Radar 2009 A - 5 Propagation Effects

Radar Systems Engineering
Lecture 5
Propagation through the Atmosphere
Dr. Robert M. O’Donnell

IEEE New Hampshire Section
Guest Lecturer

Radar Systems Course 1
Propagation 1/1/2010 IEEE AES Society
Block Diagram of Radar System
Transmitter
Propagation
Medium Power Waveform
Amplifier Generation
Target
T/R
Radar
Switch
Cross Signal Processor Computer
Section Antenna
A/D Pulse Clutter Rejection

Receiver
Converter Compression (Doppler Filtering)
General Purpose Computer

Display /
Consoles
Parameter
Tracking Thresholding Detection
Data Estimation
Recording
System Propagation Propagation

Losses Loss Factor
Received
Signal = P ⎡
t ⎢
4π A⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
2 ⎥⎢
[ ]
2⎥
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ F4 [σ ] ⎡⎢ 1 ⎤
2⎥
[A][t ]
Energy ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎣4πR ⎦ ⎣ LS ⎦ ⎣ LP ⎦ ⎣4πR ⎦
Radar Systems Course
Propagation 1/1/2010
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Block Diagram of Radar System
r
Transmitter = actual
Propagation rE
Medium Power Waveform Eo= free space
Amplifier Generation r
Target
T/R E
Radar
Switch F≡ r
Cross Signal Processor Computer Eo
Section Antenna
A/D Pulse Clutter Rejection

Receiver
Converter Compression (Doppler Filtering)
General Purpose Computer

Display /
Consoles
Parameter
Tracking Thresholding Detection
Data Estimation
Recording
System Propagation Propagation

Losses Loss Factor
Received
Signal = P ⎡
t ⎢
4π A⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
2 ⎥⎢
[ ]
2⎥
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ F4
[σ ] ⎡⎢ 1 ⎤
2⎥
[A][t ]
Energy ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎣4πR ⎦ ⎣ LS ⎦ ⎣ LP ⎦ ⎣4πR ⎦
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Introduction and Motivation
Patriot
Courtesy of US MDA
• Ground based AEGIS
• Sea based
AWACS
• Airborne Courtesy of U.S. Air Force.
Courtesy of U.S. Navy.
Almost all radar systems operate through the

atmosphere and near the Earth’s surface
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Effect of the Atmosphere on Radar
Performance
• Attenuation of radar beam
• Refraction (bend) of the radar beam as it passes through the

atmosphere
• “Multipath” effect
– Reflection of energy from the lower part of the radar beam off
of the earth’s surface
– Result is an interference effect
• Over the horizon diffraction of the radar beam over ground

obstacles
• Propagation effects vary with:

– Changing atmospheric conditions and wavelength
– Temporal and geographical variations
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A Multiplicity of Atmospheric and
Geographic Parameters
• Atmospheric parameters vary with altitude

– Index of refraction
– Rain rate
– Air density and humidity
– Fog/cloud water content
• Earth’s surface
– Curvature of the earth
– Surface material (sea / land)
– Surface roughness (waves, mountains / flat, vegetation)

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Outline
• Reflection from the Earth’s surface
• Atmospheric refraction
• Over-the-horizon diffraction
• Atmospheric attenuation
• Ionospheric propagation

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Review of Interference Effect
Constructive Interference
Destructive Interference
Wave 1 Wave2 Sum of Waves 1 + 2
• Two waves can interfere constructively or destructively

• Resulting field strength depends only on relative amplitude
and phase of the two waves
– Radar voltage can range from 0-2 times single wave
– Radar power is proportional to (voltage)2 for 0-4 times the power
– Interference operates both on outbound and return trips for 0-16
times the power Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory
Used with Permission

