Units of Measurement

Data:
Absolute pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
= Atmospheric Pressure – Vacuum
Pressure = P = ç X g X h (ç (water) = 1000 kg/m 3, ç (Mercury) = 13596 kg/m3)
Specific Gravity of Mercury = (Density of Substance/Density of water) = 13596/1000
= 13.596
Water at Atmospheric Pressure: Freezing point = 0°C, Boiling Point= 100°C
NTP (Normal Temperature and Pressure) Atmospheric Pressure = 760 mmHg;
Temperature = 0°C
STP (Standard) Pressure = 760 mmHg; Temperature 15°C
Molar (Universal) gas constant = Ro = 8.3143 kJ/kg°Kmol = MR = Molecular weight
X 0.287 kJ/kg°K (For Air)
Air=> Cp = dh/dT = 1.005kJ/kg°K, Cv = R/( - 1) = 0.718kJ/kg°K,  = Cp/Cv =
1.4; R = Cp-Cv = 0.287kJ/kg°K
For Copper, Cp = 0.394 kJ/kg°K

Conversion:
1 kg/cm2 = 10 m of water column = 10000 mmwc = 10000/13.596 = 735.51 mmHg
(mm of Mercury)
1 bar = 750 mmHg = 1.0197 kg/cm2 = 10197 mmwc = 100000 Pascal = 100000 N/m2
1 Atmospheric Pressure = 760 mmHg = 1.0333 k/cm2 = 10333 mmwc = 1.0133 bar
°C = K – 273.16 = (5/9)X(°F-32); °F = °R – 459.6 = (9/5)°C + 32
-40°C = -40°F; 0°C = 32°F; 0°F = -17.8°C; 100°C = 212°F
1 Litre = 1000cm3 ; 1 m3 = 1000 Litre = 1000000cm3 ;
1 yard = 3 foot = 0.9144 m; 1 mile = 1760 yard = 1609 m; 1 acre = 43560 sq. Foot
1 Lb = 0.453592 kg; 1 in = 25.4 mm; a kgf = 9.81 Newton; 1 Lbf = 4.448 Newton; 1 bar
= 14.505 Lb/Sq. in.

Properties of Gases
Laws: Boyle: PV = C (T=Constant) => P 1V1 = P2V2; Charles: V/T = C
(P=Constant)=>V1/T1 = V2/T2
Combination: PV/T = C = P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 /T2 => PV = mRT
Real Gases (Van der Waal's Equation)
(P + a/V2) X (V-b) = RT (Where a = Force of interaction between molecules; b=
volume of molecules)
Avogadro's Law: Molecular volume = V = MRT/P = (8314.3 x 273.16)/101325 =
22.413 m3/kgmole
Equal volume of all gases at same pressure and temperature contain same number
of molecules.
(or) Molecular masses of all the gases occupy same volume at NTP.
Clapeyron-Mondeleyer Equation: a mole of gas => PV = 8314.3 T
Intensive Properties = Not related to masses (Specific Properties, Temperature,
Pressure)
Extensive Properties = Related to mass (Volume, Enthalpy, Internal Energy)
Kinetic Energy = (½) X Mass X (Velocity) 2 ; Potential Energy = M X g X (Elevation);
Q -W = U2 - U1
1
Steady flow Energy equation => g Z 1 + u1 + p1v1 + [(C1)2/2] + Q = g Z2 + u2 + p2v2 +
[(C2)2/2] + W
Mass flow rate = m =  X A1 X C1 =  X A2 X C2 => (A1 X C1 )/v1 = (A2 X C2 )/v2
Nozzles (Adiabatic) => g Z2 - g Z1 = 0 => h1 + [(C1)2/2] = h2 + [(C2)2/2] => C2 =  [2
(h1 - h2)+ (C1)2 ]
Throttle Valves => Workless adiabatic expansion => K.E. = P.E. = 0 => h 1 = h2

