The Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path

Sangharakshita

Originally published by Windhorse Publications under the title Vision and

Transformation, 1990

This revised edition © Sangharakshita 2007

ISBN 9781 899579 81 5

To make it easier to search this web version, Pali and Sanskrit diacritics have
been removed.
 Contents

Publisher’s Preface

Author’s Prefatory Note

1 Perfect Vision
The Nature of Existence

2 Perfect Emotion
Reason and Emotion in the Spiritual Life

3 Perfect Speech
The Ideal of Human Communication

4 Perfect Action
The Principles of Ethics

5 Perfect Livelihood
The Ideal Society

6 Perfect Effort
The Conscious Evolution of Man

7 Perfect Awareness
The Levels of Awareness
8 Perfect Samadhi
The Higher Consciousness
The religion of the future will be a cosmic religion. It should transcend
personal God and avoid dogma and theology. Covering both the
natural and the spiritual, it should be based on a religious sense
arising from the experience of all things natural and spiritual as a
meaningful unity. Buddhism answers this description.… If there is
any religion that could cope with modern scientific needs, it would be
Buddhism. Albert Einstein (attrib.)
 Publisher’s Preface

The image of the Buddha has become a modern icon, with statues for our
gardens and living rooms communicating peace and contentment. Yet few
people are familiar with the actual teachings of the Buddha, and the long
lineage of teachers that came after him, which remain poorly understood. The
original teachings were written down in a time and culture very different from
our own, and we need help to get through the exotic wrappings to the truth
within.

We hope this series of books will do just that: make the Buddha’s teachings
relevant to us today. Although these teachings are thousands of years old, they
have stood the test of time. They have travelled from India to very different
cultures, which have confirmed their universality. Now we need to ask
ourselves how they are pertinent to those of us practising in a Western culture
in the twenty-first century.

The Buddha urged us to test his teachings for ourselves, and to see if by
applying them we found a taste of freedom. Our hope is that this series will
bring out that taste of freedom for Buddhists today.

The Noble Eightfold Path is a reference to the very first teaching the Buddha is
reported to have delivered. In this talk, delivered to five of his friends, he laid
out both the goal and the path of the spiritual life. A vision of what can be –
freedom from suffering – and a path of transformation towards the goal that
touches heart, body, and mind.

The Noble Eightfold Path begins with views. What do we think and believe
about ourselves and the world in which we live? Those views inform how we
turn towards the world, and how we speak and act and make our way through
the world.

We need to address all of these in order to gain freedom. Our views, feelings
and intentions, speech, actions, and livelihood constitute the first five stages.
We also need to attend to our growth as human beings, cultivate awareness,
and develop our meditation skills – the last three stages. To transform
ourselves in our heights and our depths is not an easy task; it is a complete
reorientation of our being.

In this commentary, Sangharakshita shows us how we can follow the Eightfold

Path today. This is both an up-to-date and a practical view of the Path, drawing
on elements of Western psychology, art, religion, and culture, but it is firmly
rooted in tradition and years of teaching in both West and East. As Kulananda
says in his introduction to the audio version, Sangharakshita ‘pulls off the truly
amazing feat of being simultaneously scholarly and vivid; deeply traditional
and yet bang up to the minute.’

The Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path is an invitation to change our lives, and a
handbook that shows us how.
 Prefatory Note

The eight lectures on the Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path on which the present
book is based were delivered in London in 1968. Ever since their serial
publication in the magazine Mitrata, and subsequently in book form under the
title Vision and Transformation, they have been the subject of intense study by
serious students of Buddhism, particularly those connected with the FWBO.
Recently I have been made aware that confusion has arisen in the minds of
some students with regard to what is stated [on pp.19–20 (1990 edition),
pp.13–14 (1999 edition), and pp.5–7 (2007 edition)] about the different ways in
which the Path of Vision may arise for different people, and it has been
suggested that a Note on the difference between the mundane and the
transcendental Path would help clear up the confusion.

In the text itself the difference between the two paths is not actually spelled out
in these terms, but it is nonetheless implicit throughout. It is clearly explained
in A Survey of Buddhism [p.161, ninth edition 2001; p.159, most other editions],
where having described the successive steps and stages of the Eightfold Path I
go on to observe:

“Each of the above eight stages is again twofold, in accordance with

the two different types of persons by whom it may be practised. When
practised by the holy ones, technically called Aryans, of whom there
are four kinds, it is known as the transmundane (lokottara) or
transcendental Eightfold Way; when practised by non-Aryans, that is
to say by prthagjanas (Pali puthujjanas) or worldlings, it is known as
the mundane (laukika) Eightfold Way. The point of this distinction is
the difference between a virtue consciously and deliberately practised,
with more or less success, as a discipline, and a virtue that is the
natural expression, the spontaneous overflow, of an inner realization.
The worldling treads the Path, and without doubt reaps the fruit of
his treading; but the Aryan, following the advice of The Voice of the
Silence, has ‘become that Path itself’.”

Here ‘inner realization’ is synonymous with Perfect Vision, and the virtue that
is the natural expression, the spontaneous overflow, of that inner realization is
the Eightfold Path when that Path, thanks to the descent into it of Perfect
Vision, becomes the Path of Transformation. Similarly, the virtue that is
practised consciously and deliberately, as a discipline, corresponds to the
Eightfold Path when that Path is practised not as the natural expression of
Perfect Vision but simply as the conscious and deliberate application of Right
Understanding or Right View to one’s bodily and verbal actions.
In the case of the third and fourth steps or stages of the Eightfold Path it is
comparatively easy to distinguish between the transcendental and the
mundane, between those bodily and verbal actions which are the natural,
spontaneous expression of Perfect Vision and those which are the conscious,
deliberate product of Right Understanding or Right View. As I point out in my
discussion of the silas or precepts [p.85 (1990 edition); p.77 (1999 edition); p.68
(2007 edition)], even when the patterns of external ethical observance are
identical, the mental states behind them may be quite different. In the case of
the first step or stage of the Eightfold Path it is much more difficult to
distinguish the transcendental from the mundane step or stage, and it is for this
reason, perhaps, that it has been questioned whether the examples I give of
Perfect Vision [pp.19–20 (1990 edition); pp. 13–14 (1999 edition), pp.5–7 (2007
edition)] are not, in fact, exemplifications of the mundane aspect of Perfect
Vision, i.e. exemplifications of Right Understanding or Right View.

Let me say at once that these examples are, or are intended to be, examples of
Perfect Vision, not exemplifications of the mundane aspect of Perfect Vision.
The confusion that has arisen with regard to the different ways in which
Perfect Vision may arise for different people stems largely from the fact that
transcendental experiences, and mundane experiences of a higher, more
refined type, may be spoken of in what might appear to be identical terms.
Thus the word ‘insight’ may signify, according to context, either a form of
Perfect Vision or a kind of conceptual understanding that is simply more than
normally penetrating on its own mundane level. The same is true of the word
‘mystical’, which I use, with some hesitation, in connection with Perfect Vision,
but which is also often applied to meditative states that are mundane. There is
also the fact that as an initial spiritual experience Perfect Vision may be
virtually indistinguishable from its mundane counterpart. Only when it has
developed to an extent, and has been seen to alter behaviour radically over a
long period can one be sure that it is the former and not the latter. It should
also be borne in mind that the Perfect Vision that arises as the first step or stage
of the Noble Eightfold Path is not Perfect Vision in its fullness. Such Perfect
Vision arises only when, with the accomplishment of the seven remaining steps
or stages of the Eightfold Path, one’s whole being has been transformed. As I
point out towards the end of the book [p.162 (1990 edition); p.152 (1999
edition); p.139 (2007 edition)], Perfect Vision in its fullness is synonymous with
Enlightenment or Buddhahood.

The nature of the relation between the transcendental and the mundane
Eightfold Path, and hence the nature of the difference between Perfect Vision
and Right Understanding or Right View, will be made clearer if we place the
two Paths end to end, so to speak, to form a single Path of sixteen successive
steps or stages. It will then be apparent that Right Concentration, the last step
or stage of the mundane Eightfold Path, provides the basis for the development
of Perfect Vision, the first step or stage of the transcendental Eightfold Path,
and that with the development of Perfect Vision the truths that in the case of
Right Understanding or Right View were comprehended only intellectually
become a matter of inner realization. Similarly, with the development of Perfect
Samadhi – the culmination of the transcendental Eightfold Path, and therefore
of the Path of sixteen steps or stages in its entirety – the onepointedness that in
the case of Right Concentration is only the more or less forcible fixation of the
mundane mind on a single object becomes the permanent establishment of
one’s entire being in Ultimate Reality.

From what I have said about the Perfect Vision that arises as the first step or
stage of the Noble Eightfold Path it should be obvious that the term ‘perfect’
(as the translation of samyak) is not meant to be taken literally. The term simply
indicates the fact that the particular step or stage of the Noble Eightfold Path to
which it is applied is an expression, to an extent, not of Right Understanding
but of Perfect Vision, though that Perfect Vision itself may not be literally
perfect in the sense of being complete. The stages of the Noble Eightfold Path
become literally perfect only with the attainment of Enlightenment or
Buddhahood.

Failure to distinguish between the transcendental and the mundane Eightfold

Path has serious practical consequences. As I point out in The Threefold Refuge
[edited seminar transcript] (p.59):

“Not understanding the distinction between the mundane path and

the Transcendental Path, people try to practise the Transcendental
Path as though it was the mundane path, which makes nonsense of
their practice. Perfect Vision is degraded to mere intellectual
understanding of the Teaching.… Most Theravadins have forgotten,
in practice, the distinction between the mundane Eightfold Path and
the Transcendental Eightfold Path. When they give a lecture on the
Eightfold Path, therefore, they quite rightly start off with samyakdrsti
or Perfect Vision; but not understanding that this is Perfect Vision in
the sense of insight into the Transcendental, and mistaking the
Transcendental for the mundane and the mundane for the
Transcendental, they will tell one that Perfect Vision or ‘Right View’
as they call it means a rational understanding of the Dharma and that
this rational understanding is the basis on which you are to
proceed.… They don’t explain that in following the Transcendental
Eightfold Path you first of all have a sort of spiritual vision – a sort of
transcendental vision – and then transform your life in accordance
with that vision. That is never explained.”

***

On [p.30 (1990 edition); p.23 (1999 edition); p.15 (2007 edition)] I say
‘According to the Hinayana tradition, Wisdom – seeing things as they are in
reality – consists in seeing objects and persons in the external world, as well as
all mental phenomena, in terms of what are technically known as dharmas.…
According to the Mahayana, however, Wisdom consists in reducing the
dharmas themselves to sunyata.’ This is the traditional Mahayana understanding
of the relation between the two yanas. Nonetheless, the ‘germ’ of the
‘Mahayana’ view can be found in the Theravada Pali scriptures.
 1

Perfect Vision

The Nature of Existence

However little we may know about Buddhism we will at least know that it is a
Path or Way. It is a Path or Way leading to a state of realization of Truth, or of
oneness with Reality, which we call Enlightenment, or Nirvana, or the
realization of one’s own innate Buddhahood. This Path or Way finds
expression in a number of different formulations, and of these the Noble
Eightfold Path is probably the best known.

The Noble Eightfold Path is the fourth of the Four Noble Truths. If we turn to
the Buddha’s First Discourse, the Discourse on Turning the Wheel of the
Dharma, which he delivered in the Deer Park at Sarnath shortly after his
attainment of Supreme Enlightenment, we find that the principal contents of
this discourse, in which the Buddha communicated his great spiritual
discovery to humanity, were the Four Noble Truths: suffering, the cause of
suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading to the cessation of
suffering – the last of these being none other than the Noble Eightfold Path.

Moreover, if we follow the course of Buddhist history, then in school after

school, tradition after tradition, whether in India, Tibet, Burma, Thailand,
Japan, or Sri Lanka, wherever Buddhism has spread, we find reference is made
again and again to the Four Noble Truths, and especially to the Noble
Eightfold Path. Therefore unless we know about these Truths, and especially
the Truth of the Path – unless we understand them in some detail – we know
very little about Buddhism.

The term Noble Eightfold Path is a translation of the Sanskrit arya-astangika-

marga, the word which we render in English as ‘noble’ being arya. In India in
ancient times this word was originally used in a more or less racial sense,
designating the invaders who poured down into the plains of India from
central Asia through the passes of the north-west, conquering the indigenous
people. Gradually as the centuries went by the term arya and its related form
‘aryan’ assumed an ethical and spiritual meaning. In Buddhism the word
connotes whatever pertains either directly or indirectly to the realization of
Ultimate Reality. Whatever is concerned with things spiritual, be it the spiritual
path itself, or the spiritual goal, or any aspect of the spiritual life, can be
designated arya. Thus arya means not only ‘noble’ but also ‘holy’.
Some translators therefore speak not only of the Four Noble Truths and the
Noble Eightfold Path, but of the Four Holy Truths and the Holy Eightfold Path.
(Lama Govinda, a German Buddhist teacher who lived for many years in the
East, used to tell an amusing story. In the early days of Buddhism in Germany
there were two rival groups, one insisting that arya meant ‘noble’, the other that
it meant ‘holy’. These two groups, the Noble Truthers and the Holy Truthers,
were always at loggerheads. Besides illustrating the way in which people fall
out, this story underscores the point that one should not allow oneself to be
carried away by words. Though admittedly there is some difference between
‘noble’ and ‘holy’, the whole controversy was about a matter of comparatively
minor importance.)

The Sanskrit word asta means simply ‘eight’, while anga means ‘limb’,
‘member’, or even ‘shoot’. In some modern Indian languages, for instance, one
speaks of pancanga-pranama or prostration with the ‘five limbs’, that is to say
the two arms, the two legs, and the head. (In Sanskrit the head is called the
uttamanga or ‘highest member’.) Thus although we usually think of the Noble
Eightfold Path as consisting of eight successive steps or stages, the use of the
word anga suggests that the steps are not so much successive as simultaneous.
In reality the path is eightfold in the sense of being eight-limbed or eight-
membered, rather than of being made up of eight steps.

Marga means simply ‘path’ or ‘way’.

Perfect Vision
The first so-called step of the Noble Eightfold Path is called samyag-drsti in
Sanskrit. This is usually translated as Right Understanding, but such a
rendition is far from satisfactory. Here, as is so often the case with Buddhist
terms and expressions, we can get at the real meaning of the words only by
going back to the original language. What then does samyag-drsti really mean?
Samyag (or samyak), which is prefixed to all eight angas or limbs of the Path,
means ‘proper’, ‘whole’, ‘thorough’, ‘integral’, ‘complete’, ‘perfect’. It is
certainly not ‘right’ as opposed to ‘wrong’. If one speaks of ‘Right
Understanding’ one gives the impression of a ‘right’ understanding as opposed
to a ‘wrong’ understanding, or ‘right’ action as opposed to ‘wrong’ action, and
so on. One gives the impression of a rather narrow, purely moralistic
interpretation of the Path. But samyak means much more than just ‘right’. As we
have seen, it is also ‘whole’, ‘integral’, ‘complete’, ‘perfect’. Probably ‘perfect’ is
the best translation.

Drsti is from a root meaning ‘to see’, and it means ‘sight’, ‘view’, ‘vision’. It is
not just ‘understanding’, and certainly not understanding in the purely
theoretical, intellectual, or abstract sense. It is something direct, immediate, and
intuitive. If we unthinkingly translate samyag-drsti, the first step of the Path, as
‘Right Understanding’, a subtle misconception is introduced at the very outset
of our study – and our practice – of the Buddha’s teaching. Samyag-drsti is
much more like ‘Integral View’ or ‘Perfect Vision’. Translating in this way we
get much closer to the real meaning, closer to the inner feel of the expression. If
you compare the two translations, trying to savour their spiritual quality, you
will find that ‘Perfect Vision’ conveys something different from ‘Right
Understanding’. ‘Right Understanding’ is rather trite, rather ordinary, and
rather intellectual. But if you say ‘Perfect Vision’ it is as though a whole new
world has opened up, as though an extra dimension has been introduced. Let it
therefore be ‘Perfect Vision’: a vision, speaking provisionally, of the nature of
existence, of the truth or reality of things.

The Path of Vision and the Path of Transformation

According to the Indian Buddhist tradition the Noble Eightfold Path falls quite
naturally into two great divisions. The first of these is known as the Path of
Vision (darsana-marga), the second as the Path of Transformation (bhavana-
marga). Thus the Noble Eightfold Path comprises two lesser ‘Paths’, in the sense
of two successive stages. The Path of Vision corresponds only to the first anga,
or so-called step, Perfect Vision. The Path of Transformation corresponds to the
seven remaining ‘steps’: Perfect Emotion, Perfect Speech, Perfect Action,
Perfect Livelihood, Perfect Effort, Perfect Awareness, and Perfect Meditation.
The significance of this division is that Perfect Vision represents the phase of
initial spiritual insight and experience, whereas the rest of the Eightfold Path
represents the transformation of one’s whole being, in all its heights and
depths, in all its aspects, in accordance with that initial insight and experience.
The Path of Transformation represents a complete and thoroughgoing
transformation of one’s emotional life, speech, communication with others,
livelihood, and so on. One may transform one’s livelihood, which is the fifth
‘step’, before one’s speech, which is only the third; but eventually, in one way
or another, the whole being is to be transformed, in its heights and in its
depths, conscious and unconscious.

Now this initial spiritual experience – this Perfect Vision or Path of Vision –
may arise in different ways for different people. There is no uniform pattern.
Indeed the great variety that exists among people also shows itself in the
spiritual life generally, and in the way people enter upon the spiritual path.

For some people the Path of Vision arises as the result of personal tragedy,
bereavement, or loss. Their whole existence is disturbed and upset as though
by a great earthquake in which everything they had cherished or held dear is
laid low. In this wreck, this ruin of their lives, they start questioning, start
looking deeper, and start wondering about the meaning and purpose of
existence.

For others, Perfect Vision may arise by way of a spontaneous mystical

experience. (‘Mystical’ is not really the right word. For many people it is
redolent of mystery and mystery-mongering. But we don’t have a better one.)
One can find a number of such mystical experiences described in Bucke’s
Cosmic Consciousness, a book published in 1901, which is still worth reading. It
is surprising how many people have had an experience of this kind, some rare
moment of ecstasy, or insight, or tremendous love, which apparently without
any preparation possessed them, swept them away, lifted them up into a new
dimension, and completely altered their outlook on life. Also under the
heading of mystical experience we can include our experience of nature, as
when we are overwhelmed by the sight of some wonderful sunset, or when in
the midst of the countryside we experience a great, all- pervading peace,
stillness, and tranquillity.

Sometimes the Path of Vision can arise as a result of looking at a beautiful

painting, or listening to music. On such occasions we can be carried away into
a new dimension of existence. Sometimes it can arise as a result of deep and
prolonged thought. Some people endeavour to reach out and grasp the truth
by means of the intellect. They try to plumb the depths of being with reason
and logic. This is the way of the thinker, the philosopher, the sage. Some
people actually think their way through to Reality, to the Path of Vision.

For others it may arise in quite a different way, as the result of the practice of
meditation. When the mind has been systematically stilled, and when,
although thoughts have been banished, clear consciousness still persists, then
under these conditions also Perfect Vision may arise.

Sometimes it may arise for those who are engaged in altruistic activities, such
as nursing the sick and looking after the old. For those who are sacrificing
themselves and their personal interests, and who are completely selfless on the
plane of work and action, even in the midst of their activity Perfect Vision may
arise.

Finally it may arise, for some people at least, out of their whole experience of
life – especially as they grow older and, it is to be hoped, more mature. When
all the different threads seemingly come together, and the pattern of their lives
seems to make some kind of sense, to reflect some glimmer of meaning, then
out of the depths of their simple human maturity Perfect Vision may arise. This
is not to suggest that wisdom comes automatically with age. Far from it! If such
were the case we need not take the trouble to acquire wisdom when young. But
certainly for those who have led a truly human life, as they mellow and
perhaps sweeten a little, and as their experience clarifies, the Path of Vision
may sometimes arise.

Thus the Path of Vision may arise for different people in all these different
ways. For some it has even arisen in a dream. But however it does arise we
should be very careful not to lose it, not to forget it. This happens very easily,
for as the poet says, ‘the world is too much with us.’ We may have an
experience so wonderful that we might think we will never forget it. But after a
short time, after a few days or weeks, it is no longer there. It is as though it had
never been. So we should cherish it, cultivate it, dwell upon it – try to deepen
it, clarify it, develop it – all the time. We should eventually try to allow it to
permeate and transform our whole being, our whole life.

To sum up we may say that the aim of this great Buddhist teaching of the Path
of Vision and the Path of Transformation is to enable us to bring the whole of
our life up to the level of its highest moments. This is what it means to evolve
spiritually. This is what it means to follow the Noble Eightfold Path. It means
to achieve Perfect Vision by one means or another, and then transform our
whole being in accordance with that vision.

The Nature of Existence

What then is Perfect Vision? In the literature of Buddhism there are many
expositions of Right Understanding, as Perfect Vision is generally called. One
might even say there are too many, for some expositions are not very helpful,
and may even be misleading. Under the heading of Right Understanding some
writers on Buddhism would apparently like to include the whole of Buddhist
doctrine. Whatever could not be included under any other heading is squeezed
in here. ‘After all’, they seem to think, ‘it is all a matter of Right Understanding:
it is all something to be understood.’ So in it all goes – the whole doctrine, the
whole teaching, the whole philosophy. This tends to create the wrong
impression. Some students of Buddhism may think that Right Understanding,
as the first step of the Noble Eightfold Path, means making a thorough study of
the whole of Buddhist thought, and taking a sort of Ph.D. in Buddhist
philosophy. They may think that before you can start walking on the Noble
Eightfold Path you have to learn all about the Madhyamikas and the
Yogacarins, the Sarvastivadins and the Sautrantikas, as well as about the T’ien
T’ai School and the Avatamsaka School, and so on. Only then, they may think,
can you put your foot on the Path and start practising Buddhism.

But really it is not like that at all. Samyag-drsti, it must be emphasized, is just
Perfect Vision. It has nothing to do with the study of the schools of Buddhist
philosophy. It is a vision, and as such something direct and immediate, and
more of the nature of a spiritual experience than an intellectual understanding.
Of course the experience, the insight, can be expressed intellectually, in terms of
doctrinal concepts, philosophical systems, and so on, but it is not identical with
these. The vision itself stands apart, stands above.

So what is this Perfect Vision? One may say it is a vision of the nature of
existence, but what does this vision reveal? What is the nature of existence?
This question is difficult to answer because it is easy – only too easy – to
answer. This is not to be paradoxical. What it means is that only too many
concepts lie ready to hand. There is so much Buddhist philosophy available.
One can so easily use a few technical terms, refer to this system or that, and say
this is the nature of existence according to Buddhism. But this is too slick, too
easy. We must beware of the temptation to produce our concepts too readily.
What one is trying to communicate is not simply a set of ideas, not a system of
philosophy in the academic sense, but what the Buddha himself, in his own
language, quite unambiguously called drsti – a vision.

There are two principal ways a vision can be communicated – through images
and through concepts. In Buddhism there are three main images of the nature
of existence. These are the Wheel of Life, the Buddha, and the Path. Since these
images communicate a vision, it is helpful, in absorbing that communication, if
we can ‘get the picture’, instead of just ‘thinking’ them in an abstract manner
and assuming they have been understood.

The Wheel of Life

The Wheel of Life comprises four concentric circles. Within the central circle,
which forms the hub of the wheel, are three animals, a cock, a snake, and a pig,
each biting the tail of the animal in front. These animals represent the three
poisons of greed, hatred, and delusion which control our minds and make the
whole wheel of mundane existence revolve. Outside the hub is a second circle,
divided into two equal segments, one black and one white. The white half
represents the good or ethical path leading upwards, to states of happiness.
The black half represents the bad or unethical path leading downwards, to
states of misery. The third circle is divided into six segments representing the
different ‘worlds’ or spheres of existence within which, according to Buddhism,
sentient beings are continuously reborn. These six worlds are those of the gods,
titans, hungry ghosts, hell beings, animals, and humans. The outermost circle
of the wheel, which forms the rim, is divided into twelve segments. These are
the twelve nidanas, or links in the process which is called Dependent
Origination, or Conditioned Co-production. These show in detail the whole
process of birth, life, death, and rebirth.

This is the first great image, the first great symbol. This is what we begin to see
when we have a vision of the nature of existence. We see the whole of
mundane conditioned existence going round like a great wheel – a Wheel of
Life, a Wheel of Death – with ourselves as well as all other sentient beings
caught up in it. We see that the Wheel of Life in fact is us, is sentient,
conditioned existence.

The Buddha
The Buddha is usually depicted seated on a lotus flower or beneath the Bodhi
tree, the ‘Tree of Enlightenment’, with its great spreading branches and its
canopy of beautiful heart-shaped leaves, his body radiating light of various
colours. There are also more elaborate versions of this image. One of the best
known is the mandala of the Five Buddhas, which comes from the more
esoteric teaching. In the centre of this mandala is the White Buddha, with the
Dark Blue Buddha to the east, the Yellow Buddha to the south, the Red Buddha
to the west, and the Green Buddha to the north. There are even more elaborate
versions of the image in the form of a ‘Pure Land’, or ‘Happy Land’ – Sukhavati
– with its presiding Buddha flanked by his attendant Bodhisattvas, its rows of
wonderful jewel-trees, its magical singing birds, and many other marvels.

The Path
The path of spiritual progress – or spiral path – connects the two images we
have already described, that is to say it leads up from the Wheel of Life to the
Buddha, or to the mandala of the Five Buddhas.

These then are the three great images through which Buddhism communicates
its vision of existence. Perfect Vision is a vision, first of all, of our actual present
state of bondage to conditioned existence as represented by the Wheel of Life.
It is also a vision of our potential future state of Enlightenment as represented
by the Buddha, or the mandala of Buddhas, or a Pure Land. Finally it is a
vision of the path or way leading from the one to the other – a vision, if you
like, of the whole future course of evolution.

The Buddhist vision of the nature of existence can also be communicated in

terms of concepts – though perhaps less vividly than through images. Perfect
Vision is thus traditionally explained in terms of seeing and understanding the
truth of certain doctrinal categories, such as the Four Noble Truths, the Three
Characteristics of Conditioned Existence, karma and rebirth, and the Four
Sunyatas. In grappling with these conceptual explanations we should
remember that here we are not concerned with any merely theoretical
understanding. We are trying, with the help of these doctrinal categories, to
obtain a glimpse of the Truth – to achieve some kind of vision of the nature of
existence.

The Four Noble Truths

Perfect Vision is usually explained in the doctrinal manuals as a vision or an
understanding of the Four Noble Truths. These are:
1. The Truth of suffering, unsatisfactoriness, or disharmony, which we see all
around us and also experience within ourselves;
2. The Truth of the cause of suffering, which is selfish craving or ‘thirst’, both
within ourselves and within others;
3. The Truth of the cessation of suffering, the total eradication of suffering
which is synonymous with the state of Enlightenment or Buddhahood; and
4. The Truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering, which is the
Noble Eightfold Path.

It is interesting to note that the first and second Noble Truths, that is to say
suffering and the cause of suffering, together correspond to the image of the
Wheel of Life. Suffering being the effect, and craving the cause, there is here a
cause-effect, action-reaction type of relationship. In other words there is the
same cyclical pattern as represented by the Wheel of Life. The third Noble
Truth, the cessation of suffering, corresponds to the image of the Buddha, or
the mandala of the Five Buddhas. The fourth Noble Truth – the Eightfold Path
– corresponds to the image of the spiral path. We therefore see that the Four
Noble Truths present conceptually what our three images present in visual
terms. Both express the same vision: a vision of the nature of conditioned
existence, of the Unconditioned, and of the path leading from the one to the
other.

