psychosocial support developed in the group about the project contact Glynis Clacherty.
Email: [email protected] could be recorded. The work is rooted in the
127
17
The role of local elites in
GENERAL SECTION
development projects:
an experience from Sudan
by DIPANKAR DATTA “Their key question was: why had

partners selected a water project in the
Introduction village, despite the fact that the area had
As project design specialists, we want all stakeholders – a government-managed water source?”
including local elites – to actively participate in project design.
We want the project to bring substantial benefit to the
extreme poor and the most vulnerable. But there is a risk: the
project could be hijacked by the local elite. So we adopt economy depends largely on the pillars of traditional farming,
different strategies, such as encouraging the participation of livestock keeping and animal husbandry from employment,
the poorest and the most vulnerable from the outset, or moti- income generation and subsistence perspectives.
vating local elites to do something for the betterment of the In large parts of the Darfur, Kordofan, Red Sea, Kassala
poorest, or by ensuring the participation of local govern- and the south, nomadic pastoralism remains the dominant
ments. livelihood system. However, planners often wrongly regard
Concern North Sudan designed a project using partici- their natural resource management systems as harmful to the
patory approaches with a commitment to reach the extreme environment. What services exist for them are centralised and
poor and the most vulnerable. But midway through the encourage settlement, although in many areas mobile
project implementation, many observers argued that the local pastoralism remains an environmentally sustainable and
elite had hijacked the project. We had to decide whether to economically viable livelihood system. But it is under threat in
continue or to stop. So we decided to give a critical look at other areas. This is due to e.g. conflict, a lack of recognition
this issue of hijacking. This article is an effort to document of indigenous land tenure rights, and natural disasters such
this learning in the context of Sudan. as drought. Interventions such as mechanised farming and
vast, government sponsored irrigation schemes exclude
Background nomads from large tracts of pasture. This generates addi-
Sudan is the largest country in Africa. Approximately half the tional pressure on the remaining land and water resources. In
country is semi-arid or arid. Sudan is a highly multi-cultural, many cases, this has led to increased environmental degra-
multi-ethnic and multi-lingual society. The Sudanese dation and conflict (Curley 2002 and Oxfam 1998).
128
The role of local elites in development projects: an experience from Sudan
17
After having an 800km

bumpy drive through the
forest, this was the best
part of the road I had to
go on to get to Abyei!
GENERAL SECTION
Photo: Dipankar Datta
Project development process in Abyei, in mid-2003 a baseline survey was commissioned.
In 2001, a poverty study for the sixteen states was commis- A local office was opened and field-based project staff were
sioned to explore poverty in North Sudan. In 2002, based recruited. Based on the study findings, we developed a
on the findings, West Kordofan – the least developed state project proposal, aiming to implement four micro projects
– was selected for a long-term development programme in four villages in the first year, with four local partner
intervention. The Participatory Community Development NGOs. In January 2004, partnerships with the four NGOs
Plan project (PCDP) would focus on selecting a priority were established.
problem, by analysing community needs and developing an Next, we identified our target areas (see Table 1). Impor-
action plan. tant criteria included:
The programme team made a number of visits to West • access to the villages during the rainy season (most
Kordofan, to determine the poorest locality. They selected villages are totally cut off during that time for up to five
the Abyei locality in the southwestern part of the state. months);
Abyei has a total population of nearly 160,000, of whom • the location of the village on the migratory routes;
35% are internally displaced people (IDP) from other states. • selecting villages where internally displaced people and
Abyei has four administrative units: Al Meiram, Al host communities lived together;
Muglad, Dibab and Abyei. The area has three migratory • fairly settled communities (not extreme nomads); and
routes – western, eastern and central – that cut across • previous experience of the partner working in the village.
Meiram, Muglad and Dibab administrative units. These We decided that partners would implement one service
three units are mainly inhabited by the Missereya Humur delivery micro project in their respective target village. By
tribe. They are mainly agro-pastoralists rearing cattle and April 2004, four micro projects had been identified: a food
adopting a seasonal pattern of migration. The Abyei admin- security project, a health project, and two water projects (see
istrative unit is mainly inhabited by the Dinka Ngok. This Table 1).
tribe practices subsistence farming and cattle rearing within The food security project focused on the distribution of
their own tribal land. farm inputs among the villagers, and was implemented in
After the state authorities granted permission to work late 2004. The two water projects focused on the construc-
129
17Dipankar Datta
I forgot the tiredness

as well as the
distance on seeing
the beauty of Abyei
GENERAL SECTION
Table 1: Target areas and identified projects

Administrative Village Messereya Humur Tribe Dinka Ngok
Units of Nomadic Migratory Routes Tribe
Abyei locality Central Eastern Western
Muglad El Sutaib Food Security
Dibab Kilo Khamsin Water
Meiram El Mugdama Water
Abyei Makker Health
130
17
Collecting water
is the key to
raising animals
GENERAL SECTION
tion of 1500ft-deep boreholes and installing water pumps. So in mid-2005, we conducted an evaluation, to
At the time of project evaluation, the partners had already examine whether the project was effectively reaching the
signed contracts with the drilling agency. The health project extreme poor; and to consolidate our learning in order to
aimed to build one health centre and a mobile health clinic develop an agreed framework for future directions.
in the target village. At the time of evaluation, the partner
was still working on designing it. Analysis of micro project development process
The need for critical analysis Effectiveness of the PCDP

However, recent visitors had begun to criticise the effec- Though we believe the PCDP is a useful tool for ensuring
tiveness of the micro projects in reaching the extreme poor. community participation, the process suffered from a series
These included senior managers from the Concern North of limitations:
Sudan country office and the headquarters in Dublin. They • The PCDP process aimed to identify community problems
asked whether the extreme poor were involved in identify- and prioritise them by conducting a causal analysis, and to
ing and designing the micro projects. develop an action plan. But the project team did not spend
The food security project had already been implemented enough time analysing the top priority problem, in terms of
and the health project was at the design stage, so their who was the most affected by it within the community.
main concerns were for the water projects – which were • Every selected village had a core team of partners and
midway through the implementation stage. Their key ques- community volunteers to run PCDP. The community volun-
tion was: why had partners selected a water project in the teers were mainly educated, knowledgeable, and powerful
village, despite the fact that the area had a government- people of their village. The team had training for using the
managed water source? They were concerned that the tools and techniques of PCDP – but no training in facilitat-
locations of both new boreholes were too near the existing the participatory process at community level.
ing ones. A second borehole might lead to the existing • The PCDP sessions were organised in the market places at
borehole being shut down. It might also mean that the the centre of the villages. The local elites, who lived around
communities living furthest from the centre were still the village centres, easily dominated these sessions and
unable to easily access water. influenced the outcome of the process.
131
17Dipankar Datta
Villagers who analysed

