IRPSHandbook2013 I r1

An Aviagen Brand
Indian River Parent Stock

Management Handbook
2 0 1 3
Preface
This Handbook
The purpose of this Handbook is to help Aviagen's customers to optimize the performance
from their parent stock. It is not intended to provide definitive information on every aspect
of parent stock management, but to draw attention to important issues, which if overlooked
or inadequately addressed, may depress flock performance. The management techniques
contained within this Handbook have the objectives of maintaining flock health and welfare,
and achieving good flock performance.
Performance
This Handbook summarizes best practice management for parent stock. The most common
management strategy worldwide is for birds to receive first light stimulation after 21 weeks (147
days) of age and achieve 5% production at 25 weeks of age, as this gives distinct advantages in
early egg size, chick number and broiler chick quality. However, poultry production is a global
activity and across the world, differing management strategies may need to be adapted for local
conditions.
The information presented is a combination of data derived from internal research trials,
published scientific knowledge, and the expertise, practical skills and experience of the Aviagen
Technical Transfer and Technical Service Teams. However, the guidance within this Handbook
cannot wholly protect against performance variations which may occur for a wide variety of
reasons. Aviagen therefore accepts no ultimate liability for the consequences of using this
information to manage parent stock.
Technical Services
For further information, please contact your local Aviagen Technical Service Manager or
Technical Department or access www.aviagen.com online.
Using this Handbook

Finding a Topic
Colored tabs appear on the right-hand side of the Handbook. These tabs allow readers immediate
access to those sections and topics in which they are particularly interested.
The Table of Contents gives the title and page number of each section and subsection.
An alphabetical Keyword Index is given at the end of the Handbook.
Key Points
Where appropriate, key points have been included which emphasize important aspects of
husbandry and critical management procedures, which if not implemented correctly, may have a
negative impact on performance. These key points are outlined in yellow boxes.
Performance Objectives
Supplements to this Handbook contain performance objectives that should be achieved with
good management practices, environmental and health control.
Nutrition Specifications
Nutrition Specifications are also available as supplements to this Handbook.
Indian River Parent Stock Management Handbook

02
Contents
Table of Contents
5 Introduction
6 Key Management Timetable
Section 1 - Rearing (0-105 days/0-15 weeks)
9 Management Requirements for Males and Females During Rear
10 Chick Management
23 Equipment and Facilities
29 Grading to Manage Uniformity
30 Grading Procedures
43 Flock Management After Grading (Post 28 Days)
Section 2 - Management into Lay (15 Weeks to Peak Production)
47 From 105 Days (15 Weeks) to Light Stimulation
47 Management Considerations
57 Management of Females Post Light Stimulation Until 5% Production
58 Floor Eggs
Management of Females from 5% Hen-day Production until Peak Egg
59
Production
61 Feed Clean-up Trends
61 Egg Weight and Feed Control
63 Management of Males Post Light Stimulation until Peak Egg Production
63 Feeding Considerations
65 Mating Ratio
65 Over-mating
Section 3 - Management in Lay (Peak to Depletion)
67 Management of Females After Peak Production Through to Depletion
67 Factors for Post-peak Management
69 Procedures
General Guidelines for Post-peak Feed Reductions Based on Target Performance
69
Characteristics
73 Monitoring Feed Reduction
75 Feed Reductions and Environmental Temperature
76 Management of Males after Peak Production Through to Depletion
76 Procedures
Section 4 - Monitoring Broiler Breeder Growth
77 Monitoring Broiler Breeder Growth
77 Body Weight Weighing Methods
79 Methodology for Sample Weighing
79 Procedures for Manual Scales
81 Procedures for Electronic Scales
81 Notes on Sample Weighing of Males
82 Note on Sample Weighing for Females
82 Inconsistent Weight Data

03
Contents
Section 5 - Assessment of Bird Physical Condition

85 Assessment of Bird Physical Condition
85 Assessing Bird Condition
86 Assessment of Male Condition
94 Assessment of Female Condition
Section 6 - Care of Hatching Eggs on Farm
99 Care of Hatching Eggs
99 Why Do Hatching Eggs Need Care?
100 The Egg's Protection System
102 Best Practice for Care of Hatching Eggs
Section 7 - Environmental Requirements
107 Housing
107 Farm Location and Design
109 House Design
111 Ventilation
111 Open-sided/Natural Ventilation
112 Negative Pressure Ventilation Systems (Controlled Environment Housing)
113 Minimum Ventilation
116 Transitional Ventilation
117 Tunnel Ventilation
121 Lighting
121 Lighting During Brooding
121 Lighting Programs and Housing Type
131 Wavelength (Light Color) and Lamp Type
Section 8 - Nutrition
133 Nutrition
133 Broiler Breeder Nutrition
133 Supply of Nutrients
137 Feeding Programs and Diet Specifications
140 Feed Manufacturing
142 Water
Section 9 - Health and Biosecurity
143 Health and Biosecurity
143 The Relationship Between Management, Disease Expression, and Bird Welfare
143 Hygiene Management
149 Water Quality
151 Dead Bird Disposal
152 Health Management
155 Health Monitoring Programs

04 04
Contents and Introduction
Appendices
157 Appendix 1 - Records
159 Appendix 2 - Useful Management Information
161 Appendix 3 - Conversion Tables
164 Appendix 4 - Example of Manual Calculations for Grading
168 Appendix 5 - Calculations for Ventilation Rates
171 Appendix 6 - Dew Point or Condensation Table
172 Appendix 7 - Nutrient Composition of Some Commonly Used Feed Ingredients
173 Appendix 8 - Trouble Shooting - Vitamin Deficiency
174 Appendix 9 - Additional Sources of Management Information
Keyword Index
175 Keyword Index
Introduction
Aviagen produces a range of genotypes suitable for different sectors of the broiler market. All
Aviagen products are selected for a balanced range of parent stock and broiler characteristics.
This allows our customers to select the product that best meets the needs of their particular
operation.
As parent stock, all Indian River genotypes are selected to produce the maximum number of
vigorous day-old chicks by combining high egg numbers with good hatchability and fertility.
This is achieved by mating together male lines which are fast growing, feed efficient, and have
high meat yield, with female lines which are selected for the same broiler characteristics, and to
lay high numbers of eggs.
This Handbook summarizes best practice parent stock management for Indian River parent
stock, taking into account the ongoing selection for improved broiler traits.

05
Key Management Timetable

The critical age objectives for parent stock are summarized in the table below.
Age (days) Action

Pre-heat the house. Temperature and relative humidity (RH)
should be stabilized for at least 24 hours, prior to the chicks being
delivered.
Ensure good biosecurity. Pathogens can survive in the surrounding

environment even before the chicks have been placed. Biosecurity
Before chick delivery
before chick delivery is equally, if not more, important than
biosecurity after chick arrival.
All housing and equipment should be cleaned and disinfected

and efficacy of the biosecurity operations verified prior to chick
placement.
Achieve optimum environmental temperature. This is critical for

stimulating both appetite and activity.
Establish a minimum ventilation rate. This will ensure that fresh air
is supplied to the chicks, help to maintain temperature and relative
On chick arrival humidity (RH) and allow sufficient air exchange to prevent the
accumulation of harmful gases.
Monitor chick behavior to ensure that temperature is satisfactory.
Bulk weigh a sample of chicks.
Develop appetite from good brooding practice.
Ensure adequate drinker and feeder space, provide good quality

0-7 feed and maintain optimum temperatures.
Use crop fill assessment as an indication of appetite development.
Monitor bird behavior.
Achieve target body weights.
Obtain body-weight sample. A bulk weighing of birds is required at

7 and 14 days of age. A minimum 2% sample or 50 birds (whichever
is larger) should be weighed from each population. Where possible,
provide a constant (8-hour) daylength by 10 days of age. In open-
7-14 sided houses, daylength will depend on the placement date and the
natural daylength patterns.
If 14 day (2 week) body weights for previous flocks have regularly

been below target, a longer daylength can be provided until 21 days
(3 weeks) of age to help stimulate feed intake and improve body-
weight gain.
Start recording individual body weights between 14 and 21 days (2

14-21 and 3 weeks) of age. This information is required to calculate body-
weight uniformity (CV%).
Grade males and females at 28 days (4 weeks).

28 After grading, revise body-weight profiles to ensure that birds
achieve target body weights by 63 days (9 weeks).

06
Age (days) Action
If necessary, adjust daily feed allocation for the male and female
populations to achieve any revised body-weight targets, and
maintain uniformity.
28-63 Monitor and record body weight weekly.
The main focus during this period is to achieve good skeletal

uniformity and correctly control the growth within each graded
population.
Re-examine graded population weights in relation to the body-

weight target. Combine populations that are of similar weight and
feed intake.
If populations are not following the target profile, a new target

body-weight line should be drawn.
63
For populations that are over the target weight a new target line
should be drawn parallel to the target.
Populations that are under the target should gradually be brought

back to target by 105 days (15 weeks).
Movement of birds between populations should stop.
If necessary, adjust daily feed allocation for the male and female
populations to achieve the target or any revised body-weight targets,
and maintain uniformity.
63-105
Monitor and record body weight weekly.
The main focus during this period is to correctly control the growth
within each graded population.
Re-examine body weights in relation to target. Revise profiles as

necessary, in the same way that was completed at 63 days (9 weeks)
105 of age.
Remove any sexing errors as they are identified.
Achieve correct weekly body-weight gains by ensuring the

appropriate feed amounts are given, particularly from 105 days (15
weeks) onwards.
105-161 All populations should achieve similar body weights by light

stimulation. Significant variation in body weight between
populations at this age will lead to production problems in lay.
126-147 Remove remaining sexing errors.
Calculate and record the uniformity (CV%) of the flock to determine

the lighting program.
If the flock is even (CV less than or equal to 10%), follow the normal
140
recommended lighting program.
If the flock is uneven (CV greater than 10%), light stimulation

should be delayed by 7 to 14 days (1 to 2 weeks).

07
Age (days) Action

First light increase given (not before 147 days of age).
147-161
Mating-up - the exact time of this will depend on the relative

maturity of both males and females.
Immature males should never be mated to mature females.

147-168
If males are more mature than females, they should be introduced
gradually.
168-175 Introduce the breeder feed. From 5% hen-day production at the

latest.
From first egg, increase feed amounts according to the rate of daily
161-196 egg production, daily egg weight and body weight.
Manage males by observing bird condition.
210-depletion Remove non-working males to maintain appropriate mating ratios.
Monitor and record body weight.
Feed reduction should be started approximately 35 days (5 weeks)

after peak production is achieved, which is generally at 252 days (36
weeks) of age.
245-depletion
Feed intake should be reviewed weekly and any reductions in feed
should be based on egg production, daily egg weight, egg mass, and
body weight.
Bird Handling
It is important that all birds are handled in a calm and correct way at all times.
All people handling birds (for catching, weighing, physical assessment, crop fill
assessment, or vaccination) should be experienced and appropriately trained so
that they can handle the birds with the care that is appropriate for the purpose,
age, and sex of the bird.

08
Rearing (0-105 days/0-15 weeks)
Section 1 - Rearing (0-105 days/0-15 weeks)
Section 1
Management Requirements for Males and
Females During Rear
Objective
To meet the requirements of male and female parent stock during each stage of rearing, and to
prepare them for sexual maturity.
Principles
Growing the Indian River parent to the target growth curve in rear allows males and females
to achieve optimum lifetime reproductive performance by ensuring that the birds grow and
develop correctly. Figure 1 shows the progression of bird growth and development over time. At
different points in time, different organs and tissues will develop. Within each phase of growth,
the flock manager should consider, and be aware of, the birds’ priorities for growth at that time.
Management and feed amounts must be adjusted in response to the birds' needs.
Figure 1: Bird growth and development.*

Sexual maturity
(age at first egg)
10-14 days after
lighting-up.
Accelerating growth and Continuing

weight gain to prepare weight gain.
birds for sexual maturity
and mating-up.
Rapid
Body weight
growth
of
testes.
Rapid development of:

Immune, cardiovascu-
lar and digestive
systems, skeleton,
Rapid growth
feathers.
of oviduct and
ovaries.
50% of skeletal growth
completed by 28-35
days of age. Period of continued growth and
development of:
Immune and cardiovascular
systems, skeleton and feathers.
90% of skeletal growth is

completed by around 80-95 days
of age.
Photostimulation
0 14 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140 154 168 182 196 210

Age (days)
*The principles of growth and development will be the same for both males and females but absolute
growth rates will be different.

09
Figure 2 details the important management considerations for each phase of bird growth
illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 2: Management progression.

OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE:
To achieve a To achieve target To follow body- To prepare birds for sexual
good chick start body weight by weight profile maturity and mating. Support
by providing 63 days with and maintain reproductive development.
adequate access minimum CV. uniformity.
to feed & water. Continue devel-
To develop the opment of
skeleton, skeleton, muscu- Increase feed to stimulate
immune & lature and growth following the
cardiovascular feathers. body-weight profile
systems, feather
cover and
appetite. Feed males to achieve
body weight and support
fertility.
Feed females to stimulate
and support growth, egg
Body weight
production, and egg

Re-draw target weight weight.
Transfer to laying
at 63 days if necessary.
house between 126
and 161 days
Stop movement
depending on
of birds between
housing type.
graded pens by
63 days.
Management of:
Temperature
Humidity
Ventilation
Feed distribution
Vaccination Assess flock weight, uniformity and condition,
Crop fill one week prior to anticipated photostimulation
to determine light and feed stimulus.
Flock Grading
Management of:
Body weight
Uniformity Mating-up
Skeletal size
0 14 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140 154 168 182 196 210

Photostimulation
Age (days)
Males and females are reared separately from day-old to mating-up at 147-168 days (21-24 weeks)
of age, but the principles for managing males and females in the rearing period are the same
(apart from differences in body weight and feeding programs). The males form 50% of the
breeding value of the flock and are therefore, just as important as females. So the management
of the males requires the same attention to detail as that of the females. Growing the 2 sexes
separately ensures that growth and uniformity can be controlled separately; providing more
control over body weight and fleshing.
Chick Management
Providing chicks with a good start is essential for the subsequent health, welfare, uniformity and
performance of the flock. Chick management should successfully establish the flock from day-
old by developing feeding and drinking behavior, and providing the correct environmental and
management conditions to adequately meet the requirements of the chick.
Chick preparations at the hatchery
Only in circumstances where it is anticipated that the welfare of the birds will be challenged
should any preventative procedures be undertaken during chick processing in the hatchery.
In situations where bird welfare is likely to be compromised, procedures such as vaccination

may be required. Where this is found to be necessary, it is essential that consultation with a
veterinary advisor takes place and that only properly trained staff are employed and the correct
equipment used. The necessity for any other processing procedures such as beak treatment must
be regularly reviewed and investigations into the birds' environment and management conditions
should be undertaken to avoid any unnecessary use of such procedures. Procedures undertaken
during chick processing at the hatchery should be completed to the highest standard; variations
in the quality of chick handling can lead to uniformity problems.
Animal welfare regulations and recommendations are regularly reviewed and updated with
local variations. Regional and national regulations must be followed.

10
Planning before chick placement
Section 1
The expected delivery date, time and number of chicks should be established with the supplier
well in advance. This will ensure that the appropriate brooding set-up is in place and that chicks
can be unloaded and placed as quickly as possible.
If the stock is being imported, appropriately trained personnel must be available to supervise
and liaise with any customs clearance regulation formalities.
Chick placements should be planned so that chicks from different donor flocks can be brooded
separately. Chicks from young donor flocks will achieve the standard body weights more easily
if kept separate until the time of grading at 28 days (4 weeks) of age.
Chicks should be transported from the hatchery to the farm in an environmentally controlled
vehicle (Figure 3). During transportation:
• Temperature should be adjusted so that the chick vent temperature is held between 39.4 –
40.5°C (103 - 105°F). Note that the required temperature control settings can vary between
different vehicle designs.
• Relative humidity (RH) should be between 50 - 65%.
• A minimum of 0.71 cubic meters per minute (25 cubic feet per minute) of fresh air per 1,000
chicks should be supplied. Greater ventilation rates may be required if the truck is not air-
conditioned and ventilation is the only method available to cool the chicks.
Figure 3: Typical controlled environment chick delivery vehicles.
The house set up at placement should plan for future grading procedures by leaving at least
one pen empty (Figure 4) so that at grading, populations can be grown separately according to
their requirements.
Figure 4: Example of a typical house set up pre-placement for 8,000 chicks, leaving one pen
empty for grading at 28 days.
Pen 1 Pen 2 Pen 3 Pen 4 Pen 5
Brooding Brooding Brooding Brooding

Area Area Area Area
Pen left empty
at chick
placement for
grading at
28 days.
Brooding Brooding Brooding Brooding
Area Area Area Area

11
KEY POINTS
• Be prepared - know what is coming and when.
• Plan placements so that chicks from different aged donor flocks can be brooded separately.
• Chick holding and transport environment should be monitored closely to prevent the chicks
from becoming chilled or over-heated.
• Plan areas for grading.
Farm preparations for chick arrival
Biosecurity
Individual sites should hold birds of a single age; managed on the principles of ‘all-in, all-
out’. Vaccination and cleaning programs are easier and more effective on single-age sites, with
consequent benefits in bird health and performance.
Houses, the areas surrounding the houses, and all equipment (including the water and feed
systems) must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before the arrival of the litter material and
chicks (Figure 5). A recommended hygiene program and efficacy testing procedure should be in
place to ensure that the correct conditions are achieved at least 24 hours before the chicks arrive
(see section on Health and Biosecurity for further information).
Figure 5: Good house cleaning practices. Power washing of the house, and a house after
cleaning, which requires confirmation of acceptable bacteriological testing results before being
restocked with litter material.
The area surrounding the house should be free from vegetation and be able to be easily cleaned
(Figure 6).
Figure 6: Houses with a low biosecurity risk showing concrete areas and no vegetation around
perimeter of the house.

12
Within the house itself, concrete floors are necessary to allow washing and effective litter
management.
Section 1
Vehicles, equipment, and people must be disinfected prior to entering the farm (Figure 7).
Figure 7: A vehicle being disinfected before entering a farm.
KEY POINTS
• Provide chicks with biosecure, clean housing.
• Control spread of disease by using single-age (all-in, all-out) housing.
• Follow a recommended hygiene program and have a testing procedure in place to test its
effectiveness.
House preparation and layout

For chicks at placement, both correct air temperature and correct floor temperature are critical.
Preheating the house before placement is therefore essential. Temperature (air and floor) and
relative humidity (RH) should be stabilized for at least 24 hours prior to the chicks being placed.
At placement the environmental conditions required are:
• An air temperature of 30°C/86°F (measured at chick height in the area where feed and water
are positioned).
• A floor temperature of 28-30°C (82-86°F).
• A relative humidity of 60-70%.
Prior to the chicks arriving, litter material should be spread evenly to a depth of 8-10 cm (3-4
in). However, where floor feeding is to be practiced after brooding, litter depth should not
exceed 4 cm (1.5 in). Litter depth may also be reduced where litter disposal is an issue. Where a
thinner layer of litter is used it is essential that the correct floor temperature (28-30°C/82-86°F)
is achieved prior to chick arrival. Providing excessive litter material (greater than 10 cm/4 in) can
create a problem of litter movement leading to chicks becoming buried, especially if the litter is
spread unevenly.
The choice of litter material is ultimately determined by cost and availability, but a good litter
material should have the following properties:
• Good moisture absorption.
• Biodegradability.
• Good bird comfort.
• Low dust level.
• Freedom from contaminants.
• Consistent availability from a biosecure source.
At placement, and for the first 24 hours, chicks should not have to travel more than 1 m (3.3 feet)
for access to water. Provide nipple lines with an allowance of 12 birds per nipple, or bell drinkers
at a minimum of 8 drinkers per 1000 chicks. Twelve mini-drinkers or trays per 1000 chicks should
also be available. The water supplied to the chicks should be at approximately 15 to 20°C (59 to
68°F). Do not give chicks chilled water.

13
After house cleaning and prior to chick delivery, the drinking water should be sampled at the
source, at the storage tanks, and at the drinker points for bacterial contamination (see section
on Health and Biosecurity for more information).
Any treatment of water with products (such as water soluble additives) that could encourage the
growth of bacteria in the pipes should be followed by an effective water sanitation program. This
should not affect the birds' performance, even subsequently, when they are in lay (refer to the
section on Health and Biosecurity for further details).
Ensure that all chicks have easy access to feed. At placement, feed should be a sieved crumb
(Figure 8) or mini pellet (2 mm [0.06 in] diameter) provided on supplementary feeder trays (1
per 80 chicks) and on paper to give a feeding area occupying at least 90% of the brooding area.
Figure 8: Example of a crumb of good physical quality.
During brooding the light intensity should be 80-100 lux (8-10 foot candles) in the area where
the feed and water are positioned to encourage feeding and drinking behavior. The remainder
of the house should be dimly lit (10-20 lux or 1-2 foot candles).
Spot brooding
In spot brooding, the heat source (canopy, pancake or radiant heaters) is local so chicks can
move away to cooler areas and select for themselves a preferred temperature. Brooding rings are
used to control early chick movement.
The layout for a spot brooding set up, which would be typical for 1,000 chicks on day one, is
shown in Figures 9 and 10.
Figure 9: Example of a typical spot brooding layout (1,000 chicks).

Brooder
Brooder
2m (6.6 ft) 1m (3.3 ft) 2m (6.6 ft)
5m (16.5 ft)
90% Paper Cover 8 Bell Drinkers
12 Feeder Trays 12 Mini Drinkers
2m (6.6 ft) 1m (3.3 ft) 2m (6.6 ft) Automatic Feeder
5m (16.5 ft)

Automatic Feeder 14
Chicks are placed in an area that gives an initial stocking density of around 40 chicks per m2
(4 chicks per ft2).
Section 1
Figure 10: Picture illustrating a good spot-brooding set-up.
Whole-house brooding
In whole-house brooding (Figures 11 and 12), there is no temperature gradient within the
house. House temperature is more constant and the ability of the chicks to move to a preferred
temperature zone is limited.
The main heat source for whole-house brooding can be direct or indirect (using hot air),
although supplementary brooders might also be provided.
Figure 11: Typical whole-house brooding layout for 1,000 chicks. In this situation, chicks are
placed in a brooder surround.
5m (16.5 ft)
Automatic Feeder
5m (16.5 ft)
Whole-house brooding can also be used in part of the house. If this is done, then the whole
house must be heated before releasing the chicks. This will encourage chick movement into the
emtpy area of the
Automatic Feeder
house when access is given at around 7 days of age.

15
Figure 12: Picture illustrating a typical whole-house brooding set-up.
KEY POINTS
• Pre-heat the house and stabilize temperature and humidity at least 24 hours prior to chick
arrival.
• Ensure cleanliness of water and litter.
• Arrange equipment to enable the chicks to reach feed and water easily.
• Position supplementary feeders and drinkers near the main feeding and drinking systems.
Chick arrival and placement
At placement the chicks should be placed into the brooding area as quickly as possible (Figure
13). The longer the chicks remain in the boxes, the more risk of dehydration, with resultant
reduced welfare, poor chick starts, uniformity, and growth.
After placement, empty cardboard chick boxes should be removed and disposed of without
delay. Plastic boxes should be returned for recycling after adequate disinfection protocols have
been followed.
Figure 13: Plastic (on the left) and cardboard (on the right) chick boxes being delivered to a
farm from a controlled environment vehicle.
After placement, chicks should be left to settle for 1 to 2 hours in their new environment.
After this time, check that all chicks have easy access to feed and water and that environmental
conditions are correct. Adjustments should be made to equipment and temperatures where
necessary.

16
Key points:
• Unload chicks and place them quickly.
Section 1
• Do not leave empty chick boxes lying around.
• Check feed, water, temperature and humidity after 1 to 2 hours and adjust where
necessary.
Brooding management
Brooding is the first 7-10 days of a chick’s life. Subsequent high levels of flock performance and
welfare are dependant upon achieving high standards of management during this period.
It is important to replenish feed and water frequently. During the early stages of brooding (the
first 3 days) the maximum daily feed allocation should be provided in small amounts given
frequently (i.e. 5-6 times per day). This will avoid problems of food becoming stale and will
encourage chicks to eat.
Open source drinkers (supplementary drinkers and bell drinkers) should be cleaned out and
refreshed regularly as bacteria can multiply rapidly in open water at brooding temperatures.
Supplementary drinkers supplied at placement should be gradually removed so that by 3-4 days
of age all chicks are drinking from the automated drinking system.
For the first 2 days, chicks should be provided with 23 hours light and 1 hour dark. After the first
2 days, daylength should be gradually reduced so that it is down to a constant 8 hours by 10 days
of age (see section on Lighting for more details). In open-sided houses, daylength will depend
on date of placement and the natural daylength patterns.
During early brooding, chick movement is controlled by a brooding ring. The area contained by
the rings should be expanded gradually from 3 days of age, and the rings removed completely
by 5-7 days of age.
Temperature and RH should be monitored and recorded daily and appropriate adjustments to
the environment made in response to chick behavior to ensure that environmental conditions
are optimized.
The number of feeders and drinkers, and the heating capacity of the brooder, must be appropriate
for stocking density to prevent adverse effects on performance from occurring.
Environmental control
Humidity
Relative Humidity (RH) in the hatcher at the end of the incubation process will be high (approx.
80%). Houses with whole-house heating, especially where nipple drinkers are used, can have RH
levels lower than 50%. Houses with more conventional equipment (such as spot brooders, which
produce moisture as a by-product of combustion, and bell drinkers, which have open water
surfaces) have a much higher RH - usually over 50%; but still lower than 80%. To limit the shock
to the chicks, it is important that house RH levels in the first 3 days are between 60 and 70%.
Chicks kept at appropriate humidity levels are less prone to dehydration and generally make a
better, more uniform start.
RH within the house should be monitored daily using a hygrometer. If it falls below 50% in the
first week, the environment will be dry and dusty. The chicks will begin to dehydrate and action
should be taken to increase RH. RH can be increased by using the misters in the house (Figure
14) or a backpack portable sprayer to spray the walls with a fine mist.

17
Figure 14: Use of a mister to increase RH during brooding.
Temperature
Optimal temperature (and humidity) is essential for health and appetite development. In both
spot and whole-house brooding systems the objective is to stimulate appetite and activity as
early as possible. As birds cannot regulate their own body temperature until 12-14 days of age,
provision of the correct environmental temperature and adjusting environmental temperature
appropriately in response to bird behavior is critical.
A temperature guide appropriate for the recommended RH of 60-70% is given in Table 1. With
whole-house brooding particular attention must be paid to monitoring and controlling house
temperature and humidity, as the ability of chicks to move to a preferred temperature zone is
limited.
With spot brooding, temperature gradients are created within the house. Figure 15 shows the
temperature gradients surrounding the spot brooder. These are marked A (brooder edge) and
B (2 m [6.6 ft] from brooder edge). Respective optimum temperatures are shown in Table 1.
Figure 15: Spot brooding temperature gradients.
Brooder
2m 2m
(6.6 ft) (6.6 ft) KEY
A – Brooder edge
B – 2 m (6.6 ft) from brooder edge
B A A B

18
Table 1: Recommended temperature guide at an RH of 60-70%.
Section 1
Spot Brooding (Refer to Figure 15)
Whole-House
Age (days) Brooding
Temp °C
2 m (6.6 ft) from
Edge of Brooder (A)
Edge of Brooder (B)
Temp °C
Temp °C
Day-old 30 32 29
3 28 30 27
6 27 28 25
9 26 27 25
12 25 26 25
15 24 25 24
18 23 24 24
21 22 23 23
24 21 22 22
27 20 20 20
Interaction between temperature and humidity (RH)

The temperature experienced by the chick is dependent on dry bulb temperature and RH. Birds
lose heat to the environment by evaporation of moisture from the respiratory tract and by heat
(not evaporation) passing through the skin. At high RH, less evaporative loss occurs increasing
the animals’ apparent temperature. High RH, therefore, increases apparent temperature at a
particular dry bulb temperature, whereas low RH will decrease apparent temperature.
The temperature profile given in Table 1 assumes an RH in the range of 60-70%, but if RH differs
from this, optimum temperature may need to be altered accordingly. Table 2 shows the dry bulb
temperature required to achieve the target temperature profile in situations where RH differs
from the target of 60-70%. If RH is outside the target range house temperature at chick level can
be adjusted to match that given in Table 2.
Table 2: Dry bulb temperatures required to achieve equivalent temperatures at varying RH. Dry
bulb temperatures at the ideal RH at an age are colored red.
Dry Bulb Temperature at RH%*
°C
Age (days) 40 50 60 70 80
Day-old 36.0 33.2 30.8 29.2 27.0

3 33.7 31.2 28.9 27.3 26.0
6 32.5 29.9 27.7 26.0 24.0
9 31.3 28.6 26.7 25.0 23.0
12 30.2 27.8 25.7 24.0 23.0
15 29.0 26.8 24.8 23.0 22.0
18 27.7 25.5 23.6 21.9 21.0
21 26.9 24.7 22.7 21.3 20.0
24 25.7 23.5 21.7 20.2 19.0
27 24.8 22.7 20.7 19.3 18.0
*Temperature calculations based on a formula from Dr. Malcolm Mitchell (Scottish Agricultural College).

19
If behavior indicates that the chicks are too cold or too hot, the house temperature should be
adjusted appropriately.
Monitoring humidity and temperature

Temperature and humidity should be monitored at least twice a day for the first 5 days and
then daily thereafter. Measurements of temperature and humidity should be taken at chick level.
Figure 16 indicates the correct positioning of automatic temperature/humidity sensors (above
bird head height).
Figure 16: Correct location for temperature/humidity sensors.
Conventional thermometers should be used to cross-check the accuracy of electronic sensors

controlling automatic systems.
Ventilation
Ventilation without drafts is required during the brooding period to:
• Maintain temperatures and RH at the correct level.
• Replenish oxygen.
• Remove excess moisture, carbon dioxide and noxious gases produced by the chicks and
possibly the heating system.
Poor air quality due to under ventilation at brooding may cause damage to the chicks lung
surface, making birds more susceptible to respiratory disease. Because young chicks are prone
to wind chill effects, the actual air speed at floor level should not be more than 0.15 m/sec (30
ft/min). Any ventilation applied during brooding should not impact bird temperature.
Key points
• Achieve a humidity level of 60-70% for the first 3 days.
• Temperature is critical during brooding and should be maintained as recommended.
• Adjust temperature settings accordingly if RH increases above 70% or falls below 60%.
• Monitor temperature and humidity regularly. Check automatic equipment with manual
measurements at chick level.
• Establish a minimum ventilation rate from day one to provide fresh air and remove waste
gases.
• Avoid drafts.
• Respond to changes in chick behavior.
Monitoring chick behavior
Temperature and humidity should be monitored daily, but by far the best indicator of correct
brooding temperatures is frequent and careful observation of chick behavior.

20
Spot brooding behavior

With spot brooding, correct temperature is indicated by chicks being evenly spread throughout
Section 1
the brooding area as shown in Figure 17. Uneven chick distribution is a sign of incorrect
temperature or drafts.
Figure 17: Bird distribution under brooders. The brooder is the light yellow circle in the center
of each diagram.
Temperature too high Temperature correct

Chicks make no noise Chicks evenly spread
Chicks pant, head and wings droop Noise level signifies contentment
Chicks away from brooder
Temperature too low Draft

Chicks crowd to brooder This distribution requires investigation
Chicks noisy, distress-calling Influenced by draft,
uneven light distribution,
external noises
Whole-house brooding
In whole-house brooding monitoring chick behavior is less easy, because there are no obvious
heat sources. Often, the chicks’ vocalizations may be the only indication of distress. Given the
opportunity birds will congregate in areas where the temperature is closest to their requirements.
If environmental conditions are correct chicks will tend to form groups of 20-30, with movement
between the groups, and continuous feeding and drinking will occur. Different distributions of
chicks in whole-house brooding at different temperatures are given in Figure 18.
Figures 18: Typical behavior of chicks in whole-house brooding (without chick surround) at
different temperatures.
Too High Correct Too Low
Key points
• Chick behavior should be closely and frequently observed.
• Adjustments to house environment should be made in response to chick behavior.

21
Chick start assessment
In the period immediately after the chicks are first introduced to feed and water they are hungry
which means that they should eat well and fill their crops. Assessment of crop fill at key times
after placement is a useful means of determining appetite development and checking that all
chicks have found feed and water. Crop fill should be monitored during the first 48 hours, but
the first 24 hours are the most critical. An initial check 2 hours after placement will indicate if
chicks have found feed and water. Subsequent checks at 8, 12, 24 and 48 hours after arrival
on the farm should also be made to assess appetite development. To do this, samples of 30-40
chicks should be collected at 3 or 4 different places in the house (or per surround where spot
brooding is used). Each chick’s crop should be felt gently. In chicks that have found feed and
water, the crop will be full, soft and rounded (Figure 19). If the crop is full, but the original
texture of the crumb is still apparent, the bird has not yet consumed enough water. Target crop
fills are given in Table 3.
Figure 19: Crop fill after 24 hours. The chick on the left has a full, rounded crop while the chick
on the right has an empty crop.
Table 3: Target crop fill assessment guidelines.

Target Crop Fill
Time of Crop Fill Check
(% of Chicks with Full
After Placement
Crops)
2 hours 75
8 hours >80
12 hours >85
24 hours >95
48 hours 100
Key points
• Monitor crop fill during the first 48 hours after chick placement.
• Achieve good early crop fill. If target levels of crop fill are not being achieved then
something is preventing the chicks from feeding and drinking, and action must be taken
to resolve this.

22
Equipment and Facilities
Section 1
Optimal flock welfare and performance can only be achieved if the correct amount of floor and
feeder space, and number of drinkers for bird age and size are given throughout the life of the
flock.
Stocking density
Stocking density, in part, determines the biological output of the flock. Increases in stocking
density must be accompanied by appropriate adjustments in environment and management
conditions to prevent reductions in biological performance.
Recommended stocking densities during rear are given in Table 4. The range of figures quoted
represents the variation in conditions from tropical (lower densities) to temperate (higher
densities) climates and are intended as a guide. Actual stocking density will depend on:
• Target live weight at transfer/depletion.
• Climate and season.
• Type, system and quality of housing and equipment; particularly ventilation.
• Local legislation.
• Quality Assurance/Certification requirements.
Table 4: Recommended stocking densities during rear (from 14 days onwards).

Rearing 14-105 days (2-15 weeks)
Males Females
Birds/m2 Birds/m2
3-4 4-7
Prior to 14-21 days of age bird floor space allowance should be progressively increased until the
levels given in Table 4 are reached.
When determining the appropriate stocking density the actual available bird space should
be taken into account. For example, day-old–to-depletion housing systems can incorporate
equipment during the rearing stage such as nest boxes, which will reduce the available bird
floor area.
Key points
• Make sure that each bird has adequate floor space for the environment. If the environment
and/or housing conditions experienced by the bird are not optimal the stocking density
will need to be reduced.
• Follow the local legislation.
• If stocking density is increased, then ventilation, feeders and drinkers must also be
increased appropriately.
• When calculating floor space make sure necessary reductions are made for any equipment
in the bird area.
Feeder space
Bird uniformity and performance will be negatively affected if there is not enough feeding space
for the number of birds in the house. Recommended feeder space for males and females is given
in Table 5.

23
Table 5: Recommended feeding space.

MALES
Feeding Space
Track Feeder Pan Feeder
Age (days)
cm cm
0-35 days 5 5
36-70 days 10 9
71-105 days 15 11
FEMALES
Feeding Space
Track Feeder Pan Feeder
Age (days)
cm cm
0-35 days 5 4
36-70 days 10 8
71-105 days 15 10
Track and pan feeders should be positioned a minimum of 1 m apart to allow uniform and
unobstructed bird access to the feeder (Figures 20 and 21).
Figure 20: Uniform distribution of females around a track feeder when adequate feeder space
is given.
Figure 21: Uniform distribution of males round a pan feeder when adequate feeding space is
given.

24
Key points
• Bird uniformity will be negatively affected if feeding space and/or bird distribution is limited.
Section 1
• Ensure there is enough feeding space for the number of birds in the house.
• Spacing between feeders should allow the birds easy access.
Feeding management
The first step in feeding management is to install the correct number of feeders providing
adequate feeder space so all birds can eat simultaneously (Table 5). This provides uniform feed
distribution and prevents overcrowding at feeders.
Where track feeding or pans are used, birds should be gradually introduced to the automated
system from 8 days of age onwards. This process should be completed over a 2-3 day period,
during which time the amount of feed in the automated feeding system should be gradually
increased so that birds become accustomed to the noise of the feeders and associate this with
feeding. During this transitional period, manual feeding by hand should continue.
If more than one feeder track is used, then tracks should operate in opposite directions. All feed
should be distributed to each population within 3 minutes. If feed distribution is a problem,
distribution time can be reduced by placing a supplementary bin, with sufficient feed to fill half
of the track, halfway round the feeder loop.
Pan feeders provide good feed distribution if managed properly. Pan feeding systems remain
charged at all times to allow the system to work correctly and pan feeders must be checked
regularly to make sure that all pans are receiving feed and that lines remain charged (full of feed).
Feed depth, distribution time and clean-up time should be monitored routinely at several points
around the house. This is to ensure that feed distribution is correct, that all birds have access to
the feeders at the same time, and that the whole feeding system is being filled correctly.
Feeder height should be adjusted regularly with bird age and growth. Correct feeder height at
a given age should minimize feed spillage, optimize bird access, and prevent the feeders from
becoming contaminated with litter.
Floor feeding - scattering high quality pellets onto the litter either with spin feeders or by hand
broadcasting (Figure 22) - is an increasingly popular alternative to tracks and pans. This method
offers rapid and even distribution of feed over a wide area and can improve flock uniformity,
litter condition, and leg health.
Figure 22: Floor feeding using either spin feeders or hand broadcasting.
For floor feeding, pen population size should be no more than 1000-1500 birds (depending on
the pen shape/spinner type). Having feed of good physical quality is particularly important with
floor feeding and a pellet with 2.5 mm diameter and 3-4 mm in length should be used. For floor
feeding, the transition to pellet feeding must be well managed. Crumb should be fed on feeder
trays on the floor until approximately 14 days of age. Crumb and pellet should be mixed and
fed on the floor/feeder trays for at least 2 days before birds are given 100% pellets at around 16
days of age when mechanical spin feeding begins.