The Three Characteristics of Conditioned Existence

The Three Characteristics of Conditioned Existence are that it is suffering, that
it is impermanent, and that it is devoid of true selfhood.

Conditioned Existence is Suffering

According to Buddhism there are three kinds of suffering. First there is actual
suffering, as when you have a toothache or cut your finger. Secondly there is
potential suffering, as when you possess something which is a source of
enjoyment to you: even though it is a source of enjoyment at present,
potentially it is suffering, in that you may – indeed must – have to give it up
one day. Finally there is metaphysical suffering, which arises because nothing
mundane, earthly, or conditioned can give full or final satisfaction to the
human heart and spirit – because true and lasting satisfaction can be found
only in the Unconditioned, in Truth itself. Everything short of that is therefore
in a sense a subtle form of suffering. This means that one will never be truly
happy until one is Enlightened.

Conditioned Existence is Impermanent

As we know only too well, every conditioned thing is impermanent. Every day,
every hour, every minute we are being made aware of the fact that nothing
lasts, nothing stays. Everything flows on. Nothing remains the same even for
two consecutive seconds. We are growing old all the time, and the things
around us are wearing out all the time. There is no stability, no security. We
like to think we have got something for ever, but this ‘for ever’ may be a few
years, or a few days, or a few hours – even a few minutes. This is one very
important aspect of Perfect Vision as applied to mundane things: seeing,
clearly and steadily, that everything is impermanent, everything transient, and
that you cannot hold on to anything for very long.

Conditioned Existence is Devoid of True Selfhood

This is a rather difficult and abstruse aspect of Perfect Vision that needs at least
a whole chapter to itself. All that can be said here is that nowhere in
conditioned existence, or in ourselves as conditioned phenomena, do we find
true being, true individuality, or reality of any sort. If we look at ourselves we
become aware, very often, of how empty, unreal, and hollow we are – that our
thoughts are not real thoughts, our emotions are not real emotions. We do not
feel real, genuine, or authentic within ourselves. In fact we shall not find
genuineness, or authenticity, or true selfhood on the level of the mundane or
the conditioned at all, but only on the level of Unconditioned Reality.
Karma and Rebirth
This doctrinal category, or expression of Perfect Vision in conceptual terms, is
presented very vividly, sometimes almost pictorially, in the Buddhist
scriptures. There it is said of the Buddha and other Enlightened beings that on
the eve of their Enlightenment they saw passing before their eyes a great
panorama of births, deaths, and rebirths, not only of themselves but of other
living beings – in fact, all living beings. Tracing the whole process of karma
from one life to another they saw very clearly how people either suffer or find
happiness as a consequence of their previous actions, and how they are reborn
in accordance with the way in which they lived their past lives.

The doctrinal categories so far mentioned – the Four Noble Truths, the Three
Characteristics of Conditioned Existence, and karma and rebirth – are all
attempts to give conceptual expression to a Perfect Vision of the nature of
existence. They are all doctrinal categories derived from the Hinayana
tradition. But Perfect Vision can also be expressed, more profoundly perhaps,
in terms of the doctrinal categories of the Mahayana. One of the most
important of these is the Four Sunyatas.

The Four Sunyatas

Sunyata literally means voidness or emptiness, but it signifies much more than
either of these words conveys. According to context sunyata can mean ‘real’, or
‘unreal’, or ‘neither real nor unreal’ – so it is quite a bewildering word! Let us
then go through the four kinds of sunyata, bearing in mind that they are not just
figments of the metaphysical imagination, but attempts to communicate in
conceptual terms a vision, or something the Enlightened Ones have actually
seen and experienced.

Samskrta Sunyata – Emptiness of the Conditioned

‘Emptiness of the Conditioned’ means that conditioned, phenomenal, relative
existence is devoid of the characteristics of the Unconditioned, the Absolute,
the Truth. The characteristics of the Unconditioned are first of all happiness,
secondly permanence (not that it persists in time, but that it occupies, as it
were, a dimension within which time itself does not exist), and thirdly true
being, Ultimate Reality.

Conditioned existence is devoid of these characteristics of the Unconditioned. It

is, on the contrary, unsatisfactory, impermanent, and not wholly real. For this
reason the conditioned is said to be empty of the Unconditioned, Samsara
empty of Nirvana. What this means in practical terms is that we should not
expect to find in the flux of relative existence what only the Unconditioned, the
Absolute, can give us.

Asamskrta Sunyata – Emptiness of the Unconditioned

‘Emptiness of the Unconditioned’ means that the Unconditioned is devoid of
the characteristics of the conditioned. In the Unconditioned, in Nirvana, there
is no unhappiness or suffering, no impermanence, and no unreality, which are
characteristics of the conditioned, but only the opposite characteristics in their
fullness. Just as in the conditioned one will not find the Unconditioned, so in
the Unconditioned one will not find the conditioned.

These first two kinds of sunyata are common to all forms of Buddhism. Being
mutually exclusive, they obviously represent a comparatively dualistic
approach, but this is necessary as the working basis of our spiritual life in its
early stages. We have to make this distinction, to think ‘Here is the conditioned
and there the Unconditioned; I want to get from here to there.’ We cannot help
thinking in these terms.

According to the Hinayana tradition, Wisdom – seeing things as they are in

reality – consists in seeing objects and persons in the external world, as well as
all mental phenomena, in terms of what are technically known as dharmas.
Dharma has many meanings. It usually means ‘teaching’ or ‘doctrine’, but here
it means something quite different. According to the Hinayana there is in
reality no such objective existent or thing as, for instance, a house, a tree, or a
man. If we look at these things closely, if we examine and analyse them, they
become, as it were, insubstantial. Ultimately they tend to reduce themselves to
a flux, a flow of irreducible elements which are impersonal, non-substantial,
psychophysical processes. These are known as dharmas.

According to the Mahayana, however, Wisdom consists in reducing the

dharmas themselves to sunyata. [See Prefatory Note] When we see things in
terms of objects and persons, this, the Mahayana would say, is on account of
our gross delusion. And this gross delusion is removed by our learning to see
these objects and persons in terms of dharmas. But the Mahayana goes on to say
that even seeing things in terms of dharmas is not to see them in their ultimate
reality. We see things in terms of dharmas on account of subtle delusion, and
this too must be removed. We remove it by knowing, by seeing, that the
dharmas themselves are sunyata. Wisdom in the Mahayana sense is known as
the Perfection of Wisdom, the Prajna Paramita. The Perfection of Wisdom is
concerned with seeing sunyata everywhere, at all times, under all
circumstances.

Maha Sunyata – the Great Emptiness

The third and fourth kinds of sunyata are peculiar to the Mahayana. In the
Mahayana, ‘maha’, in addition to its more literal meaning of ‘great’, always
means ‘pertaining to sunyata’. The Mahayana is ‘the vehicle of sunyata’.

In the Maha Sunyata or ‘Great Emptiness’ we see that the distinction between
the conditioned and the Unconditioned is not ultimately valid – that it is a
product of dualistic thinking. We may spend ten, fifteen, twenty years of our
spiritual life working on the assumption that the conditioned is the conditioned
and the Unconditioned the Unconditioned. But eventually we have to learn to
see the ‘emptiness’ of the distinction between the two – to see that this
distinction is to be transcended. We have to see – to experience, not just
speculate about, or understand intellectually or theoretically – that rupa and
sunyata, form and voidness, the conditioned and the Unconditioned, ordinary
beings and Buddhas, are of one and the same essence, one and the same
ultimate Reality. This is Maha Sunyata, the Great Emptiness in which all
distinctions and all dualities are obliterated. It is this great void into which
people, even spiritual people, are so afraid of disappearing. They want to cling
to their dualistic ways of thinking – self and others, this and that – but
eventually these must all be swallowed up. This is the Tiger’s Cave which is
remarkable for the fact that many tracks lead to it, but none come out. That is
why one wants to go into it!

Sunyata Sunyata – The Emptiness of Emptiness

‘The Emptiness of Emptiness’ tells us that emptiness itself is only a concept,
only a word, only a sound. In Maha Sunyata one is still hanging on to subtle
thoughts, subtle dualistic experiences. Even this has to be ultimately
abandoned. Then one comes to Sunyata Sunyata, and there is just nothing to be
said. All that is left is silence – but a significant silence, a ‘thunderous silence’.

All these doctrinal categories, whether of the Hinayana or of the Mahayana, try
to give conceptual expression to a vision of the nature of existence. But
important as they are we must not dwell upon them too much, or there is a
danger that we might confuse Perfect Vision with Right Understanding in the
purely theoretical sense. If I have done nothing else I hope I have at least been
able to stress the fact that samyag-drsti is a vision, an insight, a spiritual
experience of the nature of existence, in accordance with which we have to
transform our lives, our being, in every aspect, on every level.

In order to avoid concluding this discussion of Perfect Vision with any sort of
conceptual emphasis, let us finish with a simile. Imagine we want to make a
journey to climb some lofty mountain peak. What do we do? First we study a
map of the terrain, of the surrounding foothills, and of the mountain itself. This
study of the map corresponds to the theoretical study of Buddhist doctrine, to
knowing all about the Madhyamikas, the Yogacarins, the Sarvastivadins, and
so on. But we have actually to start our journey, we have to get going – we
have at least to get to base camp. This corresponds to our preliminary practice
of the Buddha’s teaching. Eventually, after several days, weeks, or months of
travelling, we catch a glimpse of the distant mountain peak which is the object
of our journey. We have come only a little way, and are still far from the foot of
the mountain, but there in the distance we see the shining snow peak. We have
a direct perception – a vision – of it, although from a very great distance.

This glimpse of the peak corresponds to Perfect Vision, and it gives us

inspiration and encouragement to continue our journey. We can go on from
there, keeping our eyes on the peak, never losing sight of it, at least not for
more than a few minutes at a time. We may not care how long the journey,
how many nights we spend on the way, how difficult the terrain, how hot or
cold it is. We may not even care if we are starving, so long as we have our eyes
firmly fixed on the peak. We are happy in the knowledge that we are getting
nearer day by day, and that one day we shall find ourselves at the foot of the
peak. This process of travelling with the peak in view corresponds to traversing
the remaining stages of the Noble Eightfold Path. Eventually we may find
ourselves on the lower slopes of the mountain. We may even find ourselves on
the virgin snows of the peak itself – may find that we have attained
Enlightenment, or Buddhahood.
 2

Perfect Emotion

Reason and Emotion in the Spiritual Life

With the second stage of the Noble Eightfold Path we come to one of the most
important questions, not to say problems, in the whole of the spiritual life. This
is the question of reason and emotion. We all know from our own experience
that it is comparatively easy to understand a religious or philosophical
teaching intellectually or theoretically. Abstruse, complex, and even
intrinsically difficult as it may be, with a little mental exertion and systematic
study we can usually manage to understand it without too much trouble. But
when it comes to putting that teaching into practice, we find this is a much
more difficult matter.

There is an oft-repeated anecdote from Buddhist history which well illustrates

this point. It appears that in ancient times Indian monks used to go from India
to China in large numbers to preach the Doctrine, and that at one period of
Chinese history there was a very pious Chinese emperor who was always
eager to welcome great sages and teachers from India. Now one day it so
happened that one of the greatest of the Indian teachers turned up in the
Chinese capital, and the emperor, as soon as he heard the news, was very
pleased indeed. He thought he would have a wonderful philosophical
discussion with this newly-arrived teacher. So the teacher was invited to the
palace, where he was received with due pomp and ceremony. When all the
formalities were over and the teacher and the emperor had taken their seats,
the emperor put his first question. ‘Tell me,’ he said, ‘what is the fundamental
principle of Buddhism?’ and sat back, waiting to get the answer straight from
the horse’s mouth, as it were. The teacher replied, ‘Ceasing to do evil; learning
to be good; purifying the heart – this is the fundamental principle of
Buddhism.’ The emperor was rather taken aback. He had heard all that before.
(We have usually heard it all before!) So he said, ‘Is that all? Is that the
fundamental principle of Buddhism?’ ‘Yes,’ replied the sage, ‘That’s all. Cease
to do evil; learn to be good; purify the heart. That is indeed the fundamental
principle of Buddhism.’ ‘But this is so simple that even a child of three can
understand it,’ protested the emperor. ‘Yes, your majesty,’ said the teacher,
‘that is quite true. It is so simple that even a child of three can understand it,
but so difficult that even an old man of eighty cannot put it into practice.’

This story illustrates the great difference that exists between understanding
and practice. We find it easy simply to understand. We can understand the
Abhidharma; we can understand the Madhyamaka; we can understand the
Yogacara; we can understand Plato; we can understand Aristotle; we can
understand the Four Gospels; we can understand everything. But to put into
practice even a little of all this knowledge and make it operative in our lives,
this we find very difficult indeed. In the famous words of St Paul, ‘The good
that I would I do not: but the evil which I would not, that I do.’ He knows what
he ought to do but is unable to do it; and that which he knows he should not
do, that he cannot help doing. Again we see this tremendous, this terrible
disparity between understanding and practice.

This state of affairs is not exceptional. It is not just a question of the Chinese
emperor or St Paul. All religious people find themselves at some time or other,
sometimes for years together, in this quite terrible and tragic predicament.
They know the truth rationally, they know it from A to Z and from Z back to A.
They can talk about it, write about it, give lectures about it. But they are unable
to put it into practice. For those who are sincere this can be a source of great
suffering. They may feel, ‘I know this very well, and see it so clearly; but I am
unable to put it into practice, unable to carry it out.’ It is as though there were
some blind spot in themselves, some ‘x-factor’ which was obstructing their
efforts all the time. No sooner do they lift themselves up a few inches than they
slip back what sometimes feels like a mile.

Why does this happen? Why is there this terrible gulf, this terrible chasm,
between our theory and our practice, our understanding and our action? Why
are most of us most of the time unable to act in accordance with what we know
is true, what we know is right? Why do we fail so miserably again and yet
again?

The answer to this question is to be sought in the very depths of human nature.
We may say that we ‘know’ something, but we know it only with the conscious
mind, with the rational part of ourselves. We know it theoretically,
intellectually, abstractly. But we must recollect that man is not just his
conscious mind. He is not all reason – though he may like to think he is. There
is another part of us, a much larger part than we care to admit, which is no less
important than our reason. This part is made up of instinct, of emotion, of
volition, and is more unconscious than conscious. This wider, deeper, and no
less important part of ourselves is not touched at all by our rational or
intellectual knowledge. It goes its own way, as it were, dragging the mental
part, still protesting, along with it.

Thus we see that we cannot go against the emotions. The emotions are stronger
than reason. If we want to put into practice what we know to be right, what we
know to be true, we have to enlist, in one way or another, the co-operation of
the emotions. We have to be able to tap those deeper sources within ourselves
and harness them, also, to our spiritual life, so that we may implement what we
know to be right and true. For most of us the central problem of the spiritual life is to
find emotional equivalents for our intellectual understanding. Until we have done
this no further spiritual progress is possible. This is why Perfect Emotion comes
as the second stage, or second aspect, of the Noble Eightfold Path, immediately
after Perfect Vision.

Samyak-Samkalpa: Perfect Emotion

In Sanskrit the second limb of the Noble Eightfold Path is called Samyak-
samkalpa (Pali samma-sankappa). Samyak-samkalpa could provisionally be
translated as Right Resolve, but this is far from adequate. As we have seen in
connection with the first stage of the Noble Eightfold Path, samyak means
whole, perfect, integral, complete. Translators usually render samkalpa as
thought, intention, purpose, or plan, but none of these is very satisfactory.

Samkalpa, a word which exists in the same form in modern Indian languages,
really means ‘will’. Samyak-samkalpa is not just Right Resolve. It is more like
Perfect Will or Integral Emotion, and it represents the harmonization of the
whole emotional and volitional side of our being with Perfect Vision, our
vision of the true nature of existence.

We have already seen that the Noble Eightfold Path consists of two sections,
the Path of Vision and the Path of Transformation. The Path of Vision
corresponds to the first stage of the Eightfold Path, Perfect Vision, while the
Path of Transformation corresponds to all the other stages. Thus Perfect
Emotion is the first stage of the Path of Transformation, and represents the
transformation of our emotional nature in accordance with Perfect Vision. In a
sense, Perfect Emotion mediates between Perfect Vision and the last six stages
of the Path, because we cannot follow that Path – cannot really practise Perfect
Speech, Perfect Action, and so on – until we have transformed our whole
emotional nature, and in that way derived energy for the remaining stages of
the Path. This is why the problem of reason and emotion is central in the
spiritual life. Putting it simply, there is really no spiritual life until the heart is
also involved. No matter how active the brain is, or how much we have
understood intellectually, until the heart is involved and we begin to feel what
we have understood – until our emotions are engaged – there is no spiritual life,
properly speaking.

Now what is Perfect Emotion? Before entering into this question we must clear
up two possible misunderstandings.

First, we have seen how important it is to involve the emotions in the spiritual
life, but this is not to be understood in a negative sense. It does not mean the
involvement of crude, untransformed emotions with irrational, pseudo-
religious concepts and attitudes. For example, suppose somebody hears that
church halls are being used for dances on Sunday evenings. He gets very hot
under the collar, gets very upset that the Sabbath is being desecrated, that the
church hall is being used for such immoral purposes. In his indignation and
excitement he writes a letter to a newspaper denouncing the immorality of the
younger generation and predicting the downfall of civilization as we know it.
Now you may think that he is really worked up, and that his emotions are
involved in a religious issue of sorts. But this is not Perfect Emotion, because
such feelings are not expressions of Perfect Vision. They are based only on a
bundle of prejudices and rationalizations held in the name of religion. We see
other examples of this kind of feeling and behaviour in those famous
institutions the Inquisition and the Crusades. A great deal of emotion was
involved in these, and some people think of it as religious emotion, but again it
was not Perfect Emotion in the Buddhist sense. Although ostensibly connected
with religion, there was no element of Perfect Vision present. This is the first
kind of misunderstanding to be guarded against.

Secondly, it is not possible to transform one’s emotional nature by strength of

intellectual or rational conviction. We cannot reason or argue ourselves into a
state of Perfect Emotion. Our emotions can be thoroughly transformed only by
Perfect Vision, which is a spiritual insight or spiritual experience.

Perfect Emotion represents the descent of Perfect Vision into our emotional
nature in such a way as to transform it totally. It has a positive aspect and a
negative aspect.

The Negative Aspect of Perfect Emotion

The negative side of Perfect Emotion consists of what we call in Sanskrit
naiskramya (Pali nekkhamma), avyapada (Pali and Sanskrit), and avihimsa (Pali
and Sanskrit): ‘non-desire’, ‘non-hate’, and ‘non-cruelty’.

Naiskramya, or ‘Non-Desire’
Naiskramya means non-desire, renunciation, giving up, or giving away. This is
an extremely important element of Perfect Emotion. As we have seen, Perfect
Emotion follows Perfect Vision – vision into the true nature of things, or into
the nature of existence. One aspect of Perfect Vision is Insight into the
unsatisfactory nature of conditioned existence, or life as we usually live it. This
sort of Insight should by its very nature have some kind of practical result.
Naiskramya or non-desire is that practical result. It represents a decrease of
craving as a result of our vision of the true nature of conditioned things. We see
their inadequacy, and so we become less attached to them, and crave them less.
Our tight grip on worldly things, usually so convulsive, starts to relax.

Since craving is the basic unwholesome mental state, we should examine

ourselves in this respect, and ask ourselves the very pertinent question: ‘Since I
started taking Buddhism seriously, what have I given up?’ If we have
developed a degree of insight, if we are convinced not just intellectually but
spiritually that the things of this world are not fully satisfactory, then our hold
on them should have loosened. Buddhism should make a difference to our
lives. We should not be going along in the same old way as before. If our lives
have not changed it means there has not been even a glimpse of Perfect Vision,
and that our interest so far, although it may be a genuine one, is no more than
intellectual, theoretical, or even academic.

There is no single uniform pattern of renunciation. No one has the right to say
that because another has not given up this or that particular thing they
therefore have no Perfect Vision and are not practising Buddhists. Different
people will give up different things first, but the net result must be the same: to
make life simpler and less cluttered. Most of us have so many things we do not
really need. If here and now you were to take a piece of paper and write down
all the unnecessary things you possess it would probably be a very long list.
But you would probably think a long time before actually giving any of them
away.

Sometimes people think in terms of sacrifice: that with a great painful wrench
you give something up; but it should not be like that. In Buddhism there is
really no such thing as ‘giving up’ in this way. From the Buddhist point of view
what is required is not so much giving up as growing up. It is no sacrifice to the
adolescent to give up the child’s toys. In the same way it should not be a
sacrifice for the spiritually mature person, or for a person who is at least
verging on spiritual maturity, to give up the toys with which people usually
amuse themselves. This is not to suggest that we do this in a dramatic or
violent fashion; not like the gentleman I heard about who climbed up the Eiffel
Tower and threw his television set from the viewing platform. (He was
protesting against the quality of French television programmes, but at least his
action indicated a certain degree of detachment from his television set!) The
point to be made is that if we really have some degree of vision of the true
nature of existence, and have really to some extent seen the inadequacy of
material, worldly things, then our hold on them will be relaxed, and we will be
quite willing and happy to let at least some of them go – to have just one car
perhaps!

Avyapada, or ‘Non-Hate’
Avyapada is the negative form of vyapada, which literally means ‘doing harm’,
therefore ‘hatred’. Hatred, as we know, is closely connected with craving. Very
often we find that hatred or antagonism, in any of its numerous forms, is at
bottom frustrated craving. We see this very clearly in the case of children. If
you do not give a child something that he wants very much, he flies into a rage
or tantrum. Adults do not usually do this. Their reactions are not usually so
simple and uncomplicated, for their cravings are in any case much more
complex. They do not crave simply for material things, but instead for success,
recognition, praise, and affection. When these things are denied, especially
when denied a long time, a mood of frustration sets in. This produces in many
people a deep bitterness, indulgence in constant criticism of others, fault-
finding, nagging, and all sorts of other negative activities. But with the
decrease of craving, and the loosening of our grip on at least some material
things, hatred also decreases, because the possibility of frustration is
progressively reduced. So another question we should ask ourselves is: ‘Since I
started taking a real interest in Buddhism, have I become at least a little better
tempered?’ If even within a Buddhist circle there are little tiffs and
misunderstandings it means that some people, at least, are not putting their
Buddhism into practice: that they have no Perfect Vision, and no Perfect
Emotion.

Avihimsa, or Non-Cruelty
Himsa is violence or harm, and vihimsa – of which avihimsa is the negative form
– is deliberate infliction of pain and suffering. Vihimsa is a very strong word in
Pali and Sanskrit, and is best translated as ‘cruelty’. Its connection with hatred
is obvious, but it is much worse than simple hatred because it generally
connotes a wanton infliction of pain, or a positive pleasure in the infliction of
pain. In the Mahayana form of Buddhism cruelty in this sense is considered the
greatest of all possible sins. Often, of course, especially in the case of children,
cruelty is down to simple thoughtlessness. Children may not realize that other
forms of life suffer. Therefore it is important for those who have dealings with
the young, whether as parents or educators, to try to instil into children a sense
of the fact that living beings are living beings like themselves, and suffer if you
poke your finger in their eye or stick a pin into a sensitive place. Children may
not realize this, and if they see an animal that they have just kicked wriggling
and howling they may simply be amused, not understanding that pain has
been inflicted.

An incident from the life of the Buddha illustrates this point. Once when the
Buddha was going on his almsround he found a gang of boys tormenting a
crow which had broken its wing, in the way that boys are prone to do, and
enjoying the ‘fun’. He stopped and asked them, ‘If you are struck, do you feel
hurt?’ and they said ‘Yes.’ The Buddha then said, ‘Well, when you hit the crow,
the bird also feels hurt. When you yourself know how unpleasant it is to
experience pain, why do you inflict it on another living being?’ A simple
lesson, that a child can understand and act upon, but a lesson that needs to be
learnt at an early age, for if this sort of behaviour is not checked early in life it
can get worse and worse and culminate in quite horrible atrocities.

Hogarth’s engravings of the Four Stages of Cruelty vividly portray this

frightening reality: the first shows young Tom Nero and his friends tormenting
a dog; in the second, now grown up, Tom is flogging a horse to death; in the
third he is caught in the act of murder, while in the fourth his corpse is being
dissected by a band of surgeons after he has been hanged. We should not make
light of the connection between these stages. When we see a child tormenting
an animal we should not think that it does not matter, that the child will grow
out of it. We should be careful to explain to him what he is actually doing, for it
is in this way that the seeds of violence and cruelty are sown. So here is another
question for us to ask ourselves: ‘Since I took up Buddhism, have I become less
cruel?’ Cruelty, let us remember, is not just physical. It can also be verbal.
Many people indulge in harsh, unkind, cutting, sarcastic speech, and this too is
a form of cruelty. It is a form of cruelty in which a Buddhist, or one in whom
Perfect Vision and Perfect Emotion have arisen, should find it impossible to
indulge.

In the same way, it should be impossible for a Buddhist to indulge in blood

sports. You may say you know the Abhidharma very well, but if at the same
time you are engaging in blood sports every Sunday morning people will not
take your knowledge of the Abhidharma very seriously. This is an extreme
case. Most people do not indulge in blood sports nowadays, though some
unfortunately still do, and even try to defend the practice. But from a Buddhist
point of view – from the point of view of Perfect Vision and Perfect Emotion –
blood sports are quite inadmissible, because of the very definite and wanton
cruelty involved.

The question of cruelty brings us to the issue of vegetarianism. Many people

feel that they cannot eat meat or fish because this would make them
accomplices in often deliberate and wanton acts of cruelty. Although there is
no hard or fast rule that if you want to be a Buddhist you must be a vegetarian,
yet a sincere Buddhist – one who is trying to follow the Eightfold Path, and in
whom Perfect Vision has arisen and Perfect Emotion is beginning to stir – will
certainly make some move in this direction. The reason for this is that as one
progresses on the spiritual path one’s feelings become more and more
sensitive, so that eventually things like eating meat just drop away of their own
accord.

The Positive Aspect of Perfect Emotion

The positive side of Perfect Emotion consists of a number of wholesome
emotions, all connected. These include the positive counterparts of
renunciation, non-hatred, and non-cruelty, known in Sanskrit and Pali as dana,
maitri (Pali metta), and karuna, that is to say, giving, love, and compassion. Also
included are mudita or sympathetic joy, upeksa (Pali upekkha) or tranquillity, and
sraddha (Pali saddha), or faith and devotion. Maitri, karuna, mudita, and upeksa
collectively form the brahma viharas or ‘sublime states’.

Dana, or Giving
In a sense dana or giving is the basic Buddhist virtue, without which you can
hardly call yourself a Buddhist. Dana consists not so much in the act of giving
as in the feeling of wanting to give, of wanting to share what you have with
other people. This feeling of wanting to give or share is often the first
manifestation of the spiritual life – the first sign that craving and attachment
have decreased to some extent. Dana is discussed at great length in Buddhist
literature, and many different forms are enumerated.

First, there is the giving of material things, or sharing what you have of the good
things of life: food, clothing, and so on. Some people in the East make it a
practice to try to give something of a material nature every day, be it food to a
beggar, a small sum of money, or just a cup of tea, so that every day something
is given, or something shared, on the material plane.