the effectiveness of
programme in reaching
extreme poor
GENERAL SECTION

• The project staff did not have a clear understanding of who too much time had been spent developing the programme.
constituted the poorest people in the community, or of As a consequence, they felt that there had not been
their livelihoods. They thought that only the internally adequate time for understanding the local situation, or to
displaced people were the most vulnerable. Despite inter- mobilise the community effectively. They understood the
nally displaced people attending the sessions, the PCDP different tools and techniques, but they had no substantial
methodology did not specifically capture their suggestions. experiences in facilitating PCDP at the community level. They
In addition, the project team failed to include other extreme also were not fluent in local tribal languages. So they felt that
poor families in the PCDP. they could not properly guide the partner staff and volun-
• Hiring field-based project staff and opening an office in the teers in conducting PCDP or maintain good quality facilita-
Abyei locality raised community expectations. Project staff tion. This meant that they were unable to realise the attitudes
were under constant pressure to begin work, even when of the local elite towards the selection of micro projects.
preparations were not complete, and the local administra-
tion kept asking them to justify what they were doing. As Understanding how targeting works
the project development process took so long, there was The project staff were unaware that other extreme poor fami-
also pressure from the community and the local adminis- lies belonged to the same tribe or sub-tribes in the same
tration to deliver ‘tangible’ benefits at the community level. villages. They were unclear about the difference between
Because of this, the PCDP process was facilitated in a ‘targeting poor communities’ and ‘targeting the poor or
supply-driven way. And the community was not adequately poorest within the community’. For example, during the
mobilised before conducting the actual PCDP – so the implementation of the food security micro project, the distri-
voices of the poorest had been lost. bution of farm inputs to the beneficiaries in the village had
We wanted to understand why the project staff had failed no definite targeting criteria. As a result, those living in the
to overcome these limitations in maintaining a good quality village centres were involved in the distribution process – and
process. During discussions, they revealed that they thought got the maximum benefit. The extreme poor, living in the
132
17
most remote part of the villages, were not even aware of the “The local leaders, including the
GENERAL SECTION
farm inputs distribution.
Broad community problems were also not necessarily
government, thought that more
specific to the poorest in the community. For example, the boreholes would attract more people to
project staff asserted that people going to the Bhar Al Arab settle around the water points, making
river in search of water and pasture was a major problem. In
fact, this was a coping mechanism for people during the dry
it easier to target them with other
season that had been practiced for a long time. But the local services such as health and education”
elites, who own more animals, perceived this practice as a
problem. Prioritising water issues might be important for the
rich – but not necessarily important for the poorest commu- the water points, making it easier to target them with other
nity members. services such as health and education. They added that the
Later, after discussions with the poorest families, we community leadership would ensure that the new boreholes
discovered that they had never even heard about the PCDP. would not lead to the closure of the existing ones.
In fact, they identified food insecurity as their immediate
problem, such as insufficient human and financial capital for Defining the extreme poor
clearing land to farm or buy the necessary agricultural inputs, Local elites agreed that targeting internally displaced people
resulting in low production. Water was a problem – but is much harder compared to the other extreme poor families
mainly only during two months of the dry season. As they living in the same area. Their situation is worse as not only
don’t own big animals, and need little water for consump- have they lost all their assets during the war, but also they
tion, their demand for water is much less compared to the are unwelcome inhabitants in the villages. They have no
other well-off families living in the village. rights to land for cultivation. They work as casual labourers
and rear animals for local villagers. They are paid in kind (3kg
Analysing the perceptions of the local elite sorghum/millet every two days) – not in cash. They are afraid
of the local elite – and completely voiceless.
Local development The local elites labelled the other extreme poor as Telia,
It was important for us to understand how the local elites meaning they have nothing and depend on others. These
and the local government officials envisioned the local devel- families possess no cattle, sheep, or goats, and rarely own
opment process. So we organised a cordial meeting with the donkeys. They own land but lack the resources to cultivate
local Aamir (Sultan), the deputy Sultan, the locality manager, it adequately. Household heads always work as casual
the national water corporation water engineer in charge, labourers and collect firewood, honey and ‘gum arabic’
community leaders and various other community members. (wild cash food) to manage everyday meals. They live in
We found that their perception was that the community dilapidated houses, which become worse during the rainy
needed government support in health, education, commu- season. They are the hidden poor – the local elite prefers
nication and transportation, etc. Because of the nomadic way not to expose them to outsiders. However, the local elite
of life and the vastness of the area where people live in very (and other community members) do help them during a
scattered way, they believed it was very difficult for the crisis. For example, a Nafir is a volunteering day, when the
government or any development agency to reach these community gives food and provides free labour to the
people with a comprehensive development intervention. poorest families, even giving young men from the poorest
In North Sudan, town growth happens around water families marriage dowries. This help is given in the hope
sources and points. To develop a town, local government that the next generation will help the family to move out
needs multiple water sources in order to attract people. from poverty.
Communities prefer to live in an area where they have access
to two or more water sources that can provide security for Learning and the way forward
water accessibility. They would rather walk further to collect Our key learning can be put into the following three broad
water than live closer to a single water source. categories:
The local leaders, including the government, thought that • Quality facilitation: facilitation is a vital and skilled compo-
more boreholes would attract more people to settle around nent of the participatory process. It plays a significant part
133
17Dipankar Datta
in determining the outcome. Providing one training session implemented on time. The justifications for this are:
GENERAL SECTION
is only a tiny part of developing facilitation skills. It takes • The water project implementation will not compete with
time, so the classroom training should be complemented the government-run boreholes – instead it will complement
with field-testing, on the job training, and coaching. As far the government’s vision of town growth, which is linked
as possible, the participatory sessions should be conducted to local economic and infrastructure development. Local
in the most comfortable language for participants. Where economic development should significantly contribute to
it is difficult to accommodate all participants with one enhancing the well-being of the extreme poor.
language, sessions can be held in different languages at • The successful implementation of the water projects should
different times. lead to greater harmony as it reaches all sections of the
• Understand the local context: the facilitating team should community. It will be much easier to mobilise the leadership
have clear understanding about the local context and mani- in these villages to undertake very specific pro-extreme
festations of poverty. The larger community does not neces- poor interventions, including targeting internally displaced
sarily share the town development vision promoting the people. The rapport with the community will also help in
permanent settlement of nomads. The poorest people have mobilising community leaders to strengthen their internal
other priorities, which differ from those of the local elites. A local support system and coping mechanisms to move out
year-round, secure livelihood is a bigger concern to the the vulnerable families from extreme poverty.
poorest than dry season water problems. And it is important • Last but not least, the water projects are a long-standing
to acknowledge that it is not possible to reach the extremely commitment to the community. Through these micro proj-
poor families without having a clear understanding of the ects, a good rapport has already been created with power
vision of the local elites, of the livelihoods and social capital structures in the existing communities. Not implementing
of the extreme poor, or of local power structures. these projects would eventually lead to hostilities and
• Voices of the extreme poor: the community has its own mistrust among all relevant parties. It might prevent access
mechanism to help the vulnerable families moving out from to working with these communities again by Concern or
extreme poverty. But community leaders prefer to hide the by the partners.
poorest. Why should they reveal this hidden poverty to an Our experience shows that facilitating project design
outsider? And the extreme poor often remain silent in front using participatory tools and techniques does not always
of powerful local elites, who are linked to local govern- necessarily ensure the participation of all relevant stakehold-
ment. To ensure the voices of the poorest and most vulner- ers in the process. Different stakeholders represent different
able are heard, it is important to work with the extreme social/ethnic/religious groups and levels of well-being – and
poor separately. hold different levels of power. They participate in the process
with different interests, attitudes and perceptions. This
Final thoughts multidimensionality makes the real world of participation very
As the health micro project is still in the development process, complex – and we often tend to ignore this reality or pretend
we recommend that the project design be revisited. However, that we have the tools to deal with it. Trade-offs have to be
despite these concerns, the water projects do need to be made and we cannot always be perfect.

Dipankar Datta Curley, Paul (2002) ‘Poverty Study of the
Assistant Country Director Northern States of Sudan’. Concern North
Concern Worldwide Kenya Sudan. Unpublished research report. Soft copy
5th Floor, Kalson Towers is available on request.
The Crescent, Off Parklands Road Oxfam GB (1998) Poverty Baseline Survey: Port
PO Box 13850-00800, Sudan Town, Oxfam.
Nairobi, UNDP (1998) Sudan 1st National Human
Kenya. Development Report, UNDP.
Phone: +254 (0) 20-3755051 to 5 Suliman, KM. (2000) ‘The Dynamics of Rural
Fax: + 254 (0) 20-3755056 Change in Dry Agriculture in Sudan: Case
Email: [email protected] Study from Southern Kordofan.’ Social Science
Research Report Series, 16. Addis Ababa:
OSSREA
134
Tips for trainers
The Snowball
TIPS FOR TRAINERS

by MIKE McCALL, HOLLY Table 1: Programme of parallel sessions
ASHLEY and GIACOMO Day 1 Topic 1: Enabling and disabling environments for PGIS/ community mapping
RAMBALDI practice – plenary
Working group 1 Working group 2 Working group 3
Introduction Day 2 Topic 2: Methodological issues
One important element at the
Working group 1: Methods for Working group 2: Working group 3:
Mapping for Change conference was representing local Supporting cultural ‘Participatory
the use of parallel working group knowledge/mental maps heritage preservation and numbers’: issues of
sessions. These followed the main (what is a community? How identity building among scale, accuracy and
plenary sessions in the mornings. to approach community indigenous Peoples and sensitivity in PGIS
Each session was devoted to a issues? Understanding issues rural communities. practice.
of power; adding authority to
different topic relating to the ISK etc.)
morning’s discussions. On each of
the three conference days,
Day 3 Topic 3: Implementation issues (best practice) and ways forward
participants were able to choose an
afternoon session they wanted to Working group 1: Land and Working groups 2 and 3: Working group 4:
attend. resources rights and Participatory land use Networking and
entitlement. planning (PLUP), communication.
During these sessions
collaborative natural
participants focused on different resource management
aspects of the day’s overall topic. (NRM).
The working groups responded to
specific framework questions, which The conference organisers had participants are also asked to give
set the scene. On the first and chosen a single method for this, the reasons for their responses.
second days, delegates were divided called the Snowball. The facilitator then asks a
into three groups; on the third day, representative from each group to
they were divided into four groups. Snowballing present the outcomes of their
Afterwards, all the working groups Snowballing (or pyramiding) debate to the other groups, by
reconvened in a final plenary session involves participants working first placing their findings (one each on
to present the summaries of their alone, then in pairs, then in groups separate pieces of paper or card –
discussions (Table 1). of four, and then in groups of eight. meta-cards) on large sheets of
But with over 160 participants, The participants work on an paper, put up on the walls.
the working groups were large. issue by responding to particular At the conference sessions, two
There were only 90 minutes in which questions, e.g. lists of keywords, or people facilitated each session and a
to discuss complex issues. So a answers to a valued question, or note-taker was chosen to write up
simple and effective tool was needed they are asked to agree or disagree the findings at the end, to present at
to facilitate the discussions. with a given phrase. The the closing plenary session each day.
135
Tips for trainers
Martin Sekeleti
from Zambia and
Participants Rahab Njoroge from
discuss and IIRR collating cards
sort cards on the wall
TIPS FOR TRAINERS
Photos: Mike McCall

