Development of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Stellite Alloy

Based Composites for Tribocorrosion Applications

by

Alireza Khoddamzadeh
B. Eng., M.A.Sc. Materials

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs

in partial fulfilment o f the requirements
for the degree o f

Doctor of Philosophy
in

Mechanical Engineering

Ottawa-Carleton Institute for

Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

Department o f Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

Carleton University
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
June, 2012

Copyright ©2012
Alireza Khoddamzadeh
 Library and Archives Bibliotheque et

1+1 Canada

Published Heritage
Branch

395 Wellington Street

Archives Canada

Direction du
Patrimoine de I'edition

395, rue Wellington

Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4
Canada Canada
Your file Votre reference
ISBN: 978-0-494-93654-2

Our file Notre reference

ISBN: 978-0-494-93654-2

NOTICE: AVIS:
The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive
exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives
Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver,
publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public
communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter,
telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le
loan, distrbute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur
worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou
commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats.
paper, electronic and/or any other
formats.

The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur

ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni
thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci
substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement
printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation.
without the author's permission.

In compliance with the Canadian Conform em ent a la loi canadienne sur la

Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques
may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de
thesis. cette these.

W hile these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans
in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu
removal does not represent any loss manquant.
of content from the thesis.

Canada
To my mother
Abstract

This thesis reports the design and development of two classes o f new composite

materials, which are low-carbon Stellite alloy matrices, reinforced with either chopped

plain carbon fiber or chopped nickel-coated carbon fiber. The focus o f this research is on

obviating the problems related to the presence o f carbides in Stellite alloys by

substituting carbides as the main strengthening agent in Stellite alloys with the

aforementioned carbon fibers. Stellite 25 was selected as the matrix because o f its very

low carbon content (0.1 wt%) and thereby relatively carbide free microstructure. The

nickel coating was intended to eliminate any chance of carbide formation due to the

possible reaction between carbon fibers and the matrix alloying additions. The composite

specimens were fabricated using the designed hot isostatic pressing and sintering cycles.

The fabricated specimens were microstructurally analyzed in order to identify the main

phases present in the specimens and also to determine the possible carbide formation

from the carbon fibers. The material characterization of the specimens was achieved

through density, hardness, microhardness, corrosion, wear, friction, and thermal

conductivity tests. These novel materials exhibit superior properties compared to existing

Stellite alloys and are expected to spawn a new generation o f materials used for high

temperature, severe corrosion, and wear resistant applications in various industries.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis supervisors, Professor

R. Liu and Professor M. Liang, for their continuous support throughout this research.

I wish to thank my NRC co-supervisor Dr. Q. Yang, Dr. X. J. Wu, T. Benak, A.

Merati and N. Powell for their generous help.

I also wish to thank Dr. M. X. Yao o f Kennametal Stellite for technical guidance

through the progress o f the project.

I am also grateful to D. Morphy, D. Chow, R. MacNeil, and M. Genest for their

assistance in my laboratory work at the National Research Council Canada (NRC).

Deepest thanks to my family and especially my parents who are a source o f

unwavering love and encouragement and my friends for their energetic support.
Table of Contents

Abstract ....... iii

Acknowledgements..................................................................................................................... iv

Table o f Contents..........................................................................................................................v

List o f Tables................................................................................................................................ x

List o f Figures.............................................................................................................................xii

Nomenclature........................................................................................................................... xvii

List o f Acronym s...................................................................................................................... xix

Chapter 1: Introduction................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background o f Present Research..................................................................................... 1

1.1.1 Synopsis o f Stellite Alloys.........................................................................................1

1.1.2 Chemical Compositions o f Stellite Alloys.............................................................. 2

1.1.3 Carbide Related Issues in Stellite Alloys................................................................ 3

1.1.4 Fabrication o f Stellite Alloys.................................................................................... 5

1.2 Plan o f Present Research................................................................................................... 6

1.2.1 Objectives................................................................................................................... 6

1.2.2 Tasks and M ethodologies......................................................................................... 6

1.3 Organization o f the Thesis.............................................................................................. 10

Chapter 2: Literature Review.....................................................................................................12

2.1 Superalloys........................................................................................................................ 12

2.1.1 Fundamentals and Classification............................................................................12

2.1.2 Properties and Application.......................................................................................13

2.2 Cobalt-Based Superalloys................................................................................................14

2.2.1 Elemental Cobalt.......................................................................................................14

2.2.2 History and Characteristics......................................................................................17

2.2.3 Main G roups............................................................................................................. 19

2.3 Stellite Alloys....................................................................................................................19

2.3.1 Chemical Constituents............................................................................................. 19

2.3.2 Machinability and A pplication...............................................................................23

2.3.3 Tribocorrosion Properties....................................................................................... 24

2.3.4 Processing M ethods................................................................................................. 28

2.4 Composite Materials........................................................................................................29

2.4.1 Types o f Composite M aterials................................................................................29

2.4.2 Metal Matrix Composites....................................................................................... 30

2.4.3 Carbon Fibre Reinforced M M C s............................................................................33

Chapter 3: Specimen Fabrication................................. 37

3.1 Raw M aterials.................................................................................................................. 37

3.1.1 Matrix M aterial.........................................................................................................37

3.1.2 Reinforcement M aterial...........................................................................................38

3.2 Mixture of Powders..........................................................................................................41

vi
 3.2.1 Chemical Composition of the Com posites...........................................................41

3.2.2 Powder Blending...................................................................................................... 42

3.3 Fabrication Process......................................................................................................... 42

3.3.1 Hot Isostatic Pressing...............................................................................................42

3.3.2 Preparation o f Containers....................................................................................... 43

3.3.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetry......................................................................... 44

3.3.4 Design o f HIPing/Sintering C ycle......................................................................... 47

Chapter 4: Material Characterization....................................................................................... 50

4.1 Microstructural Analysis.................................................................................................50

4.1.1 O bjectives................................................................................................................. 50

4.1.2 Surface Preparation..................................................................................................51

4.1.3 Apparatus.................................................................................................................. 53

4.1.4 Carbide Volume Fraction Analysis........................................................................ 54

4.2 Density M easurement..................................................................................................... 55

4.3 Corrosion Test.................................................................................................................. 56

4.4 Hardness Test................................................................................................................... 58

4.4.1 Macrohardness..........................................................................................................58

4.4.2 Microhardness...........................................................................................................59

4.5 Wear and Friction Tests.................................................................................................. 60

4.5.1 Sliding W ear.............................................................................................................60

4.5.2 Test Parameters........................................................................................................ 61

4.5.3 Data Collection........................................................................................................ 61

vii
 4.6 Thermal Conductivity..................................................................................................... 63

4.6.1 Background............................................................................................................... 63

4.6.2 Methodology..........................................................................................;................. 63

Chapter 5: Eperimental R esults................................................................................................65

5.1 Plain Carbon Fibre Reinforced Com posites.................................................................65

5.1.1 Microstructure...........................................................................................................65

5.1.2 Density...................................................................................................................... 68

5.1.3 Corrosion Resistance...............................................................................................68

5.1.4 Hardness.................................................................................................................... 70

5.1.5 Friction and Wear Resistance.................................................................................71

5.2 Ni-Coated Carbon Fibre Reinforced Composites........................................................74

5.2.1 Microstructure...........................................................................................................74

5.2.2 Density...................................................................................................................... 75

5.2.3 Corrosion Resistance............................................................................................... 76

5.2.4 Hardness.................................................................................................................... 76

5.2.5 Friction and Wear Resistance.................................................................................77

5.3 Supporting Tests Results................................................................................................. 79

5.3.1 Microhardness...........................................................................................................79

5.3.2 Thermal Conductivity..............................................................................................80

Chapter 6: Discussion................................................................................................................ 82

6.1 Carbide Volume Fraction.............................................................................................. 82

viii
 6.2 Beneficial Effects of Carbon Fibres...............................................................................84

6.3 Effects of Nickel Coating................................................................................................94

Chapter 7: Conclusions and Future W ork................................................................................96

7.1 Conclusions...................................................................................................................... 96

7.2 Cotributions.....................................................................................................................101

7.3 Future W ork....................................................................................................................102

References .............................................................................................................................. 104

Tables .............................................................................................................................. 117

Figures ............................................................................................................................. 128

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Physical properties o f elemental cobalt.............................................................118

Table 2.2 Mechanical properties o f elemental cobalt.......................................................118

Table 2.3 Chemical compositions (wt%) o f Tribaloy alloys........................................... 119

Table 2.4 Compositions (wt%, Co in balance) o f various Stellite alloys.......................119

Table 3.1 Nominal chemical composition (wt %) of Stellite 25..................................... 120

Table 3.2 Physical properties o f Stellite 2 5 ....................................................................... 120

Table 3.3 Mechanical properties o f Stellite 25 at room temperature.............................. 120

Table 3.4 Physical properties of chopped plain carbon fibre at room tem perature...... 121

Table 3.5 Mechanical properties o f chopped plain CF at room temperature................. 121

Table 3.6 Physical properties o f chopped nickel-coated CF at room tem perature....... 121

Table 3.7 Mechanical properties o f chopped nickel-coated CF at room tem perature.. 122

Table 3.8 Chemical composition o f Stellite 25 and Stellite 25-based com posites....... 122

Table 4.1 General properties o f phenolics..........................................................................123

Table 4.2 The procedure o f grinding and polishing operations.......................................124

Table 4.3 Carbide identifying reagent and etching procedure......................................... 124

Table 5.1 Carbide volume fraction in plain CF reinforced composite specimens........ 125

Table 5.2 Specific densities o f the plain CF reinforced composite specimens.............. 125

Table 5.3 Carbide volume fraction in Ni-coated CF reinforced composite specimens 126

Table 5.4 Specific densities o f Ni-coated CF reinforced composite specimens............126

Table 5.5 Mean microhardness values o f specimen F, specimen 0 , and their carbidic
phase............................... :...................................................................................... 127

Table 5.6 Relative thermal properties obtained with pulsed thermography technique. 127

Table 6.1 Property comparison between the fabricated composites and PTFE based

sliding bearing m aterials..................................................................................... 127

List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Typical microstructure o f Tribaloy alloys: (a) T-400 and (b) T-800.......... 129

Figure 2.2 Typical microstructure o f Stellite alloys: (a) Stellite 1, (b) Stellite 6 (cast),

(c) Stellite 6B (wrought), and (d) Stellite 2 1 ..................................................131

Figure 3.1 Three dimensional Turbula type T2C mixer....................................................132

Figure 3.2 Consolidation container specimens................................................................... 132

Figure 3.3 Vacuum outgassing pump.................................................................................. 133

Figure 3.4 Netzsch 404C Pegasus heat flux DSC instrument..........................................133

Figure 3.5 DSC heating/cooling cy cle................................................................................ 134

Figure 3.6 DSC thermograms: (a) specimen A, (b) specimen B, (c) specimen C and (d)

specimen K..........................................................................................................136

Figure 3.7 Sintering cycle for pure Stellite 25 and Stellite 25based com posites 136

Figure 3.8 Mounted sintered specimens.............................................................................. 137