Secondly there is the giving of time, energy, and thought. Time is a very precious
thing, and if we give some of it to help other people this is also a form of dana,
giving, or generosity.

There is also the giving of knowledge, in the sense of the giving of culture and
education. This has always ranked very highly in Buddhist countries.
Intellectual acquisitions should not be kept to oneself, but should be shared
with all. All should be able to benefit from them. This was particularly
emphasized in Buddhist India, because the Brahmin caste, the priestly caste of
Hinduism, invariably sought to monopolize knowledge and keep other castes
in a state of ignorance and subservience. Buddhism has always stressed that
knowledge, even secular knowledge and secular culture, should not be a
monopoly of any particular caste or class of people, but should be
disseminated amongst the whole community.

Another important kind of giving mentioned in Buddhist literature is the giving

of fearlessness. This might seem a rather strange kind of ‘gift’. You cannot hand
anyone fearlessness on a plate, or wrapped up in a little parcel tied with
ribbon. But you can share your own confidence with other people. You can
create among people a feeling of fearlessness or security by your very presence,
your very attitude. Buddhism attaches great importance to this ability to
reassure people by your mere presence. According to Buddhism this form of
dana is an important contribution to the life of the community.

Yet another form of dana which is mentioned in Buddhist literature is the giving
of life and limb. For the sake of other people, or for the sake of the Dharma, the
Teaching, one should be prepared to sacrifice one’s own limbs, even one’s own
life. Dana, giving or generosity, can go as far as this.

Finally, surpassing even the giving of one’s own life, there is what is called in
Buddhism the giving of the gift of the Dharma: the gift of truth itself; the gift of the
knowledge, or understanding, of the way to Enlightenment, Emancipation,
Buddhahood, or Nirvana. The gift of this sort of knowledge surpasses all other
gifts whatever.

These are just some of the things which one can give, and looking at them we
begin to see how vast and comprehensive the practice of giving can be.
According to Buddhist teaching we should be giving in some way or other, on
some level or other, all the time. In the Buddhist East dana or giving penetrates
and permeates all aspects of social and religious life. If you are going to a
temple, for instance, you don’t go empty handed: you take flowers, candles,
and incense, and offer them there. In the same way if you go to see a friend,
even if the visit is only a casual one, you always take a present. Amongst
Tibetans, for example, this is absolutely de rigueur. A friend would not think of
appearing on your doorstep without a tin of biscuits or some other gift under
his arm. In this way the spirit of giving permeates all aspects of life in many
Buddhist countries. No doubt all this does sometimes become just a custom,
and often there might not be much feeling attached to it. But nonetheless when
you are giving all the time in one form or another it does have some influence
upon the mind – even if you are doing it only because you are expected to. You
get into the habit of giving and sharing, and of thinking a little bit about others,
instead of all the time about yourself.

Maitri, or Love
The Sanskrit word maitri is derived from mitra, which means friend. According
to the Buddhist texts maitri is that love which one feels for a very near and
dear, very intimate, friend, but extended to include all beings. The English
words ‘friend’ and ‘friendship’ nowadays have a rather tepid connotation, and
friendship is regarded as a somewhat feeble emotion. But it is not like that in
the East. There maitri or friendship is seen as a very powerful and positive
emotion, usually defined as an overwhelming desire for the happiness and
well-being of the other person, not just in the material sense, but in the spiritual
sense as well. Buddhist literature and teaching exhort us over and over again to
develop this feeling we have for our very closest friends to include all living
beings. This attitude is summed up in the phrase ‘sabbe satta sukhi hontu’ or
‘may all beings be happy!’ which ideally represents the heartfelt wish of all
Buddhists. If we have this heartfelt feeling – not just the idea of the feeling but
the feeling itself – then we have maitri.

In Buddhism the development of maitri is not just left to chance. Some people
think that either you have got love for others or you haven’t, and that if you
haven’t that’s too bad, because there’s nothing you can do about it. But
Buddhism does not look at it like that. In Buddhism there are definite exercises,
definite practices, for the development of maitri or love – what we call maitri
bhavana (Pali metta bhavana). These are not easy. We do not find it easy to
develop love, but if we persist and succeed the experience is very rewarding.

Karuna ¯ or Compassion
Compassion is of course closely connected with love. Love changes into
compassion when confronted by the suffering of a loved person. If you love
someone and see them suffering your love is at once transformed into an
overwhelming feeling of compassion. According to Buddhism karuna or
compassion is the most spiritual of all the emotions, and it is the emotion that
particularly characterizes all the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Certain
Bodhisattvas, however, especially embody compassion: for instance
Avalokitesvara, ‘the Lord Who Looks Down (in Compassion)’, who among the
Bodhisattvas is the principal ‘incarnation’ or archetype of compassion. There
are many different forms of Avalokitesvara. One of the most interesting is the
eleven-headed and thousand-armed form which, though it may look rather
bizarre to us, from a symbolic point of view is very expressive. The eleven
heads represent the fact that Compassion looks in all eleven directions of space
– that is, in all possible directions – while the thousand arms represent his
ceaseless compassionate activity.

There is an interesting story about how this particular form arose – a story that
is not just ‘mythology’, but based upon the facts of spiritual psychology. Once
upon a time, it is said, Avalokitesvara was contemplating the sorrows of
sentient beings. As he looked out over the world, he saw people suffering in so
many ways: some dying untimely deaths by fire, shipwreck, and execution;
others suffering the pangs of bereavement, loss, illness, hunger, thirst, and
starvation. A tremendous compassion welled up in his heart, becoming so
unbearably intense that his head shivered into pieces. It shivered, in fact, into
eleven pieces, which became eleven heads looking in the eleven directions of
space, and a thousand arms were manifested to help all those beings who were
suffering. Thus this very beautiful conception of the eleven-headed and
thousand-armed Avalokitesvara is an attempt to express the essence of
compassion, to show how the compassionate heart feels for the sorrows and
suffering of the world.

Another very beautiful Bodhisattva figure embodying Compassion, this time in

female form, is Tara, whose name means ‘The Saviouress’ or ‘The Star’. A very
beautiful legend relates how she was born from the tears of Avalokitesvara as
he wept over the sorrows and miseries of the world.

We may think of these legends as being just stories, and the sophisticated may
even smile at them a little. But they are not just stories – not even illustrative
stories. They are of real, deep, symbolic, even archetypal significance, and
represent, embodied in concrete form, the nature of Compassion.

In the Mahayana form of Buddhism, that is to say in the teaching of the ‘Great
Way’, the highest possible importance is attached to Compassion. In one of the
Mahayana sutras, in fact, the Buddha is represented as saying that the
Bodhisattva – the one who aspires to be a Buddha – should not be taught too
many things. If he is taught only Compassion, learns only Compassion, that is
quite enough. No need for him to know about conditioned co-production, or
about the Madhyamaka, or the Yogacara, or the Abhidharma – or even the
Eightfold Path. If the Bodhisattva knows only compassion, has a heart filled
with nothing but compassion, that is enough. In other texts the Buddha says
that if one has only compassion for the sufferings of other living beings, then in
due course all other virtues, all other spiritual qualities and attainments, even
Enlightenment itself, will follow.

This is illustrated by a very moving story from Japan. We are told there was a
young man who was a great wastrel. After running through all his money, and
having a good time, he became thoroughly disgusted with everything,
including himself. In this mood he decided that there was only one thing he
could do, and that was to enter the Zen monastery and become a monk. This
was his last resort. He didn’t really want to become a monk, but there was
nothing else left for him. So along to the Zen monastery he went. Maybe he
knelt outside in the snow for three days, in the way we are told applicants have
to kneel. In any event, the abbot agreed to see him. The abbot was a grim old
soul. He listened to what the young man had to say, himself not saying very
much, but when the young man had told him everything, he said, ‘Hmm, well
… is there anything you are good at?’ The young man thought, and finally said,
‘Yes, I’m not so bad at chess.’ So the abbot called his attendant and told him to
fetch a certain monk.

The monk came. He was an old man, and had been a monk for many years.
Then the abbot said to the attendant, ‘Bring my sword.’ So the sword was
brought and placed before the abbot. The abbot then said to the young man
and the old monk, ‘You two will now play a game of chess. Whoever loses, I
will cut off his head with this sword!’ They looked at him, and they saw that he
meant it. So the young man made his first move. The old monk, who was not a
bad player, made his. The young man made his next move. The old monk
made his. After a little while the young man felt the perspiration pouring down
his back and trickling over his heels. So he concentrated: he put everything he
had into that game, and managed to beat back the old monk’s attack. Then he
drew a great breath of relief, ‘Ah, the game isn’t going too badly!’ But just then,
when he was sure he would win, he looked up, and he saw the face of that old
monk. As I have said, he was an old man, and had been a monk many years –
maybe twenty or thirty, or even forty years. He had undergone much suffering,
had performed many austerities. He had meditated very much. His face was
thin and worn and solemn.

The young man suddenly thought, ‘I have been an absolute wastrel! My life is
no use to anybody. This monk has led such a good life, and now he is going to
have to die.’ So a great wave of compassion came over him. He felt intensely
sorry for the old monk, just sitting there and playing this game in obedience to
the abbot’s command, and now being beaten and soon to have to die. A
tremendous compassion welled up in the young man’s heart, and he thought,
‘I can’t allow this.’ So he deliberately made a false move. The monk made a
move. The young man deliberately made another false move, and it was clear
that he was losing, and was unable to retrieve his position. But suddenly the
abbot upset the board, saying, ‘No one has won, and no one has lost.’ Then to
the young man he said, ‘You have learned two things today: concentration and
compassion. Since you have learned compassion – you’ll do!’

Like the Mahayana sutras, this story teaches that all that is needed is
compassion. The young man had led such a wretched, wasteful life, but since
he was capable of compassion, there was hope for him. He was even ready to
give up his own life rather than let the monk sacrifice his – there was so much
compassion deep down in the heart of this apparently worthless man. The
abbot saw all this. He thought, ‘We’ve got a budding Bodhisattva here,’ and
acted accordingly.

Mudita, or Sympathetic Joy

Mudita, or sympathetic joy, is the happiness we feel in other people’s
happiness. If we see other people happy we should feel happy too; but
unfortunately this is not always the case. A cynic has said that we feel a secret
satisfaction in the misfortunes of our friends. This is often only too true. Next
time someone tells you of a stroke of bad luck they have had, watch your own
reaction. You will usually see, if only for an instant, a little quiver of
satisfaction – after which of course the conventional reaction smothers your
first real reaction. This secret joy in others’ misfortune can be eliminated with
the help of awareness, and also by means of a positive effort to share in other
people’s happiness.

Speaking generally, joy is a characteristically Buddhist emotion. If you are not

happy and joyful, at least on some occasions, you can hardly be a Buddhist. In
the East – and some people might find this rather strange – there is no
association of religion with gloom. In England, in the past at least, there was
certainly a tendency to associate religion with gloom. People thought that the
more serious and solemn and sad you looked, the more religious you were. If
you went around happy and joyful, especially on the Sabbath, you were clearly
an irreligious, impious, pagan sort of person. This may be an exaggeration, but
it is said that in the old days in Scotland you could be prosecuted for laughing
on the Sabbath.

As Buddhism developed in the West, there was a tendency to be rather too

serious – even at festivals such as the Wesak celebration, the celebration of the
Buddha’s Enlightenment. Some years ago, at a Wesak festival I attended,
people looked as if they had come to a funeral! A few jokes and humorous
references seemed to astonish the audience. Some did venture to smile and
even to laugh, but it was clear that they were not accustomed to that sort of
thing. In my talk I even went so far as to say, ‘This is very strange! I have
celebrated Wesak all over the Buddhist world, in Ceylon, Singapore,
Kalimpong, and Bombay, with Tibetans, Sikkimese, Sinhalese, Burmese,
Chinese, Japanese, and Thais, and have always found them happy on Wesak
day. But here everyone seems so sad, as though they were not happy that the
Buddha had gained Enlightenment!’ This was in 1965, and things have
certainly altered for the better since then.

Upeksa, or Tranquillity
Upeksa means tranquillity or, more simply, peace. We usually think of peace as
something negative, as the absence of noise or disturbance, as when we say, ‘I
wish they would leave me in peace.’ But really peace is a very positive thing. It
is no less positive than love, compassion, or joy – indeed it is even more so,
according to Buddhist tradition. Upeksa is not simply the absence of something
else, but a quality and a state in its own right. It is a positive, vibrant state
which is much nearer to the state of bliss than it is to our usual conception of
peace. Peace in this sense is also an important aspect of Perfect Emotion.

Sraddha, or Faith and Devotion

Sraddha is usually translated as faith, but it is not faith in the sense of belief.
Rather it is the emotional aspect of our total response to the truth, especially
the truth as embodied in certain symbols. In Buddhism faith and devotion are
directed especially towards the Three Jewels, or three most precious things:
The Buddha, the Enlightened teacher; the Dharma, or the teaching of the way
to Enlightenment; and the Sangha, the community of disciples treading the
way to Enlightenment. These Three Jewels have their appropriate symbols. The
Buddha is symbolized by the Buddha image, the Dharma or teaching by the
scriptures, and the Sangha by the members of the monastic order. Throughout
the Buddhist East, in all Buddhist countries, these three symbols – the image,
the scriptures, and the monks – are treated with great reverence, not on their
own account, but because of what they represent and symbolize.

The Sevenfold Puja

We have already seen that in Buddhism there are practices for developing
maitri, or love. In the same way in Buddhism, as in other religions, there are
practices for developing faith and devotion. One such practice is called the
Sevenfold Puja. As its name suggests, this consists of seven parts, representing a
sequence of devotional moods and attitudes, accompanied where necessary
with appropriate ritual actions.

The first stage of the Sevenfold Puja is puja, or worship. This consists in the
making of offerings. In the simplest form of puja the offerings consist simply of
flowers, lights – whether lighted candles or lamps – and burning incense-sticks.
There are also what are known as the seven ordinary offerings, consisting of
water for drinking, water for washing the feet, flowers, incense, light, perfume,
food, and sometimes an eighth offering, music. These are, incidentally, the
ancient Indian offerings to the honoured guest.

Even today in India, if you visit anyone’s house as an honoured guest they will
at once give you a glass of water to drink, because it is very hot in India and
you are likely to be thirsty. You will then be given water for washing the feet,
and often your hosts will wash your feet themselves, especially if you are a
monk, because you have come over the dusty roads of India and your feet are
dusty. After that you are presented with a garland of flowers, and your hosts
will light incense-sticks to create a pleasant atmosphere and keep away flies
and mosquitoes. If it is evening they will light a lamp. They will then offer
perfume for the body, and, of course, something to eat. After the meal there
will sometimes be a little music.

This is the way in which the honoured guest is entertained in India, and it was
the seven or eight offerings to the honoured guest which became, in Buddhism,
the seven or eight religious offerings. These offerings are made to the Buddha
because he comes into the world as a guest, as it were, from a higher plane of
existence. He represents the irruption into this mundane world of something
transcendental, so he is treated and honoured as a guest. Sometimes the seven
or eight offerings are offered in kind, in which case you have actual water,
flowers, incense, light, perfume, and food set out on the ‘steps’ of the shrine;
but more often, especially among Tibetans, there are seven bowls of water
instead.

The second stage of the Sevenfold Puja is vandana, which means obeisance or
salutation. This consists of paying respect with the body. Some people take the
view that it is enough to feel respect and reverence for the Buddha. This may be
true, but if you feel these emotions strongly enough you will want to express
them externally. If you like someone you do not want to keep your feeling all
in the mind. You express it externally, because you are a totality – not just
mind, but speech and body too. Thus if you feel true veneration for the Buddha
you will not want to keep it just in the mind: you will express it spontaneously
with your body, in terms of physical action.

There are many different forms of vandana or obeisance, from simply joining
the hands in salutation, as when we chant the Sevenfold Puja, to making a full
prostration on the floor, which is done on ceremonial occasions. But whether
we put the hands together, or just put the fingertips together, or even go down
on the floor full length, all these forms of obeisance represent a humble and
receptive attitude on our part. They express our openness to the spiritual
inspiration coming from the Buddha.

The third stage of the Sevenfold Puja is Going for Refuge to the Buddha, the
Dharma, and the Sangha. This represents a commitment to the Buddha as our
spiritual ideal, to the Dharma as the way to realize that ideal, and to the Sangha
as the community of those in whose company we work towards that ideal.
Going for Refuge marks a turning point in our spiritual life. It represents a total
reorientation of our whole life in the direction of the ideal. Formal ‘taking’ of
the refuges consists in repeating the formula of refuge, plus certain silas, or
ethical precepts. This is, formally speaking, what makes one a Buddhist.

The Going for Refuge section of the Sevenfold Puja is followed by the
Confession of Faults. Confession is of great importance in all forms of Buddhism,
though its significance is psychological rather than theological. Many people
suffer from repressed feelings of guilt, leading very often to self- hatred. They
cannot develop maitri or love, at least not in its fullness. Buddhist monks, if
conscious of any fault or shortcoming, confess among themselves, especially to
their own teachers, or to the Buddha. It is also the custom, if you are conscious
of any fault or shortcoming in yourself, to burn incense in front of the image of
the Buddha and recite sutras, and to go on doing this until you feel free from
the sense of guilt. Although this is very important psychologically these
practices do not absolve you from the consequences of the fault that has been
committed. You still have to suffer the consequences of your actions, but you
are free, subjectively, from the feeling of remorse or guilt. This is very
important, because such feelings can poison or vitiate our whole spiritual life.

The fifth stage of the Sevenfold Puja is Rejoicing in Merit. This is

complementary to the previous practice. If you think about your faults and
contemplate your numerous backslidings too much or too often you may
become a bit disheartened. So after confessing your faults you should inspire
yourself by recollecting the virtues of others, thinking especially of the
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, of the lives they have led, and the perfections they
have practised. Think, say, of the inspiring example of Milarepa, or Han Shan,
or Hui Neng, or Hakuin. Or think of the various secular heroes and heroines
who have lived for the benefit of others, and whose lives are an inspiration to
us: people like Florence Nightingale and Elizabeth Fry, great humanitarians,
great social reformers. Think, even, of the virtues of ordinary people: think of
your own friends, how well they sometimes act, how unselfish they are on
occasion, how kind. Dwell on this more positive side of their natures, and in
this way learn to appreciate – to rejoice in – the merits of all other living beings,
from the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas right down to the ordinary people who
happen to be your friends and neighbours. This will give you a feeling of
exhilaration, even of support. You will realize that you are not alone in the
world, spiritually speaking, but are treading the same path that others trod,
and are treading, successfully. On account of this realization you will feel
buoyed up in your own spiritual life and spiritual endeavour.

The sixth stage, Entreaty and Supplication, is based on a legendary episode in the
Buddha’s life. According to the legend, after the Buddha’s Enlightenment a
certain deity, Brahma Sahampati by name, appeared before him and requested
him to make known the truth he had discovered, out of compassion for all
living beings. We must understand the true significance of this story. It is not
that the Buddha needed to be reminded of what he had to do. He did not need
Brahma Sahampati to come and advise him that he ought to teach. What this
episode and this part of the Puja signifies is that the disciple must be ready: the
disciple must really want the teaching and must entreat, as it were, the teacher,
the Buddha, to give the teaching. ‘When the disciple is ready the master will
appear.’ This part of the Puja, then, represents that readiness and willingness to
receive the teaching.

The seventh and last stage of the Sevenfold Puja is Transference of Merit and Self-
Surrender. This consists in wishing that whatever merit, whatever benefit, you
might have gained from celebrating this Puja, or from performing any other
religious act – whether observing the precepts, Going for Refuge, studying
Buddhist philosophy, or practising meditation – can be shared with all other
living beings. You are not concerned just with your own salvation. You have
not got your eye on Nirvana for your own sake only. You want to gather up the
whole of humanity, indeed all living beings, and help them as well as yourself
– contribute to their evolution in the direction of the goal of Nirvana. There is
no room for religious individualism in the spiritual life. When you practise any
religious exercise you should feel that all other living beings are practising with
you.

In the Mahayana there is a way of deliberately developing this attitude. When

performing a religious exercise you visualize everybody else as doing it with
you and sharing in its benefits. If you sit and meditate, think of everybody else
meditating. When you chant the Buddha’s praises, think of everybody else
chanting. When you recite a mantra, think of everybody else reciting. In this
way you develop the feeling of sharing whatever benefits you derive from
your spiritual practice with other people. This feeling paves the way for taking
what we call the Bodhisattva Vow: the vow that one will gain Enlightenment
not for one’s own sake only, but for the sake of all living beings whatsoever;
that one will carry them with one, so that all gain Enlightenment, all enter
Nirvana, all achieve Supreme Buddhahood.

This is the Sevenfold Puja: a very beautiful sequence of devotional moods to

which we give expression in appropriate words and actions.

Most of the positive emotions referred to here are what are called social
emotions. They are emotions which refer to other people, and which arise in
the course of our various relationships with others. We do not feel these
emotions alone. They spring up between us and other people. They spring up
within the group. The positive emotions – love, compassion, joy, and so on –
are much more easily cultivated in the group, where people at least sometimes
have friendly and happy faces. If we just sit at home trying to be loving and
compassionate and joyous, it will not be so easy. This is why we have a
spiritual community, a sangha, an order – because it makes the transformation
of our emotional nature so much easier to achieve. Unless we transform our
emotional nature there is for us no spiritual life. This is why it is so important
that in the group, in the community, in the sangha, we cultivate all the time the
right spirit. A spiritual community, we may say, is not really a spiritual
community unless people are actually developing within it, and finding it
easier to develop, the positive emotions of love, compassion, generosity, peace,
faith, and devotion. It is for the sake of the development of such emotions, and
the transformation of our emotional nature, that we have a spiritual
community. If the spiritual community does not function in this way, then it is
better not to have a group or community at all.
 3

Perfect Speech

The Ideal of Human Communication

We have seen that Perfect Vision – with the arising of which entry upon the
Eightfold Path takes place – is not just an intellectual understanding of
Buddhism, however clear and profound, but something much more than that.
It consists in an actual insight into the true or ultimate nature of existence itself,
and it is of the character of a spiritual experience. This experience may be
momentary. It may come and go in a flash. But it is something much more real,
much more direct, more intimate, more personal, more true, than any
intellectual understanding. Perfect Vision is a glimpse – an experience – of
ultimate reality, however brief, momentary, or evanescent this may be.

But a glimpse is not enough. It is not enough that a vision should arise and
transfigure us for a moment. It has to descend into every aspect of our lives. It
has to penetrate into every limb. It has not only to transfigure, but to transform,
our entire being – at every level, in every aspect.

(This is, incidentally, the significance of what we call mudra in Buddhism. A

mudra is a gesture made with the hand, or a certain position taken by the
fingers. Often we speak in terms of samadhi, mantra, and mudra. Here samadhi
represents the inner spiritual realization, mantra the expression of that
realization in terms of speech, while mudra is the expression of that same
realization to the very tips of one’s fingers – to the outermost ramifications of
one’s being – in terms of gesture. Mudra is sometimes translated as ‘magic
gesture’, just as mandala is sometimes translated as ‘magic circle’, but it is not
anything magical at all. On the contrary, it is something spiritual, even
transcendental.)

Our spiritual realization is not to be confined to the heights. It has to descend

into the depths of our being and transform every aspect and department of our
lives. When this happens, and our lives are transformed in every aspect, and at
every level, in accordance with Perfect Vision – in accordance with our insight
into, and experience of, the Truth – then comes what we call Enlightenment.

We have seen that Perfect Emotion, the second stage or aspect of the Path,
represents the descent of Perfect Vision into our emotional life. It represents the
transformation or sublimation of our crude, unrefined emotional energies into
something much more delicate, much more rarefied – something, if we may
use the term, much more spiritual.

Now we come to the third aspect of the Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path, which
is Right Speech – samyag-vaca in Sanskrit. In this case the translation presents
no problems. Here there is no ambiguity, no nuance to be rendered with some
difficulty into English. Vaca means simply speech or utterance in a quite literal
sense, while samyag (or samyak), as in the case of the other stages of the Path,
means not just right as opposed to wrong – the usual translation – but that
which is whole, complete, integral, fully developed, perfect. We shall therefore
speak of samyag-vaca in English not just as Right Speech, but as Perfect Speech.
This is what it really means.

It is very significant that Perfect Speech is regarded as an independent stage or

aspect of the Eightfold Path. One might have thought that speech was not so
important, and that being a sort of action it could be included under Perfect
Action, the next limb of the Eightfold Path. But that is not the case. In the
Buddha’s teaching as represented by the Eightfold Path, Perfect Speech gets a
whole stage to itself. This indicates the very great importance Buddhism gives
to speech in general, and especially to Perfect Speech. Not only is Perfect
Speech the third aspect of the Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path, but abstention
from its opposite – false or imperfect speech – constitutes the fourth of the five
precepts every lay Buddhist is expected to observe.

Speech or verbal communication is something in which we have to engage all

the time. You may take up meditation or not, as you wish; but when it comes to
speech you have hardly any choice. Whether you like it or not you have to
speak, you have to talk, you have to communicate. You cannot always be silent,
even if you want to; and in any case most of us do not want to be silent – not
very much of the time anyway. It is therefore inevitable that some
consideration should be given to the question of speech in any systematic
programme of spiritual training and culture. Speech has to be brought under
the influence, even under the control, of the spiritual life. Hence it must be
considered and given a place.

In the West, man is usually regarded as consisting of body and mind,

sometimes of body, soul, and spirit; but in Buddhism there is a threefold
division of man into body, speech, and mind. It is one of those little things that
are so ordinary we pass them over, but its significance is great. It means that in
Buddhism speech is given the same importance as mind, the same importance
as body. Body, speech, and mind are a sort of co-equal trinity.

If we think about it, it is speech which distinguishes man from the beasts. We
know that birds utter cries, some monkeys have a kind of primitive speech, and
apparently dolphins can communicate. But speech in the full distinctive sense
seems to be the prerogative of human beings; perhaps also of angels, but we
have knowledge only of human beings. This speech is something special,
something extraordinary, something which really does distinguish us from
other forms of life. If we reflect we shall see that a great part of our culture
depends, directly or indirectly, on speech. Through speech the parent and the
teacher educate the child. Through books, which are, as it were, frozen,
crystallized speech, we get information, we get knowledge; we may even get
Enlightenment.

All our culture, all knowledge, even our spiritual insight, is to a great extent
derived directly or indirectly from the word – from speech, from utterance. It is
therefore natural, even inevitable, that in the moral and spiritual life we should
give as much consideration to speech as we do to thought and action.

There are three great phases in the historical development of Buddhism: the
Hinayana, the Mahayana, and the Vajrayana. In the Vajrayana – the
Adamantine Path or Way – body, speech, and mind are associated respectively
with three psychic centres, as we may call them (without attaching too much
importance to the word psychic). The body is associated with the head centre,
speech with the throat centre, and mind with the heart centre. This is why
when we salute the Buddha image, or our teacher, we often do this by joining
our hands, and with them touching our head, throat, and chest in succession: to
signify that we salute with body, speech, and mind, with our whole being,
completely, fully, without holding anything back.

