Piping and

Pipeline
Engineering
Design, Construction,
Maintenance, lntegrity,
and Repair

George A. Antaki
Aiken, South Carolina, U.S.A.

~ Taylor & Francis

'e] Taylor &. Francis Group
Boca Raton London New York

A CRC title, part of the Tayfor & Francis ìmprìnt, a member of the
Taylor & Francìs Group, the acad emic divìsion of T&F Informa pie.
Contents

PREFACE III

C HAPTER l COD ES, STANDARDS AND PRACTICE l

1.1 A BriefHistory ofPiping Technology l
1.2 National Codes, Standards and Guides 9
1.3 Piping and Pipeline Codes 13
1.4 Scope of ASME B31 Codes 14
1.5 Boiler and Pressure V essei Code 15
1.6 Federai and State Laws 17
1.7 ASME Council on Codes and Standards 21
1.8 ASME Bl6 Standards 22
1.9 API Standards and Recommended Practices 23
1.10 Manufacturers Standardization Society 26
1.11 Pipe Fabrication Institute Standards 29
1. 12 American Institute of Steel Construction 30
1.13 American Concrete Institute 30
1.14 NACE 30
1.15 Materia! Institutes 31
1.16 National Board 32
1.17 Flow Contro! Institute Standard 32
1.18 Hydraulic Institute Pump Standards 33
1.19 References 33

CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTALS 34
2.1 Competence 34
2.2 At the Engineering Leve1 34
2.2.1 Materials 35
2.2.2 Design 36
2.2.2.1 Systern Design 36
2.2.2.2 Component Design 36
2.2.3 Construction 37
2.2.4 Quality Contro! Inspections 38
2.2.5 Preoperational Testing 38
2.2.5.1 Mechanical Testing 38
2.2.5.2 Operational Testing 38
2.2.6 Maintenance 39
2.2.7 Operation 39
2.3 At the Corporate Level 40

v
vi Contents

CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS 42
Introduction: A Good Pastry 42
3.1 FenousPipe 43
3.1.1 Wrought Iron 43
3.1.2 Cast Iron 43
3.1.3 Steel Pipe and Fittings 44
3 .1.3 .l Essential Characteristics 44
3.1.3.2 Carbon Steels 45
3. 1.3.3 Alloy Steels 45
3.1.3.4 High Alloy Steels 49
3 .1.4 Steel Line Pipe so
3.2 Non-Fenous Pipe so
3.2.1 Alurninum Alloys so
3.2.2 Nickel Alloys so
3.2.3 Copper Alloys SI
3.3 Fabrication ofSteel Pipe 51
3.3.1 Pipe Size 51
3.3.2 Searnless Pipe 52
3.3.3 Seam Welded Pipe 52
3.3.4 Docurnentation 54
3.3.5 Microstructure 55
3.4 Fabrication ofPipe Fittings and Components 58
3.4.1 Forging 58
3.4.2 Casting 59
3.4.3 Sheet Meta! 60
3.4.4 Pipe Specifications 61
3.4.5 Machining and Finishing 61
3.4.6 Base Metal Imperfections 62
3.5 Mechanical Properties 62
3.5.1 Strength 63
3.5.2 Hardness 66
3.5.3 Toughness 68
3.5.3.1 Charpy Y-Notch Toughness 68
3.5.3.2 Drop Weight Test 70
3.5.3.3 Fracture Toughness 71
3.5.4 Fatigue Strength 73
3.5.5 Physical Properties 73
3.6 Procurement 74
3.6.1 Procurement Specification 74
3.6.2 Supplier Assessment 77
3.7 References 78

