Catherine Barnard Competence Review Internal Market
Catherine Barnard Competence Review Internal Market
Catherine Barnard Competence Review Internal Market
Competence Review: the internal
market
Catherine Barnard
Contents
Contents..................................................................................................................................................2
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................3
‘Negative’ integration .............................................................................................................................3
The relevant Treaty provisions ...........................................................................................................3
The rights ............................................................................................................................................6
The meaning of equal treatment ........................................................................................................7
The market access/restrictions/obstacles approach ........................................................................10
Free movement of goods..............................................................................................................10
The other freedoms ......................................................................................................................11
Restricting restrictions ..................................................................................................................13
Derogations, limitations and justifications .......................................................................................15
Express derogations and justifications .........................................................................................15
Limitations on the limitations and justifications...........................................................................17
Conclusions .......................................................................................................................................18
Positive integration ...............................................................................................................................18
Legislative acts ..................................................................................................................................18
Non‐Legislative acts ..........................................................................................................................21
Adopting Legislative acts ..................................................................................................................22
The principle of conferral..............................................................................................................22
The Legal Basis of Legislative Acts in the field of internal market................................................23
Subsidiarity and proportionality ...................................................................................................31
Derogations from measures adopted under Article 114(1) TFEU ................................................34
Enhanced cooperation ..................................................................................................................35
Conclusions .......................................................................................................................................36
Further Reading ................................................................................................................................38
2
Introduction
Since its inception, the creation of the common market, now internal market, 1 has been the core of
the EU’s activity. According to the Court: 2
The Treaty, by establishing a common market and progressively approximating the economic
policies of the Member States seeks to unite national markets in a single market having the
characteristics of a domestic market.
In other words, it should be as easy to trade between London and Lisbon as it is between
Birmingham and Barnsley. The Treaty – primarily the Treaty on the Functioning of the European
Union (TFEU), originally the European Economic Community (EEC) Treaty – provides the framework
for delivering this vision. First, it contains Treaty provisions which prohibit states from having or
creating unjustified barriers to the free movement of goods persons, services and capital (so‐called
‘negative integration’). Second, the Treaty gives the power to the EU to legislate to remove obstacles
to free movement created by divergent national laws (so‐called positive integration).
In this part of the FCO’s Competence Review the distinction between negative and positive
integration is used to structure the discussion of the EU’s powers in the area of the internal market.
This is a vast and complex area of law. The discussion below aims to highlight the most important
features of the EU rules. Those interested in more detail are referred to the further reading at the
end of this text.
‘Negative’ integration
The relevant Treaty provisions
The competences of the EU in the field of free movement focus on the ‘four freedoms’: free
movement of goods, persons, services and capital (see fig.1). We shall begin by outlining the
relevant Treaty provisions and then consider their interpretation by the Court of Justice.
Fig 1 A summary of the four freedoms
1
Art. 26(2) TFEU ‘The internal market shall comprise an area without internal frontiers in which the free
movement of goods, persons, services and capital is ensured in accordance with the provisions of the Treaties.’
2
Case 207/83 Commission v UK [1985] ECR 1202.
3
The free movement of goods provisions were originally regarded as the cornerstone of the EU Treaties.
There are two main limbs:
the establishment of a customs union (Article 28 TFEU) which involves:
o the prohibition between Member States of customs duties on imports and exports (ie
charges levied at the frontier of a state) and of all charges having equivalent effect (eg
charges for storage and inspections of imported goods (Article 30 TFEU));
o the adoption of a common customs tariff which may apply to goods coming into the EU
from ‘third’ countries (ie non‐Member States);
o the elimination of discriminatory and protectionist taxation (Article 110 TFEU). Unlike
the other Treaty provisions discussed here, Article 110 TFEU is permissive: it allows
states to tax domestic and imported goods provided the taxation is not discriminatory
against foreign goods nor protective of the domestic market;
the removal of quantitative restrictions on trade (eg quotas or a total ban on imports) and all
measures having equivalent effect (eg rules on packaging, presentation and content of goods).
These Treaty provisions cover both imports (Article 34 TFEU) and exports (Article 35 TFEU).
The Treaty provisions on free movement of persons, insofar as they concern those who are
economically active, were found in the original Treaty of Rome. They cover:
the free movement of workers (Article 45 TFEU) ie those who are engaged in ‘genuine and
effective’ economic activity which is not purely ancillary or marginal 3 who ‘for a certain
period of time a person performs services for and under the direction of another person in
return for which he receives remuneration’. 4
The freedom of establishment (Article 49 TFEU). This applies to:
o the right to take up and pursue activities on a self‐employed basis, often as a
professional person. This covers ‘primary’ establishment (ie a professional person
relocating to another Member State to set up business there) and secondary
establishment (ie a professional person having one place of business in State A and
one in State B)
o the right to set up and manage undertakings, in particular companies and firms in
another Member State in accordance with Article 54 TFEU (primary establishment)
and setting up subsidiaries, branches and agencies in another Member State
(secondary establishment).
The free movement of services (Article 56 TFEU). This covers three situations
o The freedom to travel to provide services (eg as a consultant)
o The freedom to travel to receive services (eg as a tourist, student or as a patient).
This has significantly opened up the scope of this freedom
o Where no person moves but the service itself moves (eg transmission of broadcasts
across frontiers).
The Maastricht Treaty of 1992 extended the right of free movement to EU citizens (Article 21 TFEU)
ie to those holding the nationality of a Member State. At first it was not clear whether this provision
merely codified the rights in Articles 45, 49 and 56 TFEU or whether it extended the right to free
movement to those who are not economically active. The case law of the Court of Justice suggests
3
Case 139/85 Kempf v Staatssecretaris van Justitie [1986] ECR 1741.
4
Case 66/85 Lawrie‐Blum v Land Baden‐Wurttemberg [1986] ECR 2121.
4
the latter, although the precise scope is not clear. It certainly covers persons of independent means
(often referred to as playboys but in fact covering all those who have sufficient resources and
sufficient medical insurance) and students, who must also have sufficient resources and sufficient
medical insurance.
At this stage, three observations should be made about the free movement rights discussed so far.
First, the Treaty provisions apply only to goods having an EU origin 5 and persons holding the
nationality of one of the Member States, the determination of nationality being a matter for national
law. 6 The corollary of this is that those not having the nationality of a Member State do not enjoy
free movement rights.
Second, the rights of free movement of workers, establishment and services are dependent on the
person being engaged in an economic activity. This phrase is not defined but, as the free movement
of workers cases discussed above indicate, it would appear that while the threshold set is fairly low it
will rule out volunteering. In the field of free movement of goods, the requirement of economic
activity is not articulated but it is assumed that it applies to the exchange of goods for consideration
of some form.
Third, the Treaty provisions are engaged only when there is movement between states, although
sometimes it takes little movement for EU law to apply. 7 The corollary of the requirement of an
inter‐state element is that the free movement provisions cannot be applied to situations which are
‘wholly internal to a Member State’. 8 This means that EU migrants may therefore enjoy more
favourable treatment in the host state (since they enjoy the benefit of both EU law and national law)
than non‐migrant nationals who have not exercised their rights to free movement (they enjoy the
benefits of national law only). This situation is referred to as ‘reverse discrimination’.
The final freedom is the free movement of capital. Article 63(1) TFEU provides ‘all restrictions on the
movement of capital between Member States and Member States and third countries shall be
prohibited’. Article 63(2) TFEU prohibits ‘all restrictions on payments’. The difference between the
two provisions lies in the fact that the provision on capital involves financial operations essentially
concerned with the investment of funds in question, while the payments provision concerns the
remuneration for a service or good provided in the framework of the provisions on, for example,
goods and services. There are three striking features that distinguish Article 63 TFEU from the other
fundamental freedoms. First, Article 63 expressly applies not only to the abolition of all restrictions
on capital and payments between Member States but also those between Member States and third
countries. Second, there is no express requirement that the capital have an EU origin (although this
may be implicit). And third, there is no express requirement of economic activity; in the case of
capital this is assumed.
5
Goods in ‘free circulation’ ie goods which have paid the CCT if one is due will also enjoy free movement
rights.
6
Cf Case C–135/08 Rottman v. Freistaat Bayern [2010] ECR I–1449 where the Court said that a determination
of nationality may be subject to general principles of EU law (eg proportionality) if the Member State’s
decision deprives the individual of ‘the status conferred by Article [20 TFEU] and the rights attaching thereto
falls’.
7
Case C–60/00 Carpenter [2002] ECR I–6279.
8
Case 175/78 R v. Saunders [1979] ECR 1129, para. 11.
5
The rights
Assuming that one of the relevant Treaty provisions applies, what rights does it give the individual?
First it allows the goods, person, service and capital to leave Member State A and enter Member
State B and, where appropriate, reside in that Member State. Second, it allows the individual to
enjoy equal treatment in the host state. The scope of the application of the equal treatment
principle is particularly important in respect of persons. It applies to:
Initial access to the market including the terms and conditions on which a job is offered and
terminated
Exercise of the freedom once on that market. This includes:
o Recognition of qualifications
o Access to facilities 9 to perform the work
o Access to housing 10
o Tax advantages 11
13
o Social advantages eg funding for studies, 12 death benefits
o Vocational training 14
These rights can be invoked against the state (both the home state and the host state), 15 a principle
referred to as vertical direct effect. The means that where, for example, a Polish migrant worker
considers that a UK government department has discriminated against him, he can bring
proceedings in a court in England and Wales seeking a declaration of rights and, possibly, damages. 16
However, the term ‘state’ is broadly construed to include not only central and local government but
also regulatory bodies like the Bar Council and the Cycling Union. So the Polish migrant worker can
also enforce his rights against these bodies.
Much more controversial is whether these Treaty provisions apply horizontally ie whether they can
be invoked against non‐state actors. The Court’s case law is not entirely clear or consistent on this
crucial point. The best view is that Articles 30 and 110 TFEU have vertical direct effect only
(unsurprising since raising tax revenue is a state prerogative), likewise Articles 34 and 35 TFEU
(except in the area of intellectual property). By contrast, Article 45 TFEU on free movement of
workers does have both vertical and horizontal direct effect in respect of discriminatory treatment. 17
Therefore it can be invoked by a Slovak migrant worker against a private sector employer.
