ASSIGNMENT NO 1

Organizational Behavior

Topic: Theories of Learning, Principles Of Learning,

Reinforcement Punishment
Name: Muhammad Yasir Malik
Roll no: L-946
Class: M.Com II (Morning)

Submitted To: MADAM ERUM BATOOL

Date: 03-03-17
Researchers have long studied the way in which individuals learn. Over the years, academics have
proposed a number of theories to describe and explain this process. A recent assessment by Burgoyne
on schools of thought identified 14 different theories. However, those three fall into five broad categories
that I’ll explore over the next few posts:

 Behaviourism
 Cognitivism
 Constructivism

Despite the different concepts, it is worth noting that there is no definitive theory for how we learn,
rather we exhibit different characteristics depending on the objective and circumstance.

1. Behaviorism
Introduction:

Behaviorists believe that animals, including humans, learn in about the same way. Behaviorism stresses
the importance of having a particular form of behavior reinforced by someone, other than the student, to
shape or control what is learned. In aviation training, the instructor provides the reinforcement. Frequent,
positive reinforcement and rewards accelerate learning. This theory provides the instructor with ways to
manipulate students with stimuli, induce the desired behavior or response and reinforce the behavior
with appropriate rewards. In general, the behaviorist theory emphasizes positive reinforcement rather
than no reinforcement or punishment.

Behavorism as a theory was primarily developed by B.F. Skinner. It loosely encompasses the work of
people like Edward Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie and Hull. What characterizes these investigators is their
underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three basic assumptions are held to be
true. First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And
third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and
reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to
explaining the learning process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through
conditioning.

There are two types of possible conditioning:

1. Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case
of Pavlov's Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs drooled
without the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned out
that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served food, the person who
served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way
whenever they saw a lab coat. In a series of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out how
these phenomena were linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell
was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound of the
bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they responded by drooling

2. Operant conditioning, where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment.

The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and is known as Radical
Behaviorism. The word 'operant' refers to the way in which behavior 'operates on the
environment'. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the
likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the
behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punishment is not considered to be applicable
if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior and so the terms punishment and
reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions.

2. COGNITIVE THEORY
Much of the recent psychological thinking and experimentation in education includes some
facets of the cognitive theory. This is true in basic as well as more advanced training programs.
Unlike behaviorism, the cognitive theory focuses on what is going on inside the student's mind.
Learning is not just a change in behavior; it is a change in the way a student thinks, understands,
or feels.

There are several branches of cognitive theory.

Two of the major theories may broadly be classified as the information processing model and the
social interaction model.

1. The first says that the student's brain has internal structures which select and process
incoming material, store and retrieve it, use it to produce behavior and receive and
process feedback on the results.This involves a number of cognitive processes, including
executive functions of recognizing expectancies, planning and monitoring performance,
encoding and chunking information and producing internal and external responses.

2. The social interaction theories gained prominence in the 1980s. They stress that learning
and subsequent changes in behavior take place as a result of interaction between the
student and the environment. Behavior is modeled either by people or symbolically.
Cultural influences, peer pressure, group dynamics and film and television are some of
the significant factors. Thus, the social environment to which the student is exposed
demonstrates or models behaviors and the student cognitively processes the observed
behaviors and consequences. The cognitive processes include attention, retention, motor
responses and motivation. Techniques for learning include direct modeling and verbal
instruction. Behavior, personal factors and environmental events all work together to
produce learning.

Both models of the cognitive theory have common principles. For example, they both
acknowledge the importance of reinforcing behavior and measuring changes. Positive
reinforcement is important, particularly with cognitive concepts such as knowledge and
understanding. The need to evaluate and measure behavior remains because it is the only way
to get a clue about what the student understands.
Evaluation is often limited to the kinds of knowledge or behavior that can be measured by a
paper-and-pencil exam or a performance test. Although psychologists agree that there often are
errors in evaluation, some means of measuring student knowledge, performance and behavior
is necessary.

The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication in 1929 by Bode, a Gestalt
psychologist. He criticized behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain
learning. Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns rather than isolated events.
Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive
theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: (1) that the memory system is
an active organized processor of information and (2) that prior knowledge plays an important
role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning.
Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example, the
physiological processes of sorting and encoding information and events into short term memory
and long term memory are important to educators working under the cognitive theory. The major
difference between gestaltists and behaviorists is the locus of control over the learning activity:
the individual learner is more key to gestaltists than the environment that behaviorists
emphasize.

Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working memory
model were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new cognitive
frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s and 90s. Today, researchers are
concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory. These theories of
learning play a role in influencing instructional design. Aspects of cognitivism can be found in
learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence, learning and memory as related to age.
 3. Constructivism
Constructivism Defined

Constructivism is a synthesis of multiple theories diffused into one form. It is the assimilation of
both behaviorialist and cognitive ideals. The “constructivist stance maintains that learning is a
process of constructing meaning; it is how people make sense of their experience” (Merriam and
Caffarella, 1999, p. 260). This is a combination effect of using a person’s cognitive abilities and
insight to understand their environment. This coincides especially well with current adult learning
theory.