Method partner. They may reach a consensus Time need: five to ten minutes.
1. The facilitator opens the session by agreement on the responses. If not, 5. Next, the groups sort out the cards
introducing a specific question or they should be clear about what are on the floor, showing the issues they
questions for discussion. For their differences, and why. Using A5 have identified. As before, the cards
example, on Day 1, each working meta-cards, the pairs write down can be easily mixed and sorted and
group was asked to consider the their thoughts – for example, re-organised etc. into sets or groups
following question: funding, training, etc. Not more than of types of response. Use new cards
In your experience and two to five words per card if possible. to make main headings for each
knowledge, what internal and Time need: five to ten minutes. group of answers. Participants do
external factors and conditions 3. Pairs join together into groups of this themselves, with help from the
influence PGIS practice? four. All meta-cards are put on the facilitator. This stage is not easy –
These are already written on large floor in the middle of a circle. Cards sorting the cards into logical but
sheets of paper pinned to the wall or are grouped and re-written if distinct groups or sets with
projected onto a screen. The necessary to capture similar content. appropriate headings (names)
question should be as clear and Repeat the same process as for step requires organisational, conceptual
unambiguous as possible. 2. This new group shares its thoughts and verbal skills.
Participants begin individually, by and reflections and any new ideas Time need: ten to fifteen minutes.
writing down her or his individual each pair has brought to the group. 6. When everyone is agreed on the
responses (to discuss it later with a Time need: five to ten minutes. responses and the grouping of the
partner). You can write on meta- 4. Groups of four may join together responses, the facilitator asks a
cards, or you can use a notebook. into group of eight, and repeat the representative from each group to
Time needed: keep it brief – three process, or until the session has stick the cards on to the wall (with
to five minutes depending on the reached ‘critical mass’ – i.e. there are masking tape, pins, etc.), so that
length and complexity of the only a few main groups left. But everyone can see them. The
question, and on the age and eight people is a big group and may representative explains the group’s
experience of the participants. not be suitable for easy discussions, reasons for the responses.
2. Participants join together in pairs although at the conference groups Time need: five to ten minutes
and discuss their responses with their were as big as 16 people. per group.
136
Tips for trainers
Participants Peter
Minang, Robert
Chambers and Peter
Kyem collectively
re-organise the
cards on the floor
into headings.
questions could have been developed
TIPS FOR TRAINERS

in a participatory way.
What the participants thought of

the working group sessions….
I learnt more from the parallel
workshop sessions than from the
plenary sessions (except of course
from key-speakers). I regret the
workshops were divided in four
parallels tracks. I think two would
have be enough with a better pre-
selection of the communications for
the plenary session.
All the participants contributed
very well especially in working group
sessions. We learnt a lot from others,
and made contacts.
Needed more time dedicated to
question periods and presentations.
Perhaps re-thinking the workshop
activities – they were too rushed...
include a period for focus groups of
similar backgrounds i.e. NGO groups,
aboriginal groups, governments,
academia, etc.... This would bring
those with similar ideas together to
7. At this stage, and if there is time • Full involvement – everyone is brainstorm. It would focus the
or it is felt appropriate, the groups involved in the first three rounds of discussion during the workshop
can collectively re-organise the cards single, pairs, and probably the activities.
on the wall into headings/types of foursomes. The level of participation,
response, as done in step 6. • It is more inclusive and exchange and communication among
Time need: ten to fifteen minutes. participatory than e.g. a plenary participants was very high and
8. The note-taker then writes up the meeting, a general discussion, or a contributed to a learning process to
session findings, ready to present at question and answer session. many if not all participants. I did find
the closing plenary session. An easy • Shy participants feel more it unfortunate on some occasions
way to record the results is to take a confident about giving their views in though, that I missed some
digital photo of the cards on the pairs or in small group because they interesting presentations in other
wall. must begin with writing down their working groups while participating in
own response. There is limited eye another one.
Advantages contact, as cards are grouped on the The sessions were well planned,
• This tool allows for easy floor and the focus of discussion is and the smaller workshops gave one
comparison between the findings of centred on them. the opportunity to debate about
each group. • It is focused on an issue and things with other attendees.
• If used in subsequent parallel questions of interest (at least to the The methods adopted for group
working group sessions, the organisers and facilitator). discussions allowed for all of us to
participants are already familiar with • The original questions come from participate and share our views on
the tool. outside, i.e. the organisers – but the issues.
137
in touch
Book Reviews
IN TOUCH
Participatory 3-
Dimensional
Modelling:
guiding
principles and
applications
Giacomo
Rambaldi and
Jasmin Callosa-Tarr
National Integrated Protected Areas
Programme, 2002
Book and CD set. ISBN: 9718986472
Aimed at enhancing the abilities of