The position is much less clear in respect of Articles 49 and 56 TFEU on freedom of establishment
and free movement of services. There are dicta in, for example, Viking 18 that these provisions do
9
Case 197/84 Steinhauser v. City of Biarritz [1985] ECR 1819.
10
Case 63/86 Commission v. Italy (social housing) [1988] ECR 29.
11
Art. 7(2) of Reg. 492/11.
12
Case C‐542/09 Commission v. Netherlands (higher education) [2012] ECR I‐000, para. 48.
13
Case C–237/94 O’Flynn [1996] ECR I–2617 (social security payments to help cover the cost of burying a
family member).
14
Case 293/83 Gravier v. Ville de Liège [1985] ECR 593.
15
See eg Case 33/74 van Binsbergen v. Bestuur van de Bedrijfsvereniging voor de Metaalnijverheid [1974] ECR
1299 and Case C–384/93 Alpine Investments [1995] ECR I–1141 respectively.
16
Joined Cases C–46 and 48/93 Brasserie du Pêcheur SA v. Federal Republic of Germany and R. v. Secretary of
State for Transport, ex p. Factortame and others (Factortame III) [1996] ECR I–1029.
17
Case C–281/98 Angonese [2000] ECR I–4139.
18
See eg Case C–438/05 International Transport Workers’ Federation v. Viking Line [2007] ECR I–10779.
6
have vertical and horizontal direct effect. However, the defendant in that case was a trade union
with powers analogous to those of a state body so the case may actually involve some extended
form of vertical direct effect. In respect of Article 21 TFEU on citizenship and Article 63 TFEU on
capital, the cases so far have concerned vertical direct effect only.
Yet, bringing a case to challenge a pre‐existing national law is inherently inefficient, ad hoc and
wasteful of both time and resources. For this reason, Directive 98/34 and Directive 2006/123 both
introduce ‘screening’ provisions of draft technical regulations (largely rules covering product
requirements) in the case of Directive 98/34 and some rules on freedom of establishment and
services in the case of Directive 2006/123. The screening rules – and the sanctions for non‐
notification – are far more prescriptive under Directive 98/34 than those under Directive 2006/123.
Where a state fails to comply with the notification requirement under Directive 98/34 and proceeds
to adopt the measure, the national rule is generally unenforceable against private parties. 19
The meaning of equal treatment
As we have seen, the Treaty provisions outlined above are all premised on the principle of ‘non‐
discrimination’ or ‘equal treatment’. According to the Court, the principle of equal treatment
provides that where goods or persons are similarly situated there must be no direct or indirect
discrimination; rules which do not discriminate are therefore lawful (see fig 2).
Direct (or overt) discrimination means different and usually less‐favourable treatment on the
grounds of nationality/origin. So, for example, a requirement that imported, but not domestic,
20
goods be inspected is directly discriminatory and breaches Article 34 TFEU. The prohibition also
21
extends to ‘Buy National’ campaigns. So in Commission v. Ireland (‘Buy Irish’) the Court
condemned an Irish government‐backed campaign designed to achieve ‘the substitution of domestic
products for imported products [which] was liable to affect the volume of trade between Member
States’. 22
19
Case C–194/94 CIA Security International SA v. Signalson SA and Securitel SPRL [1996] ECR I–2201.
20
Case 251/78 Firma Denkavit Futtermittel GmbH v. Minister für Ernährung [1979] ECR 3369.
21
Case 249/81 Commission v. Ireland [1982] ECR 4005.
22
Para. 25.
7
Fig 2 The non‐discrimination approach
The Treaty also prohibits indirect (or covert) discrimination. This involves the elimination of
requirements which, while apparently nationality‐neutral on their face, have a greater impact on
nationals of other Member States. So for example, in O’Flynn, 23 a British rule made payment by the
state to cover funeral costs conditional on the burial taking place in the UK. The Court found the rule
constituted unjustified indirect discrimination: it was more likely to disadvantage migrants who
would prefer to be buried in their state of origin (but the Court did say that the UK could limit the
allowance to a lump sum or reasonable amount fixed by reference to the normal cost of a burial in
the UK). National rules imposing requirements concerning residence 24 and language 25 can also be
indirectly discriminatory: while nationals almost always satisfy the condition, migrants do not.
In the leading case of Cassis de Dijon 28 the Court developed an innovative way of addressing the
burden caused by dual regulation: it developed the principle of mutual recognition. The case
concerned the refusal by the German authorities to allow Cassis de Dijon, a blackcurrant fruit liqueur
made in France, to be sold in Germany owing to its insufficient alcoholic strength. German law
required fruit liqueurs to have a minimum alcohol content of 25 per cent, whereas the French cassis
23
Case C–237/94 [1996] ECR I–2617.
24
Case C–350/96 Clean Car [1998] ECR I–2521; Case C–388/01 Commission v. Italy (museums) [2003] ECR I–
721, para. 14.
25
Case 379/87 Groener v. Minister for Education [1989] ECR 3967.
26
Case C–340/89 Vlassopoulou v. Ministerium für Justiz [1991] ECR I–2357.
27
Case 292/86 Gullung v. Conseil de l’ordre des avocats [1988] ECR 111.
28
Case 120/78 Rewe Zentrale v. Bundesmonopolverwaltung für Branntwein (‘Cassis de Dijon’) [1979] ECR 649
8
had an alcohol content of only 15–20 per cent. The Court said that ‘[i]n the absence of common
rules [i.e., harmonization] it is for Member States to regulate all matters relating to the production
and marketing of alcohol and alcoholic beverages on their own territory’. As a corollary to the state’s
freedom to regulate, the Court said ‘There is therefore no valid reason why, provided that they have
been lawfully produced and marketed in one of the Member States, alcoholic beverages should not
be introduced into any other Member State.’ 29 This idea, known as the presumption of equivalence
or mutual recognition, is of great importance. It means that goods lawfully produced and marketed
in one Member State (France) can, in principle, be sold in another Member State (Germany) without
further restriction. Putting it another way, Germany must recognize French standards as equivalent
to its own.
However, this presumption can be rebutted by the host state (Germany) demonstrating that its laws
can be justified under one of the so‐called ‘mandatory requirements’ (also referred to as public
interest requirements or objective justifications). These mandatory requirements are a non‐
exhaustive list of good reasons which the state can raise to justify the existence of its rules.
Mandatory requirements supplement the express derogations found in the Treaty (see below).
On the facts Germany’s attempts to raise any of the mandatory requirements was supremely
unsuccessful. It argued, first, that the minimum‐alcohol‐content rule prevented a proliferation of
low‐alcohol drinks on the national market since such drinks more readily induced tolerance towards
alcohol than stronger drinks. Not surprisingly, the Court dismissed this argument. Secondly,
Germany ran an argument based on consumer protection/fair trading. It said that drinks with a
lower alcohol content secured a competitive advantage over drinks with a higher alcohol content,
since alcohol was the most expensive constituent of the product. The Court rejected this too, saying
that ‘it is a simple matter to ensure that suitable information is conveyed to the purchaser by
requiring the display of an indication of origin and of the alcohol content on the packaging of
products’. 30 Therefore, the national rules constituted an obstacle to trade and breached Article 34
TFEU; labelling would have been a proportionate response.
Thus the effect of the decision in Cassis de Dijon is to promote free trade. Yes, states can now invoke
a range of justifications over and above those in the Treaty but the burden of proof is set at a high
level: not only must the states come up with a good reason (a mandatory requirement) but they
must also show that the national measure is proportionate. In most of the mainstream cases
concerning national rules prescribing so‐called product requirements (ie rules concerning the shape,
size, weight, composition, presentation etc of the product) the Court finds the national rules to be
either unjustified or disproportionate. Thus the decision in Cassis de Dijon is widely viewed as being
deregulatory and promoting free trade.
Where a state does successfully invoke a mandatory requirement, this creates an obstacle to trade
in goods from other Member States. This obstacle will need to be removed via harmonisation (see
below).
29
Para. 14.
30
Case 120/78 Cassis de Dijon [1979] ECR 649, para. 13.
9
The market access/restrictions/obstacles approach
Free movement of goods
For many commentators, the Court’s approach in Cassis de Dijon, when read in conjunction with the
earlier decision in Dassonville, 31 actually marked a shift away from a discrimination reading of Article
34 TFEU towards a reading based on market access. In Dassonville the Court said that:
All trading rules enacted by Member States which are capable of hindering, directly or
indirectly, actually or potentially, intra‐[Union] trade are to be considered as measures
having an effect equivalent to quantitative restrictions.
Unlike the discrimination approach, the market access approach does not look to see how the
domestic good is treated (and then make a comparison with the treatment of the imported good).
Instead, it looks at the national measure solely from the perspective of the out‐of‐state trader: does
this rule hinder, directly or indirectly, actually or potentially, intra‐[Union] trade? If so, the measure
is presumptively contrary to Article 34 TFEU unless the state can show that the rule can be justified
and is proportionate. The advantage to the EU of the Court adopting this approach was that it
effectively presaged a bonfire of national regulation, much of which had been on the national
statute books for decades, sometime centuries, and whose original purpose had long since
disappeared. The disadvantage was that a supranational legal order was being used to challenge the
existence of national rules adopted by democratically elected national governments.
In fact, during the late 70s, early 80s the Court generally struck a fair balance, striking down national
rules which did really hinder inter‐state trade, but allowing national rules whose original purpose
was still relevant to be saved. Most of the rules found to contravene Article 34 TFEU were
discriminatory in some way, either directly or indirectly.
The problem came when traders started using the Dassonville formula to challenge any national rule
which stopped them doing what they wanted, when they wanted, and where they wanted. The
common feature of these rules was that they were usually non‐discriminatory and often concerned
not the importer or producer of the good but those selling the goods, ie the retailers. A good
example of this was the challenges made by DIY stores to the then UK rules effectively banning
Sunday trading. After a series of unsatisfactory rulings by the Court of Justice, 32 the Court thought it
had sorted the problem in its (in)famous decision in Keck. 33 In that case, the Court confirmed that
the Cassis de Dijon decision would continue to apply to national rules on product requirements (ie
rules on shape, size, weight composition etc considered above) but said that in the case of the new,
but undefined, category of ‘certain selling arrangements’ Article 34 TFEU would not apply, provided
the national rules regulating certain selling arrangements were non‐discriminatory. Thus the effect
of the judgment was to ring‐fence certain types of national rules from the scrutiny of EU law. For this
reason many states were pleased with the outcome of the judgment.