Constructivism is a learning theory that attempts to explain how good learners learn by
constructing understanding for everyone. This section will explore the constructivist learning
theory by defining constructivism, providing varying views of constructivism, and illustrating how
constructivism relates to independent learning and higher education.

Constructivism really got its start in the late 1980s. But many people did not know how to label
what they were doing.

In the 1990s, constructivist books abounded. Many people became interested in it

The principles of Constructivism are broadly adopted in many areas of education today. The
notions of authentic activities, social negotiation, juxtaposition of instructional content,
nurturance of reflexivity, and student-centered instruction inspired many instructors to examine
and think about the importance of interactions between teachers and students, students and
students, and students and learning materials as well. Therefore, both instructors

and students may have opportunities to enhance the effectiveness of their teaching and learning.

Constructivism gives teachers another perspective to rethink how students learn and to focus on
process and provide ways of documenting change and transformation. It also reminds teachers
to look for different ways to engage individual student, develop rich environments for
exploration, prepare coherent problem sets and challenges that focus the model building effort,
elicit and communicate student perceptions and interpretations(Abdal-Haqq, 1998).

Principles of Constructivism

1. Constructivist learning environments provide multiple representations of reality.

2. These representations represent that complexity of the real world.
3. Knowledge construction is emphasized over knowledge reproduction.
4. Authentic tasks are emphasized in meaningful context.
5. Real world settings or case-based learning is provided.
6. Thoughtful reflection on experience is encouraged.
7. Enable context- and content- dependent knowledge construction.
8. Supports collaboration and social negotiation among learners.
9. Discovery learning
10.Collaborative activity
11.Integration and activation of prior knowledge
12. Opportunities for hands-on activities

Principles of learning
Educational psychologists and pedagogues have identified several principles of learning, also
referred to as laws of learning, which seem generally applicable to the learning process. These
principles have been discovered, tested, and used in practical situations. They provide additional
insight into what makes people learn most effectively. Edward Thorndike developed the first
three "Laws of learning:" readiness, exercise, and effect. Since Thorndike set down his basic three
laws in the early part of the twentieth century.

The majority of these principles are widely applied in aerospace instruction, and some in many other
fields
Readiness:

Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. Individuals learn best when they are
physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and do not learn well if they see no reason
for learning. Getting students ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value of the subject
matter, and providing continuous mental or physical challenge, is usually the instructor’s
responsibility. If students have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a definite reason for
learning something, they make more progress than if they lack motivation.

Exercise:

The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is
the basis of drill and practice. It has been proven that students learn best and retain information
longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition. The key here is that the practice must
be meaningful. It is clear that practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive
feedback.

Effect:

The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It has a direct
relationship to motivation. The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when
accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated
with an unpleasant feeling.

Primacy:

Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. Things
learned first create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase.
Intensity:

The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A sharp, clear, vivid,
dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. The
principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a
substitute.

Freedom:

The principle of freedom states that things freely learned are best learned. Conversely, the
further a student is coerced, the more difficult is for him to learn, assimilate and implement what
is learned. Compulsion and coercion are antithetical to personal growth.

Requirement:

The law of requirement states that "we must have something to obtain or do something." It can
be an ability, skill, instrument or anything that may help us to learn or gain something.

Recency:

The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered.
Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the
more difficult it is to remember.

Reinforcement
Reinforcement is any reaction to a behavior that encourages the research subject to increase
that behavior. There are two types of reinforcement - positive reinforcement and negative
reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement:
Positive reinforcement is what we might refer to as a reward; it is something desirable that is
given to the research subject after it performs the behavior. If you are trying to develop a
healthy eating and exercise routine, you may want to reward yourself after a week of meeting
your goals by going out with friends or buying a small gift for yourself. Once you have learned
that your good behavior will result in this reward, you are more likely to continue the good
behavior - this is positive reinforcement.

Negative reinforcement:

Negative reinforcement, on the other hand, results when an undesirable thing or action is taken
away after a behavior is performed. Imagine you always get cold when you go to a particular
movie theater. After a couple of experiences of being uncomfortably cold while watching the
latest movie, you may start to bring a sweater with you. By wearing the sweater, the negative
element of the cold is removed and you are likely to continue bringing a sweater with you. The
absence of the cold reinforces your behavior.

Punishment:

Punishment changes a subject's behavior by providing a negative response to the behavior that
needs to change. For Skinner, this meant sending an electric shock through the floor of the
Skinner Box or administering a loud noise that would startle the laboratory animal. The rat or
pigeon would learn to associate a particular behavior with punishment and would thus stop
performing that behavior.