marginalised, isolated, and frequently
natural resource-dependent
communities to deal with spatial data
and to communicate with the rest of
Welcome to the In Touch section of training materials that you would the world on an equal footing.
Participatory Learning and Action. like to share with other trainers? Participatory 3-D Modelling (P3DM) is
Through these pages we hope to • Publications. Do you know of any a relatively new facilitation method
create a more participatory resource key publications on participatory used in processes related mainly to
for the Participatory Learning and methodologies and their use? Have resource use and tenure and offers
Action audience, to put you, as a you (or has your organisation) the opportunity to produce relatively
reader, in touch with other readers. produced any books, reports, or precise geo-referenced and scaled
We want this section to be a key videos that you would like other qualitative and quantitative data,
source of up-to-date information on readers to know about? adding substantial value and
training, publications, and networks. • Electronic information. Do you communication power to local
Your help is vital in keeping us all in know of any electronic conferences knowledge. This resource book
touch about: or pages on the Internet which provides hands-on guidelines on how
• Networks. Do you have links with exchange or provide information on to organise and implement a P3DM
recognised local, national or participatory methodologies? exercise. Includes insights on adult
international networks for • Other information. Perhaps you have learning and spatial cognition, on the
practitioners of participatory ideas about other types of history of relief modelling and the
learning? If so, what does this information that would be useful for analysis of P3DM experiences in the
network provide – training? this section. If so, please let us know. Philippines and Vietnam.
newsletters? resource Please send your responses to: The companion CD-ROM includes
material/library? a forum for sharing Participatory Learning and Action, the film Giving Voice to the Unspoken,
experiences? Please tell us about the IIED, 3 Endsleigh Street, London showing the hands-on aspects of 3-D
network and provide contact details WC1H ODD, UK. modelling (MPEG format).
for other readers. Fax: + 44 20 7388 2826; Available from NHBS, 2-3 Wills Road,
• Training. Do you know of any Email: [email protected] Totnes, Devon TQ9 5XN, UK. Tel: +44 1803
forthcoming training events or Participatory Learning and Action is 865913; Fax: +44 1803 865280; Email:
courses in participatory published in April, August, and [email protected]
methodologies? Are you a trainer December. Please submit material two Also available to download online:
yourself? Are you aware of any key months before the publication date. www.iapad.org/p3dm_guiding_principles.htm
138
Book reviews
Gender and ICTs The Rights Based Approach (RBA) is Neela Mukherjee and Meera Jayaswal
IN TOUCH
for Development: a gaining prominence in development Concept Publishing Company, 2006
global sourcebook and is mentioned in current policies ISBN 81 8069 238 8
Edited by Minke such as the Poverty Reduction Strategy
Valk, Sarah Cummings Papers (PRSPs) and the Millennium This book is based on field research
and Henk van Dam Development Goals (MDGs), without undertaken in the peri-urban areas of
KIT/CTA/Oxfam GB, significant evidence of its implications Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. The
2005 at the grassroots level. RBA has huge fieldwork, based on participatory
potential for reversing power research, presents the perspectives of
Women are far more likely than men imbalances and reducing poverty. the farmers, both as producers and
to experience discrimination in the However institutionalising rights in consumers, on the role of agriculture,
new information society. In spite of development remains marginalised at food production and consumption, as
this, resource-poor and non-literate the grassroots level due to well as quality of life and the
women and their organisations are inappropriate models of citizen effectiveness of existing support
aware of the power of information participation. As this publication networks, and gives a good gender
and communication technologies shows, this does not mean that there perspective. The book is laid out in a
(ICTs) and are using them to advance is a lack of understanding as RBA is comprehensive way and includes a
their basic needs and strategic used in grassroots programmes. The glossary of Indian terms. The findings
interests, to improve their livelihoods challenge is that they are not known highlight the pivotal role peri-urban
and help them achieve their human to be used, due to a lack of agriculture plays in social and cultural
rights. This book brings together case documentation and homegrown issues such as gender, health, and
studies about women and their initiatives. food safety, as well as the traditional
communities in China, Bhutan, This publication bridges the gap concepts of livelihoods, employment
Ghana, Sierra Leone and the between macro- and micro-level and income.
Caribbean, showing how they have understanding and use of RBA. The This is the fourth book in the
used or been influenced by ICTs. case studies show how civil society Community Perspectives in
This is the seventh Global actors are transforming problems and Environment and Development series.
Sourcebook in the Critical Reviews needs of communities into rights as Available from Concept Publishing
and Annotated Bibliographies series priorities for poverty reduction and Company, a/15 Commercial Block, Mohan
and also includes a bibliography of capacity building, thereby increasing Garden, New Delhi-110059, India. Email:
print and online resources. ownership of poverty reduction [email protected]
Available from KIT Publishers, PO Box initiatives and governance. The book
95001, 1090 HA Amsterdam, The proposes some guidelines that may be Innovative
Netherlands. Email: [email protected]. used not only at project level, but also Communities:
Website: www.kit.nl at national level, to mainstream RBA in people-centred
development using citizen participation. approaches to
Institutionalising Available from PAMFORK, PO Box 2645- environmental
Rights in 00202 KNH Post Office, Nairobi, Kenya. management in the
Development Email: [email protected] Asia-Pacific Region
through Citizen Edited by Jerry
Participation: case Chained by Food – Velasquez, Makiko Yashiro, Susan Yoshimura
studies from Kenya, Marginalized Voices and Izumi Ono
Uganda and From Peri-Urban United Nations University, 2005
Zimbabwe India: poor ISBN 92 808 1116 9
Edited by Eliud Wakwabubi and Lokiru households as food
Matendo producers and This book introduces the concept of
PAMFORK, 2005 consumers in peri- community innovation and illustrates
ISBN 9966 9740 7 5 urban India its role and impact in promoting
139
Book reviews / Events and training
sustainability. It includes nine case insights for communities and for PRA, PRA tools, and organising a PRA.
IN TOUCH
studies from the Asia-Pacific region those who provide support at the It presents the experiences of
where communities are adopting local, regional and national levels of conducting PRA, mainly in the
innovative methods to address governance. Philippine highlands, and the lessons
complex and unpredictable Available from United Nations University learnt. Its simple layout makes it ideal
environmental problems. This requires Press, 53-70 Jinjumae 5-chome, Shibuya-ku, for beginners and it contains many
new cultures, institutions and Tokyo 150-8925, Japan. Email: visuals – maps, drawings and photos –
governance structures, as well as [email protected]. Website: www.unu.edu and many useful tips. It is designed for
changes in people’s perceptions, local people, communities and
attitudes, roles and behaviours. Participatory Rural organisations involved in implementing
The initiatives examined include Appraisal and promoting participatory methods
natural resource management, eco- Guidebook in rural development work.
tourism, forest management, solid Blesida M. Calub The guidebook has been reprinted
waste management and water Farming Systems and and distributed throughout Southeast
management. The book gives a Soil Resources Institute, Asia and translated into the Khmer
balance of perspectives from experts University of the language and is currently being
in community development, urban Philippines, 2003 translated into Lao.
planning and local environmental ISBN 971 8778 54 3 Available from the Farming Systems and
management, as well as community Soil Resources Institute, College of
leaders, local government officials, This guidebook combines concepts Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los
journalists, NGOs and academics. It and tools needed in carrying out PRA. Baños College, Laguna 4031, Philippines.
provides theoretical and practical It has three parts: the basic concepts of Website: www.uplb.edu.ph
Events and recognition of living bearers of cultural

traditions; and
principles that could orient work in
the future;
training • cultural mapping with indigenous

communities.
• understand the impact of cultural
mapping on building mutual consent
A UNESCO meeting report: cultural Three workshops on each of these among and with indigenous peoples
mapping issues brought together 40 on development issues; and
Havana, Cuba, 7th-10th February 2006 participants, mainly from Latin • explore the possibility of applying
America and the Caribbean, including cultural mapping in other cultural
In February 2006, UNESCO organised decision makers, academics, bearers inventory processes, i.e. safeguarding
a regional meeting, New Perspectives of cultural traditions and experts with and promoting intangible heritage
on Cultural Diversity: The Role of responsibility for cultural heritage and cultural expressions.
Communities. The meeting was protection and cultural inventories. Case studies covered a broad
organised within the larger framework Five international resource persons range of geographic and thematic
of the recently adopted UNESCO shared their experiences in cultural diversity:
Convention on the Protection and mapping with indigenous • Inuit and First Nations in Canada
Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural communities in the third workshop of using mapping to prove their
Expressions (2005), and just prior to the meeting entitled Cultural Mapping indigenous status and build
the ratification of the UNESCO as a Tool for Community Involvement sustainable communities and
Convention of the Safeguarding of in Shaping Future Development. livelihoods, especially by visualising
the Intangible Heritage (2003). This workshop assessed the land use from the past to the present;
The aim was to learn lessons about lessons learnt from some case studies • the Khomani San community in
community involvement in three of cultural mapping with indigenous South Africa using mapping and other
interrelated areas: communities from around the world techniques of cultural resource
• intangible heritage inventories; to: auditing, re-assemble their collective
• processes of strengthening the • identify ethical and methodological identity and salvage elements of their
140
Events and training
UNESCO’s Yoshida
Reiko at the Mapping
for Change conference
in Nairobi, 2005.
land use, education, health, conflict
IN TOUCH
prevention or other.
Whether community-based
mapping is used as a leading aspect of
an inventory process, or as one tool
amongst others, the communiqué
emphasises that cultural mapping
should always be applied within a
broader strategy of affirming cultural
diversity and creating opportunities for
greater intercultural understanding and
dialogue. Furthermore it was
considered essential that cultural
mapping be officially recognised as part
of processes of building mutual
fragile intangible culture; their knowledge, and the natural consent between marginalised
• the Maori in New Zealand using environment to exploitation and abuse. communities and more dominant
mapping in the larger context of Cultural mapping, according to the groups, including the State. Participants
different forms of social mobilisation communiqué, presents an opportunity recommended that UNESCO should
including to build mutual consent on for intercultural dialogue which allows consider promoting training, best
the future of education; non-dominant or marginalised cultural practices and practical ethics in the use
• the Kalinga Peoples in the systems to be represented respectfully of cultural mapping, particularly as they
Philippines using participatory 3- – and which creates an opportunity relate to cultural inventories,
dimensional-modelling (P3DM) for for intercultural dialogue with more regenerating and transmitting local and
conflict resolution; and dominant societies and stakeholders indigenous knowledge and learning
• native Fijians on Ovalau Island using as well as between generations and systems, conflict prevention, gender
a blend of P3DM and GIS to develop gender groups. Community-controlled equity and safeguarding intangible
collaborative natural resources mapping methods, and specifically cultural heritage.
management and development plans those based on 3D models, e.g. For more information see
based on indigenous values, P3DM, where communities and www.unesco.org./culture
knowledge and practices. especially the different elders reflect Susanne Schnuttgen and Nigel Crawhall,
In a final communiqué, participants on their own knowledge and listen to Pluralism and Intercultural Dialogue Section,
agreed that cultural mapping can be a each other, surfaces their tacit Division for Cultural Policies and Intercultural
powerful tool for making intangible knowledge, which then becomes Dialogue, UNESCO, 1 rue Miollis, 75732
heritage and local and indigenous coherent and identifiable for the Paris cedex 15, FRANCE. Tel: +33 1 45 68
knowledge systems visible in a medium holders of that knowledge. This can 37 11; Fax: +33 1 45 68 55 97; Email :
that can be understood by both be missed using other techniques. It is [email protected]
dominant and non-dominant cultures. the link between memory, land and
However, cultural mapping has to be maps that creates a particular focus. URISA (Urban and Regional
demand driven, contextualised and If carried out respectfully, cultural Information Systems Association)
community owned and controlled to mapping reinforces a community’s Third Caribbean GIS Conference
avoid the risks implied in ‘extractive’ consciousness for its specific cultural 29th October to 2nd November 2006
and ‘externally lead’ approaches, such traditions, resources and institutions Atlantis Resort, Bahamas
as the risks of ‘folklorisation’, disrespect so that its members are better This conference will discuss issues
of human dignity or the violation of prepared to express their rights, visions including:
peoples’ human and cultural rights. and priorities when confronted with Disaster management, law
Unethical and badly conceived development interventions initiated by enforcement, public health and
mapping can expose communities, a third party, whether in the area of safety
141
Events and training
• GIS applications for disaster • GIS for planning national land and Rainforest Foundation, UK
IN TOUCH
management to cover all phases of sea parks University of Kent, Canterbury, UK