Figure 4.1 Struers Secotom-10 cutting m achine................................................................137

Figure 4.2 LaboPress-3 mounting press..............................................................................138

Figure 4.3 Buehler Ecomet-4 semiautomatic grinder polisher........................................138

Figure 4.4 Olympus PM-63 optical m icroscope................................................................139

Figure 4.5 Hitachi S-570 scanning electron microscope...................................................139

Figure 4.6 Density measurement setu p ............................................................................... 140

Figure 4.7 Immersion corrosion test specimens.................................................................140

Figure 4.8 Rockwell hardness test apparatus..................................................................... 141

Figure 4.9 SMT-X7 dual indenter microhardness tester...................................................141

Figure 4.10 TEER-POD-2 computer controlled pin-on-disk tribometer.......................... 142

Figure 4.11 Pulsed thermography test setup ........................................................................ 142

Figure 5.1 Optical microstructural images of the specimens in an unetched condition:

(a) pure Stellite 25 (specimen A), (b) composite specimen F and (c)

presence o f voids in the composite specimen (specimen C)......................... 144

Figure 5.2 SEM image of the etched composite F in an area close to carbon fibres ..145

Figure 5.3 SEM/EDX analysis o f specimen F: (a) SEM microstructural image at high

magnification, (b) EDX spectrum o f white phase, (c) EDX spectrum o f dark

grey phase and (d) EDX spectrum o f black phase......................................... 147

Figure 5.4 Optical microstructural image of the etched pure Stellite 25 specim en.... 148

Figure 5.5 Microstructural pictures used for the evaluation of carbide volume fraction:

(a) specimen A, (b) specimen B, (c) specimen C, (d) specimen D, (e)

specimen E and (f) specimen F ........................................................................ 151

Figure 5.6 Corrosion resistances o f plain carbon fibre reinforced specimens in

oxidizing acid 65% HNO3 at boiling tem perature........................................ 152

Figure 5.7 Rockwell hardnesses o f plain carbon fibre reinforced specimens.............. 152

Figure 5.8 Variations o f friction coefficient of plain carbon fibre reinforced specimens

with sliding tim e................................................................................................ 153

Figure 5.9 Volume losses o f plain CF reinforced specimens due to sliding w ear 153

Figure 5.10 Specific wear rates o f plain CF reinforced specimens under sliding wear 154
Figure 5.11 Optical images o f worn surfaces: (a) specimen A, (b) specimen B, (c)

specimen C, (d) specimen D, (e) specimen E and (f) specimen F ............... 157

Figure 5.12 Severe wear scars in the specimen A surface.................................................158

Figure 5.13 Intermittent nature o f the wear tracks in plain CF reinforced composites. 158

Figure 5.14 Worn surface analyses o f pure Stellite 25 specimen: (a) SEM morphology

and (b) EDX spectrum ...................................................................................... 159

Figure 5.15 Worn surface analyses o f composite specimen F: (a) SEM morphology and

(b) EDX spectrum............................................................................................160

Figure 5.16 Worn surface analyses o f carbon fibres in composite specimen F: (a) SEM

morphology and (b) EDX spectrum.................................................................161

Figure 5.17 Microstructural images: (a) Unetched pure Stellite 25 (specimen A), (b)

unetched Ni-coated CF reinforced composite (specimen P), (c) unetched

specimen P at higher magnification and (d) the matrix of etched specimen P

in an area close to the fibres..............................................................................163

Figure 5.18 Presence o f voids in the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composites.... 164

Figure 5.19 Pictures used for carbide volume fraction analysis: (a) specimen A, (b)

specimen K, (c) specimen L, (d) specimen M, (e) specimen N, (f) specimen

O and (g) specimen P .........................................................................................167

Figure 5.20 Corrosion test results o f Ni-coated CF reinforced composite specimens.. 168

Figure 5.21 Rockwell hardness test results o f the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced

composite specimens.........................................................................................168

Figure 5.22 Variations o f friction coefficient for Ni-coated carbon fibre composite

specimens with sliding tim e..............................................................................169

xiv
Figure 5.23 Volume losses o f Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composite specimens

under pin-on-disc w e a r..................................................................................... 169

Figure 5.24 Specific wear rates of Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composite

specimens under pin-on-disc wear................................................................... 170

Figure 5.25 Worn surfaces: (a) specimen A, (b) specimen K, (c) specimen L, (d)

specimen M, (e) specimen N, (f) specimen O and (g) specimen P 174

Figure 5.26 Worn surface analyses o f specimen O: (a) SEM micrograph and (b) EDX

spectrum.............................................................................................................. 175

Figure 5.27 Microhardness test: (a) specimen F (100x) and (b) specimen O (100x)... 176

Figure 5.28 Microhardness test o f the carbidic phase in specimen F (500x)................. 176

Figure 5.29 Thermal conductivity study: (a) tested specimens, (b) PT thermogram at Is

and (c) PT thermogram at 8.15s....................................................................... 177

Figure 6.1 Vickers hardness indentations on specimen F under load o f 60 kg: (a) close

to the interface and (b) at the interface............................................................178

Figure 6.2 Vickers hardness indentations on specimen O under load o f 60 kg: (a) close

to the interface and (b) at the interface............................................................179

Figure 6.3 Comparison of specific density between plain fibre reinforced composites

and Ni-coated fibre reinforced composites....................................................180

Figure 6.4 Comparison of corrosion rate between plain fibre reinforced com posites......

and Ni-coated fibre reinforced composites....................................................180

Figure 6.5 Comparison o f hardness between plain fibre reinforced composites and........

Ni-coated fibre reinforced composites........................................................... 181

xv
Figure 6.6 Comparison of friction coefficient between plain fibre reinforced..................

composites and Ni-coated fibre reinforced composites.................................181

Figure 6.7 Comparison o f wear rate between plain fibre reinforced composites a n d ......

Ni-coated fibre reinforced composites.............................................................182

xvi
Nomenclature

M Coefficient o f friction

Y Austenitic phase
/
Y Aluminide precipitates
f f

Y B C T N i3Nb

8 Orthorhombic N i 3 Nb

n Hexagonal NisTi

e HCP cobalt

a FCC cobalt

K Thermal conductivity

P Density

W Weight

M Mass

t Time

A Area

V Volume

F Normal force

k Specific wear rate

T Temperature

Q Applied energy

xvii
Thermal effusivity

Specific heat capacity

xviii
List of Acronyms

FCC Face centered cubic

HCP Hexagonal close packed

BCT Body centered tetragonal

P/M Powder metallurgy

HIP Hot isostatic pressing

CF Carbon fibre

SEM Scanning electron microscopy

ASTM American society for testing and materials

MTS Material testing system

ASM American society for metals

SA Superalloy

OMC Organic matrix composite

CMC Ceramic matrix composite

MMC Metal matrix composite

PAN Polyacrylonitrile

GMAW Gas metal arc welding

MSDS Material safety data sheet

EMI Electromagnetic interference

RFI Radio frequency interference

DSC Differential scanning calorimetry

DFRAC Discontinuous fibre reinforced aluminum alloy composite

EDX Energy dispersive X-ray

PT Pulsed thermography

IR Infra red

PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene

SFE Stacking fault energy

XX
 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Background of Present Research

1.1.1 Synopsis of Stellite Alloys

Many industrial processes such as gas turbine engine operation, oil production

and refining, chemical processing industry, and mechanical manufacturing pose high

stress, high temperature, and severe wear and corrosion environments. Therefore, it is

highly desirable to develop materials of high strength at elevated temperatures that

possess good corrosion and wear resistance as well. In response to this need, superalloys

(SAs) which are a group of high-performance alloys have been introduced to the market.

These alloys can be divided into three major classes; iron-based superalloys, nickel-based

superalloys, and cobalt-based superalloys [1].

The use o f cobalt (Co) element as a constituent in cobalt-based superalloys is to

provide the ductile matrix and to impart high-temperature strength [1,2]. Many o f the

properties o f these alloys arise from the crystallographic nature of cobalt. This element

imparts an unstable, face-centered cubic (fee) crystal structure with a very low stacking

fault energy (SFE) to its alloys. The unstable fee structure and its associated low stacking

fault energy result in high yield strength, high work-hardening rate due to the interaction

between stacking faults, limited fatigue damage under cyclic stresses due to the lack o f
 2

cell walls within plastically deformed materials, and the ability to absorb stresses through

the transformation o f the structure to hexagonal close packed (hep) [1-3],

Carbon- (C) containing cobalt-based alloys can be categorized into three groups:

high-carbon alloys (1.2 wt% ~ 3 wt%) designed for wear service, low-carbon alloys (<

0.5 wt%) designed for high-temperature service, and medium (0.5 wt% ~ 1.2 wt%) to

low-carbon alloys designed to combat corrosion or simultaneous corrosion and wear [1],

Generally, the softer and tougher compositions are used for high-temperature

applications, such as gas turbine vanes and buckets, while the harder grades are used for

wear resistant materials [4,5]. Stellite alloys make up one main family o f tribocorrosion

resistant cobalt-based superalloys with various types of commercial grades that satisfy

most o f the industry requirements. It is believed that the properties o f a Stellite alloy

mostly depend upon its chemical composition and fabrication process [6],

1.1.2 Chemical Compositions of Stellite Alloys

In the case of the chemical composition, in addition to carbon, the main

constituents o f Stellite alloys include chromium (Cr), tungsten (W), molybdenum (Mo),

nickel (Ni), iron (Fe), Aluminum (Al), etc. Each constituent plays a different role in

Stellite alloys. For example, chromium mainly implants corrosion resistance and forms

carbides, tungsten strengthens the solid solution matrix, molybdenum functions same as

tungsten but also enhances the wear resistance. The contents of these constituents

influence the final properties o f these alloys.

 3

The effects o f the main strengthening phases in Stellite alloys have been

recognized. In these alloys, carbides are considered as the primary strengthening phase

and solid-solution hardeners including chromium, tungsten, and molybdenum are known

as the secondary strengthening phases.

1.1.3 Carbide Related Issues in Stellite Alloys

Regarding the primary strengthening phase, one o f the key issues is the carbon

content in the alloys. In other words, the carbon content and, thus, carbide volume

fraction in the material, is considered as the main distinction among individual Stellite

alloys. In these alloys, carbides can be found in various forms, including MC, M 2 C,

M 7 C 3 , M 2 3 C 6 , M 6C, M 12 C and M 2 8 C, where M stands for different metals [1,4-6].

Although many types of carbides can improve the mechanical and tribological properties

of Stellite alloys, the presence o f carbon in these alloys has its own problems.

Firstly, carbon existence in Stellite alloys may lead to the formation o f some types

of unwanted intermetallic compounds and/or carbides that are also detrimental with

respect to tribomechanical properties. For instance, M 2 C and MeC carbides are brittle

and decrease the mechanical strength o f Stellite alloys [7], Also, some MC carbides such

as tungsten carbide (WC) have a low heat of formation which makes them easily

dissolved in high-temperature wear conditions [8], This limits the application o f

superalloys where a combination o f high toughness and high hardness is needed.