Properties of Steam
Enthalpy of steam = m X [hf + (x X hfg) + Cp (Tsup – Tsat)]
Vsup = [Vg X (Tsup/Tsat)] [where Psup = Psat]; And for wet steam Vw = [(1-x) X (x
X Vg)]
Bucket Calorimeter: [ms X {hf1 – h3 + (x X hfg1)}] = (mc – mw) X (h3 – h2) X Specific heat
of water
[Where hf1, hfg1 and ms for steam, mc and mw for Calorimeter; t2 and h2 for water in; t3
and h3 for water out]
Separating Calorimeter: x = (Mass of dry steam/Total mass of steam) = m/(m+m 1)
Throttling Calorimeter: hf1 + (x1 X hfg1) = hf2 + Cp (Tsup – Tsat)
Combined Separating & Throttling: x = (x 1 X x2); Where x2 = m/(m+m1)
(First separates mass m and then throttles); Moisture-Mass to Throttling = [(1 – x 1) X
m];
Mass to Separator = [(1-x) X (m+m1)]; Removed by Separator = [(1- x2) X (m+m1)]
Duplex Feed Pump = Double acting Pump - Two pumps mounted side by side.
Brake Power to drive pump = (m X g X H)/(Efficiency) watts, where m is in kg/s
Volume of water pumped = Area X Length X Number of strokes X Number of
Cylinders

Performance of Boilers
Standard Evaporation Unit = 2256.9 kJ/kg [Steam = 1 kg, T FW = 100°C, p = 1.01325
bar, Tsat = 100°C]
Equivalent evaporation = [ m {(hf – h1) + (x X hfg)}] / (2256.9) [Where m is mass of
steam per kg of coal]
Efficiency of Boiler = [ m {(h f – h1) + (x X hfg)}] / [Mass of Coal X CV of coal]

Draught
At NTP, Volume of 1 mol = 22.4 m 3 And molecular mass of air = [(23X32) +
(77X28)]/100 = 28.97 kg
Density of air at NTP = 28397/22.4 = 1.293 kg/m 3 ; Amd density of air at Ta°C =
[1.293 X (273/Ta)] = 353/Ta
Density of Flue Gas at Tg°C = [1.293 X (273/Tg)] = 353/Tg
Mass of air is 'm' kg per (1) kg of fuel => Density of Flue gas =  FG = [(m+1)/m] X
(353/Tg)
Draught = Static head = Differential Pressure X Area and h is in mmwc =>
Differential Pressure = p = ( water X (h/1000) X g) in N/m2. = (h X g) in N/m2.
So, Draught = [(h X g) X A] = [( a X g X H X A) – ( FG X g X H X A)] {Where H is
the height of Chimney}