There are many other correlations of body, speech, and mind – for instance
with the three kayas, or ‘personalities’ of the Buddha – but this is not the place
to go into them. At the moment we are concerned with just one point: that the
throat centre, representing speech, lies between the head and the heart centres.
The head, or head centre, represents not only body but also, in another set of
correlations, the intellect or understanding; while the heart, or heart centre,
represents the feelings and emotions. That speech, at the throat centre, lies in
between, means that speech shares the nature of both. Speech gives expression
both to the head and the heart. With speech we communicate both our
thoughts and our emotions. As with ordinary speech, so also with Perfect
Speech. Perfect Speech simultaneously represents or manifests Perfect Vision –
which corresponds to intellectual understanding without being identical with it
– and Perfect Emotion, which corresponds on its own plane to our emotional
life. Very briefly and simply, through Perfect Speech we give expression both
to wisdom and to love and compassion. In broad terms Perfect Speech
represents the transformation of the speech principle, or principle of
communication, by Perfect Vision and Perfect Emotion.

In Buddhist texts Perfect Speech is usually described as speech which is

truthful, which is affectionate, which is helpful, and which promotes concord,
harmony, and unity. Similarly wrong or imperfect speech is described in
precisely opposite terms, as speech which is untruthful, harsh, harmful, and
which promotes discord, disharmony, and disunity.
Most Buddhist expositions of Perfect Speech (or Right Speech, as it is usually
termed), especially the modern ones, are rather superficial and moralistic. They
remain on the purely ethical level, and usually no attempt is made to penetrate
or explore the psychological and spiritual depths of Perfect Speech. In fact we
may say that this is true of some people’s approach to the whole teaching of the
Buddha, and especially to the teaching of the Noble Eightfold Path. People are
sometimes misled by the apparent simplicity of the Buddha’s teaching, so that
even when expounding it, or professing to expound it, they tend to dismiss it
as something rather trite and ordinary. They do not try to penetrate below the
surface and see what the Buddha was really getting at.

With regard to Perfect Speech, it is usually thought that truthfulness,

affectionateness, helpfulness, and the promotion of concord, harmony, and
unity, are four separate qualities or attributes of Perfect Speech, as though on
the one hand we have Perfect Speech, and on the other these four attributes
which are, as it were, stuck to it. But if we go a little more deeply and examine
this aspect of the Eightfold Path more carefully, we shall discover that these
four so-called qualities of Perfect Speech really represent four different levels of
speech, each one deeper than the one preceding. We may even speak, in this
connection, of four progressive levels of communication.

In the light of these considerations we are going to examine each of these four
levels of Perfect Speech. This will give us at least a glimpse, at least some idea,
not just of Right Speech, or even Perfect Speech, but of the ideal of human
communication – what human communication should be or could be,
according to the teaching of the Buddha. We shall perhaps see how far short
we usually fall of this Perfect Speech, this ideal communication. We
communicate, we talk, all the time. But practically all the time, if not always,
we fall short of this ideal. Let us try to see what, according to the Buddha’s
teaching, this Perfect Speech or ideal of human communication really is.

The Level of Truthfulness

First of all Perfect Speech, or ideal communication, is truthful. We all think we
know exactly what is meant when it is said that all speech should be truthful.
We have been told since we were two years old not to tell a lie, like George
Washington. But do we really know what is meant by speaking the truth?
Have we considered all the implications? Speaking the truth does not mean just
adhering to factual accuracy, saying that this cloth is yellow and that that is a
microphone. The concept of truthfulness is not exhausted in this way. Factual
accuracy is of course important. It is one of the elements of truthfulness, and
we cannot dismiss it. But it is not the whole.

Dr Johnson, the eighteenth-century writer and lexicographer, is reported to

have said that if your children say that something happened at one window,
when in fact it happened at another, then they should be instantly checked,
because once it begins you do not know where deviation from the truth will
end. Thus factual truthfulness is important. It is the basis or foundation of
Perfect Speech. Recognizing this, we should accustom ourselves to what
Johnson calls ‘accuracy of narration’, which is a sort of training ground for us
in the higher, more refined kinds of truthfulness. Usually we are shaky and
shoddy even on this level. Few people really practise accuracy of narration. We
usually like to make things a little bit different. We like to pad out, we like to
exaggerate, or to minimize, or to embroider. It may just be a poetic streak in us
which makes us do this, but we do it even in the best of circles, even at the best
of times.

In this connection I once attended a little Wesak celebration at a certain

Buddhist centre in India. There were seventy or eighty people present, but the
write-up in a Buddhist magazine spoke of a ‘mammoth meeting’ attended by
thousands of people. The writer might have thought he was propagating the
Dharma and stirring up faith and enthusiasm in this way, but really he was
detracting from what he was supposed to be doing. He was not being truthful
in the sense of being factually accurate.

We all tend to twist, or distort, or at least slightly bend facts, in the direction in
which we would like them to go, so we have to be extremely careful here. If we
say for instance that it was a lovely day, it must have been a lovely day. We
must neither exaggerate nor minimize. If we say that there were ten people at
the meeting, let us be sure that there were ten. If there were a thousand, let us
say that there were a thousand. But if there were only fifty, let us not make it
one-hundred-and-fifty. Or in the case of somebody else’s meeting, if there were
a thousand, let us not make it one-hundred-and-fifty! Thus we must pay strict
attention to factual accuracy, though it must again be emphasized that
truthfulness in the real sense, in the deepest, the fullest, the most spiritual
sense, is something very much more than mere factual accuracy, important as
this is.

Truthfulness is also psychological, also spiritual. Besides factual accuracy

speaking the truth also involves an attitude of honesty and sincerity. It involves
saying what we really think. You are not speaking the truth unless you speak
the whole truth and say what is really in your heart and mind – say what you
really think, even what you really feel. If you do not do that you are not being
truthful, you are not really communicating.

But then another question arises: do we really even know what we think? Do
we really know what we feel? Most of us live or exist in a state of chronic
mental confusion, bewilderment, chaos, disorder. We may repeat, as the
occasion arises, what we have heard, what we have read. We may regurgitate it
when we are required to do so, whether at the time of examinations in the case
of students, or on social occasions in the case of other people. But we do all this
without really knowing what we say. How can we, therefore, really speak the
truth? Since we do not really know what we think, how can we be truthful?
If we want to speak the truth in the full sense, or at least in a fuller sense than is
usually understood, we must clarify our ideas. We must introduce some sort of
order into this intellectual chaos of ours. We must know quite clearly, quite
definitely, what we think, what we do not think, what we feel, what we do not
feel. And we must be intensely aware. We must know what is within us, what
are our motivations, what are our drives and our ideals. This means that we
have to be completely honest with ourselves. It means that we have to know
ourselves. If we do not know ourselves, in the depths as well as on the heights,
if we cannot penetrate into the depths of our own being and be really
transparent to ourselves, if there is not any clarity or illumination within – then
we cannot speak the truth.

This is something we all have to realize. If we do realize it we shall see that

speaking the truth is no easy matter. We might even go so far as to say – and I
do not think this is an exaggeration – that most of us, most of the time, do not
speak the truth. If we wanted to put it forcefully, not to say paradoxically, we
might even say that most of us, nearly all the time, speak what is in fact a lie,
and that our communication is in fact most of the time a lie, because we are not
capable of speaking anything else. We are incapable of speaking the truth in
the fullest sense. If we reflect we might have to admit that most of us go
through life, year after year, from childhood or at least adolescence into old
age, without perhaps being able even once to speak the truth in the fullest and
clearest sense of that much abused term.

We do know that if ever we are in a position to speak the truth, then it is a

great relief to be able to do so. Often we do not realize how many lies we have
been telling until we have an opportunity, once in a while perhaps, of speaking
the truth. We all know that if something has been weighing on our mind or on
our heart, something about which we were very worried or concerned, if we
can only speak out – or tell somebody the truth of the matter, without holding
back – then it is a great relief. Unfortunately for most people this is something
that happens very rarely in their lives, if indeed at all.

Speaking the truth really means being ourselves. Not in the conventional,
social sense, as when we are said to ‘be ourselves’ at a party, which usually
means not being ourselves at all, but in the sense of giving expression in terms
of speech to what we really and truly are and know we are. Speaking the truth,
however, even in this more rarefied, fuller, deeper, and more spiritual sense, is
not done in a vacuum. You do not just go to the top of the highest building and
speak the truth to the stars. The truth is always spoken to someone – another
person, another human being. This brings us to the second level of Perfect
Speech, or the second stage of communication.

The Level of Affectionateness

Perfect Speech is not only truthful, even in the fullest sense; it is also
affectionate and loving. It is the truth spoken in or with love. This does not
mean just using terms of endearment, or anything of that sort. Speaking with
affection or love in this context means speaking the truth in its fullness, with
complete awareness of the person to whom you are speaking. How many of us
can do this? If we think about it we will realize that when we speak to people
we do not usually look at them. Have you ever noticed this? It is probably true
in your case, and in the case of people who speak to you. When they speak to
you, or when you speak to them, you do not look at them. You look over their
shoulder, you look at their forehead, up at the ceiling, down at the ground –
anywhere, almost, except at the person to whom you are speaking. If you do
not look at others (and this is one of the things we try to correct in our
communication exercises, as some of you will know to your cost!) you cannot
be aware of them.

We can say that love, in the sense in which we are using the term at present,
means awareness of the being of another person. If, then, you do not know the
other person, how can you speak affectionately to them? It just is not possible.
We like to think, of course, that we have love for people, that we are
affectionate, but this is very rarely so. We usually see other people in terms of
our own emotional reactions to them. We react emotionally to them in a certain
way, and then we attribute that emotional reaction to them as a quality of them.
If, for instance, people do what we would like them to do, then we say that
they are good, kind, helpful, and so on. Thus we are not really communicating
with that particular person. What really happens, most of the time, is that we
are communicating, or trying to communicate, or pretending to communicate,
with our own mental projections.

This is especially so in the case of those who are – allegedly – near and dear to
us. Parents and children, brothers and sisters, husbands and wives, very rarely
know one another. They might have lived together for twenty, or thirty, or
forty years, but they do not know one another. They know their own reactions
to one another, and those reactions they attribute to the other person. They
think, therefore, that they know them; but they do not really know them at all.
They know only their own projected mental and emotional states.

This is a sobering thought. There used to be a saying, ‘It is a wise father that
knows his own child.’ Well, it is a wise child that knows his own father; it is a
wise wife that knows her own husband; it is a very wise husband that knows
his own wife: because the more you live with people, especially those to whom
you are related by blood or by strong emotional ties, the less, in the real
spiritual sense, you know them. After all, to the baby, what is mother? Mother
is just a wonderful sensation of warmth and comfort, security and well-being:
that is what mother is. The child does not know mother as a person. The same
is true with other relations. And it usually remains like that for most of our
lives, with a bit of refinement and rationalization here and there. This is true
for most of us, most of the time.
This is why there is so much misunderstanding between people, so much
failure to communicate, so many disappointments, especially in the more
intimate relationships of life. People are at cross purposes because one person
does not know another and therefore cannot love another. There is just pseudo-
communication between projections, and nothing more. This may sound
drastic and perhaps rather horrifying, but it is true, and it is best and most
salutary if we face up to the truth about ourselves and other people as quickly
as possible, and realize that, in most cases, our so-called relationships are just a
maze of such mutual projections, with no mutual knowledge and
understanding at all – not to speak of mutual love.

But if there is such a thing as mutual awareness and mutual love, and if we are
able to speak the truth to another person, being aware of that other person –
which means, of course, loving that other person, love being awareness of their
being – we shall also know what they need. If we really know the other person
we shall know what they need – as distinct from what we think they ought to
have because it would be good for us if they had it, which is what most people
mean by ‘knowing what is good for others’. Knowing what people need means
knowing what is good for them quite objectively, without reference to
ourselves. We will then know what has to be provided, what given, how they
have to be helped, and so on. This brings us to the third level of Perfect Speech,
or the third stage of communication.

The Level of Helpfulness

According to the Buddha we should speak that which is useful, in the sense of
speaking in such a way as to promote the growth, especially the spiritual
growth, of the person to whom we are speaking. This need not involve
anything as formal as specifically religious instruction, although this too is very
useful. Broadly speaking this aspect of Perfect Speech – speaking that which is
useful – consists in speaking in such a way that the person or persons to whom
we are speaking are raised in the scale of being and consciousness, and not
lowered. At least we can be positive and appreciative. Most people are so
negative. You tell them about something good, something happy, and they
either pull a long face, or depreciate it, or try to undermine you. In the end you
may feel quite guilty about having enjoyed that particular thing, or having
liked and appreciated it. So we must at least be positive and appreciative,
realizing that when we have this kind of attitude the other person is helped to
grow – not when we are negative, critical, or destructive. Constructive
criticism, based on emotional positivity and genuine concern for the other
person, is not of course excluded. Such criticism – which may be mutual –
promotes spiritual growth. It is therefore useful in the best sense of the term,
and to be included under Perfect Speech.

There is a beautiful story which illustrates this point, taken from one of the
apocryphal gospels. (In the early days of Christianity, there were not just the
four gospels found in the Bible, but scores, even hundreds, of gospels. Some of
these have come down to us, and contain sayings and anecdotes not found in
the Bible.) According to this story, Jesus was walking along the road with his
disciples, somewhere in Galilee, when they came upon a dead dog. We do not
usually see dead dogs in the streets of European cities, but in the East it is a
common sight even now, and as those of you who have read Baudelaire’s
famous poem will realize, a dead dog is not a pretty sight. That particular dog
must have lain there for several weeks, for when they came upon it the
disciples reacted with expressions of disgust and horror. Jesus, however,
smiled and said, ‘What beautiful teeth!’ He saw what was beautiful even in a
dead dog.

This is the sort of attitude which this level of Perfect Speech requires. We
should see the good, the bright, the positive side of things – not fasten our
attention on the negative. We should not be over-critical or destructive. There
is a time of course for criticism, even destructive criticism: that is a legitimate
activity. But most of us take to it far too readily and easily, to the neglect of the
more positive side. Even if we are not in a position to give specifically spiritual
instruction, or to enlighten people – and very few of us can do that in any way,
or to any extent – we can at least be helpful. We can at least be positive, and
appreciative of whatever good we see growing in, or emerging from, that other
person. In any case even if we do on occasion give some sort of instruction, this
will only be effective if given in a helpful, positive, and constructive spirit.

Now if we communicate in the way we have described: if we speak the truth,

the whole truth, and nothing but the truth; if we speak with love, that is with
awareness of the other person’s being; if we speak in such a way as to promote
the other’s growth, to have a healthy, positive effect on them; if we are more
concerned about their needs than about our own; if we are not projecting our
own emotional states, or using or exploiting them; then the result will be that in
speaking to, or communicating with, another person we will forget all about
ourselves. This brings us to the fourth and highest level of Perfect Speech, or
the fourth and final stage of communication.

The Level of Promoting Concord, Harmony, and Unity

As well as all the qualities we have already described, Perfect Speech is speech
that promotes concord, harmony, and unity. This does not just mean verbal
agreement. It does not mean saying yes all the time. It does not even mean
sharing the same ideas – it is not a matter of ‘You believe in Buddhism, I
believe in Buddhism.’ That is not what is meant here. ‘Speech that promotes
concord, harmony, and unity’ really means mutual helpfulness, based on
truthfulness and awareness of each other’s being and each other’s needs,
leading to mutual self-transcendence. This mutual self-transcendence is Perfect
Speech par excellence. It is not only Perfect Speech, but also the perfection of
communication. When this sort of concord, harmony, and unity, this sort of
understanding, is complete, is perfect, nothing more need be said. Even on the
ordinary level, when you get to know someone for the first time, for a while
you do a lot of talking, exchange ideas, get to know each other, but the more
you get to know each other, in a sense the less there is to say. When Perfect
Speech culminates in harmony, oneness, and mutual self-transcendence, it also
culminates in silence.

What the Buddha calls Perfect Speech represents the principle of

communication in its highest form, but we should not therefore think that
speech, even Perfect Speech, is the only vehicle of communication. The
Vajrayana form of Buddhism distinguishes three levels of transmission of the
Buddha’s teaching. The first, or lowest, is verbal. On this level the teaching –
the spiritual experience – is transmitted by means of the spoken or written
word. The next level is transmission through signs or symbols, as in the Zen
story of the Buddha holding up a golden flower. This was a sign. It had a
meaning that only Mahakasyapa understood; and through this sign, or through
the meaning of this sign, the essence of the Buddha’s spiritual experience was
transmitted to Mahaksayapa, and from him down a whole line of Zen masters.
But according to the Vajrayana the highest level of transmission is telepathic
communication, which of course takes place in silence. This is the direct
communication of mind with mind, without the interposition of the spoken or
the written word, or the visual sign or symbol. It is mind flashing not signals,
but itself, directly to another mind without any intermediary, without any
medium of transmission at all. It is the direct, immediate impingement of mind
on mind.

We should not think that silence is mere absence of sound. When all sound dies
away – when the sound of the traffic in the street or the creaking of the chairs
in the room, the sound of our own breath, and even the ‘sound’ of our
thoughts, is utterly stilled – what is left is not just something negative or dead,
not just a vacuum. What is left is a living silence.

In this connection, one may think of the Indian sages and teachers, such as
Ramana Maharshi, who died in 1950. He perfectly exemplified this attitude. He
just sat there on a dais in the hall of the ashram, on a kind of settee with a tiger
skin spread on it, and most of the time he said nothing at all. He had sat there
for forty years, more or less, and though the hall was usually full of people,
when one entered there was a strangely vibrant quality to that silence. It quite
literally seemed as though the silence flowed from him. One could almost see
waves of silence flowing from him, flowing over all those people, flowing into
their hearts and minds and calming them down. As you sat down yourself you
quite literally felt the silence flowing over you, calming and quieting you,
washing away all your thoughts. This is not to speak poetically or
imaginatively – you felt it quite literally. You felt it as a sort of positive wave-
like power flowing over you all the time. This was the silence – the real silence,
the true silence – that Ramana Maharshi so beautifully exemplified.
Silence of this quality is very rare. Even ordinary silence, the lowest form of
silence, is only too rare in modern life. Certainly in most of our lives there is far
too much noise, and usually far too much talking. ‘Talking’, here, does not
mean real communication through speech, but mere verbalization, the
multiplication of words without too much meaning. One cannot help thinking
that speech, which is so precious and so wonderful, so expressive and such a
treasure, should be something exceptional. At least it should be something, like
eating, that you do occasionally, after thought and preparation; but all too
often speech precedes thought, while talking is the rule, and silence the
exception.

But perhaps there is hope for us all, as there was for the young Macaulay,
about whom the great wit Sydney Smith remarked, ‘Macaulay is improving.
He has flashes of silence.’ Most of us are in this position. Maybe we are
improving. Maybe we do have, occasionally, even quite brilliant flashes of
silence. We should therefore perhaps try to make more time for silence in our
lives: make more time just to be quiet, just to be alone, by ourselves. Unless we
do this from time to time, say at least for an hour or two every day, we shall
find the practice of meditation rather difficult.

We have apparently strayed a long way from Perfect Speech, and it might seem
paradoxical that one should speak – especially at such length – in praise of
silence. It is rather like that famous description of Carlyle’s works: ‘The Gospel
of Silence, in forty volumes, by Mr Wordy.’ Therefore it is best to conclude with
the hope that it is now obvious that much more is involved in Perfect Speech
than at first might appear. Perfect Speech is not just Right Speech in the
ordinary sense. It is the Buddha’s ideal of human communication: perfectly
truthful, in the fullest sense; perfectly affectionate; perfectly helpful; and
perfectly promoting concord, harmony, and unity – or perfectly self-
transcendent.
 4

Perfect Action

The Principles of Ethics

With the fourth stage of the Noble Eightfold Path we come from Perfect Speech
to Perfect Action, samyak-karmanta (Pali samma-kammanta). This is the third
stage of the Path of Transformation, and represents the descent into, and
transformation of, all one’s activities by Perfect Vision. Karmanta means action
in the literal sense, so no lengthy explanations of the meaning of the term are
required; while samyak, as has already been insisted, means whole, integral,
complete, perfect. One should therefore speak not simply of Right Action but
rather of Perfect Action.

The question of what constitutes Perfect Action is an important one, bringing

us as it does straight to the heart of ethics, and compelling us to enquire into
the fundamental principles of the subject. What is it that makes some acts
right? What is it that makes others wrong? Is there any universally valid
criterion in the light of which we can say that this is right and that is wrong, this
is perfect and that imperfect? If there is any such criterion, where is it to be
found? What is its nature? These are pressing and urgent questions that
concern us all. Whether we like it or not we all have to act every day, every
hour – almost every minute. The question of how to act in the best way, of
what should be the criterion, the guiding principle or motive of our action,
therefore inevitably arises.

The ‘Decline of Morals’

Churchmen and others are fond of lamenting what they call the decline of
morals. In the course of the last few decades everybody is supposed to have
become progressively more immoral, and it has been suggested that we are
now in a pretty bad state. The decline of morals is usually linked very firmly
with the decline of religion, especially orthodox religion. Having turned our
back on the Church, we are told, we have at once plunged into the pit, the mire,
of immorality. Indeed we may argue that traditional ethics have, to a very great
extent, collapsed. Many people are no longer convinced that there are any fixed
standards of right and wrong. In the seventeenth century one of the Cambridge
Platonists, Ralph Cudworth, wrote a book which he called A Treatise on Eternal
and Immutable Morality. If anyone, even the Archbishop of Canterbury or the
Pope, were to write a book with this title nowadays it would seem quite
ridiculous. Even the great humanists and freethinkers of the nineteenth
century, widely as they might range in their intellectual questioning, continued
to conform to Christian ethics. Apart from one or two slips, when it came to
their ‘home life’, as the Victorians called it, people like Darwin, Huxley, or even
Marx, were models of morality. But that is all changed now. Some people say,
‘If you do something and it makes you feel good, then that thing is right, at
least for you.’ This is a very widely held view. It may not always be expressed
very explicitly and openly; but it is, in fact, what many people think.

This development is not necessarily a bad thing. In the long run it might even
be a good thing that morals should be thrown – temporarily we hope – into the
melting-pot, and that we should have to re-think and re-feel, even re-imagine,
our morality. It is good that, ultimately, as we hope, a new ethic should emerge
from the ruins of the old.

Judaeo-Christian Ethics
In retrospect it seems that Western ethics started off rather on the wrong foot.
Our ethical tradition is a very composite thing. There are elements deriving
from the classical Greek and Roman tradition; there are Judaeo-Christian
elements; and, especially in some of the northern European countries, there are
elements of Germanic paganism. But though our Western ethical tradition is
made up of many interwoven strands, it is the Judaeo-Christian element which
predominates. This is the ‘official’ ethic to which, at least in the past, everybody
paid lip-service, whatever their private practice or preference may have been.

In this Judaeo-Christian ethic morality is traditionally conceived very much in

terms of Law. A moral obligation or moral rule is something laid upon man by
God. This is well illustrated by the biblical account of the origin of the Ten
Commandments. Moses goes up Mount Sinai and there, amidst thunder and
lightning, he receives the Ten Commandments from God. On coming down
from Mount Sinai with – according to Christian art – the two stone tablets on
which they were inscribed tucked under his arm like a couple of tombstones,
Moses in turn gives the Ten Commandments to the Children of Israel. This
illustrates the idea of ethics as something imposed on man, almost against his
will, by a power or authority external to himself. According to the Old
Testament, God has created man, has formed him out of the dust of the earth
and breathed life into his nostrils. So man is God’s creature, almost God’s slave,
and his duty is to obey. To disobey is a sin.

This attitude is again illustrated by the story of the Fall. Adam and Eve were
punished, as we all know, for disobeying an apparently arbitrary order. God
said, ‘… of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat’. But he
did not give them any reason for the prohibition. Nowadays we know that
stories of this sort are mythical, but though few people any longer believe them
to be literally true the attitudes which they represent still persist. The word
commandment itself is significant. It is significant that a moral law or rule should
be a commandment – something you are commanded to do, obliged to do,
almost coerced into doing, by some power or authority external to yourself.
These two illustrations are both from the Old Testament, and Christianity
certainly goes beyond this conception of ethics; but it does not go very far
beyond it, and even then only in a rather imperfect manner. The sources of
specifically Christian ethics are, of course, to be found in Jesus’s teaching as
contained in the four Gospels; but according to Christian tradition Jesus is God,
so when God himself tells you to do something the order obviously comes with
a tremendous weight of authority behind it. Thus one does something not so
much because it is good to do it but because one is asked to do it, even
commanded to do it, by one in whom reposes all power and all authority in
heaven and upon earth. Even within the context of Christian ethics, therefore,
there is, generally speaking, this same idea of ethics as something obligatory, as
something imposed upon one from without to which one must conform. This is
our traditional heritage. This is the mode of thought by which, consciously or
unconsciously, we are all influenced when we think in terms of ethics.

Nowadays the majority of people in Britain are not Christian in any

meaningful sense, but nevertheless they still tend to think of morality, of ethics,
in this way: as an obligation laid upon them from without, a command which
they are obliged to obey. We can perhaps summarize the position of traditional
ethics today by saying that it consists in not doing what we want to do, and
doing what we do not want to do, because – for reasons we do not understand
– we have been told to by someone in whose existence we no longer believe. So
no wonder we are confused. No wonder we have no ethical signposts, and
therefore have to try, in typically British fashion, to muddle through somehow
or other. But though we try to make some sort of sense of our lives, try to
discover some sort of pattern in events, where ethics is concerned the picture is
mostly one of chaos.

The Buddhist Criterion

Now without wanting to exaggerate, or to make the contrast seem too abrupt
or dramatic, as between black and white, the traditional Buddhist attitude to
ethics is quite different from the one just described. In fact this is true of the
whole Eastern, especially Far Eastern, tradition. According to the Buddha’s
teaching, as preserved in the traditions of whatsoever sect or school, actions are
right or wrong, perfect or imperfect, according to the state of mind with which
they are performed. In other words the criterion of ethics is not theological but
psychological. It is true that in the West we are not unacquainted with this
idea, even within the context of Christianity; but so far as Buddhist ethics is
concerned – indeed so far as Far Eastern ethics is concerned, whether Buddhist,
Taoist, or Confucian – this criterion is the only one. It is a criterion which is
universally applied and rigorously carried through to the very end.

According to Buddhist tradition there are two kinds of action, skilful and
unskilful. This is significant, because the terms skilful and unskilful, unlike the
terms good and bad, suggest that morality is very much a matter of
intelligence. You cannot be skilful unless you can understand things, unless
you can see possibilities and explore them. Hence morality, according to
Buddhism, is as much a matter of intelligence and insight as one of good
intentions and good feelings. After all, we have been told that the path to hell is
paved with good intentions; but you could hardly say that the path to hell is
paved with skilfulness.

Unskilful actions are defined as those which are rooted in craving or selfish
desire; in hatred or aversion; and in mental confusion, bewilderment, spiritual
obfuscation, or ignorance. Skilful actions are those which are free from craving,
free from hatred, free from mental confusion; positively speaking they are
motivated instead by generosity, or the impulse to share and to give, by love
and compassion, and by understanding. This very simple distinction at once
places the whole question of morality in a very different light. The moral life
becomes a question of acting from what is best within us: acting from our
deepest understanding and insight, our widest and most comprehensive love
and compassion.

We are now in a position to begin to see what is meant by Perfect Action. This
is not just action which accords with some external standard or criterion, but
action which expresses Perfect Vision and Perfect Emotion. Perfect Action
represents the descent to the level of action of Perfect Vision and Perfect
Emotion, just as Perfect Speech represents their descent to the level of
communication. In other words, having already attained Perfect Vision and
developed Perfect Emotion, when one comes to act one spontaneously
expresses that vision and that emotional experience in terms of one’s action.