Secondly, when subjected to a high-temperature cyclic stress, carbidic phases M7C3 and

MC are oxidized preferentially, which creates crack initiation sites in Stellite alloys; thus
 4

inevitably undermines certain tribomechanical properties o f the alloys [9], Thirdly,

carbide transformation is a common phenomenon during fatigue or service at high

temperatures. For instance, M 7 C 3 and MC carbides are metastable and decompose

sluggishly during cyclic loading to form a large amount of M 2 3 C 6 carbide; resulting in an

inhomogeneous distribution of M 2 3 C 6 in the vicinity of the primary carbides [9,10],

Likewise, the solidifying MeC carbide degenerates over a certain concentration range o f

chromium at elevated temperatures, causing secondary WC formation. Furthermore,

along with the carbide types, different sizes and shapes o f the carbide particles within

Stellite alloys may also strongly influence the properties o f the alloys. For instance, larger

carbides that usually pose higher strength provide the alloys with higher resistance to

wear [1,3].

As a result, the problems associated with the presence o f carbon in Stellite alloys

can be summarized as formation o f unwanted intermetallic compounds and/or carbidic

phases, oxidation o f carbides, transformation o f carbides, and inhomogeneous

distribution o f carbidic phases. Unfortunately, the presence o f unwanted intermetallic

compounds and carbidic phases in Stellite alloys is inevitable and the type, size, shape,

distribution, and amount o f desired carbides cannot be easily predicted or controlled. This

is due to the fact that the carbide formation process in Stellite alloys is affected by many

factors, including alloying element types and fraction, carbon content, fabrication

technique, heating and cooling rates, operational parameters, etc.

 5

1.1.4 Fabrication of Stellite Alloys

Stellite materials can be produced using different methods of fabrication such as

casting, wrought, and powder metallurgy (P/M). Comparing these three fabrication

methods, P/M is considered as an efficient and versatile method for manufacturing

Stellite materials with near-net-shapemaking capability, as well as less chemical

partitioning and microsegregation problems [1,11]. In view of the success o f P/M

techniques for different materials, it is disappointing that relatively little research effort

has been made so far on the P/M fabrication o f Stellite alloys. In particular, no research in

P/M fabrication of carbon fibre reinforced Stellite alloy composites has been found.

Among different P/M techniques, hot isostatic pressing (HIP) is known as an

effective fabrication process. The advantages of HIP over other P/M techniques include

the capability o f achieving high-density materials with isotropic physical/mechanical

properties and also improved mechanical properties [11]. It is believed that the HIP

fabrication parameters, including sintering temperature, sintering heating and cooling

rates, HIP maximum pressure, and HIP time length have considerable effects on the final

properties o f the P/M Stellite materials. Therefore, a properly designed HEPing/sintering

cycle is required to ensure that the final products meet the requirements and can be

effectively put into operation.

 6

1.2 Plan of Present Research

1.2.1 Objectives

The present research was a joint project between Carleton University and the

National Research Council Canada (NRC), sponsored by an NSERC Collaborative

Research and Development Grant (CRD) program with the Deloro Stellite Group as the

industrial collaborator. The specimen fabrication, microstructural analysis, and

experimental work in this research were performed in the NRC Institute for Aerospace

Research (NRC-IAR Ottawa), the Department o f Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

o f Carleton University, and the Department o f Civil and Environmental Engineering o f

Carleton University. The proposed research attempted to design and develop two classes

o f new materials, which are Stellite alloy based composites reinforced by carbon fibres

(CFs). These new materials exhibited superior properties to conventional Stellite alloys

by solving the carbide problems that exist in Stellite alloys. This can be achieved by

using carbon fibres as a novel strengthener in Stellite alloys instead o f different types o f

carbides. Thus, the fabricated composites are expected to spawn a new generation o f

materials used for high temperature, severe corrosion, and wear resistant applications in

various industries.

1.2.2 Tasks and Methodologies

The new materials were fabricated by the HIP/sintering technique. To obtain the

materials in good quality, the HIP parameters and sintering cycle elements o f the
 7

fabrication process were examined to achieve an optimal HIP/sintering condition. The

detailed tasks are summarized below:

Part I: New material development

In order to eliminate the problems associated with the presence o f carbides in

Stellite alloys, it was attempted to substitute carbides, which are the main strengthening

phase in Stellite alloys, with carbon fibres. Using the idea o f metal matrix composites

(MMCs) and their inherent advantages with respect to other types o f composites and

unreinforced metals, carbon fibres, which possess very useful engineering properties,

were employed as reinforcing elements in Stellite alloys. The functional engineering

properties of carbon fibres, which make them good replacements for carbides in Stellite

alloys, include their low density, excellent thermal stability, high chemical inertness,

good mechanical properties and outstanding thermal conductivity along with their broad

commercialization. In the newly fabricated composites, a special low carbon Stellite alloy

designated as Stellite 25, with the main alloying elements o f chromium, tungsten and

nickel, was selected as the matrix material. The reinforcing elements included chopped

plain carbon fibres and chopped nickel coated carbon fibres with 3 mm and 6 mm lengths

respectively. The use o f the chopped form o f carbon fibres can promote the fabrication o f

randomly oriented fibre reinforced-composites which exhibit isotropic properties. In this

phase, pure Stellite 25 material along with two groups o f composite materials consisting

o f eleven different Stellite 25 based composites with 0.25 to 10 wt% o f the two types of

carbon fibres were fabricated. The fabrication process included the following steps:
 8

1. Material blending: Mixing Stellite 25 powder with carbon fibres using a three

dimensional mixer to produce a homogeneous distribution o f carbides.

2. Vacuum outgassing: Placing the blended materials in HIP containers (round tubes o f

stainless steel-grade 316) followed by outgassing and sealing the containers.

3. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) testing: Studying the phase formation and

transformation temperatures o f the blended materials using the DSC thermograms as

a quality control method to evaluate the purity of Stellite 25 powder and also as a

basis for designing o f the sintering cycle.

4. Designing the HEP/sintering cycles: Selecting HIP parameters and sintering cycle

elements including HEP pressure and time along with sintering peak temperature,

hold periods, heating and cooling rates.

5. Fabricating specimens: Subjecting the sealed HIP containers to the designed P/M

route by simultaneously applying the set isostatic pressure to the containers and

consolidating the powders and reinforcements with the designed sintering cycle.

Part II: Microstructural analysis

The fabricated specimens were microstructurally analyzed in order to ensure that

the fabrication parameters were selected properly and also to identify the main phases

present in the specimens. The details included the following:

1. Surface preparation: The surfaces o f the specimens were prepared in several steps

including cutting, mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching.

 9

2. Optical microscopy: The microstructural images o f the specimens were obtained

with an Olympus PM-63 light microscope.

3. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM): The micrographs of the microstructural

features o f the specimens were acquired by a Hitachi S-570 model SEM.

4. Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX): The EDX spectra were employed to analyze the

chemical characterization of the specimens.

5. Carbide volume fraction analysis: An image analysis software package, Clemex

Vision Lite™, was employed to examine whether carbon fibres induce any carbides

in the alloy matrix.

Part 111: Material characterization

Various properties o f the newly developed composites were characterized as

described below:

1. Density test: The density o f each specimen was measured using immersion density

technique in accordance with the ASTM Standard B 311-08 [12],

2. Corrosion test: Immersion testing method was used to evaluate the corrosion

resistance of the specimens according to the ASTM Standards G 1-03 [13] and G 31-

72 [14],

3. Hardness test: Overall hardness o f each specimen was determined with a Rockwell

hardness tester according to the ASTM Standard E 18-08b [15].

4. Microhardness test: Hardness variation from the interface between the matrix and

carbon fibres to the matrix of each fabricated composites was measured using a fully-
 10

automated MMT-X7 dual indenter microhardness tester provided by Clemex

Technologies Inc. The purpose o f this test was to investigate whether any diffusion o f

carbon from the fibres into the matrix occurred during the material fabrication

process. If the diffusion occurred, the hardness o f the interface region would increase

due to the formation of new carbides.

5. Wear test: A computer controlled pin-on-disk tribometer was employed to evaluate

the wear resistance o f each specimen in accordance with ASTM Standard G 99-05

[16], The worn surfaces of all the specimens were studied using optical and SEM

microscopies and the EDX technique was used to analyze the chemical

characterization of the worn surfaces.

6 . Friction test: The coefficient of friction (/u) o f each specimen was automatically

recorded throughout the wear test with the aid of a linear variable displacement

transducer.

7. Thermal conductivity test: The variation in thermal conductivity due to the

incorporation o f carbon fibres into Stellite 25 alloy was analyzed based on the Pulsed

Thermography (PT) method using a 240x320 pixels infra red (IR) camera.

1.3 Organization of the Thesis

The thesis consists o f seven chapters with the contents outlined as follows:

Chapter 1 is an introduction to this research, which describes the background and

significance, as well as the objectives and methodologies o f this research.

 11

Chapter 2 is the literature review o f the previous studies related to this research.

Chapter 3 details the specimen fabrication methods and procedures such as

“Green body” preparation and HIPing/sintering processes.

Chapter 4 describes the material characterization tests including microstructural

analysis, density test, hardness test, tribological tests, and corrosion test.

Chapter 5 presents the experimental results.

Chapter 6 provides the discussion o f the obtained results.

The conclusions drawn from this research along with the recommendations for

future work are given in Chapter 7.

 12

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Superalloys

2.1.1 Fundamentals and Classification

The term superalloy is used to describe nickel-, iron-nickel-, and cobalt-based

alloys generally used when operating temperatures are beyond about 540 °C (1000 °F),

hence also known as high-performance alloys. Over the years, a large number o f

superalloys have been developed and used. The base alloying elements o f these alloys are

transition metals with consecutive positions in the periodic table of elements [1]. The

matrixes o f superalloys include the austenitic y phase with the face-centered cubic crystal

structure. The secondary phase o f superalloys consists o f a variety of compounds which

control the properties o f superalloys.

In reality, superalloys are either solid solution strengthened alloys or precipitation

hardened alloys. While the former alloys are strengthened both by solid solution

hardening and by the presence o f carbides, the latter alloys are strengthened by the

combination o f precipitates, solid solution hardening, and the presence o f carbides or

intermetallic compounds — Laves phase [1,3,17], The secondary phase in cobalt based-

superalloys generally consists o f different types o f carbides. In nickel- and iron-nickel-

based superalloy; however, the secondary phase include various carbides, y fee
 13

Ni 3 (Al,Ti) compound, y" body-centered tetragonal (bet) Ni.^Nb compound, 5

orthorhombic N ijN b intermetallic compound, and r\ hexagonal NisTi compound [ 1 ].

2.1.2 Properties and Application

The crucial characteristics o f all types o f superalloys include superior tribological

properties, excellent mechanical strength, outstanding resistance to loading under static,

fatigue, and creep conditions; good surface stability, superb oxidation and corrosion

resistance, and good phase stability at high temperatures [18,19], The incipient melting

temperatures for cobalt-based superalloys are generally greater than those for nickel- and

iron-nickel-based superalloy [1], The properties o f superalloys can be controlled by

processing (including heat treatment) and by adjustments in composition.

