Pressure Vessel Newsletter Pressure Vessel Newsletter Pressure Vessel Newsletter Pressure Vessel Newsletter
Pressure Vessel Newsletter Pressure Vessel Newsletter Pressure Vessel Newsletter Pressure Vessel Newsletter
Pressure Vessel Newsletter Pressure Vessel Newsletter Pressure Vessel Newsletter Pressure Vessel Newsletter
IN ASSOCIATION WITH
Sometime last month, I floated a question in pressure vessel community to find out
what percentage of pressure vessels worldwide are built to ASME Section VIII,
Division 2. Other than a few suggestions pointing to the data being available at
National Board, I didn’t get any helpful response. But I think it wouldn’t be a stretch
to surmise that the percentage is very small – perhaps less than 10%.
It is no secret that the ASME VIII-2VIII 2 analysis results in more sound design of
pressure vessels. After all, it is based on theory that is better suited to widely used
pressure vessel materials than Division 1. Why then has it not received greater
acceptance in pressure vessel community?
One of the major differences between the design process of Division 1 and Division
2 pressure vessels is that while a Division 1 pressure vessel can be fully designed by a pressure vessel
engineer, a Division 2 pressure vessel also requires involvement of an FEA expert. In most cases, the pressure
vessel engineers do not have the expertise to use the finite element software. The end result is that FEA is done
by someone other than the pressure vessel engineer; however, the FEA results are analyzed for acceptance to
the Division 2 code by the pressure vessel engineer.
What can be donene to increase the acceptance of ASME VIII
VIII-2? I think development of FEA software specially
designed for pressure vessels that is easy enough to use by pressure vessel engineers will go a long way. It will
give pressure vessel engineers the full control and
an ownership of the design. The makers of the pressure vessel
software would have to take a lead in the development of such software.
For the time being, though, it appears that Division 1 will remain in wide use, and the use of two different ASME
codes for the design of pressure vessels will remain in place.
[The
The picture on the cover is courtesy of Cheema Boilers in Chandigarh, India.
India.]
In this issue…
Stress analysis is the determination of the relationship between external forces applied to a vessel and the
corresponding stress. In design of pressure vessels, the components are analyzed so as to arrive at an
economical and safe design. This is done by analyzing stresses where necessary to determine thickness of the
material and size of the members. The starting place for stress analysis is to determine all the design conditions
for a given problem and then determine all the external forces. The external forces are then related to the vessel
parts which must resist them by generating the corresponding stresses.
Of the many theories developed to predict elastic failure, the three most commonly used are:
Maximum principal stress theory
Maximum shear stress theory
Distortion energy theory
Maximum Principal Stress Theory
This theory considers failure to have occurred when any one of the three principal stresses has reached a
value equal to the elastic limit as determined from a uni-axial tension or compression test. This theory is the
oldest, most widely used and simplest to apply. This theory is used for biaxial states of stress assumed in
thin-walled pressure vessels, and ASME Code Section VIII-1 uses this theory as the basis for design. While
the maximum principal stress theory does accurately predict failure in brittle materials, it is not always
accurate for ductile materials.
Maximum Shear Stress Theory
This theory (also called the Tresca criterion) considers failure to have occurred when the maximum shear
stress equals the shear stress at the elastic limit as determined by a pure shear test. The maximum shear
stress is defined as one-half the algebraic difference between the largest and smallest of the three principal
stresses. ASME Code Section VIII-2 (prior to 2007 Edition) utilized the maximum shear stress criterion. This
theory closely approximates experimental results and is also easy to use.
Distortion Energy Theory
This theory (also called the von Mises criterion) considers failure to have occurred when the distortion
energy accumulated in the part under stress reaches the elastic limit as determined by the distortion energy
in a uniaxial tension or compression test. ASME Code Section VIII-2 (from 2007 Edition) utilizes the
distortion energy criterion.
The ever increasing use of pressure vessels for storage, industrial processing and power generation under
extreme conditions of pressure, temperature and environment has given special emphasis to analytical and
experimental methods for determining their operating stresses. Therefore it is necessary to understand the
meaning and significance of these stresses. This includes the means of determining the value and extent of the
stresses and strains, establishing the behavior of the material involved and evaluating the compatibility of these
two factors in the media or the environment to which they are subjected. Knowledge of material behavior is
required not only to avoid failures, but equally to permit maximum economy of material choice and amount used.
The stresses produce changes in their dimensions known as strains. The determination of the relationship
between the external forces (P) applied to a vessel, and the stresses (σ) and strains (e) within the vessel form
the basis of this field of stress analysis. Engineering materials commonly used in the design of structures and
pressure vessels have an initial stress-strain relationship which, for practical purposes, may be assumed linear,
indicating that stress is directly proportional to strain and is represented by the equation:
= / (1)
Tensile Thermal
Compressive Tangential
Shear Load Induced
Bending Stress Induced
Bearing Circumferential
Axial Longitudinal
Discontinuity Radial
Membrane Normal
Principal
Types of stresses that are present in pressure vessels are separated into various classes in accordance with the
types of loads that produced them, and the hazard they represent to the vessel. Each class of stress must be
maintained below an acceptable level, and the combined total stress must be kept under another acceptable
level. The combined stresses due to a combination of loads acting simultaneously are called stress categories.