Draught = h = [H X ( a – FG )] = H X [(353/Ta) – (353/Tg) X {(m+1)/m}]
Now, Hot gas column (height of gas above chimney top) = H'. And p = h' X g =  FG
2
X g X H'
p = FG X g X H' = (h X g) = [H X ( a – FG )] X g => H' = [H X ( a – FG )] / FG
H' = (H X [(353/Ta) – (353/Tg) X {(m+1)/m}] )/{(353/Tg) X {(m+1)/m}
H' = H X [{m/(m+1)} X (Tg/Ta) – 1]
Actual Draught = Ha = (1 – loss) X H'
Velocity of flue gas = V =  [2 X g X Ha]
Flue gas Flow through Chimney = Q = K X A X V [Where K = coefficient of velocity
= (0.3-0.5)]
Condition for maximum discharge through chimney => Tg = 2 X Ta X {(m+1)/m}
h' = H metre => h = 176.5 X (H/Tg)
Loss due to chimney (Due to high exhaust temperature):
Heat carried away =(Sp. Heat of Flue gas)X(Temp. of FG in natural draught – Temp.
of FG in artificial draught )
Heat carried away = Cp X (t – t2)
Maximum energy that a height of hot gas column can give = H X [{m/(m+1)} X
(Tg/Ta) – 1] X g
Efficiency of Chimney = (H X [{m/(m+1)} X (Tg/Ta) – 1] X g)/[Cp X (t – t 2)]
Heat carried away by Flue Gas = (m+1) X Cp X (t – t2)
Heat carried away by Flue Gas as % of Heat supplied = [(m+1) X Cp X (t – t 2)] / (CV
per kg of coal)
Power required to drive fan = Brake Power = (h X g X V) / (Efficiency of Fan)
{Where V = Volume handled}
Volume of 1 kg of air at NTP = Vo = 1/(Specific mass) = 1/(1.293) [At temperature
To = 273°K]
Forced Draught fan => V = [Vo X(Ta/To)X N X m]{Where N = Coal rate (kg/hr); m
= air mass (kg/kg of coal)}
Induced Draught fan => V = [Vo X (Tg/To) X N X (m+1)]
(B.P. - ID)/(B.P.-FD) = [{(m+1)/m} X (Tg/Ta)]
Velocity head to be imparted to air Hv = (v2)/(2 X g)
Pressure equivalent to Velocity Head = m X g X Hv = ( X V) X g X Hv = 1.293 X 1 X
9.81 X [(v2)/(2 X g)]
Draught lost = (p/g) in mmwc = (Where p is in Pascal)
pV = mRT => Volume of Air = (m X 287 X Ta) / (1.013 X 100000)
Volume of Flue Gas = [(m+1) X 287 X Tg] / (1.013 X 100000)
Inclined leg manometer => a X d = A X h 2 = A X (h – h1) = A X [h – (d X sin)]