Patterns of Ethical Behaviour

By this time, serious students of Buddhism may well be wondering how the
Five or the Ten Silas (Pali Silas) or Precepts fit into the picture. Are these not
lists of moral rules which have been laid down by the Buddha himself, and to
which we must conform? In reply it may be said that while the Silas or sets of
Precepts have certainly been taught, certainly been recommended, by the
Buddha, they have not been laid down authoritatively, as the Ten
Commandments were by God. What the Buddha says, in effect, is that one who
is Enlightened, or who has attained Buddhahood, thereby realizing the
plenitude of wisdom and the fullness of compassion, will inevitably behave in
a certain way, because it is in the nature of an Enlightened being to behave in
that way. Furthermore, to the extent that you are Enlightened, to that extent
you also will behave in that way. If you are not Enlightened, or to the extent
that you are not Enlightened, then the observance of the Silas or Precepts will
help you to experience for yourself the state of mind of which they are,
normally, the expression.

An example may make this point clear. We say that an Enlightened person, one
who is a Buddha, is free from (let us say) craving or selfish desire. We
ourselves are full of craving. We crave, for example, food of various kinds; we
have a special liking for this or that. Suppose, as an experiment, we stop eating
one of our favourite foodstuffs, whatever it may be. We give it up. We decide
not to take it any more. Very regretfully, very sorrowfully, we close the larder
door. We resist the temptation, whatever it may be – say plum cake. (There was
once a Buddhist monk who was wonderfully addicted to plum cake. It was
said you could get anything out of him if you offered him sufficient plum
cake!) What happens is that we may suffer for a while, and may not have an
easy time at all. In fact, it may be quite hard going. But if we stick it out, if we
banish those visions of plum cake, craving is gradually reduced and eventually
we shall reach a happy state where there is no craving at all, and where we
never even think of that particular thing. Our abstention from plum cake is
now no longer a disciplinary measure, but has become a genuine expression of
the state of non-craving to which we have attained.

The Silas or Precepts are not just lists of rules, though when you come across
them in books on Buddhism they may indeed read like that. Only too often the
Buddha is represented as telling people all the things they should not do, and
the impression is created that Buddhism is a very dreary and negative
business. But the Silas are, in reality, just patterns of ethical behaviour. They are
the natural expression of certain skilful mental states. Since they are the natural
expression of skilful mental states, we can find out to what extent we have
developed those states by checking our behaviour against the Silas. Let us take
a quick look, therefore, at just a few of these Silas or patterns of ethical
behaviour. As lists of rules they will be familiar to many, so we need not spend
too much time on them. In any case we do not want to identify Perfect Action
too closely with any of its specific expressions, however worthy and noble they
may be.

To begin with, it is important to note that different people’s patterns of external

ethical behaviour may be identical, but the mental states behind their
behaviour may be quite different. This may sound a little complicated, but it is
really very simple. Suppose, for example, that three different people abstain
from theft. The first person would like to steal, perhaps very much, but he
abstains out of fear of the police. (This is the morality of many people.) The
second person has a slight inclination towards dishonesty. When filling in his
income tax return he may be seriously tempted to cheat, but because he is
trying to lead a spiritual life he resists the temptation. The inclination is there,
but it is restrained. However, the third person has completely eradicated
craving. In his case there is no tendency, no inclination towards dishonesty.
The first person, who abstains from theft through fear of the police, is moral
only in the legalistic sense. The second person, who feels an inclination to steal
and overcomes it, is moral in the sense that he is practising Right Action in the
narrower, ‘disciplinary’ sense. Only the third, who abstains because it is
natural for him to do so, is really practising Perfect Action.
The Five Silas and the Five Dharmas
The best known pattern of ethical behaviour is that of the Five Silas, generally
known as the Five Precepts. The Five Precepts, as usually transmitted, are
negative in form. They tell us what not to do. In the case of each Precept,
however, there is a positive counterpart. It is very significant that in modern
Buddhist teaching the positive counterpart is far less widely known than the
negative formulation. Many people will have heard of the Five Precepts who
have not heard of the Five Dharmas, as the five positive counterparts are called.
In this context, the Five Dharmas may be translated as the Five Ethical
Principles. We shall briefly consider both the Five Precepts and the Five
Dharmas, one by one, examining first the negative and then the positive
formulation. This will give us a balanced picture of this particular pattern of
Buddhist ethics.

The first of the Five Precepts is abstention from harming living beings. This is the
literal translation. Although sometimes rendered as ‘not to kill’, it is really
abstention not only from killing but from harming in any way. It conveys the
meaning of abstention from all forms of violence, all forms of oppression, all
forms of injury. Violence is wrong because ultimately it is based, directly or
indirectly, on an unskilful mental state – on the state of hatred or aversion –
and if we indulge in violence this unskilful mental state, of which violence is
the natural expression, will become stronger and more powerful than it is
already.

The positive counterpart of abstention from violence is the practice of maitri

(Pali metta): love or friendliness. Here maitri is not just an emotion or a feeling,
but is embodied in deeds and put into practice. It is not enough simply to feel
goodwill towards others. This feeling must be expressed in action. Otherwise,
if we simply gloat over it in our own mind, thinking how much we love
everybody and how kind we are, it becomes a sort of emotional self-indulgence
– not to say something worse. So we should watch ourselves in this respect. We
often consider we love other people. At least, we consider we love some other
people. But if we examine ourselves, we find that we never really express our
love: we take it for granted that it is understood.

A familiar example is that of the couple who have been married for twenty or
thirty years, and the husband never bothers to bring the wife as much as a
bunch of flowers or a box of chocolates. If someone were to ask him, ‘Don’t you
love your wife? You never take her as much as a bunch of flowers or a box of
chocolates,’ the average husband would reply, ‘What’s the need? Of course I
love her, but she should know that after all these years!’ This is very bad
psychology. People should not have to take it for granted, or just imagine, that
we do have feelings towards them. It should be quite obvious from our words
and actions. Indeed we should actually take steps to keep alive the spirit of
love and friendship. That is why in all social life, and in Buddhist social life
especially, such things as exchanging gifts and extending invitations are very
much emphasized. It is not enough to sit in your own room, or even in your
own cell, radiating thoughts of love. Good and wonderful though that may be,
it must come down to some concrete expression. Only then will such thoughts
be reciprocated in a tangible way by other people.

The second of the Five Precepts is abstention from taking the not-given. This,
again, is a literal translation. It is not just abstention from theft. That would be
too easy to evade or to circumvent. The second Precept involves abstention
from any kind of dishonesty, any kind of misappropriation or exploitation,
because all these are expressions of craving, or selfish desire. The positive
counterpart of abstention from taking the not-given is dana, or generosity. Here
again it is not simply the generous feeling, the will to give, that is meant, but
the generous act itself. There is no need for me to elaborate. Dana is something
which all those who have contact with living Buddhism for any length of time
very quickly come to understand.

The third Precept is abstention from sexual misconduct. In the sutras the Buddha
makes it clear that in the context of the Five Precepts sexual misconduct
comprises rape, abduction, and adultery. All three are unskilful because they
are expressions, simultaneously, of both craving and violence. In the case of
rape and abduction, which in the comparatively unorganized society of the
Buddha’s day seem to have been fairly common, violence is committed against
the woman herself, and also, if she happens to be a minor, against her parents
or guardians. In the case of adultery, the violence is committed against the
person’s usual sexual partner, inasmuch as their domestic life is deliberately
disrupted. It should be noted at this point that in Buddhism marriage is a
purely civil contract, not a sacrament. Moreover, divorce is permitted, and
from a religious point of view monogamy is not compulsory. In some parts of
the Buddhist world there are communities which practise polygamy, and this
is not considered sexual misconduct.

The positive counterpart of abstention from sexual misconduct is samtusti (Pali

santutthi), or contentment. In the case of the unmarried, contentment means
contentment with the single state. In the case of the married it means
contentment with one’s recognized, socially accepted sexual partner(s). Here
contentment is not just passive acceptance of the status quo. In modern
psychological terms, it means a positive state of freedom from using sex to
satisfy neurotic needs in general and, in particular, using it to satisfy the
neurotic need for change.

The fourth Precept is abstention from false speech. False speech is speech which is
rooted in craving, hatred, or fear. If you tell a lie, it is either because you want
something, or because you wish to harm or hurt someone, or because for one
reason or another you are afraid of telling the truth. Untruthfulness, therefore,
is rooted in unskilful mental states. This requires no demonstration. The
positive counterpart of abstention from false speech is satya (Pali sacca), or
truthfulness, which has already been discussed in connection with Perfect
Speech.

The last of the Five Precepts is abstention from drink and drugs the taking of which
results in loss of awareness. There is a certain amount of disagreement about the
interpretation of this precept. In some Buddhist countries it is interpreted as
requiring strict teetotalism, that is, total abstinence; in other Buddhist countries
it is interpreted as requiring moderation in the use of anything which, taken in
excess, is likely to result in intoxication. So one is free to take one’s choice
between these two interpretations. The positive counterpart of the precept is
smrti (Pali sati): mindfulness or awareness. This is the real criterion. If you can
drink without impairing your mindfulness (it might be said), then drink; but if
you can’t, then don’t. However, one must be quite honest with oneself, and not
pretend that one is mindful when one is merely merry. Thus, even if the fifth
Precept is interpreted as requiring simply moderation, in the light of its
positive counterpart total abstinence will still be required in the vast majority
of cases.

Such are the Five Precepts and the Five Ethical Principles, which are a well
known and widely accepted pattern of Buddhist ethics. Two other patterns
may also be mentioned.

The Bhiksu Samvara-Sila and Bodhisattva Samvara-Sila

The Bhiksu Samvara-sila (Pali Bhikkhu Samvara-sila) comprises the 150 precepts
observed by the fully ordained monk, and represents the natural pattern of
behaviour of one who is fully dedicated to the attainment of Nirvana. In other
words, if we think of nothing but Nirvana and the attainment of Nirvana,
devoting all our time and energy to following the spiritual path, our pattern of
behaviour will approximate, quite naturally, to the pattern embodied in this list
of 150 precepts. Unfortunately, these 150 precepts are all too often regarded as
a list of rules, and thus the whole spirit behind them is lost.

The Bodhisattva Samvara-sila comprises the 64 precepts observed by the

Bodhisattva. These represent the natural behaviour of one who is devoted to
the attainment of Enlightenment for the benefit of all. In other words, if you are
devoted to the attainment of Enlightenment, or Buddhahood, not just for your
own sake – not so that you can be ‘up there’ out of it all, looking down in pity
on those still immersed in Samsara – but so that, having attained
Enlightenment yourself, you can help others; and if this is your sole thought
and aspiration, to which you subordinate everything else; then the way you act
and speak – your natural pattern of behaviour – will coincide with the pattern
reflected in the list of the 64 Bodhisattva Precepts. But once again it is not a
question of having a list of rules and ticking yourself off against them one by
one. It is a question of the living spirit, or heart, of the Bodhisattva, naturally
expressing itself in a way that approximates to the Bodhisattva Precepts – or
rather expressing itself in a way of which the precepts themselves are but an
approximation.

Total Action
Though the nature of Perfect Action should now be clear, there is one last
matter to be considered. Perfect Action is also total action, or better, total act:
that act in which the total self is involved. Most people are too divided, too
fragmented, to act with the whole of themselves. Almost all the time we act
with only part of ourselves. When you go to the office or the factory, do you
put yourself wholeheartedly into your work there? I think not. You might put
quite a large slice of your energy into it, but quite a large slice remains at home,
or is tied up elsewhere. You do not do your work with the whole of yourself;
you do not give it your full attention, interest, and enthusiasm. If you have a
hobby, you very rarely put the whole of yourself into the hobby, and you don’t
very often put the whole of yourself into your domestic life. There is something
that is left out, or left over, so that we are all the time acting with only part of
ourselves. Even when we are acting from what is best in ourselves, from our
noblest impulses of kindness and generosity, that act is not a total act,
inasmuch as there remain within us impulses of unkindness and ungenerosity
from which, at the moment, we are not acting. Thus even our Right Action –
even our so-called Perfect Action – remains imperfect in the sense that it is not
total.

Perfect Action in the fullest sense is the prerogative of a Buddha: only an

Enlightened mind can really act with the whole of itself, putting the whole of
its wisdom and the whole of its compassion behind a particular act, with
nothing left out or left over. This aspect of Buddhahood is represented by the
Green ‘archetypal’ Buddha, Amoghasiddhi or ‘Unobstructed Success’.
Amoghasiddhi represents the total act at the highest conceivable level.

On rare occasions we may ourselves experience a foretaste of Perfect Action, in

the sense of total action, on our own level of being. We may happen to be
completely immersed in something. Every ounce of our energy, our effort, our
awareness, our interest, our enthusiasm, our love, is involved at that moment.
We are totally involved, both emotionally and intellectually. On such occasions
we know that we are capable of putting the whole of ourselves into an act,
without anything being left over. We know that we are capable, for an instant
at least, of expressing ourselves fully and totally. The satisfaction and relief –
the peace, even – which we then feel, we can get from no other source and in
no other way. It is this state we should aim to be in all the time, at the highest
level: the level of Buddhahood or Enlightenment. Then we shall really know
what Perfect Action is, what total act is. Then we shall really understand, from
the source, the principles of ethics.
 5

Perfect Livelihood

The Ideal Society

It will not be disputed that everybody dreams. Psychologists tell us that we all
dream four or five times a night. We are even told that animals dream, as we
can sometimes see in the case of our pets. Not only does everybody dream at
night, when they are asleep, but everybody day-dreams. On a warm, sunny
afternoon, when you are sitting on a park bench, and feeling very comfortable
and quiet, you may just start day-dreaming. This is something everybody does
at some time or other.

The day-dream is, of course, usually a sort of wish fulfilment, a Walter Mitty
exercise. We dream of all the things we would like to do and would like to be;
and the reason for this is that only too often we find everyday life dull and
uninteresting. We may have a tiresome, monotonous job. We may be in
circumstances which we dislike. We may be having to associate with people
with whom we are not on particularly friendly terms. It may even be that we
find life not only dull and uninteresting, but positively painful. We therefore
try to get away from it and create a world of our own outside ordinary
existence. We start day-dreaming in various ways. We start imagining a better
state of affairs. We start dreaming up some ideal world, some ideal society, in
which the imperfections of this world and this society do not exist. Here there
is misery and unhappiness, but we like to day-dream about some other place,
some other world, where everybody is happy and where no doubt we can be
happy too. Day-dreaming of this sort is not altogether a bad thing, provided
we don’t indulge in it too often, or when we really ought to be doing
something else.

Though most day-dreaming is what may be described as unproductive fantasy,

occasionally day-dreams are blueprints for the future. Today’s dream may be,
in some cases, tomorrow’s reality. Looking at the history of the world, at the
history of culture, of religions, of the arts, of philosophy, we find that the
greatest men and women of the past have sometimes been the greatest day-
dreamers. If we go back to the days of ancient Greece, to Plato – surely one of
the greatest men who ever lived – we find that Plato too dreamed his dreams.
The most famous of his dreams is The Republic, the great dialogue in twelve
books in which Plato dreams his dream of an ideal society, the society based
upon Justice. Moving to other times and cultures – and other dreams – we have
in the book of Revelation, the last book of the Bible, the marvellous vision of
the new Jerusalem with its walls of jasper and gates of pearl – a vision of great
archetypal and mythic significance. Coming nearer to our own times there is
More’s Utopia, Bacon’s New Atlantis, Campanella’s City of the Sun, and so on,
down to H.G. Wells’s Men Like Gods. These are all day-dreams of an ideal
society, day-dreams of a world transfigured and transformed.

Buddhism too has its day-dreams. One Buddhist day-dream of the ideal society
is found in the conception – or vision – of Sukhavati, the ‘Pure Land’ of
Amitabha, the Buddha of Infinite Light, as described in some of the great
Mahayana sutras. Especially as taught by the Shin schools of Japanese
Buddhism, a Pure Land of the type represented by Sukhavati – the ‘Happy
Land’ – is a place, a world, a plane of existence, where there is no pain, no
suffering, no misery, no separation, no bereavement, no loss of any kind. It is a
place where there is no old age, no sickness, and no death. It is a place of
perfect peace in which there is no conflict, no war, no battle, nor even any
misunderstanding – it is as perfect and happy as that! These great Mahayana
sutras also tell us that the Pure Land or Happy Land is a place where there is
no distinction of male and female, and where no one ever has to do any work.
Food and clothing appear of their own accord whenever they are needed. In
the Pure Land no one has anything to do except sit on their golden or purple or
blue lotus at the feet of the Buddha and listen to his exposition of the Dharma.
To crown it all, especially from our English point of view, we are told that in
the Pure Land the weather is always perfect. This is a Buddhist day-dream, a
vision of an ideal society and an ideal world.

This may all seem rather remote, rather archetypal and mythical, and not of
much direct concern to us; but Buddhism, although it can dream, and dream
very beautifully, is not content to leave it at that. The whole approach of the
Buddha’s teaching to these questions is very sane, very practical, and very
realistic. Buddhism is not content to dream about some ideal society of the
future, or some ideal world on another plane; it tries to create the ideal society,
the ideal community, here and now on this earth. It tries, therefore, to
transform, to transfigure, this society and this world into the image of the
future, into the image of the Ideal; and it tries to do this in a number of
different ways. One of these ways is the teaching of Perfect Livelihood, the fifth
step of the Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path.

The preceding stages of the Noble Eightfold Path have been concerned with
our initial spiritual experience of insight into the nature of existence, including
ourselves, and the transformation by that experience of our emotional life, our
communication with one another, and our ordinary everyday behaviour. In
other words the Eightfold Path, so far, has been concerned with the
transformation of our separate, individual selves. With this step, Perfect
Livelihood, we are concerned with the transformation of the collective life, the
life of the community, the life of society. This is an aspect of Buddhism which is
not very much emphasized, in fact it is sometimes rather played down; but the
idea that we should transform not only our individual lives but also society at
large is very definitely a part of the total teaching.

Buddhism stands for the creation of an ideal society as well as for the creation
of an ideal individual. After all, we are all members of society, all parts one of
another, and it is very difficult for us to change ourselves while society remains
unchanged. The Indians have a proverb, ‘You can’t work in the kitchen without
getting a bit of soot on you.’ (Cooking in India is apt to be a rather messy
affair.) In the same way you cannot live and work in a corrupt, basically
unethical society without to some extent being besmirched by it. So even in the
interests of one’s own individual moral and spiritual life one has to make some
effort to transform the society in which one lives. It is all very well to talk about
the lotus blooming in the midst of the mire, but it is very difficult to be a lotus
when the mire is particularly nasty and all-pervasive.

Our collective existence has three principal aspects – the strictly social aspect,
the political aspect, and the economic aspect – and Buddhism has teachings
which cover all three.

Buddhism has various social teachings, especially in the context of ancient

Indian life. For example we find that the Buddha was not at all in favour of the
caste system, which was a dominant feature of social life in India at his time,
and still exists today. According to this system your position in society was
dependent on your birth. If you were the son of a brahmin you were a
brahmin, if you were the son of a trader you were a trader, and there was
nothing you could do to change your status. Even now this system is very
strong and all-pervasive in India, especially in the villages, and it has a
stultifying effect upon human initiative generally. For this reason the Buddha
said clearly and emphatically that the criterion which determines a person’s
position in society should not be birth, but worth. This is just one example of
his social teaching.

In the same way we find that in the political sphere Buddhism upholds – or
rather upheld in ancient times – the ideal of what is called Dharmaraja, a
number of sutras being devoted to this topic. Dharma means truth,
righteousness, reality. Raja means king, or even government. Thus the ideal of
the Dharmaraja represents the ideal of government by righteousness: the ideal
that even in political affairs ethical and spiritual considerations and values
should be paramount. It represents the idea that politics should not just be a
cockpit of rival interests and factions, not just a question of manipulation and
string-pulling, but that one should try to see the ethical and spiritual principles
involved, and apply these to this aspect of one’s collective existence.

In India the greatest example of this political ideal was the Emperor Asoka. He
was a great ruler of the Maurya dynasty, and lived about 200 years after the
Buddha. He inherited from his father the kingdom of Magadha, which he
proceeded to expand, promptly swallowing up nearly all the other states of the
subcontinent. A series of mopping-up operations increased the dimensions of
Magadha even beyond those of present day India and Pakistan. The last state
left for Asoka to subdue, in the days before he became a Buddhist, was the state
of Kalinga on the east coast, roughly corresponding to the modern state of
Orissa. As Asoka himself recorded in one of his Rock Edicts, ‘One-hundred-
and-fifty thousand persons were carried away captive, one hundred thousand
were slain, and many times that number died.’

Seeing the havoc that had been wrought, Asoka realized the misery brought
about by war and by his own conquests. In his own words he ‘felt profound
sorrow and regret because the conquest of a people previously unconquered
involved slaughter, death, and deportation … even those who escaped
calamity themselves are deeply afflicted by the misfortunes suffered by those
friends, acquaintances, companions, and relatives for whom they feel an
undiminished affection.’ So he gave up this career of conquest – possibly the
only example in history of a great conqueror who stopped in mid-career
because he realized the moral wickedness of his actions. He stopped and he
completely reversed. Instead of being known as Chandasoka or Asoka the
Fierce, as he was before his ‘conversion’, he became known as Dharmasoka or
Asoka the Righteous, and from that day onward seems to have considered
himself the father of his people.

Asoka did not give up his political path, but he quite explicitly proclaimed as
his ideal the service of those he was supposed to be governing, and he upheld
their welfare as the main object of his administration. He also gave great
support to Buddhism, dispatching missionaries not only to different parts of
India and Sri Lanka but also to Alexandria, Palestine, and Greece.
Unfortunately so-called Buddhist rulers have not always followed in the
footsteps of Asoka. He is perhaps the only real example in Indian history of
someone trying to apply Buddhist teaching directly to political life, and for that
he deserves much credit. H.G. Wells wrote movingly about Asoka in The
Outline of History. ‘Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that
crowd the pages of history,’ he said, ‘their majesties and graciousnesses and
serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name Asoka shines, and shines
almost alone, a star.’

The third aspect of our collective existence is the economic aspect. In this
sphere Buddhism teaches Perfect Livelihood, that is to say it teaches the
complete transformation, in the light of Perfect Vision, of the whole economic
aspect of our collective life.

Now at this point a question arises. We have seen that our collective existence
has three principal aspects, the social, the political, and the economic; but
Perfect Livelihood represents only one of these, the economic. So why is this?
Assuming that the fifth stage of the Noble Eightfold Path deals with our
collective existence, why does it deal only with the economic aspect? Why are
the political and social aspects not included in the Path? Why only Perfect
Livelihood and not Perfect Citizenship or Perfect Administration? If the Path is
concerned with our whole collective as well as our individual existence, why
only Perfect Livelihood?

The answer to this question is partly to be found in the conditions obtaining in

India in the Buddha’s day. The social system was comparatively simple and
unorganized – luckily – and apart from the caste system there was not much in
this area which needed revision. In the political sphere, the Buddha taught and
propagated the Dharma mainly in areas where monarchy was the only existing
form of government, which means that ordinary people had little if any share
in political life and activity. So in those days there was not much point in
asking people in general to practise Perfect Government or Perfect
Administration, or even Perfect Citizenship, when they had very little say in
these matters. Everyone, however, had to work. They may not have had a vote
or known what the king was up to, but they all had to earn a living, so the
question of Perfect Livelihood was one which concerned everybody, even in
the Buddha’s day; and for this reason, no doubt, Perfect Livelihood was
included in the Noble Eightfold Path. We might even hazard a speculation here
and suggest that the Buddha himself felt that the economic aspect of our
collective existence was more basic than either the social or the political aspect,
and that for this reason too he included Perfect Livelihood, as representing that
aspect, in the Noble Eightfold Path. During the Buddha’s lifetime trade,
business, and finance were all developing rapidly, and the Buddha could not
have been unaware of this. A number of his closest lay disciples were what we
would call merchant bankers, whose commercial interests extended as far as
Babylon.

Having understood some of the main reasons for its inclusion in the Path, let us
now try to investigate, in a little detail, what Perfect Livelihood really is. In so
doing we should not forget that this stage of the Path stands for the
transformation of our whole collective existence – our whole social life, our
whole communal life – and not just for the economic aspect alone. In other
words it stands for the creation of an ideal society: a society in which it is easier
for us to follow the Path; a society in which, when we do follow the Path, we
are not constantly having to go against everything that surrounds us, as tends
to be the case at present.

As has been mentioned, the Buddha included Perfect Livelihood in the Noble
Eightfold Path because everybody had to work, and this of course still holds
good. In fact one might say that this is now more than ever the case, because
now – more than 2,500 years later – we spend more of our waking life working
and earning a living than doing anything else. In the Buddha’s day people at
least had the rainy season off (during the rainy season it was not possible to
work out of doors) but all many of us get now is four weeks a year!
Since it occupies the greater part of our waking life, our livelihood will
obviously have an important effect on our whole being. We do not always
realize this. But if you do something for seven or eight hours a day, five days a
week, fifty weeks a year, and if you do this for twenty, thirty, or forty years, it
is not surprising if it leaves a mark on you, to say the least. The effect our
working life has upon us is something we should consider and reflect upon. In
the old days one could recognize the followers of certain trades by the physical
effects. The dyer always had his hands deeply stained with dye from the vats,
while the tailor would have a humped back. Even now one can sometimes
recognize office workers by their rounded shoulders and unathletic
appearance.

These are just physical effects, but there is an even greater effect on the mind.
The mind may be even more seriously deformed. The effects may not be easy
to see, but they are there all the same, as in the case of the miraculous
transformation of the picture of Dorian Gray. Every time he performed a
wicked action his own face was not affected, but the face of the portrait was,
until in the end the painting became a veritable picture of evil. Thus all the
while our actions are producing an effect. Little by little a change is taking
place. Your work, something you are engaged in every day, something you are
up to your neck in for days, weeks, months, years, and decades, will have a
tremendous – even a terrible – effect on the mind, very often without your
knowing it. Just think what must be the mental state of a stockbroker, who is
all the time preoccupied with stocks and shares, and who might have to pick
up the telephone in the middle of the night because of a change in the market.
Or think what must be the mental state of a bookmaker. That too must be
pretty terrible.

Taking an even more extreme example, think what must be the mental state of
a man who works in a slaughterhouse. We cannot close our eyes to the fact that
there are hundreds if not thousands of slaughterhouses in this country, and
hundreds of thousands of them all over the world. If we were to be asked here
and now to take a knife and cut the throat of a cat, or to stamp on a rat or a
mouse, most of us could not do it; but suppose you had to do it, twenty or
thirty times a day. Suppose you had to cut the throat of a sheep, or to kill and
skin a cow or a bull, twenty or thirty times a day, year after year. What would
your mental state be then? And this is the occupation of tens of thousands, even
hundreds of thousands, of people in the world today.

An Australian Buddhist monk once reported that he had made a study of

slaughterhouses in Australia, and the people who worked in them. He found a
high incidence of serious mental disturbance – about 66%. Slaughterhouse
workers usually lasted only two years. After that time human nature could
stand it no more, and in most cases they reached a point where the mental
disturbance was so serious they were unable to carry on. We should not think
that this is something that does not concern us, because concern us it does. We
are directly, morally involved, for it is our demand for meat that obliges people
to earn their living and degrade themselves in this way.

With the help of these few – admittedly extreme – examples we can begin to
see the importance of livelihood, and appreciate that without some measure of
Right or Perfect Livelihood we can make very little spiritual progress. You can
hardly imagine a slaughterhouse worker attending a weekly meditation class.
It would not do them any good, even if they were able to sit still to meditate. If
such a person did attend a class, and did try to meditate, before many weeks
had passed it is very likely that he or she would be having horrible visions of
the living beings they had slaughtered.

