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2015

Inventory Optimization in Manufacturing

Organizations
Scott William Lemke
Walden University

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 Walden University

College of Management and Technology

This is to certify that the doctoral study by

Scott Lemke

has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects,

and that any and all revisions required by
the review committee have been made.

Review Committee
Dr. Charlotte Carlstrom, Committee Chairperson, Doctor of Business Administration Faculty

Dr. Judith Blando, Committee Member, Doctor of Business Administration Faculty

Dr. Al Endres, University Reviewer, Doctor of Business Administration Faculty

Chief Academic Officer

Eric Riedel, Ph.D.

Walden University
2015
 Abstract

Inventory Optimization in Manufacturing Organizations

by

Scott Lemke

MBA, University of St. Thomas, 2002

MMSE, University of St. Thomas, 1992

BMech, University of Minnesota, 1980

BA, Hamline University, 1978

Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Business Administration

Walden University

July 2015
 Abstract

Inventories totaling 1.7 trillion U.S. dollars represent an opportunity for U.S. manufacturers.

This exploratory case study researched supply chain strategies used to manage inventory in

manufacturing operations of a U.S. manufacturing company. A mature value chain contained

within a single organization using the value chain framework was the basis for this study.

Individual interviews conducted with 16 managers responsible for defining and implementing

inventory control strategies, and 4 internal users provided primary information for the study.

Other sources of information included a value chain map created through the observation of

operations, various inventory measurements, and policies and guidelines related to managing

inventory levels. An inductive content analysis employing zero-level coding of the interview

transcripts identified 4 themes that describe inventory control strategies as economic order

quantity, kanban, vendor managed inventory, and process integration. Physical observation of

the value chain, review of supporting documents, and analysis of inventory data ensured the

trustworthiness of interpreted themes. Findings identified no single inventory control strategy

that fit all applications. Findings also revealed that the financial governing bodies’

measurements were not the best tools for operational managers’ improvement activities

related to inventory control. Included are measures providing alternative means to gauge

inventory efficiency. With the results of this study, managers may develop effective

strategies to optimize inventory and improve material flow. Manufacturing managers

improving material flow may promote sustainability of raw materials and business

efficiencies through reduced waste, improved environmental conditions, and increased

employment opportunities in associated communities.

Inventory Optimization in Manufacturing Organizations

by

Scott Lemke

MBA, University of St. Thomas, 2002

MMSE, University of St. Thomas, 1992

BMech, University of Minnesota, 1980

BA, Hamline University, 1978

Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Business Administration

Walden University

July 2015
 Dedication

I dedicate this study to my spouse, Jeanne, and my daughters, Jenny, Angie, Boo, and

Emma, who encouraged me to continue learning, helped Dad with new technology, and

allowed quiet time for study.

 Acknowledgments

I am extremely appreciative of my chair, Dr. Charlotte Carlstrom (Dr. C), for her

continued guidance, support, and patience while I developed writing skills and her

encouragement to stay continue the study. I would like to thank Dr. Judith Blando, Dr. Al

Endres, and Dr. Gene Fusch for reviewing thoughts into a professional presentation. Their

insights made this study possible. Thanks to my colleagues and coworkers for their support

of my entire program.
 Table of Contents

List of Tables .......................................................................................................................v

Section 1: Foundation of the Study......................................................................................1

Background of the Problem ...........................................................................................1

Problem Statement .........................................................................................................2

Purpose Statement ..........................................................................................................3

Nature of the Study ........................................................................................................4

Research Question .........................................................................................................7

Interview Questions ................................................................................................ 7

Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................8

Definition of Terms......................................................................................................12

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations..............................................................17

Assumptions.......................................................................................................... 17

Limitations ............................................................................................................ 17

Delimitations ......................................................................................................... 19

Significance of the Study .............................................................................................20

Contribution to Business ....................................................................................... 20

Implications for Social Change ............................................................................. 22

i
 A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature ..............................................23

Business Case........................................................................................................ 24

Evolution of the Manufacturing Processes Affecting Inventory .......................... 36

Supply Chain Management ................................................................................... 41

Reasons for Inventory ........................................................................................... 43

Inventory Optimization Tools ............................................................................... 56

Transition and Summary ..............................................................................................82

Section 2: The Project ........................................................................................................84

Purpose Statement ........................................................................................................84

Role of the Researcher .................................................................................................85

Participants ...................................................................................................................86

Research Method and Design ......................................................................................88

Method .................................................................................................................. 88

Research Design.................................................................................................... 91

Population and Sampling .............................................................................................93

Ethical Research...........................................................................................................95

Data Collection ............................................................................................................96

Instruments ............................................................................................................ 96

ii
 Data Collection Technique ................................................................................... 98

Data Organization Techniques ............................................................................ 100

Data Analysis .............................................................................................................102

Reliability and Validity ..............................................................................................106

Reliability............................................................................................................ 106

Validity ............................................................................................................... 108

Transition and Summary ............................................................................................112

Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change ................113

Overview of Study .....................................................................................................113

Presentation of the Findings.......................................................................................115

Strategy 1: Economic Order Quantity................................................................. 116

Strategy 2: Kanban .............................................................................................. 118

Strategy 3: Vendor-Managed Inventory ............................................................. 119

Strategy 4: Process Step Integration or One-Piece Flow .................................... 121

Interview Results ................................................................................................ 122

Applications to Professional Practice ........................................................................125

Implications for Social Change ..................................................................................127

Recommendations for Action ....................................................................................130

iii
 Recommendations for Further Study .........................................................................133

Reflections .................................................................................................................134

Summary and Study Conclusions ..............................................................................135

References ........................................................................................................................138

Appendix A: Example of a Value Stream Map ...............................................................166

Appendix B: Value Stream Map of Product Under Study...............................................167

Appendix C: Company Letter of Cooperation .................................................................168

Appendix D: Individual Letter of Consent ......................................................................169

Appendix E: Inventory Data ............................................................................................173

Appendix F: Daily Inventory Graphs ..............................................................................174

Appendix G: Permission to Reprint Emails .....................................................................178

iv
 List of Tables

Table 1. Inventory, Current Assets, and Sales Data From Manufacturing Firms ............. 25

Table 2. Working Capital From Manufacturing Firms ..................................................... 30

Table 3. Inventory Based on Accounting Method ............................................................ 52

Table 4. Interview Journal .............................................................................................. 101

Table 5. Working Capital Restated With Inventory Reduced 50% ................................ 126

v
 List of Figures

Figure 1. A generic value chain representing one company ............................................... 9

Figure 2. Internal value stream map representing one process step ................................. 11

Figure 3. Data collection and analysis ............................................................................ 100

Figure 4. Example of inventory measurement by age in days. ....................................... 132

vi
 1
Section 1: Foundation of the Study

Inventory is a significant asset in most manufacturing companies, and efficient

use of inventory has a positive effect on the company’s cash flow and continued viability.

Inefficient management of inventory may lead to poor customer service because of lack

of available product, higher operating costs caused by interest payments on borrowed

cash, and potentially failure of the enterprise. Managers employ various strategies to

control inventory, with varied success. In a 2014 review of the top 25 U.S. supply

chains, inventory turns ranged from 153.0 for McDonalds to 3.0 for Caterpillar (Aronow,

Hofman, Burkett, Romano, & Nilles, 2014). Inventory turns is a standard measure of

inventory efficiency calculated by dividing annual sales by the quarterly average

inventory for the same period. Some managers control inventory efficiency well,

whereas others have significant investments in inventory and opportunities for

improving.

Background of the Problem

Manufacturing products began as a process of filling orders one at a time. A

customer wanting a product either made it or went to a skilled craftsperson to deliver the

product requested. Manufacturers looked for alternate methods of production to improve

cost and availability of products. Several manufacturers worked on the idea of producing

more than one product at a time, or mass production. Mass production relies on building

products, in most instances, to address a forecast. Producing items based on a forecast

versus actual orders requires purchasing and making materials ahead of sales in many

instances. The unsold material creates inventory, which includes (a) raw materials, (b)
 2
raw materials partly processed into semifinished goods, and (c) assembled finished

products.

A financial analysis of companies includes a review of working capital, which

provides a view of the companies’ cash flow, determining the liquidity of the business.

Working capital is the sum of inventory dollars and accounts-receivable dollars minus

accounts-payable dollars (Duggal & Budden, 2012; Lifland, 2011; Mauboussin &

Callahan, 2014). Another useful measure of liquidity is cash cycle time, which is the

time between paying for raw materials and receiving payment from customers for the

finished goods using the raw materials (Alipour, Jamshidinavid & Dastgir, 2015).

Working capital dollars and the working capital cycle time have an effect on the

company’s profitability (Charitou, Elfani, & Lois, 2010). Small working capital

requirements and short working capital cycle times correspond to fast cash conversion

requiring less money to operate. Efficient use of working capital leads to lower

borrowing costs and increases funds available for use in other investments. As

inventoried materials are a part of manufacturing companies’ working capital, efficient

use of inventory is vital to business success. The basis for this study was exploring

strategies to improve the efficiency of inventory, thereby improving business liquidity.

Problem Statement

U.S. manufacturers have more than 1.7 trillion U.S. dollars (USD) of unsold

inventory in stock (U.S. Census Bureau News, 2015). Many manufacturing companies

have more than 50% of total assets invested in working capital, which includes inventory,

as well as accounts receivable and accounts payable (Beheshti, 2010; Darun, Roudaki,
 3
Radford, 2015; Gill, Biger, & Mathur, 2010). The general business problem is that

excessive levels of working capital invested in inventory negatively affect a company’s

profitability (Aktas, Croci, Petmezas, 2015; Bagchi, Chakrabarti, & Roy, 2012; Charitou

et al., 2010; Chisti, 2013; Mojtahedzadeh, Tabari, & Mosayebi, 2011). The specific

business problem is that some managers lack strategies for efficient inventory control

(Basu & Wang, 2011; Hatefi & Torabi, 2015).

Purpose Statement

The purpose for this qualitative case study was exploring strategies that managers

use to optimize and control inventory levels in manufacturing processes. While previous

researchers determined several possible reasons leading to inventory, exploring strategies

for optimizing and controlling inventory presents an opportunity for improving

managers’ ability to reduce and control inventory levels throughout the manufacturing

process (Bakker, Bohme, & van Donk, 2012; Brüggen, Krishnan, & Sedatole, 2011; de

Leeuw, Holweg, & Williams, 2011; He, Xu, & Hayya, 2011; Ranganatham, 2011; Sana

& Chaudhuri, 2013; Willems, 2012). The boundary for this study was the manufacturing

process of one product produced by a company in the Midwestern United States using a

case study design. According to the U.S. Census Bureau News (January 2015), 1.76

trillion USD of inventory supported sales of 1.30 trillion USD. This level of inventory

means that nearly 41 days of inventory exist when compared to sales, representing a

significant opportunity to improve operating efficiencies and thereby profitability in U.S.

businesses. Efficient management of business operations supports companies’ solvency,

providing employment, maintaining affordable pricing, and supporting communities

 4
through jobs and taxes.

Nature of the Study

A qualitative case study design was suitable for this research exploring strategies

influencing inventory levels in a manufacturing company and the human interactions

within these strategies. The data collection process for this study had several

characteristics of qualitative research as defined by Yin (2013). The characteristics

included (a) observation of the system as it works in its usual manner, (b) use of multiple

sources of information to draw conclusions, (c) collecting information from participants

involved in the system, (d) inductive data analysis to develop themes, and (e)

development of a holistic account of inventory opportunities. Sources of information

included (a) software systems and corresponding input parameters, (b) purchasing and

manufacturing policies, (c) manufacturing data from process equipment, and (d)

interviews with people, leaders, and decision makers using the systems and information

to make decisions regarding inventory levels. The manufacturing data enhance the

results of the study. Findings from qualitative studies provide insight into human

interactions within the processes that quantitative studies cannot (Yin, 2013).

Quantitative designs are most appropriate when examining the size and

interrelationships among variables. A quantitative study is appropriate when testing a

hypothesis, or applying a treatment to an independent variable and testing to determine

whether there is a change in the dependent variable. The mixed methods design is

another possible form of study, which is a combination of quantitative and qualitative

research designs. Using mixed methods design provides researchers with the benefits of
 5
both quantitative and qualitative design, enabling them to explore and test subjects. In

this study, I used qualitative design to explore strategies affecting inventory levels.

Using a mixed methods design was a possibility for this study, as it would have enabled

an evaluation of the relationship between one or more strategies identified (independent

variables) and efficient inventory (the dependent variable). A mixed methods design

would be a reasonable follow-up study, but, because of time constraints, I decided not to

use mixed method design for this study.

An exploratory case study design was suitable for this research because (a) the

subject matter was within a bounded system, (b) several sources provided information,

(c) the focus of the study was answering how and why questions, and (d) the focus for the

investigation was on understanding the real-life system, not controlling it (Crowe et al.,

2011). A case study design is appropriate when the researcher is answering a how or

why question and when the researcher has little control over what is happening (Vissak,

2010). This research did not match (a) narrative design (focus on life stories of

individuals or a small group of individuals), (b) phenomenological research design (focus

on the experience of a group of individuals around an event or circumstance), or (c)

ethnographic research design (focus on a cultural group). A grounded theory design was

an option, as a review of information collected could have led to theory development, but

theory development was not the objective for this study. The purpose of this study was to

explore strategies managers use to optimize and control inventory levels in

manufacturing processes.

Determining the unit of analysis is an important aspect of case study design (Yin,
 6
2013). In this study, the unit of analysis, or the case boundary, was a unique value chain

for one finished product manufactured within one company. A value chain map is a

visual representation of the process steps showing product flow, information flow, and

cash flow from raw materials to the customer’s final product (Rother & Shook, 2003).

The terms value chain and value stream are interchangeable throughout this research

paper. The value chain mapping tool, which showed the process steps and material flow,

demonstrated where inventory accumulated and identified interview candidates. An

example of a generic value chain map representing a product composed of three inputs or

raw materials and seven process steps is in Appendix A.

A value chain map identifies the production process, including (a) locations and

levels of inventory, (b) people involved, (c) available reports, (d) physical manufacturing

data, and (e) policies determining the levels of inventory. In the example value chain,

each of the three subassemblies (Processes 4, 5, & 6), consists of two materials: one

harvested from the earth, and the other received from another manufacturer (see

Appendix A). Materials harvested from the earth are indeed raw materials and could be

plant, animal, mineral, or liquid. A complete value stream map can trace the origin of

each component in the product back to the primary material harvested from the earth.

Although some value chains have all process steps contained within one organization,

most value chains have employees from multiple companies contributing to one or more

process steps. The person ordering raw materials and components determines the amount

of inventory before the next process. The person scheduling each of the processes

determines the amount of inventory after each process. Inventory in a single site includes
 7
incoming materials (such as raw materials), work-in-process materials, and the output of

the location (finished goods for the location). Defining the boundary of the study using a

value stream map identified the location of inventory and the people responsible for

managing inventory levels throughout the manufacturing process. This case study

involved an established product for which manufacturing steps take place at more than

one manufacturing facility.

Research Question

A qualitative, exploratory case study is appropriate to answer how and why

questions about optimizing the creation and buildup of inventory in manufacturing

operations. The following question was the basis for the research: What strategies do

production managers need for efficient inventory control?

Interview Questions

The following list contains the interview questions for participants. All

participants answered each question. The participants had a copy of the value chain

under study to refer to during each interview.

1. Is the value chain operating at an optimum inventory level?

2. How do you measure inventory efficiency in this value chain?

3. Describe the process and criteria for selecting a supplier and manufacturing

location.

4. What role does inventory play in your purchasing and manufacturing ordering

decisions?
 8
5. What parameters determine the amount of material ordered and

manufactured?

6. What tools and systems do you use when deciding to place orders?

7. How are just-in-time (JIT) and lean philosophies included in your decision

making?

8. Who owns the inventory in the manufacturing process?

9. What, if any, inventory-level criteria are you measured on for your annual

performance review?

10. What is the most challenging task in managing input and output inventory in

your value chain?

11. What suggestions do you have for improving the material flow in your value

chain?

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework for this study was the value chain framework

originally introduced by Michael Porter in 1985, as illustrated in Figure 1. Porter’s

(1998) purpose in defining the value chain framework was to evaluate activities

providing a competitive advantage for a firm and to help the firm’s leadership understand

strategies making the firm better than its competitors. The value chain framework is a

tool for identifying activities performed by the firm’s employees sorting the activities into

primary and support activities. Activities are essential to the value chain framework

because there is a cost associated with activities creating value for the customer. Profits

result when the cost to perform an activity is less than the value to the customer.
 9
The value chain framework helps managers determine activities that add value

and those that do not (Hemmatfar, Salehi, & Bayat, 2010). The value chain also defines

the role each function has in the organization. People in an effective organization

understand internal hand-offs among functions and strive to improve linkages between

them (Patnaik & Sahoo, 2009). Each activity requires inputs and produces outputs.

Inputs include items such as raw materials, labor, and customer information.

Figure 1. A generic value chain representing one company. From Competitive Advantage
Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance (p. 37), by M. Porter, 1998, New York,
NY: Free Press. Reprinted with permission.

Outputs include (a) process information, (b) products and services, and (c)
 10
financial assets, including (d) accounts payable, (e) accounts receivable, and (f) inventory

(Porter, 1998). Determining strategies to provide lean inventory control requires input

from managers responsible for (a) people, (b) practices, (c) expectations, (d)

measurement, and (e) systems creating inventory and material flow. Figure 1 is an

example of an internal value stream map modeled after Porter’s (1998) value chain. The

example represents a single organization, which may contain one or several process steps

(see Appendix A).

Several people may affect inventory levels throughout the manufacturing-related

processes in each location. Possible participants for this study included managers and

supervisors of (a) purchasing agents, (b) supply chain analysts, (c) production operation

leaders, (d) product and process engineers, (e) marketers, (f) logistics analysts, (g)

warehouse and distribution center management, and (h) corporate lean resources.

Interviewing managers and supervisors of these positions was the primary source of

information. Other participants included people in these areas who provided additional

information as part of data triangulation for increasing the study’s reliability and validity.

Expanding on Porter’s model, Figure 2 represents one process step in a value

chain made up of three operational process steps. Inventory exists in front, between, and

after each operational process step. Applying Porter’s process map model facilitates

identifying locations where inventory exists as well as defines individuals responsible for

creating and managing inventory (see Appendix A). The model in Figure 2 demonstrates

the complexity in manufacturing a product depending on the number of organizations

involved in the process.

 11

Figure 2. Internal value stream map representing one process step.

Working capital consists of accounts payable, accounts receivable, and inventory,

used to fund daily operations (Charitou et al., 2010). The value chain framework is

suitable for exploring inventory creation through activities including procurement,

inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing and sales, and service with

inventory as an output of some activities, as well as input to the following activity. The

value chain framework provides a tool for describing a firm’s processes. Exploring the

value chain of a single firm may help the company to become more competitive and
 12
profitable.

The value chain concept also applies to improving the competitiveness of entire

industries. For example, when analyzed as a value chain, the U.S. dairy industry

connected linkages and created Dairy Management Incorporated (Whalen, 2012). The

analysis resulted in members of the dairy industry value chain that in the past were

competitors working together to solve industry-wide problems. The value chain mapping

concept provides a visual representation of the links required for organizations’ managers

creating products and services. Porter’s (1998) value chain model provides a reasonable

framework for analysis and improvement that was relevant for conducting this study.

Definition of Terms

Batch size: The batch size, also known as the make-order size, is the amount of

the same material made in one production run on a piece of manufacturing equipment

(Cruz & Nunez, 2011).

Cash conversion cycle: The cash conversion cycle is the time between the outlay

of cash to pay for raw materials and the collection of cash from the customer for those

processed raw materials. Expressed as a financial formula: cash conversion cycle = days

of accounts receivable + days of inventory – days of accounts payable (Charitou et al.,

2010; Gill et al., 2010; Raheman, Qayyum, & Afza, 2011).

Cash-to-cash cycle: The time between the outlay of cash to pay for raw materials

and the collection of cash from the customer of those processed raw materials. The

formula is the same as that for the cash conversion cycle (Akgün & Gürünlü, 2010).

Current assets: Assets available for conversion to cash used to pay short-term
 13
debts including accounts receivable (Manisha, 2012).

Current liabilities: Debts due in the near term, including accounts payable and

short-term debt (Manisha, 2012).

Customer relationship management: An understanding of customers’ needs and

preferences to provide complete, effective, and efficient services to them by servicing the

customer, collecting marketing data, and managing sales (Tohidi, 2012).

Days of inventory: Defined by dividing average inventories (inventory at the

beginning of the period + inventory at the end of the period/2) by cost of sales per day in

the same period (Raheman et al., 2011).

Days of accounts receivable: Defined by dividing average accounts receivables

(accounts receivable at the beginning of the period + accounts receivable at the end of the

period/2) by net sales per day in the same period (Raheman et al., 2011).

Days of accounts payable: Defined by dividing average accounts payables

(accounts payable at the beginning of the period + accounts payable at the end of the

period/2) by cost of sales per day in the same period (Raheman et al., 2011).

Economic manufacturing quantity: The economic manufacturing order quantity is

the batch size of the same material that optimizes the cost of the operation. The batch

size is a result of comparing the cost to change over to the product versus the cost to store

it (Michalski, 2009).

Economic order quantity: The economic order quantity is the amount of material

to order at one time. The order size is a result of comparing the cost of the material

versus the cost to finance and hold the material. The economic order quantity is a
 14
concept similar to the economic manufacturing quantity (Kannan, Grigore, Devika, &

Senthilkumar, 2013).

End-of-period reporting: End-of-period reporting is the concept of generating

reports for a defined time interval. In the case of inventory, end-of-period reporting

defines inventory levels on the last day of the period. In publically traded companies,

financial reports periods are quarterly and annually (Ward & Ward, 2013).

First in first out (FIFO): This term refers to a valuation method for inventory. In

this case, the assumption is that material sent to the customer is always the oldest

inventory (Harris, 2011).

Jidoka: Jidoka refers to the practice of stopping the production line whenever

there is a quality issue with the product. The operator may stop the line automatically or

manually (Helman, 2012).

Kaizen: Two Japanese words comprise the word kaizen: kai, meaning changing,

and zen, meaning better. Kaizen is a method and philosophy of continuous improvement

driven by the people in the workplace (Vieira, Balbinotti, Varasquin, & Gontijo, 2012).

Kanban: A kanban is a signaling system allowing authorization to produce and

withdraw the product in a pull system (Satoglu, Durmusoglu, & Ertay, 2010).

Last in first out (LIFO): This term refers to a valuation method for inventory. In

this case, the assumption is that material sent to the customer is always the newest

material (Harris, 2011).

Liquid assets: Liquid assets are assets owned by an organization used to pay

short-term bills. The assets may be cash or assets capable of conversion to cash in a short
 15
time (Manisha, 2012).

Periodic review: Periodic review is an analysis of information during a particular

time interval. In this study, the periodic reviews were financial data reviewed quarterly

and annually. Some financial data listed represent the amount on the last day of the

review period (Rudi, Groenevelt, & Randall, 2009).

Production order quantity: The production order quantity is the batch size of the

same material that optimizes the cost of the operation. The batch size is a result of

comparing the cost to change over to the product versus the cost to finance and store it

(Michalski, 2009).

Pull production: A manufacturing philosophy in which product from one process

step moves directly to the next without accumulating between steps. In an ideal state,

this would be one-piece flow, in which one piece moves directly from one process step to

the next. Pull production is the opposite of a push manufacturing system (Lu, Yang, &

Wang, 2011).

Standard work: Standard work is the defined, best-known method to perform an

operation. People perform the operation the same way until defining a better way,

creating a new standard (Vieira et al., 2012).