CLASSES OF STRESS
The pressure vessel codes define three important ‘classes’ of stress according to the types of loading which
produced them and the hazard they represent to the vessel.
Peak, F 2Sa
PL + Pb + Qm + Qb + F 2Sa
THERMAL STRESSES
Whenever the expansion or contraction that would occur normally as a result of heating or cooling an object is
prevented, thermal stresses are developed. The stress is always caused by some form of mechanical restraint.
Thermal stresses are “secondary” stresses because they are self-limiting, that is, yielding or deformation of the
part relaxes the stress. Thermal stresses will not cause failure by rupture in ductile materials except by fatigue
over repeated applications. They can, however, cause failure due to excessive deformations.
Mechanical restraints are either internal or external. An example of external restraint occurs when piping
expands into a vessel nozzle creating a radial load on the vessel shell. Internal restraint occurs when the
temperature through an object is not uniform. Stresses from a “thermal gradient” are due to internal restraint.
Stress is caused by a thermal gradient whenever the temperature distribution or variation within a member
creates a differential expansion such that the natural growth of one fiber is influenced by the different growth
requirements of the adjacent fibers. The result is distortion or warpage.
Thermal stresses cause creep in the material at high temperatures and are very troublesome. The elastic limit or
the yield stress of the material is very low at high temperatures. Hence the material gets into the plastic range to
relieve the stresses. Furthermore, if the pressure fluctuates, thermal ratcheting takes place where each loading
cycle results in incremental strain, which is highly unacceptable situation.
DISCONTINUITY STRESSES
Vessel sections of different thickness, material, diameter and change in direction would all have different
displacements if allowed to expand freely. However, since they are connected in a continuous structure, they
must deflect and rotate together. The stresses in the respective part at or near the junctures are called
discontinuity stresses. Discontinuity stresses are necessary to satisfy the compatibility of deformation in the
region. They are local in extent but can be of very high magnitude. Discontinuity stresses are also secondary
stresses and are self-limiting. That is, once the structure has yielded, the stresses are reduced. In average
applications, they will not lead to failure. Discontinuity stresses do become an important factor in fatigue design
where cyclic loading is a consideration. Design of the juncture of the two parts is a major consideration in
reducing discontinuity stresses.
In order to find the state of stress in a pressure vessel, it is necessary to find both the membrane stresses and
the discontinuity stresses. From superposition of these two states of stress, the total stresses are obtained.
Generally when combined, a higher allowable stress is permitted. One example specifically addressed by the
ASME VIII-1 Code is discontinuity stresses at cone-cylinder intersections where the included angle is greater
o
than 60 . Paragraph 1-5(g) recommends limiting combined stresses (membrane + discontinuity) in the
longitudinal direction to 3SE and in the circumferential direction to 1.5SE.
ALLOWABLE STRESSES
The Code-allowable stresses are determined by the ASME Subcommittee on Materials and are listed in ASME
Section II, Part D of the B&PV Code. The basic rules for acceptance of new materials are contained in the
“Guideline on the Approval of New Materials under the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code” (found in
Section II, Part D, Appendix 5).
The allowable stresses of carbon steel material are based on properties data provided to the Subcommittee from
at least three heats of the material. The properties that must be included are the tensile and yield strengths at
100ºF (38ºC) intervals from room temperature to 100ºF (38ºC) above the maximum intended use temperature.
Also, if the material is expected to be used in the time-dependent temperature range (that is, creep), creep rate
Step 2. Using the value of A calculated in Step 1, enter the applicable material chart in Section II-D, Subpart 3
for the material under consideration. Move vertically to an intersection with the material/temperature
line for the design temperature. Interpolation may be used between lines for intermediate
temperatures. If the tabular values in Subpart 3 of Section II-D are used, linear interpolation or any
other rational interpolation method may be used to determine a B value that lies between the two
adjacent tabular values for a specific temperature. Such interpolation may also be used to determine a
B value at an intermediate temperature that lies between two sets of tabular values, after first
determining B values for each set of tabular values.
In cases where the value at A falls to the right of the end of the material/temperature line, assume an
intersection with the horizontal projection of the upper end of the material/temperature line. If tabular
values are used, the last (maximum) tabulated value shall be used. For values of A falling to the left of
the material/temperature line, see Step 4.
Step 3. From the intersection obtained in Step 2, move horizontally to the right and read the value of Factor B.
This is the maximum allowable compressive stress for the values of t and Ro used in Step 1.