the disaster management cycle Utilities, business and organisational and Rainforest Foundation UK are
• GIS in hazard mapping and GIS offering a fully funded PhD
vulnerability assessment • Managing infrastructure studentship. Applicants must be UK
• GIS applications for law • Geo-economics (affording GIS in citizens or EU citizens, with three
enforcement and crime analysis developing states) years’ residency in the UK, and must
• GIS and its role in public safety • GIS services be competent in Spanish. The student
Standards, policy and management • Modernising government utilising would be based at the University of
• Data collection and data modern technologies Kent, but would spend some time in
management • Integrated GIS implementation on the office of Rainforest Foundation
• Procedures and protocols to agency-wide platform: cost and UK in London during the first year of
manage data exchange and access sustainability issues the research. They would be expected
across agency and regional • Costs/benefits of adopting GIS to spend a substantial amount of time
jurisdictions within an organisation in the field in the Selva Central region
• Metadata • Installation and management of of Peru, living with Ashaninka
• Issues and policies in establishing national GPS infrastructure for the communities in the area.
an NSDI region Further details are available on the
• Accessing and managing Education and training University of Kent website:
information requirements for • Online mapping policies, procedures, www.kent.ac.uk/anthropology/files/CASE_
conventions and treaties to which a infrastructure and maintenance details.pdf or contact: Helen Newing, DICE,
country may be signatory requirements Dept of Anthropology, University of Kent,
• Online mapping policies, • Building partnerships Canterbury, Kent, UK. Tel: +44 1227
procedures, infrastructure and Other hot topics 827034. Email: [email protected]
maintenance requirements • Wandering through the maze of
• Building partnerships satellite imagery: what and when to Mosaic July 2006 Workshops
Land, environment, planning and use Mosaic will be holding the following
natural resources • GIS in the fight for poverty workshops this July, in Ottawa,
• GIS for the management of state- alleviation Canada.
owned lands • Emerging trends in GIS and related
• Land registration technologies Participatory Development in
• GIS applications for marine and • Evaluating and understanding the Planning, Needs Assessment,
coastal environments including coral current GIS trends Monitoring and Evaluation: Key
reef monitoring • GIS and our communities Concepts, Tools and Application in
• Managing natural resource • Census PLA/PRA Methods
information for the nation Pre-conference workshops and an 10th–15th July, 2006
• Address Ranging – tools and exhibition will accompany the comprehensive The PD workshop focuses on the
applications to establish national educational programme. For more entire project cycle from planning,
address ranging to better manage information, visit: needs assessment to monitoring and
emergency services, road networks ww.urisa.org/Caribbean/Program/ evaluation using PRA/PLA methods.
(maintenance/new corridors), house caribbeanconf.htm or email: [email protected] This is an intensive six-day workshop
numbering, postal delivery etc. set in the community to maximise
• Urban planning GIS applications for PhD studentship: pluralistic learning, group interaction and
the development of land use master approaches to co-management of networking. Topics include: the origins
plans and management of the protected areas: the Ashaninka of participatory development, learning
planning development process (i.e. Communal Reserve in Peru and application of PRA/PLA tools, the
monitoring development October 2006 application of participation to project
applications, building permits etc.) University of Kent at Canterbury/ design, monitoring and evaluation,
142
Events and training
developing effective facilitation skills, information has been collected and For further information, please visit the
IN TOUCH
building action plans and team- analysed. This intensive six-day IDS website at:
building. Two-day community experiential workshop is practically www.ids.ac.uk/ids/teach/mapart.
assignments proposed by community- focused, with daily excursions into the html or contact Julia Brown, Teaching and
based organisations in the Ottawa community and a three-day Training Unit, Institute of Development
region will allow participants to apply community assignment. Topics covered Studies, Direct line + 44 1273 678869;
tools learnt in the workshop to real-life at the workshop include: origins of Email: [email protected]
situations. This is also a great PM&E, skills and attributes of a PM&E
opportunity to network with other facilitator, learning PM&E tools, Participatory Poverty Assessments
practitioners, NGOs, donors, and action designing a monitoring and evaluation based on Participatory Learning and
researchers from all over the world. framework and actions plan. Action (PLA)
Development Tracks in Research, Training
Results-based Management, All workshops organised by Mosaic are & Consultancy, plc
Appreciative Inquiry and Open Space sensitive to issues of gender, ethnicity, race, 18th–22nd September 2006.
Technology class and sexuality and how these can This training workshop is aimed at
17th–21th July, 2006 influence outcomes and how we see the targeting those who have some field
This new workshop introduces partici- world. For further information, see our experience in participatory
pants to Results-based Management, website at www.mosaic-net-intl.ca or approaches and who wish to update
Appreciative Inquiry and Open Space email Francoise Coupal at on the latest methodological
Technology. It will show how to de- [email protected]. developments in Participatory Poverty
velop programme/ organisational Assessments, especially in India and
plans, which are results-based, and MA in Participation, Power & Social China, and apply them to their own
design performance monitoring sys- Change fields. The workshop will be held in
tems based on indicators and partici- October 2007; 18 Months (full time, New Delhi. After the training,
patory methods. Participants will learn including part-time work-based learning) participants should be able to:
how to apply gender analysis to their The Participation, Power and Social Change • appreciate participatory approaches,
work. They will also be introduced to Group at the Institute of Development methods, principles and processes;
Appreciative Inquiry and Open Space Studies (IDS), University of Sussex, UK • design simple participatory poverty
Technology, and how these can be ap- assessment exercises and apply voice
plied in their organisations, pro- IDS is offering an MA in Participation, tools; and
grammes and projects. These Power and Social Change starting in • link participatory poverty
approaches are increasingly being used October 2007. The programme aims assessment from the micro to the
around the world to develop new to deepen knowledge, innovation and macro level.
ways of working that are more results- practice of participatory approaches for Cost: US$500 (INR 22,000) to include
oriented, more appreciative, less prob- engaging people in decision-making training, board and lodging (simple
lem-focused and more self-organised. and active citizenship. It is designed for arrangements), workshop expenses, and
experienced practitioners, to help them workshop facilitation. Part of the fee will
Participatory Monitoring and deepen their abilities for critical be ploughed back into on-going
Evaluation reflection, analysis and application of participatory action research initiatives
24th–29th July, 2006 participatory methods. The course with indigenous communities. Participants
Participatory Monitoring and combines two periods (10 weeks) of must make own travel arrangements to the
Evaluation (PM&E) involves local intensive group learning in residence at workshop.
people, project stakeholders and IDS with a 12-month period of work- For more information, please contact the
development agencies in deciding based action research with an principal trainer: Neela Mukherjee. Email:
together how to measure results and organisation engaged in participatory [email protected] or
what actions should follow once this approaches. [email protected]
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e-participation
For this issue, our e-participation website provides access to the State’s Environmental Research Mapping
IN TOUCH
pages are dedicated to online environmental maps and data for and Information Systems (ERMIS)
resources related to mapping the widest audience at minimal www.ermisafrica.org
practice, technologies, and expense to the government and ERMIS Africa is a local NGO based in
communications. communities. Includes an online Nakuru, Kenya which supports and
NSW Natural Resource Atlas. empowers rural and urban
The Aboriginal Mapping Network communities to participate in policy
www.nativemaps.org CyberTracker and legislative engagements that
A collection of resource pages for www.cybertracker.co.za promote community-sensitive
First Nation mappers about mapping, Involving local communities in key processes of formulation and
information management and areas of biodiversity, CyberTracker implementation of land, environment
sharing, and GIS throughout the combines indigenous knowledge and natural resource policies, laws,
aboriginal community. with state-of-the-art computer and guidelines, tools and institutional
satellite technology and is an innovations for ensuring
The Borneo Project efficient way to gather large environmental care, conservation and
www.earthisland.org/borneo/index.html quantities of geo-referenced data for protection while addressing overall
The Borneo Project partners with field observations, even by non- gender equity for sustained
communities and local organisations literate users. development in Africa.
that document and map ancestral
land claims, litigate to halt forest DIVA-GIS Environmental Science for Social
destruction, teach villagers their www.diva-gis.org Change (ESSC)
rights, market traditional handicrafts, Free GIS for biodiversity research. www.essc.org.ph
reforest degraded areas, install micro- DIVA-GIS can be downloaded for A Philippine-based research and
hydro electrification, and protect free. It is particularly useful for mapping institute. Primary purpose is
Borneo’s wildlife and biodiversity. biodiversity applications but it is used to engage in national and regional
in many other areas of work as well. research with the intention of
The Communication Initiative Uses shape-files and grid-files. contributing to an understanding and
www.comminit.com Comes with high-resolution climate sustainability of the environment
A partnership of development data for the whole world. through developing a science for
organisations seeking to support social change. The ESSC-Visayas
advances in the effectiveness and Drum Beat (ESSC Regional Office for the Visayas
scale of communication interventions www.comminit.com/drum_beat_322.html region) focuses on the assessment of
for positive international A weekly electronic publication community-based forest
development. It aims to facilitate exploring initiatives, ideas and management implementation by
horizontal linkages between people trends in communication for people’s organisations, and the
engaged in communication action. development. The current issue facilitation of complementing
The CI hosts a website that (322) is about Participatory Mapping dialogues among the watershed
summarises more than 17,000 links and PGIS. stakeholders for sustainable
on communication and development. management. It is also engaged in
It also produces a weekly electronic East-West Center community resource mapping and
magazine as well as discussion forums www.eastwestcenter.org accounting (CRMA) in the Maasin
and listings of events and vacancies. Established by the United States watershed in Iloilo and Caruod