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Overview - Propagation over a Plane Earth
Direct path Target
Radar
Multipath Ray
• Reflection from the Earth’s surface results in interference of the

direct radar signal with the signal reflected off of the surface
– Total propagation effect expressed by propagation factor |F|4
• Surface reflection coefficient ( Γ ) determines relative signal

amplitudes
– Dependent on: surface material, roughness, polarization, frequency
– Close to 1 for smooth ocean, close to 0 for rough land
• Relative phase determined by path length difference and phase

shift on reflection
– Dependent on: height, range and frequency Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory

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Relative Phase Calculation
R1 Target
hr ht
Radar R
R2 Image
R 1 = R 2 + (h r − h t )
2
Δϕ =
2π
(R 1 − R 2 ) ≈ 4π h r h t
λ λR
R 2 = R 2 + (h r + h t )
2
Direct wave Reflected wave
F = 1 + Γ exp(i Δϕ )
4
Two way propagation factor =F
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Propagation over a Plane Earth
R Target
Direct Ray
Radar
Ref R ay ht
lect le cted
hR
θ
ed R
ay Ref
θ θ
Surface
Assume: Γ = −1, R >> h R , h t >> h R
• The (reflected path) - (directed path) : Δ = 2 h R sin θ
hR + ht 2 h Rht
• For small θ , sin θ = ,Δ=
R R
• The phase difference due to path length difference is:

⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2 h h ⎞
φ = ⎜ ⎟⎜ R t ⎟ Reflection at surface
λ
⎝ ⎠⎝ R ⎠
⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2 h h ⎞
• The total phase difference is φ = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ R t ⎟ + π
⎝ λ ⎠⎝ R ⎠
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Propagation over a Plane Earth
(continued)
• The sum of two signals, each of unity amplitude, but with phase
difference:
η= ((1 + cos φ)
2
+ (sin φ )
2
) ⎛
⎜
⎛ 4 π hR ht ⎞ ⎞
= 2 ⎜ 1 + cos⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎟
⎝ ⎝ λ R ⎠⎠
• The one way power ratio is:
⎡ ⎛ 4 π hR ht ⎞⎤ ⎛ 2 π hR ht ⎞
η 2
= 2 ⎢1 − cos ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ = 4 sin 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ λR λ
1 WAY
⎣ ⎠⎦ ⎝ R ⎠
• The two way power ratio is:
⎛ 2 π hR ht ⎞
η 4
= 16 sin ⎜⎜ 4
⎟⎟
⎝ λR ⎠
1 WAY
• Maxima occur when ( ) = (2n + 1) π , minima when ( )= nπ

2
• Multipath Maxima and Minima:
4 h Rht 2 h Rht
Maxima = 2n + 1 Minima =n
λR λR

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Multipath Effect on Radar Detection Range
Radar Coverage
Reflection
Coefficient
Γ =-1
Target Altitude
Γ =-0.3
Γ =0
First maxima at angle

λ
≈
4hR
Target Range
• Multipath causes elevation coverage to be broken up into a lobed

structure
• A target located at the maximum of a lobe will be detected as far as
twice the free-space detection range
• At other angles the detection range will be less than free space and in a
null no echo signal will be received Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory

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Multipath is Frequency Dependent
Radar Coverage Reflection

2 2 Coefficient
2 x Frequency 1 Γ =-1
Frequency 1
Γ =-0.3
1.5 1.5
Altitude
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Range Range
x x
1 lobe over 2 lobes over
distance x : distance x : Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory
Lobing density increases with increasing radar frequency

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Propagation over Round Earth
R Target
Direct Ray
Radar Ref R ay ht
lect le cted
hR θ ed R
ay Ref R2
R1 θ θ
Surface
Curved earth
• Reflection coefficient from a round earth is less than that

from a flat earth
• Propagation calculations with a round earth are somewhat
more complicated
– Computer programs exist to perform this straightforward
but tedious task
– Algebra is worked out in detail in Blake (Reference 4)
• As with a flat earth, with a round earth lobing structure will
occur
Adapted from Blake, Reference 4
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Examples - L-Band Reflection Coefficient
1.0 1.0
H- Polarization
Reflection Coefficient (Γ)