Takt time: The rate at which customers purchase a product compared to the

production rate. The purpose of knowing takt time in a production operation is to provide

the customer the product when requested. Following takt time minimizes late orders and

extra inventory (Lu et al., 2011).

Third-party logistics: An organization providing logistics services to another

 16
company that may include sourcing, material management, and distribution. Some third-

party logistics providers are extending services to include handling returns and minor

repairs rather than send them back to the firms’ factory (Jayaram & Tan, 2010).

U-shaped manufacturing cells: U-shaped manufacturing cells are production lines

with multiple process steps arranged in proximity in a “U” shape (Satoglu et al., 2010).

In this manufacturing setup, operators may perform duties on several pieces of equipment

to produce a product.

Value chain: A value chain, also known as a value stream, is a tool describing the

flow of material and information in schematic form, called a map. Typical elements on a

value stream map include (a) cycle time, (b) setup time of process steps, and (c) material

in the process at and between steps, work-in-process in days, and lead time (Chen &

Meng, 2010).

Vendor managed inventory: Inventory and supplies in which the supplier makes

replenishment decisions on behalf of the purchaser, providing benefits to both the

supplier to control costs—and the purchaser to optimize inventory (Kauremaa, Småros, &

Holmström, 2009).

Vertical integration: The extent to which a company owns the upstream and

downstream processes in a value chain (González & Chacón, 2014).

Working capital: Working capital is the difference between current assets and

current liabilities (Ding, Guariglia, & Knight, 2010).

Work-in-process (WIP): Work-in-process describes inventory that has started

through the manufacturing process and not completed all manufacturing steps (Wantuck,
 17
1989).

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations

Assumptions

An assumption for this study was that documents analyzed as part of the literature

review provided an adequate summary of the existing state of the topic and identified

gaps for study. Another assumption was that personal experience and the documents

provided information to determine appropriate interview questions to answer the research

questions. Both assumptions were true, as the literature review identified gaps and the

responses to the interview questions answered the research question. An assumption in

the interview process was that interviewees provided truthful information to the best of

their ability with no personal biases. Each interviewee reviewed the summary of

transcripts from the interview via member checking and agreed with the interpretation.

An assumption was that supporting data for triangulating information from interviews

were accurate, and that online financial information provided by the companies’ finance

specialists for the background and significance of the study sections accurately

represented the various comparisons regarding financial performance. The final

assumption was that the summary of data collected and analyzed with the aid of

qualitative software accurately reflected findings of this study. Based on the results of

the study and the feedback from the participants, there was no evidence for doubting the

assumptions’ validity.

Limitations

Findings from this study provided an in-depth review of a single value chain’s
 18
strategies used to control inventory levels. Access to documents, inventory records, and

individuals defining and implementing strategies was necessary to complete the study.

The value chain was a product offering in my employer’s company, which allowed

access to value chain information. This value chain is mature and has been in place for

several years. Throughout the product life cycle, there have been several changes in raw

materials and technology advancements, so the entire manufacturing process is a mix of

established and new processes. The old and new components in the value chain provided

an opportunity to study various efficiency levels of inventory process management. The

value chain is part of a separate organization in which I have no influence over people or

outcomes. I have been part of the company culture for several years. To overcome this

potential bias, interviewing occurred with individuals at several levels in the company

hierarchy. The focus of this study was to understand strategies improving levels of

inventory within the company and promoting efficient use of capital.

The individuals in the value chain determined the available sample population and

the number of possible interviews. Member checking was part of the process to

overcome time limits and facilitate accurate reflections of the information collected.

Inventory measurements provided information showing the effect of control and

improvement strategies. The value assigned to inventory changed daily based on the

delivery dates of raw materials. Value increased as materials went through the

manufacturing system until the materials became a finished product. Accountants

calculated work-in-process and finished goods inventory values. Several methods exist
 19
to value inventory. The leadership of each company may choose a method of calculating

inventory values, and the methods are not necessarily the same in all businesses.

Delimitations

A single value chain within one manufacturing company defined the boundaries

of this study. The value chain began with the manufacturing organization ordering raw

materials, through manufacturing and assembly processes, to the company-owned

distribution centers. In this case, the product evolving through the value chain sold

through retailers, not the final user. The process throughout this value chain activity was

make-to-stock versus make-to-order planning for product fulfillment. Raw materials

included inputs from other manufacturing facilities within the same company as well

outside suppliers.

The population included managers responsible for the manufacturing processes in

the selected value chain, managers in roles supporting the manufacturing processes, and

supply chain analysts making decisions regarding levels of material to purchase and

manufacture. Case study evidence may come from several sources. Yin (2013)

mentioned six of them: (a) documents, (b) archival records, (c) interviews, (d) direct

observation, (e) participant observation, and (f) physical artifacts. Observations were not

included in the study initially. After mapping the process observation of material flowing

through the production process revealed significant information. Physical artifacts such

as devices, tools, and physical objects were not part of this study. Documents containing

the amount of inventory provided a better indicator regarding strategies’ effectiveness.

 20
Based on the value chain characteristics and study design, results of the study may not be

applicable to all value chains.

Interviewing managers and supervisors responsible for determining strategies

controlling and optimizing inventory levels, as well as people responsible for creating or

purchasing materials within a manufacturing organization, was the basis of information

for this study. Interviewees included individuals responsible for setting policy and

parameters. Originally, the preference was to conduct interviews face to face. Face to

face interviewing was not possible in all cases because of scheduling conflicts and

location. Four of the interviews occurred face to face, with the other 16 occurring over

the telephone. The use of a speakerphone for all phone interviews allowed recording of

both questions and responses. There was no difference in the depth of answers or the

followup discussion based on the interview method. In both cases, participants clarified

and, in some instances, justified answers. Follow-up member checking ensured that my

interpretations were correct.

Significance of the Study

Contribution to Business

Businesses leaders in the private sector provided approximately 113,419,000 jobs

in the United States and paid approximately 379,043,000,000 USD in taxes to the U.S.

federal government in 2011 (U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of Economic

Analysis, 2013). Private businesses play a meaningful role in the nation’s economy and

in the quality of life of individuals and families. Survival of an enterprise depends on

paying bills in a timely manner. The term working capital describes assets used for
 21
financing daily operations providing money for paying bills on time (Charitou et al.,

2010). Proper management of working capital is an essential function of a successful

business. Excessive working capital suboptimizes the use of a company’s assets, and too

little working capital can lead to bankruptcy (Mojtahedzadeh et al., 2011). In a review of

corporate failures in Malaysia, Bee, and Abodollahi (2011) found debt ratio to be the

most significant predictor of failure, followed closely by liquidity ratios. Liquidity ratios

are an indicator of business managers’ ability to pay bills. Jones (2011) identified the

working capital to total assets ratio as a top three predictor for business survival.

The U.S. Small Business Administration (2013) identified the top 10 reasons for

small business failure. Three reasons included in this list relate to nonoptimal working

capital: (a) insufficient capital, (b) poor inventory management, and (c) low sales. These

reasons are significant, as approximately half of new firms do not survive 5 years (U.S.

Small Business Administration Office of Advocacy, 2010). In another study on new firm

survival, Coleman, Cotei, and Farhat (2010) found that companies with higher debt levels

and reduced working capital have a positive correlation with failed companies. As an

important element of working capital and enterprise survival, optimal inventory provides

a balance between servicing customers and improving funds available for business

sustenance, alleviating financing constraints (Ding et al., 2010).

Small business leaders employ approximately 50% of people in the private sector

and are responsible for 75% of new job creation (Longley, 2012). In the United States,

approximately 500,000 small businesses start each year (Longley, 2012). The effect on

the economy from small businesses is significant. Lack of optimal inventory is not the
 22
only source of business failure, but it is a component of it. Excessive inventory reduces

the amount of funds available for investments and reduces profits for organizations (Ding

et al., 2010; Losbichler & Mahmoodi, 2012).

Inventory dollars divided by sales dollars is a ratio commonly used to calculate

inventory efficiency. Since 2004, inventory-to-sales ratios for U.S. businesses ranged

from 1.48 to 1.25 (U.S. Census Bureau News, 2015). For the month of January 2015,

total inventories in the United States were 1.76 trillion USD versus sales of 1.30 trillion

USD, resulting in an inventory-to-sales ratio of 1.35. These statistics yield an estimate of

40.5 days of inventory based on 30 days in a month. In this case, a reduction in inventory

of 1 day would increase cash available to U.S. businesses by 43.5 billion USD. By

observation, excessive inventory results in less efficient operations, leading to increased

waste and increased costs. Increased costs may reduce profits or increase selling price,

making the business less competitive.

Implications for Social Change

For the leaders of positive social change, the influence of nonoptimized inventory

affects each supplier in every product value chain, from the raw materials harvested from

the earth to the finished product on a store shelf. The potential scope of this research is

far reaching with respect to the number of organizations that would be able to take

advantage of the research. Efficient use of inventory results in less waste going to

landfills and other methods of disposal, relating directly to sustainability of natural

resources (Wolf, 2011). Social implications of inefficient operations include business

failure, unemployment, higher prices, and higher cost of living. Finally, in the global
 23
economic environment, job creation and unemployment are concerns. Sustaining current

businesses and developing viable businesses are important factors influencing the welfare

of entire nations.

A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature

The purpose of this research was to gain an understanding of strategies

influencing inventory levels in manufacturing organizations. Interviewing people making

inventory decisions associated with a particular value chain in a manufacturing operation

provided the majority of information for research. I recorded, transcribed, and analyzed

each interview, establishing themes and perceptions regarding inventory levels. The

literature review explored (a) the business case regarding value and level of inventory, (b)

the progress of manufacturing practices and effects on inventory decisions, (c) uses and

measurements of inventory, (d) inventory planning tools, and (e) research strategies and

designs authors used to complete their studies. Search engines in the Management and

Business databases through the Walden University library located peer-reviewed articles

for the literature review. Search engines included (a) ProQuest Central, (b) Business

Source Complete, (c) ABI/Inform Complete, and (d) Emerald Management Journal. The

Google and Google Scholar search engines provided peer-reviewed articles as well.

Searches included parameter settings for current articles (within the past 5 years) and

peer review. Searches used keywords and phrases such as (a) just-in-time, (b) lean

manufacturing, (c) Toyota Production System, (d) inventory management, (e) working

capital, and (f) value chains. References consist of 207 articles, of which 189 or 91.3%

are peer-reviewed and 187 or 90.3% are less than 5 years old.
 24
Business Case

Inventory plays a significant role in the success of most businesses. A complete

set of financial statements for corporations in the United States as defined by the

Financial Accounting Standards Board and the U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting

Principles include a balance statement, income statement, statement of cash flows, and

retained earnings statement (Ward & Ward, 2013). Inventory is a line item in two of the

four recommended financial statements, the balance sheet, and the statement of cash

flows. The balance sheet lists inventory as a current asset, and a statement of cash flows

records changes in inventory. The definition of a current asset is an asset capable of

conversion to cash in the short term and includes cash reserves held by a corporation,

accounts receivable, prepaid expenses, and inventory. Although some sources adhere to

the concept that inventory is a readily available source of cash, others have reservations

about calling inventory cash that is not moving (Manisha, 2012; Sprague & Callarman,

2010). Valuation of inventory includes the purchase price of raw materials, the cost to

process and evaluate the materials, the cost to ship the materials to storage and

distribution locations, and the fixed cost derived from equipment and facilities

depreciation. Considering inventory as a current asset depends on the age of the

inventory, the demand for it at the time of conversion, and the length of time it takes to

convert it to cash.

Basu and Wang (2011) reviewed changes in inventory levels in U.S. companies

and the effect inventory had on firm performance and firm value over a 55-year period

(1955–2005). The findings are consistent with studies in the literature review that show
 25
that increases in inventory have an adverse effect on earnings growth and lower stock

price. Researchers also found that the strength of the relationship is dependent upon the

data collection period. Basu and Wang found that a negative correlation does not apply

to companies maintaining lower levels of inventory. An important finding from this

research is that external factors affect financial performance of companies less if they

carry optimal inventory levels.

The level of inventory varies considerably by organization. Table 1 shows the

dollar value of inventory and the percentage of inventory compared to current assets and

sales of several companies. A brief overview of automobile manufacturing companies

showed that inventory as a percentage of total sales at the end of 2012 ranged from 4.3%

to 9.5% (Daimler AG, 2012; Ford Motor Company, 2012; General Motors Company,

2012; Honda Motor Company, LTD, 2012; Toyota Motor Company, 2012).

Table 1

Inventory, Current Assets, and Sales Data From Manufacturing Firms

Ford GM Toyota Daimlera Honda Deere CAT

Inventory 7,362 14,714 18,219 17,720 12,906 5,170 15,547
Current assets 125,643 69,996 146,375 67,458 56,523 42,719 42,524
Sales 134,252 152,256 234,289 114,297 104,889 36,157 65,875
Inventory/CA 5.9 % 21.0 % 12.5 % 26.3 % 22.8 % 12.1 % 36.6 %
Inventory/Sales 5.5 % 9.7 % 7.8 % 15.5 % 12.3 % 14.3 % 23.6 %
Note. CA = current assets. Information retrieved from 2012 annual reports published in
Yahoo Finance.com. Inventory, current assets, and sales data in millions of USD.
a
Inventory, current assets, and sales data in millions of EUR, 1 euro equals 1.37 USD
(Yahoo Finance, October 20, 2013).

The dollar value invested in inventory for these companies ranges from 5.9 billion

USD to 24.3 billion USD (17,720,000 Euros). If Ford (4.3%) operated at the same
 26
inventory efficiency as General Motors (9.5%), Ford would require an additional 7.1

billion USD. Using the same measure in the agriculture equipment manufacturing

industry, inventory as a percent of total assets ranged from 13.7% to 24.2% (Caterpillar,

2012; Deere, 2012). If Deere (13.7%) ran at the same inventory efficiency as Caterpillar

(24.2%), Deere would require an additional 3.4 billion USD.

In a longitudinal study of companies in a turnaround situation, cash flow and

inventory management were significant factors for the success or failure of returning to

profitability (Zimmerman, 1990). Zimmerman (1990) completed a case study comparing

the turnaround results between the Chrysler Corporation and International Harvester.

During Chrysler’s successful turnaround, the average sales dollar-to-inventory dollar

ratio was 11.02: during this same period, International Harvester’s sales-to-inventory

ratio was 2.56 (Zimmerman, 1990). Compared to Chrysler’s ratio, International

Harvester required an additional 1.6 billion USD to operate. Clearly, optimizing

inventory efficiency in manufacturing operations is an opportunity for many

manufacturing companies.

Money used for purchasing and manufacturing inventory is unavailable for other

finance requirements and may require borrowing funds to sustain operations. In this

case, Ford and Deere, with a smaller percentage of funds invested in inventory, may have

an advantage over peer companies. Authors of several studies have reported that working

capital and inventory have an effect on both profitability and liquidity (Bagchi et al.,

2012; Chisti, 2013; Gill et al., 2010; Mojtahedzadeh et al., 2011; Raheman et al., 2011).

Another method to evaluate liquidity measures the length of time it takes to

 27
recoup a dollar invested in raw materials. This measurement, termed cash conversion

cycle, is the number of days for inventory to turnover plus the number of days to collect

accounts receivable minus the number of days to pay accounts payable (Alipour,

Jamshidinavid, & Dastgir, 2015; Charitou et al., 2010; Gill et al., 2010; Raheman,

Qayyum, & Afza, 2011). The definition of inventory turnover is the dollar value of

inventory divided by the dollar value of the cost of goods sold, multiplied by 365 days (1

year). Similarly, the accounts payable term in this calculation is the accounts payable in

dollars divided by total purchases for the year in dollars multiplied by 365. The accounts

receivable term in this calculation is the accounts receivable in dollars divided by the

sales for the year in dollars multiplied by 365. The shorter the cash conversion cycle, the

quicker cash returns to the business, which improves cash flow. This definition is

essential for conducting studies allowing comparisons of companies of varying sizes

regardless of the dollar value of the inputs and outputs.

Chisti (2013) conducted a quantitative study involving 16 Indian firms, testing

relationships between profitability, the dependent variable, and the three components of

working capital: (a) debt ratio, equal to total debt divided by total assets; (b) current ratio

equal to current assets divided by current liabilities (also the traditional measurement of

liquidity); and (c) cash conversion cycle, the independent variables. Chisti’s conclusion

showed a strong negative correlation with each of independent variables. In other words,

profitability decreased as the independent variables increased. The findings are

consistent with previous studies cited in the literature review.

 28
Bagchi et al. (2012) surveyed 10 Indian firms, analyzing the effect of cash

conversion cycle, debt-to-equity ratio, debt-to-total assets ratio, days of accounts

receivable, days of accounts payable, and days of inventory on return on total assets and

return on investments. The availability of financial data for the period limited the sample

size. The authors’ findings showed that debt, days of accounts receivable, days of

accounts payable, and days of inventory had a negative correlation with the return on

total assets. Cash conversion cycle, debt to total assets, and days of accounts payable had

a negative correlation with the return on investment. The authors made the point that

short-term liquidity and longer term profitability are at odds, and the company must

balance them to be successful (Bagchi et al., 2012). Liquidity allows a company to avoid

bankruptcy and pay creditors on time, leading to higher amounts of working capital:

greater amounts of working capital lead to lower profits.

Mojtahedeh et al. (2011) evaluated the three components of working capital and

the cash conversion cycle versus firm profitability for 101 companies listed on the Tehran

Stock Exchange. The authors’ findings showed that days of accounts receivable, days of

accounts payable, and cash conversion cycle have a negative correlation with firm

profitability. Unlike the Mojtahedeh et al. study, days of inventory were not a significant

factor in the results of this study. Part of the reason given is that new, small companies

are likely to outsource manufacturing steps and have longer supply chains. These

companies need inventory to grow. Managers in larger, newer businesses focus on cash

management, as they are likely to have small sales. The company’s working capital

position has an effect on profitability, but the company’s focus may differ based on its
 29
situation in the market, its age, and its size (Mojtahedeh et al., 2011). In a 10 year study

of 204 companies listed on the Karachi Stock Exchange, Raheman et al. (2011) analyzed

working capital management performances using the cash conversion cycle and its

components as independent variables, and return on total assets and industry sector as the

dependent variables. Companies considered dominant and lagging would improve their

working capital management the most by reducing days of inventory and accounts

receivables. In both types of businesses, the days of inventory affected the cash

conversion cycle.

Gill et al. (2010) conducted a quantitative study evaluating 88 American firms’

working capital and its effect on profitability. The authors studied various financial

information, including (a) accounts receivable, (b) accounts payable, (c) inventory, (these

first three variables comprise working capital), (d) cash conversion cycle, (e) firm size,

(f) financial debt ratio (defined as short-term loans plus long-term loans divided by total

assets), and (g) fixed financial asset ratio (defined as fixed financial assets divided by

total assets) as independent variables with profit as the dependent variable. The findings

of this research showed a negative correlation between accounts receivable and profit,

which is consistent with previous studies, and a positive relationship between cash

conversion cycle and profitability. The positive correlation between cash conversion and

profitability is in direct conflict with four studies cited in the literature review (Bagchi et

al., 2012; Chisti, 2013; Mojtahedeh et al., 2011; Raheman et al., 2011). In this case, Gill

et al. found no correlation between any of the other variables and profits.
 30
In an analysis of more than 120,000 Chinese firms during a 7-year period, Ding et

al. (2010) found that firms adjusted working capital to minimize external financing. In

addition, firms with extensive external financing typically had higher working capital.

Favorable working capital management could reduce the need for external financing,

providing less expensive and faster growth (Ding et al., 2010). The literature review

included as part of this study contains information indicating that liquidity and

profitability have a negative correlation, and successful organizations require balance.

Higher inventories and generous payment terms lead to growth yet also tie up working

capital, potentially resulting in unfavorable external loans.

Table 2

Working Capital From Manufacturing Firms

Ford GM Toyota Daimlera Honda Deere Cat

Inventory 7,362 14,714 18,219 17,720 12,906 5,170 15,547
Accounts 82,338 23,868 87,831 7,543 26,367 31,426 20,499
receivable
Accounts 68,715 48,474 47,311 8,832 16,976 9,288 15,309
payable
Total 20,985 -9,892 58,739 16,431 22,297 27,308 20,737
working
capital
Working 15.6 % -6.5 % 25.1 % 14.4 % 21.3 % 75.5 % 31.5 %
capital/sales
Note. Information taken from 2012 annual reports published in Yahoo Finance.com.
Inventory, accounts receivable, and accounts payable data in millions of USD.
a
Inventory, current assets, and sales data in millions of EUR, 1 euro equals 1.37 USD
(Yahoo Finance, October 20, 2013).

Evaluating the working capital of the same seven firms shown in Table 1 shows a

range of working capital of 40,520,000 USD for Toyota to a negative 9,892,000 USD for
 31
General Motors, as shown in Table 2. General Motors managers will need to raise

money to pay suppliers for acquired material in inventory. Also seen from the chart,

Daimler managers will need to sell some inventory in a short time to pay their suppliers,

as accounts payable exceeds accounts receivable. In situations when payables exceed

available cash, companies must raise or borrow money to remain viable.

Raising capital and borrowing money incur additional costs, adding to the

payables (Lifland, 2010). Managing the optimal level of working capital is a complex

problem and depends on (a) the company’s strategy, (b) the financial situation of the

firm, (c) the firm’s place in the market, and (d) the company’s industry.

In addition to the industry the company is participating in, other external factors

influence the amount of working capital companies have on hand. In a study of working

capital carried by companies in the Baltic States (Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia), several

factors influenced the working capital over a period from 2005–2010 (Arbidane &

Volkova, 2012). As the national economy grew, so did the amount of working capital.

Inventory increased so as not to miss sales growth, and payment terms became more

flexible, leading to increased receivables.

When the global economy began to falter at the end of 2008, working capital

started to fall in companies that were able to respond to the change. Arbidane and

Volkova (2012) found that in cases in which companies did not respond appropriately to

the change in the economy, inventories aged as the shortage of cash slowed sales and the

shortage of cash pushed buyers to borrow money from suppliers. Those companies

unable to respond to the change struggled for survival. The governments’ response to
 32
economic change through monetary policy, government spending, and tax policy may

also play a factor in corporate working capital levels, with businesses increasing or

decreasing working capital levels based on what will help optimize profits and maintain

viability.

The results of a similar study that evaluated U.S. companies by comparing

working capital before and after the global recession (2007 to 2010), Duggal and Budden

(2012) showed an increase in firms retaining more cash and short-term investments,

contrary to the findings in the Baltic States. The researchers indicated that the effect of

working capital in some industries, including consumer staples, health care,

telecommunications companies, and consumer discretionary companies, such as

McDonalds and Dollar Tree, was minimal. In these industries, the days of inventory

stayed flat or decreased. Other industries increased inventories, which may mean that

they responded slowly to the change in the purchasing habits of their customers.

In a study evaluating working capital as a percent of sales, Ek (2011) determined

that a relationship exists with respect to industry type. Automobile manufacturers and

automobile parts suppliers are on the high end with a ratio of 24%, followed by personal

and household goods suppliers at 21%, with travel and leisure and telecommunications at

the lower end at 5%. As seen in Table 2, a fair amount of variation in inventory exists

even in similar industries. General Motors and Daimler may need financial assistance, as

accounts payable exceeds accounts receivable. Determining whether others have the

correct quantity on hand is difficult based on the information in the table.