Congress in 1960 ‘to promote better watershed in Bohol province.
Community Access to Natural relations and understanding
Resource Information (CANRI) between the United States and the Global Ethics Observatory (GEO)
www.canri.nsw.gov.au nations of Asia and the Pacific www.unesco.org/shs/ethics/geo/user/?action
CANRI is a New South Wales through cooperative study, training =select&lng=en&db=
Government programme. This and research’. The observatory is a system of
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e-participation
databases with worldwide coverage healthy, sustainable communities island and remote coastal
IN TOUCH
in bioethics and other areas of through locally-created maps of the communities. The goal of this work is
applied ethics in science and natural and cultural environment. to increase local information
technology such as environmental management capacity to support
ethics, science ethics, and technology Innovative Resources Management planning, conservation, education,
ethics. This UNESCO initiative is freely Inc (IRM) and governance.
accessible online to all Member www.irmgt.com
States and the general public. IRM uses participatory mapping as Mappe Aperte (Open Maps)
one element of an integrated www.mappeaperte.net/
GIS Development approach to decentralised natural Collaborative on-line mapping
www.gisdevelopment.net resource management. website.
GIS Development is a publishing
group in the field of geographic Integrated Approaches to Mapping for Change – PGIS 2005
information sciences. Its aim is to Participatory Development (IAPAD) International Conference
propagate the importance of Remote www.iapad.org http://pgis2005.cta.int/
Sensing, GIS and GPS in the field of IAPAD shares information about – Website of the Mapping for Change:
development, planning and and technical progress on – International Conference on
management with a special focus on community-based mapping and Participatory Spatial Information
Asian countries. It covers not only the Public Participation GIS (PPGIS). Hosts Management and Communication
technological know-how but also a unique collection of community (PGIS ‘05) held at KCCT, Nairobi,
deals with the application of the mapping and PGIS-related streaming Kenya, 7th–10th September 2005.
technologies in different fields of video documentaries. See Contains information and resources
development planning. www.iapad.org/multimedia.htm. related to the conference.
There is also a manual on
GIS for developing countries Participatory 3-dimensional Mayan Atlas
(GISDECO) modelling: www.iapad.org/p3dm_ http://geography.berkeley.edu/ProjectsResources
www.geog.uu.nl/gisdeco/gisdeco.html guiding_principles.htm. Watch the /MayanAtlas/MayaAtlas/MayanAtlas2.htm
GISDECO is an international network documentary via www.iapad.org/ The Mayan Atlas was made by the
of GIS experts, planners and project p3dm_video.htm. Also hosts a useful forty-two Ke’Kechi and Mopan
managers engaged in GIS and comprehensive online glossary of communities of southern Belize. The
applications in developing countries. terms for community mapping: maps, text, photographs, drawings
GISDECO focuses on the exchange of www.iapad.org/glossary/default.htm and interviews were done by Maya
practical experiences with GIS village researchers and cartographers
applications by organising seminars Landscape_gis elected by the communities. In their
and workshops in various countries. http://groups.yahoo.com/group/landscape_gis/ own words and with their own maps,
A new Yahoo Group aimed at the Maya describe their culture and
GRASS (Geographic Resources generating discussion amongst rainforest, and their desire to protect
Analysis Support System) professionals and academics involved and manage their own land.
http://grass.itc.it/index.php in landscape visual impact analysis
GRASS is a free/open-source software and 3D landscape/urban modelling The National Consortium for Rural
GIS programme. One attractive thing using GIS, VR and CAD technologies. Geospatial Innovations (RGIS)
about it is the potential to localise it www.ruralgis.org
for different languages (see Maine Islands Community GIS RGIS assists state, tribal, regional and
http://grass.itc.it/devel/i18n.php). www.islandinstitute.org/communitygis/ local governments, and both profit
default.html and non-profit organisations in
Green Map System The Island Institute currently supports implementing advanced geo-spatial
www.greenmap.org the development of a community- information technologies. Their goal
A global movement that promotes integrated GIS approach in Maine’s is to improve the quality of life,
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e-participation
environmental health, and the managed by IAPAD. Members can based GIS to enhance public
IN TOUCH
economic competitiveness of rural share information and lessons learnt involvement and participation in
communities. relevant to the practice. This site environmental planning and decision-
includes a Virtual Library – the largest making processes.
Native Geographies bibliographic and literature
www.uwec.edu/grossmzc/native.html collections on PGIS: Public Participation GIS
Native Geographies covers the http://ppgis.iapad.org/ www.crssa.rutgers.edu/ppgis/
historical and contemporary bibliography.htm and http://ppgis. A slightly more academic gateway to
relationships of American Indians to iapad.org/ppgis_literature.htm the world of PPGIS.
place, including land use and
environmental issues, indigenous Philippine Association for Inter- Red Road HIV/AIDS Network Society
mapping techniques, sacred sites, Cultural Development (PAFID) http://red-road.org/map/index.html
territorial nationhood, and legal rights www.iapad.org/pafid/index.htm An organisation using PGIS to
to ceded and sovereign lands. Native PAFID uses Participatory 3D connect people affected by or
Geographies focuses on place and Modelling, GPS and GIS applications infected with HIV or AIDS to the
territorial identity in the historical and to support indigenous cultural current services available.
contemporary life of North American communities throughout the
Indians and as a result, provides Philippines in claiming their rights School of Earth Sciences
insight regarding other indigenous over ancestral domains. www.geo.vuw.ac.nz
(Native) peoples around the world. Part of the Institute of Geography,
Public Health Mapping and GIS Victoria University of Wellington, New
Native Lands www.who.int/health_mapping/en/ Zealand. Maintains a website
www.nativelands.org/bin/view.fpl World Health Organisation website focusing on Mobile Interactive
Native Lands works to protect which describes GIS and other ICT Geographical Information Systems
biological and cultural diversity with applications in geographical analysis (MIGIS). MIGIS is an approach to
indigenous peoples in Latin America, of health problems and services. community based planning using GIS
with a focus on Central America and Included are sections on WHO- in conjunction with, and fully
southern Mexico. It has programmes developed tools, mapping diseases informed by, Participatory Rural
in participatory and regional mapping and health, country support, and Appraisal. See
as well as conferences, workshops, information resources. www.geo.vuw.ac.nz/geography/proje
and technical exchanges. cts/migis/
Public Participation GIS (PPGIS) Web
Nature-GIS Ring SOS-IG: Sociétés, Organisations et
www.gisig.it/nature-gis www.webring.com/hub?ring=ppgis Sciences de l’Information
A European thematic network for The PPGIS Web Ring shares common Géographique
protected areas/nature preservation interests in community mapping and http://sos-ig.scg.ulaval.ca/ppgis/accueil_
and geographical information. in all forms of collaborative spatial ppgis.htm
information management aimed at Web-based observatory for PPGIS
Open Forum on Participatory supporting integrated conservation initiatives. It intends to provide a
Geographic Information Systems and development, sustainable natural classification framework of PPGIS. In
and Technologies resource management, customary the next few months, the site will be
www.ppgis.net property rights and peer-to-peer translated into English and new PPGIS
PPgis.net is a global forum for communication. projects will be added.
discussing issues related to
community mapping, Participatory Public Participation Geographical Society for Conservation GIS
GIS and other geo-spatial information Information Systems Research www.scgis.org
technologies and systems for www.ppgis.man.ac.uk/ A non-profit organisation that builds
development. The PPGIS site is This website develops and tests web- communities, provides knowledge,
146
e-participation
and supports individuals using Uma Bawang Residents’ Association URISA Public Participation GIS
IN TOUCH
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) (UBRA) (PPGIS) Conference
and science for the conservation of www.tve.org/ho/doc.cfm?aid=1389&lang= www.urisa.org/PPGIS/ppgis.htm
natural resources and cultural heritage. English URISA (Urban and Regional
Mapping the land to safeguard traditional Information Systems Association)
Sun Centre of Excellence (CoE) rights in Malaysia. The link is to a TVE holds an annual conference on
www.coe.hu-berlin.de/ HANDS ON programme on Communica- Public Participation GIS (PPGIS).
The CoE is a joint cooperation tion for Change featuring the UBRA. This refers to a range of topics
between Sun Microsystems, Salzburg raised by the intersection of
Research Forschungsgesellschaft, and UNESCO Sector for Culture community interests and GIS
Z_GIS, University of Salzburg. Its main www.portal.unesco.org/culture/en technology.
goal is to conduct research in map- UNESCO’s site of pilot projects on
based online public participation and mapping of indigenous cultural Village Earth: the consortium for
to design and implement concepts resources and identification of best sustainable village-based
and technology prototypes that practices in regard to cultural development
demonstrate how citizens’ pluralism. Use the search function on www.villageearth.org
participation in public decision the right hand side to find resources Contains useful information and
processes and decision finding can be related to ‘Mapping of Indigenous learning related to Village Earth
improved. Cultural Resources’. mapping projects.
147
RCPLA Network
In this section, we update readers on activities of the Colombo 06, Sri Lanka. Tel: +94 1 555521;
RCPLA NETWORK
Resource Centres for Participatory Learning and Action Tel/Fax: +94 1 587361; Email: [email protected]
Network (RCPLA) Network (www.rcpla.org) and its West Africa Region: Awa Faly Ba, IIED Programme Sahel,
members. RCPLA is a diverse, international network of Point E, Rue 6 X A, B.P. 5579, Dakar, Sénégal. Tel: +221
national-level organisations, which brings together 824 4417; Fax: +221 824 4413; Email: [email protected]
development practitioners from around the globe. It was European Region: Jane Stevens, Participation, Power and
formally established in 1997 to promote the use of Social Change Group, Institute of Development Studies
participatory approaches to development. The network is (IDS), University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9RE, UK.
dedicated to capturing and disseminating development Tel: + 44 1273 678690; Fax: + 44 1273 21202;
perspectives from the South. For more information please Email: [email protected]; Website:
contact the RCPLA Network Steering Group: www.ids.ac.uk/ids/particip
RCPLA Coordination and North Africa & Middle East Region: Participatory Learning and Action Editorial Team,
Ali Mokhtar, Near East Foundation – Middle East Region, International Institute for Environment and Development
Center for Development Services (CDS), 4 Ahmed Pasha (IIED), 3 Endsleigh Street, London WC1H 0DD, UK. Tel: +44
Street, 10th Floor, Garden City, Cairo, Egypt. 207 388 2117; Fax: +44 207 388 2826; Email:
Tel: +20 2 795 7558; Fax: +20 2 794 7278; [email protected]; Website: www.planotes.org
Email: [email protected] [email protected]; Latin American Region: Jordi Surkin Beneria, Grupo Nacional