Buddhists in the West have begun to realize the importance of Perfect

Livelihood. They have begun to realize that unless one conforms to this ideal,
at least to some extent, little spiritual progress is possible. There are people
who have changed their jobs, sometimes at considerable financial sacrifice, for
ethical reasons – because they felt that what they were doing was inconsistent
with their profession of Buddhism, inconsistent with their Going for Refuge.
This willingness on the part of some Buddhists to give up even a rewarding
livelihood when it seems morally wrong is a very healthy development indeed.
Until fairly recently, in the West generally, interest in Buddhism was merely
intellectual. People who might even have thought of themselves as Buddhists
continued to live exactly as they did before they came across Buddhism, merely
adding an interest in or study of Buddhism to their previous way of life. They
made little if any attempt to change their lives in accordance with Buddhist
principles, least of all in the economic sphere.

In the Buddhist scriptures the Buddha has a lot to say about Perfect Livelihood,
usually explaining it in quite simple terms. First of all it is explained in terms of
abstention from wrong livelihood – the negative coming before the positive.
Various professions are strongly discouraged. At the top of the list comes
earning a living by trafficking in living beings, whether humans or animals.
This of course rules out the slave trade – two thousand and more years before
Abraham Lincoln – and dealing in animals for the purpose of slaughter. It also
rules out the profession of butcher or seller of meat. This is simple and obvious.

Also on the list is the purveying of poison. In the days of the Buddha there
were people who dealt in poison, just as there were in Renaissance Italy. If you
had an enemy and wanted to get rid of him quietly, all you had to do was pay
a visit to a person of this kind, buy a small amount of poison, mix it with your
enemy’s food or drink, and that would settle the matter. We can think of all
sorts of modern analogies, but there is no need for me to pursue these.

In the same way, selling any kind of drink or drug that has a stupefying effect
on the mind, or that diminishes one’s awareness and sense of responsibility, is
also a profession which is discouraged.
Perhaps of even greater interest is the Buddha’s discouragement, if not actual
prohibition, of any kind of dealing in weapons of war or armaments. If you are
a follower of his teachings, he in effect declared, if you have gone for Refuge
and consider yourself a Buddhist, you cannot possibly earn your living by
manufacturing, selling, or in any other way dealing with weapons of war,
which are instruments for taking the lives of other living beings. In the
Buddha’s day this was a very simple matter. It meant that you should not
manufacture bows and arrows, swords or spears, or any other lethal weapon.
But that was 2,500 years ago. Since then we have ‘progressed’ a great deal. We
have become much more civilized, much more cultured, and we can kill much
more easily and effectively, with biological and nuclear weapons, and so on.
But the Buddha’s principle of Perfect Livelihood still holds good.

If you have a few shares in a corporation which is helping to manufacture

weapons of mass destruction, then you too are involved in helping to
manufacture them, and to this extent you are, from the Buddhist point of view,
involved in wrong livelihood. This point is too obvious to need much
elaboration.

The Buddha also expresses his strong disapproval of various other trades
which were carried on in the India of his day, and which are still carried on
there today. These include earning money by palmistry and fortune-telling.
Astrology and divination are also strongly discouraged. But such are the
chances of history that in all the existing Buddhist countries many monks, I am
sorry to say, do make money by divination, by telling fortunes, and by
consulting the stars for their clients. Yet the Buddha clearly discouraged this,
describing it as a wrong mode of livelihood.

It is interesting that the Buddha also disapproved of acting as a means of

livelihood. An actor-manager called Talaputa once approached him saying that
there was a tradition among stage folk that when they died they went to the
Heaven of the Laughing Gods, because by their acting they made people laugh,
and wanting to know if the tradition was correct. At first the Buddha refused to
answer Talaputo’s question, but on being pressed he eventually did so. Far
from going to the Heaven of the Laughing Gods, he told the actor-manager,
actors went to hell when they died. The reason for this was that, themselves
overcome by greed, hatred, and delusion, by their acting they increased the
greed, hatred, and delusion of other people. Degraded themselves, they
degraded others. For behaviour such as this the karmic recompense could not
be other than painful.

It is very clear what sort of acting, what sort of stage performance, the Buddha
was talking about. His remarks might not apply to classical Greek tragedy, for
example, the effect of which is cathartic and which has, therefore, an ethical
and spiritual significance. But certainly they would apply to the sort of
performance Talaputo was in the habit of putting on, as well as to a great deal
of the entertainment provided by modern stage and screen actors and actresses
who, by their acting, often have an effect upon others which is degrading.

The principle that emerges from what has so far been said about Perfect
Livelihood, in the sense of abstaining from wrong livelihood, is quite clear; but
modern life is more complicated than life in the days of the Buddha, and the
whole subject of Perfect Livelihood needs reconsideration, if not restatement, in
a more modern context. To do this it will be convenient to reconsider Perfect
Livelihood under the headings of Occupation, Vocation, and Duration.

Occupation
Occupations or means of livelihood can be divided into four categories. First
there are those which, like working in a slaughterhouse, cannot be right under
any circumstances. Secondly there are those which are not wrong in the
obvious way that the first type are, but which definitely increase people’s
greed. Such occupations include working in the advertising industry, and
producing luxury goods that people do not really need and have to be
persuaded they want. Thirdly there are those occupations which can constitute
Perfect Livelihood if one makes an effort. For example you might be an
administrator working in the office of a firm that produces some quite good
and necessary article, such as bread. If you work honestly and conscientiously
at your job you can make it a form of Right Livelihood, even if not of Perfect
Livelihood. Fourthly there are those occupations which do not involve undue
mental strain. This is quite important nowadays, especially for those Buddhists
who want to meditate. Even though your means of livelihood may not involve
breaking any of the precepts, if it involves so much mental strain that you
become tense and cannot meditate, then as a Buddhist you have to consider
your position and try to find work of a less stressful nature.

Vocation
Vocation is the best form of livelihood, but it is very rare. We may define a
vocation as a means of livelihood which is directly related to what one
considers of ultimate importance in one’s life. This will be different for
different people. One thinks for example of medicine and the teaching
profession. Someone might want to be a nurse out of a desire to relieve human
suffering – which of course directly links up with Buddhism. Work in the arts
or the various creative activities can also come into this category. If one pursues
them in a creative spirit and does not commercialize them these also can be real
vocations, and Perfect Livelihood in the best sense.

When one is practising Perfect Livelihood in the sense of following a true

vocation there is no difference between one’s work and one’s play. You enjoy
your work so much, and are so immersed in it, that you do not mind if you
spend the whole of your waking life doing it. This is an ideal state, and one
which people – often through no fault of their own – are rarely able to achieve.
Duration
We have already mentioned that people usually spend the greater part of their
waking lives earning a living, just as they did in the time of the Buddha. But do
they really need to? Perhaps not. Shocking as it may sound, in reply to the
question, ‘How much time should one devote to earning a living?’ one might
reply, ‘As little as possible.’ When I said this a couple of years ago at a meeting
in London, an elderly friend who happened to be present was deeply shocked.
He remonstrated with me afterwards, saying, ‘How could you say a thing like
that publicly, in a lecture, with all those young people there? You are simply
encouraging them to be lazy!’ But in saying that one should devote as little
time as possible to earning a living I am, of course, speaking especially to
Buddhists, and – quite unrepentantly – to young people, since older people
often have much less choice in the matter. Young people, who have not yet
launched into a career, and whose lives are still in the formative stage, should
consider making just enough money to live on, very simply, and devoting the
rest of their time to Buddhism – to the study of the Dharma, to meditation, and
to helping to spread the truths of Buddhism.

They can do this in either of two ways. They can either have a regular part-time
job which brings in enough money to live on, so that they are free to devote the
rest of their time to Buddhism; or as some people do – though this is not so
easy – they can work for a period of six months and then take six months off,
supporting themselves on what they have been able to save out of their
earnings and devoting all their time to Buddhism for a while. This does of
course mean cutting down one’s needs – or rather one’s wants – but it is
surprising how much one can cut down if one really makes up one’s mind to
do so.

Such a development would be good not only for oneself, it would also be good
for Buddhism, because Buddhism needs more people. It needs people who will
be part-time monastics, intermediate between, on the one hand, the ordinary
lay person, fully immersed in the mire of Samsara and doing their best to
bloom like a lotus in its midst, and on the other hand those who are committed
in the full-time way that the monk is. Between these two extremes there need to
be people who have one foot in the world and one foot in the spiritual
dimension, to act as a bridge between the two. A category of people of this sort
very definitely has a place in the modern world.

We have emphasized that Perfect Livelihood represents the transformation, in

the light of Perfect Vision, of the society in which we live. Though Right or
Perfect Livelihood pertains primarily to the economic aspect of our collective
existence, we should not forget that the social and political aspects also have to
be transformed. Perfect Livelihood, the fifth step of the Buddha’s Noble
Eightfold Path, represents the need to create an ideal society. After all, we live
in society and we cannot get away from it very much or for very long. We may
go to a country retreat centre for a few weeks or months, if we are lucky, but
eventually we have to come back and live in the world again, at least to some
extent; even the luckiest of us. So we have to transform this world also, as part
of the task of transforming ourselves.

Mention of part-time monastics brings us to the topic of sangha or spiritual

community. There are a number of different ways of looking at the sangha, but
there is one particular aspect which seems especially relevant here. The sangha
or spiritual community represents the ideal society on a small scale. It is an
anticipation, in miniature, of what society as a whole could be like further on in
the course of human evolution. The sangha represents a society or a
community fully based on ethical and spiritual principles. In other words it is
not a society in the sense of an organization, but a real community based on
these principles. This is how it differs from an organization. It also differs from
an organization in respect of the degree of participation and commitment on
the part of individual members.

It must be stressed that what is of the utmost importance within the sangha or
spiritual community is right relationships between and among its various
members. This cannot be stressed enough. If there is to be any real, genuine
Buddhist movement anywhere in the world, it can only grow out of a
community of people who are ethically, psychologically, and spiritually in true
contact and communication with one another – who are not just fellow
members of an organization but friends, and related perhaps even more deeply
than that, on the spiritual plane.

Some people in the West and in India have made a small start in this direction.
There are groups of people living together on the basis of their Buddhist
values, and some of them also work together. Working in Buddhist businesses,
in charities, and in other enterprises, they have come together with the specific
intention of co-operating with one another for the benefit of themselves, of
Buddhism and of the world. Whether they are engaged in selling ‘fair trade’
goods or organic produce, raising funds to help those less fortunate than
themselves, working in Buddhist centres or with those in mental or physical
distress, all of these enterprises share a common aim. They exist to provide the
conditions that allow those working in them to live out their ethical values in a
context that supports their practice of Buddhism, meditation, and spiritual
community. The ideal that many of those working in them follow is to give
what they can and to take no more than they need, living simply – both for its
own sake and in order to make resources available to the wider Buddhist
movement.

This is not to say that such Right Livelihood enterprises do not seek to make a
profit, but they seek to do so only in ways that do not compromise the ethical
values of those who work in them. Such profits are not squandered self-
indulgently, but are applied thoughtfully for the genuine benefit of those who
earned them and for those in need.
In ways like this, the sangha, or spiritual community, may be seen as an
exemplification, on a small scale, of the ideal society of the future – a society in
which Perfect Livelihood is practised to the full, as unfortunately it is not
practised in the world at large today.
 6

Perfect Effort

The Conscious Evolution of Man

From Perfect Livelihood we pass to the sixth aspect of the Noble Eightfold
Path, known in Sanskrit as samyak-vyayama (Pali samma-vayama). Since the word
vyayama is usually translated as ‘effort’, we shall speak of Perfect Effort here.
We have seen that the second, third, and fourth stages of the Path deal with the
transformation of the individual, while the fifth stage deals with the
transformation of society as a whole. In the sixth stage, Perfect Effort, we are
dealing again with the transformation of the individual, and specifically with
the transformation of the individual will or volition; but Perfect Effort effects
this transformation or transmutation against a very wide background indeed.
The background of Perfect Livelihood is the whole community, society at large,
but the background of Perfect Effort is nothing less than the whole range of
sentient existence, the whole of life, the whole process of organic evolution.
Within this context, and within the general framework of the Noble Eightfold
Path, Perfect Effort represents the fact that the spiritual life is in a sense the
continuation, the culmination, even the consummation, of the entire
evolutionary process. For this reason Perfect Effort is sometimes spoken of in
terms of the conscious evolution of Man.

As we have seen, the English word ‘effort’ is a translation of the Sanskrit

vyayama, and in the modern languages of northern India such as Hindi,
Gujerati, and Marathi, the latter is still current and still means physical
exercise, especially in the sense of gymnastics. For instance when speakers of
these languages want to translate the English – or rather Greek – word
‘gymnasium’ they render it as ‘vyayamasala’, or ‘hall of exercise’. Thus we begin
to get some idea of what the word connotes. This stage of samyak-vyayama, or
Perfect Effort, draws our attention to a very important point: that the spiritual
life is an active life. The spiritual life is not an armchair life. On the contrary it is
active, even dynamic. Now this activity, this action, is not necessarily physical.
That the spiritual life is an active life does not mean that you must be always
rushing around ‘doing things’ in a crude, external, physical sense; but it
certainly means that you should be mentally, spiritually, and even aesthetically
active. In fact this stage of the Eightfold Path stands for the element of what we
may call spiritual athleticism, which is a characteristic and prominent feature of
Buddhism.
Generalizing, we may say that Buddhism is for the active. It is not for the
mentally crippled or the spiritually bedridden. Buddhism is for people who are
prepared to make an effort, who are prepared to try. You may fail, of course.
You may fail ten, twenty times, even a hundred times – but that doesn’t matter
so much. The important thing is that you should make the effort, that you
should try. Buddhism is not for those who are only prepared to sit back
comfortably in their armchairs and read all about the efforts of other people.
You know the sort of thing: you take The Life of Milarepa and you ensconce
yourself by the fire with perhaps a cup of tea and a plate of muffins, and you
sip your tea and munch your muffins, you are warm and cosy, and you read
about the austerities of Milarepa and you think ‘How fine!’ and ‘How
wonderful!’

Buddhism is not like that. It is not just reading about other people’s efforts, but
being prepared to make at least a minimum of effort ourselves. For a long time
a wrong image of Buddhism prevailed in Buddhist circles in this country. The
impression was that Buddhism was intended primarily for old ladies. This is
not to be disrespectful to female senior citizens, who are not necessarily ‘old
ladies’ in a certain sense of the term. In that sense there are ‘old ladies’ of both
sexes and all ages. Far from being meant for people of this description,
Buddhism is a demanding and exacting path, and as such is for the young and
vigorous – either for those who are mentally and physically young, or at least
those who are mentally and spiritually young, whatever the age and state of
their bodies.

Perfect Effort is twofold. There is a general Perfect Effort, and a specific Perfect
Effort. Though the sixth stage or limb of the Noble Eightfold Path is specifically
concerned with Perfect Effort, some degree of effort is needed for all stages of
the Path. We should not think that because one particular limb is labelled
Perfect Effort we can undertake the other limbs without any effort at all. Some
element of effort or striving is necessary for all parts of the Path, and this is
what is meant by general Perfect Effort.

The Four Exertions

Specific Perfect Effort, as represented by the sixth stage of the Path, consists of a
set of exercises that are to be practised at this stage. These exercises are known
as the Four Exertions. The Four Perfect Exertions – as they are also called –
consist in preventing, eradicating, developing, and maintaining their common
object, which is good and bad thoughts, or as we say in Buddhism, skilful and
unskilful mental states. The effort which consists in preventing means the effort
to prevent the arising in our minds of those unskilful thoughts or mental states
which have not yet arisen. Similarly, eradicating means eradicating from our
minds those unskilful states which are already present therein. Developing
means developing within our minds those skilful states which are not there
already, while maintaining means maintaining within our minds those skilful
states which already exist there. Thus Perfect Effort is primarily psychological.
It consists in unremitting work on oneself and upon one’s own mind by means
of preventing, eradicating, developing, and maintaining.

This classification is given as an incentive and a reminder, because it is so easy

to slacken off. People start with lots of enthusiasm: they are all for Buddhism,
all for meditation, all for the spiritual life; but very often it quickly wears off.
Enthusiasm wanes, and after a while it is almost as though it had never been at
all. This is because the forces of inertia within ourselves, the forces holding us
back and keeping us down, are very strong indeed – even in simple matters
like getting up early in the morning to meditate. You might make a resolution
to get up half an hour earlier, and you might succeed once or twice, or even
three times; but by the fourth morning temptation will almost certainly have
set in, and it will be a matter of quite serious mental struggle and conflict
whether you get up or whether you stay a few minutes longer in that warm,
cosy bed. You are nearly always the loser, of course, because the forces of
inertia are so strong. It is so easy for enthusiasm to wane, dwindle, and vanish.

Before we discuss these Four Exertions in detail there is one very important
observation to be made. We cannot even begin to prevent, eradicate, develop, or
maintain unless, to begin with, we know ourselves. That is to say, unless we
know which way our minds are going, or know what the contents of our minds
are. And to know ourselves requires great honesty – at least, great honesty
with ourselves. It is not expected that we should be completely honest with
other people, but at least so far as the Four Exertions are concerned we should
be honest with ourselves. (Those who find it surprising that complete honesty
with other people is not to be expected of us should ask themselves if they
realize how difficult this is. It has been said that the first thing of which one
becomes conscious on sitting down to write one’s autobiography is all the
things one is not going to tell. This is very true. It is difficult enough for us to be
honest with ourselves, not to speak of being honest with other people!)

If we want to practise the Four Exertions we must at least try to see ourselves
as we truly are, so that we know what needs to be prevented, or eradicated, or
developed, or maintained. Most of us have our own private dream-picture of
ourselves. Closing our eyes we see ourselves as though in a mirror and think,
‘How beautiful! How noble!’ This is the highly idealized picture which most of
the time we have of ourselves. Not endowed, perhaps, with all the virtues, not
quite perfect, but a really warm, lovable, sympathetic, intelligent, kind, well-
intentioned, honest, industrious human being – that is what we usually see.
What we have to try to develop, what we have to demand and almost to pray
for is, in the words of the poet, the grace ‘to see ourselves as others see us’; and
to see ourselves as others see us is not easy. We have to undertake a mental
stocktaking of our own skilful and unskilful mental states – our own ‘vices’
and ‘virtues’. Though no moral absolutes are involved here, we at least have to
understand our own minds, or our own mental states and mental qualities,
very seriously and honestly before we can even think of applying the Four
Exertions. Otherwise we shall not know how to proceed, and no real
improvement – no real development – will be possible.

Preventing the Arising of Unarisen Unskilful Mental States

As we have seen, an unskilful mental state is one that is contaminated by
craving or selfish desire, by hatred, or by delusion, mental confusion,
bewilderment, and lack of perspective. A thought is said to be unskilful when
it arises in association with one or more of these unskilful mental factors or
mental states. Should it be asked where these unskilful thoughts come from –
and we have to know where they come from if we want to eradicate them – the
answer is that their immediate source (we are not concerned at the moment
with their ultimate source) is the senses.

In Buddhism there are six senses: the five physical senses plus the mind, which
is regarded as the sixth sense. This mind is the ordinary mind with which we
carry on our lives. Unskilful mental states arise when, for example, you are
walking along a street and, happening to notice something bright and colourful
in a shop window, you at once think, ‘I’d like to have that!’ In this way through
the organ of the eye there arises greed or craving. Sometimes we just remember
something. As we sit quietly by ourselves a recollection of something we once
had, or enjoyed, or thought, floats – we know not whence – into our mind, and
before we realize what is happening we have been ensnared by craving,
hatred, or fear.

Therefore in order to prevent the unarisen unskilful thoughts from entering the
mind, and even taking possession of it and dominating it, it is necessary to
have recourse to what is known in Buddhism as watchfulness or awareness
with regard to the senses, especially the mind. This is traditionally known as
‘guarding the doors of the senses’. Here the senses are pictured as being like
the doors of a house. If you want to stop someone getting into the house you
post a guard at the gate to examine the credentials of everyone who presents
himself. Similarly you watch the doors of the six senses and try to see what
impressions, what thoughts or ideas, are presenting themselves and seeking
admission, and in this way the enemy is kept out. Watchfulness or awareness
with regard to the workings of the physical senses and the lower mind must be
kept up all the time. As we all know from experience, unskilful thoughts
usually take us unawares: we do not even see them coming, do not see them
entering the door. Before we know where we are they are right in the midst of
our mind – sitting down in the house, as it were, very much at home – and we
wonder how they got in! Well, they got in through the door. They got in
through one or another of the six senses. This is why we have to watch the
doors of the senses if we want to keep out unskilful thoughts.

Eradicating Arisen Unskilful Mental States

In terms of eradicating those unskilful mental states which are already present
in the mind, we can discuss unskilful thoughts in terms of the Five Hindrances,
a well-known Buddhist teaching. The Five Hindrances are craving for material
things, hatred, restlessness and anxiety, sloth and torpor, and doubt and
indecision.

The Hindrance of Craving for Material Things

Comprising as it does desire for such things as food, clothing, and shelter, the
craving for material things is a very strong craving indeed. It is all right so long
as we keep it within limits, but we do not usually do that. We usually want
more material things than are really necessary, and in this way craving often
gets completely out of hand. From being just the means of living and
functioning in the world, material things become a definite hindrance to any
kind of higher mental or spiritual life – even a hindrance to cultural life.

The Hindrance of Hatred

This hindrance consists of hatred in all its gross and subtle forms: antagonism,
aggressiveness, dislike, even righteous indignation. A woman once came into a
Buddhist centre while I was there and tried to give us a little tract on the
Messiah. We could not help getting into a conversation with her, and
eventually the discussion turned to the Bible. She asked us what we thought
about Jesus. We said that we certainly respected and even admired him, but
there were a few things in the Gospels we could not quite understand. One of
these was the way Jesus seemed to lose his temper with the money-changers in
the temple, and drove them out. She said that this was righteous indignation,
and did not come under the heading of anger. I told her that Buddhists usually
believe that a perfect man does not exhibit greed or anger or any such thing,
but to this she replied that Christ was God, and with God it was different.

Unfortunately, righteous indignation is the thin end of the wedge, and whether
or not it was exhibited by Christ himself it opened the way, in Christian
Europe, for all sorts of very unfortunate developments in the form of religious
persecution, the Inquisition, the Crusades, and so on. Buddhism would say that
all these unpleasant phenomena, which are sufficiently familiar to us from our
study of history, are forms of violence, which is itself a manifestation of the
hindrance of hatred. Instead of trying to rationalize the hindrances one should
try to be honest with oneself and to see what one’s mental state is really like.

The Hindrance of Restlessness and Anxiety

The hindrance of restlessness and anxiety is very much in evidence in modern
Western society. You could hardly say that modern Western society was
peaceful, or that it was calm and placid. You would have to say that it was
restless, agitated, anxious, even tormented – and most of the people you meet
are like this. They do not give an impression of peacefulness. With hardly any
of them do you feel that you could sit down beside them and be at peace. Most
people are consumed by worry, anxiety, restlessness, and haste. Sometimes it
seems impossible just to sit quietly even for a few minutes. When one tries to
meditate there is the noise of traffic, and of people rushing past. According to
Buddhism, restlessness, worry, anxiety, haste of any kind is a hindrance. This
does not mean that one should not sometimes do things quickly, but this is
quite a different thing from a mental state of restlessness, when one turns
restlessly from one thing to another because nothing really satisfies, and one
does not know where to turn for something which will satisfy.

The Hindrance of Sloth and Torpor

The hindrance of sloth and torpor could also be described as inertia and
stagnation – or becoming stiff and dry. People who get into this state feel that
nothing matters. ‘Why bother to make an effort? It’s nothing to do with me.
Just let things slide.’ Nowadays this is a very common attitude. Frequently it is
a reaction to restlessness and anxiety, but even so it is a hindrance. Often
people try to rationalize it. Some people that you think are calm and quiet may
simply be stagnating – just as others you think of as busy, active people may be
merely restless.

The Hindrance of Doubt and Indecision

The hindrance of doubt and indecision is the inability – even the unwillingness
– to think things out and come to a definite conclusion, a definite decision. It is
the refusal to make up one’s mind and then commit oneself – the refusal to take
up a definite line of action, or to adopt a definite concrete attitude.

Such are the Five Hindrances, and when we speak of eradicating arisen
unskilful mental states we are mainly referring to getting rid of the craving for
material things, of hatred, sloth and torpor, restlessness and anxiety, and doubt
and indecision.

In Buddhism the mind or consciousness is often compared to water. Water in

its natural state is pure, translucent, and sparkling; but it can be contaminated
in various ways. Similarly the mind, which is also pure by nature, can be
defiled by the Five Hindrances. In Buddhist literature the mind that is full of
craving is compared with water in which various colours – red, blue, green,
yellow – have been mixed. There is a certain beauty, but the purity of the water
– and of the mind – has been lost. The mind that is overcome by hatred is
compared with water which, having reached boiling point, is hissing and
bubbling and giving off steam. (Significantly, we speak of ‘letting off steam’
when we are angry.) In the same way, the mind that is disturbed by
restlessness and anxiety is like water whipped into waves by a strong wind,
while a mind that is in the grip of sloth and torpor is like a pond choked with
weeds. As for the mind that is under the influence of doubt and indecision, it is
like water which is full of evil-smelling black mud.

But how is one to cleanse and purify the water? How is one to get rid of the
Five Hindrances and eradicate all the arisen unskilful mental states? In
Buddhism four methods are traditionally recommended, and they are usually
tried in the order that follows.
The first method consists in considering the consequences of the unskilful
mental state. If you allow yourself to get angry, what may happen? You may
speak angrily, may speak harshly, and that may lead to unpleasantness or
misunderstanding. If you get very angry, you may even strike someone. You
may even kill someone. That is the logical result of anger if it is not checked
and controlled. So reflect on the consequences of the unskilful mental state.
This is the first method, and it can be applied to any of the hindrances. In the
case of sloth and torpor for example you can reflect that if you go on stagnating
you will not get anywhere or make any progress. In fact you will lose whatever
you have already gained, whether materially or spiritually.

The second method consists in cultivating the opposite. Each unwholesome

mental state has a positive wholesome counterpart. If you find on examination
that your mind is overpowered by the unskilful mental state of hatred – if you
dislike people, if you do not get on with them, do not think well of them – then
cultivate the opposite of hatred, which is love, in the spiritual sense. You may,
for example, practise one of the traditional meditations specifically designed to
develop loving kindness, such as the metta bhavana. Hatred and love cannot
exist in the mind simultaneously. If hatred is there, love cannot be there. If love
is introduced, hatred has to depart.

The third method is to allow the unskilful thoughts simply to pass, without
paying too much attention to them. One thinks, ‘The mind is like the sky, and
the unskilful thoughts are like the clouds. They come, and they go.’ Do not get
too upset about them or worked up over them. Do not beat your breast, or be
unduly aware of them. Just let them go, let them pass, let them float away.
Cultivate a ‘witness-like’ attitude towards them, just observing them in a
detached manner, and reflecting that since they came into one’s mind from
outside and have nothing to do with one they are not, in fact, one’s own
thoughts. If you keep this up long enough, the unskilful thoughts will usually
go.

If these three methods do not succeed there is a fourth – forcible suppression.

The Buddha says that if you cannot get rid of an unskilful mental state by any
of the previous methods, then do it by force. Grit your teeth, and with an effort
of will, suppress it. Notice that we say ‘suppress’ and not ‘repress’. Repression
is an unconscious process, but here you are acting quite consciously. You know
what you are doing, and why; so that all the terrible consequences which the
psychologists tell us come about as a result of repression will not occur when,
as a last resort, you have recourse to this method.

