Census involves collecting data from the entire population and provides accurate information but is costly and time-consuming, while sampling collects data from a subset of the population and is less costly and time-consuming but the reliability of the results may be questionable since it does not survey the entire population.
Census involves collecting data from the entire population and provides accurate information but is costly and time-consuming, while sampling collects data from a subset of the population and is less costly and time-consuming but the reliability of the results may be questionable since it does not survey the entire population.
Census involves collecting data from the entire population and provides accurate information but is costly and time-consuming, while sampling collects data from a subset of the population and is less costly and time-consuming but the reliability of the results may be questionable since it does not survey the entire population.
Census involves collecting data from the entire population and provides accurate information but is costly and time-consuming, while sampling collects data from a subset of the population and is less costly and time-consuming but the reliability of the results may be questionable since it does not survey the entire population.
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OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
Open-ended questions should begin with words such as "why" and "how" or phrases such as "What do you think about . . ." Open-ended questions should lead students to think analytically and critically. Ultimately, a good open-ended question should stir discussion and debate in the classroom sparking enthusiasm and energy in your students.
From: http://www.fortleavenworthmwr.com/cdsresource/OPNEND.html Asking Open-Ended Questions A question like "What color is that block?" evokes a one-word answer. But an open-ended question, "Tell me about the blocks you are using," encourages a child to describe the blocks or explain what she is doing. There is no right or wrong answer here. An answer to an open- ended questions gives us a window into what the child is thinking and feeling. And the response is sometimes wonderfully creative. In explaining or describing, children also use language more fully. Try to think of good “Open-Ended” questions to ask: -Tell me about ___________. -What else can you do with the _________? -What could you use to make the ___________________? -What do you think would happen if ________________? -Is there another way to ___________________? It is difficult to change the closed-end question habit. But when we ask open-ended questions, students reap great benefits as they think through their responses to express what they want to say. And with their answers, we find out more about what they think and feel.
From: http://www.infopeople.org/training/past/2002/ref_interview/Open- endedQuestions.pdf Open-Ended Questions Open-ended questions cannot be answered by yes or no. These questions begin with "who," "what," "why," "where," and "when." Some of the questions listed here will feel natural to you and you can practice using them in your work. Circle three or four that you feel most comfortable with and make them part of every small group session you conduct. 1. What kind of information on ________________ are you looking for? 2. What is it you want to know about __________ ? 3. What would you like to know about this topic ? 4. What do you mean by _____________ ? DICHOTOMOUS QUESTIONS
By definition a dichotomy has two parts. In the framework of survey design, dichotomous questions have two possible answer choices. The most common being the Yes/No dichotomy. Other options include:
True/False Male/Female (although it is becoming increasingly common to see transgender) Up to 45/Over 45
This question framework is appropriate for factual reporting, but can be used inadvertently in a leading manner. The benefits of dichotomous questions are two-fold – they are easy to comprehend and they are short. Any time we can simplify the survey experience the user (respondent) wins and this can lead to greater survey completion rates.
But what about the cons?
The ease and simplicity of dichotomous questions inherently limits the analysis that we can perform on the data. If we ask a respondent if they have used our product in the last six months (Yes/No)
Post-facto in the analysis phase we can now look at average product usage by group. As analysts we can always collapse data down (0 = non-user and 1+ = user), however we cannot expand from a dichotomy.
Below are examples of two ways to enquire about the perceived impacts of a menu change.
1. Do you think our new menu additions have improved the dining experience at La Grange? Yes/No 2. In your opinion, how have the menu changes at La Grange impacted your dining experience?
Dichotomous questions have the advantage of ease response and ease of analysis. However, they can be limiting. A suggestion is to begin with a broader scope of choices and collapse down in the analysis phase.
A traditional multiple choice question (or item) is one in which a student chooses one answer from a number of choices supplied. A multiple choice question consists of a :
stem - the text of the question
options - the choices provided after the stem the key - the correct answer in the list of options distracters - the incorrect answers in the list of options
Writing Stems
Present a single, definite statement to be completed or answered by one of the several given choices
A. Weak question:
Polysaccharide
a. are made up of thousands of smaller units called monosaccharides
b. are NOT found in the aloe vera leaf c. are created during photosynthesis d. can be described by the chemical formula: CHHOH
Each scale of measurement satisfies one or more of the following properties of measurement.