However, there was considerable concern expressed by both the Advocate Generals and the
academic community about the legal reasoning employed, the lack of clarity of the judgment, and
the fears that it was both too broad (exempting some national rules, eg restrictions on advertising,
31
Case 8/74 Procureur du Roi v. Dassonville [1974] ECR 837, para. 5.
32
Case C–145/88 Torfaen Borough Council v. B & Q plc [1989] ECR 3851.
33
Joined Cases C–267 and 268/91 Keck and Mithouard [1993] ECR I–6097.
10
which should be caught by the Treaty) and too narrow (the formula pegged on ‘selling
arrangements’ limited the potential application of the ruling to other deserving areas (eg some
planning rules)). Unsurprisingly, the Keck settlement soon began to unravel, particularly in the light
of Commission v Italy (trailers) (considered below). 34 That said, Keck has not been expressly
overturned and it is still of symbolic value, indicating that there are outer limits of the reach of
Article 34 TFEU into the national systems.
The other freedoms
While, in the early 1990s, the Court was beginning to clip its own wings in the field of free
movement of goods with decisions such as Keck, it was at the same time increasingly adopting a
more expansive approach to identifying unlawful restrictions to free movement in the fields of
persons, services and capital. The reasons for this were much the same as those that inspired the
decision in Dassonville in 1974: the non‐discrimination approach was not robust enough to get at the
plethora of national rules which were obstructing free movement. As Advocate General Jacobs
noted in Leclerc‐Siplec, 35 ‘If an obstacle to trade exists it cannot cease to exist simply because an
identical obstacle affects domestic trade.’ So in Säger 36 the Court said that Article 56 TFEU required:
not only the elimination of all discrimination against a person providing services on the
ground of his nationality but also the abolition of any restriction, even if it applies without
distinction to national providers of services and to those of other Member States, when it is
liable to prohibit or otherwise impede the activities of a provider of services established in
another Member State where he lawfully provides similar services.
The Court continued that any such restriction could be justified by imperative reasons relating to the
public interest (ie ‘good’ reasons equivalent to the ‘mandatory requirements’ in the field of free
movement of goods). Thus, the Court ruled that Article 56 TFEU caught not only discriminatory
restrictions to free movement but also non‐discriminatory restrictions which were liable to prohibit
or otherwise impede the activities of a provider of services. Increasingly, the Court has simplified the
language used in Säger and talks simply of the national rule constituting a ‘restriction’ or ‘obstacle’
to free movement which breaches Article 56 TFEU unless justified. This approach has since been
37 38
extended to free movement of workers, freedom of establishment, free movement of
39 40
citizens, and free movement of capital. (see fig. 3) Moreover, the Court began to extend its
restrictions analysis to areas of national regulation which were deemed to interfere with free
movement but over which the EU has little, if any, competence to regulate positively: social security,
healthcare and taxation being three major examples. This can be seen in Geraets‐Smits, 41 one of the
leading cases establishing the basic rules on the right to receive health care treatment in another
Member State which is paid for by the recipient’s home state. The Court noted that ‘[EU] law does
not detract from the power of the Member States to organise their social security systems and that
in the absence of harmonisation at EU level ‘it is therefore for the legislation of each Member State
34
Case C–110/05 [2009] ECR I–519.
35
Case C–412/93 Leclerc‐Siplec v. TF1 Publicité [1995] ECR I–179.
36
Case C–76/90 [1991] ECR I–4221, para. 12, emphasis added.
37
Case C–464/02 Commission v. Denmark (company vehicles) [2005] ECR I–7929, para. 45.
38
Case C–55/94 Gebhard [1995] ECR I–4165.
39
Case C–192/05 Tas‐Hagen v. Raadskamer WUBO van de Pensioen‐ en Uitkeringsrad [2006] ECR I–10451.
40
Case C–367/98 Commission v. Portugal [2002] ECR I–4731.
41
Case C‐157/99 Geraets‐Smits v. Peerbooms [2001] ECR I‐5473.
11
to determine, first, the conditions concerning the right or duty to be insured with a social security
scheme and, second, the conditions for entitlement to benefits’. It then added: ‘Nevertheless, the
Member States must comply with [Union] law when exercising that power.’
Under Dutch law, the costs of treatment provided in a hospital in another Member State would be
picked up by the Dutch sickness insurance scheme only on certain conditions. These included that
the person receiving the treatment obtained prior authorisation ‐, granted only if the treatment was
covered by the Dutch sickness insurance scheme, which required that the treatment be 'normal
within the professional circles concerned' ‐ and that adequate timely treatment could not be
provided by a contracted care provider in the Netherlands. The Court found that these rules ‘deter,
or even prevent, insured persons from applying to providers of medical services established in
another Member State and constitute, both for insured persons and service providers, a barrier to
freedom to provide services’ which, in principle, contravened Article 56 TFEU.
Once the Court established that EU law applied, it is perhaps not surprising that the Court
considered the rules in Geraets‐Smits to be restrictions on free movement. But what about other
national rules: rules on planning, on employment law, on consumer protection, on speed limits on
motorways? Do they constitute restrictions? This raises the fundamental question: what constitutes
a restriction? 42 Is it merely a national rule which makes it ‘more costly for new firms to enter an
industry’? Or does it potentially cover any regulation, since any regulation imposes and implies
compliance costs? Or does the Court simply adopt an intuitive approach and find only those rules
which it intuits to constitute an obstacle to free movement to be a restriction? Evidence of all these
possibilities can be found in the case law.
Further, there have been worries about the potential reach of the ‘restrictions’ approach deep into
the national systems, challenging a variety of non‐discriminatory national rules which were never
adopted with a view to interfering with trade (eg national rules on the minimum wage or other
labour law provisions). Yes, states could justify their national rules (and there are signs that the
Court is recognising an ever wider range of justifications), but how will a state show that, for
example, a national rule setting the rate at £6.19, is proportionate? These fears about the potential
43
reach of EU law were exacerbated by the decision in Viking where the Court ruled that threatened
strike action by a trade union (lawful under national law) constituted a restriction on a Finnish ferry
company’s right to establish itself in Estonia, contrary to Article 49 TFEU. While the strike action
could be justified on the ground of worker protection, it probably was not proportionate. While
those in favour of creating a single market free from restrictions created by national law applauded
the decision, those concerned about the integrity of non‐discriminatory national laws were worried.
42
See E. Spaventa, ‘From Gebhard to Carpenter: Towards a (non‐)economic European Constitution’ (2004) 41
CMLRev. 743, 757–8.
43
Case C–438/05 [2007] ECR I–10779.
12
Fig 3 The market access/restrictions approach
Nevertheless, the Court has maintained its enthusiasm for the restrictions approach which has been
44
more recently confirmed by the Grand Chamber in Commission v. Italy (motor insurance) in
respect of Articles 49 and 56 TFEU and extended to free movement of goods in Commission v. Italy
45
(trailers). That said, there are some signs that the Court has taken on board some of the concerns
outlined above.
Restricting restrictions
It seems that the Court has deployed four techniques to limit somewhat the scope of the restrictions
approach. First, there are some signs that the Court is considering introducing a threshold
requirement to the restrictions test: only those national rules which have a ‘significant’ effect on
free movement will be caught by the prohibition in the Treaty. Therefore in Commission v Italy
(Trailers) the Court said that ‘a prohibition on the use of a product in the territory of a Member State
has a considerable influence on the behaviour of consumers, which, in its turn, affects the access of
46
that product to the market of that Member State’. Likewise in Commission v. Italy (motor
47
insurance) the Court found that an Italian obligation imposed on all insurance companies
operating in the field of third party liability motor insurance to contract with all vehicle owners
‘constitutes a substantial interference in the freedom to contract which economic operators, in
48
principle, enjoy’ and so breached Articles 49 and 56 TFEU.
While the two Commission v. Italy cases suggest the introduction of some sort of economic
threshold requirement, other cases use a more tortious test based on remoteness to exclude certain
44
Case C–518/06 Commission v. Italy (motor insurance) [2009] ECR I–3491.
45
Case C–110/05 [2009] ECR I–519.
46
Para. 56, emphasis added.
47
Case C–518/06 Commission v. Italy (motor insurance) [2009] ECR I–3491.
48
Para. 66 (emphasis added).
13
national rules form the purview of EU law. For example, in Graf 49 a German national who resigned
from his job in Austria to take up another post in Germany, claimed that he thereby lost his chance
to be dismissed and thus to receive compensation, and so the Austrian rules on termination
breached Article 45 TFEU. The Court disagreed: the Austrian law was genuinely non‐discriminatory
and did not preclude or deter a worker from ending his contract of employment in order to take a
job with another employer. The Court explained that the entitlement to compensation when the
employer dismissed an employee was not dependent on the worker’s choosing whether to stay with
his current employer but on a future and hypothetical event, namely being dismissed. The Court
concluded that ‘[s]uch an event is too uncertain and indirect a possibility for legislation to be capable
of being regarded as liable to hinder free movement for workers’.
Thus, the dismissal was too remote to be considered liable to affect free movement. Putting it
another way, non‐discriminatory measures which do not substantially hinder access to the (labour)
market 50 or whose effect on free movement is too remote, fall outside the Treaty provisions on free
movement of persons in much the same way as non‐discriminatory certain selling arrangements
cases which do not substantially hinder access to the market fall outside Article 34 TFEU.