CHAPTER 4 1NTER~AL P RESSURE 81

4.1 Pressure Design ofPiping 81
Contents vii

4.1.1 Thin Wall Approximation 81

4.1.2 Pipe1ine Design Equation 82
4.1.3 Yield and Wali Thickness 83
4.2 Pressure Design of Plant Piping 85
4.2.1 Lamé's Formula 85
4.2.2 Early Design Equation 86
4.2.3 Piping Design Equations 87
4.2.4 Allowable Stress 89
4.2.5 Wall Thickness Allowance 90
4.3 Yield and Burst Pressure 90
4.3.1 The Von Mises Yield Pressure 90
4.3.2 Burst Pressure 91
4.4 Pressure Design ofPlastic Pipe 92
4.5 Pressure Rating 92
4.5.1 Pressure Rating 92
4.5.2 Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings 94
4.5.3 Steel Butt Welded Fìttings 94
4.5.4 Steel Flange Ratings 95
4.5.5 Socket Weldìng and Threaded Fittings 95
4.5.6 Valves 96
4.5.6.1 Shell Strength 96
4.5.6.2 Seat Tightness 96
4.5.7 Unlisted Components 97
4.6 Pressure Stress in Fittings 97
4.6.1 Pipe Elbows and Bends 97
4.6.2 Branch Connections and Nozz1es 98
4.6.3 Reinforcement ofBranch Connections 101
4.6.4 End Fillets 103
4.7 High Pressure Design 105
4.8 Design Pressure 105
4.8.1 Design Scenarios 105
4.8.2 Pressure Excursions 107
4.9 Over-Pressure Protection 109
4 .l OBurst Energy 111
4.11 Pipe Specification 112
4.12 Valve Specification 116
4.1 3 References 118

CHAPTER 5 EXTERNAL PRESSURE 121

5.1 Buckling Pressure 121
5.2 ASME Code Design 124
5.3 References 124

CHAPTER 6 LAYOUT AND SUPPORTS 126

viii Contents

6.1 Spacing ofPipe Supports 126

6.2 Sustained Stress 129
6.3 Stress Indices 130
6.4 Design Standards 132
6.5 Selection ofPipe Supports 133
6.5.1 Variable Spring 133
6.5.2 Constant Load Hanger 135
6.5.3 Rigid Frames 136
6.5.4 Road Hangers 137
6.5.5 Pipe Rolls 138
6.5.6 Rigid Struts 138
6.5.7 Vibration Dampers 139
6.5.8 Snubbers 139
6.5.9 Anchors 140
6.5.10 Saddles 141
6.6 Design of Standard Support 141
6.7 Design ofSteel Frames 142
6.7.1 Design 142
6.7.2 Construction 142
6.8 Anchorage to Concrete 142
6.9 Layout Rules of Good Practice 148
6.9.1 Equipment Elevations 148
6.9.2 Equipment Spacing 148
6.9.3 Piping 148
6.9.4 Valves 149
6.9.5 Pump Piping 149
6.9.6 Compressor Piping 149
6.1 O References 149

CHAPTER 7 FLEXlBILITV AND FATIGUE 152

7.1 Layout for Flexibility 152
7.2 Simplified F1exibi1ity Analysis 155
7.3 Fatigue 157
7.4 Smooth Specimen Fatigue 160
7.5 Pipe Component Fatigue 165
7.6 Fatigue Strength ofSocket Welds 167
7.7 Fatigue Strength ofButt Welds 168
7.8 ASME B31 Fatigue Rules 169
7.9 Fracture Mechanics Approach 171
7.1 0 Corrosion Fatigue 173
7. 11 Shakedown 173
7.12 Cold Spring 174
7.13 Through-Wall Temperatures 175
7. 14 Creep Damage 177
Contents ix

7.15 Pipe lnsulation 179

7 .16 Expansion J oints 180
7. 17 References 182

C HAPTER 8 VIBRATION 186

8.1 Root Cause 186
8.2 Mechanically Induced Vibration 187
8.3 Vibration Analysis 189
8.4 Hydraulic Induced Vibration 194
8.4.1 Vane and Piston Motion 195
8.4.2 Turbulence Induced Vibration 196
8.4.3 Cavitation and Air Pockets 197
8.4.4 Acoustic Resonance 199
8.4.5 Breathing Mode 201
8.4.6 Valve Noise 202
8.5 Measuri.ng Vibration 203
8.5.1 Measuring Displacement 203
8.5.2 Measuring Velocity 204
8.5.3 Measuring Acceleration 204
8.5.4 Strain Gages 204
8.5.5 Signal Conditioners and Analyzers 204
8.6 Assessing Vibration Severity 205
8.6.1 Severity Charts 205
8.6.2 Pipe Vibration Analysis 206
8.7 Prevention and Mitigation 207
8.7.1 Eliminate the Source 207
8.7.2 Good Layout and Supports 208
8.7.3 Preoperational Testing 209
8.7.4 Reducing Turbulence and Cavitation 209
8.7.5 Pulsation Damper 210
8.7.6 Damping 210
8.7.7 Flexible Connections 211
8.8 References 211