Identity. Each value on the measurement scale has a unique meaning.
Magnitude. Values on the measurement scale have an ordered relationship to one another. That is, some values are larger and some are smaller. Equal intervals. Scale units along the scale are equal to one another. This means, for example, that the difference between 1 and 2 would be equal to the difference between 19 and 20. A minimum value of zero. The scale has a true zero point, below which no values exist.
Nominal Scale of Measurement
The nominal scale of measurement only satisfies the identity property of measurement. Values assigned to variables represent a descriptive category, but have no inherent numerical value with respect to magnitude. Gender is an example of a variable that is measured on a nominal scale. Individuals may be classified as "male" or "female", but neither value represents more or less "gender" than the other. Religion and political affiliation are other examples of variables that are normally measured on a nominal scale.
Ordinal Scale of Measurement
The ordinal scale has the property of both identity and magnitude. Each value on the ordinal scale has a unique meaning, and it has an ordered relationship to every other value on the scale. An example of an ordinal scale in action would be the results of a horse race, reported as "win", "place", and "show". We know the rank order in which horses finished the race. The horse that won finished ahead of the horse that placed, and the horse that placed finished ahead of the horse that showed. However, we cannot tell from this ordinal scale whether it was a close race or whether the winning horse won by a mile.
Interval Scale of Measurement
The interval scale of measurement has the properties of identity, magnitude, and equal intervals. A perfect example of an interval scale is the Fahrenheit scale to measure temperature. The scale is made up of equal temperature units, so that the difference between 40 and 50 degrees Fahrenheit is equal to the difference between 50 and 60 degrees Fahrenheit. With an interval scale, you know not only whether different values are bigger or smaller, you also know how much bigger or smaller they are. For example, suppose it is 60 degrees Fahrenheit on Monday and 70 degrees on Tuesday. You know not only that it was hotter on Tuesday, you also know that it was 10 degrees hotter.
Ratio Scale of Measurement
The ratio scale of measurement satisfies all four of the properties of measurement: identity, magnitude, equal intervals, and a minimum value of zero. The weight of an object would be an example of a ratio scale. Each value on the weight scale has a unique meaning, weights can be rank ordered, units along the weight scale are equal to one another, and the scale has a minimum value of zero. Weight scales have a minimum value of zero because objects at rest can be weightless, but they cannot have negative weight.
Test Your Understanding
Problem 1 Consider the centigrade scale for measuring temperature. Which of the following measurement properties is satisfied by the centigrade scale? I. Magnitude. II. Equal intervals. III. A minimum value of zero. (A) I only (B) II only (C) III only (D) I and II (E) II and III
Solution The correct answer is (D). The centigrade scale has the magnitude property because each value on the scale can be ranked as larger or smaller than any other value. And it has the equal intervals property because the scale is made up of equal units. However, the centigrade scale does not have a minimum value of zero. Water freezes at zero degrees centigrade, but temperatures get colder than that. In the arctic, temperatures are almost always below zero.
http://stattrek.com/statistics/measurement-scales.aspx?Tutorial=AP CENSUS VS SAMPLING
Census and sampling are two methods of collecting data between which certain differences can be identified. Before we move forward to enumerate differences between Census and sampling, it is better to understand what these two techniques of generating information mean. A census can simply be defined as a periodic collection of information from the entire population. Conducting a census can be very time-consuming and costly. However, the advantage is that it allows the researcher to gain accurate information. On the other hand, sampling is when the researcher selects a sample from the population and gathers information. This is less time consuming, but the reliability of the information gained is doubtful. Through this article let us examine the differences between a census and sampling.
What is a Census?
Census refers to a periodic collection of information from the entire population. It is a time- consuming affair as it involves counting all heads and generating information about them. For better governance, every government requires specific data and information about the populace to make programs and policies that match the needs and requirements of the population. A census allows the government to gain such information.