25
No matter which feeding system is used, adjustments to feed provision must be made when
problems (such as birds becoming overweight or underweight) are detected. As the flock
increases in age and body weight, feed increases must support the greater nutrient requirements
of the heavier birds.
Ideally, feed should not remain on the farm for more than a week. Feed bins should always
remain covered and be in good condition to prevent water entry. Any feed spills should be
cleaned up promptly.
Use a standard weight to check the accuracy of the feed scales daily before use. Save a sample
of feed from each delivery and store it in a cool, dry place. If a problem develops the feed can
then be analyzed.
A visual assessment of every feed delivery should be made. The feed should be assessed on its
physical quality, color, appearance, and smell. For mash, check that there is good distribution of
raw materials throughout the feed.
Physical quality of the feed is important and levels of fines should not exceed 10% for pellets/
crumbs or 25% for mash. Increased levels of fines will have a negative impact on performance.
The level of fines within a feed can be measured using a feed shaker sieve.
Key points
• Feed distribution should take a maximum of 3 minutes.
• Manage the transition to automated feeding systems carefully.
• Ensure good pellet quality when using floor feeding.
• Monitor feed quality.
• Avoid storing feed for more than 7 days.
• Make adjustments to feed intake when necessary.
Drinker space and height
Recommended drinking space post-brooding is detailed in Table 6 below. When adequate

drinker space is provided, bird distribution around the drinkers will be uniform (Figure 23).
Table 6: Recommended drinking space requirements post brooding during rearing.

Type of Drinker Drinker Space
Bell drinkers 1.5 cm (0.6 in)
Nipples 8-12 birds/nipple
Cups 20-30 birds/cup
Figure 23: Uniform bird distribution around drinkers when adequate drinker space is provided
for bell, nipple, and nipple with cups.

26
Round bell drinkers should be checked for height daily and gradually adjusted so that the base
of each drinker is level with the birds back by approximately 18 days onwards (Figure 24).
Section 1
Figure 24: Correct height of bell drinker.
In the initial stages of brooding, the nipple lines should be placed at a height at which the bird is
able to drink. The back of the chick should form an angle of 35-45° with the floor while drinking
is in progress. As the bird grows, the nipples should be raised so that the back of the bird forms
an angle of approximately 75-85° with the floor and so that the birds are stretching slightly for
the water (Figure 25).
Figure 25: Correct height of nipple drinker.
Birds should be reared on the same drinking system as will be used in production.
Drinker management
Birds should have unlimited access to a clean, fresh water supply at all times. Any reductions in
water intake or increased water loss can have a significant effect on the lifetime performance of
the bird.
Water fit for human consumption is likely also to be fit for parent stock. Water from bore holes,
open water reservoirs or poor quality public supplies can cause problems for bird performance
and health. Details of water quality criteria for poultry are given in the section on Health and
Biosecurity. A total water quality test should be completed at least once a year (more often if
there are perceived water quality issues). Where bacterial counts are high the cause must be
established and rectified as soon as possible. Treatment with chlorination (to give between 3
and 5 ppm) may be required to reduce bacterial load.
Where open sourced drinkers (such as supplementary chick drinkers or round bell drinkers) are
used, bacterial contamination can increase rapidly. Therefore, regular and frequent cleaning is
needed, especially with young chicks during the brooding stage.
Water consumption measurement is a useful means to monitor system failures (feed and water),
monitoring health and tracking bird performance. At 21°C, the birds will be consuming enough
water when the ratio of water intake to feed intake is 1.6-1.8: 1 (water: feed; the lower ratio being
for nipple drinkers and the higher for bell type drinkers). Water requirement will therefore vary
with feed consumption.

27
Birds will drink more water at higher ambient temperatures. Water requirement increases by
approximately 6.5% per degree centigrade over 21°C (69.8ºF). In tropical areas, prolonged high
temperatures can double daily water consumption.
Key points
• Birds should have continual access to fresh, clean, drinkable water.
• The measurement of water consumption by metering is a vital daily management practice.
• Check and adjust drinkers daily.
• Test the water supply regularly for bacteriological and mineral contaminants and take any
necessary corrective action.
Introduction of perches
It is good management practice to install perches during the rearing period in order to train and
stimulate females in nesting behavior (avoidance of floor eggs). Sufficient numbers of perches to
provide 3 cm per bird (sufficient for 20% of the birds to roost) should be placed in the females’
rearing pens from 28 days of age, and is best carried out at the time of grading. Figure 26
illustrates typical perch systems used for training; one uses slats, the other is an ‘A’ frame.
Installing perches during rear is also a useful management tool for training males in situations
where water is positioned on the slats.
Figure 26: Perch systems used for training.

28
Grading to Manage Uniformity
Section 1
Objective
A uniform flock is easier to manage than a variable one – birds in a similar physiological state will
respond more uniformly to management factors. The purpose of grading, therefore, is to sort the
flock into 2 or 3 sub-populations of different average weight so that each group can be managed
in a way that will result in good whole flock uniformity at point of lay.
Principles
Variation in an animal population can be measured by the Coefficient of Variation, which is

expressed as a percentage (CV%). CV% may be determined automatically at the point of sample
weighing or calculated manually as shown in the Appendices. At placement, flock body weights
should follow a normal distribution with a low variation. Within populations there is always
natural variation, even at day-old. As birds grow, the variation within a flock will increase further
due to the differential responses of individual birds to factors such as vaccination, disease,
differing competitiveness for feed, etc. (Figure 27). This increased variation reduces overall flock
performance and makes flock management much more difficult.
Figure 27: Estimated changes in flock uniformity through time as a result of natural variation
where no flock grading has occurred at 28 days of age.
Average Weight Average Weight Average Weight
Day 1 - CV% 8-9 Day 21 - CV% 10-13 POL - CV% >15
In general, as the shapes of the distribution curves show, the increase in variation is a result of
an increased number of lighter birds within a flock. In order to create a uniform flock, smaller,
lighter, birds should be identified, penned and managed separately (2-way grading). The benefits
of doing this for flock uniformity (CV%) are illustrated in Figure 28.
Figure 28: Estimated changes in flock uniformity and distribution of body weights when the
flock is graded at 28 days of age.
Average Weight Average Weight Average Weight
Day 1 - CV% 8-9 Day 21 - CV% 10-13 POL - CV% 8-10
By grading a flock and managing populations of the same average weight separately, flock
uniformity (CV%) can be improved and flock management will be easier as all birds will respond
in a similar way to management factors such as light stimulation and increased feeding.
In some situations where the flock CV% has increased so that it becomes greater than around
12%, a grading of both lighter and heavier birds will be required (3-way grade).

29
Grading Procedures
Grading is best carried out when the flock is 28 days (4 weeks) old and when flock uniformity
is usually within the range of CV = 10-14%. If completed later than this, the time available to
restore flock uniformity (ideally by 63 days) is reduced, and the procedure is less effective.
A practical approach to grading involves segregation of the graded populations into pens or
houses left empty at placement for this purpose. To allow for extreme cases (i.e. CV% >12),
space allocated for both male and female flocks must be capable of being divided into 2 or 3
pens/populations. Where the entire population of a house is to be graded within that house,
then ideally 1 or 2 adjustable partitions will be required to allow the flock to be segregated.
The actual grading procedure will largely depend on the farm/house design and management
practices (e.g. flexibility of pen arrangements and feeding systems), and the uniformity of the
flock at 28 days. There are 2 situations that need to be considered:
1. Grading when adjustable penning is available.
2. Grading when adjustable penning is not available (i.e. fixed penning).
Grading when adjustable penning is available
Table 7 gives the grading cut-off points (i.e. the percentage of birds that will be in each graded
population), according to flock uniformity. These apply when adjustable penning is available.
Table 7: Grading cut-off points.

Flock Uniformity Percentage in Each Population after Grading
CV% 2 or 3-way grade Light (%) Normal (%) Heavy (%)
10 2-way grade 20 ~ 80 (78-82) 0
12 3-way grade 22-25 ~ 70 (66-73) 5-9
14 3-way grade 28-30 ~ 58 (55-60) 12-15
Two-way grade - pre-grade CV% below 12

Figure 29 represents a house where the pre-grading population has been split between 4 pens.
One of the pens has been left empty, from placement, for the purpose of grading. In this example
the flock size is 8,400 birds and 2,100 birds are housed in each populated pen at placement.
Figure 29: Pre-grade house set up for 2-way grade with adjustable penning.
(18% of floor space) (20.5% of floor space) (20.5% of floor space) (20.5% of floor space) (20.5% of floor space)
Pen left empty

at chick
placement for
grading at
28 days.

30
From each pen/population a random sample of birds should be caught in a catching pen and
weighed. All birds caught in the catching pen need to be weighed (to avoid selective weighing);
Section 1
but as a minimum, the weights of 2% of the pen/population or 50 birds, whichever is greater,
need to be recorded. In this example, a total of 103 birds have been weighed.
Aviagen’s preference is to use electronic scales which record and count individual weights,
and automatically calculate the standard deviation and CV% of the population. The print-out
produced from these scales (see Figure 30) can be used to establish the cut-off points for
grading. If electronic scales are not available and weights are recorded manually, please refer to
the example given in the Appendices.
Figure 30: Example of a print-out from an electronic scale for a 2-way grade adjustable penning
Flock details; g
Age 28
T TA
TO AL WE
WEIG
IGGH
HEED: 103
0 Target weight 455
AVER
AV ERAG
RAG
AGE
E WE
W IG
IGHT
H : 43
35
Average weight 435
DE
EVIAT
VI
IAT
ATIOON:
N 45
Total birds weighed 103
Based on this flock sampling data a two way grade
is required as detailed below; i.e. flock CV% is below 12%
Ba
B and lim
im
miitts Total
l
340
34 0 to
t 359 3
3 0 to
36 t 379 9 6
3 0 to
38 o 399 9 8 Flock
400
40 0 to
t 419 11 Uniformity
Percentage in each population after grading
4220 to
o 439 19
CV% 2 or 3 way Light % Normal % Heavy %
4 0 to 459
44 20 grade
4600 to
o 479 9 12
~
_ 80
480
48 0 to
o 4999 11
1 10 2 way 20 0
grade (78-82)
5000 to 5191 9
520 to
t 540 0 4 12 3 way 22-25 ~
_ 70 5-9
grade (66-73)
14 3 way 28-30 ~
_ 58 12-15
grade (55-60)
Cut off points and number of birds in each group:

% of birds No. of birds
Light Birds 20 21
Normal Birds 80 82
From the information recorded on the print-out the CV% of the flock has been calculated as
10.2%.
Standard Deviation
CV% =
X 100
Average Body Weight


31
As the CV% is under 12, a 2-way grade is required. The flock needs to be split into 2 populations;
light and normal weight birds. The approximate percentage of birds required in each of the 2
populations is 20% light birds and 80% normal birds (Table 7).
To determine the cut-off point for the lightest birds (the weight below which birds are considered
to be light) the following steps are taken.
1. The light population will be approximately 20% of the entire flock. Twenty
percent of the total number of birds weighed is 21 (20% of 103).
2. The lightest 21 birds are in the weight range of 340 to 419 g (colored orange
in Figure 30).
3. A ‘light’ bird will therefore be anything less than or equal to 419 g in weight.
4. The ‘normal’ bird population, which is the remaining 80% of the flock, are
birds weighing 420 g or over (shaded blue in Figure 30).
All birds in the flock now need to be reweighed and the light birds (anything less than or equal
to 419 g) removed and graded into the empty pen (Figure 31). The floor space of each pen will
need to be adjusted to account for changes in the size of the graded populations.
Figure 31: Graded plan based on the body weight results given in Figure 30 (2-way grade with
adjustable penning).
Pen 1 (light) Pen 2 (normal) Pen 3 (normal) Pen 4 (normal) Pen 5 (normal)
Light Birds
Light Birds
Light Birds
Light Birds
After grading, a sample of birds should be reweighed from each pen/population (a minimum of
2% or 50 birds whichever is greater) and the average weight, CV% and number of birds for each
pen established (Figure 32).
Figure 32: Situation after a 2-way grade (adjustable penning).

Pen 1 (light) Pen 2 (normal) Pen 3 (normal) Pen 4 (normal) Pen 5 (normal)
(20% of floor space) (20% of floor space) (20% of floor space) (20% of floor space) (20% of floor space)
No. Birds = 1680 No. Birds = 1680 No. Birds = 1680 No. Birds = 1680 No. Birds = 1680
Weight = 379 g Weight = 450 g Weight = 462 g Weight = 457 g Weight = 455 g
CV% = 5.5 CV% = 7.1 CV% = 6.5 CV% = 7.0 CV% = 6.6
Average Flock Body Weight = 435 g

Flock CV% = 10.2

32
After grading the CV% for the ‘light’ and ‘normal’ pens will have been improved, but the overall
Section 1
flock CV% remains the same (Figure 32).
The average weight for the ‘normal’ pens should be similar and these pens may be treated as
one population. However, the farm manager should be aware of the average weight of each
individual pen and any sudden deviations from the planned target should be investigated.
The body weights from the ‘light’ and ‘normal’ pens should be plotted against target on a body
weight target chart and the profile re-drawn where necessary to bring birds back onto target
by 63 days (9 weeks) of age. Adjustments made in feed levels should be based on the deviation
from target body weight. Refer to the section on Flock Management after Grading for more
information.
Note that after grading, the light population may not need to receive an immediate
increase in feed. Body weight will increase due to the reduced competition from the
larger birds and so an initial increase in feed is not required.
Three-way grade; pre-grade CV% above 12

Figure 33 represents a house which has been split into 5 pens. The pre-grading population has
been split between 4 pens, and one pen has been left empty, from placement, for the purpose of
grading. The flock size is 8,400 birds and 2,100 birds are housed in each populated pen.
Figure 33: Pre-grade house set up for a 3-way grade with adjustable penning.
Pen left empty

at chick
placement for
grading.
From each pen/population a random sample of birds should be caught and weighed. All birds
caught in the catching pen need to be weighed to avoid selective weighing, but as a minimum,
the weights of 2% of the pen/population or 50 birds (whichever is the greater), need to be
recorded. In this example, a total of 197 birds have been weighed.
The print-out produced from the electronic weigh scales can be used to establish the cut-off
points for grading (Figure 34).

33
Figure 34: Example of a print-out from an electronic scale for a 3-way grade with adjustable
penning (Indian River flock).
Flock details; g
CU
URR
RREN
RE
ENNT DA
D T
TAA Age 28
TO
OTA
T L WEIG
WEIG
WE IGHE
HE
H ED:
: 197
9 Target weight 455
A ERAG
AV AG
A GE WE
WEIGHT
WEIG T: 44
46
Average weight 446
D VI
DE V AT
A IOON:
N 60
C.V.
C. V (%): : 13.5
.55 Total birds weighed 197
Based on this flock sampling data a three way grade
is required as detailed below; i.e. flock CV% is above 12%
Band
B d lim
imit
its
ts Tota
tall
3 0 to
32 o 339 4
3440 to
o 35599 100
3660 to
to 37799 13 Flock
3 0 to
38 t 399 144 Uniformity
400 to
to 419 9 16
420
42 0 to
t 439 15 grade
4440 to
o 459 25
~
_ 80
4 0 to 479
46 27 10 2 way 20 0
grade (78-82)
480
48 0 to 499
9 26
5000 to 519 19 12 3 way 22-25 ~
_ 70 5-9
5 0 to 539
52 3 11 grade (66-73)
540
54 0 to 559
5 10 14 3 way 28-30 ~
_ 58 12-15
560
56 0 to
to 579 7 grade (55-60)

Light Birds 29 57
Normal Birds 57 112
Heavy Birds 14 28
From the information recorded on the print-out the CV% of the flock has been calculated as
13.5. Standard Deviation
CV% = X 100
Average Body Weight

34
The CV% is above 12 so a 3-way grade is required and the flock needs to be split into 3
populations; light, normal and heavy weight birds. The percentage of birds required in each of
Section 1
the 3 populations is approximately 29% light birds, 57% normal and 14% heavy birds (Table 7).
To determine the cut-off point for the lightest birds (i.e. the weight below which birds are
considered to be light) the following steps need to be taken
1. The light population will be approximately 29% of the entire flock. Twenty-nine
2. The lightest 57 birds are in the weight range of 320 to 419 g, colored orange
in Figure 34.
This calculation needs to be repeated for normal and heavy birds. Table 8 gives the cut off
weights for each of the 3 populations (light, normal and heavy) based on the print-out given in
Figure 34.
Table 8: Determination of cut-off weights for a 3-way grade based on the information given in
Figure 34.
Number of Birds
% of Birds to
for Determining Weight Range Chart Reference
Category be Included in
Cut-off Weight (% g Color
Grading Category
x 197)
Light 29 57 320 - 419 Orange

Normal 57 112 420 - 519 Blue
Heavy 14 28 520 - 579 Green
After the cut-off weights for each graded population have been determined, all birds in the flock
should be weighed again and the light (any bird 419 g in weight or below) and heavy birds (any
bird 520 g in weight or above) removed and graded into another pen. As there is now significant
variation in the size of each graded population (29% are light, 57% are normal and 14% are
heavy), pen sizes will need to be adjusted to accommodate the new population numbers and
equalize stocking density, and feeder and drinker space (Figure 35).
Figure 35: Graded plan based on the body weight results given in Figure 34 (3-way grade with
adjustable penning).
Pen 1 (light) Pen 2 (normal) Pen 3 (normal) Pen 4 (normal) Pen 5 (heavy)
Light Birds Heavy Birds
After grading, a sample of birds should be reweighed from each population (a minimum of 2%
or 50 birds which ever is greater) and the average weight, CV% and number of birds for each
pen established (Figure 36). The CV% for the graded populations will have been improved, but
the overall flock CV% remains the same (Figure 36).

35

CV% = 6.9 CV% = 5.6 CV% = 5.4 CV% = 5.8 CV% = 3.0

Flock CV% = 13.5
The ‘normal’ pens should be similar in weight and can be treated as one population. However,
the farm manager should be aware of the average weight of each individual pen and any sudden
deviations from the planned target should be investigated
The body weights from the graded populations should be plotted against target on a body weight
target chart and the profile re-drawn where necessary to bring birds back onto target by 63 days
(9 weeks) of age. Any adjustment in feed levels should be based on the deviation from target
body weight. Refer to the section on Flock Management after Grading for more information.
Note, after grading the light population may not need to receive an immediate increase
in feed. Body weight will increase due to the reduced competition from the larger birds
and so an initial increase in feed is not required.
Grading when adjustable penning is not available (i.e. fixed penning)
In some situations penning arrangements cannot be adjusted or altered (i.e. the pen sizes are
fixed). The examples below describe the best-fit management practice to suite this situation.
Two-way grade with fixed pens - pre-grade CV% below 12

Figure 37 represents a house where the penning set up is fixed. The house is split into 4 pens,
each of the same size. The pre-grading population has been split between 3 pens, and one pen
has been left empty, from placement, for the purpose of grading. The flock consists of 8,400
birds and each of the 3 populated pens contains 2,800 birds.
Figure 37: Typical fixed pen set-up for 2-way grading.

Pen 1 Pen 2 Pen 3 Pen 4
(25% of floor space) (25% of floor space) (25% of floor space) (25% of floor space)
Pen left empty

at chick
placement for
grading at
28 days.

36
A random sample of birds must be weighed from each population. All birds caught in the
catching pen must be weighed to avoid selective bias but as a minimum the weights of 2% of
Section 1
the population or 50 birds (whichever is greater) should be recorded per population. In this
example, a total of 95 birds have been weighed. The print-out produced from the electronic
weigh scales can be used to establish the cut-off points for grading (Figure 38).
Figure 38: Example of a print-out from an electronic scale for a 2-way grading with fixed
penning.
Flock details; g
Age 28
TOTA
TO TAL WEIG
WEIGHE
WE HE
H ED:
D: 95 Target weight 455
A ER
AV ERAG
AGE
AG E WE
W I
IGGHT
HT:: 43
37
Average weight 437
DEVI
DE IA
ATTIO
ON:
N 45
Total birds weighed 95
Based on this flock sampling data a two way grade
is required as detailed below; i.e. flock CV% is below 12%
Band
B n limim
mit
i s Total
l
340 to 359
34 5
360 t
36
360 to
o 37979 7
380 to 399
38 9 12
2 Flock
400
40 0 to 419 9 11 Uniformity
420
42 0 to
t 439 9 13
4440 to 4595 16 grade
460
46 0 to 479 10
~
_ 80
480
48 0 to
o 499 9 10 2 way 20 0
grade (78-82)
5 0 to
50 o 519 6
5220 to
t 539 39 4 12 3 way 22-25 ~
_ 70 5-9
540
54 0 to
t 559 9 2 grade (66-73)
14 3 way 28-30 ~
_ 58 12-15
grade (55-60)

Light Birds 25 24
Normal Birds 75 71
From the print-out the CV% has been calculated as 10.3.
Standard Deviation
CV% = X 100
Average Body Weight

37
This flock has a CV% below 12 and requires a 2-way grade; the flock should be split into 2
separate populations (light and normal weight birds). In a system which has adjustable penning
the percentage of birds in each grading category would be 20% light, 80% normal. However, in
a fixed penning system each graded population will need to be split evenly across the available
pens which are of equal size. In this example, there are 4 pens each of the same size, 25% of
the population will need to be housed in each pen; the percentage of birds in each graded
population will therefore be 25% light and 75% normal.
to be light) the following steps need to be taken:
1. The light population will be approximately 25% of the entire flock. Twenty-five percent of
the total number of birds weighed is 24 (25% of 95).
2. The lightest 24 birds are in the weight range of 340 to 399 g, colored orange in Figure 38.
4. A ‘normal’ bird will be one that is 400 g in weight or above, shaded in blue in Figure 38.
After the cut-off weights for each graded population has been determined, all birds in the flock
should be weighed again and the light birds removed (any bird 399 g in weight or below) and
graded into the empty pen (Figure 39).
Figure 39: Graded plan based on the results from the print-out given in Figure 38 (2-way grade
with fixed penning).
Pen 1 (Light) Pen 2 (Normal) Pen 3 (Normal) Pen 4 (Normal)
Light Birds
Light Birds
Light Birds
After grading, a sample of birds should be reweighed from each population (a minimum of 2%
or 50 birds which ever is greater) and the average weight, CV% and number of birds for each
pen established (Figure 40). The CV% for the graded populations will have been improved, but
the overall flock CV% remains the same (Figure 40).

38
Figure 40: Situation after grading; 2-way grade fixed penning.
Section 1
Pen 1 (Light) Pen 2 (Normal) Pen 3 (Normal) Pen 4 (Normal)
No. Birds = 2100 No. Birds = 2100 No. Birds = 2100 No. Birds = 2100
Weight = 368 g Weight = 462 g Weight = 438 g Weight = 450 g
CV% = 4.4 CV% = 7.7 CV% = 7.9 CV% = 7.8

Flock CV% = 10.3
The body weights from the graded populations should be plotted on a body weight target chart
against target and the profile re-drawn to bring birds back onto target by 63 days (9 weeks) of
age. Any adjustment in feed levels should be based on the deviation from target body weight.
Refer to the section on Flock Management after Grading for more information.
Note that after grading, the light population may not need to receive an immediate
increase in feed. Body weight will increase due to the reduced competition from the
larger birds and so an initial increase in feed is not required.
Three-way grade with fixed pens - pre-grade CV% above 12

The example below shows the process that needs to be followed for a 3-way grade when fixed
penning is in place. The initial pen set-up is 4 pens each of equal size, one of which has been
left empty for the purposes of grading (Figure 41). The flock size is 8,400 birds, and in each of
the 3 populated pens there are 2,800 birds.
Figure 41: Typical fixed pen set up for 3-way grading.

Pen 1 Pen 2 Pen 3 Pen 4
Pen left empty

at chick
placement for
grading at
28 days.

39
A random sample of birds must be weighed from each population. All birds caught in the
catching pen must be weighed to avoid selective bias, but as a minimum, the weights of 2% of
the population or 50 birds (whichever is greater) should be recorded per population. In this
example, a total of 197 birds have been weighed. The print-out produced from the electronic
weigh scales can be used to establish the cut-off points for grading (Figure 42).
Figure 42: Example of a print-out from an electronic scale for a 3-way grade with fixed penning.
Flock details; g
CU
URR
RREN
RE
ENNT DA
D T
TAA Age 28
TO
OTA
T L WEIG
WEIG
WE IGHE
HE
H ED:
: 197
9 Target weight 455
A ERAG
AV AG
A GE WE
WEIGHT
WEIG T: 44
49
Average weight 449
D VI
DE V AT
A IOON:
N 58
C.V.
C. V (%): : 13.0
.00 Total birds weighed 197
Based on this flock sampling data a three way grade
is required as detailed below; i.e. flock CV% is above 12%
Band
B d lim
imit
its
ts Tota
tall
3 0 to
32 o 339 4
3440 to
o 35599 8
3660 to
to 37799 11 Flock
3 0 to
38 t 399 122 Uniformity
400 to
to 419 9 14
420
42 0 to
t 439 17 grade
4440 to
o 459 27
~
_ 80
460
46 0 to 479
79 29 10 2 way 20 0
grade (78-82)
480
48 0 to 499
9 26
5000 to 519 20 12 3 way 22-25 ~
_ 70 5-9
5 0 to 539
52 3 12 grade (66-73)
540
54 0 to 559
5 10 14 3 way 28-30 ~
_ 58 12-15
560
56 0 to
to 579 7 grade (55-60)

Light Birds 25 49
Normal Birds 50 99
Heavy Birds 25 49
From the print-out, the CV% for the total population has been calculated as 13.0.
Standard Deviation
CV% =
X 100
Average Body Weight

40
This flock has a CV% of greater than 12% so a 3-way grade is required. The flock needs to be
split in to 3 populations, light, normal and heavy weight birds. In a system that has adjustable
Section 1
penning, the percentage of birds in each grading category would be 29% light, 57% normal and
14% heavy birds (Table 7). However, in a fixed penning system each graded population will
need to be split evenly across the pens as all pens are of the same fixed size. So in this example
25% of the population will need to be housed in each pen; the percentage of birds in each
population will therefore be 25% light, 50% normal and 25% heavy.
to be light) the following steps should be taken:
1. The light population will be approximately 25% of the entire flock. Twenty-five
2. The lightest 49 birds are in the weight range of 320 to 419 g, colored orange
in Figure 42.
This calculation needs to be repeated for normal and heavy birds. The cut-off weights for the 3
graded populations based on the print-out in Figure 42 are given in Table 9.
Figure 42.
Number of Birds
% of Birds to
for Determining Weight Range Chart Reference
Category be Included in
Cut-off Weight (% g Color
Grading Category
x 197)
Light 25 49 320 - 419 Orange

Normal 50 99 420 - 499 Blue
Heavy 25 49 500 - 579 Green
should be weighed again and the light and heavy birds graded in to separate pens (Figure 43).
Figure 43: Graded plan based on the results from the print-out given in Figure 42 (3-way grade
with fixed penning).
Pen 1 (Light) Pen 2 (Normal) Pen 3 (Normal) Pen 4 (Heavy)
Light Birds
After grading, bird numbers, average weight, and CV% of each pen should be re-calculated. The
CV% for the graded populations will have been improved, but the overall flock CV% remains
the same (Figure 44).
the farm manager should be aware of the weight of each individual pen and any sudden
deviations from the planned target should be investigated.

41
The body weights from the graded populations should be plotted against target on a body-weight
target chart and the profile re-drawn where necessary to bring birds back onto target by 63 days
(9 weeks) of age. Any adjustment in feed levels should be based on the deviation from target
body weight. Refer to the section on Flock Management after Grading for more information.
Note that after grading, the light population may not need to receive an immediate increase in
feed. Body weight will increase due to the reduced competition from the larger birds and so an
initial increase in feed is not required.
Figure 44: Situation after a 3-way grade (fixed penning).
Pen 1 (Light) Pen 2 (Normal) Pen 3 (Normal) Pen 4 (Heavy)

No. Birds = 2100 No. Birds = 2100 No. Birds = 2100 No. Birds = 2100
Weight = 370 g Weight = 457 g Weight = 449 g Weight = 522 g
CV% = 7.0 CV% = 4.4 CV% = 4.8 CV% = 4.2

Flock CV% = 13.0
Key points
• Grade males and females at 28 days (4 weeks).
• A successful grading will reduce the CV% to below 8 in all of the graded populations.
• Each population should be reweighed and counted to confirm the average body weight
and uniformity so projected target body weights and feeding rates can be determined.
• Inaccurate counting of birds after grading may lead to incorrect feed quantities being
given.
• Each population is best served by its own dedicated feeding system. Where this cannot
be provided, supplementary feeding must allow even distribution of feed and adequate
feeding space per bird.
• If population sizes in lay are likely to be larger than they were in rear, birds will have to
be mixed at transfer. Here it is especially important that management after grading results
in the birds converging to a common target body weight by the expected age of transfer.
• Ensure that stocking density, drinking and feeding space are consistent with the
recommended guidelines after grading, this is especially important where pen size is
adjusted during grading.
• It is recommended to use automatic rather than manual weigh scales.

42
Flock Management after Grading (Post 28 Days)
Section 1
After grading, the flock must be managed so that graded populations achieve target weight in a
uniform and co-ordinated manner.
Post-grading body-weight management (up to 63 days of age)
At grading, the flock will have been divided into 2 or 3 populations, depending on the original
CV%. For each graded population, the aim is to achieve the target body weight uniformly within
the period during which skeletal development is taking place (i.e. before 63 days of age). After
28 days of age the weekly body weights of each population must continue to be monitored and
feed allocations adjusted as necessary to allow the required body-weight targets to be met.
Under target weight birds (light population)

Where the average body weight after grading for a population/pen is below target body weight
by more than 100 g (if target is 450 g, birds below 350 g), the objective is to achieve target body
weight by 63 days (Figure 45). The body-weight curve should be re-drawn so that birds are
brought gradually back onto target by 63 days (9 weeks). For the first week after grading, the
‘light’ population should be held on the same feeding volume as that prior to grading (i.e. do
not increase feed levels). Body weight will be increased due to the reduced competition from
the larger birds. Subsequent appropriate increases in feed should then be based on the deviation
from target body weight.
On target weight category birds (normal population)

The aim is to continue to keep birds on target (Figure 45).
Over target weight category birds (heavy population)

These are birds that are greater than 100 g over the target body weight, (if target is 450 g,
birds above 550 g). Here the body-weight curve should be re-drawn so that birds are gradually
brought back onto target by 63 days (Figure 45). Feed levels should never be reduced but it
may be necessary to reduce the next feed increment or delay the next feed increase in order to
achieve the revised body-weight profile.
Figure 45: Re-drawing of future body-weight targets up to 63 days (9 weeks) of age.
Heavy
Target
Light
Body weight
Flock Grading
7 14 21 28 42 49 56 63 70
Age (days)

43
Post 63 days re-drawing of future body-weight profiles
At 63 days of age the weight of the population in relation to the target should be re-assessed.
Populations that are of similar weight and feed consumption can be combined at this age.
Under target weight birds (light population)

If birds remain under target at 63 days (9 weeks) the target should be re-drawn so that birds are
brought back onto target profile gradually (Figure 46), achieving body weight by 105 days. Feed
levels should be increased or the next feed increase brought forward to achieve this.
Figure 46: Re-drawing of future body-weight targets when average body weight is below, on, or
above target at 63 days (9 weeks) of age.
Heavy
Target
Light
Body Weight
Flock Grading
7 14 21 28 42 49 56 63 105 140
Age (days)
On target weight birds (normal population)

The aim is to continue to keep birds on target (Figure 46).
Over target weight birds (heavy population)

If birds remain overweight at 63 days (9 weeks of age) the target should be re-drawn parallel
to the curve (Figure 46). Attempting to bring birds back to target at this stage will reduce peak
rate of lay. Birds should be fed the level of feed required to achieve the revised target profile.
However, it is important to note that females that remain over target weight from this stage are
likely to have an earlier onset of sexual maturity. This may cause problems when mating with
males that are on target body-weight, due to lack of synchronization of maturity between males
and females.
At this point individual populations are being grown to different set profiles (for example,
overweight populations will remain overweight from this point onwards) so it is not advised to
transfer birds between populations at this stage.
Key points
• Continue weekly body weight monitoring.
• Stop bird movements from pen to pen from 63 days.
• From 63 days re-draw the target weights of any population that is below target body
weight to bring them back on target by 105 days of age.
• If the birds are overweight at 63 days re-draw the target profile line above and parallel to
the standard. Do not attempt to bring birds that are overweight back to target, this will
delay sexual maturity and reduce peak production.
• Care should be taken before mixing any pens to ensure body weight and feed consumption
per bird is similar.

44
Alleviation of body weight problems
If the average body weight differs from target body weight by +/-100 g, or more, during rear
reweigh a sample of birds. If the weights are correct, consider the following:
Underweight prior to 105 days, consider the following in future flocks

• Remain on starter feed for longer.
• Feed a higher nutrient quality starter.
Section 1
• A longer daylength can be provided until 21 days (3 weeks) of age to help stimulate feed
intake and improve body-weight gain.
Underweight prior to 105 days, consider the following in current flocks

• Initiate the next feed increase earlier and consider increasing the amount if necessary, until
body weight is brought gradually back to target.
• See Figures 45 and 46 for examples of such corrective action.
Overweight prior to 105 days

• Do not reduce feed lower than the current feeding level.
• Reduce the next feed increment, e.g. 2 g per birds instead of 4 g per bird.
• Delay the next feed increase.
• Check to see if the energy level of the diet is higher than expected.
• See Figures 45 and 46 for examples of such corrective action.

45
Notes

46
Management into Lay (15 Weeks to Peak Production)
Section 2 - Management into Lay (15 Weeks to

Peak Production)
From 105 Days (15 Weeks) to Light Stimulation
Section 2
Objective
To minimize variation in the onset of sexual maturity of the flock and to prepare the flock for
the physiological demands of early reproduction.
Principles
Correct body weight gains during this period will ensure a smooth and uniform transition to
sexual maturity and egg production in the females, and will support uniform and optimum
physical condition and fertility in males.
Management Considerations
Achieving the correct stocking density, feeder and drinker space as birds reach sexual maturity
is key to preventing a loss of uniformity within the flock, reducing variation in sexual maturity
(both within and between males and females), and helping to maintain optimum physical
condition and reproductive fitness of the flock. After 140 days (20 weeks) of age stocking density
needs to be reduced, and feeder and drinker space increased, to account for increased bird size
and additional equipment (such as nest boxes) in the house during lay.
Stocking density
Stocking density affects biological output. Recommended stocking densities for male and
females from 15 weeks of age to depletion for both males and females are given below (Table
10). The figures given are a guide, actual stocking densities may vary from those recommended
depending on:
• Welfare regulations.
• Economics.
• Environment.
• Actual available floor space, drinker and feeder space.
Environment (ventilation) and management conditions (feeder and drinker space) must be
appropriate for stocking density to prevent adverse effect on performance from occurring.
Table 10: Recommended stocking densities from 15 weeks of age to depletion.
Stocking Density Stocking Density

Birds/m2 Birds/m2
20 weeks to
15-20 weeks
depletion
Male 3-4
3.5-5.5
Female 4-7
Feeder and drinker space

Recommended feeder and drinker spaces for both males and females are given in Table 11.

47
Table 11: Recommended feeder and drinker space from 15 weeks of age to depletion.
Feeder Drinker
Track Pan Bell

Age Nipple Cups
cm cm cm
8-12 birds 20-30 birds
15-20 weeks 15 11 1.5
per nipple per cup
Male
20 weeks to 6-10 birds 15-20 birds
20 13 2.5
depletion per nipple per cup
8-12 birds 20-30 birds
15-20 weeks 15 10 1.5
per nipple per cup
Female
20 weeks to 6-10 birds 15-20 birds
15 10 2.5
depletion per nipple per cup
Key Points
• Follow recommended allowances for stocking density, and for feeder and drinker spaces.
• Ensure increases in available floor space, and feeding and drinking spaces are given at
the recommended ages.
Target weight
Management focus during the period from 15 weeks (105 days) of age to light stimulation is the
same for both males and females. The aim is to maintain a uniform flock of birds which are on
the target body-weight profile so that the transition to sexual maturity occurs uniformly and at
the desired age. This is done by following the recommended increases in weekly energy intake
and body weight.
Regular monitoring and recording of body weight and uniformity are vital management tools
during this period. Development of secondary sexual characteristics such as increased pin bone
spacing in females and increased facial color in both sexes are good indicators of flock progress
in sexual development.
Failure to meet required weekly incremental gains in body weight between 15 weeks of age and
light stimulation is a common cause of poor performance, leading to:
• Delayed onset of lay.
• Poor initial egg size.
• Increased percentage of rejected and misshapen eggs.
• Increased number of infertile eggs.
• Increased broodiness.
• Loss of uniformity of body weight and sexual maturity.
• Reduced peak production.
• Loss of sexual synchronization between males and females.
Where average body weight is under target (defined as body weight being more than 100 g
below target weight) at 105 days (15 weeks) of age, the body-weight curve should be re-drawn
and the birds gradually brought back onto target body weight (by giving appropriate increases
in feed) by the time of light stimulation (Figure 47).
Flocks which are over-fed and exceed target body weights between 15 weeks of age and light
stimulation will commonly exhibit:
• Early onset of lay.
• Increased incidence of double yolks.
• Reduced hatching egg yield.
• Increased feed requirement through lay.
• Reduced peak, persistency and total eggs.
• Reduced male and female fertility throughout life.
• Increased incidence of peritonitis and prolapse.
• Loss of sexual synchronization between males and females.