But what if these four standard methods of eradicating the arisen unskilful
mental thoughts fail? Sometimes it may happen that even when you grit your
teeth and try to suppress it the unskilful thought simply will not go away. Like
grass when the foot that was crushing it moves on, it springs up again as soon
as the pressure is removed. When that happens, what can one do? Can one, in
fact, do anything at all? If you are operating within a purely psychological
context there is nothing whatever you can do; but if you are operating within a
religious or spiritual – in this case a Buddhist – context, there is one final thing
that you can do. We are told by the great masters of the spiritual life that if all
these methods fail, and if, however hard you try, you cannot get rid of the
hindrances, then the only thing left to do is to go for Refuge to the Buddha,
together with your failure, and just let the matter rest there.

Developing Unarisen Skilful Mental States

Developing those skilful mental states which have not yet arisen in our minds
is not just ‘thinking good thoughts’ in the ordinary sense. It means the
development of a higher state of consciousness and being: the transformation
of the quality of one’s whole personal existence. This transformation is possible
with the help of meditation – not meditation by itself, but meditation as
practised within the total context of the spiritual life. In Buddhism meditation
is technically called ‘bhavana’, which literally means ‘making to become’ or
‘development’. The real aim of meditation is not just the concentration of the
mind: that is just preliminary. The real aim of meditation is to transform
consciousness – to make you a higher type of being than you were before you
began practising it.

Progress in meditation – the attainment of higher states of being – is marked or

measured by the attainment of what we call the dhyanas (Pali jhanas). There are
four of these dhyanas, or higher states of being and consciousness, each one
more advanced than the one preceding it, and of course they are very difficult
to describe. In Buddhist literature, especially in the Abhidharma, we have
analyses of them, accounts of what mental factors are involved, but that does
not really help us get the feel of them or know what they are like. It may be that
a poetical description or an evocation of these higher states of consciousness
will be of greater help to us, and fortunately for human weakness the Buddha
himself does give a beautiful simile for each of the four dhyanas. In fact
throughout Buddhist literature we find quite a number of beautiful and
striking similes, many of which no doubt go back to the Buddha himself. I
personally feel that this aspect of the Buddha’s teaching method is
insufficiently stressed. You must not think that the Buddha was dry and
analytical. Often he presented his teaching in purely poetical and imaginative
terms, and sometimes these convey the spirit of that teaching more successfully
than the rather analytical descriptions on which some of his later followers
tended to concentrate.

The simile for the first dhyana or higher meditative state is that of soap powder
mixed with water. A bath attendant, the Buddha said, takes a plateful of soap
powder and mixes it with water. He kneads the two together until he has a ball
of soap, every particle of which is saturated with water. At the same time there
is not a drop of water in excess of what is required to saturate the ball. In this
way in the first dhyana the whole psychological being is saturated with the
higher consciousness. Nothing overflows, and there is no particle of the being
that is unpermeated. Those of you who have had any experience of this state,
or any foretaste of it, will know what is meant. It is as though your ordinary
being is suffused and penetrated by some higher element. ‘You’ are still there,
but you are completely permeated by something of a higher nature.

As the simile for the second dhyana, the Buddha asks us to imagine a lake full
to the brim with water. This lake is fed by an underground spring, so that fresh
water is bubbling up within it all the time. Thus in the second dhyana there
bubbles up from the depths of the pure and translucent mind something even
purer, something active and dynamic – as though you had tapped some
inexhaustible source of inspiration.

Waxing even more poetical, as the simile for the third dhyana the Buddha asks
us to imagine a lotus growing in the water. This lotus is not only permeated by
the water in which it grows, at the same time it is completely immersed in and
surrounded by the water, so that there is water both within and without.
Similarly in the third dhyana you are not only permeated by the higher state of
consciousness but contained within it, so that you live in it as in your natural
element, and draw from it strength and nourishment.

The Buddha’s simile for the fourth dhyana is that of a man who wraps himself
in a clean white sheet after taking a refreshing bath on a hot day, when he is
tired and dusty. Just as the clean white sheet completely envelops the man, so
in the fourth dhyana the higher state of consciousness is all around, protecting
and insulating you from the touch of the outside world. You are hermetically
sealed within it, and though you are not out of communication with the
outside world, so long as you remain in the fourth dhyana no external thing can
affect you.

Though with the attainment of the fourth dhyana we have gone quite far,
Buddhist tradition speaks of four states of consciousness which are, in a sense,
higher still. These are the four ‘formless spheres’. Though sometimes referred
to as the four formless dhyanas, the four formless spheres are in fact
subdivisions – or successive refinements – of the fourth dhyana. Unlike the four
dhyanas, they are described in exclusively conceptual terms. First comes the
‘sphere of infinite space’, reflection on which has the effect of widening the
mind and transporting it beyond its natural boundaries. Here one has the
experience of absolute infinity, without limitation, barrier, or obstacle. Beyond
the ‘sphere of infinite space’ is the ‘sphere of infinite consciousness’, where one
realizes that the mind itself is infinite. Far from being confined to the body, it is
conterminous with infinite space and therefore capable of expanding without
limit in all directions. The third sphere is that of ‘no-thingness’ or ‘non-
particularity’, which is not a state of blankness but an experience in which,
though things are present, it is not really possible to distinguish one thing from
another. To say there is an underlying unity is a crude way of putting it. Things
lose their sharp edges, and no longer mutually exclude one another. The fourth
sphere, the ‘sphere of neither perception nor non-perception’, is altogether
beyond expression. There is no perception because of the extreme subtlety of
the object, and no non-perception because the subject, though no less subtle, is
nonetheless still there. The subject-object duality has been practically
transcended.

Such are the four dhyanas and the four ‘formless spheres’, the successive
attainment of which constitutes progress in meditation, or the development of
unarisen skilful mental states.

The reason we are dealing with meditation and the states of higher
consciousness under the heading of Perfect Effort, rather than under that of
Perfect Samadhi, the eighth stage of the Noble Eightfold Path, is that
meditation is of two kinds. There is that which depends upon conscious effort,
and there is that which arises spontaneously as a natural result of our higher
spiritual life. It is the first of these, meditation with effort, with which we are
concerned here, and which is meditation for all practical purposes. Indeed it is
because meditation requires so much effort, and because it is, in fact, the major
manifestation of effort within the context of the spiritual life and the Eightfold
Path, that it is included here as part of Perfect Effort.

Maintaining Arisen Skilful Mental States

Having prevented and eradicated negative mental states, and developed
positive mental states, we now have to maintain the higher states of
consciousness we have developed. It is very easy to slip back. If we stop our
practice for even so much as a day or two we may well find ourselves back
where we started months before. Regularity is therefore essential. If we give up
after reaching a certain level and make no further effort, the result will be that
we slip back even from that level. If, however, we continue to make an effort
we shall eventually reach a stage from which it is impossible to regress. For
most of us this stage is a long way ahead, and until we reach it we have to be
constantly on our guard in order to maintain what we have developed.

The Background of Perfect Effort

Having examined Perfect Effort itself, let us now look at the context or
background against which it is practised. Just as the context of Perfect
Livelihood is the entire community, in a similar way the background to our
practice of Perfect Effort is the whole evolutionary process. Examining Perfect
Effort against this background should make it clear that the spiritual life is a
special phase of the evolutionary process, and that it constitutes what I call the
Higher Evolution.

The concept of evolution is in many ways the dominant modern concept.

Emerging in the sphere of biology, it was rapidly extended to all other
departments of knowledge, so that nowadays we talk about the evolution of
the solar system, the evolution of the arts, the evolution of religion, and so on.
As Julian Huxley says, ‘the different branches of science combine to
demonstrate that the universe in its entirety must be regarded as one gigantic
process, a process of becoming, of attaining new levels of existence and
organization, which can properly be called a genesis or an evolution.’ Since man
is part of the universe, part of nature, man too is in process of becoming, man
too is constantly attaining new levels – not just new forms – of existence and
organization. Far from being created at a stroke, as people used to think, man
has evolved – and is evolving still.

Any evolving phenomenon can be studied in two ways: in terms of the past or
in terms of the future, genetically or teleologically. Suppose, then, that we take
the phenomenon of man at the best we usually know him – as a self-conscious,
aware human being, who is intelligent, sensitive, and responsible. We can try
to understand man in terms of what he has developed out of, and also in terms
of what he will – or at least could – develop into. The first – what we have
developed out of – constitutes the Lower Evolution. This is the subject matter
of science, especially of biology and anthropology. The second – what we will
or can develop into – constitutes the Higher Evolution. This is the province of
the higher or universal religions, and especially of Buddhism.

There are several stages in the movement from the Lower to the Higher
Evolution. To begin with, there is the start of the whole evolutionary process.
In terms of physics this could be the so-called Big Bang; for biology it could be
the emergence of the simplest forms of life. Then there is the point at which
rudimentary human consciousness emerges. This is the point at which the
animal becomes, or at least begins to become, man – an event that happened
not so very long ago. Next, there is the point at which self-consciousness or
awareness emerges – most of us are still a little below this point, though some
are a little above it. Then there is the point at which transcendental awareness
begins to emerge. This is the point of stream-entry, or of non-regression or
irreversibility – or even of Perfect Vision, at least in its rudimentary form. This
point, where awareness of Reality emerges, is the moment of conversion in the
true sense. It is the Point of No Return. Finally, there is Nirvana,
Enlightenment, or Buddhahood, though in a sense that is a point beyond the
whole evolutionary process altogether.

Putting this in other terms, there is an infra-human stage of evolution, which

comprises the mineral and vegetable kingdoms, and the animal kingdom
exclusive of man. Then there is the human stage, both primitive and civilized.
Next there is what we may call the ultra-human stage of evolution. It is at this
stage that the arts and sciences, culture, and the lower religions are found.
Finally, there is the supra-human or trans-human stage.

In this way, the entire process of evolution, from the simplest forms of life
through to man – unenlightened man – and onwards to the Buddha or
Enlightened man, is accounted for. Science and religion, the Lower and the
Higher Evolution, are embraced in one enormous sweep, and this is a most
inspiring and invigorating prospect. Closing one’s eyes one can see the whole
process of growth and efflorescence, as from its first beginnings it passes
through innumerable successive steps and stages. One can see the long, slow,
painful ascent of life as it culminates – for the present at least – in man.

Perfect Effort as Conscious Evolution

Perfect Effort is of course the sixth stage of the Noble Eightfold Path, and the
Noble Eightfold Path corresponds, strictly speaking, to the fourth stage of the
evolutionary process – to the supra-human or trans-human stage. In a wider
sense, it comprises what we might call the mundane as well as the
transcendental Eightfold Path, it corresponds to the whole process of the
Higher Evolution, that is, to the stages of the ultra- human as well as trans-
human development. As such, it includes in its scope even our relatively half-
hearted attempts to follow the Eightfold Path.

The Lower and the Higher Evolution are in one sense continuous; but in
another sense they are not. There are in fact important differences between
them. Whereas the Lower Evolution is collective, for here it is the whole species
that evolves, not any one individual – at this level the individual does not yet
exist – the Higher Evolution is an individual affair. One individual can evolve
ahead of another and outstrip the whole of the rest of the human race. This
possibility presupposes self-consciousness or awareness, and it is for this
reason that we speak of the conscious evolution of man. It also presupposes
individual effort – which is why Perfect Effort features so prominently in the
Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path.

We have evolved to our present human level collectively. For the most part we
have come up together, but further progress requires a further effort on the
part of each individual. In other words further progress requires Perfect Effort,
both general and specific. It requires that we have recourse to the Four
Exertions: to preventing and eradicating bad thoughts, and developing and
maintaining good thoughts. Ever practising Perfect Effort in this way, we shall
reach the end of the Path, which means that we shall attain Nirvana,
Buddhahood, or Reality.
 7

Perfect Awareness

The Levels of Awareness

We have seen that the Higher Evolution is distinguished from the Lower by the
fact that it takes place in and through awareness. It follows, therefore, that
progress in the Higher Evolution is at the same time a progress in awareness.
Since this progress is measured by the achievement of successively higher
states, this introduces the idea of levels of awareness. It is these levels of
awareness that are the subject matter of the seventh stage of the Noble
Eightfold Path, usually called Right Mindfulness; it is these levels we must
investigate if we want to know what the term ‘Right Mindfulness’, or ‘Perfect
Awareness’, really conveys.

In Sanskrit this stage is called samyak-smrti (Pali samma-sati). Smrti, or sati, is

usually translated as ‘mindfulness’, or sometimes as ‘awareness’, but the literal
meaning of both words is simply memory or recollection. The word has several
shades of meaning, and these are not always easy to disentangle. It is therefore
best to approach the question of the meaning of the word smrti or mindfulness
indirectly, by taking an example from everyday life. This will be – to begin
with – an example not of mindfulness but of unmindfulness, because we are
more familiar with unmindfulness than with mindfulness, and by analysing
unmindfulness we shall perhaps be more easily able to arrive at some
conception of mindfulness.

Suppose, then, that you are writing a letter, an urgent letter that it is imperative
should go off by the next post. But, as so often happens today, the telephone
rings, and it is some friend of yours wanting a little chat. Before you know
where you are you are involved in quite a lengthy conversation. You go on
chatting maybe for half an hour, and eventually, the conversation completed,
you put down the phone. You have talked about so many things with your
friend that you have quite forgotten about the letter, and you have talked for
such a long while that you suddenly feel quite thirsty. So you wander into the
kitchen and put the kettle on for a cup of tea. Waiting for the kettle to boil you
hear a pleasant sound coming through the wall from next door, and realizing it
is the radio you think you might as well listen to it. You therefore nip into the
next room, switch on the radio, and start listening to the tune. After that tune is
finished there comes another, and you listen to that too. In this way more time
passes, and of course you’ve forgotten all about your boiling kettle. Whilst you
are in the midst of this daze, or trance-like state, there is a knock at the door. A
friend has called to see you. Since you are glad to see him you make him
welcome. The two of you sit down together for a chat, and in due course you
offer him a cup of tea. You go into the kitchen and find it full of steam. Then
you remember that you had put the kettle on some time ago, and that makes
you remember your letter. But now it is too late. You have missed the post.

This is an example of unmindfulness in everyday life. Indeed everyday life

consists, for the most part, of this sort of unmindfulness. We can all no doubt
recognize ourselves in the portrait. We can recognize that this is the chaotic,
unmindful fashion in which, for the most part, we live our lives.

Now let us analyse the situation, to give ourselves a better understanding of

the nature of unmindfulness. First of all in our example we see the plain and
simple fact of forgetfulness, which is a very important element in
unmindfulness. We forget about the letter which we are writing when we are
talking on the phone, and we forget the kettle which is boiling for tea when we
are listening to the radio.

Why do we forget so easily in this fashion? Why is it we lose sight of

something we ought to be bearing in mind? The reason is that we are very
easily distracted. Our mind is very easily turned away or turned aside. It often
happens, for instance, that I am giving a lecture or talk of some kind.
Everybody is paying close attention, and there is a pin-drop silence. But then
the door opens, and someone comes in. What happens? Half the heads swivel
round as though they had all been pulled by the same string. People are as
easily distracted as that. Sometimes it is a bluebottle buzzing against the
window-pane, or the dropping of a sheet of my notes that distracts people.
Such things show how easily we are distracted, which is why we tend to forget
in the affairs of everyday life.

Why is it that we are so easily distracted? How does it come about? We are
easily distracted because our concentration is weak. If for instance you were
really listening to me, and really concentrating on what I was saying, an
elephant could come in at the door and you would not notice it. Because we are
not concentrated in this way distraction occurs very easily. We do not
concentrate wholeheartedly on what we are doing. Usually we attend to what
we are doing or saying or thinking only in a half-hearted way.

Why is our concentration so weak? Why are we so half-hearted? Our

concentration is weak because we have no continuity of purpose. There is no
one overriding purpose that remains unchanged in the midst of all the different
things that we do. We switch from one thing to another, one wish to another,
all the time, like the character in Dryden’s famous satire who

Was everything by starts, and nothing long;

But, in the course of one revolving moon,
Was chemist, fiddler, statesman, and buffoon.
Because there is no continuity of purpose, because we are not bent on one main
thing all the time, we have no real individuality. We are a succession of
different people, all of them rather abortive or embryonic. There is no regular
growth, no real development, no true evolution.

Some of the main characteristics of unmindfulness should now be clear.

Unmindfulness is a state of forgetfulness, of distraction, of poor concentration,
of an absence of continuity of purpose, of drift, and of no real individuality.
Mindfulness of course has just the opposite characteristics: it is a state of
recollection, of undistractedness, of concentration, of continuity and
steadfastness of purpose, and of continually developing individuality. All these
characteristics are connoted by the term ‘awareness’, and especially by Perfect
Awareness. This is not to say that Perfect Awareness is fully defined by these
characteristics, but they will serve to give us a general idea of what
mindfulness or awareness is, and of what Perfect Awareness is.

Levels of Awareness
Now let us turn to the main theme of our discussion of Perfect Awareness,
which is levels of awareness. Traditionally these levels are arranged or ordered
in various ways, but here I propose to discuss them under four principal
headings: awareness of things, awareness of self, awareness of other people,
and lastly awareness of Reality, of Truth, of the Ultimate. By considering the
levels of awareness under these four main headings we shall, I hope, be able to
obtain a fairly comprehensive idea of the true nature of Perfect Awareness.

Awareness of Things
When we speak of awareness of ‘things’ we mean material things such as a
book or a table. We mean our whole material environment, full of so many
different objects. We mean, in short, the whole realm of nature. Most of the
time we are only vaguely conscious of the things around us, and have no more
than a peripheral awareness of them. We are not really aware of our
environment, not really aware of nature, not really aware of the cosmos, and
the reason for this is that we seldom or never really stop and look at them.
How many minutes of the day – not to speak of hours – do we spend just
looking at something? Probably we do not even spend seconds in this way, and
the reason we usually give is that we have no time. This is perhaps one of the
greatest indictments of modern civilization that could possibly be made – that
we have no time to stop and look at anything. We may pass a tree on the way
to work, but we have no time to look at it, or even to look at less romantic
things such as walls, houses, and fences. This makes one wonder what this life,
and this modern civilization of ours, is worth if there is no time to look at
things. In the words of the poet:

What is this life if, full of care,

We have no time to stand and stare.
Of course the poet has used the word ‘stare’ for the sake of the rhyme, and
what he really means is not staring in the literal sense but just looking and
seeing. The fact that we have no time for this is something of which we need to
remind ourselves. Yet even if we do have time to stop and look and try to be
aware we hardly ever see things in themselves. What we usually see is our own
projected subjectivity. We look at something, but we see it through the veil, the
curtain, the mist, the fog of our own mental conditioning.

Some years ago, in the Himalayan region of India, I went for a walk with a
Nepalese friend, and we happened to stop at the foot of a magnificent pine
tree. As I looked up at the smooth trunk and the mass of deep green foliage I
could not help exclaiming, ‘Well, isn’t that a beautiful tree!’ My Nepalese
friend, who was standing beside me, said, ‘Oh yes, it is a beautiful tree. There’s
enough firewood there for the whole winter.’ He did not see the tree at all. All
he saw was a certain quantity of firewood. Most of us look at the world of
material things in just this way, and it is an attitude from which we have to free
ourselves. We have to learn to look at things themselves, for their own sake,
untainted by any trace of subjectivity, personal preference, or desire.

This attitude or approach is much emphasized in Far Eastern Buddhist art, that
is in the art of China and Japan. In this connection there is the story of a certain
apprentice painter who once asked his master, a celebrated artist, how to paint
bamboos. The master did not, however, say that you take your brush and make
certain strokes on the silk or the paper. He did not say anything about brushes
or pigments, or even about painting. He only said, ‘If you want to learn to paint
bamboos, first learn to see bamboos.’ This is a sobering thought – that we rush
to paint something when we have not even looked at it – but this is what many
artists actually do, or at least what many amateurs in art do. So the disciple, we
are told, just looked. He went about looking at bamboos. He looked at the stems,
and he looked at the leaves. He looked at them in the mist, and in the rain, and
in the moonlight. He looked at them in spring, in autumn, and in winter. He
looked at large bamboos, and he looked at small bamboos. He looked at them
when they were green, and when they were yellow, when they were fresh and
springy, and when they were dry and decayed. In this way he spent several
years just looking at bamboos. He became genuinely aware of the bamboos. He
really saw them. Seeing them, being aware of them in this way, he became at
one with the bamboos. His life passed into the life of the bamboos. The life of
the bamboos passed into his life. Only then did he paint bamboos; and of
course you may be sure that it was real bamboos that he painted. In fact we
might say that it became a question of a bamboo painting bamboos.

According to Buddhism, at least according to Far Eastern Buddhism – the

traditions of China and Japan and, above all perhaps, the traditions of Ch’an
and Zen – this should be our attitude towards all material things. This should
be our attitude towards the whole of nature: not only towards bamboos, but
towards the sun, the moon, the stars, and the earth; towards trees and flowers
and human beings. We should learn to look, learn to see, learn to be aware, and
in this way become supremely receptive. Because of our receptivity we shall
become one with, or at least fused with, all things; and out of this oneness, this
realization of affinity and deep unity, if we are of artistic temperament we shall
create, and truly create.

Awareness of Oneself
Awareness of oneself has many different sub-levels, of which three are of
particular importance. These are awareness of the body, awareness of feelings,
and awareness of thought.

Awareness of the Body and its Movements

In the sutras the Buddha encourages his disciples to be constantly aware of the
body and its movements. One should be aware when one is walking, sitting,
standing, or lying down. One should be aware of the position of the hands and
of the feet, of how one is moving, how one is gesturing, and so on. According
to this teaching one cannot, if one is aware, do anything in a hasty, confused, or
chaotic fashion. We have a wonderful example of this in what is known as the
Japanese tea ceremony. On the face of it the Japanese tea ceremony revolves
around a very ordinary act, which we do every day: the making and drinking
of a cup of tea. This is something we have all done hundreds and thousands of
times. But how do they do it in Japan? How is it done in the Japanese tea
ceremony? There it is done in a quite different way, because it is done with
awareness.

With awareness the kettle is filled with water. With awareness it is put on the
charcoal fire. With awareness one sits and waits for the kettle to boil, listening
to the humming and bubbling of the water and watching the flickering of the
flames. Finally with awareness one pours the boiling water into the teapot,
with awareness one pours out the tea, offers it, and drinks it, all the time
observing complete silence. The whole act is an exercise in awareness. It
represents the application of awareness to the affairs of everyday life. This
attitude should be brought into all our activities. All should be conducted on
the same principle as the Japanese tea ceremony, everything being done with
mindfulness and awareness, and therefore with stillness, quietness, and
beauty, as well as with dignity, harmony, and peace.

But if the Japanese tea ceremony represents a certain level of awareness in

everyday life, and a certain type of spiritual culture – that of Far Eastern
Buddhism, especially Zen – what analogous ceremony or institution is there
which represents the attitude of the West today? What do we have that
breathes the whole spirit of our commercial culture? Perhaps it is the business
lunch. In the business lunch you are trying to do two things at the same time:
trying to have a good meal, and trying to pull off a good deal. This sort of
behaviour, where one is trying to do two contradictory things at once, is quite
incompatible with any true, real, or deep awareness. It is also very bad for the
digestion.

Awareness of the body and its movements will, if practised continually, have
the effect of slowing these movements down. The pace of life will become more
even and more rhythmical. Everything will be done more slowly and
deliberately. But that does not mean that we will do less work. That is a fallacy.
The person who does everything slowly because he does it with awareness and
deliberation may well accomplish more than the person who looks very busy
because he is always dashing around and has lots of papers and files on his
desk, but who is in fact not busy but just confused. A really busy person goes
about things quietly and methodically, and because he doesn’t waste time in
trivialities and fuss, and because he is aware, in the long run he actually gets
more done.

Awareness of Feelings
In the first place awareness of feelings means being aware of whether we are
happy, whether we are sad, or whether we are in a dull, grey, neutral state
somewhere in between. By becoming more aware of our emotional life we will
find that unskilful emotional states – those connected with craving, hatred, or
fear – will tend to be resolved; whereas the skilful emotional states – those
connected with love, peace, compassion, and joy – will tend to be refined. For
instance, if we are by nature a bit hot-tempered and prone to anger, then as we
develop awareness of feelings we shall first of all be aware of our angry
feelings when we have been angry. With a bit of practice we shall be aware that
we are being angry. And with more practice we shall be aware that anger is on
the point of arising. If we continue to apply awareness to our emotional life in
this way, unskilful emotional states like anger will eventually subside, or at
least be brought under control.

Awareness of Thought
If they are suddenly asked ‘What are you thinking of just now?’ most people
have to confess that they do not know. This is because often we do not really
think, we just allow thoughts to drift through the mind. We are not clearly
aware of them, we are only vaguely conscious of our thoughts in a grey,
twilight sort of way. There is no directed thinking. We do not decide to think
about something and then actually think about it. Ideas drift through our mind
in a vague, loose, and woolly manner. They drift in and they drift out,
sometimes just eddying, curling, and winding round and round inside the
mind.

We therefore have to learn to watch from moment to moment to see where the
thoughts come from and where they go. If we do this we shall find that the
flow of thoughts will be reduced, and that the mental chatter which goes on all
the time will be stopped. Eventually, if we persist in this awareness of thought
for long enough, the mind will become, at certain points – certain peaks in
meditation practice – completely silent. All discursive thoughts, all ideas and
concepts, will be wiped out, and the mind will be left silent and empty, but at
the same time full. This silence or emptiness of the mind is much more difficult
to achieve, or to experience, than any mere silence of the tongue; but it is at this
point, when as a result of awareness the mind becomes silent and thoughts
vanish, leaving only the pure, clear awareness or consciousness behind, that
real meditation begins.

These three kinds of awareness of oneself – awareness of the body and its
movements, awareness of feelings and emotions, and awareness of thoughts –
should be practised, we are told, all the time, whatever we are doing. All
through the day and even, with practice, at night – even in the midst of dreams
– we should continue to be aware. If we are aware in this way all the time:
aware of how our body is disposed, how we put down our foot or raise our
arm; aware of what we are saying; aware of our feelings, whether happy, sad,
or neutral; and aware of what we are thinking, and whether that thinking is
directed or undirected – if we are aware in this way all the time, even for the
whole of our lives if possible, then we shall find that gradually and
imperceptibly, but none the less surely, this awareness will transmute and
transform our whole being, our whole character. Psychologically speaking,
awareness is the most powerful transforming agent that we know. If we apply
heat to water then the water is transformed into steam. In the same way, if we
apply awareness to any psychic content, the content is refined and sublimated.

Awareness of People
If we are aware of people at all we are usually aware of them not as human
beings but as things or objects ‘out there’. In other words, we are aware of them
as physical bodies impingeing on our physical bodies. This way of being aware
of other people is not enough. We must become aware of them as persons.

How is this done? How is one to become aware of another person as a person?
In the first place of course one must look at them. This sounds simple, but it is
in fact very difficult. When I say ‘look at them’ I do not mean stare. We should
not fix them with a hypnotic gaze. We should just look – and this is not so easy
as it sounds. It would not be exaggerating too much to say that some people
have never really looked at another person, while some have never really been
looked at. It is indeed possible to go through one’s whole life without either
looking at another person or being looked at in one’s turn; and if we do not
look at other people we cannot be aware of them.