CHAPTER 9 F'LUID TRANSlENTS 216

9.1 Single Liquid Phase 216
9.1.1 Bulk or Propagative Flow 216
9.1.2 Pressure Change in Bulk Flow 219
9 .1.3 Waterhammer 221
9.1.4 Valve Characteristics 223
9 .1.5 One-to-Two P base Transient 224
9.1.6 Pump Fill Rate 225
9.1.7 Prevention ofLiquid Waterhammer 226
9.2 Two-Phase Vapor-Liquid Waterhamrner 226
x Contents

9.2. 1 Steam-Water Waterhammer 226

9.2.2 Case Histories 228
9.2.3 Predicting the Effects ofTwo-Phase Transients 230
9.2:4 Steam System Layout 232
9.3 Non-Condensable Two-Phase Waterhammer 233
9.3.1 FlowRegime 233
9.3.2 Analysis ofSlug Flow 236
9.3.3 Trapped Air 236
9.4 Stress Analysis 239
9.5 References 239

CHAPTER 10 WIND DESIGN 241

10.1 Wind Damage 241
l O.2 W ind Pressure 242
10.3 Vo11ex Shedding 243
10.4 Wind-Bome Mìssiles 244
l 0.5 References 245

CHAPTER 11 SEISMIC DESIGN AND RETROFIT 246

11 .1 The Seìsmic Challenge 246
11.2 Seisrnic Specìfication 246
11.2.1 Project Specification 247
11.2.2 Seìsrnic Input 247
11 .2.3 Seisrnic Qualification 248
11.2.3.1 Operability 248
11.2.3.2 Leak Tightness 249
11.2.3 .3 Position Retention 250
11.2.4 Materia! Conditìon 251
11.2.5 Interactions 251
11 .2.6 Documentation 251
11.2.7 Maintenance 251
11.2.8 Definition of Common TellilS 252
11.3 Rules of Good Practice 254
11.4 Seismic Analysis Techniques 255
11 .5 Seismic Input Based on IBC 257
11.6 Seisrnic Response Spectra 260
11.6.1 Seisrnic Input 260
11.6.2 Modal and Directìonal Combinations 262
11.7 Seisrnic Qualification 263
11.8 Shake Table Testìng 264
11 .9 Seismic Interactions 265
11.9.1 Description 265
11.9.2 Interaction Revìew 266
11.9.3 Falling Interactions 266
Contents xi

l 1.9.4 Rocking or Swing Impact 267

l 1.9 .5 Significant Impact 268
l l. l OReferences 268

C IIAPTER 12 EXPLOSJONS 271

12.1 Deflagration and Detonation 271
12.2 Dynarnic Loads 272
12.3 Dynarnic Properties 274
12.4 Pressure Lirnits 276
12.5 Design Criteria 276
12.5.1 Quasi-Static Load 276
12.5.2 Impulsive Load 278
12.5.3 Fracture 278
12 .6 Explosion Protection 280
12.7 Extemal Explosions 281
12.8 References 284

C HAPTER 13 S UBSEA PIPELINES 287

13. 1 Subsea Pipeline Safety 287
13.2 Design Process 288
13.3 Internai Pressure 289
13.4 Extemal Pressure 289
13.5 Pipe Lowering 292
13.6 On-Bottom Stability 294
13.6.1 Objective 294
13.6.2 Static Analysis 295
13.7 Pipeline Flotation 297
13.8 Fatigue Design 298
13.9 Hook and Pull 298
13.1 OReferences 299

C HAPTER 14 BURJED PIPE 302

14.1 To Bury or not to Bury 302
14.2 Internai Pressure 303
14.3 Soil Loads 303
14.4 Surface Loads 304
14.5 Thermal Expansion and Contraction 305
14.6 Ground Movement 307
14.7 Seisrnic 309
14.8 References 309