48
Where average body weight is over target (100 g [0.22 lbs] or more above target weight) at 105
days (15 weeks) the body-weight curve should be redrawn parallel to target (Figure 47). Note
that birds must not be brought back to target if they are overweight; this will result in a loss of
condition which will have a negative impact on egg production.
Once birds are overweight, it is a matter of managing for damage limitation (minimize the
negative effect on production and uniformity). For underweight birds, it is possible to improve
the situation by increasing feed levels and weight gain. Ideally, neither situation should occur
Section 2
and close monitoring is central to effective management.
Figure 47: Redrawing of body-weight profiles if females are under (light) or over (heavy) target
weight at 15 weeks (105 days) of age.
Heavy
Target
Light
Body weight
105 112 119 126 133 140 147 154
Age (days)
Key points
• Ensure flock body weight follows the target profile.
• Maximize uniformity of body weight and sexual maturity.
• Redraw target body weight if necessary if the flock is under- or overweight at 15 weeks
(105 days); grow birds that are underweight to regain target by light stimulation, for
overweight birds set a new target.
Feed type and energy level
Inadequate nutrient supply as birds reach sexual maturity is a frequent cause of loss of
uniformity. Careful management is required when feed type is changed (e.g. from grower to
pre-breeder) and the farm manager should be aware of any changes in energy content between
feed types or formulas. When a change in feed type occurs, feed provision must be altered
accordingly; if energy content of the feed is reduced with a change in feed type, feed provision
will need to be increased and vice versa.
Key point
• Be aware of any changes in energy content between feed type and formulas and alter feed
provision accordingly to account for this.

49
Lighting
In the period from 15 weeks of age to light stimulation, it is important that a constant 8 hours
of light is maintained so that birds can respond appropriately to the light stimulation when it
occurs (see section on Lighting).
Key point
• Follow recommended lighting programs.
Rear and move facilities
It is common practice to move birds from rearing facilities to separate laying facilities. Age at
which transfer to the laying facilities occurs can vary depending on housing type. For light proof
laying facilities, transfer should not occur later than 21 weeks (147 days) of age. For open-sided
laying facilities, transfer may need to be later than 21 weeks (depending on season and natural
daylength). Regardless of what type of housing is used, transfer should not be completed before
18 weeks (126 days) or after 23 weeks (161 days) of age. It is recommended that males are moved
before the females (at least one day before) to allow them to find the feeders and drinkers.
An additional increase in feed quantity (approximately 50% more) on the day before and the day
of transfer will help compensate for moving stress. Birds should not be fed on the morning they
are due to be moved. Feeders in the laying facility should be fully charged so that birds have
immediate access to feed on arrival. Feed levels should be returned to normal on the first or
possibly second day after transfer. The exact amount of extra feed given and the length of time
over which it is given after transfer will depend on season, environmental temperature, and
transport duration.
It is important that feeding space is not reduced and that lighting programs and biosecurity are
synchronized between rearing and laying houses.
After transfer, check crop fill of both males and females (Figure 48) to ensure they are finding
feed and water. Crop fill should be assessed on the day of transfer, 30 minutes after the first feed
and then again 24 hours later. A random sample of at least 50 females and 50 males should be
assessed. If crop fill is found to be inadequate (ideally all birds assessed should have a full crop)
the reason for this should be investigated and resolved (possibilities include; inadequate feeder
space, feed distribution or availability of feed).
Figure 48: Crop fill assessment of broiler breeders after transfer. The bird on the left has an
empty crop and the bird on the right a full crop.
Key points
• Provide extra feed on the day before and the day of transfer.
• Ensure that males and females are finding feed and water after transfer by monitoring
feeding behavior and checking crop fill.

50
Day-old to depletion facilities
In day-old to depletion facilities where the feeding system is changed between rear and lay,
transferring birds to the new feeding system must be managed carefully. New feeders must be
introduced so that birds are able to access them and find feed easily. For example, where birds
are floor fed in rear and then transferred to track feeders in lay, the track feeders should initially
be set at a low height (low enough to allow the birds to see feed within the feeder) for the first
1-2 days. Check crop fill to determine that all birds have found the new feeders and are managing
Section 2
to access feed.
Key point
• Where there is a change in feeding system between rear and lay, manage this transfer
carefully by ensuring that birds can easily find and get access to the new feeders.
Mixing males and females
At the time of mixing males and females, additional management techniques are needed.
Attention must be paid to mating-up procedure, identification of sexing errors, management of
separate-sex feeding and male: female ratio.
Mating-up
Mating-up should be started from 21 weeks (147 days) of age. Both males and females must
be sexually mature before mating-up occurs; an immature male should never be mated with a
mature female. A sexually mature male will have a comb and wattles which are well-developed
and red in color (Figure 49). A sexually mature female will also have a bright red comb and
wattles (Figure 50). Mating-up should be postponed by 7 to 14 days if sexual maturity is delayed
or the birds are to be moved from dark-out rearing to open-sided laying facilities. This will give
the birds more time to become sexually mature and give better control over feeding (as males
will be bigger and so the separate-sex feeding systems will work better).
Where variation exists in sexual maturity within the male population and some males are visibly
immature, the more mature males should be mixed with the females first. As an example, if the
planned mating ratio is 9.5 to 10% then a possible system of mating-up would be to mix half of
the total number of required males (those that are most mature) at 21 weeks, a further quarter
(again the most mature males) a week later, and then finally the remaining males the following
week.
If males are more mature than females, then they should be introduced to the females more
gradually. For example, mate-up at a ratio of 1 male for every 20 females, then gradually add
more males over the next 14 to 21 days to reach the desired mating ratio.
Figure 49: An example of a mature young male with a well-developed comb and wattles that are
red in color (on the left) and an immature male with an under-developed comb and wattles that
are pale in color (on the right).

51
Figure 50: An example of a young female with a well-developed comb and wattles that are red
in color (on the left) and an immature female with an under-developed comb and wattles (on
the right).
In the period from mating-up until all males have become sufficiently large to be physically
excluded from the female feeders (approximately 26 weeks of age), feeding behavior should
be carefully monitored (at least twice a week). This is necessary to check that the separate-sex
feeding systems are working properly and that feed is being distributed correctly and evenly
around the shed.
Key points
• Ensure both males and females are sexually mature at mating-up.
• Immature males should not be mated up to mature females.
• Begin mating-up at 147 days (21 weeks).
• Monitor feeding behavior.
Sexing errors
Identifying sexing errors (males present in female pens and females present in male pens)
can be difficult at early ages, but it is good practice to remove these birds whenever they are
identified during the life of the flock. Ideally, all sexing errors should be removed before mating-
up. The criteria for doing this are illustrated in Figure 51.

52
Figure 51: Criteria for identifying males and females for the resolution of sexing errors.
Male Female
Comb and Wattles
Section 2
105 days (15 weeks)
More developed
and redder in males.
Hock Joints
140 days (20 weeks)
Thicker and broader in
males. Narrower and
smoother in females.
Feathering Around the

Neck
140 days (20 weeks)
Long-fringed, spear-
shaped feathers in males.
Denser, paddle-shaped
feathers in females.
Body Shape
140 days (20 weeks)
Males longer and
narrower. Females more
compact and broader
around pelvis.

53
Separate-sex feeding equipment
After mating-up, males and females should be fed from separate feeding systems (Figure 52).
Separate-sex feeding takes advantage of differences in head size between males and females
and allows more effective control of body weight and uniformity of each sex. Separate-sex
feeding requires especially careful management, and feeding behavior should be monitored
regularly throughout lay. At a minimum, feeding behavior should be monitored twice weekly up
to 26 weeks of age. Complete exclusion of all males from the female feeders normally occurs
around 26 weeks of age. Up to this point some males may still be able to access the female
feeding system and steal female feed. Careful monitoring of body weight and feeding behavior
is necessary at this time to ensure that both males and females are receiving enough feed to
maintain target increases in body weight. After 26 weeks of age, monitoring of feeding behavior
can be reduced to once a week. Feeding equipment must be properly adjusted and maintained;
poorly managed and badly maintained feeding equipment gives uneven feed distribution which
is a major cause of depressed egg production and fertility.
Female feeding equipment

With track feeding systems, the most effective method of preventing male access to the female
feeders is to fit grills (grids or toast racks) to the tracks (Figure 52). Males are then excluded
from the female feeders because of their greater head width and comb height, while female
access remains unrestricted. Internal grill width should be 45-47 mm and grill height should
be 60 mm. The addition of horizontal wires either side of the apex of the grid will help to
strengthen the grill. Grid widths less than 45 mm will prevent a significant number of the
females from feeding and cause reduced performance.
Figure 52: Separate-sex female feeding system showing grills (grids or toast racks).
45-47 m
m
m
60 m
The addition of a plastic pipe in the apex of the grill can be used to further restrict male access
(Figure 53). This is particularly useful from mating-up until physical maturity (approximately 30
weeks of age), after about 33-35 weeks of age the pipe can be removed. It is important to make
sure that the piping is fixed correctly and securely to the apex of the feeder, if not it may sag and
restrict female access to the feeder.

54
Figure 53: Separate-sex feeding system for females showing grills and the addition of plastic
pipe in the apex.
Section 2
An alternative to grills are roller bars (Figure 54). These are fitted to the track feeding system
and the height is adjusted as the birds age. Bar height should start at 43 mm at mating-up, and
gradually be increased to 47 mm by 30 weeks of age.
Figure 54: A roller bar system used to restrict male access.
A grill can also be used to prevent access by males to automatic pan feeders or hanging hoppers
(tube feeders). With hanging hoppers (tube feeders), feeder movement should be reduced to a
minimum.
Daily checks should be made for damage, displacement or irregularity of gaps in the female
feeder system. Failure to detect and correct such problems will allow males to steal female feed
(Figure 55), and effective control over body weight and uniformity will be lost.
Figure 55: Males stealing from female feeders.

55
Male feeding equipment

Three types of feeders are generally used for males (Figure 56):
• Automatic pan-type feeders.
• Hanging hoppers (tube feeders).
• Suspended feeder track.
Figure 56: Male feeders (from left to right; automatic pan feeders, hanging hoppers, suspended
feeder track).
Hanging hoppers (tube feeders) and suspended feed tracks are both suspended from the
house roof and feeder height can be adjusted appropriately for the male population. When
hanging hoppers (tube feeders) are filled manually, it is important that the same feed quantity
is delivered to each hopper and that the hoppers are not tilted to one side. Suspended feeder
tracks for males have proved successful, because feed can be levelled or evened out within the
track ensuring an even feed distribution.
After feeding, suspended feeders should be raised to deny males further access to the feeders.
When feeders are raised, the next day’s allocation of feed should be added so that when they
are lowered at the next feeding time, males have instant access to feed. It is beneficial to delay
male feeding until about 5 minutes after the female feeders have been filled.
It is essential that male feeder height is correctly adjusted so that all males have equal access to
feed at the same time, while female access to the feeders is prevented (Figure 57). Correct male
feeder height is dependent on male size and feeder design, but as a general rule, male feeder
height should be in the range of 50-60 cm above the litter. Care should be taken to ensure that
the litter under the feeders is level and any build up of litter beneath male feeders should be
avoided as this will reduce feeder height allowing females to steal male feed. Daily observation
and adjustment at feeding time is necessary to ensure that male feeder height remains correct.
As male numbers decline, the number of male feeders should also be reduced to ensure that
feeding space remains optimal. Care should be taken to avoid giving too much feeding space
to males, as the more aggressive males will over-consume, male body weight uniformity will
decline, and a loss in reproductive performance will occur.
Figure 57: Correct male feeder height.

56
Key points
• Provide separate male and female feeding systems. Female feeding systems should have
grills fitted to prevent male access and male feeders must be raised to a height that will
allow only males to access them.
• Observe feeding behavior daily to ensure both sexes are feeding separately, male feeders
are at the correct height, and feeding space and feed distribution are adequate.
• Daily checks should be made for damage, displacement or irregularity of gaps in the
female feeder system.
Section 2
Management of Females Post Light
Stimulation Until 5% Production
Objective
To bring the female into lay by stimulating and supporting egg production using feed and light.
Principles
Females need to be grown to the target body-weight profile and with the recommended lighting
program (see section on Lighting) so that the flock comes into production in a uniform way.
For equipment, stocking density, and feeder and drinker space recommendations see Tables 10
and 11 (15 weeks to light stimulation).
Regular feed increases (at least weekly) are essential for appropriate body-weight gain, uniform
sexual maturity, fleshing, and timely onset of lay. Lighting programs should be implemented on
schedule to support and stimulate females during this period. The first light increase should
be given around 147 days (21 weeks ) of age, but the exact timing will depend primarily on
body weight and flock uniformity. If the flock is uneven (CV greater than 10%) light stimulation
should be delayed by approximately one week (see section on Lighting).
Water should be freely available. The breeder layer feed should be introduced from 5% hen-day
production at the latest to ensure that the birds receive the correct amount of nutrients (such as
calcium) to support egg production.
Any problems with feed, water, or disease at this stage can have devastating effects on the
onset of production and subsequent flock performance. It is therefore wise to monitor and
record uniformity, body weight, and feed clean-up time; responding quickly to any decrease in
uniformity, any change in feed clean-up time, or any reduction in body-weight gain.
Nest boxes should be opened just before the anticipated arrival of the first egg. This will likely
be 10-14 days after the first light increase is given. Opening nest boxes too early will reduce
the females’ interest. Dummy eggs can be placed in nests to encourage the birds to lay in them.
Where automated systems are used, the egg gathering belts should be run several times each
day, even before the arrival of the first egg, so that the birds become accustomed to the sound
and vibration of the equipment.
The spacing of the bird’s pin (pubic or pelvic) bones should be measured to determine the state
of sexual development of the female. For further information on monitoring pin bone spacing
refer to the section on Assessment of Bird Physical Condition.

57
Key points
• Achieve target body-weight by concentrating on correct weekly incremental feed increases
and resultant bird gains.
• Follow the recommended lighting program.
• Monitor flock uniformity, body weight and feed clean-up time, and respond quickly to
any issues.
• Provide ad libitum access to clean, good quality water.
• Change from grower to breeder layer feed at 5% production at the latest.
• Open nest boxes just before anticipated arrival of first egg.
• Measure pin-bone spacing.
Floor Eggs
Floor eggs represent a loss in production and a hygiene risk to the hatchery. Appropriate
training of birds to lay eggs in the nests will reduce floor eggs, but there are a number of other
practices which can reduce the occurrence of floor eggs.
• Introduce perches from 28 days (4 weeks).
• Incorporate a suitable alighting/perching rail in nest box design.
• Ensure male and female sexual maturity is synchronized.
• Have uniform distribution of light of greater than 60 lux; avoiding the presence of dark and
shaded areas next to walls, corners, and in the areas next to steps and slat fronts.
• Provide correct feeder space for females.
• Follow the recommended lighting program and ensure that light stimulation is synchronized
with body weight.
• Where automated systems are used, the egg gathering belts should be run several times
each day.
• Open nest boxes just prior to the anticipated arrival of the first egg and not too soon before.
• Walk around the house as frequently as possible (at least 6 and up to 12 times a day) picking
up any floor eggs. This will prevent floor eggs being laid habitually.
• Set feeder and drinker heights appropriately so that they are not obstacles to nest access.
• Manage early mating ratios to avoid over-mating.
• With manual nests, put 20% at floor level to start. Thereafter, gradually raise them (over a
period of 3 to 4 weeks) to the normal height.
• Allow 3.5 - 4 hens per nest hole for manual nests.
• Allow 40 hens per linear meter for mechanical (communal type) nests.
• Ensure environmental conditions are adequate and avoid drafts in the nesting places.
• Set feeding times to avoid the peak of egg laying activity. Feeding time should be either
within 30 minutes of ‘lights on’, or 5-6 hours after ‘lights on’ to prevent birds from feeding
when most eggs are likely to be laid.
Key point
• Attention to detail avoids floor eggs.

58
Management of Females from 5% Hen-day

Production Until Peak Egg Production
Objective
Section 2
To promote and support female reproductive performance throughout the laying cycle.
Principles
Hatching egg production performance is affected by early egg size, egg quality, and level of peak
production. Correct body weight during early lay can be achieved by providing females with feed
levels that will meet the increased demands of egg production and growth.
For equipment, stocking density, and feeder and drinker space recommendations, see Tables 10
and 11 (15 weeks to light stimulation).
Females must continue to gain weight during early lay to maximize egg production and
hatchability. Birds should be fed to meet the increased demands of egg production and growth;
but over-feeding must be avoided. Birds that receive more feed than required for egg production
will develop an abnormal ovarian structure and gain excess weight - resulting in poor quality
eggs, low hatchability, and increased risk of peritonitis and prolapse.
The difference in feed quantity allocated prior to first egg and the target feed level given at
peak (see the Indian River Parent Stock Performance Objectives for more details) allows a feed
allocation schedule to be established. Amounts of feed given up to and at peak should then be
adjusted for each individual flock depending on:
• Hen-day production.
• Daily egg weight and change in egg weight trend.
• Body weight and body-weight gain trend.
• Feed clean-up time.
• Dietary energy density.
• Operational environmental temperature.
• Degree of body fleshing and fatness.
Responsive management of birds coming into production requires frequent observation and
measurement of the production parameters given above. These parameters are not used in
isolation but rather in combination to determine whether or not the feed allocation for an
individual flock is correct. Both the absolute and trend data should be taken in to account. For
example, if there is an unexpected change or deviation from target in hen-day production, egg
weight, body weight, or feed clean-up time, then feed allocation should be reviewed. However,
in order for the manager to make informed decisions on feed quantity, dietary energy content
and environment temperature must also be known. The frequency with which each of those
parameters should be measured is given in Table 12. Monitoring of body weight, daily egg
production and daily egg weight are key when determining feed allocations.

59
Table 12: Frequency of observation of important production parameters.

Parameter Frequency
Egg production Daily
Increase in egg production Daily
Egg weight Daily
Body weight Daily
Body-weight gain Daily
Feed clean-up time Daily
House temperature (min. and max.) Daily
Body condition and fleshing Weekly (and on walk-through)
Feed increases given should be proportional to actual rates of production. Thus, in high
producing flocks extra feed may need to be given, and feed increases beyond recommended
peak feed amounts may be justified. Equally if egg weight and/or body weight are judged to be
markedly below the expected target then feed increases should be advanced. Small but frequent
feed increases to peak feeding levels should be used to prevent excessive weight gain.
Management requirements for each flock will vary depending on their body condition,
reproductive performance, environment, equipment, and facilities. The following example (Table
13) shows how a feeding program can be devised for a particular flock, taking into account
flock history, type of housing, feed composition and management constraints. It illustrates feed
increases from 5% production; which is appropriate for flocks with CV less than 10%. If flock CV%
is greater than 10, the first feed increase should be delayed until 10% production.
Table 13: Example female feeding program to peak egg production (for further details refer to
the Indian River Parent Stock Performance Objectives). Feeding program for a 24 week old flock
on 366 kcal ME/bird/day (130.8 g/bird/day), based on a feed energy level of 2800 kcal ME/kg
(11.7 MJ/kg). Average daily temperature is assumed to be 20-21oC and the flock is assumed to be
on target body weight with good uniformity.
Indian River
Daily Energy Daily Energy
Feed Amount* Feed Increase Feed Amount* Feed Increase
Hen-day % Intake Intake
g/bird/day g/bird/day g/bird/day g/bird/day
(kcal/bird/day) (kcal/bird/day)
5 387 138 8 387 30.5 1.7
10 395 141 3 395 31.2 0.7
15 404 144 3 404 31.8 0.6
20 412 147 3 412 32.5 0.7
25 421 150 3 421 33.1 0.6
30 429 153 3 429 33.8 0.7
35 437 156 3 437 34.5 0.7
40 445 159 3 445 35.1 0.6
45 452 162 3 452 35.6 0.5
50 459 164 2 459 36.2 0.6
55 466 167 3 466 36.7 0.5
60 473 169 2 473 37.3 0.6
65 473 169 473 37.3
70 473 169 473 37.3
Peak 473 169 473 37.3
*Figures in this table are rounded.

Table Notes: (a) Flocks can consume 115-135 g of feed per bird per day prior to 5% hen-day production; feeding
programs should be adjusted according to given start point. (b) Uniform flocks will come into production rapidly and
feed amounts should be adjusted (increased) accordingly. (c) Even though the table shows feed increases every 5%
production, it may be necessary to adjust feed levels daily, taking into account the rate of daily production. (d) If feed
energy levels different to 2800 kcal ME/kg feed are used then feed intake will need to be adjusted accordingly. (e) Peak
production is assumed to occur around 6 weeks after 5% production is achieved. (f) Adjustments will need to be made
if environmental temperature is warmer (reduce feed intake) or cooler (increase feed intake) than that assumed here.

60
Key points
• Monitor and achieve target body weight and body-weight gains.
• Monitor daily egg production and egg weight.
• Stimulate egg numbers from 5% production by giving programmed increases in feed
allocation.
• Follow the recommended lighting programs.
• Define the program of feed increases based on feed amount prior to production, dietary
energy level, ambient temperature and expected flock productivity.
Section 2
• Use small but frequent feed increases.
Feed Clean-up Trends

Feed clean-up time is a useful monitoring practice for ensuring that the flock is getting adequate
energy intake. Clean-up time is the time it takes for the flock to eat its daily feed allocation
(from when the feeder starts to operate until there is only dust left in the feeder). When the
amount of feed being offered is excessive, birds will take longer to consume it, conversely
when there is not enough feed birds will consume it more quickly than expected. Many factors
affect clean-up time including age, temperature, feed amount, physical feed characteristics,
feed nutrient density, and ingredient quality. Therefore, trends (changes) in feed clean-up time
are as important as absolute time taken to clean-up feed. Feed clean-up time trends should
be monitored and recorded, and if there is a change in clean-up time possible causes (energy
levels not as expected, poor feed quality, health issues, incorrect feeding volumes) should be
investigated.
At peak production, feed clean-up time is normally in the range of 2 to a maximum of 4 hours
at 19-21oC dependent on feed physical form (Table 14).
Table 14: A guide to feed clean-up times at peak production.

Feed Clean-up Time at Peak
Feed Texture
Production (hours)
3-4 Mash
2-3 Crumble
1-2 Pellet
KEY POINT
• Monitor feed clean-up times and trends in feed clean-up times, and respond to any
changes in feed consumption trends.
Egg Weight and Feed Control

Trends in daily egg weight act as a sensitive indicator of the adequacy of total nutrient intake
(inadequate nutrient intake will lead to a fall in egg weight, and excessive nutrient intake will
lead to an increase in egg weight). Feed intake should be adjusted according to deviations from
the expected daily egg weight profile.
Daily egg weight should be recorded from 10% hen-day production. A sample of 120-150 eggs
should be bulk weighed (Figure 58) daily. The eggs should be taken from eggs collected directly
from the nest at second collection to avoid using eggs laid the previous day. Double-yolked,
small, and abnormal eggs (e.g. soft shelled) should be rejected.

61
Figure 58: Bulk weighing of eggs.
Average daily egg weight is obtained by dividing the bulk weight (weight of eggs minus weight
of tray or trays) by the number of eggs weighed. The daily egg weight should then be plotted
against target (it is important that the graph scale is large enough to make daily variation clearly
visible). In flocks receiving the correct quantity of feed, egg weight will normally follow the
target profile. However, it is normal for average egg weight to fluctuate on a daily basis due to
sampling variation and environmental influences (Figure 59).
Figure 59: An example showing normal fluctuations in the daily weight of bulk weighed eggs.
Egg weight target
Actual daily egg weight

Egg weight
180 185 190 195 200 205 210

Age (days)
If the flock is being under-fed, egg size will not increase over a 3-4 day period, and egg weight
will deviate from target (Figure 60). If peak feed amount has not been reached, the next
planned feed increase should be brought forward to correct this. If peak feed has been reached
then an additional increase in peak feed amount will be required (3 to 5 g per bird).

62
Figure 60: Example of reduction in average daily egg weight over a 3 to 4 day period due to
inadequate feed intake.
Egg weight target
Section 2
Egg weight
Feed increase is required.
180 185 190 195 200 205 210

Age (days)
Key points
• Bulk weigh samples of eggs and record average daily egg weight from 10% hen-day
production.
• Weigh eggs from the second collection to avoid using eggs from the previous day.
• Monitor daily egg weight trends by plotting against target.
• Respond promptly to falling daily egg weight trends by increasing feed allowance.
Management of Males Post Light

Stimulation Until Peak Egg Production
Objective
To optimize fertility and ensure persistency of flock fertility.
Principles
Females require the correct number of males which are in optimal physical condition.
Feeding Considerations
Control of male body weight during the period between light stimulation and peak can be
difficult, as males become progressively excluded from the female feeders. Body condition,
average body weight, and body-weight gains should be monitored ideally twice a week during
this period to ensure that the males remain in optimal physical condition and that body weight
remains on target (see the Indian River Parent Stock Performance Objectives for more details).
Preventing males from becoming over- or underweight is only possible when separate-sex
feeding systems are well maintained and managed.

63
Typically, males become excluded from female feeders from about 22 weeks of age but some
males may continue to access the female feeders up until around 26 weeks of age. Frequent visits
by personnel at feeding time to observe feeding behavior are essential at this time. Failure to
detect when the males are excluded from the female feeders is a common cause of male body
weight shortfall in the pre-peak period and has serious implications for early and late fertility.
Males stealing female feed, particularly when the flock is between 50% hen-day egg production
and peak, may lead to males becoming overweight and the females becoming underweight with
a consequential marked reduction in peak egg production levels. Monitoring female factors
such as daily egg weight and body weight will indicate if this problem is occurring. If males are
stealing female feed there will be a shortfall in average daily egg weight trends and female body
weight; and then subsequently egg production will drop.
Underfeeding
Underfeeding of males can occur during the early stages of production after mixing of males
and females. This is because mating behavior at this stage is very active and the male bird has
not yet reached physical or physiological maturity so nutrient requirements are high. Males will
become dull and listless, showing reduced activity and less frequent crowing if they are being
underfed. If these symptoms are missed and the condition progresses, the comb and wattles
become flaccid, there will be a loss of body weight and body condition, reduction in face and
vent color, and eventually molting will occur. The last stage (molting) cannot be recovered
from. On observing any combination of these symptoms immediately check clean-up time,
feeding space per bird, and separate-sex feeding systems. Next, the accuracy of weekly average
weight gain data should be verified and a sample of males (10% of the population) reweighed. If
inadequate body weight is verified feed allowance should be increased by 3-5 g/bird/day without
delay. Prompt action is essential.
Overfeeding
Excessive feed consumption in males may occur due to oversupply (inaccurate weighing of
feed), variation among males in intake, or feeding from female feeders (inadequate measures
to ensure male exclusion). If body weight control is poor, a sub-population of heavy males with
excessive breast development may occur. Females will begin to avoid mating if a considerable
percentage of males are overweight. Additionally, over-fleshed males may become impaired
in their ability to successfully complete matings. Overweight males loosing condition will be
among the first to undergo testicular regression and associated reductions in mating activity
and fertility will occur. Excessively overweight males (10% or more over target weight) should be
carefully assessed and removed from the flock if they are not mating (see section on Assessment
of Bird Physical Condition).
Key points
• Monitor male physical condition (fleshing) and body weight weekly.
• Grow males to the target body weight and achieve target weekly body-weight gains.
• Use separate-sex feeding with adequate well maintained equipment.
• Routinely observe feeding behavior.
• Any shortfall or reduction in male body weight has serious implications for fertility.
• Consider removing overweight males (10% or more over target weight) from the flock.

64
Mating Ratio
To maintain fertility throughout lay, each flock will require an optimum number of sexually
active males. As the flock ages and egg production declines, fewer males are required to
maintain fertility (Table 15), so substandard and non-working males can be progressively
removed from the flock as it ages. The mating ratios given below are a guide only and should be
adjusted according to local circumstances and flock condition. Higher ratios than those given in
the table may be required in open-sided laying houses where mating activity may be lower due
Section 2
to high environmental temperatures.
Table 15: A guide to typical mating ratios as a flock ages.
Age
Number of Good Quality
Males Per 100 Females
Days Weeks
154 - 168 22 - 24 9.50 - 10.00

168 - 210 24 - 30 9.00 - 10.00
210 - 245 30 - 35 8.50 - 9.75
245 - 280 35 - 40 8.00 - 9.50
280 - 350 40 - 50 7.50 - 9.25
350 to depletion 50 to depletion 7.00 - 9.00
Mating ratio should be reviewed weekly. Based on an assessment of physical condition and body
weight, any males considered to be non-working should be removed from the flock in line with
recommendations to achieve suggested mating ratios. Males retained for mating should have
the following characteristics (see section on Assessment of Bird Physical Condition for more
information):
• Uniform in body weight.
• Free of physical abnormalities (alert and active).
• Strong, straight legs and toes.
• Well feathered.
• Good upright stance.
• Good muscle tone and body condition.
• Comb, wattles and vent showing evidence of mating activity.
The removal of non-working males from the flock should be a continuous process. Removing a
large number of males at one time will lead to unnecessary stress.
Over-mating
A surplus of males leads to over-mating, interrupted mating, and abnormal behavior. Over-mated
flocks will exhibit reductions in fertility, hatchability, and egg numbers. In the early stages, after
mating-up, it is quite normal to observe some displacement and wear of the feathers at the back
of the female’s head and of the feathers on the back at the base of the tail. When this condition
progresses to the removal of feathers, this is a sign of over-mating. If the mating ratio is not
reduced, the condition will worsen with de-feathering of areas of the back and skin scratches
occurring. This may lead to low welfare, loss of female condition, and reduced egg production.
Excessive injuries and feather damage to the males as a result of fighting may also occur. Over-
mated females may be seen “hiding” from the males beneath equipment, in nest boxes, or
refusing to come down from the slatted area.

65
Surplus males must be removed quickly or a considerable loss in persistency of male fertility will
result. The signs of over-mating generally become more obvious at around 182 to 189 days (26 to
27 weeks) , becoming most apparent by 210 days (30 weeks), but the flock should be examined
for signs of over-mating on a daily basis from 175 days (25 weeks) onwards. When over-mating
occurs, the removal of males from the flock should be advanced with an additional one–off
removal of males from the flock. An additional 1 male per 200 females should be removed and
then the planned pattern of reduction (1 male per 200 females every 5 weeks – see Table 15)
should continue to be followed.
Key points
• As the flock ages, fewer males are required to maintain flock fertility.
• Substandard and non-working males should be continuously removed as the flock ages.
• Review mating ratios weekly.
• Monitor females for signs of over-mating from 25 weeks of age.
• Whenever over-mating occurs, surplus males must be removed as quickly as possible;
inspect males and remove those that are not working.

66
Management in Lay (Peak to Depletion)
Section 3 - Management in Lay (Peak to Depletion)
Management of Females After Peak

Production Through to Depletion
Objective
To maximize the number of fertile hatching eggs produced per female, by ensuring persistency
Section 3
of egg production post-peak.
Principles
To maintain productive performance beyond peak production, females must gain body weight
close to the recommended target. Failure to control body weight, and thus fat deposition, post-
peak can significantly reduce persistency of lay, shell quality, and female fertility, and it can
increase egg size after 40 weeks of age.
Factors for Post-peak Management

Post-peak females must gain body weight close to the recommended target. If body-weight gain
is inadequate, total egg production will be reduced. If body-weight gain is too rapid, post-peak
production persistency and fertility will be lowered.
Shortly after peak production, maximum nutrient requirements for egg production occur. This
is because egg mass continues to increase after there has been some reduction in rate of lay.
Peak egg production is usually achieved around 217 days (31 weeks) and can be defined as no
increase in daily hen-day production over a 5 day period. Shortly after this, at around 224 to 231
days (32 to 33 weeks) peak egg mass occurs.
Egg Mass = average egg weight (g) x egg production (Hen-week %)
100
From the time of peak production growth should continue - but at a slower weekly rate (see the
Indian River Parent Stock Performance Objectives for more information).
After peak feed has been given and peak egg production has occurred, feed reductions will be
required in order to achieve the recommended target body weight and to limit the rate of fat
deposition as egg production declines. Post-peak feed reductions should start when hen-day
production does not increase over a period of 5-7 days and ensure that good persistency is
maintained by controlling body weight gain to 15-20 g/female/week, to manage egg weight gains
and therefore egg mass.

67
Figure 61: The relationship between growth, body weight, egg production, egg weight, egg
mass, and age.
Peak % egg production
EGG
% Production
Peak egg mass PROD
UCTI
ON
EG
GM
ASS
Body weight
Age at first egg
Increased fat deposition
Growth
28 70 105 161 217 224
Age (days)

68
Procedures
Many factors are involved in determining the exact timing of the initial feed reduction post-peak.
Timing and amount of feed reduction may be affected by:
• Body weight and body-weight change from the start of production.
• Daily egg production and the hen-day production trend.
• Daily egg weight and egg weight trend.
• Egg mass trend.
• Health status of the flock and feathering condition.
• Ambient environmental temperature.
• Feed energy and protein levels.
• Feed texture.
• Feed quantity consumed at peak (energy intake).
• Flock history (rearing and pre-peak performance).
Section 3
• Changes in feed clean-up time.
• Feather cover.
Due to variation between flocks in the characteristics given above, the program of feed
reduction will vary for each flock. To enable the farm manager to monitor and establish an
appropriate feed reduction program, it is critical that the following characteristics are measured
and recorded, and graphed onto a chart:
• Daily (or weekly) body weight and body-weight change relative to the target (see the Indian River
Performance Objectives for more details on target body weights). Accurate body weight monitoring
is critical during the post-peak period (see section on Monitoring Broiler Breeder Growth).
• Daily egg weight and egg weight change relative to the target (can be obtained from the
Performance Objectives booklet).
• Daily changes in feed clean-up time. Clean-up time is the time between feeder switch-on and
trough clearance; at peak these are normally 3-4 hours for mash, 2-3 hours for crumbles, 1-2
hours for pellets. If clean-up time is more or less than the times indicated it suggests that
feed levels may be too high or too low respectively.
In addition, the farm manager should routinely handle and examine the birds to ensure they are in
good physical condition (see section on Assessment of Bird Physical Condition for more information).
General Guidelines for Post-peak Feed Reductions Based on Target

Performance Characteristics
Under moderate temperate conditions where performance levels are close to or on target, the
following illustrates general guidelines for feed reductions after peak. However, the actual
program of feed reduction should be based on the close and accurate monitoring of daily body
weight, daily egg weight and feed clean-up time.
Age
Peak* to
35 weeks Hold at peak feed levels
Gradual reductions down to

448 kcal ME/bird/day, 160 g/
36-50 bird/day.
Gradual reductions down to

>50 425 kcal ME/bird/day 152g/
weeks bird/day.
*Peak expected to occur around 31 weeks of age.

69
There will be situations where flock performance differs markedly from the published
performance targets and the feed reduction program will need to be altered accordingly to
account for this. The following are examples of 2 specific field situations illustrating suggested
feed reduction strategies where performance differs from published targets.
Flocks performing above target recommendations
Flocks performing above the published performance targets can be under-supplied in feed and
thus nutrients, and both body weight and egg weights may start to slow or fall off when compared
to the expected incremental gain (see example in Figure 62). Excessive feed reductions after
peak can potentially have a negative impact on production and leave birds susceptible to molting
and broodiness. When flocks are performing above target recommendations feed reductions
after peak should be less and more gradual; peak feed may need to be held for longer, onset of
feed reduction delayed and less feed reduced overall from 35 weeks to depletion.
Figure 62: A graph illustrating the effects of underfeeding a flock performing above the hen
week production target.
Hen week production & egg weight

Body weight
Body-weight target
Actual body weight
Egg weight target
Actual egg weight
Hen week % target
Actual hen-week%
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63
Age (weeks)
Daily egg weight, body weight, production, and feed clean-up times should be monitored
closely. In particular, recording and monitoring body weight and egg weight will indicate if feed
reduction is being done correctly. Under normal conditions, a fade in egg weight and then body
weight are the first signs that feeding is not correct, and will precede a drop in production. In
Figure 62, the graph illustrates a flock performing above target, where the information has
been collated and graphed weekly. While general trends in performance can be monitored in
this way, weekly recording does not allow sufficient early detection of potential performance
issues in egg and body weight. Small, but important changes will occur within days if nutrition
is inadequate and it is recommended that daily egg weights and body weights are measured,
recorded, and monitored separately so that any fade in weight can be rapidly detected and acted
upon (Figures 63 and 64).

70
Figure 63: An example of a flock performing above hen week target, where egg weight is falling
away from the expected target in a consistent and continuous way over a period of at least 4 days.
63.0
Egg weight target

62.0
Egg weight (g)
61.0
Section 3
60.0
A well performing flock where feed has been
removed too quickly as indicated by a fall in
daily egg weight over a period of 4 days,
feed needs to be given back at 260 days.
59.0
245 250 255 260 265
Age (days)
Figure 64: An example of a flock performing above hen week target, where body weight is falling
away from the expected target in a continuous and consistent way.
3700
Body weight target
Actual daily body weight

3650
Body weight (g)
3600
3550
A well performing flock where feed has

been removed too quickly, feed needs to
be given back at 260 days.
3500
245 250 255 260 265

Age (days)

71
Flocks performing below target recommendations
For flocks that perform below the published performance targets, feed reduction can be greater.
Excess feed levels will result in such flocks becoming overweight with poor persistency and
increased egg weight (see Figure 65). Daily egg weight, body weight, production and feed clean-
up times should be monitored closely to determine if feed reduction is being done correctly. In
flocks that are performing below target recommendations the overall feed reduction from peak
to depletion will be more when compared to higher performing flocks. Initial feed reductions
after peak can be in the range of 2-4 g (0.07-0.14 oz) or 8-11 kcal ME per week.