One such exercise consists in ‘just looking’, that is, in sitting and simply
looking – without tension or embarrassment, and without bursting into
hysterical laughter – at the person seated opposite, who is looking back. This
exercise comes first because there cannot be any real communication with
another person, or any real exchange, unless you are aware of that person.
Communication is of course a whole subject in itself. As has been mentioned in
connection with Perfect Speech, communication is by no means confined to
speech. It can also be so direct and subtle as to be virtually telepathic. When
communication is of this type it usually indicates rather a high level of
awareness in people. Moreover such ‘telepathic’ awareness is usually mutual.

In India there is an important form of awareness of others which is known as

darsan. This means literally a sight or a seeing – a vision – and it is the term
used for awareness of the spiritual teacher. In India, spiritual teachers usually
have what are called ashrams, which are sort of retreat centres where the
teacher lives, where his disciples gather round him, and where people come to
see him. In such ashrams the usual form is that after an evening service called
arati, which involves the waving of lights in front of the image of whatever
Hindu deity is worshipped, the teacher just sits there and people come. In the
case of famous teachers people come from all over India. They come not just in
hundreds but in their tens of thousands, and all they do is sit and look at the
teacher. They ‘take his darsan’. In other words they do their best to be aware of
him – aware of him as a spiritual person, or as the living embodiment of a
spiritual ideal.

In the case of the celebrated Ramana Maharshi, mentioned earlier, he sat in his
ashram ‘giving darsan’ for weeks and months on end. I believe he sat for about
fifty years on one particular spot and people used to come from all over India
to see, to look, to be aware of him. Very often they did not ask any questions, or
enter into discussion. Some of course did, but the majority just sat, looked, and
were aware. They ‘took darsan’. According to Indian spiritual tradition it is not
enough to learn by listening to the teacher’s instruction. One must also be
aware of him as a spiritual person. Without this kind of awareness very little
will be gained from the teacher. One may gain intellectually, but one will not
gain spiritually.

Awareness of Reality
Awareness of Reality does not mean thinking about Reality; it does not even
mean thinking about being aware of Reality. The best way we can describe it is
to say that awareness of Reality is a direct, non-discursive contemplation. It has
of course many forms, only one or two of which I am going to mention.

One of the best known and most widely practised of these forms is known as
the recollection – or awareness – of the Buddha, the Enlightened One. By this is
meant awareness of the person of the Buddha, in the sense of awareness of
Reality as embodied in the form of the Enlightened human teacher. When
practising this as a regular exercise one usually begins by being inwardly
aware of the external appearance of the Buddha – of what he might have
looked like as he trod the roads of India 2,500 years ago. One sees, or one tries
to see, the tall serene figure in the yellow robe as he walked from one end of
northern India to another, preaching and teaching. Then one sees – tries to be
inwardly aware of – the Buddha at certain important moments in his career,
especially when he sat beneath the Bodhi tree, repulsed the armies of Mara
within his own mind, and gained Enlightenment. Various other episodes can
also be imagined.

Then one recollects, becomes aware of, the attributes or spiritual qualities of the
Buddha: the boundless wisdom, the infinite compassion, the great peace, the
immaculate purity, and so on. From being aware of those attributes one tries to
pierce through to their common innermost essence. One tries to pierce through
to the Buddhahood of Buddhahood, the Enlightenment of Enlightenment, and
to become aware of that. In other words one tries to become aware of Reality
itself expressing itself through – even shining through – the person or the
figure of the Buddha, the Enlightened One.

One can also practise, along the same lines, the awareness of sunyata or
voidness: awareness of Reality as empty of all conceptual content, and beyond
the reach of thought and imagination, and even of aspiration and desire; but
this sort of awareness of Reality in its nakedness can be practised only after
some previous experience of meditation.

Awareness of Reality is the most difficult of all the levels of awareness to

maintain. Because of this, various methods have been developed to help us
maintain constant recollection or awareness of Reality, of the Ultimate, the
Transcendent. One of these is the constant repetition of a mantra – a sacred
word or syllable, or string of syllables, which is connected, usually, with a
particular Buddha or Bodhisattva. The repetition of this mantra over and over
again – of course after one has been properly initiated – not only puts one in
contact with that which it represents, but keeps one in contact with it in the
midst of all the vicissitudes, all the ups and downs, even all the heartbreaks
and tragedies, of daily life. Eventually this repetition becomes spontaneous (not
automatic), welling up all the time, even independently of one’s personal
volition, so that a slender thread of contact with Reality is maintained even in
the midst of all the avocations and duties, the responsibilities and trials, and
pleasures too, of ordinary human existence.

Such are the four principal levels of awareness: awareness of things, awareness
of oneself, awareness of people, and, above all, awareness of Reality. Each one
of these has its own distinctive effect on the person practising it. Through
awareness of things, as they really are, we become free from the taint of
subjectivity. Awareness of oneself refines our psychophysical energy.
Awareness of people stimulates. Finally, awareness of Reality transmutes,
transfigures, and transforms.

All these different kinds of awareness contribute, in their own distinctive way,
to the process of the Higher Evolution. They all between them bring one very
near to the last stage of the Path – Perfect Samadhi.
 8

Perfect Samadhi

The Higher Consciousness

We have been following, in imagination at least, the Buddha’s Noble Eightfold

Path, and with the eighth and last stage of that path we come to the end of our
long journey. This last stage is samyak-samadhi (Pali samma-samadhi), usually
translated – not very adequately – as Right Meditation. Rather than offering
any simple translation for the Sanskrit word samadhi, we will refer to this last
stage of the path simply as Perfect Samadhi. What this really means will
become clear as we proceed.

As a general rule the more advanced the stage of spiritual development, the
less there is to say about it. This principle holds good throughout the whole of
the spiritual life. In the Pali scriptures, for instance, we find that whereas the
Buddha had a lot to say about ethics, and went into questions of personal
behaviour in considerable detail, when it came to Nirvana, the ultimate goal,
he said very little. Indeed there was little for him to say! Thus although the
Buddhist scriptures are very extensive and deal with a vast number of topics,
on the whole they do not tell us much about Nirvana. The Buddha was not
very communicative on this particular subject. Indeed when questioned about
Nirvana, or about the nature of Enlightenment, or the experience of the
Enlightened person, he sometimes remained perfectly silent. In worldly life of
course the more we have to say about something the more important we
consider it to be. If an issue is being discussed at great length in the media
everyone assumes it must be very important. But in the spiritual life the less
one has to say about something, or the less one is able to say, the more truly
important it is.

This principle holds good with regard to the Noble Eightfold Path. One can say
a lot about Perfect Speech, Perfect Action, and Perfect Livelihood; one can even
say quite a lot about Perfect Effort and Perfect Awareness; but when we come
to Perfect Samadhi there would seem to be much less to say. It may well be that
having said a little one should take refuge in silence. If that were to happen, it
should be taken as emphasizing the importance of this stage of the Path, and
not otherwise.

The word samadhi, which is the same in both Sanskrit and Pali, literally means
the state of being firmly fixed or established. This is the primary signification of
the term, and it can be understood in two rather distinct ways. First it can be
understood as representing the fixation or establishment of the mind on a
single object, which is samadhi in the sense of mental concentration. Secondly,
and going much further, it can be understood as representing the fixation or
establishment, not just of the mind but of the whole being in a certain mode of
consciousness or awareness. This is samadhi in the sense of Enlightenment or
Buddhahood.

In the Theravada texts, or the texts of the Pali Canon, the word samadhi is
usually understood in the first sense, as concentration or one-pointedness of
mind. But in the Mahayana sutras the word samadhi is often used in the second
sense, in the sense of being fixed or established in Ultimate Reality; in which
case the word that is used instead of samadhi to denote one-pointedness of
mind is generally samatha, the precise meaning of which will be explained later.

This distinction between samadhi in the sense of concentration of mind in

meditation and samadhi in the sense of establishment of the whole being in
Enlightenment is vitally important. If Perfect Samadhi is taken as meaning
merely good concentration, then the whole significance of this stage – and
therewith the whole significance of the Noble Eightfold Path itself – becomes
seriously distorted. Unfortunately this is often done: Perfect Samadhi is
rendered as Right Concentration, and the impression is given that the whole of
the spiritual path, the whole practical teaching of the Buddha as represented by
the Noble Eightfold Path, culminates simply in concentration – the sort of thing
some people achieve in their early meditation classes.

One might indeed go further and say that in modern times each and every step
of the Eightfold Path has been seriously undervalued, even minimized, with a
very narrow and limited interpretation being given. This is unfortunate,
because it makes the Noble Eightfold Path appear as something rather
unattractive, rather confined, and it causes people to wonder how the Eightfold
Path can be considered the central theme of the Buddha’s whole teaching. To
appreciate the significance of the Noble Eightfold Path we need an
understanding of the significance of each stage, and I hope that in this present
exposition I have been able to show that there is much more to the Eightfold
Path than some of its modern exponents generally suspect.

Perfect Samadhi – the culminating phase of the Eightfold Path – is much more
than just good concentration. Perfect Samadhi essentially represents the
fruition of the whole Path of Transformation. It represents the state of being
fully and perfectly transformed, on all levels and in every aspect of one’s being.
In other words it represents the culmination of the process of transformation
from an unenlightened to an Enlightened state, and the complete and perfect
permeation of all aspects of one’s being by that Perfect Vision with which one
started.

Perfect Samadhi means that Perfect Vision has in the end triumphed, and now
reigns supreme at every level of one’s being and consciousness. If Perfect
Samadhi is understood in this way, then real sense is made of the Noble
Eightfold Path, and of one’s pilgrimage along that Path.

Samatha, Samapatti, and Samadhi

Although samadhi in the sense of concentration and samadhi in the sense of
Enlightenment are quite distinct and not to be confused, it is important to
understand that they are not mutually exclusive. Perhaps we would not be
going far wrong if we described them as the lower and higher degrees of the
same experience. One could also say that between samadhi as concentration and
samadhi as Enlightenment there is an intermediate stage or degree which is
known in the Mahayana texts as samapatti. Samapatti literally means
attainments, and it suggests all those spiritual experiences which, occurring as
a result of the practice of concentration, nevertheless fall short of samadhi in the
fullest sense. Thus we have three terms: samatha (Pali samatha) or concentration,
samapatti or attainments, and samadhi in the full and final sense of
Enlightenment itself. These three terms represent a single progressive series of
spiritual experiences, each introducing the next and preparing the way for it.
By studying each in turn we shall gain, as it were cumulatively, an idea or a
glimpse of the nature of samadhi in the more ultimate sense.

Samatha
Samatha literally means tranquillity, though it is also sometimes translated as
pacification, or calming down, or even simply as calm. If we were to translate it
as peace we probably would not be far wrong, because it is a state of profound
peace and calm of mind, and even of the whole being. Mental activity in the
sense of discursive thought or the clattering of the mental machinery is either
minimal – that is, very subtle – or entirely absent. Samatha is also a state of
perfect concentration or one-pointedness of mind, a state of integration of all
the forces and energies of one’s psychophysical being. Thus samatha
corresponds to what are known as the four dhyanas, the four states or stages of
higher consciousness that were discussed under the heading of Perfect Effort.

Samatha is often divided into three degrees or levels or grades: concentration on

a gross material object; concentration on a subtle counterpart of the gross
object; and absorption into the subtle counterpart of the gross object. Since this
may not be very clear, let me give a concrete illustration. Suppose you take up
the practice of concentration on an image or picture of the Buddha. The image
or picture is your gross object. You sit down in front of it and look at it – not
staring, but just looking. You look at it without paying attention to anything
else. You shut out all other sights, all other sense-impressions, and with eyes
wide open you remain fully concentrated on that image or picture, taking it in
fully and completely and being aware of nothing else.

In the second stage you close your eyes and see the image or picture of the
Buddha just as clearly as if you had your eyes open and were looking at the
material image or picture itself. This of course takes quite a bit of practice, and
comes more easily to some than to others. The image you see vividly when
your eyes are closed is the subtle, mental counterpart of the original material
image or picture, and you concentrate on that. Eventually there is no sensory
perception: you are completely concentrated on this mental – even archetypal –
image or picture within.

In the third stage you continue concentrating, even more intensely and one-
pointedly, on the subtle counterpart of the original gross image. As you
concentrate on it you become, as it were, assimilated into it, absorbed in it. The
distinction between the subject and the object eventually disappears, and you
merge with the object of your concentration, and become identified with it.

We have taken concentration on an image or picture of the Buddha as an

example of the practice of samatha, because here the difference between the
degrees can be seen clearly; but in every type of concentration exercise you
start by taking a gross object, work our way up to the subtle object, and then
become absorbed in the subtle object, thus experiencing the three degrees,
levels, or grades of samatha or tranquillity.

Samapatti
Samapatti literally means attainments, or experiences gained as a result of
practising concentration. All those who practise concentration and meditation
eventually get experiences of one kind or another. The type and degree of the
experiences depends very much on personal temperament, and is not
necessarily related to the degree of spiritual development. Sometimes people
assume that if you have a lot of experiences of this sort you are more advanced
than if you have only one or two or none at all; but it is not as simple as that.

The commonest sort of experience of an elementary nature is probably the

experience of light. As the mind becomes more concentrated, you may see
lights of various kinds – usually a white or yellowish light, sometimes bluish,
and occasionally red or green, though these are comparatively rare.
Experiences of this sort are an indication that the mind has become
concentrated, that the level of awareness has been raised slightly, and that one
has begun to contact something which is just a little bit beyond the ordinary
conscious mind. Some people, instead of seeing lights, hear sounds. They may
hear a very deep, sustained musical note, rather like a mantra, or they may
even hear words pronounced, as it were, within themselves. They may hear
these words very clearly at times, as though a voice is speaking to them. People
who believe in God often think, of course, that it is God speaking to them, but
according to Buddhist teaching these sounds or voices all come from the
depths – and sometimes not even from the deepest depths – of one’s own mind
or consciousness.

Occasionally it also happens that in the course of their practice of concentration

people have the experience of perceiving various scents. Sometimes it is as
though the room in which they are sitting is pervaded by a sweet-smelling
scent like that of jasmine or roses, and sometimes this scent can even be smelt
by other people. This too is a sign that the mind is becoming more subtle, more
refined and rarefied, and that one is contacting a higher level of consciousness.

As one progresses the experiences change. Rather than give an account of all
the different experiences one may have, we will mention just a few more of the
typical ones that are likely to occur with most people. One may have the
experience of suddenly seeing landscapes of various kinds unfolding before
one, some with hills and trees and stretching, sometimes, as though for miles.
One may see brilliant blue sky or flashing geometrical patterns, or patterns
made as though of jewels, or mandala-like forms and figures. One may also see
other forms of various kinds, such as faces or eyes. All these experiences are
quite common in the case of people who practise concentration and meditation
even to a slight extent. One may also experience something a little different,
such as a change in one’s body weight: one may feel very heavy, as though one
could not possibly get up; or one may feel very light, as though one was going
to float away like thistledown. There may be experiences of intense heat or
cold, and sometimes these changes of temperature can be perceived by other
people.

Some people who keep up the practice of concentration and meditation over a
long period – though not all, because this is a matter of temperament – find
that not only do their minds become highly sensitized, but they develop
various subtle senses. They may become aware that they are understanding
what other people are thinking, or they may develop faculties such as
clairvoyance and clairaudience. According to Buddhist teaching – in fact
according to Buddhist experience – these faculties develop as the result of
practising concentration and meditation, when the whole being becomes more
refined and subtle. But I must emphasize again that they do not develop in the
case of everybody. Some people apparently can even go the whole way – even
realize Nirvana – without developing any of these faculties at all.

Other samapatti experiences include, perhaps more importantly, the experience

of intense joy, bliss, and ecstasy, and of an ineffable peace descending upon
one and enfolding one. This occurs especially at the time of meditation, but it
can occur at other times also. Even more important – and here samapatti begins
to merge into samadhi – you may attain flashes of insight. It is as though a veil
had been suddenly rent and, just for an instant, you see things as they are – and
then the veil closes. But you do get a glimpse, or a flash. You might suddenly
comprehend the truth of a teaching you had known for a long time, but had
never realized or had any insight into – something you had read about in
books, and thought you knew very well. When you have this flash of insight
into that truth, that reality, you realize that before you did not know it at all –
not one little bit. It is not that you understood it partially or fairly well – not
that at all. When you really see, in an actual flash of insight, you realize that
when you knew this truth only from books or from hearsay you did not really
know it at all.

All the experiences just described are samapatti experiences, and there is an
immense variety of them. No one person experiences them all, but all those
who tread the path of concentration and meditation experience some of them at
least.

Samadhi
Samadhi proper is the state of being established in Reality, or of being
Enlightened. There are many ways of looking at this state. Often it is described
in negative terms, for instance in terms of the destruction of the asravas. The
word asrava (Pali asava) means a poisonous flux, a bias, a lopsidedness in our
nature. The asravas are three in number. First there is the kamasrava (Pali
kamasava), the bias towards, or the poisonous flux of, the desire or craving for
sense experience for its own sake, on its own level. Secondly there is bhavasrava
(Pali bhavasava), or the bias towards, the poisonous flux of, conditioned
existence – in other words the attachment to or desire for any mode of existence
short of Enlightenment itself. Thirdly there is avidyasrava (Pali avijjasava), the
bias towards or the poisonous flux of ignorance, in the sense of spiritual
darkness and unawareness. Thus in negative terms samadhi proper is described
as the complete absence of these three poisonous fluxes or biases. It is a state in
which sense experiences and material things mean nothing: a state in which
there is no desire for any kind of conditioned existence, no real interest in
anything other than Nirvana or Enlightenment, and no shadow of ignorance or
spiritual darkness.

In addition to this negative description of samadhi there are various positive

descriptions – though here we must tread warily, and understand that we are
trying to give a hint or two about something which it is far beyond the power
of words to express. Some of the texts mention a group of three samadhis, in the
higher sense of the term. This does not mean that these are three mutually
exclusive states – the so-called three samadhis are more like different aspects or
dimensions of the one samadhi.

The Imageless Samadhi

The first of these three samadhis is known as the Imageless (Pali and Sanskrit
animitta). It indicates the perfect freedom of the state of samadhi from all
thoughts, all conceptualization. If we can imagine a state in which we are fully
and clearly conscious, fully and clearly aware at the highest possible level,
without any discursive thought – if we imagine the mind as being like a
beautiful, bright blue, clear sky, without even a speck of cloud – this is what
the experience of the Imageless Samadhi would be like. Usually the sky of the
mind is full of clouds: grey clouds, black clouds, sometimes even storm clouds;
but occasionally clouds tinged with gold. The state of samadhi is a state free
from all clouds of thought, all conceptualization.
The Directionless Samadhi
The second samadhi – or aspect or dimension of samadhi – is known as the
Directionless or the Unbiased (Sanskrit apranihita, Pali appanihita). The
Directionless Samadhi is a state in which there is no particular direction in
which one wants to go, there is no preference. One just remains poised, like a
sphere resting on a completely horizontal plane, with no reason why of its own
accord it should roll in any particular direction. The Enlightened mind – the
mind established in samadhi – is like this. It has no tendency or inclination to
any one direction because it has no individual or egotistic desire. This is a
difficult state to describe, but perhaps if one thinks in terms of a perfect
spontaneity, without any urge or impulse to do anything in particular, one may
get somewhere near it.

The Samadhi of the Voidness

The third aspect or dimension of samadhi is known as the Samadhi of the
Voidness, or sunyata (Pali sunnata). Sunyata does not mean emptiness or
voidness in the literal sense. It means Reality. Sunyata-samadhi is the state of full
and complete realization of the ultimate nature of existence, which cannot be
put into words. It is not just a glimpse, as in the stage of Perfect Vision, but a
full, total, and perfect realization. This Samadhi of the Voidness is connected in
some texts with the ekalaksana-samadhi or Samadhi of One Characteristic, also
known as the Samadhi of Same- or Even-Mindedness. This is an experience
where one sees everything as having the same characteristics. We normally see
some things as good, some as bad. Some things we regard as pleasant, some as
unpleasant. Some things we like, some we dislike; some are near, some are far;
some are past, some are present, and some are future. In this way we assign
different characteristics to things. But in the Samadhi of the Voidness you see
everything as having the same characteristic: it is all sunyata, all ultimately real,
and in its ultimate depths all the same. Inasmuch as everything is basically the
same, there is no reason why one should have different attitudes towards
different things; one has the same attitude towards everything, and enjoys,
therefore, a state of peace, tranquillity, stability, and rest.

Those who are interested in Zen, especially in Hui Neng and his Platform
Scripture (also known as The Sutra of Hui Neng), may be interested to know that
both the Samadhi of One Characteristic and the Samadhi of Even-Mindedness
are mentioned in the Platform Scripture. This brings us to a very important point
in connection with Zen Buddhism. Hui Neng, you may remember, says that
samadhi and prajna (or Wisdom) are not different, but in reality the same thing.
He says that samadhi is the quintessence of prajna, and prajna the function of
samadhi, and he illustrates this by saying that samadhi is like a lamp, and prajna
or Wisdom like the light of the lamp.

This identity, or at least non-duality, of samadhi and prajna is a very important

teaching of Hui Neng and of the Zen school generally, and some Western
students of Zen have found it difficult and confusing. Sometimes they have
even distorted it. The reason for this is that they take the word samadhi to mean
concentration, and think that Hui Neng is equating this with Wisdom, making
nonsense of his teaching and leading people far astray indeed. The samadhi of
Hui Neng, however, in this passage at least, is samadhi in the highest sense:
samadhi as identical with the eighth step of the Noble Eightfold Path, as we
have explained it. In other words samadhi in this passage means the state of
being fully established in the Enlightened mode of being. This is in fact quite
clear from the Platform Scripture. Hui Neng says quite clearly and emphatically
in the sutra that people misinterpret the Samadhi of One Characteristic,
thinking that it means sitting quietly and continuously without letting any
ideas arise in the mind. In other words they think it means concentration – an
interpretation Hui Neng rejects. If it were just concentration it would make us
like inanimate objects. Samadhi in the real sense, he says – in his sense, in the
Ch’an or Zen sense – is something quite different.

This does not mean that Hui Neng is against sitting in meditation, or against
concentrating the mind. He is only saying that concentration, or samatha, is not
samadhi in the fullest and highest sense, or in the real sense. Concentration is
just concentration: it is not that samadhi which, according to his teaching, is
identical with prajna. True samadhi, Hui Neng says, remains the same in all
circumstances and conditions. It is not something you experience only when
you sit and meditate.

In Zen monasteries and temples the three stages of samatha, samapatti, and
samadhi – in the highest sense – are all taught and practised; but Zen shares the
first two with the other schools of Buddhism. The specific contribution of Zen
lies in its teaching about samadhi in the ultimate sense, in the sense of the state
of being established in the Enlightened mode of being, and especially in its
teaching about the non-duality of samadhi and prajna.

The Noble Eightfold Path as a Cumulative Process

We are now in a better position to understand what it is that we are trying to
attain when we follow the Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path. We are trying to
attain a higher mode of being and consciousness. We are not just trying to
achieve ‘Right Concentration’. What we are aiming at is a total transformation
of our whole being, at every level and in all its aspects, in the light of the initial
Perfect Vision. And, so far as we can see, this step or stage of Perfect Samadhi
marks the culmination of the whole evolutionary process – at least, the whole
process of the Higher Evolution.

At this point one should add a word of warning, or at least of explanation. The
Noble Eightfold Path is, as its name tells us, a path or way (Sanskrit marga, Pali
magga) made up of eight steps or stages, and the Buddhist spiritual life consists
of following this path. This is familiar imagery, which we use all the time in
Buddhism, but we should beware of interpreting too literally what is
essentially a figure of speech. We are so easily misled by words – so easily take
them at face value. It is true that in a way the spiritual life does consist in
following a path, going from one stage to the next. But in another way the
spiritual life is not at all like following a path. When we go along a path we
leave the earlier stages behind. They are finished and done with. But in the case
of the spiritual path it is not like that. The spiritual path is a cumulative
process, like rolling a snowball along the ground – it grows and expands all the
time. It is not that first we have Perfect Vision, and then when Perfect Vision is
finished and done with we forget all about it and go on to Perfect Emotion, and
so on. It is not like that at all, though understandably we think in those terms.
The spiritual path is in fact a cumulative process, a process of growth or
expansion, and in a sense we are following all the stages of the Eightfold Path
all the time.

How is this? Suppose that, just for an instant, we experience Perfect Vision. It
may be while we are meditating, or out walking in the countryside, or listening
to music, or even as we pause in the midst of the traffic. Howsoever it may be,
we have an experience of Perfect Vision. Something opens up within us and,
for a fraction of a second, we see things as they really are. For a fraction of a
second we are in contact with something Ultimate – even with Reality. But then
what happens? This moment of Perfect Vision influences our emotions and, to
some extent at least, we develop Perfect Emotion, the second step of the Path. It
also overflows into our speech and influences that, so that our speech becomes
more like Perfect Speech. Our actions are also influenced, at least subtly and
indirectly. We are changed in all these ways, and so it goes on. At some other
time – maybe weeks, months, or years later – there is another moment of
Perfect Vision, and the whole process repeats itself. We are influenced still
more by Perfect Vision, our emotions become more like Perfect Emotion, our
speech become more like Perfect Speech, and so the process continues.

As has already been noted, the word anga means limb, not step or stage, so that
the arya-astangika-marga (Pali ariya-atthangika-magga) is the eight-limbed, or
eight-membered, or eight-shooted path, not the path of eight successive
discrete steps or stages. Thus the spiritual life is more like a process of growth,
more like the unfolding of a living thing, than it is like someone going from one
stage to the next of a path, or from one rung to the next of a ladder.

Spiritual growth is like the development of a tree. First you have a sapling
rooted in the earth, and then one day the rain falls, perhaps quite heavily. The
rain is absorbed through the roots of the sapling, the sap rises and spreads into
the branches and twigs – and the tree grows. There is a pause, and then again
the rain falls, again the sap rises, and this time not only does it spread into the
branches and twigs, but leaves begin to unfold. If no rain falls for a time the
tree may wither a little, but eventually more rain comes – there may even be a
real cloudburst, a downpour – and then not only does the sap rise into the
branches and twigs and leaves, but flowers begin to unfold. The following of
the Eightfold Path is like that. First there is a spiritual experience, a glimpse of
Reality, or in other words a moment of Perfect Vision. This is like the falling of
the rain. And just as the sap rises and spreads into the branches and twigs, so
Perfect Vision gradually transforms the different aspects of our being. Emotion
is transformed, speech is transformed, actions and livelihood are transformed –
even volitions and awareness are transformed. As a result of that moment of
Perfect Vision, to some extent the whole being is transformed.

This process is repeated over and over again, at ever higher levels, until at last
the entire being is completely transformed, and nothing is left unchanged. One
is entirely pervaded by the light of Enlightenment. This is the stage of Perfect
Samadhi – the stage when one’s whole being and consciousness, having been
brought into line with one’s original Perfect Vision, has been thoroughly
transformed and transmuted, from the lowest up to the highest levels. It is also,
of course, the state of Enlightenment or Buddhahood. The Path has now been
completely fulfilled – has, in fact, become the Goal – and the whole process of
the Higher Evolution has been perfected.

With this we come to the end of our journey. At least we come to the end of
that journey in our imagination. It is my hope that this imaginary journey has
been of some use both to those who have been trying to follow the Path for
some time, and to those who are newcomers to the study and practice of the
Buddha’s teaching, and that it will help them follow the Buddha’s Noble
Eightfold Path, not just in imagination, but in reality.