Bartram (2013) listed several methods to improve working capital, including (a)
 33
use key performance indicators across the company to manage performance, (b) consider

alternative funding to reduce financing expenses, (c) pay suppliers on time to avoid late

payment charges, (d) pay suppliers early to take advantage of discounts, (e) generate

detailed reports to keep close track of expenses, (f) manage inventory to keep supplies

moving, (g) eliminate inventory that is not moving, (h) closely manage customer payment

times, and (i) take advantage of electronic procurement using e-auctions to bid

competitively. Using the definition of cash cycle time introduced earlier, reducing cash

cycle time and improving cash flow requires (a) reducing the receivable turnover by

collecting from customers sooner, (b) increasing inventory turnover by reducing the

amount of inventory,(c) increasing the accounts payable days by extending the payments

to suppliers, or (d) any combination of the three. These actions will reduce the cash cycle

for a single company in the value chain. To reduce the cycle time of the entire value

chain requires the firms to work together.

Akgün and Gürünlü (2010) evaluated a four-tier value chain including raw

material supplier, manufacturer, distributor, and retailer with the hypothesis that to

optimize profit in the entire value chain, all members in the value chain need to work

together versus optimizing individual organizations or process steps. In this scenario, the

days of accounts receivable at the first step in the process is also the days of accounts

payable for the second step. This situation applies to each subsequent stage. Requiring

faster payment from customers will not shorten the cash conversion cycle time except at

the final selling point, the retailer. Suboptimizing also occurs when extending payments

to suppliers. Any of the individual firms in the value chain extending payment terms will
 34
shorten their cash conversion cycle, but add to the days of accounts receivable to the

company in the previous step, nullifying any benefit to the entire value chain. An

organization that removes inventory from their processes improves the cash conversion

cycle of an individual firm as well as shortening the cash conversion cycle of the entire

value chain. The whole value-chain cash cycle improves as long as removing inventory

in one process step does not make another step in the process add inventory to

compensate.

In a survey by Grant Thornton LLP (2010) regarding supply chain improvements,

90% of the respondents reported taking steps to optimize working capital. The actions

reported most often were taking price concessions from suppliers (55%), extending

payment terms to suppliers (43%), granting price concessions to customers (43%), and

extending payment terms to customers (29%). Some improved relationships with

partners by sharing forecasts (33%), and establishing supply chain-wide inventory

management strategies (33%) (Grant Thornton LLP, 2010). Many of the actions

reported in this survey may have helped an individual firm at the expense of suppliers

and did not improve the value chain efficiency.

Losbichler and Mahmoodi (2012) shared similar information regarding the

opportunity for improving working capital through shortening the cash conversion cycle.

For example, if IBM reduced their cash-to-cash cycle by 1 day in 2010, IBM would

increase their cash flow by 1.578 billion USD. The benefits of reducing inventory count

as double savings as in addition to reducing cash tied up in inventory, operating costs are

reduced including (a) storage costs, (b) cost of insurance, (c) cost of moving materials,
 35
(d) loss due to damage, and (e) loss due to obsolescence, estimated to be 10% of the

value of the inventory. The authors indicated few companies successfully sustained

improvement in cash cycle time. The results of the study conducted by Losbichler and

Mahmoodi agreed with findings from a study conducted by Mitra and Bhardway (2010),

which found many companies struggle to improve working capital. Cisco wrote off 2

billion USD of inventory in 2001 because of poor sales forecasts. Mitra and Bhardway

identified Walmart’s success in reducing and sustaining improved cash flow has reduced

its cash conversion cycle from 90 days in 1971 to less than 10 days in 2011.

Mitra and Bhardway (2010) suggested four factors prevent companies from

improving cash-to-cash cycle. The first factor is management shifting focus based on the

place in the business cycle. Emphasis is on working capital management during a

downturn in the business cycle as companies seek to finance programs internally based

on the increased cost of capital. The next factor is the use of measurements and

incentives that do not support proper working capital management. Metrics focusing on

short-term profitability may do so at the expense of improving cash flow. One example

of focusing on short-term profits measures unit costs of individual items. One factor to

determine unit costs includes depreciation of capital equipment. Running more units

keeps the cost per unit down. Focus on reducing unit cost may encourage behavior to

produce amounts exceeding demand resulting in excess inventory.

The next factor preventing cash-to-cash cycle improvement is not having a

designated owner of the inventory or several groups share responsibility. One example is

accountability of raw materials. The product developers select the raw materials for a
 36
new product design. Working with suppliers, the sourcing agent determines economic

order quantities. The supply chain analyst orders raw materials based on a forecast

provided by the sales department. Each of the individuals determining the amount of raw

material to order has different criteria for deciding how much to purchase that may result

in suboptimal levels. The final factor, a lack of understanding of the influence of

working capital management on the cash-to-cash cycle prevents improvement. Each of

the individuals determining the amount of material to order may have conflicting metrics.

If the finance group owns the management of working capital, the other groups may not

understand how their decisions increase or decrease working capital and cash flow for the

corporation.

Optimizing inventory in the value chain and in individual firms has a positive

effect on the company’s profitability and long-term sustainability. Many companies have

focused on reducing cash conversion cycle time and improving cash flow because of the

economic opportunities provided. Although some corporations have successfully

implemented changes to improve the cash position of the company, many others have

struggled. Following is an overview of the evolution of manufacturing operations and the

effect the evolution in practices has had on working capital management.

Evolution of the Manufacturing Processes Affecting Inventory

Inventory was not an issue in the early days of manufacturing as skilled

craftspeople built products one piece at a time. Customers ordered product to their

specifications making production expensive, and lengthy. An example of early

production is the first automobile in England (Womack, Jones, & Roos, 1990). In 1894,
 37
the Honorable Evelyn Henry Ellis decided to purchase a car. Ellis traveled to France

authorizing the establishment of Panard et Lavassor to build a car. Panard et Lavassor

produced a few hundred automobiles each year. The automobile consisted of a few

fundamental components. Ellis was able to define a vehicle to suit his needs.

Manufacturing the necessary components took place in local shops. Panard et Lavassor

assembled components into the final product. Fitting parts required artisans to file and

trim parts to assemble into the final product. Although drawings existed for the parts,

measuring devices varied, tolerances of the machines in each shop varied, and metal parts

required heat-treating that hardened parts making them fit for use. The heat-treating

process distorted parts requiring additional work to make parts fit. Ellis returned to drive

his vehicle for testing, and modification of parts continued until he agreed to accept the

purchase.

Eli Whitney won a contract from the U.S. Government for muskets in late 1890

(Cooper, 2003; Woodbury, 1960). Whitney struggled with mass production because the

heat-treating process warped parts and required manual rework before assembly (Woods,

2009). McCormick and Singer also attempted mass production using interchangeable

parts in the early production of farm equipment and sewing machines but were

unsuccessful for the same reason (Paxton, 2011). A heat-treating process developed by

Fredrick Taylor and J. Maunsell White III hardened steels used to cut parts after the

treatment (Paxton, 2011). The development of hardened steels along with feed rate and

speed calculations for machine tools (the creation of the slide rule) led to an economical

means of creating interchangeable parts,. Mass production allowed manufacturers to

 38
produce large volumes of parts economically to a geographically broad base of

customers. Instead of waiting for orders to begin producing parts as artisans did, mass

production relied on forecasts to pre-build parts and finished goods. Finished products

filled store shelves, and while consumers could continue to order products to their

specifications, many people purchased finished goods directly from the sales floor.

Henry Ford was an early adapter in taking advantage of interchangeable parts

(Ford & Crowther, 1988). Henry Ford and Colonel Albert Pope developed

manufacturing practices, such as quality control, specialization of duties, vertical

integration, and the moving assembly line (Ford & Crowther, 1988; Norcliffe, 1997).

Henry Ford also added standard work, and the assembly line to his production process

allowing an increase in production of 1,700 Model T automobiles in 1903 to 66,640, in

1912 (Ford & Crowther, 1988). The assembly line signified the beginning of the mass

production era in manufacturing. Benefits included lower cost and faster response,

allowing buyers to purchase an automobile and drive it away on the same day. Inventory

was part of the mass production process as production occurred based on an estimate of

demand, not actual orders. Manufacturers produced product based on expected demand

creating inventory until customers purchased items.

Another essential factor in the development of mass production was the ability to

transport interchangeable parts, collect, and relay information regarding those parts from

manufacturer to manufacturer economically (Helper & Sako, 2010). Advancements in

communication and transportation allowed producers to provide products to customers

economically. Since Ford’s development of automobile production lines, many

 39
manufacturers relied on the economies of scale achievable through mass production

operations.

Around the same time, industrial companies were changing their organizational

structures. In a review of 200 larger companies from 1980 through 1990, Chandler

(1990) identified several structure changes in successful and unsuccessful organizations.

Standard Oil Company managers combined similar companies to create economies of

scale and develop cost advantages. German chemical companies Bayer, BASF, and

Hoechst, expanded capabilities by increasing the scope of processes and product

offerings to reduce costs. The theory behind these actions was to spread an increasing

number of units over fixed costs thereby reducing the total fixed cost per unit. The fixed

cost per unit measures the total fixed cost divided by the total number of units produced.

Chandler indicated the success of these operations was the continuous flow of materials

through equipment maintaining low fixed costs. Because fixed costs do not change or

change slowly with depreciation, the best mathematical decision with this equation was

to increase the number of units produced.

Increasing the scale and scope increased the number of units, driving down unit

costs. Creating inventory is a likely outcome of this logic when capacity exceeds

demand. A viable solution when capacity exceeds demand, is increasing the scope and

manufacturing different products with similar processes. A potential outcome of

increasing the number of products produced on the same equipment is an increase in

machine setups resulting in changeovers leading to economic manufacturing quantity

calculations to determine the appropriate batch size. Because the formula uses an
 40
estimate of annual demand and not actual demand, the economic order quantity formula

is likely to create either inventory or service issues.

Economies of scale may provide benefits to individuals, industries, and countries.

Catalan (2011) studied the development of the automobile industry in three countries,

Argentina, South Korea, and Spain, all desiring to improve the state of their economy

after World War II. The governments of these countries worked closely with

manufacturers to develop their country’s automobile manufacturing industry. The

governments of these countries virtually eliminated imports and some local

manufacturers to ensure a constant demand for the remaining companies. Each of the

countries benefited from economies of scale initially. Later, industrial policy changes for

Argentina and Spain included increasing imports, leading to overproduction, severely

hampering economies of scale and significantly reducing the viability of the local

producers. South Korea was more conservative than Argentina and Spain, and the three

largest local manufacturers, Hyundai, Daewoo, and Kia continued to thrive, taking

advantage of economies of scale.

Helper and Sako (2010) expanded on Chandler’s work evaluating the economies

of scale and scope in the modern supply chain. To maintain the flow through fixed cost

equipment requires a constant supply of inputs. The authors indicated Chandler’s

premise is improvements in communication and transportation allowed corporations to

develop vertical integration. Chandler (1990) recognized organizations developed

vertical integration through purchasing suppliers or developing their source of supply.

DuPont and Ford extended vertical integration purchasing mines to provide raw materials
 41
for their operations (Ford & Crowther, 1988). Helper and Sako suggested continued

improvements in communication and transportation allowed companies to integrate

vertically without owning supply operations. An important aspect of vertical integration

is ensuring the supplier has the proper incentive to provide materials when needed, at an

appropriate cost. Vertical integration leads to creating value chains also called supply

chains, involving other companies. These changes in operation have created the term

supply-chain management and the next phase of manufacturing.

Supply Chain Management

The definition of supply chain management is far reaching. In a qualitative

review of more than 1000 articles, Stock, Boyer, and Harmon (2010) identified 166

unique definitions for the term supply-chain management. The analysis found three

reoccurring themes, (a) activities, (b) benefits, and (c) constituents of components.

Activities included movement of materials, information, and money. Benefits included

value, efficiencies, and satisfied customers. Constituents are the players involved in the

entire process including (a) procurement, (b) operations, and (c) distribution (Carter,

Rogers, & Choi, 2015). The supply chain included the processes and entities responsible

for harvesting and converting materials into a product purchased by a customer and the

flow of cash in the reverse direction. The term supply chain and value chain defined by

Porter (1998) are synonymous.

In an integrated supply chain, the constituents work together for the benefit of the

total supply chain and each participating entity. Daugherty (2011) described integrated

supply chain relationships as a continuum with wholly owned operations on one end,
 42
versus one-time spot buying between a customer and supplier on the other end with

various levels of relationships between them. Daugherty defined partnerships and

alliances as meaningful links in integrated supply chains. In a partnership, parties work

together on a long-term basis to the mutual benefit of both. In a partnership, both

companies share information and risk. Alliances are the next level of relationship in

which firms mutually take advantage of the strengths of the other. Alliances provide a

long-term commitment to cooperate for the future success of both companies. In an

alliance, companies work together to develop products and services while sharing

proprietary information.

In a survey ranking the top 25 global supply chains, a primary characteristic of

leaders is relationships developed through the supply chain including partnerships with

customers and suppliers (Hofman & Aronow, 2012; Hofman, Aronow, & Nilles, 2013).

Benefits should include increased profitability through operational, service, and

innovation improvements. In a review of Chinese firms, Flynn, Huo, and Zhao (2010)

found collaboration improved the flow of information, products, services, and cash

between suppliers and customers. The researchers also found firms participating in

collaboration improved flow within the company.

In another example of collaboration, Sahoo (2010) studied farmers in India

regarding the advantages of developing relationships with suppliers and customers in the

form of corporate distributors. In the past, farmers pushed their products into the

marketplace regardless of demand creating an inefficient operation. In collaboration, the

farmers formed alliances with banks, seed providers, and distributors, which improved
 43
the flow of information and goods. Sahoo reported that collaboration removed non-value

added participants, reduced risk of demand, thereby reducing the cost to fund operations.

Collaboration improved information from the customer, increasing the match between

supply and demand, reducing the likelihood of waste. Sahoo found that firms

collaborating with suppliers and customers led to reduced inventory throughout the

supply chain.

Reasons for Inventory

Inventory is a valuable asset for most businesses because it uses limited resources.

Manufacturing leaders consider inventory a luxury, a necessity, or a waste of resources,

depending on perspective. Willems (2012) defined types of inventory based on its

purpose as follows:

1. Anticipatory inventory is material purchased or manufactured based on

expected demand.

2. Cycle inventory is a material created or purchased to fill the void caused by a

batch process, caused by infrequent deliveries or a manufacturing process,

which make the material cycle infrequently.

3. Early arrival inventory is material delivered before requested.

4. Marketing inventory is the finished product displayed on store shelves.

5. Obsolete inventory is material made or purchased and not needed.

6. Pipeline inventory is material in transit from place to place in the supply

chain. Pipeline inventory includes material moving from the raw material

supplier to the manufacturer, from the manufacturer to the distribution center

 44
and from the distribution center to the retailer. An important note - the

material is moving.

7. Pre-build inventory is material made or manufactured because of known

instantaneous demand exceeding instantaneous capacity. This situation is

common in seasonal type businesses.

8. Promotional inventory is a material made for specific finished goods in a

short-term sale.

9. Strategic inventory is material purchased or manufactured because of a

favorable condition.

10. Finally, safety inventory is a material made to compensate for variability

throughout the value chain, for instance, variability in production or uncertain

demand.

According to Willems (2012), safety inventory is usually the largest amount of

controllable material. Reducing safety stock requires reducing variability throughout the

system. He et al. (2011) completed a study supporting the hypothesis that reducing

variability in lead-time had a larger effect on inventory reduction than reducing the mean

of the lead-time. There are several areas of variability in supply chains. Singh (2010)

developed equations for perfect and imperfect quality supply chains demonstrating total

inventory cost increased with imperfect or inconsistent quality. Unpredictable demand

variability may be another cause for safety inventory. Sabath and Sherman (2013)

discussed the importance of understanding variability of customers’ requirements. In

many cases, the most unpredictable customer requires additional inventory to cover the
 45
uncertainty at the expense of the steadier, more predictable customers.

Pipeline inventory mentioned by Willems (2012) is inventory between steps in

processes internally, and inventory between supply chain partners. Pipeline inventory

may also present an opportunity for inventory optimization. Internally, operations in the

same facility and the same company should be able to optimize material flow and

resultant inventory. That is not always the case. Bakker et al. (2012) analyzed four

businesses and discovered two significant reasons for suboptimal material flow

internally, fire-fighting and functional-silo mentality. In the study (a) poor value stream

design, (b) inconsistent strategy, (c) independent systems, and (d) high levels of

uncertainty and variability in processes contributed to firefighting. Functional-silo

mentality is when each department in a company focuses on improvement of the

department regardless of the effect on the organization. Causes of functional-silo

mentality included (a) structure differences, (b) different goals and incentives, (c)

different cultures, (d) lack of integrated systems, and (e) geography differences.

In a Supply Chain Executive Brief survey (2011), functional-silo mentality ranked

as the third highest barrier (45.9% of respondents believe it was the greatest obstacle) to

effective inventory management. Differences in functional groups caused internal

pipelines to carry more inventory than is necessary to meet business goals. In the case of

pipeline inventory in a value chain involving multiple companies, information flow

between partners is critical. Pipeline inventory compensates for uncertainty of demand

leading to uncoordinated production throughout the system. The results of the Supply

Chain Executive Brief survey ranked inability to optimize the system holistically (55.9%)
 46
and demand volatility (45.9%) as the top two barriers to effective inventory management.

Several methods are available to manage information and material flow in value

chains. Datta and Christopher (2011) analyzed four methods to control information and

material flow. Centralized control, decentralized control or a combination of the two

defined the four methods. Centralized control refers to one company making decisions

for the entire value chain. Decentralized control occurs when each company in the value

chain makes decisions. The first method occurs when control of both information and

material flow is by one entity in the value chain. This method may lead to restricted

information flow and over-reaction to minor changes in the supply and demand, but has

demonstrated reduced material flow cost. Decentralized controlled decision-making and

centrally controlled material flow improved information flow and service, but is slow to

react to system upsets.

Decentralized decision-making and material flow improves information flow and

improves value chain metrics for make to stock items, but leads to a bullwhip effect when

changes in demand occur. The bullwhip effect is a term describing a small change in

demand resulting in increased demand swings in each company as the effect moves up

the supply chain (Heim, Peng, & Jayanthi, 2014). The bullwhip effect may cause

excessive production and extra inventory. An extreme example of the bullwhip effect

occurred with a new product in a relatively new company responding to a perceived

increase in demand resulting in an inventory overrun with the product becoming obsolete,

bankrupting the company (Marion & Sipahi, 2010). The final form of control,

decentralized decision-making with centrally coordinated material flow resulted in

 47
increased information flow and led to improved value chain metrics.

Ranganatham (2011) defined inventory slightly differently than Willems as (a)

normal inventory, required for production flow; (b) safety inventory, to cover unexpected

demand; (c) profit making inventory, finished goods stock; and (d) flabby inventory held

because of inefficient operations. Classifying inventory based on its place in the

manufacturing process as (a) raw materials, that are inputs to a manufacturer’s operation;

(b) work-in-process or WIP, that is a material that has begun processing, but not ready for

shipment to customers; and (c) finished goods, that is the material sold to customers, is

also typical. Ranganatham (2011) surveyed several small-scale enterprises in India and

found companies based minimum raw material inventories on (a) lead-time, (b) lead-time

plus safety stock, or (c) consumption over a fixed period. The same companies based

maximum raw material inventories on (a) future production plans, (b) the useful life of

the material, (c) projected price changes, or (d) the amount of storage space available. In

the case of raw materials, there needed to be enough inventories to compensate for

delivery times. Increasing the frequency of deliveries decreased the amount of material

inventoried.

Sana and Chaudhuri (2013) defined several factors when developing an economic

manufacturing quantity. Those factors have some effect on the amount of safety stock

inventory recommended for achieving optimal economic operations. Factors considered

in the development of the equation are (a) machine failure frequency and duration, (b)

preventative maintenance frequency and duration, (c) good part yield, (d) cost to rework

parts not meeting requirements, (e) the cost of running out of the product, and (f) the set
 48
up cost to change the machine from one part to the next. More frequent disruptions and

longer downtime increased the inventory carried as safety stock. Safety stock can be in

the form of raw materials, WIP, or finished goods.

Another factor influencing levels of inventory is available capacity versus the

consumer demand and market fluctuation. Li and Meissner (2011) evaluated the effects

of investment in capacity versus the costs of production and inventory carrying costs.

Too little capacity and the possibility of missed sales and long customer wait times exist.

Too much capacity wastes resources, restricting other investments. Cost accounting

methods and individual incentives may cause overproduction and excess inventory.

Under the fully burdened cost accounting method, the product and the inventory both

absorb variable and fixed costs (Meade, Kumar, & White, 2010). Fixed costs exist even

when there is no production and include depreciation of plant and equipment and salaries

of office people. Variable costs are the costs incurred when manufacturing products

including the materials going into the product and the workers operating the equipment.

The concern in the fully burdened cost accounting method is individuals may

overproduce to reduce the cost of individual units creating excess inventory. In financial

statements, inventory is an asset. Reducing inventory decreases assets and will show a

decrease in profits short term. A rapid reduction in inventory will show a larger

reduction in profits short term, which may cause alarm and discourage inventory

reduction (Meade et al., 2010).

In a study of North American automobile companies (Ford Motor Company,

General Motors, and Chrysler) from 2005 to 2006, Brüggen et al. (2011) observed
 49
managerial incentives used excess capacity to improve unit costs by over producing

products. For each 1% of extra capacity, there was a corresponding 0.49% increase in

excess production resulting in excess inventory. In this case, spreading fixed

depreciation over more units lowered the unit cost. While spreading depreciation over

more units appears to be a smart decision in the short-term, purchasing raw materials and

using labor to create the extra units requires additional cash outlay. Stank, Dittman, and

Autry (2011) indicated a lack of strategy and focus on short-term results are significant

barriers to lasting improvement in material optimization measurements. Over producing

to reduce the unit cost may lead to managers to discount the inventory in order to sell it.

Longer term, this behavior teaches consumers to wait for discounted goods before

making purchases. Gupta, Pevzner, and Seethamraju (2010) completed a similar study of

firms with relatively high fixed costs and reported similar results. The authors presented

the influence inventory levels had on the stock market analysts, as well. In some cases,

investors consider a buildup of inventory as a prediction for future sales and a favorable

investment. In other instances, if a firm has falling sales and increasing inventories,

analysts considered inventory a liability.

The Statement of Financial Accounting Standards, Number 151 (2004), required

organizations to report extra capacity, also called idle capacity, on financial statements as

a line item affecting cash flows for the reporting entity. Bettinghaus, DeBruine and

Sopariwala (2012) reported General Motors North America operations to have over 32

billion USD of idle capacity in the period from 2002 – 2008. Typically, capacity

decisions affected finished goods. Increased demand fluctuation requires increased

 50
capacity or inventory. The researchers also found that significant variability in supply, in

production processes, and in demand, required a higher level of safety stock inventory

(Bettinghaus, DeBruine, & Sopariwala, 2012).

The development of economic manufacturing quantities and economic order

quantities required defining several cost factors. As cost factors change, updating the

factors and recalculating lot sizes is essential to maintain optimal quantities. Huang,

Cheng, Kao, and Goyal (2011) developed a mathematical model determining economic

manufacturing quantities, which included 14 independent variables. The reduction of one

of the 14 variables, the setup cost, reduced the economic order quantity. Reducing the

economic manufacturing quantity reduces the amount of safety stock and inventory

carrying costs and the total manufacturing cost. The model developed in this research

may contribute to reducing inventory and total costs by justifying investments in reducing

the setup cost.

Analyzing distribution systems provided another perspective with respect to

finished goods inventory. De Leeuw et al. (2011) analyzed the finished products carried

by dealers in the automotive industry. Because each dealer seeks to optimize their profit,

the distribution systems behave the same as decentralized control with each dealer

controlling their inventory level. Through the study, the authors found significant

differences in finished goods inventory between dealers. Dealer inventory ranged

between 23 and 89 days with an average inventory level of 66 days (de Leeuw et al.,

2011). The average level has not changed since the early days of mass production. The

lack of change is particularly relevant knowing that most automobile manufacturers have
 51
instituted improvement programs such as JIT, lean manufacturing, and the Toyota

Production System.