Second, the Court seems to require some actual evidence that the national rule does in fact hinder
market access. This is particularly so in enforcement proceedings brought by the Commission against
defaulting states under Article 258 TFEU. So, for example, in Commission v Italy (maximum fee for
lawyers), 51 a case concerning an Italian law laying down rules requiring lawyers to comply with
maximum tariffs for the calculation of their fees in the absence of an agreement between lawyer
and client, the Commission argued that the rules had the effect of discouraging lawyers established
in other Member States from establishing themselves in Italy. The Court disagreed, stating. that the
Italian rules did not constitute a restriction solely because other Member States applied less strict, or
more commercially favourable, rules to providers of similar services established in their territory, nor
did they constitute a restriction just because service providers had to accustom themselves to a new
set of rules. The Court then said:
51 By contrast, such a restriction exists, in particular, if those lawyers are deprived of the
opportunity of gaining access to the market of the host Member State under conditions of
normal and effective competition.....
52 The Commission has not, however, demonstrated that the contested provisions have
such an object or effect.
Thus, the Court appears to be extending some of its case law on competition law (the ‘object or
effect’ test) to determine whether there has been a breach of the free movement rules.
49
Case C–190/98 Graf v. Filzmozer Maschinenbau GmbH [2000] ECR I–493.
50
Case C–518/06 Commission v. Italy (motor insurance) [2009] ECR I–3491, para. 66; Case C‐565/08
Commission v Italy (maximum fees for lawyers) [2011] ECR I‐000, para. 51.
51
CaseC‐565/08 [2011] ECR I‐000.
14
Third, in certain sectors, notably taxation, the Court appears to be reverting to a discrimination
approach in preference to a restrictions analysis. Under the principles of international tax law, states
are entitled to identify: 52
the tax unit (those over whom they wish to assert legislative fiscal jurisdiction, usually those
resident in the state and the profits which arise in that state)
the tax base (i.e., the nature and quantum of the receipts it wishes to tax and the
identification of the entitlement to and nature of tax reliefs)
the tax rate
how they wish to administer, assess, collect and recover tax.
53
In other words, states enjoy fiscal autonomy. Inevitably, there are differences between Member
States in respect of, for example, tax rates, albeit that those rates are applied equally to everyone in
the territory. As with the Sunday trading saga, lawyers started to argue that where, for example,
corporation tax in the UK was higher than that in Ireland, this discouraged Irish companies from
setting up subsidiaries in the UK and so the UK rules contravened Article 49 TFEU. And States found
such claims difficult to defend because the natural justification for taxation ‐ obtaining revenue to
pay for public goods ‐ might constitute an economic argument which is not a legitimate justification
54
(see below). It therefore became difficult for tax authorities to develop any tax rules which would
be immune from challenge under EU law. This created serious difficulties for national exchequers.
So, in a series of cases in the mid‐2000s, the Court reverted to the non‐discrimination model: 55 only
if the tax rule was directly or indirectly discriminatory will it breach Articles 45, 49, 56 or 63 TFEU;
non‐discriminatory rules are lawful (see fig. 2). In this way the case law on persons, services and
capital was brought into line with the Court’s approach under Article 110 TFEU on discriminatory
taxation in the field of free movement of goods (considered above).
Fourth, where the Court finds that there is a restriction, it has embraced an ever wider range of
justifications (see below).Finally, in areas such as road safety where a clear rule is necessary the
Court has not applied a strict proportionality test. Instead it has said that although it is possible to
envisage that other measures could guarantee a certain level of road safety ‘the fact remains that
Member States cannot be denied the possibility of attaining an objective such as road safety by the
introduction of general and simple rules which will be easily understood and applied by drivers and
easily managed and supervised by the competent authorities’. 56
Derogations, limitations and justifications
Express derogations and justifications
The Treaty has always contained exceptions (known as derogations) from the rights of free
movement. Article 36 TFEU contains the exceptions to Articles 34 and 35 TFEU (but not to Articles 30
and 110 TFEU which have no Treaty‐made exceptions). The Article 36 TFEU derogations are: (1)
52
Case C‐157/10 Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria SA v. Administración General del Estado [2011] ECR I‐000,
para. 29.
53
Case C–298/05 Columbus Container Services BVBA & Co v. Finanzamt Bielefeld‐Innestadt [2007] ECR I–
10451, para. 53.
54
Case C–319/02 Manninen [2004] ECR I–7477, para. 49.
55
Case C–134/03 Viacom [2005] ECR I–1167; Case C–387/01 Weigel v. Finanzlandes direction für Vorarlberg
[2004] ECR I–4981; Joined Cases C–544/03 and C–545/03 Mobistar SA v. Commune de Fleron [2005] ECR I–
7723; Case C–453/04 Innoventif [2006] ECR I–4929.
56
Case C–110/05 Commission v Italy (trailers) [2009] ECR I–519, para. 67.
15
public morality, (2) public policy or public security; (3) the protection of health and life of humans,
animals or plants; (4) the protection of national treasures possessing artistic, historic or
archaeological value; and (5) the protection of industrial and commercial property. This is an
exhaustive list of derogations which must be read in conjunction with the proviso in the second
sentence of Article 36 TFEU. This says that ‘[s]uch prohibitions or restrictions shall not, however,
constitute a means of arbitrary discrimination or a disguised restriction on trade between Member
States’.
The list of derogations to the free movement of workers, freedom of establishment and freedom to
provide services provisions is shorter: public policy, public security and public health. 57 The threshold
set for a state to invoke a public policy derogation is high: there must be a genuine and sufficiently
serious threat to a fundamental interest of society. It is usually not possible for states to reach this
threshold. 58 The Court does however, tend to be more sympathetic to a state invoking the public
health defence, particularly where the provision of healthcare services are at stake. 59 In addition,
there is a special derogation which applies to the free movement of persons provisions: where
employment in the public service is at issue (also referred to as exercise of official authority), it is
legitimate to reserve those jobs to nationals only.
There is a wider range of derogations in respect of free movement of capital. Article 65(1) TFEU
contains two express derogations, one specific and one general. The specific one relates to tax:
Article 65(1)(a) TFEU says that the provisions of Article 63 TFEU are without prejudice to the right of
the Member States to apply the relevant provisions of their tax law which distinguish between
taxpayers who are not in the same situation with regard to their place of residence or with regard to
the place where their capital is invested. Article 65(1)(b) TFEU contains the general derogation. It
provides that the provision of Article 63 TFEU is without prejudice to the right of Member States ‘to
take all requisite measures to prevent infringements of national law and regulations, in particular in
the field of taxation and the prudential supervision of financial institutions, or to lay down
procedures for the declaration of capital movements for purposes of administrative or statistical
information, or to take measures which are justified on grounds of public policy or public security.’
Thus, the express derogations contained in Article 65(1)(b) are a mixture of the standard public‐
policy/public‐security derogations found elsewhere in the Treaty together with special provisions
concerning taxation which reflect the public interest requirements on the effectiveness of fiscal
supervision.
Thus, the EU Treaties have always allowed national measures to take precedence over the free
movement where they serve important interests recognized by the Union as valuable. However, the
express derogations have not been revised since the Treaty’s inception and so have not kept pace
with the needs of a modern society. This has led the Court to develop a range of mandatory
requirements (Cassis de Dijon), increasingly known as ‘public interest requirements’ or ‘objective
justifications’. This is a non‐exhaustive list of good reasons which a state can invoke to justify
restrictions to free movement but only where those restrictions are indirectly discriminatory or
hinder market access. Despite a certain amount of vacillation, the Court has generally held the line
and said that they do not apply to directly discriminatory measures (see figs 2 and 3). The Court has
57
Art. 45(3) TFEU, Arts. 52 and 62 TFEU.
58
Case C–466/98 Commission v. UK [2002] ECR I–9427.
59
Case C–60/90 [1991] ECR I–1547, para. 43.
16
recognised about 50 justifications (and rising) which include protecting the environment, 60
preventing gambling and avoiding the lottery from becoming the source of private profit; avoiding
the risk of crime or fraud; avoiding the risk of incitement to spend, with damaging individual and
social consequences, 61 and combating illegal employment 62 and bogus self‐employment 63
Eventually, restrictive national rules justified under one of the express derogations or the public
interest requirements may be replaced by harmonized Union rules intended to protect the same
interests at Union, rather than national, level (see below). In the absence of harmonization, Member
States remain free to invoke the derogations subject to certain conditions.
Limitations on the limitations and justifications
The Court has imposed five conditions or limitations on the Member States’ freedom to invoke the
derogations and justifications. Firstly, since the express derogations are derogations from the basic
rule of free movement of goods they have to be interpreted strictly. 64 Secondly, neither the
derogations nor the justifications can be used to serve economic objectives. 65 Therefore, in
Commission v. Italy, 66 Italy could not justify its ban on the import of pig meat because of economic
difficulties with its own pig industry.
Thirdly, Member States must ensure that decisions they take limiting free movement are compatible
with fundamental human rights (FHR). So in Carpenter 67 the UK was not allowed to deport a Filipino
national, who, having overstayed her entry permit to the UK, married a British national. She argued
that her deportation would restrict her husband’s ability to carry on business as a service provider in
other Member States since she looked after his children while he was away. The Court said that the
decision to deport Mrs Carpenter did not ‘strike a fair balance’ between the competing interests of
the right of Mr Carpenter to respect for his family life on the one hand and the maintenance of
public order and public safety, on the other. Even though Mrs Carpenter had infringed UK
immigration laws by overstaying her visa she did not constitute a danger to public order and safety.
Therefore, the decision to deport her was not proportionate.
The proportionality principle is the fourth limit on the use of the derogations and limitations. In
Cassis de Dijon the state measure failed the proportionality test because a total ban on the import of
French cassis was disproportionate; more proportionate would have been a label identifying the
lower levels of alcohol.
Fifthly, the Court has also said that any person affected by a restrictive measure based on such a
derogation had to have access to legal redress. 68 This case law reflects a more general shift in the
Court’s thinking towards a so‐called ‘good governance’ approach. This can be seen in Geraets‐Smits
60
Case C–17/00 De Coster v. [2001] ECR I–9445
61
Case C–243/01 Gambelli [2003] ECR I–13031.
62
Case C–255/04 Commission v. France [2006] ECR I–5251.
63
Case C‐577/10 Commission v. Belgium [2012] ECR I‐000, para. 45.
64
Case 113/80 Commission v. Ireland [1981] ECR 1625, para. 7.