Reflection Coefficient (Γ)
Very Dry Ground

ε = 3 − 6 x 10 -3 λ i
H- Polarization
V- Polarization
0.5 0.5
Sea Water V- Polarization

ε = 80 − 240 λ i
0 0
0 45 90 0 45 90
Grazing Angle (degrees) Grazing Angle (degrees)
ε = Complex dielectric constant

ε = ε r − i ε i = ε r − i 60 λ σ
σ = Conductivity sin α − ε − cos 2 α ε sin α − ε − cos 2 α
α = Grazing angle ΓH = ΓV =
sin α + ε − cos 2 α ε sin α + ε − cos 2 α
λ = Wavelength
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SPS-49 Ship Borne Surveillance Radar
• Radar Parameters
– Average Power 13 kW
– Frequency 850-942 MHz
SPS-49 – Antenna
Gain 29 dB
Rotation Rate 6RPM
– Target σ = 1 m2
Swerling Case I
– PD 0.5
– PFA 10-6
– Antenna Height 75 ft
– Sea State 3
Courtesy of US Navy
USS Abraham Lincoln

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Vertical Coverage of SPS-49
Surveillance Radar
40°
50° 30° 25° Elevation Angle (degrees)
200 20° 15°
10°
8° Maximum
Instrumented
6° Range
160
4°
Height (kft)
120
80 2°
40
0 0°
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
Slant Range (nmi) Adapted from Gregers-Hansen’s work in Reference 1
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Outline

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Refraction of Radar Beams
Figure by MIT OCW.
• The index of refraction, n , and refractivity, N , are measures

of the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves
v Vacuum n = 1.000335
n= N = (n − 1)10 +6
v Air N = 335
• The index of refraction depends on a number of
environmental quantities:
p = barometric pressure (mbar)
77.6 ⎡ 4810 e ⎤ e = partial pressure of water in (mbar)
N= ⎢ p+ T = absolute temperature, (°K)
T ⎣ T ⎥⎦ (1 mm Hg = 1.3332 mbar)

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Adapted from Skolnik, Reference 1 IEEE AES Society
Refraction of Radar Beams
Figure by MIT OCW.
• The index of refraction (refractivity) decreases with increasing

altitude
• Velocity of propagation increases with altitude
• The decrease is usually well modeled by an exponential
• Radar beam to bends downward due to decreasing index of

refraction

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Earth’s Radius Modified to Account for
Refraction Effects
Figure by MIT OCW.
• Atmospheric refraction can be accounted for by replacing the

actual Earth radius a, in calculations, by an equivalent earth
radius ka and assuming straight line propagation
– A typical value for k is 4/3 (It varies from 0.5 to 6)
– Average propagation is referred to as a “4/3 Earth”
• The distance, d , to the horizon can be calculated using simple

geometry as:
d = 2k ah
h = height of radar above ground
Assuming 4/3 earth: d (nmi ) = 1.23 h(ft ) d (km ) = 4.12 h(m )

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Effects of Refraction of Radar Beam
100.0
30°
50.0 Refraction causes an error
25° in radar angle measurement.
Target Height (kft)
20°
20.0 For a target at an altitude of
15° 20,000 ft and an elevation
10.0 9° angle of 1°, the angle error
5° ~3.5 milliradians
5.0
3°
1° Apparent Target
Position
2.0 Elevation 0°
Angle
(degrees)
1.0 Refracted Beam
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0
Angle Error (milliradians)
Actual Target
Position
Radar Angular Error
Adapted from Skolnik, Reference 1

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Non-Standard Propagation
Sub-refraction
Ducting
Super-refraction
4/3 Earth Radius 4/3 Earth Radius
1
• Using Snell’s law, it can be derived that k =
1 + a(dn / dh )
• Non standard propagation occurs when k not equal to 4/3
• Refractivity gradient for different propagation