As identified by several authors, several reasons exist to maintain inventory and

most manufacturing operations require a certain level of inventory to operate efficiently

(Bakker et al., 2012; Brüggen et al., 2011; de Leeuw et al., 2011; He et al.,2011;

Ranganatham, 2011; Sana & Chaudhuri, 2013; Willems, 2012). Because inventories

typically account for 50% of current assets in manufacturing operations, optimizing

inventory is extremely beneficial to the success of the business (Ranganatham, 2011). As

most inventory reporting is in terms of financial value, understanding the methods of

valuing inventory is important. Three methods exist to determine the value of inventory

according to the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP).

Harris (2011) defined commonly used methods as Last in First out (LIFO), First

in First out, (FIFO), and the weighted average. Each method returns a different value for

the same inventory. The LIFO method values inventory based on the first purchase price

of the period. The FIFO method values inventory at the acquisition price of the last

inventory purchased, and the weighted average method bases the inventory value on the

average for purchases throughout the year. Harris (2011) demonstrated the differences in

the methods, the effect on the cost of goods sold, and the tax burden with an example

shown in Table 3. In each case, the number of units sold and the number in inventory are

identical.

Accountants using the FIFO method use the most recent purchase price as the

basis for the inventory valuation. Accountants employing the LIFO method utilize the
 52
first purchase price as the basis for the inventory valuation. In this example, the first

purchase was 100 units at a cost of $10.00; the second purchase of 100 units cost $10.20

each; the third purchase of 100 units cost $10.40 each, and the final purchase of 100 units

cost $10.60 each. In this example, because the purchase price increased throughout the

year, the value of inventory is highest in the FIFO measurement and lowest in the LIFO

measurement.

Table 3

Inventory Based on Accounting Method

FIFO LIFO Weighted average

Beginning $0 $0 $0
inventory
Purchases $4,120 $4,120 $4,120
Sales units 400 400 400
Remaining 20 20 20
inventory
Ending inventory $ 20 x $10.60a=$212 20 x $10.00b=$200 20 x $10.30c=$206
Cost of goods sold $3,908 $3,920 $3,914
Note. a = last purchase price (most expensive); b = first purchase price (least expensive);
c = average purchase price which is equivalent to $4,120/400 units. Table reprinted with
permission from “Should Last In First Out Inventory Valuation Methods be Eliminated?”
by P. Harris, 2011, Global Journal of Business Research, 5(4), p. 63.

Inventory value works the opposite way when the purchase price drops

throughout the period such as times of deflation. The accounting method affects the

value of inventory, cost of goods sold, and profit reported. Because inventory, cost of

goods sold, and profits are part of financial statements and various financial ratios,

understanding the method of inventory accounting is necessary for correctly interpreting

financial results.

The accounting method effect varies based on the amount of inventory a company
 53
carries and the age of the inventory. For instance, the value of Exxon Mobil

Corporation’s inventory valuation is 21.3 billion USD less using the LIFO method versus

the FIFO method (Krishnan & Lin, 2012). The basis for this estimate is the price of oil

reserves in 1939 at the time the company formed. Again, the lower inventory value

increases the cost of goods sold lowering the profits and the income taxes paid. In Exxon

Mobil’s case, the resulting lower profit leads to a tax savings of approximately 9 billion

USD (Fosbre, Fosbre, Kraft, & Stockton, 2010). According to Jeffers, Wei, and Askew

(2010), about 36% of U.S. companies use the LIFO accounting method including several

petroleum companies. Use of the LIFO method of inventory valuation is under

discussion as the Securities and Exchange Commission considers adopting International

Financial Reporting Standards (Krishnan & Lin, 2012).

Mobil Exxon’s LIFO accounting method only includes raw materials because raw

materials are relatively easy inventory to calculate using purchase price. Other inventory

items included in the entire inventory calculation are the work-in-process (WIP) and

finished goods. WIP and finished goods valuations may be more complicated as each

requires a determination of the amount of value added at each process step. Accountants

include several costs to produce goods, considered direct costs, and costs to support

production, considered indirect costs to determine inventory values for WIP and finished

goods. Direct costs should be relatively straightforward to calculate, as the design of the

product will determine the type and amount of materials used to make the product, and

the labor costs to produce parts. Determination of indirect costs requires decisions on

what costs are included and how to allocate the costs.

 54
Terzioglu (2012) defined four types of indirect costs as (a) logistics, (b)

balancing, (c) quality, and (d) change. Logistics costs included spending to receive and

transport materials throughout the production facility and ship to the distribution point.

Balancing costs determined what to make and when to make it. Quality costs ensured the

product meets customer expectations, and change costs are costs incurred because of

modifications to the process and equipment. Allocating indirect costs to a product

determines the value of both the WIP and the finished goods inventories. These

inventory values determine the cost of the product, which also determines the profit

margin. In Terzioglu’s research, allocating indirect costs based on the percent of direct

labor in each part was the most common method of allocation. Terzioglu identified

fourteen other allocation methods and several companies that did not allocate indirect

costs. Terzioglu found the intent of the allocation method chosen by top-level

management was to influence the compensation and behavior of managers to make the

best decisions for corporate resources. Selecting the appropriate accounting method and

corresponding compensation plans should provide optimal results. Likewise,

inappropriate accounting methods and compensation plans would lead to suboptimal

results.

Another aspect to consider when valuing inventory is whether the value

diminishes as it ages. According to Wampler and Holt (2013), at some point, inventory

value declines with age and financial reports need to reflect the decreasing value. GAAP

requires inventory valuation at the lower of cost to produce or market value in which

market value is the cost to purchase a replacement for the inventory. Determining the
 55
value of aging inventory is a consideration when reporting total inventory in financial

statements. The higher the amount of old inventories on hand, the more the discretion of

the organization to determine the inventory measurement (Wampler & Holt, 2013).

Gemayel, Stasny, Tackett, and Wolfe (2012) completed a study comparing auditing

methods used to evaluate inventory data because inventory is a commonly manipulated

account. Harris (2011) noted the LIFO accounting method does not support JIT

inventory methods. Harris also notes firms using LIFO are more likely to purchase extra

inventory at the year-end resulting in decreased profits and reduced taxes.

The reason for this discussion about inventory value is to demonstrate various

methods exist for determining inventory value within organizations. As Terzioglu (2012)

reported, individual compensation plans may influence the levels of inventory reported as

well as corporate strategies to minimize taxes. The value of inventory is a significant

measure as it affects financial statements and financial ratios used to determine a firm’s

performance. This research is not to determine which inventory accounting method is

best, as one method may not be ideal for every company, but to identify differences

between methods. Some companies may display unusually high inventory values based

on the cost of the raw material. A company using gold as a raw material will probably

show a greater value of inventory on its financial statements than a corporation using

paper as a raw material. Because of the differences used to determining inventory value,

understanding the measurement is necessary for calculating optimal inventory levels.

Optimal levels of inventory should ensure on-time delivery to consumers at a

predictable profit margin while preventing loss of sales (Nyabwanga & Ojera, 2012).
 56
Too little inventory to meet customer demand may result in future sales loss. Too much

inventory results in (a) higher product costs caused by increased storage, (b) increased

movement of materials, (c) increased insurance, (d) increased overhead to account for

valuing inventory, and (e) increased inventory obsolescence. Several tools and

philosophies exist to assist decision makers in optimization of inventory.

Inventory Optimization Tools

Mass production and the moving assembly line. Many of the current

manufacturing philosophies find roots in Henry Ford’s automobile operation dating back

to 1913 with the first moving assembly line. In 1926, Ford was able to produce an

automobile beginning with raw iron ore to a finished, drive ready, automobile in just 81

hours (Ford & Crowther, 1988). Henry Ford identified several philosophies that made

this production rate possible. Ford had the advantage, or disadvantage of experiencing

failure when he helped organize the Detroit Automobile Company in 1899 which went

bankrupt 1-1/2 years later. This experience played a role in forming new manufacturing

operations. One of Ford’s core principles was, do not waste any resources. Before the

concerns of sustainability, Ford considered materials and labor delivering materials to the

manufacturing process as valuable resources worth conserving.

From the moving assembly line came the standardization of methods, and

interchangeable parts and processes creating the parts to assemble an automobile. Henry

Ford applied this principle of standardization to incoming parts requiring suppliers to ship

parts that meet every specification with minimal variability. In most cases, Ford supplied

materials to upstream operations, so he controlled the quality of the input materials

 57
shipped to the assembly plant. In cases in which an outside vendor supplied parts, Ford

shared his philosophies and practical information to help them deliver on his expectations

in a profitable manner. Ford realized the importance of keeping his suppliers viable.

Ford required operations kept clean and organized, copied by the Toyota

Production System now called 5S. Sand quarries and rock-crushing operations required

cleaning as dust could be extremely damaging to equipment. Ford’s moveable assembly

line is the forerunner of one-piece flow concept. As the automobile market grew, Ford

developed regional assembly operations to minimize shipping costs and provide wages

for local workers so they could afford the automobiles they were assembling. This

regional assembly process was economical and standardization ensured the parts worked

at each location matching the same quality requirements.

Ford also understood the consumer. The example of the Model T and the Lincoln

illustrated this. Engineers designed, built, and sold the Model T at a reasonable price, so

most people were able to afford it. The same individuals designed, built, and sold the

Lincoln for a different market with more financial resources. Both vehicles followed

exacting standards, each vehicle satisfying its’ customers. Ford made a point to

emphasize a high level of quality conformance, as a requirement for a profitable product

in both automobiles, even though, the market and the specifications were different. A

summary of Ford’s contributions to manufacturing operations still relevant include (a)

cleanliness and organization of work areas; (b) collaboration with suppliers; (c) total

quality control; (d) one-piece flow; (e) JIT deliveries; (f) understanding and catering to

customer needs and wants; (g) standardized, interchangeable parts; (h) standard processes
 58
and operations; (i) conservation of resources; and (j) design for manufacture. Eiji

Toyoda and Taiichi Ohno observed these manufacturing practices and copied Ford’s

original concepts, first with JIT deliveries, and further advanced concepts defining the

Toyota Production System and lean manufacturing.

Just in time (JIT) manufacturing. Toyoda and Ohno received credit for

developing JIT manufacturing principles at Toyota Motor Company (Wantuck, 1988).

Because of limitations of land and raw material resources Toyoda and Ohno made

modifications to Ford’s concepts fitting their situation. Wantuck (1998) identified

several changes and additions including (a) quality at the source, (b) stop and fix, (c)

employee involvement, (d) the kanban card system, and (e) single minute exchange of

dies.

Quality at the source describes fixing root causes of quality issues. To make this

a reality, Toyoda introduced Jidoka-stopping the line any time a quality issue or defect

arises until corrected. Stopping a production line is a significant disruption and ensured

the problem received immediate attention. These practices also led to employee

involvement identifying quality issues and encouraging operators to help resolve issues.

With the assistance of W.E.Demming and Kaoru Ishikawa, quality circles started training

workers to identify quality defects and resolve issues (Wantuck, 1988). Observation of

supermarkets in America spurred Ohno’s idea of the kanban card system. Ohno observed

the systematic, visual organization of supermarkets and applied the attributes to

manufacturing operations including (a) limited shelf space for each item, (b) each

customer found items with little or no help taking what they wanted, and (c) a stock
 59
person tracked inventory and replenished items as needed (Wantuck, 1988). A change in

operations resulted in manufacturing small lot sizes, producing every part every day,

which led to optimized materials in the supermarket warehouse. Adding the concept of

single minute exchange of dies for forming sheet metal body parts supported small lot

sizes allowing Toyota to manufacture every part, every day, based on customer demand.

In a study of JIT philosophy, White, Ojha, and Kuo (2010) identify four practices:

(a) conformance to quality, (b) delivery reliability, (c) volume flexibility, and (d) lowest

cost, consisting of ten elements. Conformance to quality related practices have elements

of quality circles and total quality control. Delivery reliability has elements of (a) group

technology, (b) total productive maintenance, (c) uniform workload, and (d) focused

factory. Volume flexibility has elements of reduced set-up times and multifunctional

employees. The final method of the lowest cost has elements of kanban and JIT

purchases. As part of the data collection process in the study, 1035 surveys received

from members of the Association for Manufacturing Excellence confirmed implementing

all four practices in the correct order provides the greatest improvement in reducing non-

value-added tasks.

The Toyota production system. Womack et al. (1990) described how Taiichi

Ohno applied JIT concepts to the Toyota manufacturing operations, resulting in the

Toyota Production System (TPS), also referred to as lean production. One innovation

included the idea of making parts only when needed. TPS required quick changeovers on

the presses making the metal pieces for the body of the car. The need for quick

changeovers led to the concept of single minute exchange of dies (SMED) performed by
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machine operators and not maintenance employees. Ohno also designed the kanban

system for delivery of parts. In this system, the size of the container holds only the

required amount for a given period. When all containers are full, the supplying operation

stops making parts until an empty container returns from the assembly operation.

Another innovative idea from the TPS is the relationship with suppliers. Toyota

engineers design automobiles and manufacturing operators assemble them. Toyota

outsources many of the components in the assembly of their automobiles. The suppliers

produce parts and decide on the majority of the component design. Toyota engineers

provide part specifications, and the manufacturer designs the part to make it effective and

economical. Tier 1 suppliers provide components directly to Toyota assembly lines. Tier

2 suppliers provide materials to tier 1 suppliers: tier 3 suppliers provide materials to tier 2

suppliers, and so on, continuing through many levels of suppliers. One advantage of this

system is the designers employed by the suppliers are experts in designing and

manufacturing the part for which they are responsible. As a result, the designs are robust

and inexpensive. The primary roles of the Toyota organization in this arrangement is to

coordinate tier 1 suppliers ensuring the designs fit together and ensuring the materials

arrive when and where needed. While there may be inventory at each supply location as

well as at the assembly plants, incentive exists to optimize inventory at each site by the

use of a kanban system. These practices, including (a) single minute exchange of dies,

(b) collaboration with suppliers, (c) just in time deliveries, and (d) kanban, support

material flow through the manufacturing process, leading to optimal inventory levels

throughout the supply chain (Womack et al., 1990).

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The two central themes of the TPS are JIT and respect for people (Ohno, 1988).

As the JIT philosophy evolved at Toyota, the focus turned to the elimination of waste in

every aspect of the manufacturing process (Thun, Drüke, & Grübner, 2010). The TPS

seven forms of waste includes (a) overproduction, (b) waiting, (c) transporting, (d) over-

processing, (e) inventories, (f) motion, and (g) defects. Some organizations view not

using an employee’s full potential as an eighth form of waste. Respecting people

addresses wasting an employees’ potential mainly by involving production operators in

the process of improving product quality through quality circles. The TPS Kaizen

(continuous improvement) teams included employees focused on reducing all forms of

waste. Thun, Drüke, & Grübner (2010) analyzed data from 188 manufacturing plants

involved in the High Performance Manufacturing research project correlated positive

manufacturing results based on the extent of TPS implementation.

The TPS practices (independent variables) included as part of the study were the

use of (a) kanban, (b) shop floor layout, (c) machine setup, (d) preventive and productive

maintenance, (e) machine control through statistical process control, (f) operator training,

and (g) workers performing multi-tasks. The outcomes (dependent variables) measured

were (a) cost of manufacturing, (b) product conformance, (c) on time delivery, (d)

delivery speed, (e) flexibility to change product mix, (f) volume flexibility, (g) inventory

turnover, and (h) product cycle time. The data from the 188 manufacturing plants

supports the theory that the more thorough and comprehensive the implementation of

TPS practices, the larger the amount of improvement. Conversely, failure to achieve high
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levels of improvement in manufacturing operations was a result of shallow and partial

implementation of TPS principles.

Lean manufacturing. John Krafcik, an American engineer working in the

Toyota/General Motors joint venture called New United Motor Manufacturing

Incorporated (NUMMI) first used the term, lean production, in 1988 (Womack et al.,

1990). As part of his employment, Krafcik trained in Toyota City and participated in the

Toyota Production System. Krafcik observed the Toyota Production System required

fewer resources than traditional manufacturing operations needed, making Toyota more

profitable (Womack et al., 1990). Lean manufacturing is a term describing efforts to

reduce waste in American manufacturing companies and companies across the globe.

As lean manufacturing gained notoriety, companies have implemented various

forms of lean manufacturing. General Motors called their implementation, the Global

Manufacturing System (GMS). Brondo and Baba (2010) observed the GMS

implementation in a longitudinal, exploratory case study beginning in 2003 through 2005,

evaluating the effectiveness and progress at the Lansing Grand River Assembly plant that

assembled Cadillac automobiles. Several measurements showed significant improvement

in the first years as perfect attendance of production workers increased from 23% in 2002

to 91% in 2004, and the Cadillac received J.D. Powers number one ranking for North

American Luxury cars in 2003. In the third year of implementation, perfect attendance

dropped off to 65%, and the J.D. Powers ranking fell to number 12. Brondo and Baba

attributed the drop-off in performance to a breakdown in participation in improvement

activities from the production workers.

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As assembly lines began to function better through elimination of waste, less time

was available for breaks for operators. The solution employed by GMS was to have shift

supervisors fill in when production workers went to break. The work became physically

demanding with no recovery opportunity. New workers brought into the operation from

other General Motors manufacturing plants without the GMS brought their culture with

them disrupting the initial changes. The plants began to push rather than pull materials to

drive down unit costs producing more materials than necessary. Brondo and Baba (2010)

posited the GMS implementation took place on the shop floor without changes in

leadership behavior.

In a similar study, an automobile factory in Brazil implemented lean

manufacturing principles and enjoyed longer lasting results (Vieira et al., 2012). In this

instance, relevant measurements included ergonomic injuries of production operators.

Ergonomic injury tracking drove improvement in working conditions for workers as well

as productivity improvements. Measurements over a four-year period from 2007 to 2010

showed improvement in attendance, accident incident rate, vehicles requiring rework, and

production performance. Vieira, Balbinotti, Varasquin, and Gontijo (2012) concluded

concern for the production workers, identified by Ohno as a fundamental principle, seems

to have influenced sustained performance.

A supporting study evaluated implementing Total Quality Management (TQM),

JIT practices, and Human Resource Management (HRM) as part of lean manufacturing

(Furlan, Vinelli, & Dal Pont, 2011). The study included 266 manufacturing plants from

nine countries analyzing the synergy between TQM and JIT supported by HRM. TQM
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practices included (a) Poka-Yoka, (b) operating standards, (c) statistical process control,

(d) visual display of information, and (e) housekeeping. JIT practices included (a) lot

size reduction, (b) cycle time reduction, (c) quick changeovers, and (d) process

reengineering. The HRM practices included (a) decentralized authority, (b) multi-

functional training, and (c) broad-based communication. The findings of the study

supported the hypothesis that adding JIT after implementing TQM provided higher

performance than JIT alone or adding TQM after JIT implementation. In addition, HRM

practices enhanced and enabled the implementation of both TQM and JIT. Other tools

added to lean manufacturing principles enhanced business results including (a) value

stream mapping, (b) one-piece flow, (c) vendor-managed inventory, (d) third-party

logistics providers, (e) customer relationship management, and (f) various information

technology programs. Following is a brief review of these tools and their relationship to

lean manufacturing and the associated potential benefit.

Value stream mapping. A value stream map is a visual representation of process

steps from the beginning of a production process to the final destination (Chen & Meng,

2010). The map shows the flow of material and information step to step. The

measurements for each process step in a typical value stream map include (a) processing

time, (b) lead-time, (c) setup time, (d) distance traveled, and (e) inventory measured in

dollars and days. A value stream map points out the number of processing steps at all

locations in the value chain (see Appendix A). The more steps in the process, the longer

the lead-time and the more places for inventory storage (Mefford, 2011). Value stream

mapping aids individuals improving processes to identify opportunities. Chen and Meng
 65
(2010) investigated several Chinese companies implementing lean manufacturing tools-

some with success and others without success. The belief is that some of the

unsuccessful companies have adapted tool use without tying tool implementation to the

business results. The other conclusion is that organizations not mapping value streams

are unable to see each form of waste. The value stream mapping tool can help identify

tasks as value-added or incidental-not adding value to the customer. Chen and Meng

recommended using a future-state value stream map to identify improvements in the

process.

Lu, Yang, & Wang (2011) suggested using the value stream mapping tool as a

basis to establish an improved manufacturing process. The authors identified a

systematic approach to developing the improvement process as follows:

1. create the current state value stream map,

2. evaluate the current process to calculate takt time, defined as the available

production time per day divided by the customer demand in parts per day, to

create a pull system,

3. create a simulation model identifying supply variability, which includes raw

material availability, equipment downtime, process time, yield, and setup

times,

4. create a simulation model that will calculate the amount of material or

inventory for each process step, resulting in a future state map.

The differences between the current state map and the future state map identify

gaps in desired performance of the value chain. Improvement projects close the gap and
 66
the future state becomes the new current state. At this point, the whole process repeats.

Lu et al. (2011) suggested using a simulation model to calculate an estimate of the

improvement in supply variability that should reduce cost and inventory and improve

customer service. Fifty-four percent of U.S. manufacturing executives report no visibility

beyond the first tier of suppliers in their value chains (Economist Intelligence Unit

survey, 2012). Lack of visibility may result in unexpected upsets in the value chain

creating uncertainty in the intended outcome. Lack of visibility of material flow between

value chain partners makes it difficult to optimize inventory and provide predictable

service (Kärkkäinen, Ala-Risku, Främling, Collin, & Holmström, 2010). The value

stream map in this instance is the starting point for the improvement model identifying

potential wastes in the system. Lean tools supported the development activities

determined in the value stream map.

The value stream map has several applications as it creates a visual depiction of

the entire process, not just manufacturing processes. In a research paper regarding the

value stream mapping process, Popescu and Dascălu (2011) used a value stream map to

identify the status of quality parameters at each step in the fulfillment process and explain

information flow existing between (a) suppliers, (b) internal processes, (c) distributors,

and (d) end customers. The value stream map provides a visual representation of the

value added activities, the level of control at each value added step, and feedback and

response loops throughout the system. The creation of a value stream map provides a

means to prioritize improvement activities, determine who should lead them, determine

the people involved, determine target levels, and provide a feedback mechanism
 67
determining success. Several examples using value stream maps to improve processes in

industry follow.

The value stream mapping concept works equally well within service

organizations as demonstrated in the healthcare sector in a study by Acharyulu and

Shekhar (2012). The authors created a value stream map defining the value added

process steps as (a) marketing and sales, awareness and referrals; (b) inbound logistics,

patient registration and assessment; (c) operations, diagnosis and treatment; (d) outbound

logistics, discharge; and (e) service, follow-up care and treatment. The value stream map

for health care service assisted hospitals in meeting the goals of (a) product availability,

(b) minimizing storage space, (c) increasing patient care space, (d) reducing material

handling time, (e) reducing costs, and (f) minimizing inventory. India spends

approximately 5.2% of India’s’ gross domestic product on healthcare. The objective of

the value stream map in this application is supporting health care cost reduction in India.

In another study conducted in India, Sahoo (2010) applied the value chain

framework to assist farmers increase bargaining power by providing a means to market

their products. The value stream framework aided manufacturers in India to develop the

wine industry on a countrywide basis (Patnaik & Sahoo, 2009). On a global basis,

Kannegiesser, Gunther, van Beck, Grunow, & Habla (2009), analyzed the chemical

commodities industry using Porter’s framework to optimize profits through coordination

of functions and decision-making. Italian regional districts expanded profitability and

exports by understanding and building global links using the value chain framework

(Chiarvesio, Di Maria, & Micelli, 2010).