C HAPTER 15 WELDING 311

15 .l Shop and Field Welding 311
15.2 Welding Processes 313
xii Contents

15.2.1 Shielded Meta! Are Welding 313

15.2.2 Submerged Are Welding 313
15.2.3 Gas Meta! Are Welding 314
15.2.4 Flux Core Are Welding 315
15.2.5 Gas Tungsten Are Welding 315
15.2.6 Welding Parameters 316
15.2.7 Gas Purging 317
15.2.8 Meehanized Welding 317
15.3 Weld Defects 317
15.3.1 Weld Metallurgy 317
15.3.2 Porosities 319
15.3.3 Cracks 319
15.3.3.1 HotCracking 319
15.3.3.2 Delayed Cracking 319
15.3.4 Inclusions 320
15.3.5 Root Concavity and Undercut 320
15.3.6 Incomplete Penetration 320
15.3.7 Laek ofFusion 320
15.3.8 Shrinkage 320
15.4 Codes, Standards and Praetiee 321
15.4.1 ASMEB31 andAPI 1104 321
15.4.2 Arneriean We1ding Society 322
15.4.3 Eleetrode Nomenclature 323
15.4.4 Welder and Weld Procedure Qualifieation 323
15.5 Post-W el d Heat Treatment 325
15.6 In-Serviee Welding 326
15.7 Surfaeing Techniques 327
15.8 References 328

CHAPTER 16 EXAMINATION 329

16.1 Visua1 Examination 329
16.2 Magnetie Particles Testing 330
16.3 Liquid Penetrant Testing 331
16.4 Radiographic Testing 333
16.5 Ultrasonic Testing 334
16.6 Eddy Current Testing 336
16.7 Acoustie Ernission Testing 336
16.8 Thermography 337
16.9 Measurement Aecuraey 338
16.1 OType and Extent of Exarninations 339
16.11 Aceeptance Criteria 340
16.12 Personnel Certification 341
16.13 Pipeline Pigs 341
16.13.1 Utility Pigs 341
Contents xiii

16.13.2 Smart Pìgs 343

16.14 References 344

C HAPTER 17 PIPE FLANGE 349

17 .l Flange Standards 349
17.2 Flange Types 349
17.3 F lange Gaskets 351
17.3.1 Selection Factors 351
17.3.2 Non-Metallìc Gaskets 352
17 .3.3 Semi-Metallic Gaskets 353
17.3 .4 Metallic Gaskets 353
17.4 Flange Faces 354
17.5 Flange Ratings 355
17.6 Flange Bolt Torque 357
17.7 Extemal Loads 362
17.8 Assembly ofPipe Flanges 364
17.8.1 Assembly Steps 364
17.8.2 Closing the Gap 367
17.9 Nuts and Bolts 368
17.9.1 Definitions 368
17.9.2 Bolt Fabrication 368
17.9 .3 Bol t Specìfications 368
17.9.4 Nut, Washer Specifications 371
17.9.5 Restrictions 371
17.9. 6 Corrosion Preventìon 372
17 . l OMaintenance 372
17 .l 0.1 Flange Assembly Sequence 372
17 .l O.2 Replacing a Gasket 373
17.10.3 Welding a Slip-On Flange 373
17 .l 0.4 Leakage Diagnostics 374
17.10.5 Refmishing Flange Faces 374
17. 11 References 374

CHAPTER 18 MECHANICAL JOINTS 377

18. 1 What they Are 377
18.2 Swage Fitings 379
18.3 Grooved Fittings 380
18.4 In Conclusion 381

CHAPTER 19 LEAKAND PRESSURE TEST 382

19.1 Leak Test and Pressure Test 382
19.2 Leak and Pressure Test Methods 383
19.3 Choice ofTest Method 388
19.4 Conduct ofTest 389
xiv Contents

19 .4.1 Plan the Test 389

19.4. 2 Conduct the Test 390
19.4.3 Pian for Leaks 391
19.4 .4 Drail1 an d Dry 391
19.5 Isolation 391
19.6 Locating Leaks Underground 393
19.7 References 394

C HAPTER 20 DEGRADATION I N SERVI CE 396

20.1 A Criticai Decision 396
20.2 Generai Corrosion 397
20.2.1 Progressive Corrosion 399
20.2.2 Passivating Coating 400
20.3 Local Corrosion 402
20.4 Galvanic Corrosion 403
20.5 Erosion Corrosion 405
20.6 Environmental Effects 405
20.7 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 408
20.8 High Temperature Effects 410
20.9 Mechanical Damage 411
20.1 O Lining and Coating 413
20 .l O.l Properties 413
20.10.2 Liquid Organics 414
20.10.3 Multilayer Coating 414
20.10.4 Metalli c Coatings 415
20.11 Corrosion Inhibitors 415
20.12 Materia! Selection 416
20.13 References 4 16

