Metal casting

Gating system
A GATING SYSTEM is the conduit
network through which liquid metal
enters a mold and flows to fill the
mold cavity, where the metal can
then solidify to form the desired
casting shape

.A pouring cup or a pouring basin provides an opening for the introduction of

metal from a pouring device.
A sprue carries the liquid metal down to join one or more runners, which
distribute the metal throughout the mold until it can enter the casting cavity
through ingates
Pouring Basin: An enlarged portion at the top of the sprue.
Sprue: A vertical passageway through which the molten metal gets to the runner.
Choke: A restriction in the gating system that limits the flow rate of the molten
metal.
Runner: The passageway metal flows through to get to the gates from the sprue.
Runner Extension: Short extension of runner which goes beyond the last gate.
In-gate: a Small passage from the runner to the mold entry .
Riser: A vertical passageway which provides a source of hot metal to prevent
shrinkage in the casting.
 Desirable design considerations for gating system
The design considerations are many times conflicting

• Rapid mold filling

• Minimizing Turbulence
• Avoiding Mold and Core Erosion
• Removing Slag, Dross, and Inclusions
• Promoting Favorable Thermal Gradients
• Maximizing Yield
• Economical Gating Removal
• Avoiding casting distortion
• Compatibility With Existing Molding/Pouring Methods
• Controlled Flow Conditions.
Pouring time
The pouring time is calculated based on the integrated energy balance
equation on the basis of unit mass flow (Bernoulli’s equation)
Case –a:
• Assumptions:
• Pressure at point 1 and point 3 is equal (i.e. P3 = P1)
• Molten metal level at point 1 is maintained constant . i.e. v1 = 0
• Frictional losses along the mold surfaces are neglected.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between point 1 and point 3 gives

Time taken to fill the mold cavity, tf :

V= Volume of the Casting

Ag = Cross sectional area of the gate.
 Aspiration effect
• Care should be taken to ensure that pressure anywhere in the
liquid metal does not fall below atmospheric pressure.
• Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (3) and (2) for case (a),

If pressure at point (3) is atmospheric, P3 = 0

Then . (since v2 = v3)

This is not acceptable since gas entrapment (aspiration

effect)from the porous mold in to the molten metal will take
place due to the negative pressure at point 2.
The sprue should be tapered to prevent this.
The ideal case can be obtained as follows:

Let in the limiting case, p2 = 0. From the previous equation,

From continuity equation, A2v2 = A3 v3

Also P1 = p3 = 0 and v1 = 0

The limiting condition for preventing aspiration effect is

i.e.
 During fluid flow the non-uniform velocity distributions can be accounted by
replacing the (velocity)2 in the integrated energy equation by
Where is the average velocity and
઺ = 0.5 for laminar flow and
= 1 for turbulent flow

Energy loss due to friction in a circular conduit based on per unit mass, Ef

= average velocity, D, L = diameter and length of the conduit,

f = friction factor.

This should be added to the energy at station (2) in the integrated energy
equation, when the flow is from station (1) to station (2).
For a smooth conduit
For laminar flow Re < 2000

where For turbulent Re > 2000

for turbulent flow, 21000 < Re < 105 which can be modified to
The frictional loss (per unit mass ) associated with sudden enlargement or
contraction in flow area

= the average velocity in the small conduit and

= friction loss factor [= f(A, Re)]

The integrated energy equation between (1) and (3) thus becomes

Where = average fluid velocity in the sprue.

 With P1 = p3 and using above equations, we get

d = diameter of the sprue, l = length of the sprue (=h2)

where discharge coefficient,

 Pouring time (t)
The time for complete filling of the mold
 Pouring Time of casting
(i) Grey cast iron. Mass less than 450 Kg

(ii) Grey cast iron, mass > 450 Kg

K = fluidity factor
T = average section thickness of casting
W = mass of Cast iron
(iii) Steel casting,

(iv) Shell molded ductile iron

K1 = 2.08 for thinner section

= 2.67 for 10 mm < thickness < 25 mm
= 2.97 for heavier casting

For further details regarding other alloys and casting shapes, Refer to ,

P.N. Rao, Manufacturing technology, Foundry, forming and welding, Vol

1, eds. 3, MGH, 2011.
 Choke area
Choke is the main control area which decides the metal flow in
to the mold cavity so that mold is completely filled within the
pouring time. This is the minimum area in the gating system
and can be either at the bottom of the sprue or at the in-gate.

A = Area of the choke , mm2

W = Casting Mass , kg
t = Pouring time, s
d = Mass density of molten metal , kg/mm2
H = Effective metal head, mm
C = Efficiency factor
Effective Metal head, H
Efficiency coefficient of gatingsystem depends on the various sections
in the gating system. i.e. C/s, change in directions of flow, surface
roughness, etc.