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Advances in technology have helped to improve communication among

organizations in value chains (Gilaninia et al., 2011). Improved communication increases

the potential for improved processes and products. In another study, the value chain map

identified a person in several firms to receive input and output information from the other

companies in the value chain (Hemmatfar et al., 2010; Tallon, 2012). One output of a

process is an understanding of the essential quality variables whether an actual product,

report, or service. Popescu and Dascalu (2011) applied the value chain framework to

develop a quality management system for a product improving fit for use and reducing

costs. Managers used the value chain map tracing raw materials back to harvesting from

the earth to understand the effect of their harvest on the environment and the local

economy (Closs, Speir, & Meacham, 2010; Lund-Thomsen & Nadvi, 2010). Leaders of

companies using the value chain framework work closely with wildlife foundations to

improve the environment while continuing to provide jobs and products (Senge, Smith,

Kruschwitz, Laur, & Schley, 2008). The value chain mapping concept of linking

activities together to provide a service has reached human resources and talent

management as well (McCarthy, 2009).

As previously mentioned, value stream mapping may help to identify information

flow between process steps internal and external to an organization. Tallon (2012)

evaluated the role information technology (IT) played in improving information flow in

value streams to improve customer satisfaction in a profitable manner. In Tallon’s

research, information sharing internally and externally developed (a) alignment

throughout the process, (b) reduced delivery uncertainty, and (c) increased understanding
 69
of requirements and expectations. The information sharing resulted in purposeful

communication and spillover effects, providing opportunities for organizations to solve

problems with support from organizations not directly connected with a process step.

Tallon found organizations with visibility to all partners in the value chain made the

entire value chain stronger and more responsive as they shared knowledge and expertise.

The value stream mapping tool provides a foundation for improvement.

Material flow tools. Vertical integration, customer understanding, JIT, the

Toyota production system, lean manufacturing, and value stream mapping are tools

supporting improvement of the entire value added process. Included in this section are

tools focusing on improving material flows. Using a case study in a Volvo assembly

plant, Ellis, Meller, Wilck, Parikh, and Marchand (2010) mapped existing material flow

patterns with the intent to optimize material handling costs. A map consisted of lines

drawn between multiple trailers feeding multiple docks to various storage locations

feeding multiple assembly lines represented material flow. Each of the stopping

locations, trailers, docks, storage, and assembly lines represented a node with the material

handling equipment aisles representing paths creating a network map. The map provided

a means for visualizing (a) constraints in each process step, (b) travel time and distance

between nodes, (c) capacity at each node, (d) quantity needed at each node, and (e) daily

demand for each part at each node. Using the map helped employees determine the form

of the carrier and storage for each part, as well as the delivery schedule. Microsoft Excel

software in conjunction with the simulated annealing procedure determined the shortest

distance traveled to meet daily production requirements. The focus of this case study was
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material handling optimization. Employees used the tool to provide information

regarding the amount of material needed to satisfy the daily flow of materials in the

assembly operation. The analysis was for a single assembly plant, manufacturing heavy

equipment trucks for hauling loads on highways. Employees used the map of the

material flows to improve material flow throughout the facility.

Auer (2013) used the same material flow analysis to describe the chemical

production industry in Germany. Byproducts produced along with primary products

make chemical processing complex, and the output of one chemical process may be an

input to several other chemical producing companies. Auer’s case study of the process

producing methylchlorosilanes and related byproducts demonstrated the use of the value

stream mapping process on an individual process, optimizing the income of the

methylchlorosilane and three byproducts. An advantage in the chemical process industry

relating to inventory is storage tanks limit the amount of input and output materials in the

process making it difficult to over-produce. The discussion included as part of the study

demonstrated the extensive use of value stream mapping from a large picture perspective,

a national industry, down to a single processing step. Following the example of a

manufacturing process producing multiple outputs, the value chain mapping tool is also

useful to define material flow for recycling and waste streams (Kovačić & Bogata, 2011).

Kovačić & Bogata (2011) developed a model that determined the net present value of

material flows including recycling. Again, people using the value chain mapping tool

visualized material flows inferring the value of recycling activities and waste material

created during manufacturing, and after consumption of the product. Visualizing flow
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using a value chain map aids in measuring both speed and quantity of materials.

Additional tools to reduce inventories. One-piece flow is a concept in which a

single part moves through each manufacturing operation by itself until fully produced,

rather than as part of a batch (Satoglu et al., 2010). In the manufacturing process with ten

steps, there would be ten parts in production, one at each step. Advantages of one-piece

flow include (a) reduced cycle time resulting in shorter lead times and quicker response

to customers, (b) lower work-in-process inventory resulting in less capital tied up in

working capital, and (c) improved quality, verifying requirements after each step, so no

defective product passes to the next step. In the research by Satoglu et al.(2010), the five

factors required to support one-piece flow include (a) defining takt time, (b) U-shaped

manufacturing cells, (c) pull production, (d) standard work, and (e) jidoka. Even with

these factors implemented, one-piece flow is difficult to achieve as each process step

needs to have equal processing and setup time.

Another concept to improve manufacturing operations is agile manufacturing

(Amir, 2011). Agile manufacturing merges the concepts of forecasting and pull systems

into the same transaction. In agile manufacturing, the initial manufacturing operations

use a forecast until reaching a decoupling point, at which time the remaining activities

produce product based on actual customer demand. Implementation of agile

manufacturing varies based on the decoupling point in the process. In a buy-to-order

implementation, forecasting is at the raw material level and decoupling occurs in the first

step of the manufacturing process, pulling materials based on actual orders. Buy-to-order

production uses the least amount of work-in-process material.

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The next level of agile manufacturing is make-to-order that decouples in the early

stages of processing pulling through most of the manufacturing process steps based on

orders. Inventory exists in the process steps before decoupling. The next level of agile

manufacturing is assemble-to-order products decoupled at the point of production and

purchasing components used to assemble the product. Work-in-process exists in all steps

of assembly. The next level, make-to-stock, decouples at the distribution center with

inventory existing in raw materials, manufactured parts, assembly, and includes finished

goods not yet sold. Each step relies on the forecast until the retailer pulls product to place

on store shelves. The final process is ship-to-stock. Forecasted volumes drive

purchasing and manufacturing decisions and include the retailer. Ship-to-stock requires

the highest level of inventory. Amir’s (2011) model identified that the more process

steps dependent on the forecast, the higher the uncertainty of demand, the higher level of

inventory required. Deciding the type of order fulfillment process has an effect on the

amount of unsold material and inventory in the value chain.

Vendor managed inventory is a tool implemented between a customer and

supplier that transfers the responsibility for material replenishment to the supplier.

Bookbinder, Gümüs, and Jewkes (2010) analyzed the potential cost implications of this

tool. In general, the customer costs of ordering supplies and storing them are (a) cost to

place an order, (b) cost of transportation, (c) costs of receiving, (d) cost of capital to pay

the purchase price, and (e) cost to store the item. The costs to the supplier include (a)

setup cost to change operations to produce the customers’ part, (b) cost to release the

shipment, and (c) storage costs while waiting for shipping. The total cost for the system
 73
is the sum of both customer and supplier costs.

Bookbinder et al. (2010) assessed the possible outcomes for each party and the

total system cost. Depending on the relationship, total costs may increase, decrease, or

remain the same. In the case in which the supplier is responsible for managing the

inventory, the customer incurs no cost. In the case in which cost of order processing is

the same or less with vendor-managed inventory, the customer realizes a reduction in

total cost. In some instances, because the vendor plans the order size, the vendor may

optimize the batch size and benefit as well, reducing the total cost. Bookbinder et al.

indicated the potential for the vendor and the client to be worse off occurs when demand

from the customer is uncertain requiring increased setups (increased cost to the vendor)

and more frequent shipments (increased cost to the buyer). In the best scenario, the

customer and supplier develop a relationship in which sharing information reduces the

total cost in the supply chain and both parties benefit.

Kauremaa et al. (2009) evaluated five successful vendor managed inventory

(VMI) relationships. Initially, the study included seventeen cases, but twelve did not

have a successful implementation, were too new in a VMI relationship, or lacked data to

determine success. Successful cases were those adding value to one or both parties and

both parties were open to the vendor managed inventory concept. In the five cases

included in the study, three patterns of relationship emerged: (a) basic, (b) cooperative,

and (c) synchronized. In basic VMI, both parties agree to transfer the responsibility for

replenishment to the supplier, and the supplier receives access to required information.

Basic VMI relationship provides potential advantages for the buyer.

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In cooperative VMI, the two parties share information and resources to create

efficiency for both. In synchronized VMI, the supplier has access to downstream

information including finished goods demand and incorporates the information into

decision-making, potentially providing efficiencies for both the supplier and customer.

Based on the evaluation of the five case studies, Kauremaa et al. (2009) concluded four

items limit the value of vendor managed inventory, (a) customized products limit the

consumer dependency on the supplier, (b) buyer expertise in purchasing limit the extent

of reducing replenishment costs, (c) delivery quantity from the vendor may limit the

potential inventory reduction, and (d) a small share of business limits the potential

benefits to the supplier. The authors defined limits to successfully implementing vendor

managed inventory and did not include unsuccessful implementations that may further

the understanding of why VMI implementations fail.

Fawcett, Waller, and Fawcett (2010) defined advances in VMI including

collaborative inventory with three examples. In one example, Dell managers used several

tactics to maintain low levels of inventory (5.18 days), and negative days cash to cash

cycle (-5.97 days), meaning customers paid for purchases before suppliers received

payment. Dell’s managers used build to order products and offered incentives to

customers to buy products requiring lower levels of work-in-process inventory. Suppliers

stored and owned materials until needed.

Toyota’s managers collaborated with suppliers treating them as business partners.

Toyota’s designers worked with suppliers designing products meeting requirements as

well as designing for manufacturability in supplier's operations. Boeing’s managers

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copied this practice in the design and manufacturing of the 787 Dreamliner with much

less success (Fawcett et al., 2010). Wal-Mart’s managers employed an information

system to suppliers providing real-time inventory levels across the entire Wal-Mart

distribution and store network in the third example. This information system allowed the

sale of approximately 33% of products before paying for them.

In the cases mentioned above, the Toyota practice benefited suppliers and Toyota.

In the practice used by Dell’s managers, customers pay for goods before receiving them:

suppliers own the material until the last moment benefiting Dell operations only. Wal-

Mart’s managers allowed suppliers to view inventory levels in real time and required

suppliers to respond to demand benefiting Wal-Mart operations and somewhat for

suppliers. Fawcett et al. (2010) noted collaboration can fail if (a) partners do not share

information, (b) one partner takes advantage of the other by pushing out payment terms

or devising ways to deduct from paying in full, or (c) forcing one partner to take all the

risk or carry the entire inventory. In a healthy situation, taking advantage of supplier

expertise allows the purchasing organization to focus on its core business

(Laosirihongthong, Tan, & Kannan, 2010).

Toyota’s model included both production and inventory integration. Prasetyo,

Luong, and Lee (2010) defined integrated vendor-buyer relationships as benefiting

vendor and buyer and others in the value chain. Prasetyo et al. reviewed two components

of vendor, supplier relationships, Economic Lot and Delivery-Scheduling Problem

(ELDSP), and Joint Economic Lot Sizing Problem (JELSP). ELDSP considered raw

material at the vendor site (the vendors finished goods) and incoming raw materials at the
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buyers’ location. Optimizing the lot size of materials provided benefits to both vendor

and purchaser. The JELSP accounted for work-in-process and final product of the

manufacturer as well as the final product at the distribution point. Optimizing the

materials in the JELSP benefited the manufacturer and distributor. For this integrated

relationship to be successful, both parties must benefit. In this form of relationship, the

possibility exists one party has a superior advantage and may make an agreement one-

sided. If the relationship is not benefiting each party, the relationship is unlikely to

continue. Prasetyo et al. posited competition between companies has changed to

competition between supply chains. Minimizing the total cost of delivering the product is

essential to every partner in the supply chain.

Integrating information technology enhances supply chain collaboration among

firms in a product value chain. Chang and Graham (2012) completed a qualitative case

study including six firms analyzing success factors in supply chain collaboration and

electronic commerce. Key success factors identified included (a) developing an

understanding of industry conditions and customer needs; (b) flexibility to adapt to

changing environments including customer, supplier, and industry trends; (c) managing

change within the supply chain partnership; (d) trust with supply chain partners including

sharing sensitive, proprietary information providing valuable information to partners; and

(e) enhancing customer satisfaction through receiving immediate feedback from

customers. These success factors depend on accurate, up to date information that

information technology can provide. A benefit of supply chains with integrated

information is the correct amount of proper inventories is in the right place at just the
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right time. Information technology integrated between firms within a supply chain is a

significant investment for stakeholders. Along with financial investment, developing

relationships with supply chain partners may enhance potential benefits for all parties

involved.

Schloetzer (2012) found partners with comprehensive information sharing are

more likely to have increased financial performance, sales growth, and profitability.

Often, partnerships require specialized tools and software to do business creating a

barrier for others attempting to enter a partnership, increasing the chances of renewing

contracts with existing partners. The specialized tools and software also create a barrier

to leaving the partnership. Schloetzer also noted, the larger the difference in firm equity,

the less chance for mutual benefit. Gilaninia et al. (2011) found accurate and timely

information led to improved supplier responsiveness and improved supplier efficiency.

These two factors resulted in improved supplier performance. The opposite also proved

to be true: inaccurate, untimely information led to reduced supply chain responsiveness,

reduced efficiency, and poorer performance.

Third-party logistics is another practice involving collaboration and integration

between firms in the same supply chain. In third-party logistics, firms work with

providers specializing in warehousing and transportation services. This practice served

the same purpose as other collaboration and integration activities, removing costs from a

value chain. In one example cited by Jayaram and Tan (2010), a firm reduced pipeline

inventory from 53 days to seven days following implementation of third-party logistics.

Not all third-party logistics relationships are successful. Jayaram and Tan surveyed
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senior purchasing, supply, and operations managers from U.S. firms of varying sizes.

The study included 250 firms involved in third-party logistics and 150 companies not

participating in third-party logistics. Jayaram and Tan did not find data supporting a

difference between firms with or without third-party logistics. Evidence supported firms

using selection criteria and continued evaluation of the criteria achieved improved

performance. In a similar study Partida (2012) surveyed supply chain professionals from

52 shipping firms involved in third-party logistics that showed inventory carrying costs

and service levels improved with companies using a third-party logistics provider.

Barriers to Optimizing Inventory

A thorough search of literature identified several items that contributed to the

creation of inventory that included (a) the cost accounting system, (b) cost accounting

method, (c) incentives to reduce unit costs, (d) the risk of running out of stock, (e) lack of

visibility (f) collaboration with value chain partners, and (g) the ten reasons listed by

Willems (2012). In a survey conducted by Chief Supply Chain Officer Insights (2011),

barriers to effective inventory management included (a) inability to optimize the entire

network-55.9%, (b) demand volatility-45.9%, (c) functional silos-45.8%, (d) lack of

technology integration-45.2%, and (e) misaligned metrics-44.6%. Described next are

tools used to eliminate and optimize inventory. Information on why these well-intended

tools fail in some cases, do not live up to expected results or in some instances, made

operations worse follows.

Hicks and Matthews (2010) completed a literature review of failed improvement

implementations identifying several reasons for failure. All reasons fell under leadership
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responsibility and included (a) lack of commitment from the organization including lack

of training and resource support, (b) lack of management involvement and direction, (c)

lack of leadership communication of improvement activities and benefits, (d) leadership’s

reactive approach to implementation, and (e) not allowing enough time to understand the

development activity or the effect of changes in the organization. Using the wrong tools

or using the right tools incorrectly resulted in failure. Lack of communication regarding

improvement plans increased an organization's resistance to change.

Additional reasons for failed implementations included incomplete

implementation of change through loss of interest by the leadership group or lack of clear

understanding of the total program and multiple initiatives with conflicting goals. In a

qualitative case study of failed improvement programs, Vicencio-Ortiz and Kolarik

(2012) found leaders of continuous improvement programs in operations struggled to

deliver expected results because of lack of formal tools or methods to assess potential

influences on interrelated processes during the design and implementation phase of the

program. The recommendation by the authors was to create a cross-functional team

including people from functional areas involved as members of the team.

In a case study exploring the failure of sustainable lean manufacturing

implementation in one company, Turesky and Connell (2010) found possible causes

included top management commitment to change is not visible or frequent, and top

management does not demonstrate a clear commitment through their behaviors by

providing needed resources, or regular, ongoing communication. If the workforce

perceives lack of commitment from top management, commitment to change is unlikely.

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The authors suggest communication should be open and move up and down through the

hierarchy of the site. Communication enables clear understanding of common goals.

Turesky and Connell posited a lack of ongoing training is another significant factor to not

being able to sustain change. Training an organization in new behaviors and new tools

enhances the chances of success and employee buy-in of the change. Project selection is

critical and the project needs to benefit those involved. Last, frequent sharing of relevant

measurements of the implemented changes creates individual ownership of both the

project and the results. The research took place in one facility of an organization making

a concerted effort to implement lean manufacturing over an eight-year period. Two

engineers, one shift supervisor, and three hourly production employees took part in the

survey for their insight after the failed implementation.

Čiarnienė and Vienažindienė (2013) found similar results researching literature

finding two primary barriers to sustainable lean implementation as people related

barriers, and organizational related obstacles. People related barriers included (a) focus

on tools instead of a focus on people, (b) resistance to change, (c) lack of understanding

of lean principles and techniques by both leadership and employees, (d) poor

communication including use of jargon, and (e) selecting inappropriate team members.

Focus on tools instead of people is a mistake corporations make limiting the success of

lean implementations (The Shingo Prize for Operational Excellence, 2012).

Organizational obstacles included (a) lack of resources, (b) not incorporating lean into the

business strategy, (c) not sharing results, (d) hierarchy getting in the way of collaboration,

and (e) functional silos preventing teams from compatible goals and working as a team.
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Research Method and Design

As Yin (2013) prescribed, research explaining answers to why and how questions

fit the case study method. Bounded studies, with no control placed on variables, studied

in real time are appropriate attributes of case study method. As reported by Zivkovic

(2012), business researchers frequently use the case study method. An identified strength

of the case study method is the freedom to use any relevant source of information

pertaining to the case. Using multiple sources of information strengthen the researchers’

findings. Multiple sources of information provide a broad range of viewpoints on the

object or process under study. Multiple perspectives on researched topics allow

researchers to discover new meanings and approaches (Baig & Akhtar, 2011). As in the

multi-case study conducted by Zivkovic, many businesses related case studies defined the

unit of research to be an organization. Chang and Graham (2012) used a case study

method defining six companies representing six different cases in their research on

supply chain collaboration. Vicencio-Ortiz and Kolarik (2012) used a case study method

describing three companies representing three cases evaluating improvement projects.

Van der Krogt, Geraghty, Salman, and Little (2009) used a case study design representing

two cases as separate companies. Wolf (2011) identified four companies to represent

four cases in a study of sustainable supply chains. Using a company is a common

research unit defining boundaries for a case study.

In this study, a single value chain founded on Porter’s (1998) value chain model

originally presented in 1985, established the research unit. An advantage of the value

chain as the research unit was value chain modeling defined the process steps, process
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locations, measurements at each process step, and the people responsible for creating and

measuring the outcomes at each step. The value chain model is conducive to creating

visuals to identify and organize sources of information adding to the depth and detail of

the research. Porter’s model also identified entities indirectly supporting the value chain,

which provided additional sources of interpretation and information. Baig and Akhtar

(2011) used a value chain within a single company as the boundaries in their research

analyzing the value of using supply chain management tools. Several researchers used a

value chain map as the case unit to study the effect of lean manufacturing tools (Chen, Li

& Shady, 2010; Chowdary & George, 2011; Ellis et al., 2010; Gurumurthy & Kodali,

2011; Lu et al., 2011). Using case study design for value chains within companies is a

common practice for business research. The extensive use of the value chain model for

research in previous studies provided the rationale for using the value chain model in this

study.

Transition and Summary

Section 1 included a description of the background to this research project

identifying an opportunity to improve operations and profitability by optimizing

inventory levels in manufacturing. Previous authors have focused much of their research

on surveying and interviewing top management and supply chain experts to gain an

understanding of reasons for inventory creation and maintaining excessive levels of

inventory (Čiarnienė and Vienažindienė 2013; Hicks & Matthews, 2010; Turesky &

Connell, 2010; Vicencio-Ortiz & Kolarik, 2012). Several researchers provided

information on reasons for inventory, methods to optimize inventory and results of

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organizations implementing improvement processes. An important factor in

understanding the opportunity and results is the variations managers’ use in the valuation

of inventory and definition of optimal levels.

Included in Section 2 is a description of the research method and design. Porter’s

(1998) value chain model provided the basis for the conceptual framework. The design

included (a) a description of an existing product value chain, (b) the method identifying

interview participants, (c) the method for collecting and summarizing the information,

and (d) a systematic procedure for the entire research. Included in Section 3 is a (a)

summary of the findings, (b) applications to professional practice, (c) implications to

social change, and (d) recommendations for action and further study.
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Section 2: The Project

This section of the study describes the research method and design used to answer

the research question and the rationale supporting the selection of both the research

method and the research design. The research design defined the selection criteria for

potential participants and the interview questions. The design description included the

process of (a) collecting, (b) recording, (c) documenting, (d) analyzing the information,

and (e) ensuring ethical research. Last, included in this section is information

demonstrating the reliability, credibility, and transferability of the study.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore strategies managers use

to optimize and control inventory levels in manufacturing processes. The manufacturing

process in the study involved a single, common household product in the Midwestern

region of the United States. Inventory is an important asset accounted for in financial

statements and was the focus of this study. Acquiring inventory uses a firm’s valuable

resources. Misuse of any organization’s resources makes it difficult for an organization

to remain viable. Several documented methods and philosophies exist explaining how to

optimize inventory levels in business, including (a) JIT (Wantuck, 1989), (b) the Toyota

Production System (Ohno, 1988), and (c) lean manufacturing systems (Womack et al.,

1990). Leaders in many organizations have implemented these philosophies with varying

levels of success. This study investigated the strategies managers use to influence the

success of optimizing inventory levels from the perspective of the manager of the person

deciding how much material to purchase or manufacture.

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Porter’s (1988) value chain model provided a framework for this research. The

value chain model defined the functions needed in an organization and the role they play

in delivering the product to customers. The value chain model was the basis for selecting

participants in the study, as participant selection was by area of responsibility. The

model provided a means for identifying functions directly influencing inventory levels, as

well as those having an indirect effect. The findings from this study may provide useful

information for optimizing inventory levels in manufacturing operations. Optimizing

inventory levels minimizes the misuse of resources. On a local level, optimal use of

resources provides a better chance of business success. Business success increases the

likelihood of continued employment and job creation. Business success results in profits,

providing tax dollars for community investment. Optimal use of resources minimizes

manufacturing costs, providing products to consumers at reasonable prices. On a larger

scale, optimal use of resources improves the sustainability of the environment. In a

broader sense, the results of this study may contribute to the improvement of an

organization’s triple bottom line, which includes (a) environmental, (b) economic, and (c)

social performance and practices (Hollos, Blome, & Foerstal, 2012).

Role of the Researcher

The role of the researcher in a qualitative study is to capture and document the

experiences and interpretations of events from participants (Frels & Onwuegbuzie, 2012).