Superalloy materials can be produced in cast, wrought, and powder-processed

forms depending on the application/composition involved. Appropriate compositions o f

all superalloy-based metals can be formed into a variety o f shapes such as disk, sheet,

plate, bar, shaft, tubing, airfoil, surface coating, and pressure vessel (case) [1,20]. Typical

applications o f superalloys are in aircraft, marine and industrial gas turbines, space

vehicles, nuclear reactors, submarines, petrochemical production, chemical processing

vessels, aircraft skins, power generation turbines, dental and orthopedic prostheses,

military electric motors, cutting tools, environmental protection applications, and heat

exchanger tubing. While high-temperature usage remains the predominant application on

a volume basis, superalloys are also employed at cryogenic temperatures and at body
 14

temperature. Since the application o f components fabricated from the superalloys requires

very conservative designs, the occurrence of failure is quite rare [1,18,20],

2.2 Cobalt-Based Superalloys

2.2.1 Elemental Cobalt

Cobalt is a tough, lustrous, silvery-gray ferrous metal that resembles iron and

nickel in appearance and in some properties. The element with atomic number 27, cobalt

(symbol Co) falls between iron and nickel in the middle o f the ferromagnetic trio, which

form the transition group VIII of the first long period o f the periodic table [2,4], Although

cobalt-based compounds had been used for many centuries for making jew elry and

paints, isolation o f the free metallic cobalt was first effected by the Swedish chemist

Georg Brandt in 1735 [21], Pure cobalt is not found as a native metal in nature; however,

it occurs in various metallic-lustered ores in a fairly widespread but dispersed form. The

main ores o f cobalt are sulfidic cobaltite (CoAsS), safflorite (C0 AS2 ), skutterudite

(CoAs 3 ), and smaltite (CoNiAss). Cobalt is not usually mined alone but is produced as a

byproduct of other more abundant or more valuable metals, particularly copper, nickel,

and platinum [ 1 ,2 1 ].

Cobalt exhibits two allotropic modifications, a hexagonal close-packed structure

(e -cobalt) stable at room temperatures below 417 °C (783 °F), and a face-centered cubic

structure (a-cobalt) stable at higher temperatures between 417 °C (783 °F) and its melting

point o f 1493 °C (2719 °F). The phase transformation temperature depends critically on

the rate o f temperature change, experimental conditions, and cobalt purity. While
 15

allotropic transformation o f pure cobalt occurs at a fixed temperature as described above,

alloy transformation happens gradually over a temperature range with both phases present

in the intervening field. In reality, the transformation is known to be sluggish. This is due

to the fact that the structure transformation free-energy change is low, about 360 J mol' 1

for a -> e and 500 J mol' 1 for e -> a. Therefore, most cobalt-based alloys exhibit a

metastable fee structure at room temperature. Also, the grain size favors the cubic form;

thus, cobalt powders, evaporated thin films, and fibres might maintain an essentially

cubic phase at room temperature. The mechanism associated with the allotropic

transformation is martensitic and proceeds by dislocation movements on the octahedral

planes of the cubic lattice. This accounts for the plane change from abcabc characteristic

o f the cubic form to ababab of the hexagonal form because o f the stacking sequence on

these planes [ 1 ,2 ].

Elemental cobalt has an atomic weight o f 58.9332 g-mof1. The metal has one

stable-naturally occurring isotope, Co59, and twelve other radioactive isotopes ranging in

mass from 54 to 64. The physical and mechanical properties o f cobalt may be critically

dependent on the crystal structures resulting from the sluggishness o f the cubic-to-

hexagonal transformation. These properties are also influenced markedly by the effects o f

trace impurities and by the thermomechanical history o f the material. In particular,

directional properties are susceptible to the crystal orientation in the hexagonal

polymorph o f cobalt [1,2]. Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 respectively quote the physical and

mechanical properties o f the highest purity metal available.

 16

Massive cobalt is resistant to many mild corrosive agents and is very slowly

attacked by air or water at temperatures below about 300 °C (572 °F). However, fine

cobalt powder can be much more readily attacked and may be even pyrophoric in air.

Compared with nickel, cobalt is much less oxidation resistant over a wide temperature

range. The oxide scale, however, progressively reduces the oxidation rate as it grows in

thickness [2 ,2 1 ],

Cobalt is considered as an important and strategic metal due to its applications in

defense-related industries and the need o f industrialized nations on cobalt imports. The

pure metal has few applications such as scientific studies, particularly because of its

allotropic transformation in different temperatures, its ferromagnetic properties with a

uniquely high Curie point, and its low stacking-fault energy. The wide range o f practical

applications o f cobalt involves its use as a chemical compound or as an alloying

constituent [ 1 ,2 ].

In general, the end uses o f cobalt can be classified as nonmetallurgical and

metallurgical. Nonmetallurgical applications include employing cobalt compounds in

chemicals (for instance, paint pigments, catalysts for the petroleum and chemical

industries, adhesives; drying agents for paints, varnishes, and inks, soaps, and ground

coats for porcelain enamels) and electronic applications (for example, batteries and

magnetic recording media) [1,4]. Cobalt compounds are also important for metallurgical

applications, such as wear resistant, heat resistant, and corrosion resistant cobalt-based

alloys, high-speed tool steels, nickel-based superalloys, iron-based superalloys, magnets,

 17

cemented carbides, high-strength alloys, low-expansion alloys, and orthopedic

implants [1,4].

2.2.2 History and Characteristics

Cobalt-based alloys were first investigated by Elwood Haynes at the turn o f the

20th century [22]. Initially, the stainless nature and high strength of the binary cobalt-

chromium alloys were discovered by him. Later, Haynes introduced the Co-Cr-Mo and

Co-Cr-W ternaries as he discovered the powerful strengthening effects o f molybdenum

and tungsten within the cobalt-chromium system. Because o f their star-like luster, the

alloys were named Stellite after the Latin, Stella, for star. The name is now a trademark o f

the Deloro Stellite Company, Goshen, USA. During World War I, Stellite alloys were

used as cutting tool materials because o f their high strength at elevated temperatures.

Later, from about 1922 cobalt-based alloys were promoted in weld overlay form to

protect surfaces from wear. To satisfy the need for suitable high-temperature corrosion

resistant application materials, cobalt-based corrosion resistant alloys were developed in

the 1930s and early 1940s. The biocompatible, low-carbon content cobalt-based alloys

have been used lately as dental materials and surgical implants [2 2 ],

As a group, cobalt-based superalloys are important industrial materials with

excellent high-temperature corrosion resistance. In addition, these alloys display unique

combinations o f mechanical and tribological properties such as high hardness and

strength, good stress rupture, low creep rates, superior adhesive and abrasive wear

resistance as well as excellent cavitation-erosion resistance at elevated

 18

temperatures [17,23]. The chemical composition o f the cobalt based superalloys is

typically comprised o f about 50-60% cobalt, Co, 20-30% chromium, Cr, 5-15%

tungsten, W, or molybdenum, Mo, and 0.1-3 % carbon [1],

Because o f their relatively high chromium content, Co-based SAs maintain

superior hot corrosion, sulfidation, and oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures

compared with Ni-based SAs [20], The cobalt-based superalloys gain their super strength

by a combination o f carbides as the primarily strengthening phase and solid-solution

hardeners including chromium, tungsten, and molybdenum. No intermetallic compound

such as aluminide precipitates (y ] has been found for cobalt based superalloys that

results in a large strength increase with the same degree o f utility in nickel- or iron-

nickel-based superalloys [1,10,24],

Many properties o f the alloys originate from the crystallographic nature o f cobalt.

In particular, the good response to stress o f this class o f materials is due to the low

stacking-fault energy of both cobalt allotropes [3], Also, the fee matrix of cobalt-based

superalloys has excellent ductility and extended solubility for some alloying additions. As

discussed before, the structure of the Co-rich matrix o f the alloys is generally fee, even at

ambient temperature, due to the sluggish nature of the phase transformation. In addition,

cobalt has a higher incipient melting temperature than nickel. Thus, amongst all types o f

superalloys, the cobalt-based SAs normally show greater resistance to softening at high

temperatures [ 1 ],
 19

2.2.3 Main Groups

Tribaloy alloys and Stellite alloys are known as the two main groups of cobalt-

based superalloys possessing excellent high temperature properties designed for

wear/corrosion resistant applications. Tribaloy alloys are a series of wear resistant cobalt-

(or nickel-) based alloys containing a large volume fraction of a hard, intermetallic Laves

phase dispersed in a much softer eutectic matrix (Fig. 2.1) [1], The Laves phase in cobalt-

based Tribaloy alloys is a hexagonal MgZn 2 structure whose composition is

approximately CoMoSi or C 0 3 M 0 2 SL It is due to the presence of the Laves phase in a

range o f 30 ~ 70 vol% that these materials can withstand wear under dry or boundary

lubricating conditions [25], The main alloying elements in Tribaloy alloys include

molybdenum and chromium. Silicon is a minor (~ 3 wt%) constituent o f Tribaloy alloys,

but molybdenum and silicon are added at levels in excess o f their solubility limit in order

to induce the precipitation o f the Laves phase [1]. The chemical compositions o f

commonly used Tribaloy alloys are listed in Table 2.3 [1], Stellite alloys are a range o f

cobalt-chromium alloys which may also contain tungsten or molybdenum and a small (<

3 wt%) amount o f carbon [1]. These alloys are explained in more detail below.

2.3 Stellite Alloys

2.3.1 Chemical Constituents

Stellite alloys are a range o f cobalt-based materials which are derived from the

C o-C r-W -C family, first developed by Elwood Haynes, mainly for wear applications

involving elevated temperatures [3]. Stellite alloys also have non-corrosive and non­

magnetic properties with astounding hardness and toughness [7], Typical applications o f
 20

the alloys are cutting tools, jet engine turbine blades, poppet valves, and high corrosion

resistant machine parts [19,26],

The principal constituents o f Stellite alloys belong to the quaternary systems Co-

Cr-W-C or Co-Cr-Mo-C. These alloys are generally strengthened by the precipitation of

carbides in the cobalt matrix. The compositions of various Stellite alloys are listed in

Table 2.4 [1]. The main differences among the current Stellite alloy grades are their

carbon and tungsten contents which affect the type and amount of carbide formation in

the microstructure [1]. Considering the application o f the alloys, some other elements

such as nickel, molybdenum, iron, tantalum, and niobium with different weight

percentages can be also added [27,28]. The typical microstructures o f Stellite alloys,

which normally consist of complex wear-resistant carbides dispersed in a tougher and

more ductile cobalt solid solution mainly containing chromium and tungsten or chromium

and molybdenum, are presented in Fig. 2.2. The nominal composition o f these alloys are

selected in accordance with the type of wear encountered (e.g., abrasive, adhesive, or

erosive wear) in a particular application [1]. The major alloying constituents o f Stellite

alloys and their functions in the alloys are described below:

• C arbon: The density o f carbon is somewhere between 1.8 and 2.1 g/cc (0.065

and 0.075 lb/in3) and its melting temperature is about 3527 °C (6381°F). This

element is inevitably present in Stellite alloys with an approximate range from 0 .1

to 3.3 wt % [1,22]. From a metallurgical point of view, carbon content determines

the amount o f carbides in the alloys. For instance, at a carbon level o f 1 wt%
(Stellite 6B), the carbides constitute about 13 wt% o f the alloy while with a

carbon content o f 2.4 wt% (Stellite 3), the carbides constitute approximately 30

wt% o f the material [1]. In general, there are four main classes o f carbides: M7C3,

M23C6, M 6C, and MC. As discussed before, in M7C3 and M23C6 carbides M

corresponds to Cr; whereas in MUC, M stands for W or Mo. Also, In MC carbides,

M represents either W or the reactive metals such as titanium, niobium, tantalum,

and zirconium [1,17,29], The type, size and shape of carbides in Stellite alloys are

strongly influenced by their fabrication parameters and subtle chemistry changes.