65
Case 95/81 Commission v. Italy [1982] ECR 2187, para. 27.
66
Case 7/61 Commission v. Italy [1961] ECR 317, 329.
67
Case C–60/00 Carpenter [2002] ECR I–6279, paras. 40–1.
68
Case C–54/99 Association Eglise de Scientologie de Paris v. The Prime Minister [2000] ECR I–1335, paras. 17–
18.
17
where the Court ruled that the requirement to obtain authorisation prior to receiving medical
treatment in another Member State could be justified provided it was:
based on objective, non‐discriminatory criteria which are known in advance, in such a way as
to circumscribe the exercise of the national authorities' discretion, so that it is not used
arbitrarily. Such a prior administrative authorisation scheme must likewise be based on a
procedural system which is easily accessible and capable of ensuring that a request for
authorisation will be dealt with objectively and impartially within a reasonable time and
refusals to grant authorisation must also be capable of being challenged in judicial or quasi‐
judicial proceedings.
Conclusions
In this section we have examined the EU’s powers of negative integration. While the potential reach
of the four freedoms into the national systems is quite deep, there are signs that the Court is
navigating its way towards a more careful balance between the interests of the EU and those of the
Member States. A summary of the limits of the EU’s powers can be found in Box 1.
Positive integration
Legislative acts
While the basic model of the Treaty was that the common market would be delivered via negative
integration, it was always recognised that the EU would need to adopt harmonisation legislation to
help complete the internal market. This harmonisation legislation takes the form of ‘secondary’ law
ie Regulations which are automatically part of domestic law and so do not need implementation,
and Directives which do need transposition into domestic law (usually via statutory instruments in
the UK). These measures, know in the jargon as ‘Legislative acts’, 69 are adopted via the ordinary
Legislative procedure (with the Council of Ministers and the European Parliament (EP) having powers
69
Art. 289(3) TFEU.
18
of co‐decision, jointly adopting the measure with the Council voting by qualified majority 70 ) or,
exceptionally, by the special legislative procedure 71 (usually with the Council acting by unanimous
voting and the EP merely being consulted) (see fig.4). The legal basis of the parent measure (see
below) specifies which procedure is to be adopted.
These secondary measures can take a variety of forms and serve a range of functions. They can set
minimum standards on which the Member States can improve (see eg the Working Time Directive
2003/88, which sets a maximum 48 hour working week; Member States are free to reduce that
maximum (eg say to a 40 hour working week) but not to increase it (eg say to a 52 hour working
week)). Alternatively the legislation might exhaustively harmonise a particular area (eg the Unfair
Commercial Practices Directive 2005/29 which exhaustively lays down the grounds on which
Member States can prevent commercial practices; Member States cannot add additional grounds for
preventing such practices).
In other areas, the legislation has codified the approach adopted by the Court in its case law, hoping
to provide greater transparency. Directive 2011/24 on Patients’ Rights to cross‐border healthcare is
one such example, the Services Directive 2006/123 is another. The Citizens’ Rights Directive 2004/38
provides a further example, albeit in some areas (eg the rights for EU citizens to migrate to another
Member State for less than three months and for more than five years, and the power for states to
deport individuals after five years) go further than the pre‐existing case law. The Recognitions of
Diplomas Directive 2005/36 codifies the Court’s approach to mutual recognition in respect of
diplomas, certificates and titles; unfortunately it does so over 121 pages.
The principle of mutual recognition has also inspired the so‐called ‘new approach’ directives. A
paradigm example is the Toy Safety Directive 2009/48. This directive allows any toy to be placed on
the market, but only if it meets essential safety requirements which can be satisfied in one of two
ways. The first is to manufacture the toy according to harmonized standards produced by CEN and
CENELEC in accordance with Directive 98/34. Conformity with harmonized standards provides a
presumption of conformity with the essential safety requirements of the directive. The
manufacturer is then entitled to affix the CE mark confirming that the toys comply with the essential
safety requirements laid down by the directive.
The second method of ensuring compliance with essential safety standards is to manufacture the toy
in accordance with a model which has been ‘EC‐type examined’ by an approved, conformity
assessment body in the state of manufacture. The notified body will test a sample of the toy to see
whether it satisfies the essential safety requirements laid down by the directive. The testing body
then issues an ‘EC‐type examination certificate’. Once the toy complies with the directive and bears
the CE mark, it enjoys free movement. The host Member State must assume compliance with the
essential safety requirements and cannot impede the toy from being placed on its market
Other directives essentially provide a code for a particular area of activity, in practice replacing the
text of the (hierarchically superior) Treaty. Directive 2004/18 on public procurement is one such
example; the Posted Workers Directive 96/71 which fleshes out the content of Article 56 TFEU in
70
Art. 289(1) TFEU. The details of the procedure can be found in Art. 294 TFEU.
71
Art. 289(2) TFEU.
19
respect of so‐called ‘posted workers’ ie those workers sent by the employer to work in a host state
before returning to the home state.
The Posted Workers Directive is of particular interest since it reveals different perspectives on the
role and function of EU law in the context of an enlarged European Union. This Directive lays down,
in Article 3(1), a limited number of employment rights (including to minimum pay, health and safety
protection and equal treatment) which the host state can insist on applying to posted workers,
provided the detailed rules in Article 3(8) are complied with. By implication, all other employment
rights are left to be provided by the home state. However, Article 3(7) suggests that the Directive
lays down only minimum standards; Member States are free to improve upon those standards.
In Laval 72 a Latvian company won a contract to build a school in Sweden using Latvian workers. The
Swedish trade unions insisted that Laval respect all of the Swedish employment rules, not just those
listed in Article 3(1) and, when Laval refused to do so, called their members out on strike and
blacked the Laval building site. The Swedish trade unions argued that since the Directive was about
worker protection, the Latvian workers should be treated equally with the Swedish workers and so
be paid higher rates of pay and enjoy other benefits. The Court disagreed. It pointed to the fact that
the Directive was based in the services provisions of the Treaty which are premised not on the idea
of equal treatment but home state (Latvian) control. Article 3(1) therefore constituted an exception
to the basic rule. Because the trade unions sought to enforce collectively agreed employment rights
which were more favourable than those listed in Article 3(1) of the Directive, the strike action
contravened Article 56 TFEU. For good measure, the Court said that Article 3(7) of the Directive
applied only to a decision by home states (and companies like Laval) which decide to impose their
(higher) standards on posted workers, not to host states like Sweden.
Fig 4 Legislative and Non‐Legislative acts
72
Case C‐341/05 Laval un Partneri ltd v. Svenska Byggnadsarbetareförbundet [2007] ECR I‐11767.
20
NonLegislative acts
The Legislative acts can be supplemented by ‘Non‐Legislative acts’. For our purposes, these Non‐
Legislative acts take two forms (see fig 4):
Article 290 TFEU delegated acts. These can be Regulations, Directives or Decisions adopted
by the Commission which supplement or amend certain non‐essential elements of the
Legislative acts. The parent Legislative act lays down the objectives, content, scope and
duration of the delegation. It also specifies the conditions to which the delegation is subject
(ie the EP or the Council may decide to revoke the delegation (a more exceptional measure
of control), the delegated act may enter into force only if no objection has been expressed
by the EP or Council within the period expressed by the Legislative act).
Article 291 TFEU implementing acts. These can be Regulations, Directives or Decisions which
are adopted by the Commission to ensure uniform conditions for implementing Legislative
acts. The parent ‘Legislative act’ will confer implementing powers on the Commission. The
procedure by which the Commission acts (the advisory procedure for less politically
controversial matters or the examination procedure for more controversial matters, eg
programmes with substantial implications, taxation, health and safety) is also specified in
the parent measure. The detail of those procedures is spelled out in Regulation 182/2011 73 .
In summary, where the advisory procedure is used the Commission must take the ‘utmost
account’ of the opinion of the relevant ‘comitology’ committee, composed of
representatives of the Member States and chaired by the Commission, but is not obliged to
follow it. By contrast, under the examination procedure if the relevant comitology
procedure votes against the implementing measure, the Commission cannot adopt it but
the Commission can submit the draft to the appeal committee for further deliberation.
An example might help illustrate some of these rules in practice. EP and Council Regulation
995/2010 lays down the obligations of operators who place timber and timber products on the
market. 74 This Regulation is intended to help address illegal logging. It prohibits the placing of
illegally harvested timber on the EU market and sets up a system of due diligence for operators
when placing timber on the market to minimise the risk of placing illegally harvested timber on the
market. The bare bones of the due diligence system are contained in Article 6(1) of the Regulation.
Article 6(2) of the Regulation provides that detailed rules necessary to ensure the uniform
implementation of paragraph 1 shall be adopted in accordance with the examination procedure. 75
These rules were adopted by Commission Implementing Regulation 607/2012. 76
Regulation 995/2010 also made provision for the establishment of monitoring organisations which
must maintain and evaluate the due diligence system and take action against an operator not using
the due diligence system. It identifies the criteria for recognising and withdrawing recognition from
the monitoring organisations. Article 8(7) provides that ‘In order to supplement and amend the
procedural rules with regard to the recognition and withdrawal of recognition of monitoring
73
OJ [2011] L55/13.
74
OJ [2010] L295/23.
75
This was formerly the Regulatory procedure (Art. 5 of Council Dec. 1999/468 (OJ [1999] L184/23): Art.
13(1)(c) of Reg. 182/2011.
76
OJ [2012] L177/16.
21
organisations and, if experience so requires, to amend them, the Commission may adopt delegated
acts in accordance with Article 290 TFEU...’. The Commission duly adopted Delegated Regulation
363/2012 on the procedural rules for the recognition and withdrawal of recognition of monitoring
organisations as provided for in Regulation 995/2010. 77
Fig 5 The interplay between Legislative and Non‐Legislative acts
This brief survey shows that in respect of non‐Legislative acts, the Commission’s activities are
controlled by the EP and Council in respect of delegated acts and by the Member States acting
through the comitology committees in respect of implementing acts. We turn now to see the control
the Member States have over the adoption of Legislative acts
Adopting Legislative acts
The principle of conferral
Unlike sovereign states, the EU has no inherent powers. It can only act where the Member States
have conferred powers on it (the principle of conferral). This is made clear in Articles 5(1) and (2)
TEU:
1. The limits of Union competences are governed by the principle of conferral. The use of
Union competences is governed by the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality.