CHAPTER 21 F JTNESS-FOR-$ERVICE 419

21.1 Fitness-for-Service 419
21.2 Wall Thinning 421
21.2.1 Measurement 421
21.2.2 Ductile Fracture Initiation 422
21.2.3 Longitudmal Thinning 422
2 1.2.4 Circumferential Thinning 428
21.2.5 Cautions 428
21.3 Crack Flaws 429
21.3.1 Brittle and Ductile Fracture 429
21.3.2 Fundamental Approach 431
21.3.3 Stress Intensity 431
21.3.4 Fitness-for-Service Evaluation 434
21.3.5 CrackArrest 438
21.3.6 Fatigue 438
Contents xv

21.4 Mechanical Damage 439

21.4.1 R.ipple 439
21.4.2 Buckle and Wrinkle 440
21.4.3 Dent 441
21.4.4 Dent with Gouge 442
21.5 References 443

CHAPTER 22 MATNTENANCE, RELIABILITY AND FAILURE ANALYSIS 446

22.1 Case History 446
22.2 Maintenance Objective 448
22.3 Maintenance Pian 448
22.4 Maintenance Strategies 449
22.5 Corrective Maintenance 450
22.6 Failure Modes 451
22.7 Pro-Active Maintenance 453
22.7.1 Preventive or Predictive Maintenance 453
22.7.2 Inspection Checklists 454
22.7.2.1 Piping and Vessels 454
22.7.2.2 Supports 455
22.8 PDM Teclmiques 456
22.9 Reliability 459
22.1 OMaintenance and the Construction Codes 462
22.11 Elements ofFailure Analysis 463
22.11.1 Data Collection 463
22.11.2 Visual Examination, Macrofractography and NDE 463
22.11.3 Metallography and Microfractography 465
22.11.4 Chemical Analysis 467
22.11.5 Mechanical Tests 467
22.11.6 Stress and Fracture Analysis 467
22.11.7 Improvements 468
22.12 References 468

CHAPTER 23 REPAIR TECHNIQUES 471

23.1 Repair Strategy 471
23.2 Replacement 471
23.3 Grinding Out Defects 475
23.4 Weld Overlay 477
23.5 Full Encirclement Sleeve 478
23.6 Fillet Welded Patch 480
23.7 Flush Welded Patch 480
23.8 Welded Leak Box 481
23.9 Mechanical Clamp 482
23.10 Composite Overwrap 483
23.11 Buried Pipe Rehabilitation 484
xvi Contents

23. 12 Brushed and Sprayed Lining and Coating 486

23. 13 Pipe Straightening 487
23. 14 References 488

C HAPTER 24 P LASTlC PIPE 492

24. 1 Plastic Form 492
24.2 Sizc 493
24.3 Chemical Resistance 493
24.4 Physical and M echanical Properties 494
24.5 Pressure Design 495
24.6 Pressure Cycling Fatigue 498
24.7 Pressure Design ofFittings 498
24.8 Support Spacing 499
24.9 Fabrication and Exarnination 501
24.9.1 Solvent Cementing 501
24.9.2 Coated Adhesive 501
24.9.3 Butt Strap Adhesive 501
24 .9.4 Hot Plate Butt Fused Joint 502
24.9.5 Hot Plate Socket Joint 502
24.9.6 Hot Air Welding 502
24.9.7 Electrofusion 502
24 .9.8 Flange Joints 502
24 .l OBonding Qualification 502
24.1 1 References 503

CHAPTER 25 V AL VES 505

25 .l Overview 505
25.2 Gate Valves 507
25.3 Globe Valves 508
25.4 Plug Valves 510
25.5 Ball Valves 510
25.6 Butterfly Valves 511
25.7 Diaphragm Valves 512
25.8 Check Valves 512
25.9 Safety and ReliefValves 513
25.10 Contro! Valves 518
25.1 1 Sizing Gas Contro! Valves 520
25.12 Valve Actuators 521
25.13 Closure Test 522
25.14 References 523

AJ'PENDIX ST ANDARD PIPE SIZES 526

INDEX 533