The carbides in the quaternary system Co-Cr-W-C are mostly o f the chromium-

rich M7C3 type and in alloys with high tungsten content like Stellite 1 the

tungsten-rich MeC carbide is also present [1]. Since metal carbides are generally

wear resistant, they improve tribological properties o f the alloys and more

specifically their wear resistance. Carbides formed in Stellite alloys may also

influence mechanical properties such as hardness, tensile strength, and fatigue

strength [3,7,20], Alloying addition o f carbon also promotes the stability o f the

face-centered cubic allotrope o f the cobalt matrix in Stellite alloys even at

ambient temperature [6],

Chrom ium : With a range from approximately 18 to 32 wt %, chromium is the

most important alloying element in the cobalt matrix [1]. The density o f Cr is 7.19

g/cc (0.259 lb/in3) where its melting point is recorded at 1907 °C (3465 °F) [22],

Chromium tends to increase the allotropic transformation temperature; therefore,

the transformation temperature is somewhat higher in Stellite alloys [3]. This

 22

element also contributes as a solid-solution strengthened significantly improves

corrosion, oxidation and sulfidation resistances, and serves as the primary carbide

former which impart wear resistance in Stellite alloys [1,7]. The main carbide in

Stellite alloys is a chromium-rich O 7 C 3 type which has a high melting point

amongst the carbides present in the alloys. The chromium-rich CT2 3 C 6 carbide is

also common in low-carbon alloys such as Stellite alloy 21 [1,29].

• Tungsten and M olybdenum: These elements are known as refractory metals

with the melting temperatures o f 3422°C (6192°F) and 2623°C (4753°F)

respectively. The density of tungsten is recorded as 19.25 g/cc (0.695 lb/in3) while

the density o f molybdenum is 10.28 g/cc (0.371 lb/in3) [22], Ranging from about

0 to 19 wt % in Stellite alloys, these elements participate as solid-solution

strengthened. When present as solute atoms, they provide additional strength to

the cobalt matrix by impeding dislocation flow due to their large atomic size. If

their content in the alloys exceeds about 5 atomic percent, W and Mo also

contribute in carbide formation and promote the precipitation o f MgC. In addition,

these elements serve to enhance the general corrosion resistance o f the Stellite

alloys [1,6,11,17]. It was reported that molybdenum addition in Stellite alloys (in

preference to tungsten) imparts a greater degree of resistance to abrasive and

adhesive wear. This is because Mo diffuses much more quickly since it has

relatively smaller and much lighter atoms than W. Therefore, under the same

conditions, the volume fraction o f carbides that imparts abrasive and adhesive

resistance, in the Mo-containing Stellite alloys is more than that in the W-

 23

containing Stellite alloys [7,29]. Also, Mo imparts greater corrosion resistance

than does W in a variety o f wet corrosive media [1].

• Iron: Alloying addition o f iron up to a maximum o f 5 %wt helps to stabilize the

desired fee matrix. This element has a density of 7.87 g/cc (0.284 lb/in3) and a

melting point o f 1538 °C (2800 °F) [6,22].

• Nickel: The metallic element nickel is commonly used in Stellite alloys as a solid-

solution strengthener and the fee matrix stabilizer. The common range o f alloying

addition o f Ni in these alloys is between 0 and 4 %wt Nickel has a density o f 8.90

g/cc (0.249 lb/in3) and a melting temperature o f 1453 °C (2651 °F) [1,22].

2.3.2 Machinability and Application

The high toughness and hardness o f Stellite alloys make them and their alloy parts

very difficult to machine. Thus, Stellite products are preferred to be precisely cast so that

minimal machining is required. Regarding the choice of machining; however, grinding is

usually preferable to cutting. The machining tools for Stellite alloys are generally made

o f tungsten carbide and polycrystalline cubic boron nitride [30,31].

The high-temperature applications o f these materials include machine tools,

cutlery, wear-resistant coatings, and structural components in aircraft and industrial

turbines such as buckets and vanes [3], In addition to the high-temperature usage, these

alloys find widespread applications around room temperature. These applications include
 24

fracture fixation devices, orthopaedic prostheses for the shoulder, knee, and hip, dental

implants, and dental crowns. Various in vitro and in vivo tests have shown that some

Stellite alloys meet extremely high requirements with regard to mechanical, tribological

and biocompatible properties including excellent resistance to degradation and

outstanding corrosion resistance to body fluids [23,32]. Considering the volume fraction

of carbides, the present-day Stellite alloys may be classified into three application areas

as follows [1]:

• Low-carbon alloys (< 0.5 wt%) designed for high-temperature service

• Low to medium-carbon alloys (0.5 wt% ~ 1.2 wt%) designed to combat only

corrosion or simultaneous corrosion and wear

• High-carbon alloys (1.2 wt% ~ 3 wt%) designed for wear service

2.3.3 Tribocorrosion Properties

The largest applications for Stellite alloys are for wear and corrosion resistant

purposes. From a wear standpoint, Stellite alloys containing high levels o f carbon (more

than 1.2 wt%) exhibit high hardness and are intended for use in applications where severe

wear is involved. The several distinct types o f wear generally fall into the following three

main categories: abrasive wear, adhesive wear and erosive wear [1,33]. Abrasive wear

occurs when hard particles like carbides or hard surface asperities are forced against or

moved relative to a softer surface. The abrasive resistance of Stellite alloys which contain

a hard phase generally increases by increasing the volume fraction of the hard constituent

phase. Other factors significantly influencing the abrasion resistance include the shape
 25

and the size of the hard phase precipitates in the microstructure and the shape and the size

o f the abrading counterfaces [1,29,34], Adhesive wear is often referred to the formation

o f localized bonding between the moving contacting asperities. Low coefficient o f

friction during sliding process and hard carbide particles in the matrix o f Stellite alloys

normally reduce their adhesive wear [1,29]. Erosive wear are caused by the impingement

of small hard particles carried in a fluid stream against a surface. While ductility o f

Stellites can influence their erosive properties, the carbide volume fraction has very little

effect on the erosion resistance o f Stellite alloys [1,35].

The single-phase alloys generally possess better corrosion resistance than multi­

phase alloys since the latter alloys have more interfaces between their phases. Although

the high-carbon content Stellite alloys show some aqueous corrosion resistance, such

resistance is limited because o f the chemical segregation in their microstructures,

shortage of chief alloying elements imparting corrosion resistance in their matrices, and

the grain boundary carbide precipitation [1,36,37], Thus, from a corrosion standpoint,

Stellite alloys which contain low levels o f carbon (less than 0.5 wt%) are designed for

severe corrosive environment applications. Other alloying elements such as Cr, Mo, and

W are also added to Stellite alloys to enhance their resistance to corrosion.

The prominent examples for the three major groups o f Stellite alloys include high-

carbon alloys such as Stellite 1, 3 and 720, medium-carbon alloys like Stellite 6 and 694,

and low carbon alloys including Stellite 21 and 25. Normally, the wear resistance
 26

increases with the higher volume fraction o f carbides while corrosion resistance and

ductility improve with lower carbon content.

The high-carbon Stellite 1 is a hardfacing alloy which possess excellent abrasion

and average corrosion resistance for applications including pump sleeves, wear pads,

rotary seal rings, expeller screws, and bearing sleeves. Stellite 1 has a high fraction o f

hard primary tungsten-rich MgC carbides, as shown in Fig. 2.2(a). This structure provides

high hardness and exceptional wear resistance for Stellite 1. This alloy maintains its

hardness at temperatures up to 760 °C (1400 °F). The main disadvantage o f Stellite 1

includes its low toughness. Since this alloy is very hard and also more crack-sensitive

compared to other Stellite alloys, it should only be finished by grinding. Also, like other

high carbon Co-Cr-W-C alloys, Stellite 1 is inadequate for applications where harsh

corrosive environments are involved [1,29].

The medium-carbon Stellite 6 alloy is one o f the most widely used wear resistant

cobalt based alloys due to its good all-round performance. Fig. 2.2(b) shows the typical

hypo-eutectic microstructure o f the cast form o f Stellite 6 which contains the hard carbide

phase dispersed in a tougher and more ductile CoCr alloy matrix. While the carbidic

phase provides exceptional wear resistance for this alloy, its CoCr matrix imparts

resistance to cavitation, galling, and corrosion. The major disadvantage o f the cast form

of Stellite 6 includes the presence o f a semi-continuous brittle carbidic network in the

alloy microstructure. The wrought form of this alloy, Stellite 6B, has a completely

different structure. As shown in Fig. 2.2(c), the microstructure of Stellite 6B consists o f

 27

broken up carbides which are dispersed evenly in the CoCr alloy matrix. During the

manufacturing process, the semi-continuous network of carbides, which presents in the

cast form of Stellite 6 , is broken up by the mechanical deformation experienced by

Stellite 6 B alloy. The resulting structure avoids the brittle carbidic network to act as the

continuous crack-propagation sites in Stellite 6 B while maintains the hard carbides as the

primary wear resistant component in the wrought alloy. Thus, the mechanical properties

and toughness of Stellite 6 B are significantly superior to those o f the cast version.

Compared with the cast Stellite 6 , the wrought form exhibits dramatic improvements in

the aqueous corrosion resistance because o f its more uniform carbide structure. These

properties along with the good machinability o f Stellite 6 B have made the wrought alloy

a good choice for critical applications where simultaneous wear and corrosion are

involved [1,38].

Stellite 21 is a low-carbon alloy which consists o f a Co-Cr-M o alloy matrix

strengthened by dispersed hard carbides. Due to the low volume fraction o f carbides,

molybdenum is also employed in this alloy to strengthen the solid solution. The

microstructure o f Stellite 21 , which contains the eutectic Q 7 C 3 carbide and precipitate

Cr 2 3 C 6 carbide in the solid solution matrix, is shown in Fig. . (d). Stellite

2 2 21 is

considered as a corrosion resistant alloy which shows high corrosion resistivity to both

reducing and oxidizing gaseous atmospheres up to 1150 °C (2100 °F). Compared with

Stellite 1 and Stellite 6 , Stellite 2 1 has higher corrosion resistance in reducing or complex

environments. This is because of the fact that the main constituents of this alloy belong to

the quaternary system o f C o-C r-M o-C rather than C o-C r-W -C . In addition, due to the
 28

low carbon content in this alloy, most o f the chromium is in the solid solution matrix

instead of forming M 7 C 3 carbides. Other than petrochemical and power generation

applications, Stellite 21 is used on a large scale in medical applications including

prosthetics, hip and denture implants because of its biocompatible properties [1,39].