The researcher needs to approach the study with an unbiased, open mind regarding the

participants, the subject matter, and the data to create a usable, valid interpretation of the

results of the study. The creation of the value stream map defined the product flow used
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in a framework for the study beginning at the assembly stage (see Appendix B). The

assembly stage was the starting point for the research, predicated on access to

information and participants. Manufacture of the product happened at my place of

employment, and while employed by the same company, potential participants reported

through a different organization. A letter of cooperation from an officer of the company

granted access to production information, including (a) inventory levels, (b) access to

managers defining and implementing strategies, (c) individuals ordering materials, and

(d) persons with influence over their decisions (see Appendix C).

The data collection process included (a) interviewing participants using a

semistructured format, (b) reviewing system and software rules and constraints, and (c)

collecting inventory data at each process step. Interviewing was either face to face or

over the phone. Inventory data included the preceding 12 months of on-hand inventory

in terms of days of use, the standard deviation of the average, and the age of the oldest

load of material at the time of data collection.

Participants

The value chain map determined potential participants (see Appendix B).

Because the process under study was internal to one manufacturing company, various

company employees comprised the potential interview participants. The participants

work in four different geographic locations across North America. Each internal process

step may contribute up to six potential participants, including managers and supervisors

of (a) purchasing agents, (b) supply chain analysts, (c) operations and production, and (d)

engineers. This group of potential participants supports the product value chain directly
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and may number as many as 40 people. Several departments’ members indirectly related

to the product value chain contributed to the body of knowledge as well. Departments

included (a) the corporate supply chain organization, with over 100 members; (b) the

corporate purchasing organization, with over 100 members; and (c) the corporate lean

manufacturing organization, with over 30 members.

Diverse groups process information and solve problems differently, providing

broader perspectives for developing and implementing solutions (Foster, Wallin, &

Ogden, 2011). Diversity in areas of responsibility and leadership levels increased the

variety of answers to interview questions. While the total potential population consisted

of more than 300 personnel, the sample size for this study was 20 managers and direct

reports in the supply chain. To ensure that findings and conclusions agreed with the

answers provided to the questions, each interviewee acknowledged correct information

through member checking. Member checking is the practice of providing respondents the

opportunity to check the interpretation the researcher gleaned from the interview

(Carlson, 2010). The corporate vice president responsible for lean manufacturing

operations provided a letter of permission to undertake a study (see Appendix C). All

participants signed a letter granting permission to use their responses as part of the data

(see Appendix D).

I employed purposeful sampling, focusing on key individuals within the selected

value chain. Purposeful sampling provides abundant information as participants respond

to questions in their words (Suri, 2011). Purposeful sampling through interviewing

provided a human aspect to inventory generation versus inventory data only (Roy,
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Zvonkovic, Goldberg, Sharp, & LaRossa, 2015). The interviewees provided names and

access to the next level in the value chain and names of other people influencing their

decisions. Adding interview candidates in this manner reflected my use of snowball or

chain sampling (Suri, 2011). Processes existed to ensure that participants’ responses and

data collected remain protected and confidential. Interviews took place in a private office

or on a personal phone line. Telephone interviews were necessary in 16 cases in which

geography or scheduling was an issue. In all instances, recording was with a Samson

Meteor Mic microphone in conjunction with Audacity software on my personal

password-protected computer, which recorded questions asked and each participant’s

response. Coding and safely storing participants’ identities during and after the

completion of the study ensured confidentiality. Information regarding process materials

included general terms such as mixing powder or liquid coating to describe the material

for each process step in the value stream map, so that inferences concerning the company

and product would not be possible. Storage of information including consent forms is on

a personal password-protected computer and in a personal file cabinet. I will burn

paperwork and erase electronically stored information 5 years after the completion of the

study.

Research Method and Design

Method

Three methods for conducting research are (a) quantitative, (b) qualitative, and (c)

mixed, which is a combination of quantitative and qualitative (Zivkovic, 2012).

Selecting the appropriate research method depends on the answers to three questions;
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namely (a) what is the form of the research question, (b) are the events controlled, and (c)

are the issues historic or current (Yin, 2013)? Quantitative analysis is appropriate when

defining relationships between variables and events. A study using quantitative research

begins with a theory or hypothesis that certain variables or events affect other variables or

events. Quantitative research may involve multiple paths to establish relationships.

Exploring the relationship of a condition or measurement with respect to the outcome,

and determining whether an effect on a resulting condition or value exists, describes one

path. An example of a quantitative research design is a comparison of assessment test

scores determining whether test scores predict the job performance of the test taker

(Papadopoulos, 2012). Papadopoulos (2012) determined whether evidence existed that

an applicant with a high test score had better job performance than an applicant with a

lower test score.

Quantitative analysis is also appropriate when the researcher controls one or

several variables, seeking to establish a relationship between the controlled variable and

the dependent variable or resultant. A study in which the researcher randomly assigns

and controls different levels of independent variables and measures the outcome of the

dependent variable is another example of quantitative research (Jivani, Patel, & Jivani,

2012). In quantitative research, the questions answered are whether the variables or

events relate to one another and, if related, what the effect or size of the relationship

between the variables or events is. In quantitative research, independent and dependent

variables and events require measuring, coding, or possibly both. The result of

quantitative analysis is typically a mathematical formula defining the estimated

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relationship, or a statement signifying that there is no evidence that a relationship exists.

In this research study, there was no testing of theories or hypotheses. Through this

research, I identified strategies that managers implemented for controlling and optimizing

inventory levels.

Another method of conducting research is mixed methods research, which

employs both qualitative and quantitative methods. Mixed method research provides

advantages of both methods, enhancing the validity of the results (Kipo, 2013). Mixed

methods studies follow one of two approaches. The first approach is sequential, using

one research method first, followed by the other. An example of this approach is

conducting interviews with a group of experts to ascertain ways to measure an item-

qualitative, and measuring and testing the information to determine the validity of the

measurement system-quantitative (Papakiriakopoulos & Pramatari, 2010). The other

approach, mixed methods research, combines both qualitative and quantitative methods

in collecting and testing data from interviews, surveys, and analysis tools (Bendavid,

Boeck, & Philippe, 2010). In this study, I explored strategies affecting inventory levels

using qualitative research. If this research continued by testing strategies identified to

determine whether a relationship existed between strategies, independent variables, and

inventory efficiency, the dependent variable, this research would become a mixed

methods study. Relationship testing was not part of this research design, and the mixed

methods design was not appropriate for this study.

Qualitative researchers explore how and why questions through observations and

interviews of people involved in the research topic (Hooper, 2011; Roy et al., 2015;
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Foley & Timonen, 2015). Conditions for a qualitative study include three factors: (a)

observation does not include control of variables, events, or participants; (b) questioning

is not restrictive, allowing the participants to express personal opinions of how and why

the phenomenon is occurring or in existence; and (c) observation of events, people, and

variables occurs in the natural setting. This research met all three of the criteria, which

was the basis for selecting the qualitative method. Observation of the system occurred

without attempting control of variables or participants involved in the research, meeting

the first criterion. The interview questions were open-ended to allow participants to

express answers in their words, meeting the second criterion. The setting for the study

was in the natural environment of the manufacturing process, and information and

observations were part of the existing system, meeting the final criterion for the

qualitative research method. Qualitative researchers may use various designs, one of

which is the case study, used for this research. The following question was the basis for

this study: What strategies do production managers need for efficient inventory control?

A qualitative study was relevant to this research question, as the participants answered

open-ended interview questions based on their experience and perception of the situation.

Research Design

A qualitative, exploratory case study design was appropriate to answer the

research question concerning strategies for controlling and optimizing inventory by

reviewing one value chain in detail. The design met the criteria for qualitative,

exploratory, case study research as defined by Yin (2013), as (a) questions were how and

why, (b) I did not control events as the researcher, and (c) the study pertained to real-life
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events. I explored the strategies managers use to determine how and why levels of

inventories exist as they do. How and why questions are exploratory, allowing

participants to explain answers in their words rather than limiting them to a number of

choices. Beverland and Lindgreen (2010) also recommended that a case study have

boundaries. A single value chain including inputs, process steps, and outputs established

the boundaries of the study. This research involved collecting information rich in content

from managers designing and implementing strategies to manage inventory and

individuals responsible for using the purchase orders and manufacturing orders at each

step in the value chain process.

A case study of a single product value chain is appropriate to explore strategies

answering what, why, and how research questions (Wolf, 2011). A case study allows the

researcher to explore all aspects of the system, process, or phenomenon (Zivkovic, 2012).

The case study design is open to reviewing multiple sources of information, including

interviews across levels in an organization and related documentation and numerical data.

Wang, Quesada-Pineda, Kline, and Buehlmann (2011) used a value stream map in a case

study to explore a current-state furniture-upholstery process and make suggestions for

improvement. The design of the furniture upholstery study was similar to the design of

this study.

I considered several other research designs and rejected them for various reasons.

Grounded theory analysis did not fit because it has no boundaries related to time, place,

or unit of analysis (Foley & Timonen, 2015). Ethnographic researchers focus on

behaviors, beliefs, and norms. In ethnographic design, observation is the primary data
 93
collection tool (Brondo & Baba, 2010). An ethnographic research design was not

appropriate, as observation of the entire system was impractical and ethnography would

not have enabled the consideration of factors outside of cultural behaviors. A

phenomenological research design was not an acceptable choice because no event or

phenomenon occurred that affected supply chain analysts (Ishaque, John, Tarig, &

Qaisrani, 2012). The final design considered was narrative research. Narrative research

was not an appropriate fit to answer this research question because it consists of story-

telling experiences of individuals and organizations in everyday life (Adorisio, 2011).

Population and Sampling

A valid sampling plan requires (a) selecting the appropriate population from

which to choose participants, (b) selecting the proper sample size, (c) selecting the

appropriate sampling method, and (d) selecting the appropriate method of determining

participants (Robinson, 2014). The potential population for this case included all people

influencing the development, design, deployment, and implementation of strategies for

optimizing and controlling inventories in the company manufacturing a product in the

selected value chain (see Appendix B). This potential population consisted of

approximately 100 people. The appropriate population also included people indirectly

involved in influencing the levels of inventory in the value chain. The people influencing

inventory decision makers included (a) the corporate supply chain organization, (b) the

corporate purchasing managers, (c) the corporate human resources managers influencing

hiring practices and employee compensation, and (d) the Lean Six-Sigma analysts. This

potential group of participants consisted of approximately 200 people, resulting in a total

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eligible population of more than 300 persons. Interviewing 20 individuals from this

population with the use of member checking led to data saturation.

In the qualitative research method, interviewing continues until there are no new

concepts and information is redundant (Francis et al., 2010; Marshall, Cardon, Poddar, &

Fontenot, 2013). Several factors helped determine the appropriate sample size for a study

including (a) the homogeneity of the population, (b) multiple samples within the study,

(c) the number of selection criteria, and (d) resources and time available (Mason, 2010).

Theme saturation occurs when no new themes emerge. In a review of 179 case studies,

Mason found the number of the interviews ranged from 1 to 95 with a mean of 36 and a

standard deviation of 21.1. Theme saturation occurred in this study with 20 interviews

covering each function and process step.

Purposeful sampling strategy helped to define participants who can provide

insight in answering the research question (Suri, 2011). Purposeful sampling was an

appropriate strategy for the data collection process in this study. The process for

selecting participants began by asking managers and supervisors directly involved in

managing the internal manufacturing steps as identified in the value chain map.

Interviewing people directly responsible for managing the tools, people, and systems

creating inventory provided rich information as they are responsible for purchase orders

and manufacturing orders to the shop floor, and setting levels of safety stock at each

distribution point.

The interviewees included in this study are responsible for strategies managing

inventory levels between process steps in the value chain. As part of their responsibility,
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the interviewees determine (a) the rewards, (b) consequences, and (c) compensation for

the performance and behaviors of people placing actual orders. Included in the interview

pool were supervisors and managers in (a) corporate logistics, (b) warehousing, (c)

supply chain, and (d) lean management groups. Interviewing occurred in random order

predicated on individuals’ schedules.

Findings from this study may aid managers responsible for manufacturing

operations improve material flow by reducing suboptimal levels of inventory. Improving

strategies for optimizing inventory may decrease resources needed to purchase,

manufacture, move, and store materials. The interview questions were open-ended,

encouraging participants to express ideas in their own words. Participants were eager to

answer questions and discussed their perspectives because of the potential gains from the

study, and fit with corporate priorities. To ensure confidentiality and a comfortable

environment, the participant selected the location for the interview. Because of

geography and schedules, there were four face to face interviews with 16 occurring via

the telephone. The four face to face interviews occurred in a private office. The 16

telephone interviews used a speakerphone in a closed office and the participants’ private

line.

Ethical Research

A senior officer of the company granted permission to conduct this study (see

Appendix C). The consent included permission to (a) interview employees associated

with the value chain under study, (b) capture inventory data, (c) economic purchase

order, and (d) economic manufacturing order quantities. Each participant received an
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individual letter of consent granting use of information collected during the interview

(see Appendix D). The consent letter included a place for the employee’s signature

granting the interview and the use of the information collected during the interview.

Participants had the option to withdraw from the interview process before beginning the

interview or following the interview. There were no consequences for non-participation,

and no one chose to option out. A review of 12 months of inventory data triangulated the

information collected from the interviews supporting the validity of the study’s findings

and conclusions.

Coding participant names and storing them on a personal computer hard drive

with a backup on a flash drive for 5 years with password-protected files assured

confidentiality and protected the identity of the participants. To ensure sustained

confidentiality after 5 years, I will erase recorded interviews and shred written

information. Interviewees received no incentives. The Walden IRB approval number is

11-24-14-0352019.

Data Collection

Instruments

In this study, I was the data collection instrument, contacting each participant by

telephone explaining the purpose of the study and the data collection process. The tool

for collecting information was a one on one interview asking the 11 questions presented

in the interview question section. The participant received an explanation of how the

process would occur using the recording device, the translation process, and follow-up

member checking. To ensure accuracy, reliability, and validity, I recorded interviews

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using a Samson Meteor Mic microphone in conjunction with Audacity recording

software on a personal laptop computer. The Samson Meteor Mic microphone and

Audacity software tools are standard, tested tools. The information gathering process

included collecting data from the corporate manufacturing reporting system to determine

inventory levels for each input, work-in-process, and finished-product at each process

step. This information strengthened the results of the study through triangulation. Policy

information and job descriptions were available on line in the corporate database. I

employed recorded interviews, the manufacturing reporting system, and corporate

databases accessed through a computer as the data resources for this study.

Research protocol. The following systematic instructions describe the research

protocol for this study.

1. Identify the value chain for study

2. Obtain a letter of cooperation from authority in the organization in the study

3. Create the value chain map

4. Identify the functions affecting the area of study

5. Identify reports, policies, and tools affecting the area of study

6. Identify employees with functions affecting the area of study (potential

participants)

7. Contact potential participants and arrange interviews

8. Have participants sign a consent form

9. Interview participants asking interview questions in section 1 and record

interviews (Audacity software in this study)

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10. Document interview event into journal (Microsoft Excel software)

11. Gather inventory data ( the number of loads over the past 12 months and

average use) for each material in the value chain using the manufacturing

operations database reports

12. Transcribe interviews word for word into a document (Dragon Naturally

Speaking and Microsoft Word software)

13. Review transcribed information with interviewee verifying accuracy (member

checking)

14. Match interview documents and inventory control strategy with inventory data

15. Analyze interview information, inventory data, policies, and tool parameters

using Microsoft Word and Excel software

16. Code the transcripts by job title and strategy

17. Search for common themes, concepts, phrases and words

18. Develop conclusions

19. Document results

20. Safely store data

21. Destroy data after 5 years

Data Collection Technique

The data collection process followed the research protocol’s steps 7 through 14.

Data collection through interviewing began with step 7 in the research protocol including

(a) scheduling interviews with a phone call, (b) explaining the study, (c) explaining

rationale for performing the study, and (d) the individuals’ role in the study. The
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corporate directory listed phone numbers of potential participants. The value chain map

identified interview participants based on the process steps in the map. Part of the

discussion during the phone call covered the need for a signed consent form, and

measures taken to (a) protect identities, (b) answers, and (c) data collected regarding the

process and results. Participants received a follow-up email with a meeting invitation to

a private office or a call to a private phone line ensuring confidentiality and a comfortable

environment. As part of the email, I provided participants a copy of the letter of approval

signed by the senior officer of the company and a letter of consent for their perusal.

Participants accepted the meeting invitation or proposed an alternate time.

Before the interviews began, the participants provided a signed letter of consent.

All interviewees received an explanation of (a) the use of information collected, (b)

assurance of protection of their identity, and (c) answers to any questions regarding the

study. In the case of telephone interviews, respondents received the consent form ahead

of the interview and consented to allow use of the interview data before beginning

interviewing. Interviewees returned the signed cpnsent form through internal corporate

mail. In all cases, I used a Samson Meteor Mic microphone in conjunction with Audacity

recording software on a personal laptop computer to record interviews. Following the

completion of the interviews, I transcribed the recordings by repeating the interviews into

a microphone connected to a computer with Dragon Naturally Speaking software and

edited as needed to ensure accurate transcription. The open-ended questions listed in the

Data Analysis Heading encouraged participants to express responses in their terms. Steps

1 – 11 defined in the Research Protocol procedure of the Data Collection - Instruments

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section described the data collection process. Figure 3 is a visual representation of the

data collection and analysis process.

Figure 3. Data collection and analysis.

Pilot studies are common in complex research projects to (a) test data collection

processes, (b) check equipment associated with the study, and (c) provide information on

intervention and control methods. A pilot study was not necessary for this research

project as (a) the structure is clear, (b) there is a definition of the potential pool of

participants, (c) testing of equipment was not required as no equipment was used, and (d)

no intervention or control methods were included as part of the study.

Data Organization Techniques

A record of each interview includes (a) the job title, (b) the organization the
 101
person represents, (c) the date, (d) start and end times, (e) location, (f) the setting, and (g)

notes using the journal shown in Table 4’s interview spreadsheet template (Microsoft

Excel software). Each interview received a code number. Each participant reviewed

Table 4

Interview Journal

Code # Job Title Organization Date Time Location Setting Notes

a summary of the interview information through member checking to ensure the

summary reflected the participants’ answers. To organize the data, (a) storage of the

value stream map; (b) transcribed Word documents; (c) Excel files with inventory

information, formulas, and job descriptions; and (d) corporate data files, are in electronic

files on both a personal computer and a flash drive. Organization of files was by source

and topic.

Data triangulation strengthens the results of the study. In this case, collection of

inventory data from the corporate database provided a measure of inventory for each

strategy. Comparing participants’ responses regarding strategies with corresponding

inventory measures increased the validity of the findings of the study. Each purchased or

manufactured item has a unique number. Purchasing or producing an item the first time

requires identifying both the purchasing agent responsible for negotiating the terms of the

contract and the supply chain analyst responsible for managing the item. Each item

requires several parameters as part of the database record called an item master. The
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parameters include (a) economic order quantity, (b) minimum order quantity, (c) average

monthly use, (d) reporting unit, (e) billing unit, (f) dimensions, (g) shelf life, (h) lead time

in days, (i) safety stock quantity, (j) inventory value, (k) storage location, (l) load type,

(n) minimum and maximum on-hand quantities, and (o) weight per unit. These data are

part of the record included in inventory data.

The electronic filing system included in Microsoft Windows 7 Professional

operating system provided the means to organize (a) journal spreadsheet information, (b)

policies and procedures, (c) job descriptions, and (d) other pertinent information for this

study. Storing all files including (a) audio recordings, (b) interview transcriptions, (c) the

journal spreadsheet, and (d) other related documents on a personal computer hard drive

with backup on a flash drive for 5 years with password-protected files assured organized

information. To ensure sustained confidentiality, after 5 years, I will erase recorded

interviews and shred written information.

Data Analysis

Using qualitative data analysis provides researchers the means to evaluate various

forms of information regarding the topic, convert the information into knowledge, and

knowledge into wisdom resulting in new ideas (Chenail, 2012a). Qualitative data

analysis uses various methods such as (a) the framework approach (Smith & Firth, 2011),

(b) reading line-by-line (Chenail, 2012b), (c) pattern matching, (d) explanation building,

(e) time-series analysis, (f) logic models, and (g) cross-case synthesis (Yin, 2013). These

methods are useful analyzing qualitative data separately or in combination with one

another. Transcribing audio data into a document format is helpful when using these
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methods. In this study, Dragon Naturally Speaking speech recognition software was a

tool used to transcribe Audacity audio recording software into Microsoft Word software

documents. Audacity audio recording software was readily available and easy to use.

Dragon Naturally Speaking software is inexpensive and easy to use. The data collection,

organization, and analysis software are relatively common, proven research tools. To

support analysis of the information, I reviewed the transcribed documents along with (a)

documented policies regarding performance recognition and rewards, (b) operating

procedures and calculations determining purchasing contracts and manufacturing order

size, (c) job descriptions, (d) mission and vision statements of organizations, amd (e)

inventory data.

Originally, I planned to analyze all data using NVivo 10 software as the software

is designed for qualitative analysis and can accept multiple forms of input including

videos, pictures, social media, and documents. A free 30 trial subscription was available

to become familiar with the software. Reviewing two NVivo 10 tutorials on Youtube led

to the understanding input data required unique reformatting to enable analysis. The

interview responses were already in Word documents that documents required no

reformatting and were easily manipulated to sort the answers by questions and find

common themes. The data in this study afforded rapid placement in Word documents

and Excel spreadsheets and did not require the capabilities NVivo 10 offered. Inventory

data was sorted by the identified strategies and entered into an Excel spreadsheet. The

material control database was the source of the inventory data and the daily inventory

graphs. Originally, the plan was to sort the inventory data by supply chain analyst and
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supervisor. After reviewing the interview data, the daily inventory graphs and observing

the process flow through the production operation, it seemed logical to sort inventory

data by strategy versus supply chain analyst. Sorting by the strategies discovered through

the interviews provided insight into successful strategies that sorting by analyst did not.

Interview participants included managers, supervisors and their direct reports in

the following roles: (a) purchasing agents, (b) supply chain analysts, (c) production

operation leaders, (d) product and process engineers, (e) division manufacturing

operations managers, (f) logistics analysts, (g) warehouse management, and (h) lean

manufacturing managers defined by the value chain model. The following list contains

the standard interview questions for all participants.

1. Is the value chain operating at an optimum inventory level?

2. How do you measure inventory efficiency in this value chain?

3. Describe the process and criteria for selecting a supplier and manufacturing

location.

4. What role does inventory play in your purchasing and manufacture ordering

decisions?

5. What parameters determine the amount of material ordered and

manufactured?

6. What tools and systems do you use when deciding to place orders?

7. How is just-in-time (JIT) and lean philosophies included in your decision-

making?

8. Who owns the inventory in the manufacturing process?

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9. What, if any, inventory-level criteria are you measured on for your annual

performance review?

10. What is the most challenging task to managing input and output inventory in

your value chain?

11. What suggestions do you have for improving the material flow in your value

chain?

Analysis of the inventory data determined (a) the range of units over the previous

12 months, (b) age of the oldest load, (c) the number of loads, and (d) material dollar

value. While these measures determined storage requirements and cash used to fund

operations, they may be misleading in exploring inventory levels. For example, an

expensive material may show a high inventory value and represent a few days of required

material while an inexpensive material may show a lower dollar value of material, yet

represent months of a supply requirement. The same may be true for a bulky product

requiring several load spaces, yet only a few days of supply, versus a small product

requiring few spaces but representing months of supply.