Condition N units per km
– Sub-refraction positive gradient
– No refraction 0
– Standard refraction -39
– Normal refraction (4/3 earth radius) 0 to -79
– Super-refraction -79 to -157
– Trapping (ducting) -157 to -oo

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Anomalous Propagation
• Anomalous propagation occurs when effective earth radius is

greater than 2. When dn/dh is greater than -1.57 x 10-7 m-1
• This non-standard propagation of electromagnetic waves is

called anomalous propagation, superrefraction, trapping, or
ducting.
– Radar ranges with ducted propagation are greatly extended.
– Extended ranges during ducting conditions means that ground
clutter will be present at greater ranges
– Holes in radar coverage can occur. 77.6 ⎡ 4810 e ⎤
N= ⎢ p+ ⎥
T ⎣ T ⎦
• Often caused by temperature inversion
– Temperature usually decreases with altitude
– Under certain conditions, a warm air layer is on top of a cooler
layer
– Typical duct thickness ~few hundred meters

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Effect of Ducting on Target Detection
No Surface Duct No Surface Duct
Target
Target Not
Detected Detected
Target Target
Not Detected
Detected
• Ducting :
– Can cause gaps in elevation coverage of radar
– Can allow low altitude aircraft detection at greater ranges
– Increase the backscatter from the ground
Adapted from Skolnik, Reference 1
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Anomalous Propagation
• Balloon borne radiosondes are often used to measure water

vapor pressure, atmospheric pressure and temperature as a
function of height above the ground to analyze anomalous
propagation
• When ducting occurs, significant amounts of the radar’s

energy can become trapped in these “ducts”
– These ducts may be near the surface or elevated
– “Leaky” waveguide model for ducting phenomena gives good
results
Low frequency cutoff for propagation
• Climactic conditions such as temperature inversions can

cause ducting conditions to last for long periods in certain
geographic areas.
– Southern California coast near San Diego
– The Persian Gulf
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Ducted Clutter from New England
PPI Display
50 km range rings Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Ducting conditions can extend horizon to extreme ranges

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Outline

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Propagation Over Round Earth
Ray Tangent
to the Earth
Interference
Region Intermed
iate
Region
Diffraction
Radar Region
Earth
• Interference region
– Located within line of sight radar
– Ray optics assumed
• Diffraction region
– Below radar line of sight
– Direct solution to Maxwell’s Equations must be used
– Signals are severely attenuated
• Intermediate region
– Interpolation used
Adapted from Blake, Reference 2
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Diffraction
Tsunami Diffracting Courtesy of NOAA / PMEL / Center for Tsunami Research.

around Peninsula See animation at http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/animations/Aonae.all.mpg
• Radar waves are diffracted around the curved Earth just as light is
diffracted by a straight edge and ocean waves are bent by an obstacle
(peninsula)
• Web reference for excellent water wave photographic example:

– http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Water_diffraction.jpg
• The ability of radar to propagate beyond the horizon depends upon

frequency (the lower the better) and radar height
• For over the horizon detection, significant radar power is necessary to

overcome the loss caused by diffraction

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Knife Edge Diffraction Model
Propagation Factor vs. Target Height
F = Propagation factor
0 1.0
20 log10 F (Propagation Factor) dB
0.8 Radar height = 30 m

0.6 Target height = 135 m
(One Way Propagation )
Obstacle height = 100 m

0.4
-10
100 MHz Free Space 0.2 F Over the horizon

Max Range 150 km propagation is
-20 enhanced at lower
0.1
0.08 frequencies
1 GHz
0.06
10 GHz 0.04
-30 Radar height
30 m
100 m 135 m
0 50 100 150 200 250

10 km 5 km
Target Height (m)
Non-reflecting ground
Adapted from Meeks, Reference 6
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Target Detection Near the Horizon
ht
hR
a
a = radius of the Earth

R ≅ 2 k a hR + 2 k a ht k = 4/3 for normal atmosphere
• The expression relates, for a ray grazing the earth at the

horizon, (radar beam tangential to earth): the maximum
range that a radar at height, h R , may detect a target at
height, h t
• For targets below the horizon, there are always a target

detection loss, due to diffraction effects, that may vary
from 10 to > 30 dB, resulting in a signal to noise ratio below
that of the free space value.