2.3.4 Processing Methods

Stellite alloys can be produced by various fabrication methods including casting,

wrought, and P/M. The fabrication process o f Stellite alloys affects their microstructures

and their properties as explained before for Stellite 6B for instance. While each o f these

methods has its own advantages and disadvantages, the first two fabrication methods are

used more often in industrial production o f Stellites. This is mostly due to the fact that

these two methods are highly adaptable to the requirements o f mass production. Thus,

large numbers o f a given cast or wrought Stellite alloy may be produced very rapidly.

Despite their inherent advantages, the main disadvantage of the cast and wrought

Stellite alloys is the problems associated with the chemical partitioning in these products

[37,40], Through the years, producers o f these materials have increased the content o f

alloying elements to achieve different properties. For instance, the content level o f

chromium has been increased to obtain more corrosion resistivity. Also, more carbide

forming elements such as molybdenum and tungsten have been used to improve

properties such as wear resistance. Increasing alloying additions has led to the highly

alloyed materials which are prone to microsegregation even under careful controls [11],

Thus, an undesirable microstructure with different types and morphologies o f carbides as

 29

well as inhomogeneous distribution o f alloying elements and carbides might be obtained

in these alloys. As a result, Stellite alloys sometimes show anisotropic-like behavior due

to their nonuniform structures. This ultimately leads to the lower yield strength, lack o f

toughness, lower wear resistance, and severe cracking in the final products [6,41].

Another disadvantage o f these two methods is their need for postproduction

processing (e.g., grinding, heat treatment, thermomechanical processing, etc.) which

increases the production cost [5,11], One reason that Stellite alloys are normally

expensive is because o f their high machining cost due to their difficult machining

process. Also, a full density Stellite alloy is hard to obtain using the common cast and

wrought methods; thus, some properties such as corrosion resistance o f these alloys

would be affected due to the porous nature of the materials [5,32], Many o f these

problems either cannot be found in the P/M products o f Stellite alloys or exist to a much

lower extent. These advantages along with the near-net-shapemaking capability o f the

P/M fabrication method have generated more interests in the fabrication o f the P/M

Stellite alloys in the recent years. However, the start-up costs for acquiring the required

equipments for any P/M fabrication method remain as the main barrier in mass

production of the P/M products.

2.4 Composite Materials

2.4.1 Types of Composite Materials

Composites are macroscopic combinations o f two or more distinct constituent

materials between which a recognizable interface exist. The two categories o f required
 30

constituent materials in a composite include matrix and reinforcement. The matrix is a

continuous constituent that surrounds, binds together, supports, and provides form to the

reinforcement constituent. The reinforcement constituent is an array o f materials whose

principal purpose is to provide superior level o f structural properties such as strength and

stiffness to the matrix. The reinforcing materials may also impart their special electrical,

thermal, and tribological properties to enhance the matrix properties to achieve a

particular balance o f properties for a given range of applications [42],

Composite materials can be classified at two distinct levels. The first level o f

classification is usually made with respect to the reinforcing constituent which include

particulate reinforced-, whisker reinforced-, fibre reinforced-, and woven fabric

reinforced- composites. The second level o f classification refers to the matrix constituent.

This includes organic-matrix composites (OMCs), ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs),

and metal-matrix composites (MMCs) [42],

2.4.2 Metal Matrix Composites

Like all composites, metal matrix composites consist o f at least two chemically

and physically distinct constituent materials; i.e., matrix and reinforcement, which are

properly distributed to supply properties not obtainable with either o f the individual

materials. The matrix constituent is a completely continuous metal or metallic alloy such

as aluminum, titanium, magnesium, beryllium, copper, silver, iron, nickel and cobalt. The

lighter weight aluminum-, titanium-, and magnesium-based MMCs are m ost widely used

for structural, automotive, aerospace, rail ground transportation, and recreational

 31

products. Beryllium-, copper-, and silver-based MMCs have applications in thermal

management and electrical contacts. In high-temperature and wear-resistant applications

such as rollers and tool dies iron-nickel, cobalt, and cobalt-nickel matrices are

common [42,43],

The reinforcing constituent, which is added extrinsically or formed internally by

chemical reaction, is embedded into the matrix with a range from 1 to 70 vol. % o f the

composite. The reinforcement materials, which might be metallic, ceramic, or organic

compounds, are used to improve structural properties and/or enhance physical properties

such as wear resistance, friction coefficient, or thermal conductivity [42]. These materials

can be either in continuous or discontinuous form or a combination o f both these forms.

The term continuously-reinforced MMCs is commonly used to indicate metal matrix

composites having reinforcements in the form o f sheets, monofilament wires or

continuously aligned long fibres. Since the reinforcements are embedded into the matrix

in a certain direction, the result is an anisotropic structure in which the alignment o f the

reinforcing materials affects the directional properties of the composite [43],

Discontinuously reinforced MMCs use a reinforcing phase in the form o f

particles, platelets, whiskers, and short fibres. Compared with the continuously reinforced

composites, discontinuously reinforced MMCs have relatively isotropic properties due to

the presence o f more randomly oriented reinforcements in the matrix. In addition,

discontinuously reinforced MMCs are less expensive to make. Cost is an essential

parameter, especially in large volume applications such as the automotive industry.

 32

Furthermore, conventional metallurgical processing techniques including liquid metal

casting or powder metallurgy can be employed for discontinuously reinforced metal

matrix composites, followed by common secondary processing techniques such as

extrusion, forging or rolling [42-44],

As a diverse class o f materials, metal-matrix composites have a wide variety o f

structural, wear, high temperature, electrical and thermal management applications. The

properties o f MMCs depend upon the characteristics of matrix constituent, reinforcing

constituent, and the matrix-reinforcement interface. The advantageous properties o f

MMCs may be subdivided into two different parts.

• Advantages with respect to other composites: Compared with other types o f

composites - CMCs and OMCs - MMCs offer many distinct advantages which

are mostly because o f the contribution o f the metal alloy matrix in these

composites. These advantages include superior strength and stiffness, improved

service temperatures, better electrical and thermal conductivities, higher radiation

survivability, and enhanced joining characteristics. This type o f composite is also

nonflammable with little or no out-gassing or moisture absorption

problems [42,45],

• Advantages with respect to unreinforced metals: Due to the incorporation o f the

reinforcement, MMCs have superior mechanical properties compared with the

metal matrix itself. The improved properties include hardness, strength, stiffness,
 creep and fatigue resistance. However, the improvements in these properties come

at the expense o f inferior ductility and fracture resistance o f MMCs since the

ductility and toughness o f most reinforcements are very low. Also, the presence o f

appropriate reinforcing elements may significantly enhance the wear resistance o f

the base material. In addition, elevated temperature stability and higher-

temperature operating limits o f MMCs are known to be superior to those o f the

unreinforced matrix materials. Moreover, metal-matrix composites are capable o f

providing better dimensional stability and controlling thermal expansion. Another

valuable characteristic is the major weight saving o f metal matrix composites

because o f the higher strength-to-weight ratio [42,43,45].

2.4.3 Carbon Fibre Reinforced MMCs

Carbon fibre represents the best known reinforcement fibre in all kinds o f

advanced composites including MMCs. These materials have been used widely with the

aluminum matrix to produce low density/high strength composites which are employed in

primary structural applications and internal combustion engines for instance. However, in

these composites the reaction of carbon with the matrix material at high temperatures

during fabrication process or under service conditions (above 500 °C) generates a brittle

compound of AI4 C 3 on the surface o f the fibres that affects the strength and functionality

o f CF/A1 composites at room or elevated temperatures [46-49], Diwanji et al. [50]

showed that up to 500 °C the strength o f CF/A1 composites declined slightly, while it was

considerably degraded for composites exposed to higher temperatures.

 34

The tribological properties o f carbon fibre reinforced aluminum matrix

composites were investigated by many researchers. Daoud [51] showed that the addition

o f CF remarkably improved the wear resistance of 2014 Al/CF over pure 2014 A1 alloy

because o f the formation o f a lubricating film on the worn surface o f the composites.

Kong et al. [52] proved that this lubricating film composed o f graphite and metal oxide.

Song et al. [47] investigated the sliding friction and wear properties of AI/AI2 O 3 /C hybrid

MMCs and concluded that their wear resistance was significantly improved over

AI/AI2 O 3 composites because o f the reduced friction force between MMCs and their

counterface material. Lee et al. [48] made the same conclusion and indicated that the

unreinforced aluminum alloy suffered from a severe complex wear regime while the wear

mechanisms in hybrid AI/AI2 O 3 /C composites included abrasive and slight adhesion. Liu

et al. [46] concluded that increasing the volume fraction o f short carbon fibres decreased

the friction coefficient and wear mass loss o f the CF reinforced aluminum matrix

composites since short carbon fibres reduced direct contact between the matrix and its

counterpart. Effects of fibre-orientation on friction and wear properties o f short CF

reinforced AI2 O 3 matrix composites were investigated by Jun et al. [53], The wear

properties o f the normal-oriented composites were better than that of the parallel-oriented

composites and the former composited had smoother worn surface with less microcracks

than the latter composites.

Carbon fibres are also used to reinforce copper (Cu) alloys. Xu et al. [54]

investigated the wear behavior o f Cu/CF and demonstrated that the incorporation o f

carbon fibres notably improved the wear resistance o f the reinforced composites

compared with pure copper. Xia et al. [55] compared the tribomechanical properties o f
 35

Cu/Zn/Sn/CF composites and a common leaded copper alloy (Cu/Zn/Sn). The results

indicated that the composites possessed higher hardness, bending strength, wear

resistance, and antifriction properties than the unreinforced copper alloy. Jim et al. [56]

studied the effects o f the short carbon fibre volume fraction on wear performance o f the

lead free tin bronze matrix composites. As the fibre volume fraction increased, the

friction coefficient and the wear rate o f the composites decreased.

Two predominant factors for the wide usage o f CFs can be described as follow:

• First, despite the complex manufacturing technology o f carbon fibres, it is more

amenable to large-scale production compared with the production o f other fibres.