The analysis of the collected information revealed the strategies managers use to

(a) determine inventory levels, (b) determine causes of accumulated inventory, (c)

identify steps in the process with excessive inventory, and (d) determine the positions

with the most influence in the creation of excessive inventory. This analysis supported

answering the research question: What strategies do production managers need for

efficient inventory control? Porter’s (1998) Value Chain framework provided a visual

representation of the production system. In a manufacturing operation, the value chain

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framework provided (a) insight into the locations of inventory, (b) people in the value

chain organization responsible for decisions creating inventory, and (c) support people

and policies affecting the decision makers. The information collected from each process

step related directly to the visual representation of the process under study in the value

stream map shown in Appendix B. Selecting participants via the value stream map

showed the relationship between job titles. Open-ended questions asked of the managers,

supervisors, decision makers, and influencers provided perspective on the choices made

each day that created inventory. Coding the information by job title and strategy was a

direct outcome of employing the value chain framework. In the data analysis process,

tying the responses to the job titles in the framework and identified strategies increased

understanding of the various perspectives and the effect the interactions had on inventory

levels.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability

The fundamental criteria for evaluating the quality of a research project are (a)

reliability, (b) construct validity, (c) internal validity, and (d) external validity (Gibbert,

Ruigrok, & Wicki, 2008; Yin, 2013). These tests are common in empirical studies and

may not be appropriate for every design type (Newton & Shaw, 2013; Street & Ward,

2012). Lincoln and Guba (1985) defined the following criteria specifically for qualitative

research as: (a) confirmability, (b) credibility, (c) transferability, and (d) dependability.

The criteria listed above parallel each other in that reliability is similar to dependability;

construct validity is similar to confirmability; internal validity is akin to credibility; and

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external validity is similar to transferability (Goffin, Raja, Claes, Szwejczewski, &

Martinez, 2011).

The dependability or reliability of a study refers to the repeatability of the study

(Oluwatayo, 2012). Creating a dependable study requires an easily followed, defined

systematic procedure, leading to repeatable results. A dependable study minimizes

personal bias so another researcher following the same procedure would reach similar

conclusions. A characteristic of a research project that is dependable includes a defined

study protocol and a comprehensive study database (Gibbert & Ruigrok, 2010). The

study protocol defined the steps from the beginning of the study question with explicit

procedures for collecting, storing and analyzing information resulting in conclusions and

a written report. The research protocol for this study is in the Data Collection –

Instruments Heading of this paper.

A dependable study includes (a) a full explanation of the study, (b) a definition of

the framework to determine potential data sources, (c) a review of current literature re-

enforcing the question, (d) a description of the data collection and coding method

including a spreadsheet, and (e) a review of data organization techniques and analysis

(Vicencio-Ortiz & Kolarik, 2012). The clearer the research protocol, the more likely

another researcher would be able to repeat the study and find similar conclusions. The

first two sections of this research addressed these items with additional information tying

the results to the research question in Section 1. Gibbert and Ruigrok (2010)

recommended tape recording and transcribing interviews word for word to minimize

personal bias and personal interpretation. I recorded interviews, transcribed them, and
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reviewed the results with each participant before analyzing the data for this research

project.

Validity

As the reliability represents precision and repeatability, validity represents

accuracy. In other words, validity verifies the study provides an accurate assessment of

the real-life occurrence with respect to the research question (Oluwatayo, 2012). Criteria

for judging qualitative research design validity include (a) confirmability, (b)

transferability, and (c) credibility (Goffin et al., 2011; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Assuring

confirmability requires demonstrating the relationship between study parameters, the

research question, and the research findings (Goffin et al., 2011). The design of a study

with confirmability meets criteria to address the research question correctly.

Confirmability relates to the data collection sources and the means of obtaining

information. Suggestions to increase study confirmability are (a) using multiple sources

of information, (b) triangulating data sources, and (c) describing the steps taken to collect

the data. In this study, I used multiple sources of information including (a) interviewing

people associated with managing inventory levels; (b) interviewing people working under

the direct supervision of managers responsible for inventory levels; (c) policies,

procedures, personnel expectations, and job descriptions, related to managing inventory;

and (d) inventory data collected from the preceding 12 months for each component

comprising the final product.

Triangulating data compares information, verifying consistency. In this study, if

an interview participant stated the tools used to measure inventory is a factor in the level
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of inventory, an analysis of the measurement tool may verify the statement lending

credence to the comment. Participants mentioned several measurement methods used to

track inventory located in the corporate production database. The database is real time

with updates after each transaction, sampled monthly for accuracy. Participants

expressed confidence in the measurements. Interviewing groups of people with different

perspectives and responsibilities regarding inventory levels added strength of

confirmation to the results. Collecting information from multiple sources provided a

means to verify the integrity of the information for assuring the validity of the results.

Documenting the interview results, corresponding policies and procedures, and inventory

levels in the journal spreadsheet in Table 4 provided an organized, repeatable method for

triangulating information in this study.

Another suggestion to assure validity is to have the researcher perform each of the

interviews personally and thoroughly transcribe the interviews ensuring the use of

interviewees’ words in the study (Gibbert & Ruigrok, 2010; Gläser & Laudel, 2013;

Smith & Firth, 2011). Another tool ensuring the participants’ transcripts reflect their

perspective was through member checking in which I asked each participant to review

the information collected after transcribing the interview (Carlson, 2010). I conducted all

interviews, transcriptions and follow up member checking, reviewing a summary of the

transcribed interview with each participant permitting clarifications and edits. An

examination of the summary by the participants ensured the transcripts, concepts, and

intentions of the answers were correct. The interview responses provided information on

strategies influencing inventory levels. Comparing the numerical data with the interview
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responses enhanced the strength of the study. I triangulated final transcriptions,

inventory data, software parameters, policies, job descriptions, expectations, and personal

performance goals strengthening the confirmability of this study.

Gibbert and Ruigrok (2013) defined transferability as the ability to transfer the

results of a study in a broader setting. The domain of this study is a single value chain in

one manufacturing company. The assessment of transferability compares the relevance

of results from this study regarding strategies affecting inventory levels applied to other

value chains within other manufacturing organizations. One method to increase

transferability is defining the setting accurately and clearly, so other researchers can

judge if the findings may apply to similar settings. Using Porter’s (1998) value chain

model for this study provided an accurate, precise framework, and a means of assessing

the applicability of the study to other value chains. Several other researchers use Porter’s

value chain model as demonstrated in the literature review section (Baig & Akhtar, 2011;

Chen et al., 2010; Chowdary & George, 2011; Ellis et al., 2010; Gurumurthy & Kodali,

2011; Lu et al., 2011). The Research Protocol in the Data Collection – Instruments

heading provides other researchers with a framework for judging the findings and

recommendations for transfer to other settings. Another method to increase

transferability is to use a thick description of the context of the study (Lincoln & Guba,

1985; Schwandt, 2007). A study with a thick description includes detailed information

such as (a) settings, (b) participants, (c) data collection procedures, and (d) analysis

procedure and tools (Carlson, 2010). Clear descriptions of the context were possible

through the value chain model. Finally, triangulating the information collected from
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sources that supported common themes improved the likelihood of generalizing the

results to other settings. In this study, I provided clear instructions on steps to conduct

the study, triangulated the information for verifying the validity of common themes, and

described differences in themes in summarizing the results.

The final tool to verify the validity of a study is credibility. Credibility is parallel

to the internal validity test used in quantitative research (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

Credibility refers to ensuring the results of the research represent the sentiments of the

interviewees (Goffin et al., 2011). Techniques used to increase study credibility include

(a) triangulation of data, (b) reviewing data for common themes, and(c) member checking

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). I asked the same 11 open-ended questions of several people

from two distinct groups providing 20 answers to each question. One group consisted of

managers and supervisors managing inventory levels, material flow systems, and people.

The other group consisted of people reporting to the manager group, using the material

flow systems creating inventory. The two groups provided different perspectives on the

strategies controlling inventory levels. Following the interviews, participants received

summaries of their interview responses to ensure the summary represented the

participants’ answers to the interview questions. Additional sources of information for

validating interview data included (a) job descriptions; (b) ordering policies for both

outside supplied materials, work-in-process materials, and finished goods; and (c)

inventory level data within the value chain. A review of all collected information

provided answers to the research question.

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Transition and Summary

Section 2 included a detailed explanation for defining and exploring the strategies

affecting purchasing and manufacturing decisions in the process of creating the product

defined in the researched value chain. Included was a detailed protocol for creating a

transferable process for use by other researchers in different settings with the rationale

supporting the design, and an explanation of how the design led to credible findings and

verifiable conclusions. Porter’s value chain model (1998) provided a method to identify

individuals affecting the manufacturing process and resulting inventory levels. The

premise for this research was many operations have excessive levels of inventory in the

process of managing their business (Bartram, 2013; Basu & Wang, 2011; Fawcett et al.,

2010). Maintaining optimal levels of inventory allows material to flow smoothly through

a production system, fulfilling customer orders using resources efficiently. Section 3

includes details of the (a) the findings, (b) application to practice, (c) implications for

social change, and (d) recommendations for actions and further study.
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Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change

The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore strategies that

manufacturing managers use to optimize and control inventory levels in a manufacturing

operation. I employed one-on-one interviews with managers and those who support

them. The results of this study provided an answer to the research question: What

strategies do production managers need for efficient inventory control? A value chain

map provided the framework for defining process steps, identifying inventory locations,

and identifying managers and others responsible for ordering raw materials and entering

manufacturing orders determining levels of finished-goods inventory in distribution

centers. Included in this section are findings from interviews and observations, as well as

policies, tools, and systems that participants use. I collected inventory data associated

with each process step in the value chain map to triangulate information, increasing the

validity of the results. A review of the results includes translation into applications for

practical use, a discussion of implications for social change, recommendations for action,

and opportunities for future studies. Last, this section includes personal reflections and a

summary of the study.

Overview of Study

An opportunity to improve business operations and sustainability exists in the

form of improved working capital, as evidenced by U.S. businesses owning 1.7 billion

USD in inventory at the end of 2013. The majority of the articles in the review of current

literature contained descriptions and evaluations of tools to improve inventory levels.

Tools included JIT manufacturing, mass production, inventory parameter management,

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the Toyota Production System, and lean manufacturing. Other researchers evaluated

formulas and mathematical models for optimizing inventory levels (Dogru, Reiman, &

Wang, 2010; Li & Meissner, 2011; Sana & Chaudhuri, 2013). A few of the researchers

analyzed successes and failures of various tool implementations (Brondo & Babi, 2010;

Brüggen, Krishnan, & Sedatole, 2011). None of the researchers referenced included

discussions with individuals creating strategies, systems, and tools that create inventory.

Included as part of this study are interviews with participants defining and implementing

strategies, systems, and tools to gain additional perspective on the control of inventory

levels in manufacturing operations. The purpose of this study was to close the gap

between tools defined in the literature review and successful strategies by obtaining the

perspective of those individuals responsible for inventory creation. Interviews,

observations, and data address the research question: What strategies do production

managers need for efficient inventory control?

I chose the qualitative method and a case study using a value chain map as a

framework. The value chain framework defined the boundaries of a single value chain.

The value chain map for this case study was a manufacturing process with 25 different

raw materials and seven assembly processes with 12 inventory locations. Depicting this

value chain provided (a) a process with several people involved; (b) multiple

manufacturing locations; (c) people separated geographically; (d) multiple process steps;

(e) multiple control systems, with each manufacturing location having distinct systems;

and (f) multiple managers controlling inventory levels using various strategies. The

product manufactured through the value chain is a common household product sold
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through major retailers and smaller specialty stores using a make to stock product

fulfillment strategy. The product has been in existence for several years and the

manufacturing processes have had many years of improvement activities. In interviews,

participants identified three strategies with roots in JIT philosophy: (a) kanban, (b)

vendor-managed inventory, and (c) process step integration. Also identified was the use

of the economic order quantity (EOQ) strategy, also referred to as minimum order

quantity. The EOQ strategy has lowest total cost as its basis. All potential interviewees

whose participation I solicited agreed to participate in both the initial interview and

follow-up member checking. Participants requested the opportunity to review the

complete study.

Presentation of the Findings

Several data sources provided insight into the research question. Four strategies

became evident through the interviewing process, which consisted of four hierarchical

levels including one director, 15 managers, two supply chain analysts, and two process

engineers. Achieving data saturation was possible through 20 interviews followed by a

review of the interpreted results with each of the 20 interviewees. Participants included a

director and managers supporting the identified value chain, managers providing support

services including international locations, and those providing strategies at the corporate

level. The engineers and analysts who participated were directly involved in supporting

the value chain represented in Appendix B. A review of training manuals, training

classes, parameters in formula calculations, and inventory data provided triangulation of

the findings, validating the results.

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The conceptual framework and value chain map visually represented the

manufacturing process, providing insights into inventory levels within the process. In

reviewing the value chain map (see Appendix B), it is evident a certain amount of

inventory exists between each step of the process. In the process under study, there is

potential for inventory in 12 locations consisting of 25 raw materials and seven

subassemblies (work-in-process or WIP). The analysis of the information resulted in

defining one overarching philosophy, JIT. Based on the information and data, four

strategies were evident, dependent on the location in the value chain. A review of the

four strategies, the logic defining them and the effectiveness of each strategy follows,

beginning with the initial steps in the value chain.

Strategy 1: Economic Order Quantity

The strategy managers used to control most vendor-supplied materials and some

WIP inventories was the economic order quantity strategy. Each of the interview

participants mentioned economic order quantity as a primary strategy in deciding how

much to order and manufacture for internal processes. Some interviewees indicated that

they expected suppliers to calculate the economic order quantity to provide the lowest

cost per unit. Many of the participants who mentioned that suppliers managed inventory

based on a minimum order quantity referred to the practice as part of the economic order

quantity strategy. Based on the supplier restricting the size of the order through a

minimum order size, the vendor was controlling the inventory level for the item. The

economic quantity calculation in this manufacturing operation used a formula containing

13 independent variables. The 13 variables were (a) inventory carrying costs, (b) process
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step equipment loading, (c) process step downtime, (d) historical demand, (e) standard

deviation of historical demand, (f) production rate, (g) time required to change the

process equipment to a new product, (h) batch size, (i) cost necessary to change the

process equipment to a new product, (j) cost of the material, (k) required customer

service level, (l) average lead time, and (m) standard deviation of lead time. Eighteen

external suppliers and three internal suppliers implemented this strategy. The logic of the

strategy involved balancing costs between the supplying process step and the next

process step. In the case of an external supplier, the supply costs are the unit cost of the

item, which in most cases decreases as the order quantity increases. Costs at the

receiving process step included (a) inventory carrying costs, (b) storage costs, (c) costs to

move loads, (d) tracking costs, and (e) material loss from handling damage. When

selecting a vendor, the list of potential suppliers only included providers able to meet

specifications with adequate capacity. Many of the materials ordered using this strategy

were specialty items, and quality and part fit were the main criteria for supplier selection.

While inventory-carrying costs were part of the equation, most participants stated that

unit cost was the final deciding factor in selecting a supplier.

A measurement of inventory policy effectiveness that I used to draw comparisons

among the various strategies entailed counting the days of material on hand and the oldest

load. Appendix E has a table with inventory data based on material control strategy.

Reviewing all materials using the economic order quantity, the average number of days

of stock was 128.9, with a standard deviation of 239.5 days. The oldest load of the 21

items was 702 days. Another value chain on site also used this material. The oldest item
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not shared was 337 days. An example of the daily inventory of one item using the

economic order quantity strategy is in Appendix F. The item representing the economic

order quantity strategy graphed in Appendix F averages approximately 44 days of

material on hand, with the last several data points averaging approximately 75 days of

inventory on hand. Of the four strategies cited by the participants, economic order

quantity was the least effective based on these measurements although it was the most

widely used. A note regarding this supply strategy is that the 13 parameters must be

current to provide an up-to-date economic order quantity. In the value chain under study,

the 13 parameters for calculating the economic order quantity received quarterly updates.

Effective use of the economic order quantity strategy requires balancing unit cost with

JIT deliveries, as JIT is not inherent in the calculation.

Strategy 2: Kanban

The kanban strategy is an inventory control strategy in which there are a limited

number of appropriately sized containers. When all kanban containers are full, the

manufacturing process filling containers stops producing, and deliveries discontinue until

an empty container signals the producer to begin refilling. The size and number of

containers compared to the use determine the level of inventory. The value chain under

study had eight materials using the kanban strategy. Several of the participants defined

and discussed the use of kanban as an effective inventory control strategy. Participants

mentioning the kanban strategy believed that the strategy did not fit all applications and

was more difficult to set up and sustain than the economic order quantity strategy. One

interview response described a kanban system setup with a supplier in which a camera
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focused on the kanban slots notifying the supplier when to replenish materials. Based on

the inventory data, materials managed using the kanban strategy had an average of 42.9

days of inventory on hand, with a standard deviation of 53.0 days.

An example of the daily inventory of one item using the kanban strategy is in

Appendix F. In this case, the strategy produced results with an average of approximately

17 days of material on hand. The oldest load was 144 days, which was unusually old.

This oldest load was still in storage because it had a quality issue. The graph shows that

this material had reached zero inventory two times in the past 12 months, indicative of

when the production equipment was manufacturing another product or when there had

been equipment reliability issues. At the time of the study, the latest data points reflected

inventory dropping to less than 1 week as confidence in the process allowed managers to

reduce safety stock. In this value chain, the kanban strategy related to lower inventory

levels than the economic order quantity strategy.

Strategy 3: Vendor-Managed Inventory

Vendor-managed inventory is a supply strategy in which the supplier tracks use

and inventory to keep the customer from running out of material while at the same time

optimizing the supplier's operation. Less than half of the participants mentioned vendor-

managed inventory as an effective strategy, possibly because the strategy was not as

common. The value chain under study had one material using vendor-managed

inventory. In this case, the supplier was in the same geographical location and delivered

supplies for several value chains daily. Requirements to implement this strategy include

a consistent process with little demand variability, predictable demand, and frequent
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deliveries. The customer provided a monthly demand plan, updated every 3 days, and a

consumption plan locked in for 3 days, updated daily. The monthly plan was an

approximation allowing the supplier to purchase appropriate supplies. The relationship

between the supplier and customer was collaborative, developing over several years. The

customer and supplier had quality and productivity improvement projects each year

benefiting both. Renegotiation occurred annually because of the improvements.

During the study, the vendor-managed inventory strategy was producing results

averaging approximately 6 days of material on hand, shown in Appendix F, with the

oldest load at 13 days. The graph shows that this material had reached zero inventory

several times in the past 12 months, indicative of when the production equipment was

manufacturing another product. In cases where inventory grew, the customer’s

production equipment was not running because of equipment downtime or quality issues.

A comment from a manager in the warehouse operation conflicted with some of the

benefits previously mentioned. At times, the supplier delivered pallets with only one

item on them, and they were stored in the warehouse taking an entire pallet slot with only

one carton of material. The supplier providing vendor-managed inventory had more

pallet slots allocated to its materials than any other supplier did. As suggested in the

literature review, both entities must benefit for the vendor-managed inventory strategy to

be successful (Bookbinder, Gümüs, & Jewkes, 2010). A vendor-managed inventory

strategy may not fit all situations, as evidenced by the number of loads in the warehouse.
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Strategy 4: Process Step Integration or One-Piece Flow

The strategy of integrating process steps occurs by transporting the output of one

process step into the input of the next process step. None of the participants mentioned

this strategy in their responses. This strategy was evident in observing materials flowing

through the manufacturing process. In this case, there are two inputs conveyed directly to

the assembly process step. The length of the conveying mechanism and the part size

control the level of inventory. Sensors placed strategically on the conveying mechanisms

monitor the output of process equipment in the previous step. For instance, if the

assembly process stops, inventory backs up on the conveying mechanism until a sensor

detects the material blocking it, which triggers the equipment in the last process to slow

down or stop. When the conveying mechanism is moving material again, the unblocked

sensor triggers the equipment in the previous process step to speed up or restart.

Implementation of this strategy requires the process equipment to be in proximity

geographically. The process feeding the integrated equipment must be capable of

stopping and starting reliably without any effect on product quality, and each of the

relevant process steps must have a high level of reliability.

Use of this strategy provided efficient inventory results, approaching one-piece

flow at the output of the assembly process, even though the process steps feeding the

assembly process were not manufacturing one piece at a time. One-piece flow is a

manufacturing strategy in which an item is processed and checked at each step before

moving to the next process step (Satoglu, Durmusoglu, & Ertay, 2010). One-piece flow

has one piece in the process at each manufacturing step, with no inventory between steps.
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While this process step does not have one-piece flow, integration provides similar results.

An example of the daily inventory graph of material controlled using an integrated

strategy is in Appendix F, the last graph. The line shows the level of 1 day of inventory.

By comparison, the graph demonstrating the economic order quantity strategy has a line

showing 1 month of inventory, while the graphs showing the kanban and vendor-

managed inventory control strategies have a line showing 1 week of inventory. The scale

for the “Y” axis represent days on hand based on the consumption rate of the material.

On the integrated chart, there are several days with zero inventories, and the highest level

of inventory represents approximately 4 days of demand. In this value chain, an

integrated strategy provides an efficient level of control.

Interview Results

Each participant responded to all 11 questions. On average, the interviews lasted

15 minutes and 29 seconds, with the longest interview slightly over 31 minutes and the

shortest interview slightly over 7 minutes. While most participants believed that

inventory in the value chain was at an appropriate level, they also believed that an

opportunity existed for improvement. One conclusion from this research is that the

location of the process steps influenced inventory levels in the value chain. Ideally, all

process steps would be in proximity and on the same site. Integration of process steps

would be difficult if they were not in the same location. The geographic location also

influences decisions regarding frequency of deliveries and quantity of the material

delivered. Deliveries could be more frequent with smaller lot sizes if the supplier is

nearby. When the supplier is not nearby, using a local storage facility to overcome
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geography is a possibility. Another factor for improving the value chain is reducing the

number of process steps required to manufacture the item. Fewer process steps lead to

fewer places materials accumulate, resulting in less inventory. Participants stated

variability in the process, followed by product proliferation and inventory being a

secondary metric as additional factors creating excessive inventory. Removing

variability in the lead times of supplies and the output of process steps and increasing the

accuracy of the demand forecast would remove some safety stock inventory, increasing

the rate of material flow.

All interviewees mentioned inventory turns as the key measure of inventory

efficiency. The calculation of inventory turns is the cost of goods sold for a period

divided by the average inventory during the same period. The average inventory is equal

to the beginning inventory added to the ending inventory divided by two. Prioritizing the

inventory turns measurement may encourage behavior to reduce inventory at the end of

the period versus encouraging practices to remove reasons for excess inventory.

Participants’ also defined inventory efficiency tracking included (a) the dollar value of

inventory not used in the past 180 days, and material with more than 12 months of

demand based on a forecast; (b) cycle time; and (c) service to customers. These

measurements are indicators of inventory efficiency and highlight opportunity to

understand and eliminate the cause of the old inventory. In some cases, these

measurements may drive the behavior of depreciating inventory value or scrapping old

materials while the intention of the measurement is eliminating the cause of the aged

material. Inconsistencies existed regarding inventory ownership and individual

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performance measurements. Seven participants had ownership for inventory and annual

inventory performance metrics. Seven participants did not have ownership for inventory

or annual inventory performance metrics. Four participants had no ownership for

inventory but had inventory performance metrics on their annual appraisal, and finally,

two participants had ownership for inventory but no metrics on their annual appraisals.

Participants in manufacturing sites claimed ownership in most instances, and all had

inventory metrics on annual appraisals.