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Frequency Dependence of Combined
Diffraction and Multipath Effects
L-band
Radar X-band
Altitude
100 ft Horizon
Target at 100 ft altitude

60km range
Loss
• Multipath effects result in good detection of low 80 dB at X-Band
altitude targets at higher frequencies 60 dB at L-Band
• Diffraction Effects
– Favors lower frequencies
– Difficult at any frequency

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Outline

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Theoretical Values of Atmospheric
Attenuation Due to H2O and O2
100.0 • The attenuation

associated with the H2O
and O2 resonances
dominate the attenuation
10.0 at short wavelengths
Attenuation (2-way) (dB/mi)
– Attenuation is negligible
at long wavelengths
1.0 – It is significant in the
microwave band
– It imposes severe limits
at millimeter wave bands
0.1
• At wavelengths at or
below 3 cm (X-Band), clear
air attenuation is a major
0.01 issue in radar analysis
• At millimeter wavelengths
and above, radars operate
0.001 in atmospheric
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0 “windows”.
Wavelength (cm) Adapted from Skolnik, Reference 1
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Atmospheric Attenuation in the Troposphere
0°
100.0 1°
Atmospheric Attenuation (Two way) (dB)
2°
(through the entire Troposphere)
5°
Elevation
10° Angle
10.0
30°
90°
1.0
O2
60 GHz
H2O
22.2 GHZ
0.1
0.1 0.3 1.0 3.0 10.0 30.0 100.0
Adapted from Blake in Reference 1 Radar Frequency (GHz)
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Atmospheric Attenuation at 3 GHz
5
0.0°
4
Attenuation (Two way) (dB)
0.5°
Elevation
3 Angle
1.0°
2
2.0°
1 5.0°
10.0°
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Adapted from Blake in Reference 1 Range to target (nmi)
• Attenuation becomes constant after beam passes through

troposphere
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5
0.0°
4
0.5°
Elevation
3 Angle
1.0°
2
2.0°
1 5.0°
10.0°
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

• Attenuation 4.4 dB at 0° elevation vs. 1.0 dB at 5°
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8
0.0°
0.5° Elevation
Angle
4 1.0°
2.0°
2
5.0°
10.0°
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Range to target (nmi)
Adapted from Blake in Reference 1
• Attenuation: 6.6 dB at 10 GHz vs. 4.4 dB at 3 GHz

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8
0.0°
0.5° Elevation
Angle
4 1.0°
2.0°
2
5.0°
10.0°
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
• For targets in the atmosphere, radar equation
calculations require a iterative approach to determine
correct value of the atmospheric attenuation loss
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Atmospheric Attenuation at Sea Level
100
Atmospheric Attenuation (dB/km) • At high frequencies, oxygen

and water vapor absorption
10 predominate
• High attenuation obviates use
of high frequencies for low
altitude detection at long
1
range
O2
0.1
H2O
0.01
0.001
1 10 100
Frequency (GHz)
30 3 0.3
Wavelength (cm)
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Attenuation Due to Rain and Fog
Figure by MIT OCW.
Radar performance at high frequencies is highly weather dependent

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Radar Range - Height - Angle Chart
(Normal Atmosphere)
100
40
Assumes exponential
model for atmosphere
30
80
with N = 313
20
Height (kft)
60
40 Elevation
1 Angle
0
20
20
0 00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Adapted from Blake in Reference 4 Range in nautical miles
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Outline

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Over-the-Horizon Radars
Example
Relocatable OTH Radar (ROTHR)
OTH Radar Beam Paths Transmit Array
Courtesy of NOAA Courtesy of Raytheon.