2. Under the principle of conferral, the Union shall act only within the limits of the
competences conferred upon it by the Member States in the Treaties to attain the objectives
set out therein. Competences not conferred upon the Union in the Treaties remain with the
Member States.
Article 4(1)TEU reiterates:
In accordance with Article 5, competences not conferred upon the Union in the Treaties
remain with the Member States.
77
OJ [2012] L115/12.
22
Thus, by Treaty, EU law makes clear that in areas in which competence has not been conferred on
the EU the Member States remain free to act, albeit that Member State action is constrained by the
principles of negative integration outlined above. So, for example, while the EU has no competence
to harmonise the laws and regulations of the Member States in the field of public health (Article
168(5) TFEU), any national legislation remains subject to the four freedoms, in particular the
freedom to provide services.
In order to discover whether the EU has the power to act, reference needs to be made to the so‐
called ‘legal bases’ scattered across the Treaty. Not only do these legal bases give the EU the power
to act but they also lay down the relevant legislative procedures
The Legal Basis of Legislative Acts in the field of internal market
In the field of the internal market, the principal legal bases are set out in Table 1 below. They can be
subdivided into general legal bases and specific legal bases.
23
in part under this basis
Art. 48 Measures in the field Ordinary Reg 883/2004 on the
of social security as are coordination of social
necessary to provide security systems
freedom of movement adopted under this
of workers and provision and Art. 352.
arrangements for
employed and self Special provisions for
employed migrant states which consider a
workers and their draft legislative act
dependants would affect important
aspects of its social
security system.
Art. 50(1) Directives in order to Ordinary
attain freedom of
establishment.
Art. 51 Measures prescribing Ordinary
that certain activities
are not covered by the
rules on freedom of
establishment
Art. 52 Directives for the Ordinary
coordination of the
rules on the express
derogations
Art. 53 Directives for the Ordinary The Services Directive
mutual recognition of 2006/123 was adopted
diplomas, certificates under this provision
and other evidence of together with Art. 62.
formal qualifications, Dir. 2005/36 on the
and for the recognition of
coordination of qualifications adopted
national provisions in part under this basis.
concerning the taking Dir. 2009/72 on the
up and pursuit of common rules for the
activities as self‐ internal market in
employed persons electricity adopted
under this provision
together with Arts. 62
and 114.
Art. 56 Provisions on the Ordinary
Chapter on services
can be extended to
nationals of a third
country who provide
services and are
established in the EU
Art. 59 Directives to achieve Ordinary
the liberalisation of a
specific service
Art. 62 Extends Arts. 51 to 54
24
to matters covered by
the Chapter on
Services
Art. 64(2) Measures on the Ordinary Provision made for
movement of capital to measures (adopted by
or from third countries special legislative
involving direct procedure) which
investment, constitute a step
establishment, the backwards in EU law as
provision of financial regards the
services or the liberalisation of the
admission of securities movement of capital to
to the capital markets or from third countries
Art. 66 Safeguard measures ‘Special’ (Council after
with regard to capital consulting ECB)
movements to or from
third countries causing
or threatening to cause
serious difficulties for
the operation of EMU
Art. 113 Provisions for the Special (Council acting Council Directive
harmonisation of unanimously after 2011/64/EU on the
legislation concerning consulting EP and structure and rates of
turnover taxes, excise ECOSOC) excise duty applied to
duties and other forms manufactured tobacco
of indirect taxation to
the extent that such
harmonisation is
necessary to ensure
the establishment and
functioning of the
internal market and to
avoid distortion of
competition
Table 1 Summary of the main legal bases in the field of the internal market
In addition to the legal bases identified above, there are certain policies seen as flanking to, or
supportive of, the internal market (see Table 2). These all have their own legal bases:
25
prohibiting
discrimination on the
other grounds listed
except sex
Art. 21 Action by the Union Ordinary is the general The Citizens Rights
necessary to attain the rule; Special procedure Directive 2004/38 was
right for EU citizens to (Council acting adopted on this basis
move and reside freely unanimously after (together with Arts 18,
within the territory of consulting the EP) for 46, 50 and 59)
the Member States, measures concerning
subject to the social security and
limitations and social protection.
conditions laid down in
the Treaties and by the
measures adopted to
give them effect
Art. 22 Provisions for citizens Special (Council acting Council Directive
on the right to vote unanimously after 93/109 laying down
and stand as a consulting the EP) detailed arrangements
candidate in local and for the exercise of the
European elections in right to vote and stand
another MS as a candidate in
elections to the
European Parliament
for citizens of the
Union residing in a
Member State of
which they are not
nationals and Council
Directive 94/80 laying
down detailed
arrangements for the
exercise of the right to
vote and to stand as a
candidate in municipal
elections by citizens of
the Union residing in a
Member State of
which they are not
nationals adopted
under this basis
Art. 23 Directives establishing Special (Council to
the coordination and adopt after consulting
cooperation measures EP)
necessary to facilitate
diplomatic or consular
protection of EU
citizens in a third state
Art. 24 Regulation on the rules Ordinary Regulation 211/2011
on the citizens’ was adopted on this
initiative basis
26
Art. 153 Directives in the field Ordinary generally; Minimum standards
of employment law special in respect of only; no competence
and working conditions certain areas for the EU under this
Article in respect of
pay, right of
association, right to
strike or to impose
lock‐outs
The Working Time
Directive 2003/88
adopted on this legal
basis.
Art. 157(3) Measures to ensure Ordinary The equal treatment
the application of the Directive 2006/54 was
principle of equal adopted under this
opportunities and legal basis
equal treatment of
men and women
Art. 169(2) Measures to promote
the interests of
consumers
‐through measures Ordinary The Unfair Commercial
adopted under Art. Practices Dir 2005/29
114 adopted under Art.
114
‐measures which Ordinary
support, supplement
and monitor the policy
pursued by MS
Art. 192 Measures to preserve, Ordinary generally; but Directive 2003/87 on
protect and improve special in certain areas the emissions trading
the quality of the scheme was adopted
environment, under this basis as was
protecting human the Illegal Logging
health, prudent and Regulation 995/2010
rational utilisation of (considered in Fig. 5)
natural resources,
promoting measures at
international level to
deal with regional or
worldwide
environmental
problems and in
particular combating
climate change
Art. 194 Measures ensure the Ordinary
functioning of the
energy market,
security of energy
supply, energy
27
efficiency,
interconnection of
energy networks
Table 2 The legal bases of flanking measures
Article 114 TFEU
Of all the legal bases listed in Tables 1 and 2, Article 114 TFEU is the most important for the creation
of the internal market and it is this legal basis that we shall concentrate on. Article 114(1) TFEU
provides:
Save where otherwise provided in the Treaties, the following provisions shall apply for the
achievement of the objectives set out in Article 26. The European Parliament and the Council
shall, acting in accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure and after consulting the
Economic and Social Committee, adopt the measures for the approximation of the
provisions laid down by law, regulation or administrative action in Member States which
have as their object the establishment and functioning of the internal market.
Article 114(3) TFEU adds that in its proposals envisaged in Article 114(1) TFEU concerning health,
safety, environmental protection and consumer protection, the Commission will ‘take as a base a
high level of protection, taking account in particular of any new development based on scientific
facts’.
Thus Article 114 TFEU can be used to adopt measures at EU level whose object is the ‘establishment
and functioning of the internal market’. In other words, where disparate national rules exist on, say,
the amount of noise lawnmowers can make, and these rules make it difficult for lawnmower
manufacturers who will have to adapt their product to each national market before it can be sold
there, the EU has the competence to legislate under Article 114 to adopt a single standard. The EP
and Council have done just that: Directive 2000/14 on the approximation of the laws of the Member
States relating to the noise emission in the environment by equipment for use outdoors was
adopted under Article 114 TFEU. 78
There are four limits to the use of Article 114 TFEU:
resort to Article 114 TFEU can be made where no other specific legal basis applies (eg Article
113 TFEU, Article 192 TFEU);
the measures adopted under Article 114 TFEU must be for approximation of laws (also
known as harmonization) ie create a single standard; if the effect of the national rule is to
leave national laws remain unchanged then Article 114 TFEU cannot be used. 79
Article 114(2) TFEU expressly provides that Article 114(1) TFEU cannot be used to adopt
fiscal measures, nor measures relating to the free movement of persons, nor measures
relating to the rights and interests of employed persons—areas considered to be too
sensitive to be the subject of QMV. Article 115 TFEU could be used instead
The limits laid down in Tobacco Advertising I (see below)
Despite the limits laid down in Article 114 TFEU there was a sense that this legal basis (and the two
other general bases, Articles 115 and 352 TFEU), were being used as a general legislative
78
OJ [2000] L162/1.
79
See, e.g., Case C–436/03 EP and Commission v. Council (ECS) [2006] ECR I–3733.
28
competence, and so the principle of conferral was being honoured in the breach rather than the
observance. Perhaps this mattered less when the legal basis required unanimity in Council, so a
Member State which objected could veto the measure, but it became more serious in respect of
Article 114 TFEU, which allowed for qualified majority voting.
This issue came to a head in Tobacco Advertising I, 80 which concerned the successful challenge by
Germany to the Union’s competence to adopt the Tobacco Advertising Directive 98/43. This
Directive, which banned tobacco advertising and sports sponsorship by tobacco companies, was
adopted under Article 114 TFEU. Germany argued that this measure really concerned public health
and, as we have seen, Article 168(5) TFEU expressly excluded EU competence to harmonise. The
Court appeared to agree: it said other Articles of the Treaty could not be used ‘as a legal basis in
order to circumvent the express exclusion of harmonization laid down in [Article 168(5) TFEU]’. 81
Having implied that the directive might have been a disguised health measure, the Court made no
further reference to the public‐health provision. 82 Instead, it focused on the question of the
circumstances in which Article 114 TFEU could be used to adopt EU legislation. It said: 83
the measures referred to in Article [114 TFEU] are intended to improve the conditions for
the establishment and functioning of the internal market. To construe that Article as
meaning that it vests in the [Union] legislature a general power to regulate the internal
market would not only be contrary to the express wording of the provisions cited above but
would also be incompatible with the principle embodied in Article [5(1) TEU] that the
powers of the [Union] are limited to those specifically conferred on it.