Condenser
Corrected Vacuum = 760 – (Barometric Height – Vacuum ) mm
Absolute Pressure in Condenser = Ptot = Barometric Height – Vacuum Reading
Dalton's Law: P = Ps + Pa; Gas Law: Pa X V = m a X R X T;
ma = V/Va & ms = V/Vs; m = ma + ms = [(1/Va) + (1/Vs)] = ma [1 + (Va/Vs)] = ms
[1 + (Vs/Va)]
P1 = Ideal pressure corresponding to condensate temperature; P = Actual Pressure =
Ptot - Pa
Vacuum Efficiency = Actual Vacuum/Ideal Vacuum = (Barometric Pr – P) /
(Barometric Pr - P1)
Condenser Efficiency = (Temp rise in cooling water) / (Vacuum related Temp – CW
3
Inlet Temp)
Coefficient of Performance (COP) (Measure of efficiency of surface Condenser in
removing latent heat only)
Cooling Water Outler Temp = Saturation Temperature => COP = (Tcwo – Tcwi)/
[(Tsat – Tcond) + 5]
Condenser heat exchange => mw X Cpw X (Two – Two) = ms [hf + (x X hfg) – h1]
If separate pumps for water and air are given and vacuum is same throughout the
condenser
Mass of vapour associated with air [= ms1 At air pump suction Ta1)][= ms2 At air
pump discharge Ta2)]
Jet Condenser: Steam & water are mixed => ms X x X hfg = mw X Cpw X (Two – Two)
[ hfg =Latent heat at Ps and Two = Tsat] [Vs = Volume of condensed steam/water
with Density = 1000 kg/ m3]
Capacity of Dry Air Pump = Va = [(m a X R X Ta) / Pa] m3/hr; Capacity of Wet Air
Pump = Va + Vs
Evaporative Condenser: Heat from steam = ms [hf + (x X hfg) – h1]
[Vs = Sp. Volume of steam at Ps and Va = Sp. Vol by PaV = mRT] [P = Pa + Ps]
Mass of vapour associated with 1 kg of air = msi = (Vai/ Vsi) and mso = (Vao/Vso)
Heat given to air = m a X Cpa X (To – Ti) and Heat given to vapour = m a X [(mso X
Ho) - (msi X Hi)]
Water vapour evaporated = ma X [mso - msi ] per kg of dry air
Steam Engines
Average Piston Speed =2 X (Length of Stroke) X RPM = 2 X L X N
Mean height of Indicator Diagram = (Area of indicator Diagram)/(Base of Indicator
Diagram)
Expansion is hyperbolic => pV = Constant
P1 = Inlet pressure; Pb = Back pressure; V1 = Volume of Cylinder at cut off; V2 =
Swept Volume
Ratio of Expansion = r = (V2 / V1 ) = [(Vs + Vc)/(Vcut + Vc)]
Net work done per cycle = (P 1 X V1 ) + (P1 X V1 ) X log(V2 / V1 ) - (Pb X V2) = (Pm X
V2) = (Pm X Vs)
=> Pm = (P1 /r) X [1 + log(r)] - Pb
Diagram Factor = (Actual Area)/(Theoretical Area) [Area or Mean Height or Pm or
Power]
Indicated Power (Single Acting) = Pm X L X A X (N/60) = Pm X L X {(/4)X D 2) X n
Indicated Power (Double Acting) = [(P 1 X A1 ) + (P2 X A2)] X L X (N/60)] {A 2 = (A1 -
Area of piston rod)}
Tractive Effort = T and v = Speed of locomotive => Power developed = T X v
Pony Brake => Brake Power = P X Lp X [2 X  X (N/60)] {Dynamometer Constant =
[2 X  X (Lp/60)]}
Rope Brake => Braking Torque = (W – S) X R [where R = {(D + d)/2}]
Work done per revolution = [(W – S) X R X 2 X ] => Brake Power = (W – S) X (D +
d) X  X (N/60)
Brake Power = [(W – S) X N] / K { Where ( X D)/60 = 1/K}
Mechanical Efficiency = (Power at Crank shaft) / (Power Developed)
= (Brake Power / Indicated Power) = [ 1 – (Friction Power) / (Indicated Power)]
Steam Consumption = [{Vcut / (x X Vs)} X N X 60] kg/hr
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/4) X D2 X (L/r)} X {1/ (x X Vs)} X N X 60] kg/hr {Where r is cut off
ratio)
Thermal Efficiency = (Work done by steam)/(Heat supplied)
Overall efficiency = Thermal Efficiency X Mechanical Efficiency = (Brake Power) /
(Heat supplied)
Heat supplied = E = (Total Enthalpy at P1) – (Sensible heat at Pb) = H1 - h2
Total Heat Input = (Mass of steam in kg/hr) X (Heat supplied) = M X E
Specific Steam Consumption: Ci (indicated) = M/(IHP in kW); Cb (brake) = M/
(BHP in kW)
Throttle governing: Specific Steam consumption at fractional load more (than for cut
off governing)
Equation for Willian's line = [{(Slope A) X (Indicated Power)} + Intercept B] {B is
loss due to condensation]