Used with permission.
• Typically operate at 10 – 80 m wavelengths (3.5 – 30 MHz)

• OTH Radars can detect aircraft and ships at very long ranges
(~ 2000 miles)
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Frequency Spectrum
(HF and Microwave Bands)
HF Radar Microwave Radar

VHF UHF L S C X Ku K Ka
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
75 m to 10 m
Typical Wavelengths Frequency (MHz)
of OTH Radars
Electromagnetic Propagation at High Frequencies (HF) is

very different than at Microwave Frequencies
Adapted from Headrick and Skolnik in Reference 7

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Ionospheric Propagation
(How it Works- What are the Issues)
Ionosphere
Sky
Wave
Ground Wave
Earth
Radar
• Sky wave OTH radars:

– Refract (bend) the radar beam in the ionosphere,
– Reflecting back to earth,
– Scattering it off the target, and finally,
– Reflect the target echo back to the radar
• The performance of OTH radars vitally depends on the physical

characteristics of the ionosphere, its stability and its predictability
Adapted from Headrick and Skolnik in Reference 7
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Physics of OTH Radar Propagation
Over the Horizon Propagation
Enabled by Ionospheric Refraction Day
1000 Night
Altitude (km)
F2
F
F1
100 E
D
1010 1012
F1
Electron Concentration (N/cm3)
1 Ne 2
Plasma Frequency f p =
2π mε 0
Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)
Key for oblique incidence
ΡΟΤΗΡ
ΤΞ F > MUF
MUF = f p secant (θ inc )
x
F = fp
F < MUF
F = MUF MUF = Maximum Usable Frequenc
ΡΟΤΗΡ ΡΞ
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Regular Variation in the Ionosphere
• Ultraviolet radiation from the sun is the principal agent

responsible for the ionization in the upper ionosphere
Earth
Courtesy of NASA

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Different Layers of the Ionosphere
• Ultraviolet radiation from the sun is the principal agent Winter

responsible for the ionization in the upper ionosphere And
Summer Winter Summer
• D layer (~50 to 90 km altitude Day Day Night
500
– Responsible for major signal
attenuation during the day
Absorption proportional to 1/f2
Lower frequencies attenuated heavily 400 F2
– D layer disappears at night
• E layer (~90 to 130 km altitude) F
300
– Low altitude of layer=> short range F1 F2
Height (km)
– Sporadic-E layer – few km thick
• F layer (~200 to 500 km altitude F1
200
– Most important layer for HF sky wave
propagation
– During daylight, F region splits into 2 E E Weak E
layers, the F1 and F2 layers 100
D D
The F1 and F2 layers combine at night
F2 layer is in a continual state of flux Notional Graphic of Layer Heights
0
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Average Sun Spot Number (1750 – present)
The solar cycle

is 11 years.
Courtesy of NASA
• Within each week, of each month, of each year there is

significant variation in the Sun Spot number (solar flux),
and thus, the electron density in the ionosphere
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Variability of Ionospheric Electron Density
"Courtesy of Windows to the Universe, http://www.windows.ucar.edu"

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Flare Emissions and Ionospheric Effects
May 19, 1998
Courtesy of NASA
Electromagnetic Magnetic Storm

Solar Cosmic rays
Radiation Delay : 15 minutes to Particles
Several hours Delay : 20-40 hours
Delay : 8.3 minutes
Low Energy
Ultraviolet and High Energy
Protons and
X-Rays Protons and
Electrons
a - particles
D Layer Increase D Layer Increase

(SID) (PCA) Auroras Sporadic E
SID : Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance Ionospheric D-Layer Increase Geomagnetic

PCA : Polar Cap Absorption
Storms (auroral absorption) Storms

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Propagation Issues for OTH Radars
• OTH radar detection performance is dependent

on many variables and is difficult to predict
because of the variability and difficulty, of reliably
predicting the characteristics of the ionosphere
– Diurnal variations
– Seasonal variations
– Sun Spot cycle
– Solar flares, coronal mass ejections, etc. from the sun
• Because OTH radars can detect targets at great

ranges they have very large antennas and very
high power transmitters

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Summary
• The atmosphere can have a significant effect on radar

performance
– Attenuation and diffraction of radar beam
– Refracting of the beam as it passes through the atmosphere