Figure 65: A graph illustrating a flock performing below the hen week production target.
Hen week production & egg weight

Body weight
Body-weight target
Actual body weight
Egg weight target
Actual egg weight
Hen-week % target
Actual hen-week%
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63
Age (weeks)
The early detection of potential performance issues requires that daily egg weights and body
weights are measured, recorded and monitored separately. Figures 66 and 67 illustrate how
closer daily examination of the data (rather than weekly as illustrated in Figure 65) indicates
where there was a higher than expected increase in egg weight and then body weight as feed
reductions after peak have been too slow.
Figure 66: An example of a flock performing below hen week target where the increase in daily egg
weight becomes continuously and consistently higher than expected over a period of at least 4 days.
66.0 2.33
A poor performing flock where egg weight is above standard
and feed removal has been too slow as indicated by an
increase in egg weight over a period of 4 days. Further feed
needs to be removed at 262 days.
65.0 2.29
64.0 2.26
Egg weight (oz)
Egg weight (g)
63.0 2.22
62.0 2.19
61.0 2.15
Egg weight target

60.0 2.10
245 250 255 260 265
Age (days)

72
Figure 67: An example of a flock performing below hen week target where the increase in daily
body weight becomes continuously and consistently higher than expected.
3700
Body weight target

3650
Body weight (g)
3600
Section 3
3550
A poor performing flock where
feed removal has been too slow.
Further feed needs to be
removed at 262 days.
3500
245 250 255 260 265

Age (days)
Monitoring Feed Reduction

In any flock (high, average, or low producing) after any feed reduction, the response to that feed
reduction should be monitored carefully. If production, egg weight or body weight decreases
more than expected, restore the feeding amount to the previous level and attempt to reduce the
feed level again 5-7 days later (Figures 68 and 69).
Figure 68: An example of re-assessment of feed removal when the daily egg weight decreases
in a consistent and continuous way by more than expected and feed levels need to be increased
again.
63 . 0
Egg weight target

62 . 0
Feed reduction
re-applied, as egg
weight is following
Egg weight (g)
expected trend.
61 . 0
Feed restored to
previous level,
Feed reduced.
because of fall
off in egg weight.
60 . 0
59 . 0
245 250 255 260 265 270 275
Age (days)

73
Figure 69: An example of re-assessment of feed removal when the daily body weight decreases
in a consistent and continuous way by more than expected and feed levels need to be increased
again.
3700
Body weight target

3650
Feed reduced.
Body weight (g)
3600
3550
Feed reduction re-applied,
as body weight is following
Feed restored to
expected trend.
previous level, because
of fall off in body weight.
3500
245 250 255 260 265 270 275
Age (days)
If egg weight or body weight increases more than expected and a fall off in persistency occurs
the next feed reduction should be advanced (Figures 70 and 71).
Figure 70: An example of re-assessment of feed removal when the daily egg weight increases
in a consistent and continuous way by more than expected and feed levels need to be reduced
again.
63. 0
Egg weight target

62. 0
Next feed reduction

advanced, because of
Egg weight (g)
increase in egg weight.

61. 0
Feed reduced.
60. 0
59.0
245 250 255 260 265 270 275
Age (days)

74
Figure 71: An example of re-assessment of feed removal when the daily body weight increases
in a consistent and continuous way by more than expected and feed levels need to be reduced
again.
3700
Body weight target

3650
Feed reduced.
Body weight (g)
3600
Section 3
3550
Next feed reduction
advanced, because of
increase in body weight.
3500
245 250 255 260 265 270 275

Age (days)
Feed Reductions and Environmental Temperature

If flocks peak during hot weather, feed should be reduced sooner and more quickly compared
to more temperate conditions. However, as ambient temperatures decrease, feed levels should
be reviewed and adjusted accordingly to ensure that birds' energy requirements are achieved.
Monitor feed clean-up time so that any variations are managed.
Key points
• Monitoring and control of body weight and egg weight are major priorities post-peak.
• Follow a feed reduction program that allows the birds to gain weight at a rate of 15 to
20 grams per week. This will help attain egg production, body weight and egg weight
profiles.
• Failure to control body weight from peak production will reduce production persistency
and effect egg size.
• Monitor and record daily body weight and egg weight and make weekly feeding decisions
based on these daily trends in relation to target. If trends indicate, then make changes in
feed allowances earlier.
• Flocks producing at levels above egg production targets may require more feed. Feed
reductions should be of smaller amounts and more gradual.
• If a flock peaks poorly, the feed withdrawal should be more rapid to avoid birds becoming
fat.

75
Management of Males After Peak

Production Through to Depletion
Objective
To maintain persistency of fertility.
Principles
Maintaining male condition and feeding, and appropriately managing male numbers in lay are
key for maintaining male fertility post-peak.
Procedures
Management principles and procedures for males in the post-peak period are similar to those
used in the pre-peak period. Adjusting feed quantity to achieve a gradual but constant increase
in weight as the male ages is the most effective means of controlling body weight and body
condition. Thus persistency of fertility can be maintained. Mating ratios must also be optimized
and managed.
Males should be weighed frequently (at least once a week) to ensure this is achieved. At the same
time as each male is weighed, they should be evaluated to determine if they are maintaining ideal
body condition, fleshing, and vent coloration. Maintaining these characteristics supports active
mating activity throughout the flock’s life. It is important that an adequate sample size is weighed
and assessed. A sample size that is too small (less than 10% of the population) can mislead the
farm manager (for more information, refer to the section on Monitoring Broiler Breeder Growth).
Changes in male feed quantities should be made based on the sample evaluated, using both
body weight data and other husbandry information (such as body condition and fleshing).
After 28 weeks of age, male weekly body-weight gain should be approximately 30 g per week.
When males are on target body weight, and assuming that the separate-sex feeding is working
correctly, the energy allowance post-peak is normally in the range of 375-425 kcal ME per bird
per day; depending on feed energy density, environmental temperature and bird age (refer to
the Indian River Parent Stock Performance Objectives for more information).
Male feed allocations should continue to increase throughout the life of the flock. They should
never be decreased. From around 30 weeks of age, males generally require one small feed increase
approximately every 2 weeks to achieve the desired average weekly body-weight gain of 30 g.
A planned mating ratio reduction program should be followed to maintain persistency of fertility
(see section on Management into Lay). The optimum mating ratio should be maintained by removing
males according to their physical condition (see section on Assessment of Bird Physical Condition).
Flocks with footpad problems have reduced mating and lower fertility. Litter condition and slat
construction have a major effect on male footpad health and ultimately on the ability to mate. If
litter becomes wet, compacted, or of inadequate volume, additional litter must be added to give
males (and females) a comfortable area to walk on and mate.
Key points
• Never decrease male feed allocation.
• Ensure sufficient sample size is weighed.
• Feed increases should account for body weight, fleshing and physical condition to
maintain growth and persistency of fertility.
• Maintain adequate quantities of dry litter to promote good footpad health.
• Follow a planned male reduction program.

76
Monitoring Broiler Breeder Growth
Section 4 - Monitoring Broiler Breeder Growth

Objective
To manage bird development by obtaining an accurate estimate of the average body weight and
uniformity (CV%) for each population of birds.
Principles
Weigh birds at least weekly using a standardized, accurate and repeatable procedure. Target body
weight-for-age and flock uniformity can then be controlled by management of feed allowance
and feed distribution so that reproductive performance is maximized.
Section 4
Body Weight Weighing Methods
Flock growth and development are assessed by weighing representative samples of birds and
comparing sample weights with target body weight-for-age.
All measurement systems require calibration and standard weights should be used to check that
scales are weighing accurately. A calibration check should be made at the beginning and end of
every sample weighing.
Two main weighing systems are available – manual and electronic. Either type of weighing
scale can be used successfully, but the same scale should be used each time for reliable repeat
measurements of an individual flock.
No matter which weighing system is used, the people handling birds should work in a calm
manner, and be appropriately trained considering bird welfare at all times.
Manual weighing scales
Several types of manual scales are available (an example is given in Figure 72). These can be
used to weigh birds to an accuracy of ± 20 g and have a capacity up to 5 kg. Conventional
(mechanical or dial) scales require manual data records to be kept and data calculations to be
made manually.
Figure 72: Manual suspended balance for weighing birds.

77
Electronic weighing
Electronic scales (Figure 73) are available which record individual bird weights to the nearest
gram, and can calculate and print-out the population statistics (Figure 74) automatically:
• Total number of birds weighed.
• Average weight of birds.
• Deviation or range.
• CV%.
Figure 73: Examples of electronic weighing scales for individual chick weights up to 7 days (on
the left), electronic scales for individual bird weights after 7 days (in the middle) and platform
scales (on the right) where birds weigh themselves individually.
Figure 74: Examples of a print-out from an automatic weigh scale.
CURR
RREN
RENTT DA
D TA
T METE RIC CU
URRENT
RR
R D TA
DA T IMPERIAL
TO
OTA
T L WE
WEIG
I HE
HED:
D 79 TAL WE
TOTA EIG
I HE
H D: 79
AVERAG
A E WE
AG W IG
I HTT: 0.471 AVERAGGE WE
W IG
I HT: 1.
1 0337
DEVIATION: 0.0488 DEVIATTION: 0.1105
C.V. (%): : 10.2 C.V. (%): 10.2
Band limits s Total Band limits s Total

0 320 to 0.3
0. . 39 1 0 705 to 0.747
0. 1
0.340 to 0.3.3359 1 0.750 to 0.7.791 1
0 36
0. 360 to
to 0.337
799 2 0 79
0. 794 to
to 0.883
366 2
0.380 to 0.399 9 2 0.838 to 0.880 0 2
0.400 to 0.419 1 4 0.8882 to 0.9
. 24
2 4
0.420 to 0.439 3 7 0.926 to 0.968 68 7
0.
.44
440 to 0.4 4599 12 0.
.97
970 too 1.00122 12
0 460 to 0.479
0. 9 15 1.014 to 1.0 0566 15
0.480 to 0.499 9 14 1.058 to o 1.100 0 14
0.50
500 to
to 0.5
. 19 10
0 1.
.10
1 2 to
t 1.1
. 44 10
0 520
0. 0 to 0.539 6 1 146
1. 6 to 1.188 6
0.54
5 0 to
54 o 0.5559
5 3 1.19
190 to
19 o 1.2
.232
.2 3 3
0.5880 too 0.599
99 2 1.279 9 to
o 1.321
21 2

78
Methodology for Sample Weighing

Birds should be weighed weekly from placement (day 0). At 0, 7 and 14 days of age, samples can
be weighed in bulk. After 14 days of age, individual bird weights should be taken.
At placement (day 0), at least 3 boxes of chicks should be bulk weighed per pen. The number
of live chicks in each box and the weight of the chick box must be known in order to accurately
calculate average chick weight. In addition, it is recommended to individually weigh the chicks
in one box per pen at placement to assess chick quality and help determine initial early chick
management procedures.
From 7 days onward, a minimum sample of 2% or 50 birds whichever is greater should be

weighed per population. At 7 and 14 days of age, bulk weigh 10-20 birds at a time until the entire
sample (a minimum of 2% or 50 birds) has been weighed.
Bulk weighing allows the determination of average bird weight. Comparison of average
bird weight to target weight, facilitates feeding decisions. However, for the determination of
uniformity (CV%), birds need to be weighed individually.
Recording of individual bird body weights should occur as early as is practically possible,
generally that is between 14 and 21 days (2 and 3 weeks) of age. A minimum sample of 2%
Section 4
or 50 birds (whichever is the greater) per population should be caught using catching frames,
and then individually weighed. All birds captured in the sample must be weighed in order to
eliminate any selective bias. In rear, if the individual population exceeds 1,000 birds, 2 sample
weighings should be taken from different locations in the pen or house. In lay, samples should
be taken from a minimum of 3 different locations within the population. In this way samples
will be as representative as possible and estimates of body weight will have increased accuracy.
Birds for sample weighing should be caught towards the middle of the pen away from any doors
or the sides of the pen. Weighing needs to be completed on the same day each week and at the
same hour of the day (4-6 hours after feeding).
Procedures for Manual Scales

When manual scales are used individual bird weights should be recorded on a weight recording
chart (Figure 75) as the birds are weighed.

79
Figure 75: Manual body weight recording chart.
Manual Body Weight Recording Chart

FARM BREED HOUSE PEN SEX AGE DATE
2 Female 28 Mar-15
NUMBER WEIGHED AVERAGE WEIGHT TARGET WEIGHT % Coefficient of variation
212 464 455g 10.3
WEIGHT NUMBER OF BIRDS

GRAMMES
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
00
20
40
60
80
100
20
40
60
80
200
20
40
60
80
300
20
40
60
80
400
20
40
60
80
500
20
40
60
80
600
20
40
60
80
700
20
40
60
80
800
20
40
60
80
Range of Weights x 100

CV(%) =
Average of Weights *F. Value
Range is defined as the difference in weight between the

heaviest an dlightest birds.
The appropriate F value depends on sample size.
Average Weight of populations 464
Examples are as follows:
Body Weight Range 240
CV%= 240x100 10.3 Sample Size F. Value Sample Size F. Value

464x5.03 10 3.08 60 4.64
15 3.54 65 4.70
Flock Details;
20 3.73 70 4.76
Age 28
25 3.94 75 4.81
Average Weight 464
Total Birds Weighed 212 30 4.09 80 4.87
35 4.20 85 4.90
40 4.30 90 4.94
45 4.40 95 4.98
50 4.50 100 5.02
55 4.57 105 5.03

80
Figure 76: Example of a chart for weekly recorded pen body weight and CV% compared
with performance standards. In this example, body weight is on target and CV% is good, feed
increases should follow recommendations.
Indian River Parent Stock - Rearing Program 0 - 24 Weeks
Females / House 2 / Pen 3
3000 25
22.5
2500
20
17.5
2000
Body weight
15
grams
CV%
1500 12.5
10
1000
7.5
Body weight -
Target Female
5
500
Section 4
Body weight -
2.5 Actual Female
0 0
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 105 112 119 126 133 140 147 154 161 168 Female CV%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Procedures for Electronic Scales

If electronic scales are used the population statistics (average weight, weight range, and CV%)
are automatically calculated and given on the print-out (Figure 74). As with manual scales
the average body weight and CV figures should be plotted on a body weight for age graph
and compared to targets. Establishing variation from target will help determine future feed
allocations.
Notes on Sample Weighing of Males

It is important to maintain male body weight and physical condition after mating-up, but
accurate monitoring of body weight can be more difficult at this time. False variation in bird
weight over time may arise because of the difficulty in catching representative samples of males.
So it is crucial that a good male sample size (male sample size should be increased to a minimum
of 10% of the population from mating-up), from different locations in the house, is weighed
during lay.
Where an automatic (jump-on platform) weighing scale is set up in a house, male body weights
must still be measured by hand weighing using either manual or electronic scales. This is to
verify the accuracy of the automatic system. Male sample sizes for these systems can tend to
be unrepresentative, because as males increase in size they become less likely to use these
platforms. Hand weighing (which should be completed weekly from point of lay as a matter of
course) also provides opportunity to check the physical condition of the males.

81
Note on Sample Weighing of Females

Where automatic (jump-on platform) weigh scales are used and the female weights from these
indicate an unexpected variation or deviation from the expected target, a sample of birds should
be reweighed by hand weighing. If the variation is confirmed the platform scales should be
recalibrated to check they are working correctly. Additional hand weighing of females is only
required in such situations and not routinely, as with males.
Inconsistent Weight Data

If a sample weighing produces data that is inconsistent with the previous weights or expected
gains, a second sample of birds should be weighed immediately as a check before any decisions
on feed allowances are made. This will identify potential problems (e.g. improper sampling
procedure, feed allowance errors, drinker failures, or disease) which may need to be rectified.
Key points
• Growth and development in a flock are assessed and managed by weighing representative
samples of birds and comparing them with target weight for age.
• Sample weighing should start at day-old and continue at least weekly.
• Individual bird weights should be taken from 14-21 days of age for calculation of CV%.
• A minimum of 50 birds or 2% of the female population (10% of the male population)
should be weighed but all birds caught in the sample must be weighed.
• Weigh birds at the same time each week using the same set of scales.
• Scale accuracy should be checked regularly.
• Record and plot average body weight and CV% on a body weight-for-age chart.
• If sample weighing produces data inconsistent with previous weights or expected gains
weigh a second sample immediately.

82
Notes
Section 4

83
Notes

84
Assessment of Bird Physical Condition
Section 5 - Assessment of Bird Physical Condition

Objective
To ensure persistency of fertility and egg production by achieving optimum physical condition
of males and females.
Principles
Regular physical assessment of birds provides additional information for guidance on required
adjustments in management practices to ensure persistency of reproductive performance.
The physical assessment of birds within a flock involves monitoring a number of factors
(including body weight, body condition (breast shape and degree of fleshing), and skeletal frame
size) to get a good overall view of bird condition, health, and reproductive potential.
Assessing Bird Condition
Section 5
Assessments of bird condition (e.g. fleshing, legs and feet) should be completed, at least
weekly, from placement through to depletion. This should be done as part of the routine flock
management procedures, and will help to develop good stockmanship techniques in farm
personnel. From these regular assessments, an awareness of what birds should both look and
feel like at any given age can be developed. This will support management decisions and help
recognize and solve problems. There are 2 opportunities to assess the flock - when birds are
being weighed, or when doing a house ‘walk through’.
It is important that the flock is maintained in optimal condition throughout its life. However,
it should be recognized that the optimum will vary slightly at different times during the
production cycle, depending on, for example, whether or not the flock is approaching sexual
maturity, is at peak production, or is established in lay. At any point in time, an inadequate
(under-fleshed or thin), or excessive (over-fleshed or fat) condition will have a negative impact
on flock performance and should be avoided. Particular attention to bird condition should be
paid:
• In the period leading up to the start of egg production (19-24 weeks of age) for females.
• Throughout lay for males when a male reduction plan is being followed.
Weighing provides the ideal opportunity to assess bird physical condition. As a general rule,
a minimum of 50 birds or 2% of the population (whichever is the greater) should be sampled
for females and a minimum of 10% of the population should be sampled for males (for more
information see the section on Monitoring Broiler Breeder Growth). Physical condition should
be routinely assessed and recorded on all birds sampled for weighing.
In addition, it is good management practice to ‘walk through’ the flock at least once a week,
picking up a selection of individual birds to assess their physical condition. As a guide, a
minimum of 20-30 females and 15 males should be selected at random, and their physical
condition assessed.

85
Key points
• Regular assessments of physical condition should be made throughout the life of the flock.
• Using a combination of physical assessments will provide a better indication of bird
condition and fitness-for-purpose and thus facilitate better management decisions
(feeding allocation and implementation of male number reduction plans).
• A representative sample of the population should be assessed at least weekly during
weighing to determine overall flock condition, but individual birds should also be
assessed. It is good practice to catch and physically assess individual birds while doing a
house “walk through”.
Assessment of Male Condition

Males that are in good physical condition will have good fertility. Completing routine physical
assessments of male condition throughout the life of the flock will help ensure that optimum
fertility is achieved.
Any personnel handling birds should do so with due care and attention, and must be
appropriately trained.
Rear
During rear, it is important that birds achieve target body weight and that the flock is uniform
in its development. Skeletal frame size and shank length can be a useful means of visually
comparing male development and are supportive management tools. Up to 63 days (9 weeks)
of age there is a positive relationship between body weight, frame size, and shank length
(Figure 77). In general, birds that achieve the recommended body-weight target during rear
will also achieve good uniform development of the shank and frame (skeleton). Observing birds
feeding at the feed track and/or at nipple or bell drinkers, and looking at the variation in shank
length provides an opportunity to see if there is a high level of variability within a population
(suggesting poor uniformity), the reasons for this variability should be investigated (e.g. poor
feed distribution, inadequate feeder space, health issues).
Figure 77: Shank length in males. The male on the left has poorer development of the shank in
both length and diameter.

86
Birds that follow the recommended body-weight profile in rear should also achieve a body
condition that is acceptable. However, regular and routine monitoring of male fleshing in
conjunction with measurement of body weight can provide a more accurate indicator of overall
body condition, and establish more appropriate management and feeding strategies. To achieve
this, males should be handled regularly (at least weekly during weighing) from placement,
paying particular attention between 15 weeks of age and the start of production, in preparation
for sexual maturity. It is also important to be aware of general health, alertness and activity.
Lay
Physical assessment of male condition for removing males as part of a male reduction plan
A planned mating ratio reduction program (Table 16) should be followed to maintain persistency
of fertility. The optimum mating ratio is maintained by removing males from the flock that are
in poor physical condition and not working.
Table 16: A guide to typical mating ratios as a flock ages.

Number of Good Quality
Days Weeks
Males/100 Females
154-168 22-24 9.50-10.00
168-210 24-30 9.00-10.00
210-245 30-35 8.50-9.75
245-280 35-40 8.00-9.50
280-350 40-50 7.50-9.25
350 to depletion 50 to depletion 7.00-9.00
Section 5
Assessment of male condition for managing mating ratios should be routinely made during
weighing, but can also be done on individual males when ‘walking’ through the flock.
Physical assessment of male condition must be comprehensive and include:

• Alertness and activity.
• Body condition (fleshing) - shape and softness or hardness of breast muscle tone.
• Legs and feet - the legs should be straight with no bent toes, and the footpads should be
free from abrasions.
• Head - males should have a uniform, intense red color around the comb, wattle, and eye
area. Beaks should be uniform in shape.
• Feathering - a good quality male will exhibit some partial feather loss, especially around the
shoulders and thighs.
• Vent - should show some feather wear, be large and moist, with good (red) coloration.
• Body weight - according to target.
Alertness and activity

The flock should be observed throughout the day to monitor mating activity, feeding, resting
location, daytime distribution, and distribution immediately prior to lights out. Males should be
alert and active, and evenly distributed over the litter (scratch) area for most of the light period
(Figure 78). They should not be concentrated on the slats, or hiding under equipment. Males
identified as not being alert and active should be removed. If the mating activity of the flock
is observed to be lower than expected, the reason for this should be investigated (e.g. poor
male condition, sexual maturity between males and females not synchronized, inadequate feed
distribution, and male feed allocation).

87
Figure 78: Good distribution of alert males within a flock.

Monitoring body condition (breast shape or fleshing) in males

Breast shape or fleshing is a good indicator of bird condition and is particularly useful for
males. Birds that are over- or under-fleshed are more likely to have problems with mating and
fertility at some point. Traditionally, body weight has been the main driver for male broiler
breeder management decisions, but using body weight alone can be misleading. For example,
it is possible to have 2 birds of the same age and body weight that differ in physical appearance
and body condition (one could be skeletally smaller or larger, and fatter or leaner - Figure 79),
such birds would require different management, namely feed levels and timing, to achieve
good levels of fertility.
Figure 79: An example of 2 adult male birds of the same weight and age but differing body
condition. The bird on the left is shorter and fatter, and the bird on the right taller and leaner,
but the body weight of the 2 birds is equal.
Observing and awareness of male condition is important throughout the bird's entire life.
Achieving the optimum condition, maintaining it, and ensuring that there is no deterioration
in it at any stage is key to male performance. However, particular attention is recommended:
• At the onset of physical mating activity to ensure that early flock fertility and productivity
are maximized.
• Post-peak to optimize lifetime flock fertility.

88
Body condition scoring system

Body condition (fleshing) should be assessed on a scale of 1 to 3. A score of 1 being under-
fleshed, a score of 2 being ideally fleshed, and a score of 3 being over-fleshed. The differences
between the 3 scores are illustrated in Figure 81. The images in Figure 81 were taken using
a CT (Computed Tomography) x-ray scanner (Figure 80), which allows the bird ‘behind’ the
feathers to be viewed.
Figure 80: CT scanner used to take images that illustrate a scoring system to assess bird body
condition (fleshing).
Figure 81: CT scanner images illustrating the fleshing scoring system for assessing bird
condition. These pictures show 40 week old males. The top 3 images show the whole bird (the
dotted lines indicate the position at which the cross section images were taken). The bottom 3
images show an internal cross section view of the breast.
Section 5
Score 1 Score 2 Score 3
Breast Muscle
Keel Bone
Keel Bone
Breast Muscle
Abdominal Cavity
Muscle
Fat
Bone
Breast shape V Shape Narrow U Shape Wide U Shape
Not obvious and

Less prominent
Prominent and often indented
Keel Bone and smooth to
easily felt. (dimple can be
touch.
seen) at extreme.
Little breast muscle

Good breast muscle
(volume and Excessive breast
covering that will
depth), will feel muscle covering
feel convex or
Breast muscle concave (rather with high volume
rounded
than convex) in and depth. Firm
in shape. Firm
shape. Poor muscle muscle tone.
muscle tone.
tone.

89
Procedure for assessing body condition (breast shape or fleshing)

Breast shape and fleshing should be assessed at least once a week during weighing. All birds
being sampled weighed should be assessed.
To assess fleshing, run the hand along the length of the breast (over the keel bone), feeling the
shape, volume, and tone of the breast muscle (Figure 82).
A score of 1, 2 or 3 indicating the amount and shape of breast should be given to each bird.
Scores should be recorded, and the average score for the flock determined each week. The trend
in bird condition over time should also be monitored.
Figure 82: Assessing male condition. While holding the bird by both legs, the hand is run over
the keel bone, and the prominence of the keel bone, and the amount, shape, and firmness of
the breast on either side of the keel assessed. The male in the picture is 26 weeks old and the
keel bone should be easily felt (but not prominent). The breast should be firm and rounded to
touch, filling the space on either side of the keel bone (condition score 2).
Body condition scores should be taken into consideration, along with body weight and
uniformity, to provide the basis for appropriate adjustments in bird management. Examples of
how body condition assessments might be used in this way are given in Table 17.

90
Table 17: Examples of how male condition can be used in conjunction with body weight to
determine appropriate flock management strategies.
Average Average Average
Average Body Condition Condition Condition Management
Flock Age
Weight Score Week Score Week Score Week Strategy
38* 39* 40*
Body weight on
target, condition
Sample 1 40 weeks Target 2.0 2.0 2.2 good. Give
recommended feed
increase.
Body weight on target
but condition score
falling. Consider
giving additional
Sample 2 40 weeks Target 2.0 1.9 1.8
feed increase above
recommendation, and
investigate reason for
declining condition.
Body weight below

target, condition
score low (birds thin).
Check condition
score is correct.
If confirmed, give
Section 5
Sample 3 40 weeks 200 g below target 1.9 1.8 1.4 additional feed
increase. Investigate
feed volumes,
uniformity of feed
distribution, and
effectiveness of
separate-sex feeding.
Body weight over

target and condition
score high (birds
fat). Verify that feed
200 g distribution and
Sample 4 40 weeks 2.0 2.2 2.5
above target separate-sex feeding
systems are working
optimally. Feed to
maintain increased
body weight.
* Average condition score corresponds to group of males sample weighed.
The assessment of body condition score will differ slightly between individuals. Ideally, body
condition should be assessed by the same person each week. In addition, while the average
condition score for the males in a flock is ‘2’, the optimum condition score for individual flocks
may vary slightly around the ideal.
Key points
• Body condition (fleshing) should be assessed at least weekly during weighing.
• All birds being weighed should be assessed and their condition given a score of 1, 2 or 3
(1 being under-fleshed, 2 being ideal and 3 being over-fleshed).
• Condition scores should be recorded and the average for the flock calculated. The trend
over time should also be monitored.
• Use body condition in conjunction with body weight and uniformity to determine
appropriate management and feeding strategies.

91
Legs and feet

To maintain high fertility levels within a flock, males must have good feet and legs (Figure 83).
Legs should be straight with no bent toes. The footpads should be clean and free from physical
damage. Abrasions and cracks on the feet may lead to infection and discomfort that will reduce
welfare and mating activity. Any male showing poor feet and leg condition should be removed
from the flock.
Figure 83: Good leg health in males.
Head
Males in good condition that are working well will have a uniform, intense red color around
the comb, wattle, and eye area (Figure 84). Under normal conditions, the face of a healthy, well
conditioned male will redden up from the face in towards the eye. Conversely, the face of a male
in poorer condition will start to loose color from the eye outwards. Males with low face color
may have a low mating activity, and should be considered for removal.
Figure 84: A healthy, active male showing a red face and comb (on the left), and a male in poorer
condition, showing paleness around the eye (on the right).

92
Feathering
In production, a good quality male that is working well will exhibit some partial feather loss,
especially around the shoulders, thighs, breast, and tail (Figure 85). Well feathered males
generally have low mating activity, and should be considered for removal.
Figure 85: An active male showing some feather wear (on the left), and an inactive male showing
no feather wear (on the right).
Vent (cloaca) condition

During weekly weighing, male vent condition should be assessed. Assessing the intensity of
redness and moistness of the vent (Figure 86) is a useful management tool for assessing male
condition and mating activity within the flock. Healthy, well-conditioned males working at
optimum rates will demonstrate a redder vent color. The vent will be moist, and there will be
Section 5
some feather loss around the vent area. Males of poor condition with low mating activity will
have pale vent color. The vent will be small and dry with good feather color. The aim is to
maintain a uniform high coloration of the vent within the flock.
Figure 86: Variation in vent color used to indicate degree of mating activity in males. The vent
on the left is from a working male and has a good red color, is moist and shows some sign of
feather wear. The vent on the right is pale in color, small, dry, and shows no sign of feather wear.
Key points
• During lay, a male reduction plan must be followed to maintain optimal flock fertility.
• The decision about which males should be removed from the flock is based upon a general
assessment of male physical condition.
• Attributes that should be looked at include:
• Body weight.
• Body condition.
• Legs and feet.
• Face color.
• Vent condition.
• Alertness and activity.

93
Assessment of Female Condition

The weekly sample weighing also provides an ideal opportunity to assess female physical
condition. As with males, it is good management practice to pick up and assess the condition of
individual females while walking through the flock.
Any personnel handling birds should do so with due care and attention, and must be
appropriately trained.
Rear
In rear, assessment of bird physical condition is based primarily on body-weight monitoring and
skeletal size (skeletal frame size and shank length). However, it is also important to be aware
of degree of fleshing, general health, alertness, and activity. Achieving uniform growth and
development of the females during rear is key to subsequent laying performance. Variation in
frame size within the female population can provide a visual indicator of poor flock uniformity
(determination of body weight CV% should be used to confirm this). When poor flock uniformity
occurs, the cause(s) should be identified (e.g. poor feed distribution, inadequate feeder space,
disease).
Lay
During lay, the main drivers for decisions on feeding management for females are body weight,
egg production, and egg weight. Regular monitoring of pin bone spacing, fleshing, and fat pad
development can provide useful supportive management information.
Pin bone spacing

Measurement of the spacing between the pin (pelvic) bones is a useful management tool for
determining the stage of sexual development in growing females, and hence, when lay is about
to commence. Under normal conditions, the spacing between the pin bones will gradually
increase as the bird ages until it becomes maximal at point of lay (Table 18). If pin bone spacing
does not develop as indicated in Table 18 (i.e. is below 1 ½ fingers at the intended age of
light stimulation), or if there is a big variation in pin bone spacing within the flock, then light
stimulation should be delayed.
Table 18: Changes in pin bone spacing with age.

Age Pin Bone Spacing
84-91 days Closed
119 days One finger
21 days before first egg 1½ fingers
10 days before first egg 2-2½ fingers
Point of lay 3 fingers
Pin bone spacing should be monitored regularly from 15 to 16 weeks (105 to 112 days) of age
up to point of lay (Figure 87). Ideally this should be done every time the house is ‘walked’, but
at a minimum it should be done weekly. The term ‘finger’ is relative to the operator’s hand size
and so will vary from person to person. Ideally, it should be the same person who measures
pin bone spacing from week to week. As a general rule, birds are at the point of lay when the
distance between the pin bones is about 3 fingers (or approximately 5-6 cm).

94
Figure 87: Assessment of pin bone spacing in females.
Monitoring body condition in females

In general, a uniform flock of females achieving the target body-weight profile in rear should
also achieve an acceptable body condition.
It is important to ensure that females do not become either over- or under-fleshed. Regardless
of age, females that are substantially over-fleshed are likely to be heavy, and have increased fat
deposits, while under-fleshed females are likely to be in poor condition. Both situations impact
lifetime reproductive performance. As is the case for males, a sample of females should be
Section 5
handled frequently (at least weekly), and body condition (fleshing) assessed to ensure that the
flock remains in good health and condition to maintain reproductive performance.
The same scoring system used for males should be used for females (Figure 88). However, the
way in which the flock results are interpreted and used are different, as the female body shape
differs to that of males, and it is not recommended to remove individual females from a flock
based on this assessment. For females, it is critical to achieve target body weights, and modify
feed allocation appropriately to egg production levels, and egg weight. Fleshing assessment in
females tends to be a supportive management tool (rather than pivotal; as is the case for the
males in lay).
In rear, the appropriate flock management should minimize the incidence of score 1 (under-
fleshed) and score 3 (over-fleshed) birds in the flock.
In lay, it is preferable that the average flock score is between 2.0 to 2.5, and that the occurrence
of score 1 females is minimized because under-fleshed females are likely to have lower egg
outputs. However, a body condition score 3 can be satisfactory for females in lay, as a fleshy
female can still have a good reproductive output.

95
Figure 88: CT scanner images illustrating the fleshing scoring system for assessing bird
condition. These pictures show 40 week old females. The top 3 images show the whole bird (the
dotted lines indicate the position at which the cross section images were taken). The bottom 3
images show an internal cross section view of the breast.
Score 1 Score 2 Score 3
Fat Pad
Development Area
Breast Muscle
Keel Bone
Keel Bone
Breast Muscle
Abdominal Cavity
Muscle
Fat
Bone
Abdominal fat pad

In lay, monitoring fat pad deposition (Figure 89) is another supportive management tool that
can help provide a better overall assessment of bird condition.
Figure 89: Assessing abdominal fat pad in a female broiler breeder. To assess abdominal fat pad
content, gently feel the area just below the cloaca with a cupped hand. Post-peak abdominal fat
pad should not exceed the level shown here.

96
There is little fat pad development in properly fleshed broiler breeders prior to onset of lay.
Significant development of the fat pad generally occurs after sexual maturity is attained, with the
fat pad reaching its maximum size about 2 weeks before peak egg production. The abdominal
fat pad in females can provide an energy reserve to support maximum egg production, but any
excess fat, particularly after peak, will be detrimental to persistency of egg production, fertility,
and hatchability, and it may reduce liveability. A positive relationship exists between body weight
and fat pad development so heavier females are likely to have increased fat levels which may
affect productivity (Figure 90).
Figure 90: Increases in fat pad with weight. The pictures show a longitudinal cross section
(cloaca on left, head [not shown] on right) of 3 females. The birds were 40 weeks of age. The
female on the left is losing condition, and is below target weight with little fat. Egg production
in such a bird is likely to be reduced or even cease. The bird on the right has a large fat pad,
and shows fat accumulations around the internal organs. Rate and persistency of lay are likely
to be reduced in this bird.
Keel Bone
Increases in Breast Muscle
Abdominal
Fat Pad Cavity
Egg
Live weight 3314 g 3666 g 3747 g Muscle

Fat
Difference to target
-336 g +16 g +97 g Bone
weight
Fat pad weight 42 g 71 g 104 g
Fat pad as a percentage

1.3 1.9 2.8
Section 5
of live weight
From the start of lay, females should be routinely (at least weekly) assessed to monitor the
progress of fat pad development. The actual degree of fat pad deposition will vary from bird to
bird. The objective after peak production is to maintain the female at physical mature weight,
but to minimize the development of excess fat pad. As a guide, maximum fat pad volume should
be no more than the size of an average person’s cupped hand or a large egg (roughly 8-10 cm).
Key points
• Regular assessments of female physical condition (fleshing) should be made throughout
the life of the flock.
• Using a combination of physical assessments (body weight, fleshing, fat pad, and pin
bone spacing) provides a reliable indication of overall female condition upon which
appropriate management decisions can be based.

97
Notes

98
Care of Hatching Eggs on Farm
Section 6 - Care of Hatching Eggs on Farm
Care of Hatching Eggs

Objective
To keep the embryo and egg contents in the best possible condition for good hatchability and
chick quality.
Principles
Eggs must be kept in clean conditions, and at the correct temperature and humidity to achieve
the best hatchability. To achieve this, satisfactory procedures for collection, disinfection, cooling,
storage, and incubation of the eggs should be in place, and each process should be carried out
so that embryonic development is not compromised.
Why Do Hatching Eggs Need Care?

Fertilization takes place at the top of the oviduct shortly after the yolk is released from the ovary.
The yolk then passes down the oviduct (Figure 91). As it does so, the outer layers of the egg
are laid down, and the fertilized germinal disc grows and develops. By the time the egg is laid,
it contains a germinal disc that has been growing for 24 hours as the egg is formed around it
(Figure 92).
Figure 91: A diagram showing the ovary and oviduct. Key events are labeled.
Section 6
Ovary Oviduct
Follicles
Isthmus
Synthesis of
shell membranes.
Infundibulum (Duration: 2-3 hrs) Cloaca
Ova are captured by the Opening
infundibulum at ovulation. Uterus
Fertilization occurs within Synthesis of shell.
15 minutes. (Duration: 18-26 hrs)
(Staying duration: 15-30 min) Magnum
Synthesis and deposition Vagina
of albumen. Storage of sperm cells.
(Duration: 2-3 hrs)
Colon
After the egg is laid it must be cooled to stop any further development until the egg is set at the
hatchery. The care given to hatching eggs has to meet the needs of these dormant (but living)
embryos. The egg components surrounding them have to be maintained in good condition.
Fluctuating egg store temperatures can cause stop-start growth of the germinal disc which will
reduce hatchability. (However, recent studies have shown that if eggs are to be stored for more
than a week, it can be beneficial to warm them up to incubation temperature in a setter for short
periods during storage.)