Area, Perimeter, Surface Area & Volume

Triangle: A = ½ X Base X Height; P = a + Rectangle: A = length X width; P = (length
b+c + width)
Circle: A = (/4)X D ) ; P = X D
2
Annulus: A = (/4) X (D 2 - d2)
Sector: A = ½ X r X s; s = r X [(/360) X Segment: A = ½ X r2 (radA – sinA)
]
Ellipse: A = X (a + b); P = X (a + b) Sides of Ellipse big = 2 X a; small = 2 X b
X constant
Regular Prisam: V = ½ X n X r X a X h; Lateral area = n X A X h = P X h; P =
perimeter of base and a = side
Cylinder: V =  X r2 X h ; S = (2XXr2) +Truncated: h = ½ X (h 1 + h2); V =  X r 2 X
(2XXrXh) h
Hollow Cylinder: V =  X h X (R2 - r2) Sphere: V = (4/3)X X r3 ; S = 4X X r2
Cone: V = (1/3) X  X r 2 X h ; S = (Xr Cone Frustum: V = (1/3) r h X ( r 2 + r r'
Xs) + ( X r2) + r'2 )
Cube: V = a3 ; S = 6 X a2 Box: V = a X b X c ; S = 2 X (ab + ac + bc)

Trains
Distance = d meter; velocity = V m/s, acceleration = a m/s2, time = t seconds,
Subscripts: i = initial; f = final
d = (Vi X t) + (½ X a X t2) ; Vf = Vi + (a X t); a = (Vf – Vi)/t ; t = (Vf – Vi)/a
d = {[Vi X (Vf – Vi)/a ] + [½ X a X {(Vf – Vi)/a} 2] => d = [(Vf)2 – (Vi)2]/(2Xa)
If Vi = 0 => d = (½ X a X t2) and Vf = (a X t)
If a = 0 => d = Vi X t and Vf = Vi
Trains A & B are running parallel: Effective Velocity = V A - VB; Running opposite:
Effective Velocity = VA+VB
On meeting A and B, time will be equal. And d = d A + dB
Starting from the same point: On overtaking; d A = dB and tA = tB + delay

Stress
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Hoop Stress: ft = (pd/2t); {as [p X (d X l)] = [ft X (2t X l)]
Longitudinal stress ft = (pd/4t); {as [p X (/4) X (d) 2] = [ft X X d X t]
Maximum shear stress = (fmax – fmin) / 2
Riveted joints: Original strength = P = ft X p X t ; Tearing Tension = Pt = ft X (p-d) X
t
Shearing = Ps = Single = 1 X fs X(/4) X (d) 2 ; Double riveted = 1.875 (or 2) X fs
X(/4) X (d)2
Crushing = Pc = fc X n X d X t ; Efficiency = (Least of Pt, Ps & Pc)/P
Actual load = Pa = (P)/(Factor of safety); Actual stress = f = (Pa)/A
Fuels
HCV = [35 X (C/100)] + [143 X {(H – O/8)/100}] + [9.16 X (S/100)] MJ/kg [C, H, O
& S are in %]
LCV = HCV – Hw
Oxygen in fuel is believed to be associated with hydrogen only. For 8 part oxygen
there is 1 part hydrogen.
Enthalpy of steam at 25°C = 2442.5 kJ/kg of steam = 2.4425 MJ/kg of steam
=> Heat loss in evaporation of H 2O formed from hydrogen of fuel = 2.2425 X (9 X
H/100) = 22X (H/100)
=> LCV = [35 X (C/100)] + [121 X {(H – O/8)/100}] + [9.16 X (S/100)] MJ/kg [C,
H, O & S are in %]

There are fixed number of molecules in a Mole. Mass of mole may be different as
shown.
H = 1 => H2 = 2; O = 8 => O2 = 16; C = 12; S = 32; N = 14 => N2 = 28; H2O = 18; CO2 =
44; CO = 28.
Number of molecules are same in H 2 and in H2O, but mass is different. One mole of
H2 and half mole of O2 makes one mole of H2O. Same way, one mole of C and one
mole of O2 makes one mole of CO2 .
One mole of substance occupies 22.4 m3 (at NTP)
Energy Release (Change in internal energy) Solid/Liquid => Isothermal (V=C)
Gas=> Isothermal (P=C)
In gaseous preocess volume gets changed => work is to be considered.
Bomb Calorimeter: M(fuel) X CV = (Mw + Meq-container) X Cpw X (Two – Twi)
Gas Calorimeter: (Pn X Vn)/Tn = (1.01333 X Vn)/272 and Ts = (273+15)K
LCV can be calculated by substracting (Mcondensate X 2442.5)