Participants’ suggestions to improve material flow included (a) defining and using

appropriate measures, (b) pulling materials through the value chain versus pushing, (c)

stopping production when reaching optimum inventory levels, and (d) challenging the

status quo with respect to material flow. One suggestion to improve measuring inventory

efficiency was using Little’s law, which shows the amount of material in the queue in

front of each process step (Roach, 2011). The mathematical formula for Little’s law is

the average inventory equals throughput multiplied by flow time. Practically, Little’s law

defines the average amount of material or inventory defined in units of time in front of a

process step. The use of average inventory in Little’s law equation limits accounting for

inventory fluctuations. Several participants recommended a measurement determining

cycle time from the beginning to the end of a production run as a reasonable

measurement of material flow and inventory effectiveness. Participants recommended

the value chain mapping tool to represent cycle-time visually. Another suggestion for

measuring inventory efficiency related to the method the U.S. Census Bureau News

(2015) uses, defined as the ratio of inventory to sales. Participants recommended

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analyzing inventory measurements over a longer time span and including the entire value

chain so as not to suboptimize individual process steps. Participants suggested using

value stream mapping as a tool to begin the process of understanding, evaluation, and

improvement.

Applications to Professional Practice

The philosophy of JIT delivery is at the core of three of the four effective

strategies discovered in the study. The primary driver behind the economic order

quantity strategy is minimizing total cost and not optimizing inventory. As discovered

through the interviewing, inventory measurements are frequently a secondary metric.

Balancing cost and material flow are important considerations when employing the

economic order quantity strategy. The primary driver behind kanban, vendor managed

inventory, and integration strategies are to keep the material moving as each time the

material stops, inventory results. Applying JIT philosophy to material flow in a process

increases the speed from raw material purchases to collection of funds from the customer,

described earlier as the cash conversion cycle. Having less inventory in a process

requires less cash required to purchase materials, requires fewer places to store materials,

and less staff and equipment to move materials, making it less expensive to run an

operation increasing profitability (Gupta & Iyengar, 2014).

Increasing the speed of material flow should also lead to decreasing the cash

conversion cycle. The closer to zero the cash conversion cycle, the quicker cash returns

to the organization. In some cases, the cash conversion cycle is less than zero meaning

an organization with negative days cash conversion cycle uses their customers funds to
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pay their suppliers (Cagle, Campbell, & Jones, 2013). A consideration when reducing

inventory: a reduction in inventory will decrease the level of working capital. Working

capital is the sum of inventory dollars plus accounts receivable minus accounts payable

and is an indicator of the liquidity of an organization and the ability to pay for daily

operations.

Table 5

Working Capital Restated With Inventory Reduced 50%

Ford GM Toyota Daimlera Honda Deere Cat

Inventory 7,362 14,714 18,219 17,720 12,906 5,170 15,547
Inventory 3,681 7,357 9,110 8,860 6,453 2,585 7,774
restated
Accounts 82,338 23,868 87,831 7,543 26,367 31,426 20,499
receivable
Accounts 68,715 48,474 47,311 8,832 16,976 9,288 15,309
payable
Total 20,985 -9,892 58,739 16,431 22,297 27,308 20,737
working
capital
Working 17,304 -17,249 49,630 7,571 15,844 24,732 12,964
capital
restated
Working 15.6 % -6.5 % 25.1 % 14.4 % 21.3 % 75.5 % 31.5 %
capital/sales
Working 12.9% -11.3% 21.2% 6.6% 15.1% 68.4% 19.7%
capital/sales
restated
Note. Information taken from 2012 annual reports published in Yahoo Finance.com.
Inventory, accounts receivable, and accounts payable data in millions of USD.
a
Inventory, current assets, and sales data in millions of EUR, 1 euro equals 1.37 USD
(Yahoo Finance, October 20, 2013).

Elimination of inventory through improved efficiencies reduces working capital

in the short term. A restatement of Table 2, shown in Table 5, reflects an inventory

reduction of 50% demonstrating the effect on working capital. As is shown in Table 5,

 127
reducing inventory alone also reduces total working capital that financial managers may

interpret as reduced liquidity. At some point, accounts payable will decrease, as fewer

materials need purchasing, raising working capital to some extent. Reducing inventory

should also reduce the cash conversion cycle unless a significant amount of older

inventory is on hand. In an ideal situation, all inventory cycles quickly, resulting in little

old inventory. Researchers concluded reducing average age of inventory and increasing

inventory turnover increases profitability (Alipour, 2011; Bagchi, Chakrabarti, & Roy,

2012; Malik & Bukhari, 2014; Napompech, 2012; Raheman, Afza, Qayyum, & Bodla,

2010; Sharma & Kumar, 2011; Vural, Sokmen, & Cetenak, 2012). Balancing liquidity

and profitability are necessary to an organization’s viability. Effectively managing

inventory is a significant factor in achieving both liquidity and profitability.

Implications for Social Change

Controlling inventory in manufacturing organizations at optimal levels has direct

and indirect effects on individuals, businesses, communities, and cultures. Using the

Triple Bottom Line measurement is an appropriate tool to analyze the influence of too

much inventory in the value chain. The triple bottom line measurement contains three

broad areas including (a) economic, (b) environmental, and (c) social effects (Mintz,

2011). The intersection of these three areas is a measure of sustainable manufacturing

(Ocampo & Estanislao-Clark, 2014). The following describes how optimal inventory

affects each of these areas thereby affecting social change.

From an economic perspective, inventory is one of three assets considered as

working capital and monies for keeping an operation solvent on a daily basis. The other
 128
assets are accounts receivable and accounts payable. Working capital is at an optimal

level when operations performance is optimal (Baños-Caballero, García-Teruel,

Martínez-Solano, 2014). Not having enough working capital leads to lost business, and

too much working capital leads to dependence on external financing. Kieschnick,

LaPlante, & Moussawi (2011) posited that the appropriate level of inventory as part of

working capital with respect to firm value depends on the perspective of the reviewer. A

reviewer may view a high level of inventory as a good sign of future sales or view a high

level of inventory as a sign of over production. Optimal inventory levels provide the

highest level of firm value.

The appropriate level of inventory is enough to minimize sales loss and not so

much to waste resources. All inventories expend resources to create, purchase, store, and

move. Costs to create inventory include (a) purchasing, transporting, and storing raw

materials; (b) wages and benefit of employees to move and operate equipment; (c) costs

to purchase equipment; (d) utilities to run equipment; (e) maintenance costs to keep

equipment running; and (f) costs of facilities to manufacture products. Storage costs

include (a) facilities in which to store materials; (b) pallets, racking, boxes to store

product; and (c) equipment to move materials. Creating too much inventory in the value

chain requires expenditures to support these resources. The economic effect of

expending these resources may deplete an organization’s cash resources leading to

borrowing cash to continue operations and in the worst case, result in bankruptcy

(Pimplapure & Kulkarni, 2011). When managers in a firm struggle with insolvency and

are unable to pay suppliers and employees, individuals and communities are affected.
 129
Likewise, when a firm is in a growth period, communities benefit through increased tax

revenue. Individuals may grow as well through the creation of jobs and opportunities.

As noted earlier, mismanagement of inventories is included in the top ten reasons leading

to bankruptcy (U.S. Small Business Administration, 2013). Strategies supporting

managers optimizing inventories contribute to (a) sustainable businesses, (b) minimizing

firm failure, (c) providing continued employment, and (d) job growth. Increased tax

revenue from successful individuals and businesses positively influences society just as

reducing social services because of increased employment positively influence society.

Businesses also provide leaders and volunteers to community organizations contributing

to improved quality of life.

From an environmental perspective, strategies supporting optimal inventories

minimize waste of resources. Resources include materials as part of the product

manufactured and the resources used in the manufacturing process such as water,

electricity, and fuels. Disposal of process by-products and possibly excess inventories is

also an environmental concern. An example is the issue leaders in Beijing face with

water quantity and quality as production scaled up (Zeng, Liua, & Savenije, 2013).

Greenhouse gas emissions have become a global concern in both the production and use

of manufactured products (Harris & Symons, 2013). Overproduction of goods uses

valuable resources before needed and possibly never needed. Excess inventory might

require relocation of the materials using additional energy and fuels. Efficient use of

inventory results in less waste going to landfills and other methods of disposal, relating

directly to sustainability of natural resources (Wolf, 2011). Overproduction of materials

 130
contributes to overuse of resources and higher levels of emissions.

Implementing strategies to optimize inventory requires questioning why current

levels of inventory exist and addressing reasons for having excess inventory. In some

cases, individuals accept the levels of inventory inherited when they began the job. In

other instances, individuals ask why the inventory levels are where they are, and then

accept the answer as being sufficient. Manufacturing managers may influence suppliers

and customers in the value chain asking questions regarding efficient inventory control

affecting organizations up and down the value chain. As a result, improvement strategies

throughout one value chain may influence other organizations in related value chains.

Strategies to create optimal inventory may also establish a culture of continuous

improvement and individuals who can lead continuous improvement in their personal and

professional lives.

Recommendations for Action

The purpose for this study was to determine strategies supporting optimal

inventory levels in the manufacturing process of a single value chain. The findings from

this study demonstrate the JIT philosophy is the root of several strategies effectively

controlling inventory levels. Interestingly, the standard measurements for evaluating

inventory effectiveness do not relate to time. Managers using standard measurements

count (a) loads, (b) the dollar value of inventory and, (c) inventory turns comparing

inventory to sales and costs. From a financial point of view, these metrics may be

adequate. From an operational management perspective, a measurement relating to time

is worthy of consideration.
 131
A consideration in financial measurements regarding inventory is the inventory

value calculation may vary from company to company, making comparisons difficult.

Many financial leaders compare sales dollars to inventory dollars to determine inventory

efficiency. While sales should be relatively straightforward to define from company to

company, the variability in calculating the value of inventory dollars has a direct relation

to inventory efficiency. Employees with financial reporting responsibilities typically

report inventory at the end of the month, quarter, or annually. End of period reporting

with a single number based on the last day of the period does not accurately reflect

inventory levels and tends to lead to underreporting (Rudi et al., 2009). Periodic review

of inventory value in most companies reflects actual costs as the value of the material

increases through processing. The value of inventory depends on many factors including

(a) timing of the measurement, (b) the measurement system used, and potentially (c)

incentives for people doing the measuring. The cost of goods sold calculation may vary

from company to company. The discussion is not to discount the value of the financial

measurements, only that perhaps a better measurement for operational managers would

relate to time. Information from this study indicates using age of materials as a measure

and cycle time of the value chain may help operational managers determine inventory

efficiency.

The age of inventory based on the purchase date or manufacture date is a

reasonable measurement to evaluate inventory efficiency. Age of inventory is not a

calculated measurement and is consistent across value chains and corporations. The age

of each load of inventory would define how early a load arrived before needed. Ideally,
 132
as the term JIT describes, the delivery of a supply occurs when the material is ready for

processing, and the age of a load is minutes or hours. JIT may not be practical in every

case because of the variability in (a) supply delivery, (b) quality of the input and output,

(c) process, and (d) demand. A descriptive measure of inventory age would include a

measure of the mean and the standard deviation of all loads. From an operational

perspective, inventory age provides an indicator of inventory efficiency while also

highlighting opportunities for improvement.

Figure 4. Example of inventory measurement by age in days.

Figure 4 is a graphic representation of the age distribution of inventory at a

specific point in time in a value chain that has an opportunity to improve material flow.

Some loads are older than 3 years. In financial measurements, inventory over 3 years old
 133
may be discounted and no longer visible to managers. The advantage of an operational

manager using this type of measurement is old loads may highlight an opportunity to

improve the flow of materials. Using JIT philosophy and the strategies emanating from

this study provide operational managers tools to improve material flow, inventory

efficiency and value chain productivity.

Each of the interviewees and the senior vice-president requested a copy of this

completed study. The interviewees and the senior vice-president plan to share the results

of this study with others who influence inventory levels within their organizations. This

study is also available to future researchers through UMI/ProQuest CSA.

Recommendations for Further Study

My objective for this study was to determine strategies for managing inventory

levels in a mature value chain. The results of the research identified use of the JIT

philosophy through three strategies as well as economic order quantity strategy to control

inventory and manage material flow. I employed Porter’s (1998) value chain map as the

framework defining the manufacturing and material flow process and identify the

functions supporting the process. The value chain map and the identification of four

separate strategies provided a foundation for several potential studies.

One potential future study would be to compare the age of multiple value chains

to one another to determine if value chain maturity correlates to inventory efficiency. A

possible hypothesis would be a more mature value chain has more efficient inventory use

than a more recent value chain. The merit of this potential study is determining what

strategies to implement to decrease the time it takes a newer value chain to achieve
 134
inventory efficiency. Another potential study would be to compare strategies versus the

type of inventory: (a) raw material, (b) work-in-process, and (c) finished goods. A

researcher could seek to develop a comparison of various value chains using multiple

control strategies to provide direction to optimize inventories based on the location in the

value chain. The value chain mapping tool aids viewing processes back to suppliers and

their suppliers and forward to distributors and end users. With an extended map, studies

similar to those above may extend efficiencies to additional organizations. Extending

studies to suppliers may improve relationships benefiting all participants in the value

chain.

The foundational information within this study could support improving existing

value chains’ efficiencies, and thereby increase the life of associated products. Managers

and developers designing value chains may find the results of this study informative

while making production decisions. Decisions such as (a) make to order versus make to

stock, (b) the number of internal process steps versus external supply, (c) the timing and

size of deliveries and manufacturing orders, (d) the location of the operation and (e)

supplier selection, have an influence on the efficiency of the value chain, the success of

the product, and the success of the organization.

Reflections

Interviews with managers in positions influencing inventory levels through

implemented strategies were the primary source of information determining the findings,

conclusions, and recommendations from this study. In the original planning, there was

little consideration given to observation of the supply chain process. My original belief
 135
was that it would be impractical to observe the process as so much of the decisions

creating inventory was in and through computers. Creation of the value chain map

required walking through each step of the process. On the first tour of the value chain,

little notice was made of what was taking place and observation was not a consideration

as a source of information. A subsequent walk to the production floor after completing

the interviewing revealed the manufacturing of the product was also a material flow

process, which helped to crystallize the strategies for this value chain. Observing the

work on the manufacturing floor also known as, gemba is a lean manufacturing practice

to help people understand reality (Yamada, 2014). Implementers of lean manufacturing

practices acknowledge observing an operation first-hand is a valuable training tool that

takes time to become proficient and develop an understanding of what is happening

(Ahmed, 2014).

The first walk was to see the manufacturing process steps in the value chain

creating the product. Following interviewing and a review of the inventory data, I

recognized the material flow as a process. The interviewing process facilitated

identifying philosophies and tool usage. However, in some cases the strategies to control

inventory were not evident. The consideration of value chain flow as a sequence of

process steps provided meaning to both the interview responses and associated inventory

data. Observation provided clarity and information demonstrating the power of using all

data available to providing meaningful research.

Summary and Study Conclusions

The purpose for this qualitative case study was to explore strategies managers use
 136
to optimize and control inventory levels in manufacturing processes. A value chain

model provided a visual representation of the manufacturing process producing the

product. Creating the model required multiple observations to understand all aspects of

the production process. The value chain model proved a valuable framework to assist in

understanding the relationships between various process steps. Mapping the differences

in rates, reliability, and yields of processing steps provided information needed to identify

an appropriate strategy to manage inventory effectively. Regular updating of the map is

an opportunity to demonstrate changes in the value chain and provide feedback

determining strategies’ actual effectiveness. Expanding the value chain map upstream

and downstream of the internal process steps would identify additional opportunities for

improving effectiveness for suppliers and distributors creating more value for all

participants.

The results of this study indicate several strategies can be effective in optimizing

material flow in a value chain. A significant finding is one strategy may not fit all

situations. Location of suppliers has an influence on the level of inventory in the value

chain. A local supplier may offer more frequent and smaller deliveries with the ideal

situation of daily deliveries providing daily requirements for the consuming process step.

As relationships with suppliers develop, or process yields improve, inventory control

strategies may change improving process flow. In nearly every case, some inventory

exists between each process step. When possible, a strategy to eliminate or integrate

process steps can reduce the number of places inventory accumulates thereby reducing

total inventory.
 137
Another critical factor in optimizing inventory is ensuring accurate measurement.

Several measures of inventory exist and are a requirement for financial entities to ensure

reporting is comparative among organizations. Differences in measuring inventory exist

dependent on the choice of LIFO, FIFO or mixed reporting. Differences may also exist

depending on how the value of inventory changes as it ages. Organizations with work-in-

process inventory may value inventory using fully burdened calculations or variable

costs. These choices lead to inconsistent inventory valuations. Little’s law provided

useful information in that the formula provides a representation of the number of days of

material in front of a process step. Little’s formula depends on a forecast of expected

use, which may not represent real demand and may not be correct. Using financial

measures of inventory only does not offer sufficient information to managers to improve

manufacturing operations. For the operations manager intending to improve the

effectiveness of a value chain, the JIT philosophy for material flow can be beneficial.

Measuring the time between arrival and consumption of material provides information

that is not subject to interpretation or manipulation. Managers have several material flow

strategies available for optimizing and controlling inventory (Baig & Akhtar, 2011;

Bookbinder, Gümüs, & Jewkes, 2010; Chen, Li, & Shady, 2010). Using appropriate

tools and measurements with the appropriate strategy provides the information needed for

optimizing and controlling inventory.

 138
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Appendix A: Example of a Value Stream Map
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Appendix B: Value Stream Map of Product Under Study
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Appendix C: Company Letter of Cooperation
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Appendix D: Individual Letter of Consent

CONSENT FORM

You are invited to take part in a research study of strategies influencing inventory in

manufacturing processes. Scott Lemke, a Walden doctoral candidate, is inviting

individuals involved either in decisions regarding inventory directly or indirectly to be in

the study. You may already know the researcher as a production manager, but this study

is separate from that role. This form is part of a process called “informed consent” to

allow you to understand this study before deciding whether to take part.

Background Information:

The purpose of this study is to understand the strategies affecting suboptimal inventory

levels in manufacturing operations and determine how modifying strategies may increase

inventory optimization.

Procedures:

If you agree to be in this study, you will be asked to:

• Be interviewed by the researcher either face-to-face or through a phone call.

Face-to-face interviews will be conducted in a location of your choice.

• Interviewing consists of 11 questions.

• Interviews will be digitally recorded, and recordings will be transcribed.

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• The initial findings and results will be reviewed with you seeking your opinion on

them.

• The transcriptions will become part of a database retaining interview

transcriptions to determine common strategies and influences.

• At no time will your name be revealed to anyone besides the interviewer. The

only information made public is your experiences and thoughts regarding

inventory creation.

• The time to complete the interview is approximately 30 minutes.

• You are welcome to review the research findings upon completion and acceptance

of the design, methods, and validity of the study.

Here are some sample questions:

1. How do you measure inventory efficiency in this value chain?

2. Describe the process and criteria for selecting a supplier and manufacturing

location.

Voluntary Nature of the Study:

This study is voluntary. Everyone will respect your decision of whether you choose to be

in the study. No one at 3M will treat you differently if you decide not to be in the study.

If you decide to join the study, you can still change your mind later. You may stop at any

time. You were selected to participate in this study because of your influence on

inventory efficiency at 3M and specifically the Scotch Tape supply chain.

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Risks and Benefits of Participating in the Study:

Participating in this study would not pose a threat to your employment or career.

The benefit of the study may help to understand how to reduce inventory levels in

manufacturing operations without negatively affecting customers yet minimizing cash

tied up in inventory.

Privacy:

Any information you provide is confidential. The researcher will not use your personal

information for any purposes outside of this research project. The researcher will not

include your name or anything else that could identify you in the study reports. Data will

be kept secure in storage on my personal password-protected computer in my home.

Data will be kept for a period of at least 5 years as required by the university.

Contacts and Questions:

You may ask any questions you have at any time, you may contact the researcher via

phone at 320-234-1133 or email at [email protected]. If you want to talk

privately about your rights as a participant, you can call Dr. Leilani Endicott. She is the

Walden University representative who can discuss this with you. Her phone number is 1-

800-925-3368, extension 3121210, or via email at [email protected]. Walden

University’s approval number for this study is IRB will enter approval number here,

and it expires on IRB will enter the expiration date. The researcher will give you a

copy of this form to keep.

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Statement of Consent:

I have read the above information, and I understand the study well enough to make a

decision about my involvement. By signing below, I understand that I agree to the terms

described above.

Printed Name of Participant

Date of consent

Participant’s Signature

Researcher’s Signature
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Appendix E: Inventory Data

Code Strategy Low High Monthly Days on Oldest

Range Range Usage Hand Load
A EOQ 0 3,100 9,517 9.8 194
B EOQ 0 800 2,103 11.4 5
C EOQ 0 7,250 9,288 23.4 702
D EOQ 0 70,000 61,733 34.0 11
E EOQ 0 3,000 2,414 37.3 13
F EOQ 0 5,600 4,000 42.0 18
G EOQ 0 345 210 49.3 43
H EOQ 0 230,000 132,141 52.2 22
I EOQ 0 2,000 886 67.8 19
J EOQ 0 6,100 2,691 68.0 63
K EOQ 0 12,000 5,235 68.8 42
L EOQ 0 1,100,000 428,248 77.1 81
M EOQ 0 2,500 954 78.6 36
N EOQ 0 45,000 14,058 96.0 55
O EOQ 0 11,000 3,199 103.2 257
P EOQ 0 3,300 482 205.6 94
Q EOQ 0 78,000 3,749 624.2 203
R EOQ 0 7,000 209 1,003.3 337
EE EOQ 0 280,000 918,000 9.2 35
FF EOQ 0 935,485 1,326,444 21.2 144
Code Strategy Low High Monthly Days on Oldest
Range Range Usage Hand Load
GG EOQ 0 1,000,000 1,205,267 24.9 14
U Kanban 0 95,000 286,746 9.9 5
V Kanban 0 78,000 113,072 20.7 0
W Kanban 0 62,000 23,300 79.8 167
X Kanban 0 76,000 14,407 158.3 70
Y Kanban 0 250,000 849,840 8.8 5
Z Kanban 0 8,250 30,740 8.1 192
AA Kanban 0 12,500 34,656 10.8 55
BB Kanban 0 180,000 115,598 46.7 18
CC VMI 0 550,000 945,667 17.4 13
S Integrated 0 1 3,333 0.0
T Integrated 0 5,000,000 28,542,465 5.3 39
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Appendix F: Daily Inventory Graphs
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Appendix G: Permission to Reprint Emails

Permission from Michael Porter:

Sure. Please just cite the book

Good luck

MEP

From: Scott [mailto:[email protected]]

Sent: Wednesday, January 08, 2014 10:43 PM
To: Porter, Michael
Subject: Permission to Use Schematic

Professor Porter,
I am Scott Lemke, a doctoral candidate enrolled at Walden University. I am completing
my dissertation on inventory reduction through a single value chain.
As part of my research, I would like to use your value chain framework that I found in
Management Methods
(http://www.valuebasedmanagement.net/methods_porter_value_chain.html).
This framework combined with the value stream map tool provide a solid basis for my
study. I also found a very good schematic of your value chain framework on page 37 of
your book,
Competitive Advantage Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, 1998. The
schematic provides an excellent visual for explaining the framework. As the book is
copyrighted,
I am asking your permission to include in my paper.

Thank you for your consideration,

Best regards,

Scott Lemke
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Permission from Peter Harris:

Absolutely.

Let me know if I can help you out in any other way.

Good luck,
Peter

-----Original Message-----
From: Scott <[email protected]>
To: pharris <[email protected]>; nyitpharris <[email protected]>
Sent: Mon, Dec 23, 2013 3:59 pm
Subject: Permission to use example
Professor Harris,

I am Scott Lemke, a doctoral candidate enrolled at Walden University. I

am completing my dissertation on inventory reduction and came across
your article titled, "Should Last In First Out Inventory Valuation
Methods Be Eliminated?". I appreciate your explanation on the various
methods of valuing inventory and have referenced your work in the
dissertation I am writing. Your straight-forward example in Appendix 1
is very clear and I would like to use it in my paper with your
permission. If you are agreeable to allowing me to publish in my paper,
would you please reply granting your permission. Thank you for your
consideration.

Regards,

Scott Lemke