99
The Egg’s Protection System

The egg provides a multi-layered system of protection from microbial contamination (Figure
92). The cuticle, egg shell, shell membranes, and some of the proteins in the albumen act as
either physical or chemical barriers to prevent microbes gaining access to, and growing in, the
egg contents.
Figure 92: Internal structure of a fertile egg at the time of lay.
Membrane Shell
Air Cell Mammillary Layer
Inner Shell Spongy Layer
Membrane Pores
Outer Shell
Cuticle
Membrane
Albumen Yolk
Chalazaferous Layer Germinal Disk
Thick Egg White Yolk Membrane
Thin Egg White
Chalaza
The shell of the egg is a porous structure. Pores run from the surface right through the shell
(Figure 93). These pores are needed to allow oxygen into, and water and CO2 out of, the egg
as the embryo develops.
Figure 93: Cross section showing the structure of the eggshell.
Cuticle

100
The entrance to the pore on the egg shell surface is protected by the cuticle. The cuticle
is a thin protein coat which allows gases, but not micro-organisms, through. This
provides the egg contents with some protection from microbial penetration. However,
the cuticle does have one point of weakness - immediately after the egg is laid it is still
not completely formed (this is why the shell surface looks wet and under magnification
it has an open, sponge-like appearance). The cuticle hardens to a flatter, flake-like
surface within 2-3 minutes of the egg being laid. Until this process is complete it is easy
for microbes to penetrate the cuticle, and then pass down the pores and into the egg
(Figure 94).
Figure 94: Example of bacterial penetration that can occur immediately after laying
through the pores of dirty egg shells.
The photograph shows the inner egg shell

surface of a soiled egg. The egg contents
were removed through a small hole at the
small end, replaced with a nutrient gel and
incubated. Bacterial colonies show up in red.
Understanding the structure of the egg shell helps to explain why certain procedures
used on farm to ‘clean’ eggs can make contamination problems worse. For example,
Section 6
if slightly soiled eggs are buffed or scraped to remove the surface dirt from the shell,
some of the dust that this produces will be packed into the shell pores and block them.
Blocked pores will impair gas exchange, and as a result, limit the oxygen available to
the developing embryo.
Contamination problems can also be made worse if the eggs become wet after collection
for any reason. Liquid will run into the pores of the shell, carrying any bacteria on the
shell surface with it. This is especially likely to happen if the egg contents are cooling.
Cooling creates a partial vacuum within the shell, making it more likely that any
surface liquid (and microbes) will be drawn in through the pores and is the reason why
condensation on the egg shell causes so many problems.
Key points
• Eggs should be maintained in a clean state between lay and packing.
• Methods used to remove surface dirt should be gentle so as not damage the
cuticle, or block the egg shell pores.
• Condensation on the egg surface should be avoided as it can lead to contamination
problems.

101
Best Practice for Care of Hatching Eggs

Egg collection
• Manage the flock to minimize the number of eggs laid on the floor (see section on
Management into Lay).
• Keep the insides of the nests and any collection belts free of litter and droppings.
• Collect nest eggs a minimum of 4 times a day, adjusting the exact timings so that no more
than 30% of the eggs fall in any one collection (any more will increase the incidence of dirty
or cracked eggs). The majority of the eggs will be laid in the morning and collection intervals
should be managed accordingly. The nests and egg collection belt should be cleared at the
end of the working day to minimize the number of eggs left over night.
• Collect floor eggs separately. They should be collected as often as possible (more often than
nest eggs) and should be kept separately from nest eggs so that the hatchery can manage
appropriately the contamination risk they present.
• Monitor the numbers of floor and dirty eggs, and adjust management factors to minimize
them (see section on Management into Lay).
Egg packing and selection
• Select and pack the eggs immediately after each collection.

• Reject small eggs (minimum weight will be an economic decision), cracked or damaged
eggs, eggs with gross shell abnormalities, double-yolk eggs, soft shelled eggs, and any eggs
which are more than 25% covered with dirt or droppings. Record numbers rejected in each
category and monitor them.
• Avoid wet egg disinfection methods – fumigation with formaldehyde is better.
• If eggs do become wet, let them dry before fumigating them or placing them in a cold egg
store.
• Immediately after each tray of eggs is packed, place it in a rack in the egg store. Trolleys
should be packed from the bottom up. This will avoid re-warming cooled eggs by placing
warmer eggs beneath them in the trolley (Figure 95).
• Once an egg trolley has been placed in the egg store it should stay there – a partial trolley
should be filled by taking trays of eggs into the store to finish loading not by taking the
trolley out of the store.
• If eggs are to be boxed, they should be cooled to egg store temperature prior to boxing.
• Eggs or trolleys should not be wrapped in plastic until they have cooled to egg store
temperature.
Figure 95: Hatching eggs incorrectly stored in a trolley.
The thermal image shows freshly collected,

warm eggs being placed below already
cool eggs collected earlier. This is not good
practice. Trolleys should always be filled
from the bottom so that fresh eggs are stored
above cooled eggs.

102
Egg disinfection
Fumigation with formaldehyde remains the most effective (and preferred) method
for disinfecting the shell surfaces of hatching eggs. Provided fumigation is performed
correctly, it achieves excellent kill rates of micro-organisms on the shell surface without
wetting the shell, damaging the cuticle, or damaging the embryo inside the egg. Despite
this, some countries now prohibit the use of formaldehyde because of the potential risk
to human health and safety if it is not used correctly.
Many different chemicals and application methods have been investigated as alternatives
to formaldehyde fumigation. None have proved to be as effective, either because they
kill a more limited range of micro-organisms, because they have to be used in solution,
because they damage the cuticle, or because they are detrimental to embryo survival.
• Formaldehyde fumigation should always be carried out using the appropriate safety
precautions. Local rules governing the health and safety of farm workers must be
always adhered to when using formaldehyde.
• Fumigate eggs with formaldehyde at least once before they leave the farm.
• Make sure that the eggs are well separated on plastic egg or setter trays – cardboard
tends to absorb the gas.
• Ensure the fumigation room is well sealed during fumigation and allow at least 20
minutes for the gas to circulate after it has been generated.
• Heat a) 10 g paraformaldehyde prills or b) a mixture of 43 ml formalin (37.5%) and
21 g potassium permanganate per m3 of fumigation room.
• Ensure room temperature is a minimum of 24°C and humidity a minimum of 65%
RH.
• Run a circulating fan during fumigation to help circulate the fumigant gas between
the eggs.
• Make sure that all the gas is completely exhausted from the room before workers
re-enter to move the eggs. This should be re-checked periodically using an
appropriate meter.
Assessing alternatives to formaldehyde
Section 6
Where formaldehyde fumigation is not permitted due to local health and safety
regulations, alternative methods of disinfection need to be found. Many alternatives to
formaldehyde have been tested over the years. All have disadvantages, and most have
to be used with the same due care and attention as formaldehyde.
There are many products sold as being suitable for disinfecting hatching eggs (including
hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid, quaternary ammonium and chlorine disinfectants).
Before implementing any new method or chemical for disinfecting hatching eggs it is
strongly advised that their effectiveness is thoroughly tested, making sure to closely
follow the advice of the equipment and chemical suppliers.
Factors to consider when testing alternatives to formaldehyde include:

• The egg shell bacterial counts before and after treatment.
• Egg content bacterial counts after treatment.
• Impact on cuticle cover (which can be seen under UV light).
• Hatchability.
Hatchability tests should involve at least 1,000 eggs per treatment group, split from a
single collection of eggs. Half the eggs should be treated according to current methods,
and the other half by the proposed new treatment. Ideally, the test should be repeated
over a range of flock ages and egg storage durations.

103
Cleaning soiled eggs
Provided any surface dirt is not extensive, it can be removed by gently flicking the dirt off with a
finger nail, or for soft droppings, by gently wiping off with a clean paper towel. Care should be
taken not to contaminate clean parts of the egg. The eggs should then be disinfected (ideally by
fumigation with formaldehyde) and sent to the hatchery clearly marked as dirty.
The washing of hatching eggs is not good practice. But under some conditions, washing eggs
may be unavoidable. If washing eggs is necessary, the following applies:
• Use a washer which sprays the eggs with warmed disinfectant solution, rather than one
which relies on the eggs being immersed in the solution.
• Wash water should be 41oC – this will ensure that the wash water is always warmer than the
warmest eggs in the collection (Figure 96).
• The process should be recorded and monitored, taking care to monitor temperatures and
the frequency with which the washing water is changed.
• Make sure that the disinfectant concentration does not fall below the recommended
minimum effective concentration level and that the washer solutions are regularly replaced
to maintain disinfection concentration.
• Allow the eggs to dry before they are cooled in the egg store.
• Washed eggs still need to be fumigated, but this should not be done until they are dry.
Figure 96: Range of egg temperatures in eggs collected at second egg collection – all the eggs
had been laid within the previous 2 hours.
The thermal image shows

the range of temperatures of
eggs collected from a colony-
type auto nest. It is not safe
to assume that eggs are
uniformly cold when deciding
a suitable wash temperature
for cleaning soiled eggs.
Egg storage conditions
After the egg is laid, it should be cooled so that cellular growth of the embryo is paused. Ideally,
hatching eggs should all be set within 7 days of lay. Storage for longer than 7 days will result in a
loss of hatch due to embryo cell death, and a decline in internal egg quality, especially albumen
quality. When longer storage is unavoidable, a cooler storage temperature will help to keep the
yolk and albumen in good condition.
Temperature
• Keep egg temperature constant once the eggs are cooled – watch for variable storage
temperatures through the day and when doors are left open. It is important to coordinate
temperatures with those used in transport to, and storage at, the hatchery. This will avoid
fluctuating temperatures and condensation.
• Storage temperatures need to be set at a level that will maintain internal egg quality and
keep the dormant embryos alive – long storage should be at lower temperatures than short-
term storage (Table 19).
• On farm storage temperatures should be managed so that the temperatures are adjusted
when the average storage duration changes.
• Keep the farm store 2oC warmer than the hatchery store, with the truck temperature
intermediate between the 2. This will help to avoid any condensation forming on the eggs.
• Do not blow cooler or heater fans towards eggs.

104
Table 19: Relationship between length of egg storage and temperature of egg store
Storage Period Temperature of Storage*
(days) o
C
1-3 20-23
4-7 15-18
>7 12-15
> 13 12
* Humidity between 75 and 80%
Humidity
• Egg store humidity should be held between 75 and 80% RH, to prevent the eggs
losing too much moisture during storage.
• If cold eggs are moved into a warm humid atmosphere, condensation will form
on the egg surface; as shown in Figure 97. For more information refer to the Dew
Point or Condensation Table in the Appendices.
• Make sure that the water in the humidifier is clean (static reservoirs can encourage
bacterial growth) and that spray nozzles are maintained properly so that they
produce a fine mist of water and not large droplets.
Figure 97: Condensation on the surface of the egg.
Section 6
Key points
• Nest cleanliness and regular/frequent egg collection are extremely important.
Any egg laid onto dirt or droppings can easily become contaminated.
• There will be microbes even on the shells of clean hatching eggs. Unless there is
effective disinfection of the egg shell surface before eggs arrive at the hatchery,
they present a risk to hatchery hygiene and embryo survival and health.
• Formaldehyde fumigation is the best method for disinfecting egg shells. Ensure
that temperature, humidity, and air circulation are appropriate for effective
fumigation.
• Follow safety procedures.
• If an alternative to formaldehyde does need to be used, to be comparable to
formaldehyde fumigation, the new method should kill 99% of shell surface
bacteria, viruses and molds, give no increase in egg content bacterial counts,
cause no or minimal cuticle damage, and give the same or better hatchability in
both young and older flocks and after long egg storage.
• Monitor and record egg washing procedures. If the recommendations for
washing eggs are not achieved, the level of rots and contamination in the washed
eggs will be high, with poor hatch and chick quality.
• On farm storage temperatures should be adjusted for the oldest eggs – fresh eggs
will hatch normally if kept at lower temperatures, whereas the hatch of longer-
stored eggs will suffer if kept too warm.
• If there is condensation on the eggs, do not fumigate them and do not put them
into the cooler until they have dried.

105
Problems resulting in rots and bangers
If the Hatchery is observing an excessive number of rots and bangers, check the following:
• The number and severity of dirty eggs being produced. Make sure nests and collection belts
are checked regularly and cleaned immediately if a problem is spotted.
• Floor eggs are not washed and then mixed with nest eggs.
• The eggs are not collected or packed into dirty trays.
• The shell quality (increase in rejected or cracked eggs) is normal for the age of the flock.
Shell quality can be damaged by inappropriate feed or respiratory diseases and will show
up as a sudden increase in rejected and/or cracked eggs.
• Egg washing and disinfectant media are 41°C.
• Washed eggs are not mixed with clean eggs.
• Wet eggs are not being placed in the egg store.
• If the humidifier has a reservoir, replace it with one that operates off the main water supply.
Flush the water pipes if the humidifier has not been used for a while.
KEY POINT
• If there is an excessive number of rots and bangers in the hatchery, investigate potential
causes and take required action.

106
Environmental Requirements
Section 7 - Environmental Requirements

Housing
Objective
To provide a protected environment in which temperature, humidity, ventilation, daylength, and
light intensity can be controlled and optimized for the lifetime of the flock in order to achieve
good reproductive performance without compromising health and welfare.
Principles
Farm location and house design must take into consideration climate and management systems.
Farm Location and Design

The location and design of a farm (Figure 98) will be affected by a number of factors, not least
by local economics and regulations.
Figure 98: Examples of typical farm layouts & locations showing good biosecurity.
Section 7
Climate
Temperature and humidity ranges experienced in the natural climate will influence which
type of housing is most suitable (i.e. open or closed) and the degree of environmental control
required.
Local planning regulations and laws
Local planning regulations and laws may stipulate important constraints in design (e.g. height,
color, materials), and should be consulted at the earliest opportunity. Local law may also dictate
a minimum distance from existing farms.
Biosecurity
The size, relative situation, and design of houses should minimize the transmission of pathogens
between and within flocks. A policy of single (as opposed to multi-) aged sites is preferable.
House design must facilitate effective cleaning-out procedures between flocks (see section on
Health and Biosecurity).

107
Access
The farm location must allow for easy access to the site perimeter by heavy vehicles such as
feed and egg trucks (i.e. road widths and turning circles must be appropriate for the vehicles
servicing the farm).
Local topography and prevailing winds
These natural features have particular importance for open-sided housing. They can be
exploited to minimize the entry of direct sunlight and for optimal ventilation or cooling. Open-
sided houses should be positioned so that the length of the house is oriented in an east/west
direction to minimize solar heat gain through the side wall. The existence of sites nearby, which
present an airborne disease risk, must also be taken into account. It is best to build a farm in
an isolated area at least 3.2 km from the nearest poultry or other livestock facility that may
contaminate the farm.
Power availability and costs
Controlled environment housing requires a reliable source of power to operate electrical

ventilation, heating, lighting, and feeding equipment. It is essential to have a back-up system/
generator (Figure 99) and an appropriate alarm system installed in case of power failure.
Figure 99: Example of a back-up generator.
Water
A clean, fresh supply of water is required. (For more information on maximum acceptable
concentrations of minerals and bacteria in the water supply see Health and Biosecurity section).
Drainage
Farm design features should allow for the separate disposals of rainwater and house cleanout
water. This is a necessary part of biosecurity and environmental protection; being increasingly
a regulatory requirement (refer to local legislation).
Key points
• Farm design will depend on location, climate, and local planning regulations.
• Farm location check list:
Availability of power & water
Local topography and prevailing winds
Access
Biosecurity

108
House Design
Controlled environment
Controlled environment (blackout) housing is preferred over open-sided housing. In particular during
rear, since it limits variation due to environmental influences, permits greater control over daylength,
facilitates control of maturity and body weight, and assists in the production of uniform flocks.
Size and number of houses
In determining the size and number of both rear and laying houses, the following should be
considered:
• The number of eggs required per week.
• The number of birds required to achieve this level of production.
• The floor area required for this number of birds at the recommended stocking density.
• The pattern of egg production throughout lay.
• The time required for house cleaning and disinfection.
• The preferred/optimum individual house size (determined by the need to maintain the birds
in an appropriate environment by managing the ventilation within the house effectively).
• The number of houses that the site can accommodate.
Stocking density
Stocking density will depend on local welfare legislation, climate, equipment, and local
economics. Recommended stocking densities can be found in the sections on Rearing and
Management into Lay.
House size
The house size selected must enable all of the daily feed allowance to be distributed evenly, and
be accessible to all birds within a maximum of 3 minutes. This condition should be met for each
pen/population within the house.
Lighting
Light should be uniformly distributed throughout the house. Light intensities and durations
must achieve recommendations (see section on Lighting). Both should be controllable and
adjustable. A light meter can be used to measure light intensity across the house at bird height.
Light proofing
Section 7
Ventilation system design should include appropriate provisions for light proofing. Effective
light traps should be fitted to all air inlets as well as fans. Light proofing is restrictive to airflow,
and incorrectly designed/sized light proofing can be detrimental to the performance of the
ventilation system, and hence to the well-being of the birds.
Light intensity should not exceed 0.4 lux during the dark period (see section on Lighting). This
must be achievable at all stages of operation of the ventilation system.
Insulation
Insulation aids the effective operation of the ventilation system. The amount of insulation
required will depend largely on the local ambient conditions in summer and winter, and is
subject to local legislation.
Airtightness
Most modern housing utilizes negative pressure ventilation. In order for the ventilation system
to work effectively, the house must be well sealed to prevent any uncontrolled air leaks into the
house (i.e. the house must be airtight). This must be taken into account during the design and
construction of the house. In particular, care should be given to the tunnel ventilation inlet as
this is often the area of the house that has the most air leakage.

109
Ambient conditions
The local ambient climatic conditions will determine the type and size of the ventilation
system required in order to maintain acceptable house conditions for the birds (see section on
Ventilation for more details).
Heating
In most climates around the world, a heating system is required to keep the house at the desired
set point temperature in the colder months, especially during the rearing stages. A partial
list of available heating equipment includes spot brooders, whole-house space heaters, or a
combination of both types (Figure 100). The actual heating equipment required will depend
on local climate, house design, and local fuel availability.
Figure 100: Examples of different house heating systems

(from left to right, canopy brooder, whole-house heating,
and space heater).
The heating system should provide enough capacity to maintain the desired house temperature
in the colder periods while allowing minimum ventilation requirements to be satisfied. Heat
must be evenly distributed throughout the house and should be operated in combination with
the main ventilation control system.
Biosecurity
Indesigning the structure of the house:

• Use materials that provide easily cleanable surfaces.
• Smooth concrete floors are easier to wash and disinfect.
• An area of concrete or gravel extending to a width of 1-3m (3-10 ft) free of vegetation around
the house will discourage entry of rodents.
• Make sure the house is proofed against entry by wild birds.
In designing the layout of the farm:

• Provide shower facilities for staff entering and leaving the farm.
• If vehicles are to enter the farm (which is not desirable), then a spray booth or equivalent
should be available to disinfect the vehicle.
• Locate feed bins along the fence line so that feed trucks do not need to enter the farm.
Key points
• House design check list:
Environmental control type (controlled/natural)
Egg requirements, bird numbers and stocking density
Lighting and light proofing
Insulation
Heating
Biosecurity
Ventilation

110
Ventilation
Objective
To ensure that good welfare and reproductive performance are achieved by maintaining birds
under appropriate, and where possible, optimal environmental conditions.
Principles
Ventilation is used to achieve an in-house environment which will optimize bird comfort, achieve
the best biological performance, and maintain bird health and welfare. The ventilation system
supplies adequate fresh air, and also removes excess moisture, gases, and airborne by-products.
It also contributes to temperature and humidity control in all ambient conditions, and provides
a uniform draft-free environment at bird level. Monitoring bird behavior is an essential part of
ensuring that the correct ventilation is being achieved.
Open-sided/Natural Ventilation
Open-sided (or naturally ventilated) houses rely on the free-flow of air through the house
for ventilation (Figure 101). Achieving adequate control of the in-house environment can be
difficult in open-sided houses, and as a result, consistency and level of performance tends to be
lower than in controlled environment houses.
Figure 101: Example of typical open-sided housing.
Section 7
Airflow in open-sided houses is controlled by varying curtain height. Curtains should be

fastened to the sidewall at the bottom, and be opened from the top down. This will minimize
wind or drafts blowing directly on the birds.
Curtains should be opened on both sides of the building to provide cross ventilation. If there is
light wind or the wind is changing directions, curtains on each side of the building should be
opened the same amount. If winds are coming consistently from one side of the building, the
curtain on the side of the prevailing wind should be opened less than the downwind side to
minimize drafts on the birds. Recirculation fans can be used to supplement natural ventilation
and enhance temperature control within the house.

111
Translucent curtain materials allow the use of natural light during daylight hours. Black curtains
are used in situations where it is necessary to exclude daylight (e.g. to provide blackout during
rearing).
Achieving adequate ventilation during hot weather can be difficult in open-sided houses.
However, several steps can be taken to minimize the impact of hot weather. These include:
• Reducing flock stocking density.
• Insulating the roof to prevent radiant heat from the sun reaching the birds. In some instances
water can be used to cool the roof. This strategy must be used with caution as runoff from
the roof can lead to increases in relative humidity levels.
• Using circulation fans to create uniform air movement over the birds.
• Using tunnel ventilation system with evaporative cooling.
Naturally ventilated houses should be constructed to a specified width i.e. 9-12 m and a minimum
height to the eaves of 2.5 m, to ensure adequate airflow.
Negative Pressure Ventilation Systems (Controlled Environment Housing)

Most modern controlled environment housing uses negative pressure ventilation. This means
that fans exhaust air out of the house and fresh air is drawn into the house through air inlets.
This is called negative-pressure ventilation because it works by creating a partial vacuum inside
the house.
When a negative pressure is created (as in-house air is drawn out of the house), fresh outside air
enters evenly through all inlets in the house (Figure 102). As the negative pressure increases, so
the speed of the air entering the house increases. In this way, pressure can be used to regulate
the speed of the incoming air and how far the air will uniformly travel into the house before it
turns and moves toward floor level.
Figure 102: Diagram illustrating airflow through air inlets in a negative pressure system
Negative pressure only works efficiently if the house is effectively sealed. In a house that is
effectively sealed against air leaks all the air entering the house comes in through the desired air
inlets and uncontrolled air leakage will be minimized.
To determine how well sealed (or airtight) a house is, close all doors and inlets in the house and
switch on one 122 cm / 127 cm fan, or two 91 cm fans. The pressure within the house should
not measure less than 37.5 Pa. Pressure can be measured anywhere in the house and should be
consistent throughout the house.

112
Air pressure within the house should be monitored regularly. Monitoring pressure over time
is a useful means of identifying air leakage and easy-to-use pressure gauges (manometers) are
available (Figure 103). If the air pressure falls below the suggested levels 37.5 Pa an investigation
should be carried out, and appropriate action taken (e.g. repair broken inlets or ripped curtains).
Figure 103: A manometer used to monitor air pressure within the house (the reading given is
equivalent to 37.5 Pa).
Key points
• For a negative pressure system to operate successfully the house must be airtight.
• Pressure should be monitored over time to identify the presence of any air leakage in to
the house. If pressure drops below the desired levels corrective action should be taken
immediately.
Minimum Ventilation
For as long as birds are present in the house, it is necessary to ventilate for some minimum
amount of time – no matter what the outside weather is. During cool weather, or the brooding
period, minimum ventilation is recommended. Minimum ventilation is regulated by a timer,
Section 7
not by a thermostat or temperature sensor. The purpose of minimum ventilation is to maintain
good air quality and exhaust excess moisture. Extraction fans (usually 91 cm in size) operating
on a cycle timer (on/off) draw air into the house through sidewall or ceiling air inlets. It is
recommended that a 5 minute cycle timer is used (Figure 104). This will help reduce wide
environmental fluctuations in the house.
Figure 104: Example of a timer clock.

113
The air inlets operate on the basis of negative pressure, and direct the cold incoming air at high
speed away from the birds up toward the apex of the ceiling where the warmer in-house air
accumulates. This allows mixing of the cold air with warm air before it falls to the birds at floor
level (Figure 105).
Figure 105: Correct airflow during minimum ventilation.
Where the ceiling has structural obstructions crossing the path of the airflow, it will be
necessary to fit the air inlets with direction plates so that the incoming air can be directed below
the obstruction, but still to the peak of the roof (Figure 106). Without direction plates, the
incoming cold air will be deflected down onto the birds.
Figure 106: A direction plate fitted to an air inlet.
Air inlets should be opened at least 5 cm for the airflow into the house to be effective. However,
in most houses, if all the side wall inlets are allowed to open 5 cm when the minimum
ventilation fan is operating, the negative pressure within the house will be too low, and the
speed at which the cold air enters the house will be reduced, thus increasing the risk of it falling
directly onto the birds. Generally, for minimum ventilation, not all air inlets will need to be
opened. Only some of the air inlets should be used, and the others should be prevented from
opening. The inlets being used must be evenly distributed throughout the house, and all must
be opened equally. Accurate settings for the house can be determined by carrying out smoke
tests. Alternatively, strips of cassette tape can be hung from the ceiling every 1-1.5 m in front of
an air inlet up to the apex of the house. Both methods will help to show the movement of the air
as it enters the house indicating if the operating pressure is suitable. If the operating pressure is
too low, cold incoming air will fall directly onto the birds (Figure 107), and the number of air
inlets open should be reduced.

114
Figure 107: Illustration of airflow into the house. The picture on left shows a correct fast
airflow during minimum ventilation, the picture on right shows an incorrect slow airflow during
minimum ventilation.
 
  

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

  

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 
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    
The only way to properly evaluate the actual minimum ventilation rate being used is by
frequently visiting the house. Environment evaluation should be done each time the manager
visits the house. During the visit, the manager should observe and take note of things such
as bird behavior, air quality, air pressure, relative humidity, signs of condensation, and dust
levels. Based on these observations, a decision can then be made about whether the minimum
ventilation is adequate or should be increased or decreased.
Key points
• It is essential to provide some ventilation to the house regardless of the outside conditions.
• Minimum ventilation is used for young chicks, nighttime, or winter ventilation.
• Minimum ventilation should be timer driven.
• Air inlet number and size of opening should achieve high air velocity to prevent cold air
dropping to the floor.
• When setting up the minimum ventilation inlets, the minimum opening size should be
around 5 cm.
• Monitor airflow and bird behavior to determine if settings are correct.
Section 7
Minimum ventilation fan timer setting calculation
The steps for determining the fan timer settings for achieving minimum ventilation are given
below. A full worked example calculation can be found in the Appendices. Recommended
minimum ventilation rates per bird are given in Table 20.
Prior to 1 week (7 days), the actual speed at floor level should not be more than 0.15 m/sec.
Table 20: Approximate minimum ventilation rates per bird.

Cubic Meter per Hour Cubic Feet per Minute
Age
(CMH/bird) (CFM/bird)
1-8 weeks 0.16 0.10
9-15 weeks 0.42 0.25
16 – 35 weeks 0.59 0.35
36 weeks - depletion 0.76 0.45

115
Step 1: Determine the appropriate minimum recommended ventilation rate (Table 20 can be
used as a guide). The exact rates will vary with temperature and for each individual poultry
house, and with company of fan manufacture (fan type).
Step 2: Calculate the total ventilation rate required for the house:
Total minimum ventilation = (minimum ventilation rate per bird) x (number of birds in the house)
Step 3: Calculate the percentage time the fans are required to run:
Percentage of time = (total ventilation needed)
(total capacity of fans used)
Step 4: Multiply the percentage time the fans are required to run by the total fan timer cycle to
give the amount of time that the fans are required to be on in each cycle.
Transitional Ventilation
Transitional ventilation is used when the house temperature is above the desired (or set point)
temperature, but it is not yet warm enough, or the birds are still not old enough, to use tunnel
ventilation. Transitional ventilation is a temperature driven process. As the house temperature
increases above the required set point, the ventilation system should be set to stop operating
minimum ventilation (cycle timer), and start to ventilate continuously for temperature control
(transitional ventilation).
Transitional ventilation works in a similar way to minimum ventilation; air inlets operating on
the basis of negative pressure direct the incoming air, at speed, away from the birds up to the
apex of the house where it mixes with warm in-house air before falling back to floor level. With
transitional ventilation a larger fan capacity gives a larger volume of air exchange and transitional
ventilation requires more inlet area compared to minimum ventilation (Figure 108). A general
guideline for transitional ventilation is to open enough air inlets so that approximately 40-50%
of the tunnel fan capacity is being used.
Figure 108: Typical air movement during transitional ventilation.

Sidewall air inlets Tunnel fans
Tunnel air inlets

(closed)
Key point
• Transitional ventilation is used when a higher than minimum air exchange is required.

116
Tunnel Ventilation
Tunnel ventilation is used to keep the birds feeling cool. Figure 109 shows a typical tunnel
ventilated house.
Figure 109: Example of a typical tunnel ventilated house.
The system uses fans (usually 122 cm or 127 cm) at one end of the house, and air inlets at the
other end. High volumes of air are drawn down the length of the house, exchanging the air in
the house in a short time (Figure 110).
Figure 110: Airflow in a tunnel ventilated house.
Section 7
The switch from transitional ventilation to tunnel ventilation should occur when the birds need
the cooling effect of wind chill. The heat generated by the birds is removed and a wind chill
effect is created which allows the birds to feel a temperature that is lower than that shown on
the thermometer or temperature probe/sensor. For any given wind speed, younger birds which
are not fully feathered will feel a greater wind chill than older birds and so are more prone to
wind chill effects. After 7 weeks of age birds are expected to be fully feathered and the effects
of wind chill are less.
The actual temperature felt by the birds during tunnel ventilation is known as the effective
temperature. The effective temperature is a result of a combination of various factors including
bird age, air speed, dry bulb temperature of the air, and relative humidity. Effective temperature
cannot be measured so observations of bird behavior are critical to determine if birds are too
hot or too cold when tunnel ventilation is operating.
When using tunnel ventilation for cooling, birds will tend to move (migrate) towards the cooler,
inlet end of the house, resulting in crowding. If the breeder house is not routinely divided into
pens (which will prevent migration) the addition of migration partitions should be considered.

117
Key points
• Tunnel ventilation cools birds through high-velocity airflow.
• Tunnel ventilation controls the effective temperature felt by the bird which can only be
estimated by bird behavior.
• If the house design permits tunnel ventilation only, then considerable caution should be
practiced with young birds which are not fully feathered. Younger birds feel a greater
wind chill than older birds for a given air speed, and thus are prone to wind chill effects.
• Observations of bird behavior are critical.
Tunnel ventilation calculations
The steps to determine the number of fans required for tunnel ventilation are given below. A
full worked example calculation can be found in the Appendices.
Step 1: Determine the fan capacity required for a given air speed.
Required fan capacity = (design air speed) x (cross section area)
Where:
• Design air speed (minimum):
» 2.03 meters per second (m/s) for rearing.
» 2.54 meters per second (m/s) for production.
• Cross section area = (0.5 x W x R) + (W x H) (see Figure 111).
• Cross section area is the effective area through which the air flows down the length of the
house. If there are other major obstructions such as nests in the house, then the area of
these obstructions can be subtracted from the total cross section area.
Figure 111: Elevation of house showing height (H), width (W), roof (R) for calculating cross
section area for tunnel ventilation calculations.
Step 2: Determine the number of fans required.
Number of fans = (required fan capacity)
(fan operating capacity)
Where:
• Fan operating capacity is the capacity at the assumed operating pressure.
• As a guideline for tunnel ventilation with cooling pads, use the fan capacity at an operating
pressure of 37.5 Pa.

118
Evaporative cooling systems
Evaporative cooling improves environmental conditions in hot weather and enhances

tunnel ventilation. The air is cooled either as it enters the house or as it travels through
the house. Evaporative cooling systems are commonly used when temperatures exceed
27ºC. Effectiveness of evaporative cooling systems depends on the relative humidity
levels.
There are 2 main types of evaporative cooling - spray cooling and pad cooling.
Spray cooling (fogger)

Spray cooling or fogger systems consist of spray nozzles distributed inside the house
(Figure 112), and are often categorized as either high or low pressure. Fogging lines
must be placed near air inlets in order to maximize the speed of evaporation, and
additional lines should be placed throughout the house.
High pressure (water) spray systems operate at 28-41 bar, and produce a very fine
mist with a droplet size of 10-15 microns. Better cooling can be achieved from a high
pressure system than from a low pressure system.
Low pressure fogging systems operate at 7-14 bar, and produce a droplet size greater
than 30 microns. Because of the low operating pressure, the droplet size produced by
this system is larger than that of the high pressure system, and as a result it can cause
wet litter.
Figure 112: Example of spray cooling system.
Section 7
Pad cooling
In pad cooling systems, cool air is drawn through a water soaked filter (cooling pad) by
the tunnel ventilation fans (Figure 113).
Figure 113: Example of a cooling pad.

119
Calculation of cooling pad area (a full worked example calculation is given in the Appendices):
Cooling pad area = (tunnel fan capacity)

(pad air speed)
Where:
• Cooling pad area is the total area required. Half of this area is usually installed on each
outside wall at the inlet end of the house.
• Tunnel fan capacity is the actual total operating capacity.
• Pad air speed refers to the speed of the air traveling through the pad. As a guideline:
• For 100 mm thick pad, use 1.27 m/s
• For 150 mm thick pad, use 1.91 m/s
Because evaporative cooling adds moisture to the air and increases relative humidity, it is
recommended that evaporative cooling be switched off when the relative humidity in the house
exceeds 70-80%.
Key Points
• Evaporative cooling enhances tunnel ventilation in hot weather.
• Evaporative cooling adds moisture to the air and increases relative humidity. It is important
to operate the system based on relative humidity, as well as dry bulb temperature, to
ensure bird welfare.
• It is not recommended to use evaporative cooling if the RH in the house exceeds 70-80%.

120
Lighting
Objective
To achieve optimal reproductive performance through appropriate illumination (daylength and
light intensity) and photostimulation (increase in daylength) at the correct age and body weight.
Principles
All broiler breeders are hatched photorefractory. This means that they are unable to respond
positively to a stimulatory (long or ≥ 11 hours) daylength. The ability to respond to a stimulatory
daylength depends upon birds being exposed first to a period of neutral or short days (8 hours);
at least 18 weeks for typically grown broiler breeders. Long daylengths (≥ 11 hours) during the
rearing period should be avoided as they will delay sexual development, reduce egg numbers,
and increase egg weight.
After prolonged exposure to long daylengths, birds become adult photorefractory. This means
they are no longer responsive to a long stimulatory daylength, and production begins to decline.
Lighting for broiler breeders aims to dissipate juvenile photorefractoriness, and ensure that
all birds are photosensitive and can positively respond to stimulatory daylengths in ways that
optimize lay.
Lighting During Brooding

Regardless of housing type, for the first 2 days after placement birds should be given 23 hours
of light and 1 hour of dark a day. This will help appetite development and promote feeding
activity. Where closed (controlled environment) housing is used during rear, daylength should
be gradually reduced to 8 hours by 10 days of age.
Light intensity in the brooding area during the first few days should be bright (80-100 lux) to
ensure that the birds find feed and water, but from 6 days of age this should be reduced to
between 30 and 60 lux in controlled environment housing, and 60-80 lux in open-sided housing.
Section 7
Lighting Programs and Housing Type
Different types of housing in the rearing and/or laying periods mean that there are 3 common
combinations of lighting environment:
1. Closed rearing house (controlled environment), and closed laying house (controlled
environment).
2. Closed (controlled environment) or blackout rearing house, and open-sided (natural
environment) laying house.
3. Open-sided rearing house (natural environment), and open-sided laying house (natural
environment).
The recommended lighting programs for each of these 3 environments are given on the next
page. All lighting programs will achieve 5% production at 25 weeks of age. If the target for
production is different to 5% at 25 weeks, then the age at which first light increase is given should
be altered accordingly. Typically, it will take between 14 and 21 days from photostimulation to
5% egg production, with lighter birds taking longer to start laying eggs than heavier ones.

121
Lighting programs for controlled environment rearing and controlled environment

laying
Controlled environment housing during rear permits greater control over daylength. The
ability to control daylength so that birds receive a constant short daylength from 10 days of
age resolves many production problems (for example, delayed sexual maturity, high female
body weight, poor flock uniformity, and high feed consumption), and gives better control of
undesirable behaviors. The proportion of abnormal eggs and the risks of prolapse, broodiness
and egg peritonitis, and other conditions reducing welfare and performance can be minimized
by ensuring that:
• Birds are at target body weight for their age.
• Have good body-weight uniformity.
• The lighting programs shown in Table 21 are followed.
Achieving satisfactory production from birds kept in controlled environment housing (Figure
114) depends on the adequacy of the light proofing. In dark periods, light intensity should not
exceed 0.4 lux. Measures should be taken to avoid light leakage through air inlets, fan housings,
door frames, etc., and regular checks should be made to verify the effectiveness of the light
proofing.
Figure 114: A typical controlled environment house with full lighting control which can control
the light intensity to a maximum 0.4 lux in the dark period.
Light proofing is especially important during rear, when the birds need to experience a period
of short days (8 hours) before they can become responsive to the pre-lay increase in daylength.
Table 21 details the recommended lighting program for birds kept in controlled environment
housing. In rear, a constant daylength of 8 hours is achieved by 10 days of age and maintained
until photostimulation (transfer to a stimulatory daylength).
To achieve the recommended 5% production at 25 weeks of age, photostimulation should

not occur before 147 days (21 weeks). The actual age at which daylength is increased from
short (8 hours) to long (≥ 11 hours) days depends on the average flock body weight and flock
uniformity. An assessment of flock uniformity should be made at 140 days (20 weeks) of age or
approximately 1 week before the first light increase is planned.
Flocks that are underweight (100 g or more below recommended target weight for age) or
uneven (CV greater than 10%) should have photostimulation delayed (by at least 1 week).
Transferring to long days before all birds have dissipated photorefractoriness will delay sexual
development in those birds that are still photorefractory. This will result in a sexually uneven
flock with poor peak rates of lay, widely ranging egg weights, and a flock for which nutrition is
difficult to manage.