What is Sampling?
There are times when a government cannot wait for next Census and needs to gather current information about the population. This is when a different technique of collecting information that is less elaborate and cheaper than Census is employed. This is called Sampling. This method of collecting information requires generating a sample that is representative of the entire population.
When using a sample for data collection the researcher can use various methods of sampling. Simple random sampling, stratified sampling, snowball method, nonrandom sampling are some of the mostly used sampling methods.
There are stark differences between Census and sampling though both serve the purpose of providing data and information about a population. Howsoever accurately, a sample from a population may be generated there will always be a margin for error, whereas in case of Census, the entire population is taken into account and as such it is most accurate. Data obtained from both Census and sampling is extremely important for a government for various purposes such as planning developmental programs and policies for weaker sections of the society. What is the Difference Between Census and Sampling?
Definitions of Census and Sampling:
Census: Census refers to a periodic collection of information about the populace from the entire population.
Sampling: Sampling is a method of collecting information from a sample that is
representative of the entire population.
Characteristics of Census and Sampling:
Reliability:
Census: Data from the census is reliable and accurate.
Sampling: there is a margin of error in data obtained from sampling.
Hypothesis testing is an essential procedure in statistics. A hypothesis test evaluates two
mutually exclusive statements about a population to determine which statement is best supported by the sample data. When we say that a finding is statistically significant, it’s thanks to a hypothesis test. How do these tests really work and what does statistical significance actually mean?
In this series of three posts, I’ll help you intuitively understand how hypothesis tests work by focusing on concepts and graphs rather than equations and numbers. After all, a key reason to use statistical software like Minitab is so you don’t get bogged down in the calculations and can instead focus on understanding your results.
To kick things off in this post, I highlight the rationale for using hypothesis tests with an example.
The Scenario
An economist wants to determine whether the monthly energy cost for families has changed from the previous year, when the mean cost per month was $260. The economist randomly samples 25 families and records their energy costs for the current year. (The data for this example is FamilyEnergyCost and it is just one of the many data set examples that can be found in Minitab’s Data Set Library.)
I’ll use these descriptive statistics to create a probability distribution plot that shows you the importance of hypothesis tests. Read on!
The Need for Hypothesis Tests
Why do we even need hypothesis tests? After all, we took a random sample and our sample mean of 330.6 is different from 260. That is different, right? Unfortunately, the picture is muddied because we’re looking at a sample rather than the entire population.
Sampling error is the difference between a sample and the entire population. Thanks to sampling error, it’s entirely possible that while our sample mean is 330.6, the population mean could still be 260. Or, to put it another way, if we repeated the experiment, it’s possible that the second sample mean could be close to 260. A hypothesis test helps assess the likelihood of this possibility!
Use the Sampling Distribution to See If Our Sample Mean is Unlikely
For any given random sample, the mean of the sample almost certainly doesn’t equal the true mean of the population due to sampling error. For our example, it’s unlikely that the mean cost for the entire population is exactly 330.6. In fact, if we took multiple random samples of the same size from the same population, we could plot a distribution of the sample means.
A sampling distribution is the distribution of a statistic, such as the mean, that is obtained by repeatedly drawing a large number of samples from a specific population. This distribution allows you to determine the probability of obtaining the sample statistic.
Fortunately, I can create a plot of sample means without collecting many different random samples! Instead, I’ll create a probability distribution plot using the t-distribution, the sample size, and the variability in our sample to graph the sampling distribution.
Our goal is to determine whether our sample mean is significantly different from the null hypothesis mean. Therefore, we’ll use the graph to see whether our sample mean of 330.6 is unlikely assuming that the population mean is 260. The graph below shows the expected distribution of sample means.
You can see that the most probable sample mean is 260, which makes sense because we’re assuming that the null hypothesis is true. However, there is a reasonable probability of obtaining a sample mean that ranges from 167 to 352, and even beyond! The takeaway from this graph is that while our sample mean of 330.6 is not the most probable, it’s also not outside the realm of possibility.