Step 4. For values of A falling to the left of the applicable material/temperature line, the value of B shall be
calculated using the following formula:
Source: ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Edition 2015
Harvey, John F., Theory and Design of Modern Pressure Vessels
Jawad, Maan H. and James R. Farr, Structural Analysis and Design of Process Equipment
Moss, Dennis R., Pressure Vessel Design Manual
Bednar, Henry, Pressure Vessel Design Handbook
Introduction
The trend in the domain of public and legislative bodies is to view aboveground storage tanks (ASTs) as
environmentally hazardous equipment. Several recent AST accidents have contributed to this viewpoint and
have resulted in the current AST regulatory atmosphere that exists on local, state and federal levels. The
stringent regulations are, however, corrective rather than prescriptive or preventive measures. Corrective means
that rather than the prevention of AST leaks and spills being addressed through design and inspection, the
issues are addressed by requirements for secondary containment and other measures that go into force only
after a spill or leak has occurred. API 653 was introduced to address the areas that were not covered by the
existing regulations.
When designing and constructing new tanks, the engineer has several industrial standards that will provide a
state-of-art tank design. Among these standards are API 650, API 620 etc. that are based upon accumulated
industrial experience and will provide a tank that is reasonably free from the chance of failure when placed into
service. However, the standards were not intended to eliminate maintenance and inspection procedures that can
result in failure from long term service effects such as corrosion, foundation settlement, changes of service, or
improper structural modifications made to the tank. API 653 was created to fill this void, and it applies to tanks
that have already been placed into service.
API 653 is a comprehensive prescriptive approach to the problem of AST leaks and spills. It is the first line of
defense against various tank failure modes. It is used in conjunction with other API publications like:
API RP 570 Piping Inspection
API Standard 620 Design and Construction of large, Welded Low Pressure Storage Tanks
API Standard 2000 Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tanks
API RP 2003 Protection against Ignitions Arising out of Static, Lightening, and Strong Currents
API Publication 2217 Guidelines for Continued Space Work in the Petroleum Industry
1) Eat “primally’. Common sense dictates that the best diet is one based on foods we have been eating the longest in terms
of our time on this planet. These are the foods that we have evolved to eat and are best adapted to. Studies show that a
“primal” diet made up of fruits, vegetables, nuts and seeds, as well as meat, fish and eggs, is best for health and
improvement in risk markers for illnesses, such as heart disease and diabetes.
2) Keep hydrated. Water makes up two-thirds of the body and performs a plethora of functions, including acting as a
solvent, carrier of nutrients, temperature regulator and body detoxifier. Maintaining hydration can have a profound
influence on our vitality and energy levels, including mental alertness. Aim to drink enough water to keep your urine a
pale yellow color throughout the course of the day.
3) Eat mindfully. In our fast-paced world, there can be a tendency to eat while distracted and shovel in more food than we
need and, at the same time, miss out on culinary pleasure. Many of us will benefit from eating mindfully. Some things to
think about are avoiding eating when distracted, eating more slowly, and taking time to taste food properly. One
particular thing to focus on is chewing your food thoroughly – not only does this help us savor food, more importantly it
also assists the digestive process.
4) Get plenty of sunlight in summer... Sunlight, and the vitamin D this can make in the skin, is associated with a wide
spectrum of benefits for the body including a reduced risk of several forms of cancer, heart disease, multiple sclerosis
and osteoporosis, as well as improved immune function. As a rule of thumb, vitamin D is made when our shadow is
shorter than our body length, i.e., when the sun is high in the sky. While burning is to be avoided, get as much sunlight
exposure as possible for optimal health.
5) …and in winter. Low levels of sunlight in winter can cause our mood to darken. Even when it is cold outside, it pays to
get some external light exposure in the winter, say during lunchtime.
6) Get enough sleep. Sleep has the ability to optimize mental and physical energy, and optimal levels of sleep (about eight
hours a night) are linked with reduced risk of chronic disease and improved longevity. One simple strategy that can help
ensure you get optimal amounts of sleep is to go to bed earlier. Getting into bed by 10 pm or 10:30 pm is a potential
useful investment in terms of your short- and long-term health and wellbeing. Shutting down the computer or turning off
the TV early in the evening is often all it takes to create the time and space for earlier sleep.
7) Walk regularly. Aerobic exercise, including something as uncomplicated and low-impact as walking, is associated with a
variety of benefits for the body and the brain, including a reduced risk of chronic diseases, anti-anxiety and mood-
enhancing effects. Aim for a total of about 30 minutes of brisk walking every day.
8) Engage in some resistance exercise. Resistance exercise helps to maintain muscle mass and strengthens the body.
This has particular relevance as we age, as it reduces the risk of disability and falls. Many highly useful exercises can be
done at home, such as press-ups, sit-ups and squats. Invest in dumbbells to extend your home routine to other
exercises, too.
9) Practice random acts of kindness: Random acts of kindness are good for givers and receivers alike. It could be a quick
call or text to someone you care about or have lost touch with, or showing a fellow motorist some consideration, or
giving up your seat on a train or bus, or buying someone lunch or giving a spontaneous bunch of flowers.
10) Practice the art of appreciation. Modern-day living tends to be aspirational and we can easily find ourselves chasing an
ever-growing list of goals, many of which can be material. Some of us could do with more time focusing not on what we
don’t have, but on what we do. Our mood can be lifted by giving thanks for anything from our friends and family to a
beautiful landscape or sunset.