122
Table 21: Lighting programs for controlled environment rearing and controlled environment
laying.
DAYLENGTH
For Flocks with Different CV%
at 140 Days (20 Weeks)
LIGHT INTENSITY†
BROODING DAYLENGTHS*
AGE (Hours)
Days Weeks CV 10% or Less CV >10%

1 23 23
2 23 23 80-100 lux
in brooding area.
3 19 19
10-20 lux
4 16 16 in the house.
5 14 14
6 12 12
30-60 lux
7 11 11 in the brooding area.
8 10 10 10-20 lux
in the house.
9 9 9
REARING DAYLENGTHS
(Hours)
10-147 8 8 10-20 lux.
LAYING DAYLENGTHS
Days Weeks
(Hours)
147 21 11‡ 8
154 22 12‡ 12‡
161 23 13‡ 13‡ 30-60 lux.
168 24 13‡ 13‡
175 25 13 13
* Constant 8-hour daylengths should be reached by 10 days of age. However, if problems have regularly
occurred with early body-weight gain, the reduction to a constant daylength may be more gradual so
that 8 hours is not reached until 21 days.
Section 7
† Average intensity within a house or pen measured at bird-head height. Light intensity should be
measured in at least 9 or 10 places and include the corners, under lamps and between lamps. During
the dark period (interpreted as night) a light intensity of ≤ 0.4 lux should be achieved. Ideally, variation
in light intensity within the house should not exceed 10% of the mean.
‡ Daylength may be increased abruptly in a single increment without adversely affecting total egg
production (although peak may be higher and persistency slightly poorer) provided the body weights are
on target and the flock is uniform (CV ≤ 10%).
During lay, there is no advantage in exceeding 13 to 14 hours of light per day at any stage (where
light proofing is good, there is no need to go beyond 13 hours). Giving more than 14 hours of
light will advance the onset of adult photorefractoriness and result in inferior rates of lay at the
end of the laying cycle. Providing less than 13 hours of light during lay will increase the number
of floor eggs as birds will lay eggs before lights-on.
Males reared to the recommended body-weight profile and lighting program will not require
increases in daylength ahead of females. Achieving target body-weight profiles with good
uniformity will ensure synchronization of sexual maturity between the 2 sexes (see section on
Management into Lay).

123
Light intensity (luminance) in lay

It is recommended that increases in light intensity are made at the same time as the increase
in daylength. However, provided birds have achieved the target body weights and have
good uniformity (CV ≤ 10%), it is the increase in daylength that stimulates sexual maturity
and optimizes subsequent laying performance, not changes in light intensity. As long as the
minimum intensity at bird-head height in the laying house is greater than 7 lux, changes in light
intensity when the birds are transferred from the rearing to the laying facilities have minimal
effect on sexual development and subsequent egg production. The recommended average light
intensity at bird-head height in the laying house is between 30 and 60 lux. This brighter intensity
is recommended to encourage the use of nest boxes and maximize hatching egg production by
minimizing the number of eggs laid outside the nest boxes.
Key points
• The maximum response to pre-lay increases in daylength is only obtained by achieving
the correct body-weight profile during the rearing period, good flock uniformity, and the
appropriate nutritional input.
• Birds should be provided with a constant short daylength (8 hours) by 10 days of age.
• At least 18 weeks of short daylengths (8-10 hours) are needed during rear to dissipate
juvenile photorefractoriness and ensure that all birds are photosensitive when they are
transferred to stimulatory daylengths (≥ 11 hours).
• An average intensity of 10-20 lux at bird-head height should be provided in the rearing
period from 10 days of age.
• Houses must be light proofed to an intensity of no more than 0.4 lux during the dark
periods. Any light leakage should be rectified immediately to ensure that the birds do not
experience long days in rear.
• The birds' reproductive response is maximized by a 13 or 14 hour daylength in the laying
period. This will delay the onset of adult photorefractoriness and will minimize the
incidence of 'floor-eggs' by ensuring that most eggs are laid after the lights come on.
• An average intensity of 30-60 lux at bird-head height should be provided in the laying
period.
• Ensure males and females are synchronized in terms of sexual maturity by rearing them
on the same lighting program and to the respective target body weights for age.
Lighting programs for controlled environment/blackout rearing and open-sided laying

house
Where controlled environment rearing to natural environment laying (Figure 115) is practiced,
daylength should be maintained at 8 or 9 hours (see Table 22) from 10 days of age until the flock
is photostimulated. In latitudes where problems such as prolapse, broodiness, or high pre-peak
mortality frequently occur, it may be advantageous to rear birds on a 10-hour daylength.
Figure 115: Example of an open-sided (natural environment) laying house.

124
The flock should be transferred to open-sided laying houses (i.e. rear and move) or
the blackout curtains should be opened (i.e. day-old to depletion) at the same time
as the first pre-lay light increase is given (147 days [21 weeks] if the desired age at 5%
production is 25 weeks).
There is no benefit to reproductive performance of providing birds with more than 14

hours light during the laying the period. However, where birds are kept in open-sided
houses and the longest natural daylength exceeds 14 hours, the combined natural and
artificial lighting during the laying period may be increased, beyond 14 hours, to equal
the longest natural daylength. This will prevent the birds experiencing a decrease in
daylength after the longest natural daylength has occurred in mid-summer.
To ensure the synchronization of sexual development, rear males and females on the
same lighting program.
Table 22: Lighting programs for controlled environment/blackout rearing and open-
sided house laying.
NATURAL DAYLENGTH
(Hours) at 147 Days (21 Weeks)
LIGHT
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
INTENSITY†
Age (Days) BROODING DAYLENGTH (Hours) ‡
1 23 23 23 23 23 23 23
2 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 80-100 lux in
3 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 brooding area.
4 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 10-20 lux in house.
5 14 14 14 14 14 14 14
6 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
7 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 60-80 lux in
brooding area.
8 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 10-20 lux in house.
9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10
Age (Days) REARING DAYLENGTH (Hours)
Section 7
10-146 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10-20 lux
Age
LAYING DAYLENGTH (Hours) ¶
(Days) (Weeks)
147 21 12# 12# 12# 13# 14 14 15§
Artificial lighting
154 22 13# 13 # 13# 13# 14 14 15§
30-60 lux
161 23 14 14 14 14 14 14 15§
‡ Constant 8-hour daylengths should be achieved by 10 days. However, if problems have

regularly occurred with early body-weight gain, reaching the constant daylength may be
delayed until 21 days.
† Average intensity within a house or pen measured at bird-head height. Light intensity should
be measured in at least 9 or 10 places and include corners, under lamps and between lamps.
#The daylength may be increased abruptly in a single increment without adversely affecting
total egg production (although peak may be higher and persistency slightly poorer) provided
the body weights are on target and the flock is uniform (CV ≤ 10%).
§ There is no benefit to be gained from exceeding a daylength of 14 hours. If the longest natural
daylength exceeds 14 hours, the combination of natural and artificial light should be increased
to equal the expected longest natural daylength.
¶ If problems occur in out-of-season flocks (i.e. delayed sexual maturity), the flock may be
photostimulated at 140 days (20 weeks) provided the body weights are on target and their CV
is no more than 10%.

125
Key points
• The maximum response to the pre-lay increase in daylength is only obtained by achieving
the correct body-weight profile during rear, good flock uniformity, and the appropriate
nutritional input.
• Provide birds with a constant short daylength (8 or 9 hours) by 10 days of age.
• During rear, ensure that houses are light proofed to an intensity of no more than 0.4 lux
during the dark period.
• Where birds are kept in open-sided housing during lay, and the longest natural daylength
exceeds 14 hours, the combined artificial and natural lighting may be extended beyond
14 hours to equal the longest natural daylength.
Lighting programs for open-sided house rearing – open-sided house laying
There are 4 lighting situations in open-sided house rearing (Figure 116):

1. Natural daylength increasing throughout the rearing period.
2. Natural daylength increasing at the beginning, but decreasing towards the end of the rearing
period.
3. Natural daylength decreasing throughout the rearing period.
4. Natural daylength decreasing at the beginning, but increasing towards the end of the rearing
period.
Figure 116: Example of an open-sided rearing house where there is no control over the ambient
lighting conditions.
These changes in natural daylength patterns are illustrated in Figure 117. For each month
of placement, different shading/colors indicate the pattern of increasing or decreasing hours
of daylight during rear. For example, a flock placed at the start of October in the Northern
Hemisphere, or April in the Southern Hemisphere will have decreasing natural daylight up to
10-12 weeks, and then increasing natural daylight.

126
Figure 117: Patterns of natural daylength in the rearing period – Northern and Southern
Hemisphere.
154 Days/22 Weeks
105 Days/15 Weeks
70 Days/10 Weeks
35 Days/5 Weeks
Day-old
Northern Hemisphere Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug
Southern Hemisphere Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb
DECREASING DAYLIGHT INCREASING DAYLIGHT
Note: The actual hours of daylength experienced will vary according to latitude.
In the past there has been concern that rearing birds on an increasing daylength pattern will
result in an undesirably early sexual maturity, an increased incidence of prolapse, higher
mortality, and smaller eggs. However, it is now known that this does not happen. Broiler breeders
are photorefractory and require a period of short days to dissipate juvenile photorefractoriness
and become photosentsitive. Long daylengths during the rearing period will therefore delay, and
not advance, sexual development. Furthermore, the influence of lighting on sexual maturation
in broiler breeders is dependant upon achieving the correct feeding regimen and body weight
for age. It is therefore recommended that birds reared in open-sided houses are allowed to
experience whatever changes occur in the natural daylength during the rearing period.
It is important that broiler breeders are not given artificially long daylengths during the rearing
period, as has previously been recommended, because this will delay sexual maturity and
lead to poor rates of lay at the end of the laying cycle due to an advance in the onset of adult
photorefractoriness.
Section 7
The age at which a flock reaches sexual maturity will depend on the changing patterns
of daylength during the rearing period, and the size of the increase in daylength given at
photostimulation.
The lighting programs given in Table 23 have been designed to minimize the adverse effects of
keeping birds in open-sided housing. However, the performance of flocks reared in open-sided
houses will always be poorer than that of flocks kept in controlled environment or light proofed
houses.

127
Table 23: Lighting programs for open rearing and open house laying.
NATURAL DAYLENGTH
At 10 Days (Hours)
LIGHT
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
INTENSITY†
Age (Days) BROODING DAYLENGTH (Hours)
1 23 23 23 23 23 23 23
2 23 23 23 23 23 23 23
80-100 lux
3 19 19 19 19 19 19 19
in brooding area.
4 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
5 14 14 14 14 14 14 15
6 12 12 12 12 13 14 15
7 11 11 11 12 13 14 15 > 60-80 lux
in brooding area.
8 10 10 11 12 13 14 15
9 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
REARING DAYLENGTH
Natural light
10-146 days Natural lighting
intensity.
NATURAL DAYLENGTH
(Hours) at 147 Days (21 Weeks)
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Age
LAYING DAYLENGTH (Hours)
(Days) (Weeks)
147 21 12# 13# 14 14 14 14 15§ Supplementary

artificial lighting
30-60 lux,
154 22 13# 14 14 14 14 14 15§ but 60 lux for
spring-hatched
flocks.
161 23 14 14 14 14 14 14 15§
† Average intensity within a house or pen measured at bird-eye height.

# The daylength may be increased abruptly in a single increment without adversely affecting total egg
production (although peak may be higher and persistency slightly poorer) provided the body weights are
on target and the flock is uniform (CV ≤ 10%).
§ There is no benefit to be gained from exceeding a daylength of 14 hours, if the longest natural daylength
exceeds 14 hours the combination of natural and artificial light should be increased to equal the
expected longest natural daylength.
Key points
• The maximum response to pre-lay increases in daylength is only obtained by achieving
the correct body-weight profile during the rearing period, good flock uniformity and the
appropriate nutritional input.
• If reared in open-sided housing, broiler breeders should be allowed to experience
whatever changes occur in the natural daylength. Never rear birds on artificially long
days (≥ 11 hours), even for spring-hatched or out-of-season birds, as this will delay sexual
maturity, and egg numbers will be reduced.
• Where birds are kept in open-sided housing during lay and the longest natural daylength
exceeds 14 hours, the combined artificial and natural lighting may be extended beyond
14 hours to equal the longest natural daylength.

128
Artificial lights and light intensity

In open-sided housing, it is important that the light intensity provided during the period of artificial
lighting is bright enough to ensure photostimulation. The target light intensity in the house is 30-60
lux. During times of the year when flocks have been reared in high intensity natural light (i.e. spring-
hatched birds), higher intensities of artificial light will need to be provided in the laying house. This
is essential to ensure satisfactory reproductive performance.
Supplementary artificial lighting should be given at both ends of the ‘natural’ day. This will
clearly define the birds' 'day' and ensure that the daylength does not vary from that desired due
to changes in sunrise and sunset. The transition from natural darkness to artificial lighting in the
morning will give a definite 'dawn' signal to the birds, and the transfer from artificial lighting to
natural darkness will give a definite 'dusk' signal. The latter is important because it is dusk that
controls the timing of ovulation and, as a consequence, the time of egg laying. The proportion of
artificial lighting given at each end of the birds' day will depend upon management factors such
as what time the farm staff start work, and when eggs are required for collection.
In open-sided houses, seasonal effects can be significantly reduced if the intensity of the natural
light entering the house is reduced. The use of black-plastic horticultural netting for example
will reduce the intensity of the light entering the house while still allowing adequate ventilation.
The netting should be removed at the first pre-lay light increase.
Key points
• Birds may be slower to come into lay if the artificial light intensity at the first pre-lay light
increase is less than 60 lux when they have been reared on high intensity natural daylight.
• Artificial light should be given at both ends of the day to maintain a fixed daylength.
Seasonal variations in natural daylength

When rearing and/or laying houses are open-sided, seasonal variations will affect performance.
Seasonal changes are gradual and so a precise definition of whether certain months of the year
are classified as in- or out-of-season is difficult to establish. Some months are neither one nor
the other. Latitude will influence seasonal effect (see Figure 118).
Figure 118: Natural day lengths at latitude 10o or 30o north or south .
Section 7
30˚ N/S
17 10˚ N/S
16
15
14
Daylength (hours)
13
12
11
10
7
NORTHERN J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
HEMISPHERE
SOUTHERN J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J
HEMISPHERE
Months

129
The months in which the birds are placed are classified as in-season, or out-of-season in Table 24.
Table 24: Classification of months of placement as in-season or out-of-season.
IN-SEASON OUT-OF-SEASON
Northern Southern Northern Southern

Hemisphere Hemisphere Hemisphere Hemisphere
September March March September
October April April October
November May May November
December June June December
January * July * July * January *
February * August * August * February*
* These 4 months are difficult to define. The degree of seasonal effect in these months will depend on
latitude. Slight modifications of the lighting programs and body-weight profiles may be necessary.
Out-of-season flocks
The age at onset of lay for flocks hatched between March and August in the Northern
Hemisphere, and between September and February in the Southern Hemisphere, will be
delayed due to the birds having no or insufficient short days (8-10 hours) to satisfactorily
dissipate photorefractoriness, and make the birds photosensitive. Compared to in-season flocks,
out-of-season flocks will come into production later and have lower peaks, larger eggs, and less
predictable reproductive performance throughout lay. Sexual maturity for out-of-season flocks
can be advanced by easing the degree of body-weight control (see the Indian River Parent Stock
Performance Objectives for more information). Growing out-of-season females to a heavier
out-of-season body-weight target will allow photorefractoriness to be dissipated more rapidly,
helping to reduce issues of egg production and egg size.
The performance of spring-hatched (out-of-season) birds can be improved by rearing them in

brown-out housing (use of netting to reduce light penetration into the house) on short (8-10
hours), artificial day lengths. However, it is unlikely that production from out-of-season flocks
will ever be as good as that from in-season (autumn-hatched) flocks. The pre-lay light increase
should be given at 147 days (21 weeks) - if desired age at 5% production is 25 weeks - and given
as a single increment to 14 hours or 15 hours where the longest anticipated natural daylength
is longer than 14 hours.
In-season flocks
In-season flocks should be grown to the target body-weight profile and the first pre-lay light
increase given at 21 weeks (147 days) to achieve 5% at 25 weeks of age.
Key points
• The lighting program for both in-season and out-of-season flocks is the same (see Table
23).
• Out-of-season birds should be grown to a heavier out-of-season body-weight profile.
• In-season birds should follow the standard target weights.

130
Wavelength (Light Color) and Lamp Type

There is no strong scientific evidence to show that one particular color of light gives better
performance than white light, which contains all colors of the light spectrum.
There may be some beneficial effects on fertility from providing UV-A in addition to white light
(natural light has about 7% UV-A). Broiler breeders have UV-A reflective markings on their
plumage, and the provision of UV-A light may aid bird recognition. There is some evidence that
females use this factor to choose individual males, while males are more active and perform a
greater number of attempted matings when UV-A light is provided.
There are no data to show that one type of lamp induces better performance than any other,
and so lamp choice will depend on availability, capital outlay, running costs, and the ability to
dim using conventional voltage-reduction equipment.
Key points
• There is no need to provide broiler breeders with anything other than white light.
• Lamp type does not have an effect on reproductive performance.
Section 7

131
Notes

132
Nutrition
Section 8 - Nutrition
Nutrition
Note: This section should be used in conjunction with the separate supplements for this
Handbook, namely the Indian River Parent Stock Nutrition Specifications, and the
Indian River Parent Stock Performance Objectives.
Objective
To maximize welfare, reproductive potential (of both males and females), and chick quality by
supplying a range of balanced diets that meet the requirements of broiler parent stock at all
stages of their development and production.
Principles
Maintaining good uniformity and keeping close to body-weight targets is essential in feeding
parent stock. Feed composition, feed form, feeding management, and general management
must be considered together when assessing parent stock performance. Economic analysis
of the whole broiler production cycle shows that small improvements in breeder or chick
performance will cover the costs of improving nutrient levels in the breeder feed. In general, a
high quality diet for the breeder is economically justified.
Broiler Breeder Nutrition

Feed formulation and feeding management are combined to achieve target body weights and
good uniformity throughout the life of the breeder flock.
Nutrition is the major impacting variable upon both productivity and profitability in parent
stock flocks and although the formulating and balancing of diets is a precision activity requiring
specialist nutrition skills, farm managers should be aware of the nutritional content of their
feeds. Such information can be obtained from the feed suppliers themselves or nutritional
consultants. Most importantly, there should be farm level sub-sampling of diets and routine
laboratory analysis to determine if expected dietary nutrient contents are being achieved. It is
important that managers are aware of the make-up of the diet that is being fed to their stock to
ensure that:
• Feed levels and consumption will provide adequate levels of daily nutrient intake (feed
intake X nutrient concentration).
• There is proper and expected balance between feed nutrients.
• Routine laboratory analysis of diets can be usefully interpreted and correct actions taken
such as:
Section 8
• Alerting the provider of a possibility of discrepant formulation.

• Appropriate management of feeding programs.
Supply of Nutrients
Diets should be balanced on the basis of the intake of digestible nutrients. An excess or
deficiency of any key nutrient will negatively impact total flock and progeny performance.
In practice, the supply of nutrients to parent stock is controlled through the nutrient composition
of the feed and the level of feed intake, and these must always be considered together as changes
in either one of these factors will impact on supply of nutrients. As daily supply (intake) of
nutrients such as energy and amino acids are determinants of flock performance, the effect of
changing either feed nutrient composition or feed allocation on nutrient intake must always be
considered.

133
Nutrition
Guidelines for daily feed intakes, and for adjusting them according to observations of bird
performance, have been discussed in earlier sections of this Handbook. These guidelines
are made with reference to the dietary energy levels given in the recommended Parent Stock
Nutrition Specifications: 11.7 MJ (2800 kcal) ME per kg for starter, grower and breeder diets.
While recommended nutrient specifications are given as dietary concentrations, it is the

actuality of required daily nutrient intakes (i.e. the amount of nutrients that the bird requires
in a day at any given time in its life) that should be considered when making feeding decisions.
This is especially important when feed intakes may vary, such as when high temperatures result
in lower feed intake.
Feed intake
Daily feed intakes per bird are influenced by both genetic and environmental circumstances.
Control of feed supply is a major mechanism for effective flock management, and therefore feed
intake expectations are important both to determining required diet nutrient density and to the
taking of management decisions.
The daily bird requirement for a nutrient is satisfied by the product of presumptive feed intake
and nutrient concentration. Recommendations for nutritional concentrations, as in the Parent
Stock Nutrition Specifications, assume the achievement of feed intakes as given in the Parent
Stock Performance Objectives.
Energy
Feed energy is now conventionally expressed as apparent metabolizable energy level corrected
to zero nitrogen retention (AMEn); as these values are the more accurate description of energy
value. Data on energy contents expressed in this way are available from many sources. In this
Handbook, the term ME is used to describe AMEn.
Recommended feeding levels presented elsewhere in this Handbook and in the Parent Stock
Performance Objectives assume diets to have energy concentrations of 11.7 MJ (2800 kcal) ME
per kg for starter, grower and laying flocks. Because the bird responds to nutrient intake (not
nutrient concentration), if diets have feed nutrient levels different from those assumed, then
proportional changes in feed allowances must be made. For example, if birds are being fed a
diet with 11.9 MJ (2844 kcal) ME per kg feed, then intake at peak should be reduced from 165
g to 162.4 g per bird per day to compensate for the increased energy in the diet (11.7 ÷ 1 1.9 =
0.983; 165 x 0.983 = 162.2).
The total daily energy need for a bird is the sum of energy required for maintenance, growth
and production of egg mass. The maintenance energy requirement is by far the largest
component of total energy need. Maintenance energy need is based on the bird's body weight
and is significantly affected by environmental temperature. Total energy requirement will,
therefore, vary with environmental temperatures, location and season. Adjustment of energy
supply must therefore be based largely on observation of the birds’ responses in body weight,
body condition, feed clean-up time, and egg mass.
The choice of dietary energy level is a combination of feed management, welfare and economics.
In particular circumstances, varying the feed energy level may be justified if feed intakes are not
on target, or if economics dictate a change in feed energy level. If feed energy levels differ from
those suggested in the recommended nutrition specification tables, then not only must feed
allowance quantities be adjusted accordingly, but the concentrations of other nutrients in the
diets must also be adjusted, in order to maintain a constant ratio of these nutrients to energy.
These adjustments are necessary to ensure that the appropriate daily intake levels of required
nutrients are achieved.

134
Nutrition
Adequate supply of energy is critical for optimal productivity and persistency. When energy
supply appears to be the limiting factor (e.g. if production performance targets are not
achieved), additional feed should be given. However, when a nutrient other than energy
is limiting performance, the provision of additional feed may lead to excess energy intake
- leading to excessive body-weight gain and improper ovarian development. If energy
supply is adequate and another nutrient is too low, then the feed must be reformulated to
give the properly required nutrient balance.
Energy contents of successive feeds should not vary widely. Feed changes should be
gradual and carefully controlled; especially when changing diets (e.g. transition from
Grower to Breeder rations).
Within a given diet, consistency in nutrient density and quality is critical. Ingredients
which are variable in nutrient composition should be used with caution. Avoid large
changes in feed ingredients and energy concentrations between deliveries to a given flock.
Protein and amino acids
Feed protein concentration must be sufficient to ensure that requirements for all essential
amino acids are met. Amino acids provide the building blocks for body tissue, feather
and egg protein, and for the replacement of proteins lost in the natural processes of daily
protein turnover. Dietary protein content must provide amino acids at the optimum daily
rate, ensuring they are in balance with one another and dietary energy.
Variation of feed protein content should be minimized. Excessive protein intake may
lead to over-fleshing (increased breast meat deposition) and negatively affect fertility. In
contrast, inadequate protein intake can lead to a reduction in egg size and feathering
problems.
In general, it is preferable, especially under hot conditions, to feed readily digestible

protein sources.
Specific nutrient recommendations are given in the Parent Stock Nutrition Specification
documents. Amino acid levels are listed for those major essential amino acids which are
most likely to be limited in practical feeds. The digestible amino acids are based on true
fecal digestibility. Formulating diets on digestible amino acid provides a better balanced
protein in the feed, which better meets the bird requirements. Crude protein and amino
acids are given as total g per kg (for % divide by 10).
Macro minerals
The macro minerals calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are critical for proper skeletal
development, reproductive performance, shell quality, and other metabolic functions.
Laying hens require 4-5 g of calcium per hen per day to maintain calcium balance. In
practice, this requirement is satisfied by feeding recommended breeder ration calcium
Section 8
levels no later than 5% egg production.
To maintain optimal shell quality, consider supplementing 1.0 g Ca per bird per day in
the form of a large particle-sized limestone (diameter 3.2 mm) or oyster shell. This is
particularly relevant when feeding pelleted diets where finely ground limestone is often
used in the diet as the calcium source to minimize pellet die wear. When birds are fed early
in the day, the smaller particle-sized limestone in the feed is rapidly absorbed and excreted
via the kidney long before the egg shell is laid down during the evening. Thus, provision
of a larger particle calcium source during the afternoon can improve shell quality by
ensuring calcium is present in the gut during shell formation. One effective way to provide
this supplement is to evenly broadcast it on the house litter area. However, supplemental
calcium sources should not be allowed to build up in the litter since excessive calcium
intake can be detrimental to shell quality. If build up of the calcium supplement in the
litter does occur, supplementation should be discontinued until the flock has consumed
any calcium remaining in the litter. If mash feeds are used, large particle-sized limestone
or oyster shell can easily be incorporated into the diet.

135
Nutrition
Adequate available phosphorus (P) intake is critical for skeletal structure and egg shell quality.
Excessive levels of available P throughout lay reduce shell quality and have a negative impact
on hatchery performance (hatchability). Feeding recommended available P levels will ensure
adequate egg shell quality.
Levels of sodium, chloride, and potassium above required levels will increase water intake,
reduce litter quality, and negatively effects egg shell quality. It is important to control dietary
levels of these nutrients to avoid such problems occurring.
Phytase
The addition of phytase to the feed to release available P from plant materials and thus to
partially replace the need for feed grade phosphates in the diet is common practice. If phytase
is added to the diet it is important that it is used according to manufacturer recommendations,
otherwise mineral-related deficiencies can occur.
Mineral imbalance and metabolic disorders
Calcium tetany of broiler breeder hens is occasionally seen with mortality appearing from 25 to
30 weeks of age. Hens suffering from Calcium Tetany are found paralyzed or dead in the nest in
the morning with active ovaries and an egg in the shell gland with a partially formed shell. No
other pathology may be observed on post mortem. The occurrence of this condition is rare when
the recommendations concerning feeding of calcium are followed.
Low available P and potassium (K) can lead to Sudden Death Syndrome (SDS). The SDS of broiler
breeders occurs in early lay with birds dying suddenly in the breeder house. At post-mortem
there is an enlarged flaccid heart, congested lungs, and pericardium in some birds. The SDS
usually responds to K supplementation in the drinking water and increasing in the feed. Indian
River stock has a low susceptibility to SDS.
Added trace minerals
Recommended levels of supplementation for trace minerals in the premix can be found in the
Parent Stock Nutrition Specifications. Generally speaking, organic chelated trace elements have
higher biological availability than inorganic sources. When using inorganic sources of trace
minerals, the sulfate form generally provides the highest biological availability.
Added vitamins
Vitamins are critical to all aspects of growth, reproductive performance and progeny. Under
stressful conditions, disease outbreaks and other situations, birds can show a positive response
to higher levels of certain vitamins. The goal should be to remove or reduce stress factors,
rather than to depend on permanent use of excessive vitamin supplementation for optimal
performance.
A major source of variation in supplementation for some vitamins is cereal type. Accordingly
separate recommendations have been made for vitamin A, nicotinic acid, pantothenic acid,
pyridoxine (B6), and biotin in maize versus wheat based feeds (see the Indian River Parent Stock
Nutrition Specifications for more details).
Vitamin potency is sensitive to many factors (e.g. moisture, trace minerals, and heat) which can
reduce their shelf life. Quality control measures must be in place to ensure vitamin levels in
the finished feed meet the recommended nutrient specifications. The time period for feed to
go from the feed mill to being consumed by the breeder flock should be as short as possible.
Feed deliveries should be scheduled so that feed does not reside in farm feed bins for excessive
periods of time (i.e., >10 days). This is especially important under conditions of high temperature
and humidity, which will accelerate overall feed quality degradation. By using appropriate mold
inhibitor compounds (e.g. propionic acid based mold inhibitors), the risk of mold growth and
subsequent mycotoxin production can be reduced.

136
Nutrition
Vitamin E is one of the most expensive vitamins and has several biological functions impacting
the immune and reproductive systems so it is important to ensure that levels of this vitamin in
the diet remain within recommended levels. Research has shown that recommended levels also
enhance the immune system of newly hatched chicks. Recommendations for all vitamins are
included in the Parent Stock Nutrition Specifications. Problems that can be caused by vitamin
deficiencies are detailed in the Appendices at the back of the Handbook.
Key points
• Knowledge of the nutrient composition of the diet being fed is necessary to assure quality
control of diet supply and to correctly manage feeding levels.
• Knowledge of dietary energy is especially important because nutritionists balance dietary
nutrients to energy concentration. Feeding levels must be altered accordingly in response
to changes in dietary energy concentration.
• Feed should not be stored on the farm and should be used within 10 days of delivery.
• Specific performance problems may be resolved by attention to concentrations of specific
nutrients, but in general – provided diets are properly formulated – the greatest effects of
diet upon performance are through non-optimum feed intake levels.
Feeding Programs and Diet Specifications

Feed specifications and feeding management must always be considered together. Different
feed specifications may be used with equal success provided they lead, together with the feed
management procedures, to the required bird performance. The main factors influencing
feed specifications include available feed ingredients, feed processing technology, and bird
management procedures.
Feeds should be formulated to meet nutrient specifications and be consistent over time. Sudden
changes in feed ingredients and changes in other characteristics that may reduce feed intake,
even transiently, should be avoided.
Feeding management and feed composition must be guided by close monitoring and observation
of the flock.
The recommended and most widely used feed program consists of a Starter feed for about 28
days, a Grower feed up to 5% production, which is then followed by a Breeder Layer feed.
Starter period
A feature of successful breeder performance is to achieve proper early growth and physiological
development. It is possible to achieve this with one Starter feed.
Starter feed should preferably be provided as a sieved crumb. Typically, the Starter feed will be
fed for about 28 days. Section 8
Care should be taken to avoid presenting partially ground pieces of grain to the chicks that they
can preferentially select from the diet. Individual chicks will select these large pieces, to the
exclusion of the crumbles and consequently receive an imbalanced diet.
A Grower feed will follow immediately behind the Starter. This Grower feed will generally contain
lower crude protein and amino acid specifications than the Starter to control body-weight gain.
During changes from Starter to Grower feed, body weight should be monitored carefully to
safeguard against checks in growth. This is especially important when the change involves a
change in feed ingredients and/or a change in feed form.
If problems are consistently experienced in achieving target body weights by 28 days (4 weeks),
then feeding the Starter diet for another 1-2 weeks may be helpful.

137
Nutrition
Growing period
During the growing period, daily growth rates are low and nutrient requirements, when
expressed as daily intakes, are small. However, it is important to maintain good feed quality in
this period, and to avoid the use of poor quality feed ingredients.
During the growing period when feed volumes are lower, and where the feeding equipment
does not distribute it throughout the house rapidly enough, flock uniformity can suffer. In such
situations it may be necessary to lower the energy level of the grower feed to allow feed levels to
be increased and to support good flock uniformity. If lower energy levels are used it is important
that the ratio of other nutrients to energy are kept constant.
Several different feeding strategies can be followed to lead to successful production. For
example, if photostimulating birds earlier than 21 weeks of age, it may be beneficial to use 4
diets (rather than 2) during the rearing phase. This will help to ensure that the birds receive
adequate nutrients at the correct time in order to achieve an earlier onset of production. A
4-stage rearing program includes:
• Higher nutrient density Starter diet to support adequate early development – particularly
for males.
• Second Starter diet to provide a smoother transition to a lower specification Grower diet.
• Lower density Grower diet to allow greater control of body-weight development and increase
feed distribution during this period. Although the diet itself has a reduced concentration of
nutrients per kg, the recommended feed intakes and increasing feed consumption over this
phase of growth will ensure the required increase in daily nutrient supply.
• Prebreeder diet to provide higher amino acid and protein intake for adequate development
of reproductive tissue.
Transition to sexual maturity
Sufficient amino acids and other nutrients are required for the proper development of
reproductive tissues. Provision of supplemental vitamins in pre-lay and early lay periods will
increase body tissue levels before egg production commences and may provide a benefit in early
hatchability.
The laying stage
Feed compositions given in the recommended Nutrition Specification documents will support
target levels of production in properly reared and uniform flocks. Performance during the laying
stage is often affected by feeding and management practices applied during earlier stages of
growth. Increasing feed allowances because of poor egg production should be undertaken with
caution and a clear understanding of the flock’s nutritional status.
In most flocks, using more than one breeder feed may not be nutritionally necessary. Slightly
reduced daily requirements of amino acids are normally fully covered by feed intake reductions
post-peak. Calcium requirement increases in older birds. This can be satisfied by providing a
calcium supplement in the laying house instead of providing additional calcium in the feed.
Supplementary phosphorus may be provided if higher levels are needed in the earlier stages of
lay to control SDS. Otherwise, available phosphorus levels should be kept at the recommended
level.
An economic case can be made for a Breeder-2 ration with lower protein and amino acid and
available phosphorus levels, and a higher calcium concentration. This is particularly true when
supplemental calcium is not provided apart from the feed and when egg weights are too heavy.

Over-sized eggs are often associated with over-feeding. Therefore, it is prudent to evaluate all
the elements of nutrient supply and feed intake levels if this is a problem.

138
Nutrition
Temperature effect on energy requirements
Environmental temperature is a major factor influencing energy requirement of the bird. As

operating temperature differs from 20oC, energy intakes should be adjusted pro rata as follows:
• Increased by 0.126 MJ (30 kcal) per bird per day if temperature is decreased by 5°C from 20o
to 15oC (68o to 59oF).
• Reduced by 0.105 MJ (25 kcal) per bird per day if temperature is increased by 5oC from 20o
to 25oC (68o to 77oF).
The influence of temperatures above 25oC on energy requirement is not as straight forward
as the effect of cold. At temperatures above 25oC, feed composition, feed amount, and
environmental management should be controlled to reduce heat stress. Providing correct
nutrient levels and using feed ingredients with higher digestibilities will help to minimize the
effect of heat stress. Increasing the proportion of the feed energy that comes from feed fats
(rather than carbohydrates) may also be beneficial.
In addition to absolute temperature measurement, the effective temperature of birds can be

monitored by measurement of bird performance against target and observation of bird behavior.
Male nutrition
Separate control of male feeding level using separate-sex feeding systems is essential for
successful broiler breeder production. The use of a separate feed (a separate diet formulation
with different nutrient concentrations) for males is not as clear-cut but may provide improvements
in flock fertility.
The use of a single feed for both sexes is a widespread practice; however, the use of specific
male diet in the laying period has been shown to be beneficial to the maintenance of male
physiological condition and fertility. A separate male diet with lower protein and amino acid
levels can prevent excessive breast muscle development, while adequate dietary supplementation
of vitamin E and selenium (Se) are critical for sperm quality. The use of an organic chelated form
of Se should be considered.
If a separate male diet is used, it should be introduced when birds are moved to the laying
house or at light stimulation. When switching to a separate male diet, ensure caloric intake is
not reduced if the male diet is lower in energy density than the diet currently being fed (dietary
energy levels for a separate male diet should be between 10.9 and 11.7 MJ (2600 and 2800 kcal
ME per kg).
Key points
• Birds respond to daily intakes of nutrients, therefore feeding programs (and feed levels)
must relate to dietary nutrient content; especially energy and the nutritional requirements
of the bird at a given age.
• Economic and management practices may demand flexibility in diet nutrient concentration,
but in general variability in nutrient specification should be avoided.
Section 8
• Nutritional problems will be observed as failures to achieve production and welfare

targets and should be discussed with the nutritionists at the earliest opportunity.
• Diets need to be regularly sampled and the samples analyzed to ensure that the diet is as
it should be.