This was an important recognition by the Court of the principle of conferral. The Court continued
that:
Moreover, a measure adopted on the basis of Article [114 TFEU] must genuinely have as its
object the improvement of the conditions for the establishment and functioning of the
internal market. If a mere finding of disparities between national rules and of the abstract
risk of obstacles to the exercise of fundamental freedoms or of distortions of competition
liable to result therefrom were sufficient to justify the choice of Article [114 TFEU] as a legal
basis, judicial review of compliance with the proper legal basis might be rendered nugatory.
Thus, the Court said that where the Union measure was genuinely intended to improve the
conditions for the establishment and functioning of the internal market, and actually had that effect,
then Article 114(1) could be used in two situations:
where the legislation contributes to the elimination of likely obstacles to the exercise of
fundamental freedoms
where the legislation contributes to the removal of appreciable distortions of competition
which are likely to arise from the diverse national rules.
80
Case C–376/98 Germany v. European Parliament and Council [2000] ECR I–8419 and Case C–74/99 R. v.
Secretary of State for Health and others, ex p. Imperial Tobacco [2000] ECR I–8599.
81
Para. 79.
82
Case C–380/03 Tobacco Advertising II [2006] ECR I–11573.
83
Para. 83.
29
On the facts the Court said that Directive 98/43’s ban on advertising of tobacco products in ‘non‐
static advertising media’ (periodicals, magazines, and newspapers) could be adopted on the basis of
Article 114(1) TFEU, since this would help to ensure the free movement of press products, but Article
114(1) TFEU could not be used to ban advertising in ‘static advertising media’ (eg posters, parasols,
ashtrays, and other articles used in hotels, restaurants, and cafés) because the effect on free
movement of goods was too uncertain and indirect.
In respect of distortions of competition, the Court said that the EU had no power to regulate in
respect of advertising agencies and producers of advertising media established in Member States
(the argument being that those agencies established in states which imposed fewer restrictions on
tobacco advertising were at an advantage in terms of economies of scale and increase in profits),
because the effects of such advantages on competition were ‘remote and indirect’ and did not
‘constitute distortions which could be described as appreciable’. 84 However, Article 114(1) TFEU
could be used to harmonize national rules concerning sports sponsorship by tobacco companies. It
noted that prohibiting sponsorship in some Member States and authorizing it in others caused
certain sports events to be moved, affecting the conditions of competition for undertakings
associated with such events. Since this gave rise to an appreciable distortion on competition, it did
justify an EU measure adopted under Article 114 TFEU but not an outright ban on advertising of the
kind proposed by the directive.
The decision in Tobacco Advertising I was the high water mark of the Court’s recognition of the outer
limits of Article 114 TFEU on positive integration. It is seen as a pair with Keck which laid down limits
on negative integration. However, as with Keck, the value of the decision is now more symbolic than
substantive: the Court has not struck down any other uses of Article 114 TFEU, quite the contrary. In
fact it appears to have given the green light to an ever wider range of measures. For example, the
Court has since made clear that the phrase ‘measures for the approximation’ in Article 114 TFEU
conferred on the legislature a broad discretion as regard the method most appropriate for achieving
the desired result, in particular in areas characterized by complexity. 85 Measures adopted can
consist of requiring all Member States to authorize the marketing of products, subjecting any such
authorization to certain conditions, or even prohibiting the marketing of products, even though a
ban might appear to fly in the face of a single market in goods. And in Österreichischer Rundfunk 86
the Court said that the Data Protection Directive could be adopted under Article 114 TFEU even
though it applied to a wholly internal situation. The Court said that ‘recourse to Article [114 TFEU] as
a legal basis does not presuppose the existence of an actual link with free movement between
Member States in every situation referred to by the measure founded on that basis’. It was sufficient
that the measure adopted under Article 114 TFEU was actually intended to improve the conditions
for the establishment and functioning of the internal market. 87
Article 352 TFEU
The residual legal basis in Article 352 TFEU provides that if action by the Union should prove
necessary, within the framework of the policies defined in the Treaties, to attain one of the
84
Para. 109.
85
Case C–380/03 Tobacco Advertising II [2006] ECR I–11573, para. 42.
86
Case C–465/00 [2003] ECR I–4989, para. 41.
87
Case C–380/03 Germany v. Council and European Parliament (Tobacco Advertising II) [2006] ECR I–11573,
para. 80.
30
objectives set out in the Treaties and the Treaties have not provided the necessary powers, the
Council, acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission and after obtaining the consent of
the European Parliament, must adopt the appropriate measures. Those measures may be legislative
in character in which case they are deemed to have been adopted by the special legislative
procedure. Perhaps in a nod to the problems generated by Tobacco Advertising I and the Court’s
cavalier approach to the non‐harmonization provision in Article 168(5) TFEU, Article 352(2) provides
‘Measures based on this Article shall not entail harmonisation of Member States’ laws or regulations
in cases where the Treaties exclude such harmonisation.’ 88
The most recent – and highly controversial – use of Article 352 was the proposal for the adoption of
the so‐called Monti II Regulation 89 intended to address the problems arising from the Court’s
decision in Viking (considered above) which trade unionists saw as limiting their right to strike. This
proposal was intended to strike a better balance between principles of free movement and the right
to strike while introducing an alert mechanism which required Member States to notify the
Commission of ‘serious acts or circumstances affecting the effective exercise of the freedom of
establishment or the freedom to provide services which could cause grave disruption to the proper
functioning of the internal market and/or which may cause serious damage to its industrial relations
system or create serious social unrest in its territory or in the territory of other Member States’. A
number of Member States objected to the use of Article 352 TFEU as the legal basis and argued that
the Commission was deliberately using Article 352 TFEU to circumvent the limits in Article 153(5)
TFEU (see Table 1). The Yellow card procedure under the Subsidiarity Protocol (see below) was
successfully invoked and the Commission withdrew the proposal.
Subsidiarity and proportionality
So far we have examined whether the Union has t in principle he competence to act (ie the existence
of the EU’s power – see fig 5). The next question is whether the EU should actually exercise those
powers (the subsidiarity question) and if so, to what extent (the proportionality question). Article
5(3) TEU says:
Under the principle of subsidiarity, in areas which do not fall within its exclusive
competence, the Union shall act only if and in so far as the objectives of the proposed action
cannot be sufficiently achieved by the Member States, either at central level or at regional
and local level, but can rather, by reason of the scale or effects of the proposed action, be
better achieved at Union level.
The institutions of the Union shall apply the principle of subsidiarity as laid down in the
Protocol on the application of the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality. National
Parliaments ensure compliance with the principle of subsidiarity in accordance with the
procedure set out in that Protocol.
As Article 5(3) TFEU makes clear, the subsdiarity principle applies only in areas where the Union’s
competence is not exclusive (ie areas of ‘shared’ competence), which includes the internal market. 90
88
See also the limit in Art. 352(4) TFEU: ‘This Article cannot serve as a basis for attaining objectives pertaining
to the common foreign and security policy and any acts adopted pursuant to this Article shall respect the limits
set out in Article 40, 2nd para., of the Treaty on European Union.’
89
COM(2012) 130
90
Art. 4(2)(a) TFEU.
31
However, if the EU has already legislated in the particular area of the internal market (to use the
jargon it has already ‘occupied the field’), eg in the area of maximum noise levels of outdoor
machinery, and it wants to legislate further to improve standards, the subsidiarity principle should
not, according to the theory, apply. 91
If an application of the subsidiarity principle reveals that the Union should act, or it is an area of pre‐
emption, any measure adopted must also be proportionate (no more extensive than necessary to
achieve the objective). Article 5(4) TEU says:
Under the principle of proportionality, the content and form of Union action shall not
exceed what is necessary to achieve the objectives of the Treaties.
The institutions of the Union shall apply the principle of proportionality as laid down in the
Protocol on the application of the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality.
The Court has long been reluctant to engage in a detailed examination of the compatibility of a
Union act with the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality because, as it explained in Ex p.
BAT, 92 ‘the [Union] legislature must be allowed a broad discretion in an area such as that involved in
the present case, which entails political, economic, and social choices on its part, and in which it is
called upon to undertake complex assessments’. Consequently, the legality of a measure adopted
can be affected ‘only if the measure is manifestly inappropriate having regard to the objective which
the competent institution is seeking to pursue’.93
Subsidiarity has proved a particularly sensitive issue. In the past, the Court has been reluctant to
review the merits of complaints alleging breach of subsidiarity, viewing subsidiarity more as a
political, than as a legal, principle. In particular, it has refused to examine whether the criteria laid
down in Article 5(3) TEU (i.e., whether the action can be sufficiently achieved by the Member States
or, whether by reason of the scale or effects of the proposed action, it could be better achieved by
the Union) have been met. Instead, the Court has been content to focus on the procedural aspects
of the subsidiarity principle, checking to see whether the Union institutions have actually considered
the implications for the principle of subsidiarity of the proposed measure; 94 it has not been prepared
to look behind those reasons to see whether they were justified. For example, in Working Time 95 the
Court simply observed that if harmonization was at issue this ‘necessarily’ presupposed Union‐wide
action, without examining the prior question of whether there was a need for harmonization in this
area.
However, in Ex p. BAT 96 the Court showed itself a little more willing to consider the merits of the
subsidiarity principle in deciding whether the Community should have adopted the Tobacco Control
Directive 2001/37. It began by considering ‘whether the objective of the proposed action could be
91
Cf Case C–491/01 Ex p. BAT [2002] ECR I–11453 subsidiarity will also apply to situations where the Union
has already exercised its shared competence, with at least some pre‐emptive effects, and replaces that
legislation with revised rules (the Tobacco Control Dir.).
92
Case C–491/01 [2002] ECR I–11453, para. 123.
93
Para. 123.
94
Case C–233/94 Germany v. Parliament and Council (deposit guarantee schemes) [1997] ECR I–2405.