After 40 years o f fabrication and use, CFs are now on the brink o f broad

commercialization. The utilization o f carbon fibres has been growing rapidly

because o f their increasing availability and considerable price reduction from the

1990s [42,57],

• Second, carbon fibres have very useful engineering properties including good

mechanical properties, high chemical inertness, excellent electrical and thermal

conductivities, outstanding thermal stability, and low density; that can be readily

translated into great flexibility in formulating composites with outstanding

specific performance [57],

The raw material used to make carbon fibers is called the precursor. Depending

on the precursor and the processing route, carbon fibres are available in a wide range o f

forms, diameters, and lengths; having even wider types with different mechanical
 36

properties such as strength and modulus. The several forms of carbon fibres can be

divided into continuous fibres and short fibres, including chopped fibres and milled fibres

[43,57], Two major types of carbon fibres based on their precursors include

polyacrylonitrile-based fibres (PAN fibres) and pitch-based fibres both o f which have

good chemical resistance to corrosive environments. PAN-based fibres, which are more

commonly used, offer low to high modulus of about 240 to 310 GPa (35 to 45 x io 6 psi)

and the highest strengths ranging from 3515 to 6380 MPa (510 to 925 ksi). The increase

in strength also translates into an increase in elongation-to-failure (up to 2.2%) since

carbon fibres exhibit linear stress-strain behavior to failure. Pitch-based fibres have low

strength and high to ultra-high modulus ranging up to 825 GPa (120 x 106 psi), attractive

for stiffness critical applications such as satellite structures [26,42],

The process for making carbon fibers involves both chemical and mechanical

operations. The majority of today carbon fibers are known to be PAN-based. Therefore,

the typical sequences o f operations to make these fibers are explained here. The process

starts with spinning operations, which include polymerization, washing, and stretching

the precursor into the desired fiber diameter. The next operation is stabilizing the fibers

by oxidation process that involves heating the fibers in air in a range from 200 °C (392

°F) to 399 °C (572 °F). The process continues by carburizing the fibers in oxygen-free

furnaces by heating the fibers in a temperature range between 700 °C and 2480 °C (1292

°F and 4500 °F). The next step is surface treatment which involves oxidizing the surface

o f the fibers to improve their bonding properties. The last operation is sizing in which the

fibers are coated to protect them from damage during handling or processing [42,43,57],
 37

Chapter 3: Specimen Fabrication

3.1 Raw Materials

3.1.1 Matrix Material

The matrix material o f the developed Stellite-alloy-based composites was

prealloyed Stellite 25 powder, which is a special low carbon, tungsten-strengthened

cobalt-chromium alloy, produced at Deloro Stellite Group. The main reason for selecting

Stellite 25 is that the microstructure o f this alloy has very small volume fraction o f

carbides (less than 4%) due to its very low carbon content (0.1 wt%). In this case, the

effect of carbides in the alloy can be kept as low as possible. Stellite 25 is the cast version

o f the wrought alloy L605 with a nominal chemical composition presented in Table 3.1.

The available forms o f this alloy include castings and welding consumables and it can be

formed by conventional techniques, including cold working, machining, forging, and

welding. The alloy can be readily welded by both manual and automatic welding

methods, such as Gas Metal Arc (GMAW), Shielded Metal Arc (coated electrodes),

electron beam welding and resistance welding techniques.

The prealloyed powder form o f Stellite 25 with a median particle size o f 34 pm

was provided by Deloro Stellite Group for this research. This alloy combines exceptional

thermal fatigue resistivity with good resistance to corrosion, oxidation and carburization
up to 1038 °C (1900 °F) for prolonged exposures. The alloy is resistant to wet chlorine at

ambient temperature and resists nitric and hydrochloric acids at certain concentrations

and temperatures. As a non-magnetic material, this alloy has been found to possess good

thermal cracking resistance and hot metal-on-metal wear resistance. However, it is not

recommended for severe wear conditions and low stress or low angle particle erosion

service. This is because the microstructure of this alloy is relatively free o f carbide

reinforcement due to the low carbon content in the alloy. The physical and mechanical

properties o f Stellite 25 alloy are presented in Tables 3.2 and 3.3 respectively. The

combination o f these properties makes this alloy suitable for a number o f component

applications in furnace hardware and metal working tools such as piercing points,

forming tools, and extrusion dies [1,58]. According to its material safety data sheet

(MSDS), Stellite 25 has few health hazards under normal handling and use. However,

performing certain processes such as machining, grinding, welding on this material can

produce dust, fumes, or particulate containing the component alloy elements [59]. Thus,

proper ventilation is required when performing these processes to control the exposure to

airborne toxic chemicals.

3.1.2 Reinforcement Material

In order to select the reinforcing agents properly, a wide range o f possible

additives and reinforcements including particles (0-D) like graphite and fibres (1-D) such

as glass and carbon fibres was studied. Although it is impossible to theoretically predict

the precise behavior o f reinforcements in a metal matrix, the effort was to select the

reinforcing elements with higher chances o f success. Therefore, the method adopted to
 39

solve the problem was empirical and evolutionary, while guided by previous experience

in the design o f MMCs. The composites properties were estimated by the rules o f

mixtures. These are mathematical expressions which are used to approximate estimation

of composite material properties in terms of the properties, quantities, and arrangement o f

their constituents. The usage o f fibres was preferred to particles for two reasons. First, a

fibre is inherently stronger than its bulk material since the flaw size in the fibre is limited

by its small diameter. Second, if propagation o f flaws in a fibre produces a failure in that

fibre, this failure will not propagate to the other fibres to fail the entire composite as

would normally happen in the bulk material [42], Finally, carbon fibre was selected to be

the reinforcing agent in the developed composites because of its large-scale production

and functional engineering properties, including low density, high chemical inertness,

excellent thermal stability, good mechanical properties and outstanding thermal

conductivity, which are all discussed in Chapter 2 .

Compared with glass fibre, carbon fibre has lower density and higher thermal

conductivity. The thermal conductivity o f carbon fibre filled composites was reported to

be 10 to 15 times more than that o f the corresponding glass fibre reinforced compounds

[57]. In addition, carbon fibre is considered as a high-strength and high-modulus

reinforcement material. Therefore, it was expected that the composites reinforced with

carbon fibre would possess superior structural efficiency to the pure Stellite 25 matrix

material because o f their good specific strength and specific stiffness (material strength or

stiffness divided by its density). To this end, two different types of PAN-based carbon

fibres were selected for this research to be individually mixed with the Stellite 25 powder
 40

in order to make two groups of carbon fibre reinforced composites. Various properties o f

these two groups o f composites such as their tribological, mechanical and corrosion

properties were compared with each other and also with pure Stellite 25 alloy to optimize

the final product.

The above fibres were obtained from Toho Tenax Company in chopped shape.

This shape allows avoiding areas with inhomogenity in the final composites, i.e. isotropic

properties in the composites due to the random orientation o f reinforcements. Another

reason for using the chopped shape o f carbon fibres is that the fabrication techniques for

discontinuously reinforced composites are usually more cost-effective than that o f the

continuous ones since the former composites can be processed using similar techniques to

those used for their matrices [42],

The first product is a plain carbon fibre with 3 mm (1/8 in) length and 0.007 mm

(2.7 X 10*4 in) diameter. This product provides good processability and good translation

of mechanical and electrical properties [60], The second type o f carbon fibre is a nickel-

coated chopped carbon fibre with 6 mm (1/4 in) length and 0.0075 mm (2.95 x 10^ in)

filament diameter. The thickness of nickel layer is about 0.25 pm which corresponds to a

weight fraction o f 44% Ni. This product combines the excellent mechanical properties o f

carbon fibre with the properties of nickel such as high electrical conductivity.

Applications o f this type o f carbon fibre include structural reinforcement, conductive

composites for lightweight electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, radio frequency

interference (RFI) shielding, and lightning strike protection for aircraft [60], The nickel-
 41

coating on the carbon fibres serves three intended functions. One is to enhance the

interface bonding between the carbon fibres and the matrix. The second is to prevent

diffusion o f carbon from the carbon fibres into the matrix, thus avoiding formation o f

carbides in the matrix. The third is to alleviate redox reactions including carbon oxidation

and carbon reduction at elevated temperatures during manufacturing process or final

service. The physical and mechanical properties o f these fibres are presented in Table 3.4

to Table 3.7.

3.2 Mixture of Powders

3.2.1 Chemical Composition of the Composites

Pure Stellite 25 and eleven different homogeneous compositions o f Stellite 25-

based composites, listed in Table 3.8, were prepared for specimen fabrication. In general,

the final properties o f fibre reinforced-composites can be controlled by selecting the

reinforcing materials with desired properties, controlling the volume fraction o f

reinforcements, and specifying the fibre orientation. Therefore, the type of

reinforcements, their content level and the fibre orientation were carefully investigated

for the composites developed in this research. The specific objectives o f using carbon

fibres as reinforcement material in the composites are to improve their thermal

conductivity, anti-friction properties, wear resistance, and mechanical properties. In

addition, using the chopped form o f carbon fibres can result in fabrication o f randomly

oriented fibre reinforced-composites which exhibit uniform properties in all orientations.

As shown in Table 3.8, specimen A was used to measure the properties o f pure Stellite 25

and also to investigate and optimize the fabrication parameters. Composites B, C, D, E

 42

and F were used to study the role of chopped carbon fibre and its content level in the

properties o f the composites. Similarly, composites K, L, M, N, O and P were designed to

investigate the effects of the chopped Ni-coated carbon fibre and its content level on the

composites.

3.2.2 Powder Blending

After preparing the compositions o f the designed composites, blending process

was performed using glass bottles, which were half filled with the constituent materials o f

the composites so that there was enough space foT blending. Stellite 25 powder and

carbon fibres were mechanically mixed for an hour in a three dimensional Turbula type

T2C mixer, shown in Fig. 3.1. This apparatus mixes the materials by rotation, translation,

and inversion. The mixing process took several cycles until enough powder mixture was

produced for each composition of the composites.

3.3 Fabrication Process

3.3.1 Hot Isostatic Pressing

The technique used to fabricate composites has a significant effect on the final

properties o f the products [42]. In the current research, the hot isostatic pressing

technique was employed to obtain the specimens. HIP is a powder metallurgy processing

route to manufacture materials or components, which was invented at Battelle Material

Institute in US in 1955 as a method to diffuse dissimilar materials. Diffusion bonding

depends on atomic transport across two mating surfaces, including solid-to-solid,

powder-to-solid, and powder-to-powder, and is adopted to remove bond line pores. These
 43

materials are bonded together by using a multiplier effect of high temperature and

isostatic pressure [ 1 1 ],

The conventional HIPing process involves the following activities: producing

spherical powders, screening powders to an acceptable maximum particle size, evaluating

powders’ cleanliness, blending the powders and reinforcements to obtain a homogenized

distribution, loading the blended materials into containers, vacuum outgassing and

sealing the containers, applying isostatic high-pressure gas to the containers, and

consolidating the powders and reinforcements at an elevated temperature. For some

applications, materials consolidated by HIP are consolidated again by further

thermomechanical processing such as extrusion and forging to enhance mechanical

properties, particularly high-temperature strength and ductility. In the consolidating step,

the powders and/or reinforcements are plastically deformed that results in porosity

elimination and full theoretical density achievement in the parts [1,11,41].

3.3.2 Preparation of Containers

Containers for consolidation are commonly made from aluminum, mild steel, or

stainless steel depending on the HIP parameters and the blended materials. The powder-

filled containers can be designed and produced as simple geometric shapes or complex

near-net shapes [5,11]. hi the present work, round tubes o f stainless steel-grade 316

having 40 cm (15.75 in.) length and 1.5 mm (0.06 in.) wall thickness with inside

diameters o f 1.3 cm (0.51 in.) were used as consolidation containers for fabricating the
 44

specimens (Fig. 3.2). The use o f the round tubes allows a uniform isostatic pressure to be

applied to the blended materials and also avoids any areas o f stress concentration.