Efficiency coefficients for various types of gating systems

Type of system Tapered Straight sprue
choked sprue runner choke
Straight runner 0.90 0.73
entering runner
Two runner with multiple 0.90 0.73
ingate, no bends in runners
Two runner with multiple 0.85 0.70
ingate, 90° bends in runners
 Loss coefficients for various gate elements
Gate elements Sharp Round
Sprue entry from pouring cup 0.75 0.20
Bend of sprue in to runner 2.00 1.00
Right angle bend in runner
Square Cross section 2.00 1.50
Round cross section 1.50 1.00
Junction at right angles to runner 4.0 - 6.0
Junction with 25% or more area reduction from runner in 2.00 0.50
to in-gates
Runner choke when choke area is approximately one
third runner area, plus bend of sprue in to runner 13.00 ----
Loss from wall friction
Round channel loss = 0.02 (L/D)
Square channel loss = 0.06 (L/D)
Rectangular channel loss = 0.07(A+B)/(2 A B)
where A= one side of rectangle and
B= other side of rectangle
 Gating ratio
Gating ratio is the ratio of ;
Sprue area : runner area : in-gate area

Two types of gating:

a. Non pressurized gating system
b. Pressurized gating system

Non-pressurized gating system:

Choke at the bottom of the sprue

No pressure existing in the gating system

Reduced turbulance

For alloys forming dross , Al., Mg., etc

Tapered sprue preferred

Typical ratio 1: 4: 4, 1:3:3
Disadvantages of Non-pressurised gating system
• To be designed carefully to see that all parts flow full
• Runners are kept in the drag and ingates in the cope
• Low yield due to large volume of metal.

Pressurized gating system

Normally ingate is the choke region

Maintains a positive pressure in the entire gating system

Metal is more turbulent and flows full.

Minimum air aspiration even with straight sprue

Higher casting yield due to less volume of metal in runner and in-
gates

Used for ferrous alloys and not used for light alloys (due to dross)

Typical ratio : 1:2:1, 2:3:1
 Types of gates

Design of gating system must consider

 Ease of moulding
 Avoid turbulent flow
 Prevent washing of sand from mold walls
 Prevent aspiration of air
 Prevent dross or slag entering the mold along
with molten metal

Various designs of gates are being practiced

 In-gate design

In-gates are wider compared to depth ( generally ratio of 4:1)

In-gates should not be located near a protruding part of the mold to
avoid the striking of vertical mold walls by molten metal

In-gates should be preferably placed along the longitudinal axis of the
mold wall

In-gates should not be placed near a core print or a chill

In-gate C/S area should preferably be smaller than the smallest
thickness of the casting so that in-gates solidify first and isolate the
casting from the gating system.

Larger castings require multiple in-gates.

Multiple in-gates should be such that uniform distribution of molten
metal through the in-gates occurs. Runner area should be reduced after
each in-gate.
Parting Gates

Skin bob and relief sprues

collect dross or slag

Principles of Metal casting, R.W. Heine,

C.R. Loper, P.C. Rosenthal, Tata
McGraw Hill
 Shrink bob serving dual purpose of
dross collector and metal reservoir

Core inserts to filter the metal or prevent

mold erosion

Principles of Metal casting, R.W. Heine, C.R. Loper, P.C. Rosenthal, Tata McGraw Hill
Bottom Gate

Branch gate used to feed a single

casting at several points or a
number of individual casting
Top gates
 Riser
Material Volumetric Shrinkage (%)
Medium carbon steel 2.5-3.00
1% carbon steel 4.00
Pure Aluminum 6.60
Pure copper 4.92
Grey cat Iron 1.90 to negative values
depending on carbon %
White cast iron 4.0 -5.0

Functions of a riser
 To feed metal to the casting as it solidifies.
 Directional solidification promoted
 Requirements of a good riser
• There should be sufficient molten metal to feed the casting.
• Facilitates directional solidification
• The riser should solidify after the casting .
 Divide the whole section in to simple geometrical shapes.
 Determine the modulus of each section considering by not
considering the surface area in contact between adjacent sections
 Determine the section with the most significant modulus.
Cooling characteristics of a casting can be represented
by the ratio of

If this ratio of the casting is higher than riser, then

casting sill solidify faster.
Chvorinov rule

ts = solidification time, s, k = mold constant

Freezing ratio, X
 Caine’s method

Riser volume determination by Caine’s method

Y = riser volume /casting volume

a, b, c are constants and depends on the materials
 Naval Research Laboratory

Here a shape factor is considered where the

shape factor is defined as

The length, width and thickness are computed from the

maximum dimensions of the casting section.

The shape factor replaces the freezing ratio of the caine’s

method.
Riser volume determination by NRL method.
 Chills
Effect of chills on feeding distance
Chills