95
Case C–84/94 UK v. Council [1996] ECR I–5755.
96
Case C–491/01 [2002] ECR I–11453. See also Joined Cases C–154/04 and C–155/04 Alliance for Natural
Health [2005] ECR I–6451, paras. 105–6.
32
better achieved at [Union] level’. It said that since the directive’s objective was to eliminate the
barriers raised by the differences which still existed between the laws of the Member State on the
manufacture, presentation, and sale of tobacco products, ‘such an objective cannot be sufficiently
achieved by the Member States individually and calls for action at [Union] level, as demonstrated by
the multifarious development of national laws in this case’. It therefore considered that the
objective of the directive could be better achieved at Union level. In effect this is a clearer
articulation of the point made in Working Time that harmonization requires EU action. Rather
curiously, the Court then appeared to merge the tests of subsidiarity and proportionality. It said
that:
the intensity of the action undertaken by the [Union] in this instance was also in keeping
with the requirements of the principle of subsidiarity in that ... it did not go beyond what
was necessary to achieve the objective pursued.
The Court also found the Tobacco Control Directive’s provisions proportionate. For example, when
considering the obligation to give information on the tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide levels and
to print health warnings on the packets, it noted that these were appropriate measures for attaining
a high level of health protection when the barriers raised by national laws on labelling were
removed. The Court continued that although the directive required more of the surface area of the
packaging to be used for warnings, it also allowed for sufficient space to be left for the
manufacturers to affix other material, in particular trade marks. For this reason, the Court
concluded, ‘the [Union] legislature has not overstepped the bounds of the discretion which it enjoys
in this area’.
Amendments introduced by the Lisbon Treaty are intended to improve the monitoring and
enforcement of the subsidiarity principle through ex ante control by national parliaments, the bodies
that stand to lose most by Union action, rather than by ex post review by the Court. 97 Article 5(3)
TEU says that the Union’s institutions must apply the principle of subsidiarity in accordance with
Protocol No. 2 on the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality. National parliaments are to
ensure compliance with the principle of subsidiarity in accordance with Protocol No. 1 on the role of
national parliaments in the European Union. Protocol No. 2 introduces the so‐called ‘yellow card’
procedure under which any national parliament or chamber thereof can object to a proposed EU
measure, on the grounds that it does not comply with the principle of subsidiarity, by issuing a
reasoned opinion. Where one‐third of the national parliaments object (the so‐called yellow card
procedure), the proposal must be formally reviewed by the EU institutions, as was the case with the
Monti II proposal (see above).Heightened scrutiny applies to a proposal under the ordinary
legislative procedure which is objected to by a simple majority of votes allocated to national
parliaments.
97
Although Art. 8 of Protocol No. 2 on the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality confirms that ‘The
Court of Justice of the European Union shall have jurisdiction in actions on grounds of infringement of the
principle of subsidiarity by a legislative act’, brought in accordance with the rules laid down in Art. 263 TFEU by
‘Member States, or notified by them in accordance with their legal order on behalf of their national Parliament
or a chamber thereof’.
33
Fig 5 Factors to be taken into account in the Legislative process
Derogations from measures adopted under Article 114(1) TFEU
Articles 114(4)–(5) TFEU make express provision for Member States to derogate from a measure
adopted under Article 114(1) TFEU. This was the price for the introduction of QMV into
Article 114(1) TFEU. Article 114(4) TFEU concerns pre‐existing national measures. It says:
If, after the adoption of a harmonisation measure by the European Parliament and the
Council, by the Council or by the Commission, a Member State deems it necessary to
maintain national provisions on grounds of major needs referred to in Article 36, or relating
to the protection of the environment or the working environment, it shall notify the
Commission of these provisions as well as the grounds for maintaining them.
Article 114(5) TFEU concerns new measures. It allows a Member State ‘to introduce national
provisions based on new scientific evidence . . . on grounds of a problem specific to that Member
State arising after the adoption of the harmonisation measure’. This scientific evidence—which must
be both new and raising a problem specific to the applicant Member State—can relate only to the
protection of the environment or the working environment. Thus, unlike Article 114(4) TFEU, the
grounds listed in Article 36 TFEU (public policy, security, health etc – considered above) cannot be
invoked to justify a national derogation under Article 114(5) TFEU. This is because, as the Court
explained in Commission v. Denmark 98 in respect of Article 114(4) TFEU, the EU institutions already
98
Case C–3/00 Commission v. Denmark [2003] ECR I–2643, para. 57.
34
know of the national provisions but choose not to take them into account, while the adoption of
new national legislation under Article 114(5) TFEU is more likely to jeopardize harmonization. For
this reason the grounds under which Article 114(5) TFEU can be invoked are more limited. The
procedure for applying for a derogation is spelt out in Articles 114(6)‐(9) TFEU.
Articles 114(4)–(5) TFEU has not been much invoked by Member States, except in the area of GMOs.
For example, the provincial government of Upper Austria wanted to ban GMOs, on the basis of a
scientific report, in order (1) to safeguard organic and traditional farming which is characteristic of
the region, and (2) to protect natural biodiversity, particularly in sensitive ecological areas, as well as
genetic resources, from ‘contamination’ by GMOs. Since this ban would contravene the Directive
2001/18 on the deliberate release of GMOs into the environment, 99 the Austrian government
notified the Commission of its draft legislation, in accordance with Article 114(5) TFEU. The
Commission referred the matter to the European Food Safety Authority, which found that (1) there
was no new scientific evidence, in terms of risk to human health and the environment, to justify the
prohibition; (2) there were no new data that would change the environmental risk assessment
conducted on GMOs that currently held marketing consent in the EU; and (3) there was no scientific
evidence to indicate that Upper Austria had unusual or unique ecosystems that required separate
risk assessments from those carried out for Austria as a whole. The Commission therefore rejected
the Austrian application. 100
This case law suggests that, as derogations from a Directive adopted through the EU’s legislative
process, the Court will control the criteria laid down by the Treaty with care.
Enhanced cooperation
So far we have looked at powers within the Treaty for Member States to opt‐out of certain EU
measures. Legislative acts themselves also contain provisions for Member States to opt‐out of
certain Articles (perhaps most famously the opt‐out, negotiated by the UK, from the 48 hour week in
the Working Time Directive 2003/88) or at least to delay compliance (see eg the Unfair Commercial
Practices Directive 2005/29 which allows Member States six years after the implementation date to
not apply the Directive; that period can be extended). However, since Amsterdam, the Treaties have
made provision for so‐called ‘enhanced cooperation’. This allows a minimum of nine EU Member
99
[2001] OJ L106/1.
100
Commission Dec. 2003/653 ([2003] OJ L230/34). See also Commission Dec. 2008/62/EC ([2008] OJ L16/17)
where the Commission rejected a similar request from Poland on the grounds of the absence of any new
scientific evidence relating to the protection of the environment or the working environment.
101
Joined Cases T–366/03 and T–235/04 Land Oberösterreich v. Commission [2005] ECR II–4005.
102
Para. 69.
103
Case C–430/05 P Land Oberösterreich v. Commission [2007] ECR I–7141.
35
states to establish advanced integration or cooperation in an area within EU structures but without
the other Member States being involved. They thus cooperate within the framework of the Treaties,
not outside it as is the case with the European Fiscal Compact (formally, the Treaty on Stability,
Coordination and Governance in the Economic and Monetary Union). Enhanced cooperation is
currently being used in the field of divorce law, 104 and is approved for the fields of patents 105 and a
financial transaction tax. 106
Appetites are being whetted to use this new form of integration. While it is not a limit on the EU’s
power it certainly allows reluctant states to move forward at a slower pace and conversely more
enthusiastic Member States to move faster. However, it is subject to the limitation that such
cooperation ‘shall not undermine the internal market or economic , social or territorial cohesion. It
shall not constitute a barrier to or discrimination in trade between Member States, nor shall it
distort competition between them’. A summary of the main limits to the EU’s power of positive
integration can be found in Box 2.
Conclusions
This report has attempted to show the range of the EU’s powers, both negative and positive, as well
as the Court’s interpretation of those powers. It is crucial to understand the Court’s case law
because a simple reading of the Treaty would present only a partial picture. The UK has always been
a keen supporter of free trade: the Court’s generally robust interpretation of the Treaty provisions
on free movement therefore coincides with the UK’s agenda.
Legislation from ‘Brussels’ has always been more controversial in the UK political debate. At first
sight, a Directive regulating the amount of noise lawnmowers make is a prime example of the sort of
rule that the EU should not be adopting: a quick reading of the subsidiarity principle would suggest
104
Council Regulation (EU) No 1259/2010 of 20 December 2010 implementing enhanced cooperation in the
area of the law applicable to divorce and legal separation OJ {2010] L343/10.
105
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/intm/119732.pdf.
106
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ecofin/134949.pdf.
36
that this is the very sort of measure which should be left to the Member States to legislate on. In
fact, placing this measure in the broader context of the single market offers a different perspective:
British lawnmower manufacturers stand to gain from a single standard set centrally (in Brussels)
which allows them to achieve the economies of scale of selling in a wider market. Much EU
legislation, and the flexibility introduced within that legislation, therefore tend to support the UK’s
objectives of facilitating free trade.
As this review has shown, in practice negative integration cannot proceed without positive
integration; the two are intimately linked. Yet, as has also been shown, negative integration is
potentially more intrusive into national sovereignty than positive integration. However, the legal and
political safeguards for positive integration are more stringent than those for negative integration
and engage the dual legitimising force of the European Parliament, directly accountable to the
electorate, and the Council of Ministers, indirectly accountable through national parliaments. An
appreciation of these facts offers a more nuanced perspective of the single market.
37
Further Reading
C. Barnard, The Substantive Law of the European Union: the Four Freedoms (Oxford, OUP, 2013)
D. Chalmers et al, European Union Law: Cases and Materials (Cambridge, CUP, 2010)
P. Craig and G. De Búrca, EU Law: Text, Cases and Materials (Oxford, OUP, 2011)
P. Oliver et al, Oliver on Free Movement of Goods (Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2010)
S. Weatherill, Cases and Materials on EU Law (Oxford, OUP, 2012)
38