Causes angle measurement errors
– Radar signal strength can vary significantly due to multipath

effects
Reflections from the ground interfering with the main radar
beam
– Frequencies from 3 to 30 MHz can be used to propagate radar

signals over the horizon
Via refraction by the ionosphere
– The above effects vary with the wavelength of the radar,

geographic and varying atmospheric conditions

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References
1. Skolnik, M., Introduction to Radar Systems, McGraw-Hill, New York,

NY, 3rd Edition, 2001
2. Skolnik, M., Radar Handbook, New York, NY, McGraw-Hill, 2rd
Edition, 1990
3. Skolnik, M., Radar Handbook, New York, NY, McGraw-Hill, 3rd
Edition, 2008
4. Blake, L. V. Radar Range-Performance Analysis, Munro, Silver
Springs, MD,1991
5. Bougust, Jr., A. J., Radar and the Atmosphere, Artech House, Inc.,
Norwood, MA,1989
6. Meeks, M. L. ,Radar Propagation at Low Altitudes, Artech House,
Inc., Norwood, MA,1982.
7. Headrick, J. M. and Skolnik, M. I., “Over-the-Horizon Radar in the
HF Band”, IEEE Proceedings, Vol. 62, No. 6, June 1974, pp 664-673

57
IEEE AES Society
Homework Problems
• From Reference 1, Skolnik, M., Introduction to Radar

Systems, 3rd Edition, 2001
– Problem 8-1
– Problem 8.8
– Problem 8-11

58
IEEE AES Society
Acknowledgements
• Dr. Robert J. Galejs

• Dr. Curt W Davis, III

59
IEEE AES Society

Radar 2009 A - 5 Propagation Effects

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Radar Systems Engineering

Dr. Robert M. O’Donnell

IEEE New Hampshire Section

A/D Pulse Clutter Rejection

General Purpose Computer

System Propagation Propagation

A/D Pulse Clutter Rejection

General Purpose Computer

System Propagation Propagation

• Ground based AEGIS

Courtesy of U.S. Navy.

Almost all radar systems operate through the

• Refraction (bend) of the radar beam as it passes through the

• Over the horizon diffraction of the radar beam over ground

• Propagation effects vary with:

• Atmospheric parameters vary with altitude

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• Reflection from the Earth’s surface

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Wave 1 Wave2 Sum of Waves 1 + 2

• Two waves can interfere constructively or destructively

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Direct path Target

• Reflection from the Earth’s surface results in interference of the

• Surface reflection coefficient ( Γ ) determines relative signal

• Relative phase determined by path length difference and phase

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Direct wave Reflected wave

• The (reflected path) - (directed path) : Δ = 2 h R sin θ

• The phase difference due to path length difference is:

• Maxima occur when ( ) = (2n + 1) π , minima when ( )= nπ

IEEE New Hampshire Section

First maxima at angle

• Multipath causes elevation coverage to be broken up into a lobed

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Radar Coverage Reflection

Lobing density increases with increasing radar frequency

• Reflection coefficient from a round earth is less than that

Reflection Coefficient (Γ)

Very Dry Ground

Sea Water V- Polarization

ε = Complex dielectric constant

USS Abraham Lincoln

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• Reflection from the Earth’s surface

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Figure by MIT OCW.

• The index of refraction, n , and refractivity, N , are measures

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• The index of refraction (refractivity) decreases with increasing

• Velocity of propagation increases with altitude

• The decrease is usually well modeled by an exponential

• Radar beam to bends downward due to decreasing index of

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• Atmospheric refraction can be accounted for by replacing the

• The distance, d , to the horizon can be calculated using simple

Assuming 4/3 earth: d (nmi ) = 1.23 h(ft ) d (km ) = 4.12 h(m )

Adapted from Skolnik, Reference 1