Combustion of Fuels
Air Composition: By Mass – (23% Oxygen, 77% Nitrogen); By Volume - (21%
Oxygen, 79% Nitrogen
Theoretical Air required for combustion = (100/23) X [(32/12)C + 8H + S – O]
Gravimetric Analysis: For hydrocarbons (fuel with Carbon and Hydrogen only)
x kg carbon in 1 kg fuel, y kg air; (12 kg C in one mole, 2 kg H in one mole, 32 kg O
in one mol etc.) =>
Mols = [(x/12) X C] + [(1-x)/2 X H 2] + [(0.23y/32) X O2] + [(0.77y/28) X N2] =
= a(CO) + b(CO2) + c(O2) + d(H2O) + [(0.77y/28) X N2]
When fuel % is given in volume, division by molecular mass is not required, as %
shows mols. (20% = 0.2 mol)
6
Flue gas volumetric analysis: To find Air supplied for combustion
(Mass of N2 in Flue Gas) / (Mass of carbon in FG) = [28 X (N% in FG)]/ [12 X (CO%
+ CO2 % in FG)] =>
Mass of N2 in Air (or FG) per kg of fuel = {[28 X N%]/ [12 X (CO% + CO 2 % )]} / [C
% in Fuel/100]
And Mass of N2 in Air = 0.77 X Wair = (77/100) X Wair
Comparing, Wa = [(N% in FG by vol.) X (C% in fuel by mass)] / [33 X (CO% + CO 2
% in FG by vol)]
Now, N2 in excess air by vol is (79/21) X (O2%) and N2 in total air by vol is N2 %
And N2 ratio = Air Ratio => (Excess Air/Total Air) = [(79/21) X (O 2%)] /[N2 %]
Excess Air = [(79/21) X (O2%)] /[N2 %] X [N% X C% ] / [33 X (CO% + CO2 % )]
When C, N CO2 & CO are given in mass, then for 1 kg of fuel,
Wa = [N% X C% ] / [77 X {(12/28)CO% + (12/44)CO 2 % )] = [N% X C% ] /
[(33XCO%) + (21XCO2 % )]
Requirement of oxygen for gaseous fuel: H 2 -> ½ m3 ; CO -> ½ m3 ;C -> 1 m3 ;CH4 ->
2; C2H4 -> 3; C3H6-> 6
And Air requirement = (100/21) X Oxygen in m3
When Dry Flue Gas Analysis is given (To find Excess air supplied)
Quantity of air supplied = V + V1 (Minimum Air = V, Excess Air = V1)
Excess Air = (Oxygen % in FG)/ (21%) = (V 1)/(V + V1) => V1 = (V – Oxygen %) /
(21 – Oxygen %)
Calculation of heat losses
Dry Flue gas per kg of fuel = m X Cp X (T-t) [where Cp = 1.004 kJ/kgK]
Water formed by combustion of H2 of fuel = 9 X H X 4.1868 X [(100-t) + h fg + {0.48 X
(T-100)}]
Water (Moisture) in fuel = Mw X [ 4.1868 X (100-t) + h fg + {0.48 X (T-100)}]
Incomplete combustion = (C% in fuel) X [(CO%) / (CO% + CO 2%) by vol] X 24800
kJ/kg
Hydrocarbon e.g. CH4 = (CH4% in fuel by vol) X [(CO% + CO2% + CH4% ) by vol]X
(4/3) X 55700 kJ/kg
Unbutnt in Ash: [(C% in Ash X Mass of Ash) / 100] X 35000 kJ/kg
In case of IC Engine (By circulating water) = Mcw X Cw X (To – Ti)
Unaccounted losses = Total Heat supplied – (Heat utilized + Counted Losses)
APH Leakage in % = [(Down stream O2 – Upstream O2) / (21 - Down stream O2)] X
100
CO2% + O2% = 19 (coal fired) = 15.5 (Oil fired)
ORSAT Apparatus: A = Measuring burette, E = Levelling bottle
B absorb CO2 20 times of KOH (Caustic Potash)
C absorbs O2 two times of pyrogallic acid (alkaline); it absorbs CO2 also.
D absorbs CO with Cuprous Chloride (acidic) and Metal Copper (one times); it
absorbs O2 also.
Nitrogen is obtained by difference.