Website: www.neareast.org/main/cds/default.aspx de Trabajo para la Participacion (GNTP), Calle Padre Musani
Asia Region: Tom Thomas, Director, Institute for #40, Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Tel/fax: +591 3 337 607
Participatory Practices (Praxis), S-75 South Extension, Part II, Southern and Eastern Africa Region: Eliud Wakwabubi,
New Delhi, India 110 049. Tel/Fax: +91 11 5164 2348 to 51; Participatory Methodologies Forum of Kenya (PAMFORK),
Email: [email protected] or [email protected] Jabavu Road, PCEA Jitegemea Flats, Flat No. D3, PO Box
Jayatissa Samaranayake, Institute for Participatory 2645, KNH Post Office, Nairobi, Kenya. Tel/Fax: +254 2
Interaction in Development (IPID), 591 Havelock Road, 716609; Email: [email protected]
News from the RCPLA Network organisation’s goals. Usually, Padma is a local non-
Coordinator members decide on the participatory governmental development
Over the last few months, the theme they want to focus on and organisation founded in 2000 by a
network coordinator has been build it around relevant activities. group of educated youth from
publicising the RCPLA among Communication for Change (C4C) Jhenidah district and named after the
academic, research, and development was the selected theme for 2005. most prominent river in Bangladesh.
institutions and promoting the The success of RCPLA activities Moved by the sorrows and distress of
participatory approach to generate depends on the active participation the poor and oppressed and victims
new members and expand it within of its members. of socio-economic discrimination,
these sectors, particularly in countries Many organisations have shown Padma was established as a means of
that are not currently represented in interest in joining the RCPLA. We are realising their dream of a democratic
the network. The network provides honoured to announce that Padma in society within a stable ecosystem,
members with multiple opportunities Bangladesh, Fantsuam Foundation in based on economic equity and social
to present individual and institutional Nigeria and Marie Michael Library, justice. The organisation emerged out
work, and share knowledge and Coady International Institute in of necessity for socio-cultural change
experiences in international spheres. Canada have recently joined the in the southwest region. Padma is
RCPLA activities are a vehicle for RCPLA. Each member will bring to known for its remarkable
disseminating participatory initiatives the network a specific strength, but contribution to increasing accessibility
globally. Simultaneously they are all are united in their desire to work to information and knowledge,
structured to fulfil participants’ needs together to make a difference especially among disadvantaged
and interests as well as to develop through adopting and promoting women; creating a sustainable
their personal skills and support their participatory approaches. environment; empowering poor
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RCPLA Network
communities; and protecting human people's movement for economic Out of Hunger, Extreme Hunger and
RCPLA NETWORK
rights. To learn more about Padma and social justice that began in Nova Starvation: The Case of Kenya. The
visit www.padma.5u.com Scotia during the 1920s. The Marie dissemination workshop for this
Fantsuam Foundation was Michael Library was established in report took place in Nairobi, Kenya
established in 1996 with the mission 1964 to meet the information needs on 13th–14th February 2006. Some
of reducing poverty among rural of students and teaching staff of the 17 participants with the responsibility
women in Nigeria. Its holistic poverty Coady International Institute. Coady of implementing hunger reduction
reduction services have led to its envisions achieving a just and programmes among the BFW
involvement in several activities equitable world for current and partners in Kenya participated in the
including the deployment of future generations, where all people workshop including one
Information and Communication participate in shaping their own representative from BFW. The survey
Technology (ICT) and promoting destinies and where they can enjoy revealed four categories of
micro-finance for health and the full and abundant life envisioned households affected by hunger and
education in rural Nigeria. Fantsuam’s by Dr. Moses Coady. To learn more consuming less than 1800 Kcal per
package of integrated projects always about Coady International Institute day. Category A and B consume
starts with provision of micro-finance and Marie Michael Library visit above 1400 Kcal a day and are
and ICT services to organised women www.coady.stfx.ca affected by moderate hunger while
and youth groups. However, it is category C and D consume less than
important to note that the micro- News from the Participatory 1400 Kcal and suffer from extreme
finance programme supports health Methodologies Forum of Kenya hunger.
and adult education programmes, (PAMFORK) Workshop participants
community and children’s health, overwhelmingly agreed with the
waste disposal, rural road access, Institutionalising Rights in findings of the hunger survey report
water and sanitation, agricultural- Development through Citizen and noted that it reflected the reality
based services, market information Participation on the ground. They recognised the
services, cottage industries for value- Following a writeshop convened by existence of different categories of
added agricultural produce, and PAMFORK, the RCPLA is pleased to the households affected by hunger,
integration of indigenous knowledge. announce the publication of and specifically category D
Currently, the Foundation works in 9 Institutionalising Rights in households who are affected by
chiefdoms and has succeeded to Development through Citizen extreme hunger and who they
disburse N11.9Million to 1,528 Participation. This includes 18 case agreed are not reached by hunger
women as of April 2005. To learn studies from practitioners in Kenya, reduction interventions. They agreed
more about Fantsuam Foundation Uganda and Zimbabwe. For more with the findings that development
visit www.fantsuam.org information see the In Touch section actors have minimal impact in
Marie Michael Library, Coady on page 139. reducing extreme hunger attributing
International Institute was this to weakness in targeting, design
established by St. Francis Xavier Hunger Survey Report Dissemination and implementation of programmes
University in 1959 with a mission to Workshop against hunger. Despite these
promote learning for individuals and In October 2004 a hunger survey was weaknesses BFW partners still have
organisations engaged in community conducted in Kenya by PAMFORK on great potential in impacting on
action to achieve well-being, global behalf of Bread for the World (BFW). extreme hunger as they work at the
justice, peace and participatory The overall goal of the survey was to grassroots level. Workshop
democracy. It is known worldwide as define hunger and extreme hunger participants were able to share their
a centre of excellence in community- from the perspectives of the experiences and challenges on their
based development. The Institute households that go without food – work with the hungry households.
was named in honour of Rev. Dr. their characteristics, root causes of They also shared the lessons they had
Moses Coady, a prominent founder hunger and its impact. The output of learnt from the report and were able
of the Antigonish Movement – a the survey was a report titled Moving to make recommendations and
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RCPLA Network
strategies for the way forward in the Learning and Teaching for Participatory Video: A Handbook for
RCPLA NETWORK
fight against hunger in Kenya. Transformation workshop. Inspired by the Field by Chris and Nick Lunch,
In conclusion, workshop the discussions of participants at the (Insight) which is a practical guide to
participants jointly agreed that the event last April, this report seeks to setting up and running Participatory
real challenge is coming up with deepen understandings of the inter- Video projects anywhere in the
interventions and sustainable relationships between education, world, and Love of the heart: Tales
programmes for category D participation and development. For from Raizes Vivas Brazil, by Andrea
households. These interventions more information please email Cornwall, which has come out of
should however not be implemented [email protected] ActionAid International’s Critical
in isolation of other household We are also organising a ten-day Stories of Change Project.
categories, rather partner institutions training course on Participatory Video For further details on any of the above
should design interventions that are for organisations and individuals please email [email protected]
appropriate for each category. interested in deepening knowledge
Development partners should be and gaining skills in popular methods News from IIED
aware that there are risks involved of communication. The course aims On 25th–29th January 2006, IIED
when working with category D to equip participants with the skills co-facilitated a citizens’ jury on
households only and thus they may necessary for empowering the poor genetically modified crops in
not be able to achieve donor results and marginalised to have a greater Sikasso, Mali, where two-thirds of
as soon as possible. They all agreed impact on decision-making processes the country’s cotton crop is grown.
that there is a lot of work to be done and advocate for social justice. The The jury, composed of local cotton-
in order to eradicate extreme hunger training includes background and growers and other farmers, cross-
in Kenya and a lot of support is rational of Participatory Video plus a examined 14 international witnesses
needed from BFW and other donor fieldwork placement to apply what – including biotech scientists,
organisations. has been learnt. The course will run international agencies, and farmers
Out of the hunger survey various from 5th–6th June 2006, and again from South Africa and India with
good practices were identified. They from 2nd–3rd October 2006. No first-hand experience of growing
form the basis for various previous video experience is GM crops – and voted against the
recommendations to all development necessary but experience of introduction of GM crops. Instead,
partners in the fight against hunger. participatory methods (e.g. the jurors proposed a package of
PRA/PLA/Reflect) and good recommendations to strengthen
News from the Institute of facilitation skills are required. traditional agricultural practices and
Development Studies (IDS) A new resource CD on Resources, support local farmers. Though the
The Participation, Power and Social Citizen Engagements and Democratic jurors' decision is not binding, it is
Change Group at IDS has seen two Local Governance (ReCitE) is now expected to influence the future
exciting developments in its Learning available from LogoLink (Learning direction of agricultural policy in
and Teaching for Transformation (LTT) Initiative to Strengthen Citizen Mali and across the region where
initiative. A new blog (web-log) page Participation and Local Governance). most people rely on subsistence
has been set up which gives This CD brings together materials farming.
members of the LLT dialogue an generated as part of the ReCitE The citizens’ jury was hosted by
opportunity to add news and initiative and is aimed at those the regional government (Assemblée
comment on the latest LTT working towards greater citizen Régionale de Sikasso) and designed
developments and discussions, as engagement in the ‘fiscal spaces’ of and facilitated by IIED and RIBios, the
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Change: exploring relationships Partners (contact details available at Mali.
between teaching, learning and www.ids.ac.uk/logolink). Other To read the full verdict, visit: www.iied.org/
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54