The Role of Hypothesis Tests
We’ve placed our sample mean in the context of all possible sample means while assuming that the null hypothesis is true. Are these results statistically significant?
As you can see, there is no magic place on the distribution curve to make this determination. Instead, we have a continual decrease in the probability of obtaining sample means that are further from the null hypothesis value. Where do we draw the line?
This is where hypothesis tests are useful. A hypothesis test allows us quantify the probability that our sample mean is unusual. In my next blog post, I’ll continue to use this graphical framework and add in the significance level and P value to show how hypothesis tests work and what statistical significance means.
http://blog.minitab.com/blog/adventures-in-statistics/understanding-hypothesis-tests%3A- why-we-need-to-use-hypothesis-tests-in-statistics PROBABILITY SAMPLING VS NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Non-probability Sampling Techniques
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a
process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.
Reliance On Available Subjects. Relying on available subjects, such as stopping people on
a street corner as they pass by, is one method of sampling, although it is extremely risky and comes with many cautions. This method, sometimes referred to as a convenience sample, does not allow the researcher to have any control over the representativeness of the sample. It is only justified if the researcher wants to study the characteristics of people passing by the street corner at a certain point in time or if other sampling methods are not possible.
The researcher must also take caution to not use results from a convenience sample to generalize to a wider population.
Purposive or Judgmental Sample. A purposive, or judgmental, sample is one that is
selected based on the knowledge of a population and the purpose of the study. For example, if a researcher is studying the nature of school spirit as exhibited at a school pep rally, he or she might interview people who did not appear to be caught up in the emotions of the crowd or students who did not attend the rally at all. In this case, the researcher is using a purposive sample because those being interviewed fit a specific purpose or description.
Snowball Sample. A snowball sample is appropriate to use in research when the members of a population are difficult to locate, such as homeless individuals, migrant workers, or undocumented immigrants. A snowball sample is one in which the researcher collects data on the few members of the target population he or she can locate, then asks those individuals to provide information needed to locate other members of that population whom they know. For example, if a researcher wishes to interview undocumented immigrants from Mexico, he or she might interview a few undocumented individuals that he or she knows or can locate and would then rely on those subjects to help locate more undocumented individuals. This process continues until the researcher has all the interviews he or she needs or until all contacts have been exhausted.
Quota Sample. A quota sample is one in which units are selected into a sample on the basis of pre-specified characteristics so that the total sample has the same distribution of characteristics assumed to exist in the population being studied. For example, if you a researcher conducting a national quota sample, you might need to know what proportion of the population is male and what proportion is female as well as what proportions of each gender fall into different age categories, race or ethnic categories, educational categories, etc. The researcher would then collect a sample with the same proportions as the national population.
Probability Sampling Techniques
Probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that gives all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.
Simple Random Sample. The simple random sample is the basic sampling method assumed in statistical methods and computations. To collect a simple random sample, each unit of the target population is assigned a number. A set of random numbers is then generated and the units having those numbers are included in the sample. For example, let’s say you have a population of 1,000 people and you wish to choose a simple random sample of 50 people. First, each person is numbered 1 through 1,000. Then, you generate a list of 50 random numbers (typically with a computer program) and those individuals assigned those numbers are the ones you include in the sample.
Systematic Sample. In a systematic sample, the elements of the population are put into a list and then every kth element in the list is chosen (systematically) for inclusion in the sample. For example, if the population of study contained 2,000 students at a high school and the researcher wanted a sample of 100 students, the students would be put into list form and then every 20th student would be selected for inclusion in the sample. To ensure against any possible human bias in this method, the researcher should select the first individual at random. This is technically called a systematic sample with a random start.
Stratified Sample. A stratified sample is a sampling technique in which the researcher
divided the entire target population into different subgroups, or strata, and then randomly selects the final subjects proportionally from the different strata. This type of sampling is used when the researcher wants to highlight specific subgroups within the population. For example, to obtain a stratified sample of university students, the researcher would first organize the population by college class and then select appropriate numbers of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors. This ensures that the researcher has adequate amounts of subjects from each class in the final sample.