139
Nutrition
Feed Manufacturing
Following good feed manufacturing practices will ensure that parent stock receive diets with
adequate nutrient fortification, while minimizing potential contaminants. Unseen variations
in feed ingredient quality and nutrient content are possible causes of bird failure to attain
production targets. Frequent and routine control checks upon the physical quality and nutrient
content of feed should therefore be completed.
Feeds should be regularly handled and examined by nose and eye (and if necessary microscope).
Sub-sampling and analysis of feeds is essential to detection of anti-nutritional factors and
ensuring that requirements for specific nutrients are being met.
Ingredient formulations, and their alteration with changing ingredient price, should be a
subject for discussion with the feed manufacturer, and by close examination of declarations of
ingredients and specifications.
• Raw material physical quality, ingredient nutritional content, and feed processing techniques
must be of high standard and consistent from batch to batch for a given flock.
• Ingredients must be free of contamination by chemical residues, microbial toxins, pathogens,
and mycotoxins.
• Raw materials should be as fresh as possible within practical limitations and should be
stored under controlled conditions.
• Storage facilities must be protected from contamination by insects, rodents, and in particular,
wild birds, all of which are potential carriers of disease.
• Breeding stock can be fed successfully on mash, crumbled or pelleted feed, as long as good
feeding management is practiced.
• Provide feed as fresh as possible. The risk of nutrient degradation and mold growth in feed
increases as a given feed delivery remains in the farm feed bin.
Alterations to the inclusion levels of specific diet ingredients – feedstuffs – are the major means
by which feed manufacture can be optimized in terms of nutrient content, palatability, and price.
A table is given in the Appendices which allows managers to assess the likely consequences of
changes to feed ingredient inclusions upon the concentrations of diet nutrients.
Raw materials
Many feed ingredients are suitable for feeding to parent stock. Supply and price will usually
determine the choice; however a few general guidelines may be given.
When comparing cereal sources, maize has been found to give performance advantages in
the laying period when compared to wheat. Birds fed maize-based rations consistently have
improved egg shell quality compared with hens fed wheat-based feeds. This leads to improved
yield of hatching eggs, less bacterial contamination, and improved hatchability.
Feed fats and oils should be used at modest levels at all stages. In general, a minimum inclusion
of 0.5-1.0 % added fat is recommended to reduce dustiness, improve absorption of fat soluble
nutrients, and enhance palatability.
Feed processing
Breeding stock can be fed successfully on mash, crumbled or pelleted feed, as long as good
feeding management is practiced. The feed form is highly dependent on available feed
ingredients and feed compounding facilities.

140
Nutrition
Mash: A good quality mash extends clean-up time, compared to crumble or pellet forms, and
therefore allows all birds the opportunity to eat the recommended feed amount. This will support
good body weight development and uniformity. However, mash feed can be inconsistent due to
segregation of low and high density feed ingredients as the feed is transported and conveyed
onto the farm. Poor quality mash (e.g. that with a particle size that is too small) can increase the
risk of mash bridging in farm feed bins.
Crumble: A good quality crumble will reduce clean-up time compared to mash, with a lower
chance of segregation of the dietary ingredients compared to mash.
Pellets: A good quality pellet is preferred if clean-up time is a concern (e.g. during high
environmental temperatures). If floor-feeding is applied, a good quality pellet is critical.
Feed hygiene (heat treatment)
All feed must be considered a potential source of bacterial infection for breeders, particularly
coliforms and Salmonellae, and should be decontaminated if total bacterial pathogen control
is required. Thermal processing involves treatment with adequate heat in a retention vessel at
atmospheric pressure for sufficient time to kill the organism. Commonly, for parent stock feed
this is around 86˚C for 6 minutes. This will generally reduce the total viable bacterial counts to
less than 10 organisms per gram.
Pelleting alone will not completely eliminate harmful bacteria from feed (although it may reduce
the contamination below detectable levels in tests of finished feed). Care must be taken not to
re-contaminate feed. Critical control points for the prevention of re-contamination include the
cooling, storage, and transportation of feed. Where feed thermal treatment is not available, safe
and permitted additives can be a viable option.
When feeds are heated, consideration should be given to components that may be damaged
by heat (e.g., vitamins and amino acids). The vitamin levels recommended in the Parent Stock
Nutrition Specifications will cover losses from conventional conditioning and pelleting of the
feed. However, more severe heat treatment may increase the need for vitamin and/or amino acid
supplementation. There may also be changes (positive and negative) in nutritional value due to
structural changes in the feed.
Finished feed
Quality control is essential. A program of monitoring the quality of finished feed is necessary,
which should include both feed mill and farm sampling. It is assumed that feed manufacturing
site personnel will take representative feed samples from production runs. At the farm level, it
is useful to take and retain feed samples from each feed delivery. In the event flock performance
problems occur, these samples are then available for additional analysis to help identify or
exclude nutritional issues.
Samples should ideally be taken inside the house from one of the feed hoppers. Target a sample
size of approximately 1,000 g. Place the sample in a sealable plastic bag and store in a cool, dry
Section 8
area until the flock is depleted.
Some of the consequences of not meeting the dietary nutrient specifications are summarized
in Table 25.

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Nutrition
Table 25: Consequences for the laying flock of not meeting the nutrient specifications.
Effect of Undersupply Effect of Oversupply
Depends on amino acid levels, but Increased egg size and lower
generally decreased egg size and hatchability. Increased metabolic
Crude protein
number. Poor chick quality from stress during hot weather
young flocks. conditions.
Body weight, egg size, and egg Excess leads to increased double
Energy number will decrease unless feed yolks, oversized eggs, and obesity.
quantity is adjusted. Late fertility/hatchability suffers.
Lysine, methionine
Decrease egg size and number.
& cystine
Linoleic acid Decreased egg size.
Calcium Poor shell quality. Reduced availability of nutrients.
May impair egg production and

Available
hatchability. Reduced bone ash in Poor shell quality.
phosphorous
chicks.
Key points
• Failure to achieve production targets can be due to unseen variations in feed ingredient
quality and nutrient content.
• Quality control of the finished feed both at the feed mill and on farm is essential.
• Managers should be in constant dialogue with their feed nutritionist and their feed
manufacturer to be aware of any changes made to ingredient formulation or nutrient
specification.
Water
Water is an essential nutrient for life. Unlimited, clean, fresh water should be available to birds at
all times when the birds are active. As a general rule in rear birds are consuming enough water
when the ratio of water intake to feed intake is 1.6-1.8: 1 (water: feed - the lower ratio being for
nipple drinkers, and the higher for bell type drinkers) at 21°C, but in lay, water intake may be
expected to be slightly higher than this. Water requirement will vary with feed consumption and
will increase with ambient temperature. Detailed information about drinker systems and water
quality can be found elsewhere in the other sections of this Handbook.
Key point
• Water is an essential ingredient for life, and birds should have unlimited access to clean,
fresh water at all times when the birds are active.

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Health and Biosecurity
Section 9 - Health and Biosecurity

Objective
To achieve hygienic conditions within the poultry house, and to minimize the adverse effects
of disease. To attain optimum performance and bird welfare, and to provide assurance on food
safety issues.
Principles
Hygienic conditions within the poultry house are achieved through the implementation of
correct biosecurity, cleaning, and vaccination programs.
The Relationship Between Management, Disease Expression, and Bird

Welfare
The incidence and severity of many diseases, and bird welfare, is affected by the degree of
stress being experienced by the birds. The management systems described in this Handbook are
designed to maximize production by optimizing bird welfare and minimizing stress in broiler
parents. Where it may prove impossible to exclude a pathogen in a particular situation, the
commercial effects of a disease may be minimized by reducing the stress deriving from other
sources.
The overall balance of correctly applied management factors is important as many factors
interact with each other to increase the symptoms seen as a result of infection. When defining
control measures for disease, and therefore bird welfare, it is important to take into account the
possible occurrence of stress or incidence of infections such as:
• Poor feed management and other stress factors that can precipitate problems of Staphylococcal
or E.coli infections such as synovitis.
• Overstimulation of birds can be associated with peritonitis, increased double yolked eggs
and polyclonal E.coli septicaemia at point of lay.
• Control of water supply to reduce unnecessary water leakage and/or poor litter management
can cause problems with coccidiosis, staph arthritis/tendonitis, pododermatitis and poor
egg hygiene.
• Stocking density, biosecurity, vaccination and control of immunosuppressive infections e.g.
Mareks Disease, Reovirus, Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD), Chicken Anaemia Virus (CAV)
and some mycotoxins, can markedly affect the severity of other diseases.
Hygiene Management
Strict operation of a comprehensive program of hygiene management is essential if proper
attention is to be given to:
Section 9
• Site biosecurity.
• Site cleaning.
Biosecurity
A good biosecurity program must be in place to prevent the introduction of disease organisms
into the chicken flock.

143
Farm location/construction
• It is best to build the farm in an isolated area, at least 3.2 km distance from the nearest
poultry or other livestock facilities that may contaminate the farm.
• Build the farm away from major roadways that may be used to transport poultry.
• Fence the perimeter of the farm to prevent unwanted visitors.
• Test the water source for mineral, bacterial and chemical contamination on a regular basis
as water table/aquifiers can change due to season, weather and agricultural activity.
• The design and construction of the houses should prevent wild birds and rodent from
entering the building. A concrete foundation and floor will prevent rodents from burrowing
into the house.
• Conventional broiler breeder houses should ideally be facing an East-West direction.
• Clear and level an area 15 m around all houses so that grass can be cut quickly and easily.
Gravel or pebbles are easier to maintain than grass.
Preventing diseases transmitted by humans

• Minimize the number of visitors and prevent unauthorized access to the farm by locking the
entry gates and posting no trespassing/no visitors signs.
• All people entering the farm should follow a biosecurity procedure. The requirement that
all workers and visitors shower and use clean farm clothes is the best way to prevent cross
contamination between facilities.
• Maintain a record of visitors, including name, company, purpose of visit, previous farm
visited, and next farm to be visited.
• When entering and leaving each poultry house, workers and visitors must wash and sanitize
their hands and boots.
• Tools and equipment carried into the house are a potential source of disease. Only necessary
items should be taken in to the house and only after they have been properly cleaned and
disinfected.
• If supervisory personnel are not able to avoid visiting more than one farm per day, they
should visit the youngest flocks first. Always visit flocks with disease problems last. If a
serious problem is suspected, like AI (Avian influenza), VVND (Viscerotropic velogenic
newcastle disease), ILT (Infectious larygotracheitis), MG (Mycoplasma gallisepticum
– Chronic Respiratory Disease), MS (Mycoplasma synoviae – Infactious Synovitis) or
Salmonella all visits should be stopped immediately.
Preventing diseases transmitted by animals

• Whenever possible, place the farm on an “all in/all out” placement cycle. Multiple age
chickens on the same site provide a reservoir for disease organisms.
• Downtime between flocks will reduce contamination of the farm. Downtime is defined
as the time between completion of the cleaning/disinfection process and placing the next
flock. A minimum downtime of 3 weeks between flocks is recommended, but the exact
downtime required will depend on the size of the farm (a bigger farm may take longer to
clean/disinfect).
• Keep all vegetation cut 15 m away from the buildings to provide an entry barrier to rodents
and wild animals.
• Do not leave equipment, building materials or litter lying around. This will reduce cover for
rodents and wild animals.
• Clean-up feed spills as soon as they occur.
• Store litter material in bags or inside a storage building or bin.
• Keep wild birds out of all buildings.
• Maintain an effective rodent control program (Figure 119). Baiting programs are most
effective when followed continuously.
• Use an integrated pest management program, including mechanical, biological, and
chemical controls.

144
Figure 119: Example of a rodent baiting plan. The actual number of baiting points placed must
be appropriate to the risk.
DITCH
BARN
GARAGE
POULTRY HOUSE
POULTRY HOUSE
Runs
Rodent Nest Holes
Temporary Bait Point HOUSE
Permanent Bait Point
Site cleaning
Site cleaning must clean and disinfect the poultry house so that all potential poultry and human
pathogens are removed and the numbers of residual bacteria, viruses, parasites and insects
minimized between flocks. This will minimize any effect on health, welfare and performance
on the subsequent flock.
House design
The house and equipment should be designed to enable easy, effective cleaning. The poultry
house should have concrete floors, washable (i.e. impervious) walls and ceilings, accessible
ventilation ducts and no internal pillars or ledges. Earth floors are impossible to clean and
disinfect adequately. An area of concrete or gravel extending to a width of 1-3 m surrounding
the house can discourage the entry of rodents and provide an area for washing and storing
removable items of equipment.
Procedures
Planning: A successful cleanout requires that all operations are effectively carried out on time.
Cleanout is an opportunity to carry out routine maintenance on the farm and this should be
planned into the cleaning and disinfection program. A plan detailing dates, times, labor, and
equipment requirements should be drawn-up prior to depleting the farm. This will ensure that
all tasks can be completed successfully.
Insect Control: Insects are vectors of disease and must be destroyed before they migrate into
woodwork or other materials. As soon as the flock has been removed from the house and
while it is still warm, the litter, equipment, and all surfaces should be sprayed with a locally
recommended insecticide. Alternatively the house may be treated with an approved insecticide
within 2 weeks prior to depletion. A second treatment with insecticide should be completed
before fumigation.
Remove dust: All dust, debris and cobwebs must be removed from fan shafts, beams, and
exposed areas of unrolled curtains in open-sided houses, ledges and stonework. For best results
Section 9
use a brush so that the dust falls onto the litter.
Pre-spray: A knapsack or low-pressure sprayer should be used to spray a detergent solution

throughout the inside of the house, from ceiling to floor, to dampen down dust before litter and
equipment are removed. In open-sided houses, the curtains should be closed first.

145
Remove equipment: All equipment and fittings (drinkers, feeders, perches, nest-boxes, dividing
pens etc.) should be removed from the building and placed on the external concrete area. It may
not be desirable to remove automatic nest boxes and alternative strategies may be required.
Remove litter: All litter and debris must be removed from within the house. Trailers or rubbish
skips (dumpsters) should be placed inside the house and filled with soiled litter. The full trailer
or dumpster should be covered before removal, to prevent dust and debris blowing around
outside. Vehicle wheels must be brushed and spray disinfected on leaving the house.
Litter disposal: Litter must not be stored on the farm or spread on land adjacent to the farm. It
must be removed to a distance of at least 3.2 km from the farm, and disposed of in accordance
with local government regulations in one of the following ways:
• Spread on arable crop land and plowed within 1 week.
• Buried in an approved ‘landfill’ site, quarry or hole in the ground. (In some areas this is not
allowed).
• Stacked and allowed to heat (i.e. compost) for at least one month before being spread on
livestock grazing land.
• Incinerated. (In some areas this is not allowed).
• Burning litter as a biofuel for electricity production.
Washing: Before washing starts check that all electricity in the house has been switched off.
A pressure washer with foam detergent should be used to remove the remaining dirt and
debris from the house and equipment. Many different industrial detergents are available and
manufacturer’s instructions should always be followed. The detergent used must be compatible
with the disinfectant that will be used to disinfect the house later on. Following washing with
detergent the house and equipment should be rinsed with clean fresh water, again using a
pressure washer. Hot water should be used for cleaning and excess floor water removed using
“squeegees” (a rubber-edged blade set on a handle, typically used for cleaning windows).
Wastewater should be disposed of hygienically to avoid any re-contamination of the houses.
All equipment, removed from the house must also be soaked, washed and rinsed. Cleaned
equipment should then be stored under cover.
Inside the house, particular attention should be paid to the following places:
• Fan boxes.
• Fan shafts.
• Fans.
• Ventilation grills.
• Tops of beams.
• Ledges.
• Water pipes.
• Feed lines.
In order to ensure that inaccessible areas are properly washed, it is recommended that portable
scaffolding and portable lights are used.
The outside of the building must also be washed and special attention given to:
• Air inlets.
• Gutters.
• Concrete pathways.
In open-sided housing, the inside and outside of curtains must be washed. Any items that cannot
be washed (e.g. polythene, cardboard) must be destroyed.
When washing is complete, there should be no dirt, dust, debris, or litter present. Proper washing
requires time and attention to detail.
Staff facilities should also be thoroughly cleaned at this stage. The egg store should be washed
out and disinfected and humidifiers dismantled, serviced and cleaned prior to disinfection.
Cleaning water and feed systems

All equipment within the house must be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected. After cleansing it
is essential that the equipment is stored under cover.

146
The water system: The procedure for cleaning the water system is as follows:
• Drain pipes and header tanks.
• Flush lines with clean water.
• Scrub header tanks to remove scale and biofilm deposit and drain to the exterior
of the house.
• Refill tank with fresh water and add an approved water sanitizer.
• Run the sanitizer solution through the drinker lines from the header tank ensuring
there are no air locks. Make sure the sanitizer is approved for use with the drinker
equipment and is used at the correct dilution.
• Make up header tank to normal operating level with additional sanitizer solution
at appropriate strength. Replace lid. Allow disinfectant to remain for a minimum
of 4 hours.
• Drain and rinse with fresh water.
• Refill with fresh water prior to chick arrival.
Biofilms will form inside water pipes and regular treatment to remove them is needed
to prevent decreased water flow and bacterial contamination of drinking water.
Pipe material will influence rate of biofilm formation. For example, biofilm tends to
form quicker on alkathene pipes and plastic tanks. The use of vitamin and mineral
treatments in drinking water can increase biofilm and aggregation of materials to the
pipes etc. Physical cleaning of the inside of pipes to remove biofilms is not always
possible; therefore between flocks biofilms can be removed by using high levels (140
ppm) of chlorine or peroxygen compounds. These need to be flushed completely from
the drinking system before birds drink. Cleaning may need to include acid scrubbing
where the water mineral content (especially calcium or iron) is high. Metal pipes can be
cleaned the same way but corrosion can cause leaks. Water treatment before use should
be considered for high mineral waters.
Evaporative cooling and fogging systems can be sanitized at cleanout using a bi-guanide
sanitizer. Bi-guanides can also be used during production to ensure that the water used
in these systems contains minimal bacteria reducing bacterial spread into the poultry
house.
The feed system: The procedure for cleaning the feed system is as follows:
• Empty, wash and disinfect all feeding equipment i.e. feed bins, track, chain, hanging
feeders.
• Empty bulk bins and connecting pipes and brush out where possible. Clean out and
seal all openings.
• Fumigate wherever possible.
Repairs and maintenance

A clean, empty house provides the ideal opportunity for structural repairs and
maintenance to be completed. Once the house is empty, pay attention to the following
tasks:
• Repair cracks in the floor with concrete/cement.
• Repair pointing (mortar joints) and cement rendering on wall structures.
• Repair or replace damaged walls, curtains and ceilings.
• Carry out painting or whitewashing where required.
• Ensure that all doors shut tightly.
Disinfection
Disinfection should not take place until the whole building (including the external
Section 9
area) is thoroughly cleaned and all repairs are complete. Disinfectants are ineffective
in the presence of dirt and organic matter.
Disinfectants, which are approved by regulatory agencies for use against specific
poultry pathogens of both bacterial and viral origin, are most likely to be effective.
Manufacturers’ instructions must be followed at all times.

147
Disinfectant should be applied using either a pressure-washer or a backpack sprayer. Foam

disinfectants allow greater contact time increasing the efficiency of disinfection. Heating houses
to high temperatures after sealing can enhance disinfection.
Most disinfectants have no effect against sporulated coccidial oocysts. Where selective coccidial
treatments are required, compounds producing ammonia should be used by suitably trained
staff. These are applied to all clean internal surfaces and will be effective even after a short
contact period of a few hours.
Formalin fumigation
Where formalin fumigation is permitted, fumigation should be undertaken as soon as possible
after disinfection has been completed. Surfaces should be damp and the houses warmed to a
minimum of 21oC. Fumigation is ineffective at lower temperatures and at relative humidities of
less than 65%.
Doors, fans, ventilation grills and windows must be sealed. Manufacturers’ instructions
concerning the use of fumigants must be followed. After fumigation, the house must remain
sealed for 24 hours with NO ENTRY signs clearly displayed. The house must be thoroughly
ventilated before anyone enters.
After clean litter has been spread, all the fumigation procedures described above should be
repeated.
Fumigation is hazardous to animals and humans and is not permitted in all countries. Where it
is permitted it must be conducted by trained personnel following local safety legislation
and guidelines. Personal welfare, and health and safety guidelines must also be followed, and
protective clothing ( i.e. respirators, eye shields and gloves) must be worn. At least 2 people must
be present in case of emergency.
In some situations, it may be necessary to use floor treatments as well. Some common floor
treatments, their doses and indications, are given in Table 26.
Table 26: Common floor treatments for poultry houses.

Application Rate
Compound Purpose
kg/m2
Boric acid As necessary Kills darkling beetles
Salt (NaCl) 0.25 Reduction of clostridium counts
Sulphur powder 0.01 Lowers pH

Lime (calcium
As necessary Disinfection
oxide/hydroxide)
Cleaning external areas

It is vital that external areas are also cleaned thoroughly. Ideally, poultry houses should be
surrounded by an area of concrete or gravel, 1-3 m in width. Where this does not exist, the area
around the house must:
• Be free of vegetation.
• Be free of unused machinery/equipment.
• Have an even, level surface.
• Be well drained and free of any standing water.
Particular attention should be paid to cleaning and disinfection of the following areas:
• Under ventilator and extractor fans.
• Under the feed bins.
• Access routes.
• Door surrounds.

148
All concrete areas should be washed and disinfected as thoroughly as the inside of the
building.
Evaluation of farm cleaning and disinfection efficiency

It is essential to monitor the efficiency and cost of cleaning out and disinfection. The
effectiveness of cleaning is commonly evaluated by completing Salmonella isolations,
total viable bacterial counts (TVC) may also be useful. Monitoring trends in Salmonella
/TVC’s will allow continuous improvement in farm hygiene, and comparisons of
different cleaning and disinfection methods to be made.
When disinfection has been carried out effectively, the sampling procedure should
not isolate any Salmonella species. For a detailed description of where to sample, and
recommendations of how many samples to take, please see your Aviagen veterinarian.
Key points
• A clear and implemented program of hygiene management should be in place for
site biosecurity, and site cleaning and disinfection.
• Adequate biosecurity should prevent disease from entering the farm via both
humans and animals.
• Site cleaning must cover both the interior and exterior of the house, all equipment
and external house areas as well as the feeding and drinking systems.
• Reduce pathogen carryover by allowing adequate downtime between flocks for
cleaning.
• Appropriate planning and evaluation of the cleaning and disinfection procedures
must be in place.
Water Quality
Water should be clear with no organic or suspended matter. It should be monitored
to ensure purity and freedom from pathogens. Specifically, water should be free from
Pseudomonas species and Escherichia coli. There should be no more than one coliform/
ml in any one sample and consecutive water samples must not contain coliforms in
more than 5% of samples taken.
Water quality criteria for poultry are given in Table 27. If water comes from a main
supply there are usually less water quality issues. Water from wells however, may have
excessive nitrate levels and high bacterial counts, due to run-off from fertilized fields.
Where bacterial counts are high, the cause should be established and rectified as soon
as possible. Chlorination to give between 3 and 5 ppm free chlorine at the drinker level
is usually effective in controlling bacteria but this is dependent on the type of chlorine
component used.
Ultraviolet light (applied at the point of entry to the house) can also be used to disinfect
water. Manufacturers’ guidelines should be followed in establishing this procedure.
Hard water or water with high levels of iron (>3 mg/L) can cause blockages in drinker
valves and pipes. Sediment will also block pipes and, where this is a problem, water
should be filtered using a 40-50 micron (µm) filter. Water containing high levels of iron
can support bacterial growth, and should not be used to wash or sanitize eggs.
Section 9
A total water quality test should be done at least once a year, and more often if there
are perceived water quality issues or performance problems. After house cleaning and
prior to chick delivery, water should be sampled for bacterial contamination at the
source, the storage tank and the drinker points.

149
Table 27: Water quality criteria for poultry

Criteria Concentration (ppm) Comments
Total Dissolved 0-1000 Good
Solids (TDS) 1000-3000 Satisfactory: Wet droppings may result at the upper limit
Poor: Wet droppings, reduced water intake, poor growth and

3000-5000
increased mortality
>5000 Unsatisfactory
Hardness <100 Soft Good: No problems

Satisfactory: No problem for poultry but can interfere with
>100 Hard effectiveness of soap and many disinfectants and medications
administered via water
pH <6 Poor: Performance problem, corrosion of water system
6.0-6.4 Poor: Potential problems
6.5-8.5 Satisfactory: Recommended for poultry
>8.6 Unsatisfactory
Sulphates 50-200 Satisfactory: May have a laxative effect if Na or Mg >50ppm
200-250 Maximum desirable level
250-500 May have a laxative effect
Poor: Laxative effect but birds may adjust, may interfere with copper
500-1000
absorption, additive laxative effect with chlorides
Unsatisfactory: Increases water intake and wet droppings, health
>1000
hazard for the young birds
Satisfactory: Highest desirable level, levels as low as 14ppm may
Chloride 250
cause problems if sodium is higher than 50ppm
500 Maximum desirable level
Unsatisfactory: Laxative effect, wet droppings, reduces feed intake,

>500
increases water intake
Potassium <300 Good: No problems
>300 Satisfactory: Depends upon the alkalinity and pH
Satisfactory: If sulphate level >50ppm magnesium sulphate

Magnesium 50-125
(laxative) will form
>125 Laxative effect with intestinal irritation
350 Maximum
Nitrate Nitrogen 10 Maximum (sometimes levels of 3 mg/L will affect performance)
Nitrates trace Satisfactory
Unsatisfactory: Health hazard (indicates organic material fecal

>trace
contamination)
Iron <0.3 Satisfactory
Unsatisfactory: Growth of iron bacteria (clogs water system and bad

>0.3
odor)
Fluoride 2 Maximum
>40 Unsatisfactory: Causes soft bones
Bacterial Coliforms 0 cfu/ml Ideal: Levels above indicates fecal contaminations
Calcium 600 Maximum level
Satisfactory: Generally no problem, however may cause loose

Sodium 50-300
droppings if sulphates >50ppm or if chloride >14ppm
Note: 1 ppm approximates to 1 mg.

150
Key pointS
• Good water quality is essential for bird health and welfare.
• Water quality should be routinely tested for bacterial and mineral contamination,
and necessary corrective action taken based on the test results.
Dead Bird Disposal

Disposal pits
• Burying in pits is one of the traditional methods of dead bird disposal but is now
illegal in many countries.
• Advantages: Disposal pits are inexpensive to dig and tend to produce a low amount
of odor.
• Disadvantages: Disposal pits can be a reservoir for diseases and they require
adequate drainage.
• Ground water contamination is also a concern.
Incineration
• Advantages: Incineration does not contaminate ground water or produce cross

contamination with other birds when grounds are properly maintained. There is
little by-product to remove from the farm (ash).
• Disadvantages: This method of disposal tends to be more expensive and may
produce air pollution. In many areas air pollution regulations have been established
limiting incinerator use.
• If incinerators are used, be sure there is sufficient capacity for future farm needs.
• When operating, be sure carcasses are completely burned to a white ash.
Composting
• Composting has become one of the preferred alternatives for on-farm disposal in
some countries.
• Advantages: It is economical and if designed and managed properly, will not
contaminate the ground water or air.
Rendering
• In some countries, transporting dead birds to a rendering plant is the only approved
method of dead bird disposal.
• Advantages: There is no on-farm disposal of dead birds, it requires minimal capital
investment, and produces minimal environmental contamination. The product
from dead birds can be recycled or converted into material, including a feed
ingredient for other appropriate livestock.
• Disadvantages: It requires freezer units to keep the birds from decomposing during
storage. It also requires intense biosecurity measures to prevent the transportation
personnel from spreading diseases from the rendering plant or other farms to your
farm.
Key point
Section 9
• Dead birds should be disposed of in a manner that avoids contamination of the

environment, prevents cross contamination with other poultry, is not a nuisance
to neighbors and is in accordance with local legislation.

151
Health Management
Disease control
Good management practices and high standards of biosecurity will prevent many poultry
diseases. One of the first signs of a disease challenge is a decrease in water or feed intake (i.e.
increased feed clean-up time). It is, therefore, good management practice to keep daily records
of feed and water consumption. If a problem is suspected, immediate action should be taken by
sending birds for post mortem examination and contacting the flock veterinary adviser. Early
appropriate treatment of a disease incident may minimize the adverse effects on the birds’
health, welfare, and reproductive performance and also minimize the effects on the health,
welfare, and quality of the progeny.
Records are an important means of providing objective data for the investigation of flock
problems. Vaccinations, batch numbers, medications, observations, and disease investigation
results should all be recorded in flock diaries.
Vaccination
Vaccination provides the bird with exposure to a form of the infectious organism (antigen) to
promote a good immunological response. This will actively protect the bird from subsequent field
challenge and/or provide passive protection, via maternally derived antibody, to the progeny.
Vaccination programs
Common diseases, including Mareks Disease (MDV), Newcastle Disease (ND), Avian
Encephalomyelitis (AE) , Infectious Bronchitis (IB), Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD) (i.e.
Gumboro Disease), should be routinely considered when a vaccination program is prepared.
However, vaccination requirements will vary depending on local challenges, vaccine availability
and local regulations. A suitable program should be devised by local flock veterinary advisers,
who will use their detailed knowledge of the disease prevalence and intensity in a specific
country, area or site.
Dyes, vaccine titres, and the elimination of clinical signs of disease can be used to assess the
effectiveness of vaccines and vaccine delivery. It should be noted that titres are not always
correlated with protection but are still useful when trying to evaluate the vaccination program.
Excessive vaccination may lead to poor titres and/or coefficient of variation (CVs) of titres.
Overly aggressive vaccination programs can also be stressful on growing chickens especially
from 10-15 weeks of age (so try to minimize bird handlings when possible). The field situation
should also be considered in evaluating the effectiveness of a vaccination program. Hygiene
and maintenance of vaccination equipment is important and it is important to follow vaccine
manufacturers instructions on methods of administration to get optimum results.
Vaccination can help prevent disease but is not a direct replacement for good biosecurity.
Protection against each individual disease should be assessed when devising a suitable control
strategy. For instance, ‘all in/all out’ policies provide good protection against Fowl Coryza
and Infectious Laryngotracheitis (ILT), so that vaccination is unnecessary in some instances.
The vaccines used in the vaccination program should be limited to those which are absolutely
necessary; this will reduce costs, be less stressful, and provide greater opportunity to maximize
the overall vaccine response. Vaccines should be obtained from reputable manufacturers only.
Types of vaccine
Vaccines for poultry are in 2 basic forms, killed or live. In some vaccination programs, they may
be combined to promote maximum immunological response. Each type of vaccine has specific
uses and advantages.
Killed Vaccines: These are composed of inactivated organisms (antigens), usually combined with
an oil emulsion or aluminium hydroxide adjuvant. The adjuvant helps increase the response to
an antigen by the bird’s immune system over a longer period of time. Killed vaccines may contain
multiple inactivated antigens to several poultry diseases. Killed vaccines are administered to
individual birds by injection either subcutaneously or intramuscularly.

152
Live Vaccines: These consist of infectious organisms of the actual poultry disease.
However, the organisms will have been substantially modified (attenuated) so that
when they multiply within the bird they do not cause disease but do promote an
immune response. Some vaccines are exceptional in that they are not attenuated
and therefore require care before introduction into a vaccination program (e.g. some
Coccidiosis vaccines).
In principle, when several live vaccinations are given for a specific disease, the most
attenuated form of the vaccine is normally given first, followed by a less attenuated
form where available. This principle is commonly utilized for ND live vaccination when
pathogenic field challenge is anticipated.
Attenuated live vaccines are usually administered to the flock via drinking water, spray,
and eye drop application or wing-web application. Occasionally live vaccinations are
given by injection (e.g. Mareks Disease vaccine.)
Non-attenuated live vaccines are used in poultry vaccination programs. They are
administered either via a route along which the pathogen would not normally enter
(e.g. the wing web route with Fowl Pox) or by exposure to the vaccine during the
period when disease does not occur (e.g. Chicken anaemia virus, CAV, exposure to
birds during rearing).
Live bacterial vaccines for Salmonella and Mycoplasma vaccines are now available and
may have a place in some production systems. Some competitive exclusion products
(products consisting of healthy bacteria normally found in the gastrointestinal
tract, which help to minimize colonization of undesirable harmful bacteria such as
Salmonella) can also have a place in protecting parent stock from Salmonella and
possibly other infections early in life, or after antibiotic treatment.
Combined live and killed vaccinations

The most effective method of achieving high and uniform levels of antibody to a disease
is by the use of one or more live vaccines containing the specific antigen, followed by
injection of the killed antigen. The live vaccines ‘prime’ the bird’s immune system and
facilitate a very good antibody response when the killed antigen is presented. This
type of vaccination program is used routinely for many diseases such as IB (Infectious
bronchitis), IBD, Reovirus (Reo) and ND. It ensures active protection of the bird and
provision of high and uniform levels of maternally derived antibody. This allows passive
protection of the progeny.
Specific vaccination programs

Vaccination programs must be designed according to local disease challenges and
maternal antibody requirements in broilers. A suitable vaccination program should be
established by the local veterinarian responsible for the health status of the operation.
Veterinarians are available to provide suggestions or supportive information.
Marek’s Disease virus

All broiler parent stock should receive Marek's Disease vaccine at day-old or ‘In ovo’ at
the hatchery. There are 3 different serotypes of live Marek’s vaccine available. Which
vaccine(s) should be administered is dependent on the level of challenge in an area.
The 2 most common serotypes are HVT (Turkey Herpes Virus) which is a serotype 3
and Rispen’s which is a serotype 1. Rispen’s is usually used in any high challenge areas,
often in combination with other MDV vaccine serotypes. Combinations of different
Section 9
Marek’s serotypes are often given for best protection depending on the challenge in
the area the birds are to be placed.

153
Coccidiosis
Control of coccidiosis is important in broiler breeders. Vaccination of parent stock with live
coccidiosis vaccines at the hatchery is now the method of choice for controlling this condition. In
some cases birds are vaccinated on farm. Care should be taken to prevent subsequent exposure
of the flock to substances with anticoccidial activity (except where recommended by the vaccine
manufacturer). Post-vaccination management ensuring oocyst sporulation and re-infection is
necessary to improve vaccine efficiency. Birds should be monitored by routine necropsies at
specific ages (depending on the vaccine) to monitor for excessive reaction. Controlling vaccine
reactions through good management and vaccine application is very important for good bird
performance. Coccidosis can also be controlled by the use of in-feed anticoccidial drugs.
Worm (helminth) control

It is important to monitor and control the internal worm burden (Helminth parasites) to which
birds are exposed. A common program is for birds to receive 2 doses of an anthelmintic drug
during the rearing period where required. Monitoring the efficiency of the control program
through routine post mortem examination of birds can determine the necessity for an additional
anthelmintic treatment at approximately 154 days (22 weeks) of age. Many anthelmintics should
not be used when birds are in production as they might have negative effects on egg production
and/or egg quality and fertility.
Salmonella and feed hygiene

Salmonella infection through contaminated feed represents a major threat to bird health. The
risk of contaminated feed can be minimized by thermal processing of the feed and/or addition of
feed additives with antimicrobial activity. Monitoring of raw materials will provide information
about the degree of challenge coming through the ingredients into the diets.
Raw materials of animal origin and processed vegetable proteins are at high risk of salmonella
contamination and their source and use in feeds for parent stock should be considered carefully.
Thermal processing of feed (e.g. conditioning, extending, pelleting) is used frequently to reduce
bacterial contamination. An ideal goal is less than 10 enterobacteriaceae per gram of feed.
Antibiotics
Antibiotic administration must be for therapeutic use only, as a tool to treat infections, avoid
pain and suffering, and preserve the welfare of the flocks. Antibiotics should be used only under
the direct supervision of a veterinarian and records of all prescriptions should be kept.
Key points
• Good management and biosecurity will prevent many poultry diseases.
• Monitor feed and water intake for the first signs of a disease challenge.
• Respond promptly to any signs of a disease challenge by completing post-mortem
examinations and contacting the local veterinarian.
• Vaccination alone cannot protect flocks against overwhelming disease challenges and
poor management.
• Vaccination is most effective when disease challenges are minimized through well
designed biosecurity and management programs.
• Vaccination should be based on local disease challenges and availability of vaccine.
• Monitor and control worm burden.
• Salmonella infection via feed is a threat to bird health. Heat treatment and monitoring of
raw materials will minimize the risk of contamination.
• Only use antibiotics to treat disease and with veterinary supervision.
• Keep records and monitor flock health.

154
Health Monitoring Programs

Health monitoring programs have 2 purposes:
1. To confirm freedom from specific pathogens that can adversely affect the health, welfare, and
performance of parent stock and the health, welfare, and quality of the progeny (broilers).
2. To identify the presence of disease at an early stage so that corrective measures can be
implemented to minimize adverse effects either to the flock or the progeny.
Salmonella
Salmonella pullorum and S. gallinarum are strains which are specific to poultry. Control is
monitored by detecting the presence of specific antibodies in blood using an agglutination test.
This can be carried out either on the farm using whole blood or in the laboratory using serum.
Many countries have official programs for the control and eradication of both S. pullorum and S.
gallinarum. Both commercial and government supplies of specific antigen are available in many
countries. The absence of these infections can also be monitored by microbiological surveys of
the progeny and hatcheries.
The presence of Salmonellae is usually detected by bacteriological examination of the bird,

the environment and the product as it proceeds through the hatchery. Many Salmonellae can
affect both birds and humans (Zoonoses). S. Enteritidis and S. typhimurium are of particular
importance and can readily be transmitted vertically to the broiler progeny. However, specific
commercial ELISA tests for S. Enteritidis and S. typhimurium are available and can be used in
a similar manner to the agglutination test for S. pullorum and S. gallinarum, to detect specific
antibody in serum. Cull birds, cloacal swabs, fresh caecal droppings, litter, drag swabs/shoe
covers, and dust samples have all been used to monitor flocks for the presence of Salmonellae.
Hatchery samples include dead-in-shell, cull chicks, hatcher tray papers (where available), chick
box liners, and hatchery fluff. Samples can be pooled, usually in tens, to facilitate practical
processing through the laboratory. Many countries have official programs that include detailed
culture methods and schedules for Salmonellae.
Mycoplasmosis
Blood samples taken from parent flocks should be monitored routinely for both Mycoplasma
gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae using the rapid serum agglutination test (RSAT) or
specific, single or combined commercial ELISA tests. Confirmation can be conducted by PCR
and/or culture. It should be noted that it is possible to get some false positive results with RSAT
and Elisa tests, especially when monitoring day-old chicks.
Other diseases
Serological monitoring for the presence of other diseases can be carried out routinely or as is
more common, following clinical signs and/or a drop in production. Serological monitoring for
diagnostic purposes can include those diseases to which flocks have been previously vaccinated,
e.g. ND, IB. Field challenge is suggested when a higher antibody response than normal has
occurred in the flock.
Sampling for the presence of disease
Monitoring for most diseases in a population should be designed to detect a prevalence of at

least 5%, with a 95% confidence. For those population sizes which normally apply to broiler
parent flocks (i.e. >500 birds) approximately 60 samples should be taken when monitoring
Section 9
each flock. Traditionally, a higher level of monitoring is carried out prior to the onset of egg
production at 140-154 days (20-22 weeks) of age, especially for Mycoplasmas and Salmonellae
in parent flocks. Usually 10% or a minimum of 100 samples are tested at this critical time. The
frequency of testing will vary with the individual disease and the requirements of local trading.