54 Mapping for change:

Giacomo Rambaldi, Silika Tuivanuavou, Penina Namata, Paulo Vanualailai,

Mike McCall ......................................................................................................114

A view from inside

Institute for Geo-Information

Sciences and Earth Observation (ITC)

PGIS/community mapping initiatives

The conference participants gather for

Photo: Jeroen Verplanke

REFERENCES GiacomoRambaldi_etal_%20PaperVersion_ ‘Participatory Spatial Information

Box 2: Some participatory tools and methods used in the practice

Adapted from Rambaldi et al. (2005) and Corbett (2005)

Robert Chambers Peter Kwaku Kyem,

A plenary session panel,

Photo: Johan Minnie

Jon Corbett and Participants deep

Photo: Johan Minnie

Conference organiser Giacomo

Photo: Johan Minnie

Rachel Olson presents

national network of communities, practitioners and

CONTACT DETAILS Dan Wiener, REFERENCES

by JON CORBETT and PETER KELLER

Introduction “The technologies used were selected

Introducing CIS to the community Introduction

What information? Information source Responsibility

Village boundaries Lama (male) Kitong (male)

Culture, including belian healing ceremonies. Ramid (male) Not known

The ladang process All villagers Kitong (male)

Community decision-making computer equipment.1 These community operators were

The main reason was because of a conflict between commu-

CONTACT DETAILS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES

planning, and safeguarding

by GIACOMO RAMBALDI, SILIKA TUIVANUAVOU, PENINA NAMATA,

Photo: Giacomo Rambaldi

Box 1: Participatory 3D modelling Figure 3: Elders working on the model

Participatory 3D modelling (P3DM) is a communicative facilitation

P3DM integrates people’s knowledge and spatial information (contour

The difference between an ordinary contour map and a 3D relief model

Photo: Giacomo Rambaldi

ent information layers. Instead data were depicted directly

Photo: Penina Namata

on the transect diagram (Figure 5). All 12 groups went contain.

Photo: Giacomo Rambaldi

imported into a GIS environment. This is the phase, where

CONTACT DETAILS REFERENCES

land use conflicts using PGIS:

by PETER A. KYEM case study from Ghana to illustrate the methodology. It

conflict and others (1993) describe a multi-dimensional decision space. This is

space among the two competing objectives produces four main

negotiating joint values. GIS applications can help to facili-

Using GIS as an educational tool

CONTACT DETAILS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT REFERENCES

by PETER POOLE “Official reaction varies from denial to

Map 1: Guiana Shield tenure

Map 2: Making a tenure map in three stages

Map 3: NaturalVue 2000 rectified Landsat-based image map of Saramaka

Wanhati Mapping team, Saramaka informants