155
Trade between countries
Certification of freedom from specific avian pathogens is required when products from a flock,
either eggs or day-old chicks, are traded between countries. The specific health requirements
will vary from country to country.
Monitoring the effectiveness of vaccination programs
Vaccination programs provide both active protection to the bird and passive protection to the
progeny by the provision of high, uniform levels of maternally derived antibody. Monitoring
of vaccination programs is important and can be achieved by measuring the level of specific
antibody in individual birds and by assessing the range of response in the number of birds
sampled. Usually, a minimum of 20 blood samples per group are used and various quantitative
serological tests have been used to quantify antibody response in vaccinated flocks. These
tests include the haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test, agar gel diffusion (AGD) test, or the
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbant Assay (ELISA) test. The ELISA test, is considered to be specific,
sensitive and repeatable, and can be automated to enhance the efficiency of serological testing
in a laboratory.
Serological evaluation should be scheduled around the vaccination program so a local database
is developed. If changes occur in the vaccination program the monitoring program might also
need to be changed accordingly. Each operation must develop its own baseline to facilitate
interpretation of results.
Routine testing after killed vaccination (around point of lay) can allow maternal antibody to
be predicted for the total period of lay. Cross-reactions in mycoplasma serology are commonly
seen in birds for a 2-week period after the use of killed vaccines, so sampling around this time
should be avoided.
Documentation and records
Records should be maintained for auditing and traceability. They should be clear, legible, and
detailed enough to allow investigation into possible causes of poor quality, poor performance,
morbidity, and mortality. Records may also be used as checklist by staff to ensure tasks are
carried out.
Key points
• The effectiveness of the health and biosecurity programs in place must be routinely
monitored and clear and detailed records must be in place.
• Appropriate corrective action must be taken if health monitoring procedures are found
to be inadequate.

156
Appendices
Appendices
Appendix 1: Records
Record keeping, and data analysis and interpretation, are an essential aid to effective
management. Record keeping should be used in conjunction with target performance
parameters. Records required to be kept are as follows:
REARING
Breed
Source flock
Hatch date
Number of birds housed (male and female)
Floor area and stocking density
Feeder space per bird
Drinker space per bird
Feed/bird – daily, weekly and cumulative
Mortality and culls – daily, weekly and cumulative
Body weights, CV% and age of recording (male and female ) – daily/weekly
External and internal temperatures - minimum and maximum and operating (internal only)
Water consumption – daily
Water:feed ratio
Sexing errors
LAYING
Breed
Source flock
Hatch date/date of housing
Number of birds housed (male and female)
Floor area and stocking density
Mating ratio
Eggs produced - daily, weekly, cumulative per bird
Hatching egg number - daily, weekly, cumulative
Floor eggs – daily, weekly and cumulative
Feed - daily and cumulative
Clean-up time
Body weights (male and female) – daily/weekly
Average egg weight - daily and weekly
Egg Mass - daily and weekly
Mortality and culls - daily, weekly and cumulative
Hatchability
Fertility
External and internal temperatures - minimum and maximum and operating (internal only)
Water consumption – daily
Water:feed ratio
Humidity
Hours of light
TREATMENTS AND SIGNIFICANT EVENTS

Lighting program
Feed deliveries
Appendices
Vaccination - date, dosage and batch number

Medications - date, dosage and veterinary prescription
Disease - type, date and number of birds affected
Veterinary consultations - date and recommendations
Cleaning and disinfection – materials and methods
Bacterial counts after cleaning out (TVC)
Incidents - equipment malfunction etc.

157
Appendices
TARGET PARAMETERS
Weekly body weight - male and female
Egg production - number and weight
Hatching egg production
Hatchability and fertility
Weekly egg weight and egg mass
RECORDING SYSTEM
All essential records should be recorded in an appropriate recording system, which allows easy
data recording, analysis and interpretation. Comprehensive data recording systems are freely
available from Aviagen.


158
Appendices
Appendix 2: Useful Management Information

Stocking Densities
Rearing 0-140 Days (0-20 Weeks)
Males Females
Birds/m2 Birds/m2
3-4 4-7
Production 140-448 Days (20-64 Weeks)
Males and Females

Birds/m2
3.5 - 5.5
FEEDER SPACE PER BIRD
Males Track Pan

Age cm cm
0-35 days (0-5 weeks) 5 5
36-70 days (5-10 weeks) 10 9
71-140 days (10-20 weeks) - depletion 15 11
141 days-depletion (20 weeks –depletion) 20 13
Females Track Pan

Age cm cm
0-35 days (0-5 weeks) 5 5
36-70 days (5-10 weeks) 10 8
71 days-depletion (10 weeks-depletion) 15 10
DRINKER SPACE
Rearing Period Production Period

(0-15 Weeks) (16 Weeks to Depletion)
Automatic circular
1.5 cm/bird 2.5 cm/bird
or trough drinkers
Nipples One/8-12 birds One/6-10 birds

Appendices
Cups One/20-30 birds One/15-20 birds

159
Appendices
A GUIDE TO TYPICAL MATING RATIOS
Number of Males/100 Females

Age
(16 Weeks to Depletion)
Days Weeks
154-168 22-24 9.50-10.00
168-210 24-30 9.00-10.00
210-245 30-35 8.50-9.75
245-280 35-40 8.00-9.50
280-350 40-50 7.50-9.25
350-depletion 50-depletion 7.00-9.00
APPROXIMATE MINIMUM VENTILATION RATES PER BIRD
Cubic Meter Per Hour Cubic Feet Per Minute

Age
(CHM per Bird) (CFM per Bird)
1-8 weeks 0.16 0.10
9-15 weeks 0.42 00.25
16 – 35 weeks 0.59 0.35
36 weeks - depletion 0.76 0.45
WATER TO FEED INTAKE RATIO
1.6 – 1.8 liters of water per kg of feed at 21oC

160
Appendices
Appendix 3: Conversion Tables

Length
1 meter (m) = 3.281 feet (ft)

1 foot (ft) = 0.305 meter (m)
1 centimeter (cm) = 0.394 inch (in)
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters (cm)
Area
1 square meter (m2) = 10.76 square feet (ft2)

1 square foot (ft2) = 0.093 square meter (m2)
Volume
1 liter (L) = 0.22 gallon (gal) or 0.264 US gallons (gal US)

1 imperial gallon (gal) = 4.54 liters (L)
1 US gallon (gal US) = 3.79 liters (L)
1 imperial gallon (gal) = 1.2 US gallons (gal US)
1 cubic meter (m3) = 35.31 cubic feet (ft3)
1 cubic foot (ft3) = 0.028 cubic meter (m3)
weight
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.205 pounds (lb)

1 pound (lb) = 0.454 kilogram (kg)
1 gram (g) = 0.035 ounce (oz)
1 ounce (oz) = 28.35 grams (g)
Energy
1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 Joules (J)

1 Joule (J) = 0.239 calories (cal)
1 kilocalorie per kilogram (kcal/kg) = 4.184 Megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg)
1 Megajoule per kilogram (MJ/kg) = 108 calories per pound (cal/lb)
1 Joule (J) = 0.735 foot-pound (ft-lb)
1 foot-pound (ft-lb) = 1.36 Joules (J)
1 Joule (J) = 0.00095 British Thermal Unit (BTU)
1 British Thermal Unit (BTU) = 1055 Joules (J)
Appendices
1 kilowatt hour (kW-h) = 3412.1 British Thermal Unit (BTU)

1 British Thermal Unit (BTU) = 0.00029 kilowatt hour (kW-h)

161
Appendices
pressure
1 pound per square inch (psi) = 6895 Newtons per square meter (N/m2) or Pascals (Pa)
1 pound per square inch (psi) = 0.06895 bar
1 bar = 14.504 pounds per square inch (psi)
= 104 Newtons per square meter (N/m2) or Pascals (Pa)
1 bar
= 100 kilopascals (kPa)
1 Newton per square meter (N/m2) or
= 0.000145 pound per square inch (lb/in2)
Pascal (Pa)
stocking density
1 square foot per bird (ft2/bird) = 10.76 birds per square meter (bird/m2)
10 birds per square meter (bird/m ) 2
= 1.08 square feet per bird (ft2/bird)
1 kilogram per square meter (kg/m2) = 0.205 pound per square foot (lb/ft2)
1 pound per square foot (lb/ft2) = 4.88 kilograms per square meter (kg/m2)
temperature
Temperature (°C) = 5/9 x (Temperature °F - 32)

Temperature (°F) = 32 + (9/5 x Temperature °C)
temperature conversion chart

°C °F
0 32.0
2 35.6
4 39.2
6 42.8
8 46.4
10 50.0
12 53.6
14 57.2
16 60.8
18 64.4
20 68.0
22 71.6
24 75.2
26 78.8
28 82.4
30 46.0
32 89.6
34 93.2
36 96.8
38 100.4
40 104.0

162
Appendices
Operating Temperature
Operating temperature is defined as the minimum house temperature plus 2/3 of the difference
between minimum and maximum house temperatures. It is important where there are
significant diurnal temperature fluctuations.
e.g. Minimum house temperature = 16oC

Maximum house temperature = 28oC
Operating temperature = ([28-16] x 2/3) + 16 = 24oC
ventilation
1 cubic foot per minute (ft3/min) = 1.699 cubic meters per hour (m3/hour)
1 cubic meter per hour (m3/hour) = 0.589 cubic foot per minute (ft3/min)
INSULATION
U value describes how well a building material conducts heat and is measured in Watts per
square kilometer per degree centigrade (W/km2/°C).
R value rates the insulative properties of building materials, the higher the R value the better the
insulation. It is measured in km2/W (or ft2/oF/BTU).
insulation
1 square foot per degree Farenheit per

= 0.176 square kilometers per Watt (km2/W)
British Thermal Unit (ft2/oF/BTU)
= 5.674 square foot per degree Farenheit per
1 square kilometers per Watt (km2/W)
British Thermal Unit (ft2/oF/BTU)
light
1 foot candle = 10.76 lux

1 lux = 0.093 foot candles
Appendices

163
Appendices
Appendix 4: Example of Manual

Calculations for Grading
Figure 120 represents a house which has been split into 5 pens. The pre-grading population
has been split between 4 pens, and 1 pen has been left empty from placement for the purpose
of grading. The flock size is 8,400 birds and 2,100 birds are housed in each populated pen.
Figure 120: Pre-grade house set up with adjustable penning.

Pen left empty

at chick
placement for
grading at
28 days.
From each pen/population a random sample of birds should be caught and weighed. All birds
caught in the catching pen need to be weighed to avoid selective weighing, but as a minimum
the weights of 2% of the pen/population or 50 birds whichever is greater need to be recorded.
In this example a total of 229 birds have been weighed.
All sample weights should be recorded on a body weight recording chart (Figure 121).

164
Appendices
Figure 121: Manual body weight recording chart for a 3-way grade.
Bodyweight Recording Chart
FARM BREED HOUSE PEN SEX AGE DATE
2 Female 28 Mar-15
NUMBER WEIGHED AVERAGE WEIGHT TARGET WEIGHT % Coefficient of variation
229 465 g 465
455 g (1.03 lbs) 46513.7
g (1.03 lbs)
WEIGHT WEIGHT NUMBER OF BIRDS

POUNDS GRAMMES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
0.00 00
0.04 20
0.09 40
0.13 60
0.18 80
0.22 100
0.26 120
0.31 140
0.35 160
0.40 180
0.44 200
0.49 220
0.53 240
0.57 260
0.62 280
0.66 300 x x x x x
0.71 320 x x x x x x x x x
0.75 340 x x x x x x x x x
0.79 360 x x x x x x x
0.84 380 x x x x x x x x x x
0.88 400 x x x x x x x x x x x x
0.93 420 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
0.97 440 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
1.01 460 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
1.06 480 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
1.10 500 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
1.15 520 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
1.19 540 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
1.23 560 x x x x x x x x x x
1.28 580 x x x x x x x x x
1.32 600 x x x x x x x x x
1.37 620 x x x x
1.41 640
1.46 660
1.50 680
1.54 700
1.59 720
1.63 740
1.68 760
1.72 780
1.76 800
1.81 820
1.85 840
1.90 860
1.94 880
Metric
Age 28
Target Weight 450 g
Average Weight 465 g
Total Birds Weighed 229
Body Weight Range 230 g
Table 28: F value for different sample sizes to be used in calculation of CV%
Sample Size F Value Sample Size F Value

10 3.08 60 4.64
15 3.54 65 4.70
20 3.73 70 4.76
25 3.94 75 4.81
30 4.09 80 4.87
35 4.20 85 4.90
Appendices
40 4.30 90 4.94
45 4.40 95 4.98
50 4.50 100 5.02
55 4.57 >150 5.03

165
Appendices
From the sample, body weights CV% for the total population can then be calculated as:
weight range* X 100

CV% =
average body weight X ‘F’ value
320 x 100
CV% = = 13.7
465 x 5.03
*Weight range is defined as the difference in weight between the lightest and heaviest birds.
The CV% is above 12 so a 3-way grade is required and the flock needs to be split in to 3
populations; light, normal and heavy. The approximate percentage of birds required in each of
the 3 populations is 29% light birds, 57% normal and 14% heavy birds.
To determine the cut-off point for the lightest birds, (i.e. the weight below which birds are
considered to be light) the following steps need to be taken;
1. The light population will be approximately 29% of the entire flock. Twenty-nine percent of
the total number of birds weighed is 66 (29% of 229).
2. The lightest 66 birds are in the weight range of 300 to 439 g, shaded yellow in Figure 121.
This process needs to be repeated for normal and heavy birds. Table 29 gives the cut off weights
for each of the 3 populations (light, normal and heavy) based on the information given in Figure
121.
Figure 121.
Number of Birds
% of Birds to be Chart
for Determining Weight Range
Category Included in Grading Reference
Cut-off Weight (% g
Category Color
x 229)
Light 29 66 300-439 yellow
Normal 57 131 440-559 blue
Heavy 14 32 560-629 green
should be weighed again and the light birds (any bird 439 g in weight or below) and heavy birds
(any bird 560 g in weight or above) removed and graded into another pen. As there is now
significant variation in the size of each graded population (29% light birds, 57% normal and 14%
heavy birds), pen sizes will need to be adjusted to accommodate the new population numbers
to equalize stocking density, feeder space, and drinker space (Figure 122).

166
Appendices
Figure 122: Graded plan based on the body weight results from the body weight recording chart
given in Figure 121.
After grading a sample of birds should be reweighed from each population/pen (a minimum
of 2% or 50 birds whichever is greater) and the average weight, CV% and number of birds
established (Figure 123). The CV% for the graded populations will have been improved, but the
overall flock CV% remain the same (Figure 123).

The body weights from the graded populations should be plotted against target on a body
weight target chart and the profile re-drawn where necessary to bring birds back onto target by
9 weeks (63 days) of age. Any adjustment in feed levels should be based on the deviation from
target body weight.

CV% = 6.9 CV% = 5.6 CV% = 5.4 CV% = 5.8 CV% = 3.0

Flock CV% = 13.5
Appendices

167
Appendices
Appendix 5: Calculations for Ventilation

Rates
Minimum Ventilation Calculation for Fan Timer Settings
Example (metric)
The assumptions on which this example calculation is based are given below. These will vary
for individual circumstances.
Bird age = 20 weeks

Number of birds = 10,000
Minimum ventilation fan = 1 x 91 cm
Fan capacity (cubic meters per hour or cmh) = 15,300 m³/hr
Using a 5 minute cycle timer
Step 1: Calculate the total minimum ventilation rate required for the house (cubic meters per
hour; cmh):
Ventilation Rate = (minimum ventilation per bird) x (number of birds)

= (0.59 cmh per bird) x (10,000 birds)
= 5,900 cmh
Step 2: Calculate the percentage time the fans need to be running for:
Percentage time = (total ventilation needed) ÷ (total capacity of fans used)

= (5,900 cmh) ÷ (15,300 cmh)
= 0.39 or 39%
Therefore fans need to be run for 39% of the cycle time.
Step 3: Assuming a 5 minute timer is used, the run time required would then be 39% of 5 minutes
or 117 seconds (1 minute 57 seconds).

168
Appendices
Calculation of number of fans required for tunnel ventilation

Example calculation (metric)
R
Assumptions:
Bird age = 20 weeks
House width (W) = 12 m H

House height (H) = 2.4 m
Roof height (R) = 1.5 m
W
Design air speed (meters per second or m/s) = 2.03 m/s (rearing) & 2.54 m/s (production)
Fan capacity at 0.15 inches of water column (cubic meters per hour or cmh) = 35,000 cmh
Conversion of seconds to hours = 3,600
Cross section area = (0.5 x W x R) + (W x H)
Step 1: Determine the fan capacity required for a given air speed (cubic meter per hour; cmh):
Required fan capacity = (design air speed) x (cross section area) x (3,600)
Cross section area = (0.5 x 12 m x 1.5 m) + (12 m x 2.4 m) = 37.8 m²
Required fan capacity = (2.54 m/s) x (37.8 m²) x (3,600)

= 345,643 cmh
Step 2: Determine the number of fans required:
Number of fans = (required fan capacity) ÷ (fan operating capacity)

= (345,643 cmh) ÷ (35,000 cmh)
= 9.9 (10) fans
Appendices

169
Appendices
Calculation for evaporative cooling cool pad area

Example calculation (metric)
Assumptions:
Bird age = 20 weeks
Pad air speed (meters per second or m/s) = 1.91 m/s (150 mm pad)
The house has ten 127 cm fans with a capacity of 35,000 cubic meters per hour (cmh)
Conversion of seconds to hours = 3,600
Step 1: Determine cooling pad area:
Cooling pad area = (tunnel fan capacity [cmh]) ÷ (pad air speed [m/s] x 3600)
= (10 x 35,000 cmh) ÷ (6876 m/h)
= 50.9 m²

170
Appendices
Appendix 6: Dew Point or Condensation Table

When eggs are moved from a cold environment in to warmer, more humid conditions, they may sweat.
The following table gives the shell temperature that will result in condensation when moving eggs into
a wide variety of temperatures and humidities. To avoid condensation the egg shell temperature needs
to be higher than that given in the table.
Eggs may sweat when they are transported from a cold egg store on the farm to a warm hatchery or
from a cold egg store in the hatchery for pre-warming or incubation.
If eggs are sweating they should not be fumigated or put in to a cold egg store until they are dry.
Temperature at Which Relative Humidity (%RH)

Eggs are to be Moved
°C 40 50 60 70 80 90
15 11 13
20 12 14 16 18
Pre-warming 23 12 15 17 19 21
25 10 13 16 19 21 23
30 14 18 21 24 26 28
35 18 21 25 28 31 33
Incubator 21 25 28 31 34 36
40 23 27 30 33 36 38
Appendices

171
Energy Linoleic Dry
CP Arginine Iso-Leucine Lysine Methionine Meth & Cyst Threonine Tryptophan Ca Av.P Na Cl K Choline
(ME) Acid Matter
T A T A T A T A T A T A T A
g MJ kcal g g g g g g g g
g g g g g g g g g g g g g g
Barley 107 11.7 2790 5.4 4.5 3.7 3.0 3.8 3.0 1.8 1.4 4.2 3.4 3.6 2.7 1.2 0.9 0.6 1.4 0.1 1.0 4.8 990 8.6 880
Maize 87 13.7 3275 4.1 3.8 3.0 2.7 2.4 2.2 1.8 1.7 3.7 3.3 3.1 2.7 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.9 0.1 0.5 3.6 620 18.8 880
Wheat 119 12.7 3020 5.6 5.0 3.9 3.5 3.3 2.7 1.9 1.7 4.6 4.0 3.4 2.8 1.4 1.2 0.7 1.3 0.1 0.4 4.2 1000 6.8 880
Sorghum 101 13.5 3215 4.0 3.4 4.0 3.3 2.3 1.8 1.8 1.5 3.6 3.0 3.4 2.6 1.1 0.9 0.4 0.9 0.1 0.7 3.8 660 12.2 880
Oats 112 11.0 2620 7.5 7.1 4.2 3.7 4.8 4.2 1.9 1.7 5.1 4.3 3.9 3.3 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.7 0.1 0.7 4.7 950 16.8 880
Maize Gluten Feed 209 8.0 1915 9.5 8.3 6.7 5.5 6.7 4.8 3.6 3.1 8.9 6.4 7.7 5.9 1.2 1.0 1.2 3.7 2.4 2.1 12.6 1510 17.2 890
Maize Gluten Meal 607 14.9 3565 19.5 18.8 25.1 24.1 10.3 9.3 14.5 14.1 25.5 23.7 21.0 19.6 3.2 3.1 0.4 1.8 0.1 0.5 1.6 330 16.3 890
Wheat Feed/Middlings 156 7.6 1825 9.5 8.2 5.2 4.1 5.6 4.6 2.6 2.0 5.7 4.3 5.0 3.7 1.9 1.5 1.0 2.9 0.3 0.3 13.7 1440 14.0 870
Wheat Bran 150 6.2 1475 10.1 7.8 4.6 3.5 6.0 4.4 2.3 1.7 5.5 4.0 4.9 3.6 2.1 1.4 1.9 3.5 0.4 1.3 12.5 1230 14.0 870
Rice Bran Raw 129 9.9 2370 10.3 8.9 4.4 3.7 6.0 4.8 2.7 2.2 5.6 4.7 5.0 4.1 1.6 1.2 1.0 2.5 0.1 0.4 10.6 1130 38.5 890
Rice Bran Ext. 147 6.8 1610 11.6 10.0 5.2 3.8 6.5 4.8 3.2 2.5 6.4 4.5 5.9 4.1 1.7 1.3 1.4 2.8 0.2 0.7 12.1 1230 3.6 890
Field Beans (White) 300 11.2 2665 28.6 26.6 11.8 10.1 18.8 16.5 2.3 1.8 5.9 4.6 10.1 8.9 1.7 1.4 1.1 2.3 0.2 0.7 13.4 1670 5.2 870
Peas 227 11.4 2715 21.4 19.7 8.8 8.0 15.7 13.5 2.3 1.9 5.6 4.2 8.1 6.9 2.0 1.6 1.1 1.8 0.1 0.6 11.0 642 4.0 870
172
Soybeans, Heated 356 14.4 3450 26.3 22.9 16.2 14.1 22.4 19.3 5.4 4.7 10.9 9.2 14.2 12.1 4.9 4.2 2.3 2.2 0.1 0.3 17.6 2860 97.0 880
Appendices
Soybean Meal, 48 473 9.3 2230 34.6 32.2 21.3 19.5 29.3 26.7 6.8 6.3 13.8 12.1 18.6 16.6 6.1 5.2 2.7 2.7 0.2 0.3 22.6 2730 7.0 870
Sunflower Meal, 39 386 6.7 1600 33.3 31.6 16.3 15.0 13.8 12.0 9.2 8.5 16.1 14.2 14.6 12.7 4.8 4.1 3.7 2.9 0.3 1.2 14.7 2890 6.8 900
Rape/Canola Meal 343 7.1 1700 20.8 18.7 13.4 11.4 19.2 15.4 6.9 6.1 15.6 12.7 15.1 12.1 4.5 3.7 7.3 3.6 0.3 0.3 12.6 6700 3.1 880
Fish Meal 66 660 13.6 3250 38.1 35.0 27.4 25.2 51.4 45.7 18.9 17.0 24.8 21.6 28.0 25.2 7.0 6.2 34.9 17.6 10.3 15.8 10.0 3050 0.1 910
Herring Meal 706 14.1 3360 40.4 37.1 30.0 27.6 56.3 50.1 20.7 18.6 27.0 23.5 30.5 27.4 7.8 7.0 26.4 15.5 10.3 16.2 13.9 5300 0.1 910
Meat and Bone Meal 538 12.6 3000 37.7 29.4 16.1 12.9 29.6 22.5 8.1 6.6 14.0 9.9 18.8 14.0 3.6 2.5 73.3 22.6 7.6 6.3 4.8 1900 8.1 940
Notes

T=Total amino acid content; A=Available amino acid content
Appendix 7: Nutrient Composition of Some
These data are given as a guide to feed formulation. Local information on the actual quality of available ingredients should always be used in
preference.
Data are based on information published by Degussa AG; CVB, Netherlands; National Research Council, USA.
Meat and Bone Meal is a very variable product and is increasingly excluded from breeder feeds on the grounds of biosecurity. Data relate to a sample
Commonly Used Feed Ingredients (Per Kilogram)
with 54% protein, 14% fat and 23% ash.

Appendices
Appendix 8: Trouble Shooting - Vitamin

Defiency
Problem
Resistance to Disease
Bone Deformities
Egg Production
Thin Shell Eggs

Leg Weakness
Hatchability
Feathering
Fertility
Possible Cause
Vitamin A x x x x x
Vitamin D3 x x x x
Vitamin E x x x x
Vitamin B12 x x
Riboflavin x x x
Niacin x x
Pantothenic Acid x x x
Choline x x
Vitamin K
Folic Acid x x x x
Thiamin B1
Pyridoxine B6 x x
Biotin x x x x x x
Appendices

173
Appendices
Appendix 9: Additional Sources of

Management Information
Additional sources of specific management information can be obtained from the following
publications. These publications are available online at www.aviagen.com or by emailing a
request to [email protected].
• Environmental Management in the Broiler Breeder Rearing House

• Environmental Management in the Broiler Breeder Laying House
• Water Quality
• Indian River Parent Stock Performance Objectives
• Indian River Parent Stock Nutrition Specifications
• Investing Hatchery Practice
• Hatchery Maintenance
• Hatchery How To's

174
Keyword Index
Keyword Index
Activity 87 Disposal of dead birds 151
Air flow/speed 112, 114, 115, 117, 169 Distribution curves 29
Air inlet 114 Distribution of birds when feeding 24
Air leakage/tightness 109, 112, 113 Downtime 144
Air quality 20, 113 Drainage 108
Airborne disease 108 Drinker space 27, 48, 159
Alertness 65, 86-88, 93 Drinkers 13, 16, 17, 27
All-in/all-out 12, 144, 152 Drinker height 26, 27, 58,
Amino Acids 135, 142 Dust 13, 145
Anti-nutritional factors 140 Egg collection 58, 102
Antibiotics 154 Egg disinfection 103
Antibody 156 Egg packing 102
Automated feeding 25 Egg production 10, 59, 70, 72
Automatic weigh scale 78 Egg selection 102
Bacterial counts 103 Egg weight 61-63, 70-72, 74
Behavior 20, 21, 52, 115, 117 Electronic weigh scales 31, 78, 81
Biofilms 147 ELISA 156
Biosecurity 12, 107, 110, 143, 149, 152, 156 Energy 49, 69,134, 139, 142
Blackout 121, 124 Environment 10, 23, 109, 134
Body condition 60, 65, 85, 86, 88-91, 94-97 Evaporative cooling 119, 170
Body-weight targets 31, 33, 42, 43, 48, 69, 82, F value 165
122, 126, 128, 130, 165 Fans 115, 116, 118, 168, 169
Body weight 31, 67, 70-72, 74, 76, 81, 87, 97 Farm design 107, 108, 144
Breast shape 88, 89, 96 Fat pad 96, 97
Brooding 11, 14, 15, 17, 110, 121 Fats and oils in diets 140
Calcium 135 Feathering 65, 87, 93
Chick placement 10-12, 16 Feed allocation 9, 14, 17, 25, 26, 59, 60, 63, 67, 69,
Chick weighing 79 73, 75, 138, 152
Chloride 136 Feed hygiene 141, 154
Chlorination 27, 149 Feed level 36, 39, 43-45, 50, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76,
Clean-up time (feed) 25, 61, 69 134
Cleaning eggs 104 Feed manufacture 133, 140
Cleaning of house and site 12, 145, 146, 148, 149 Feed quality 26, 61, 140
Coccidia 148, 154 Feed specifications 137, 138
Coefficient of variation (CV) 29, 39, 80, 81, 166 Feed storage 26, 137, 140
Coliforms 149 Feed systems 51
Comb and Wattles 51, 92 Feed texture 61
Condensation 105 Feed-bin location 110
Condition of birds 60, 65, 85, 86, 88-91, Feeder height 25, 51, 56, 58
94-97 Feeder space 24, 48, 56, 159
Contamination of egg 101 Feeding behavior 54
Contamination of feed 141 Feeding equipment 16, 54, 56
Controlled environment housing 112, 121 Feeding management 10, 25, 58, 133, 137, 138
Conversion tables 161, 162 Feedstuffs 140, 172
Cooling of egg 101 Feet 87
Cooling of house 119, 169 Fertility 65, 88
Critical age objectives 6 Filter, water 149
Crop fill 22, 50 Fines 26
Crumb 14, 25, 137, 141 First egg 57, 68
CT scanning 89, 96 Fleshing 85, 88, 95
Curtains 111 Floor eggs 58, 102
Daylength 121-125, 127-129 Floor feeding 25
Dead bird disposal 151 Floor space 23, 32
Dew point table 171 Floor hygiene 148
Diet formulation 140 Fogging 17, 119
Direction plates 114 Footpad 76, 87, 92
Dirty eggs 104, 106 Formaldehyde 103
Disease 13, 152, 155 Formalin 148
Disinfection 12, 13, 103, 145, 147, 149 Fumigation 103, 147, 148

175
Keyword Index
Grading 10, 12, 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 38, 41, 164, Open-sided housing 121, 124-126
166, 167 Operating temperature 163
Grill feeder 54, 55 Out-of-season flocks 125, 128-130
Grower feed 137 Over-mating 65
Growth 9, 68, 77 Overweight birds 43, 45, 49, 64
Handling 10 Pad cooling 119
Hard water 149 Pan feeder 24, 55
Hatchability 55, 65, 97, 99, 103, 105, 140, Pathogens 149
142 Peak production 44, 48, 58, 59, 67, 68, 75
Hatching eggs 99, 103 Pellet 14, 25, 141
Head of bird 87, 92 Pen size 35, 36, 42, 166
Health monitoring 155 Penning layout 30-42, 167
Heat treatment of feed 141 Perches 28, 58
Heating equipment 14, 110 Perimeter 144
Heavy birds 34, 41 Persistency 135
House design 12, 109, 144, 145 Pest management 144, 145
Humidity 13, 17, 18, 19, 105, 120 Phosphorus 135
Hygiene 13, 143 Photorefractory 121, 124, 127
Immunological response 152 Photostimulation 9, 121, 122
Incineration 151 Physical assessment of bird 85
Infection 143 Phytase 136
Inlets 114 Pin (pelvic) bones 57, 94
In-season flocks 130 Placement 11
Insect control 145 Platform weighing 81
Insulation 109, 163 Population variation/uniformity 29, 30
Keel bone 90 Post-peak management 67
Laboratory analysis of feed 133 Potassium 136
Lamp type 131 Potency of vitamins 136
Legs and feet 92 Power back-up 108
Light birds 32, 35, 41 Pressure 112
Light leakage 122, 124 Profiles for body weight 44, 49, 123, 130
Light spectrum 131 Protein 135, 142
Lighting programs 14, 17, 57, 121-125, 128, Quality control of feed 142
129 Random sampling 31, 33, 37, 40, 50, 85, 164
Lighting 50, 58, 109, 121, 163 Raw material quality 140
Limestone 135 Re-circulation fans 111
Litter 13, 76, 146 Rear 9
Male feeding 56, 64 Rear and move 50
Management of disease 143 Records 72, 81, 152, 156, 157
Managing to condition 85-94 Regulations 11
Manometer 113 Relative humidity 13, 171
Manual feeding 25 Removal of males 65
Marek’s disease 153 Rendering 151
Mash 141 Repairs and maintenance 147
Mating 51, 58, 64-66, 76, 87, 160 Respiratory disease 20
Mating ratios 87 Rots and bangers 106
Maturity 9, 10, 51 Rodent 110, 140, 144, 145
Metabolic disorders 136 Salmonella 144, 155
Migration 117 Sample weighing 79, 82, 164
Minerals 136 Sampling of feed 141
Misting 17 Sanitization 144, 147
Monitoring body 44, 45, 97 SDS Sudden Death syndrome 136
Monitoring 20, 57, 59, 72, 75, 77, 115 Seasonality 129, 130
Mycoplasmosis 155 Sediment in water 149
Mycotoxin 136 Sensors for environment 20
Natural environment 121, 125 Separate sex feeding 52, 54, 55, 139
Nests 57, 58, 102 Serological monitoring 155
Normal distribution 29 Sexing errors 52, 53
Nutrient composition of feeds 133, 140, 172 Sexual maturity 44, 48, 51, 87, 123, 127
Nutrient intake 49, 61, 133, 139 Shank length 86
Nutrient recommendations 67, 133, 135, 138, Shell quality 135
139, 142

176
Keyword Index
Site 149
Skeleton 86
Sodium 136
Spin feeders 25
Spot brooding 14
Spray cooling 119
Standard deviation 34
Starter feed 137
Stocking density 15, 17, 23, 47, 109, 143,
159
Storage of eggs 104
Synchronization of males and females 48, 123,
125
Target performance 70, 71, 72
Target weight 31, 33, 42, 43, 48, 69, 75, 82,
122, 126, 128, 130, 165
Target parameters 158
Temperature gradient 15, 18
Temperature of eggs 104
Temperature 13, 18, 19, 110, 116, 117,
139, 163
Timer for ventilation 113
Toast rack feeder 54
Trace minerals 136
Track feeder 24
Transfer from rear to lay 50
Transitional ventilation 116
Transportation of chicks 11, 16
Tube feeders 55
Tunnel ventilation 117
Under-feeding 62
Underweight birds 43, 45, 48, 64
Uniformity 10, 24, 29, 30, 40, 48, 79, 122
UV 131, 149
Vaccination programs 143, 152, 153, 156
Variation in population 29, 30, 35, 37
Vehicle cleaning 13
Vent (cloaca) 87, 93
Ventilation calculations 118, 168
Ventilation 20, 111-113, 116, 160, 163
Visitors 144
Vitamins 136, 173
Vocalization 21
Walk-through 58, 60, 85, 86, 87, 94
Washing eggs 104
Washing houses 146
Water quality 27, 149, 150
Water 13, 14, 27, 28, 136, 142, 147, 149, 152
Water:feed ratio 142, 160
Wattles and comb 51, 92
Wavelength 131
Weigh scales 31, 34, 77
Weight profile 33, 39, 81
Weight recording manually 80
Welfare 2, 10, 17, 23, 47, 65, 92, 107, 109,
111, 120, 122, 133, 134, 139, 143,
145, 148, 152, 152, 154, 155
Whole-house brooding 15, 16
Wind chill 20
Wind speed 117
Worms (helminths) 154

177
Notes
Notes

178
Notes
Notes

179
Every attempt has been made to ensure the accuracy and relevance of the information
presented. However, Aviagen accepts no liability for the consequences of using the
information for the management of chickens.
For further information on the management of Indian River stock, please contact your
local Technical Service Manager or the Technical Services Department.
www.aviagen.com 2013

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What is the purpose of this handbook?

What is the purpose of this handbook?

What are some of the key management strategies discussed in the handbook?

What are some of the key management strategies discussed in the handbook?

An Aviagen Brand

Indian River Parent Stock

Using this Handbook

An alphabetical Keyword Index is given at the end of the Handbook.

Nutrition Specifications are also available as supplements to this Handbook.

Indian River Parent Stock Management Handbook

Indian River Parent Stock Management Handbook

Section 5 - Assessment of Bird Physical Condition

Indian River Parent Stock Management Handbook

175 Keyword Index

Indian River Parent Stock Management Handbook

Key Management Timetable

Age (days) Action

Ensure good biosecurity. Pathogens can survive in the surrounding

All housing and equipment should be cleaned and disinfected

Achieve optimum environmental temperature. This is critical for

Monitor chick behavior to ensure that temperature is satisfactory.

Bulk weigh a sample of chicks.

Develop appetite from good brooding practice.

Ensure adequate drinker and feeder space, provide good quality

Use crop fill assessment as an indication of appetite development.

Monitor bird behavior.

Achieve target body weights.

Obtain body-weight sample. A bulk weighing of birds is required at

If 14 day (2 week) body weights for previous flocks have regularly

Start recording individual body weights between 14 and 21 days (2

Grade males and females at 28 days (4 weeks).

Indian River Parent Stock Management Handbook

Age (days) Action

28-63 Monitor and record body weight weekly.

The main focus during this period is to achieve good skeletal

Re-examine graded population weights in relation to the body-

If populations are not following the target profile, a new target

Populations that are under the target should gradually be brought

Movement of birds between populations should stop.

Re-examine body weights in relation to target. Revise profiles as

Remove any sexing errors as they are identified.

Achieve correct weekly body-weight gains by ensuring the

105-161 All populations should achieve similar body weights by light

Monitor and record body weight weekly.

126-147 Remove remaining sexing errors.

Calculate and record the uniformity (CV%) of the flock to determine

If the flock is uneven (CV greater than 10%), light stimulation

Indian River Parent Stock Management Handbook

Age (days) Action

Mating-up - the exact time of this will depend on the relative

Immature males should never be mated to mature females.

Monitor and record body weight weekly.

168-175 Introduce the breeder feed. From 5% hen-day production at the

Monitor and record body weight weekly.

Manage males by observing bird condition.

210-depletion Remove non-working males to maintain appropriate mating ratios.

Monitor and record body weight.

Feed reduction should be started approximately 35 days (5 weeks)