The containers were filled with the blended materials and the tubes were sealed at

one end. The mould filling plays an important role in the quality of the final products. To

avoid contamination o f the mixture, moulds were cleaned with acetone prior to each

filling process. Care was taken to fill the moulds uniformly, since improper mould filling

could cause uneven densities, cracks, or distortions in the final products. Therefore, a

glass funnel was used in this step to uniformly pour the mixture into the moulds.

Successive partial charges and tamping to gain the designed fill height were avoided

since these could lead to the contamination problem, charge to charge interface and

possible cracking at the interfaces along the height.

After loading the blended materials into a container, it is required to minimize the

mixture adsorbed surface gases. This can be accomplished by subjecting the mixture to a

vacuum and heating the mould to remove air and adsorbed moisture [5]. Therefore, the

open end o f each tube was connected to a vacuum hose and hot outgassed at 300 °C (572

°F) for three days to a vacuum level of 10' 5 mbar using a vacuum pump, Fig. 3.3; then the

tube was sealed and welded to eliminate the possibility of trapping air in the specimens.

3.3.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetry

Determination o f the HEP/sintering elevated temperatures depends on a complex

interaction o f many factors including shape, size, and chemical composition o f the
 45

composite. Therefore, these factors need to be considered when designing the

HIP/sintering cycle. For instance, an excessively low HIP/sintermg temperature may

result in poor mechanical properties o f the final parts [1], As carbon fibres do not melt

during the sintering process o f the composite mixtures, since the melting point o f carbon

is about 3500 °C (6332 °F), the solid state sintering method was intended to be used in

this research. In this method, the sintering elevated temperature is below the melting

point o f the base material and usually between 50 and 90% o f the melting point o f the

constituent with the lowest temperature in the system. Most of the commercial HIP

activities with steel, nickel and cobalt alloys are typically performed between 1100 °C

(2012 °F) and 1205 °C (2201 °F) [5],

Differential scanning calorimetry is a thermal analysis technique which measures

the difference in the heat flow rate to the sample and to a reference sample as a function

o f temperature while these are subjected to a controlled temperature program [61,62].

DSC thermograms can be used as the basis o f designing sintering cycles in terms o f the

phase transformation temperatures and to evaluate the sample purity as a quality control

instrument [61,63]. Another main application of DSC is in studying the phase formation

and transformation temperatures, including melting, liquidus, solidus, and glass transition

temperatures in materials [61].

The facility employed in this research was a Netzsch 404C Pegasus heat flux DSC

shown in Fig. 3.4. In a heat flux DSC machine, the reference and the sample are placed in

two similar crucibles. The crucibles are then placed in a single furnace on a metal disk to
 46

make a low resistance heat conduction path between the two holders. The furnace then

undergoes a well-defined temperature program to perform the DSC analysis by detecting

the difference in heat flow between the reference and sample throughout the test [61].

Before starting the DSC tests, the DSC machine was carefully calibrated and the

baseline corrections were performed with empty sample and reference crucibles. The

tests were carried out in an inert gas atmosphere by repeatedly evacuating and backfilling

the furnace with argon gas. The reference material was alumina (AI2O3) powder which

did not experience any thermal events over the operating temperature range [64], The

sample and the reference material were precisely weighed and then were placed in the

crucibles. To avoid reactions between the sample and crucible, alumina crucibles were

used for the tests. Also, the sample was covered by alumina powder to improve the

thermal contacts between the sample and the crucible.

Fig. 3.5 illustrates the heating/cooling cycle o f the DSC tests performed in this

research. The heating/cooling rates o f the cycle were set to 20 °C/min (6 8 °F/min) while

the initial standby temperature was 80 °C (176 °F). The maximum DSC heating

temperature o f 1500 °C (2732 °F) was selected based on the melting point o f cobalt (1493

°C). Both sample and reference crucibles were weighed again after each test to record any

possible weight change. The DSC tests on Stellite 25 and Stellite 25 based composites

were performed. To ensure accuracy o f the tests, at least two specimens were tested for

each material under the same condition. The weights o f the sample and the reference

materials before and after each test were almost constant. Fig. 3.6 presents the curves
 47

obtained from the DSC tests. As presented in Fig. 3.6(a), the starting and ending points o f

melting for specimen A are 1384 °C and 1431 °C respectively. These temperatures were

close enough to the melting range between 1329 °C and 1410 °C for the pure Stellite 25

alloy, reported by the manufacturer (Table 3.2), so that the test accuracy and the sample

purity were being confirmed. The maximum sintering temperature was then determined

in terms o f the DSC curves. Since solid state sintering method was adopted, the sintering

elevated temperature should be below the lowest peak temperature o f the first phase

transformation among all the DSC curves. The results show that the peak temperature for

the pure Stellite 25 specimen, plain carbon fibre reinforced composites and Ni-coated

carbon fibre reinforced composites are respectively 1425 °C (2597 °F), 1250 °C (2282 °F)

and 1424 °C (2596 °F); thus, the maximum sintering temperature was selected to be 1150

°C (2102 °F).

3.3.4 Design of HIPing/Sintering Cycle

The HIP process was continued by subjecting the sealed containers to a high

hydrostatic pressure at an elevated sintering temperature in a high pressure containment

vessel. The pressure was transmitted to the blended materials through the flexible mould

and the mass became uniformly compacted. The elastic compression o f the mass involved

aligning the particles into the best possible packing array by slipping and sliding followed

by establishing and enlarging contact points between adjacent particles [11,65].

Simultaneously, the blended materials experienced the sintering cycle to develop

structural integrity in the composites by particle coalescence and void elimination

through diffusion bonding.

 48

While diffusion bonding is generally enhanced by increasing the hydrostatic

pressure and temperature, these parameters should be selected with respect to other

metallurgical and economic considerations. The optimum pressure is the pressure

sufficient to close up all pores along the bond line and to close internal pores to produce a

void-free material. However, the pressure has to be low enough to minimize internal

stress and avoid plane slippage that may generate microcracks. Superalloys are normally

hipped to full density under a pressure o f 105 to 205 MPa (15-30 ksi). An inert gas such

as argon, helium, or nitrogen is used as the pressure medium in the process, so that the

material does not chemically react with the pressurizing gas [5,11], The holding period at

the sintering elevated temperature needs to be kept to a minimum to lower the cost and to

potentially avoid any deleterious effects from formation o f brittle intermetallics,

secondary recrystallization, and excessive grain growth [ 1 , 1 1 ].

For this research, the HIP and sintering cycle parameters including heat-up rate,

cooling rate, hold periods, and peak temperature were preliminarily determined according

to the published data for the P/M cobalt-base superalloys [1,5,8,11,23,32,65] and the

DSC test results. This design was optimized by varying these parameters in the sintering

process o f the pure Stellite 25 specimen and then evaluating the performance o f the

specimens. Finally, it was decided that all the specimens be hot isostatic pressed at the

temperature o f 1150 °C (2102 °F) under a pressure o f 150 M Pa (21.75 psi) o f argon gas

for about 2.5 h. Using the inert argon gas could eliminate the chance o f redox reactions

including oxidation of carbon and nickel to produce carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and nickel

oxide (NiO) or the carbon reduction by hydrogen to produce methane (CH4). To avoid
 49

mechanical stresses induced by the possible volume change during the sintering cycle and

hence possible cracking in the composites, both heating and cooling rates were kept low

at 10 °C/min (50 °F/min). In addition, to eliminating the chance of excessive thermal

gradients in the objects under sintering, two holding periods at 460 °C (860 °F) and 800

°C (1472 °F) were introduced in the cycle. The sintering cycle and the final sintered/cut

specimens are presented in Fig. 3.7 and Fig. 3.8 respectively.

 50

Chapter 4: Material Characterization

4.1 Microstructural Analysis

4.1.1 Objectives

Service properties of a composite are affected by its structural components and

their properties. The fabricated specimens were first examined using an optical

microscope and a SEM machine before any other material characterization tests. The

EDX technique was also used to reveal the phases present in the specimens. The purpose

o f these examinations was structural analyses, which provided the following:

(1) Confirming whether the sintering process was properly designed to render a good

microstructure for the specimens.

(2) Identifying the main phases present in the microstructures of the specimens.

In addition, one o f the most important tasks o f this research was to investigate if

carbon fibres induced carbides in the Stellite 25 matrix. Therefore the analysis o f carbide

volume fraction was performed on the specimens using an image analysis software

package, Clemex Vision Lite™, Longueuil, Canada.

 51

4.1.2 Surface Preparation

To perform microstructural analyses, the surfaces of each specimen were properly

prepared in the following steps:

(1) Cutting the metallographic specimens from the main body of the HIPed materials

using a Struers Secotom-10 cutting machine, shown in Fig.4.1, with an AI 2 O 3

abrasive cut-off blade according to the ASTM Standard E 3 - 01 [6 6 ]. Care was

taken to minimize excessive heating by following the usual precautions such as

proper cooling conditions to avoid any microstructure alteration. To improve

handling, protect the specimen edge, and provide a uniform format for automated

preparation, specimens were mounted by encapsulating into a compression

mounting compound. The compound was the phenolic plastic whose general

properties are presented in Table 4.1. The hot mounting press o f Struers Co.

(laboPress-3), shown in Fig. 4.2, with adjustable pressing parameters such as

heating temperature, heating time, cooling time, and force was used to provide

heat (150-180°C) and force (0-50 MPa) for mounting.

(2) Grinding the surfaces of the specimens. The details o f this operation, which was

performed by a Buehler Ecomet-4 semiautomatic machine, shown in Fig. 4.3, are

presented in Table 4.2. The specimen holder o f the machine is a fixed frame in

which the pressure is applied on the specimens via the central column o f the

holder. Therefore, it is necessary to place the specimens symmetrically in order to

obtain flat surfaces after grinding operation. Grinding operation was required to

reduce the surface damage caused by cutting and to achieve planar specimens due
 52

to possible shrinkage induced in the sintering process. To minimize possible

damage such as the reinforcement pull out of the composites, it is required to

carefully select the load and the speed o f the grinding operation. The silicon

carbide (SiC) abrasive paper (320 standard grit size) was used with a contact load

o f 27 N (6 Lb.) and a spindle speed o f 250 rpm, according to the ASTM Standard

E 1-01 and Buehler materials preparation guide [66,67]. Water was used as the

coolant to reduce the generated heat during grinding.

(3) Polishing the surfaces o f the specimens. The purpose o f the polishing operation

was to produce a reflecting or bright mirrorlike surface. Polishing operation

includes rough and final polishing steps. Rough polishing is performed to remove

the damage produced during planar grinding. As described in Table 4.2,

specimens were roughly polished with sequentially decreasing abrasive paper grit

sizes. Final polishing was performed to eliminate any surface damage. In the

present research, specimens were lightly polished with 1 pm diamond suspension

and 0.05 pm alumina suspension on two specific polishing pads. The specimens

were thoroughly cleaned in an ultrasonic bath, prior to and after each step o f the

final polishing since surface quality could be degraded by abrasion from the

debris produced during polishing.

(4) Etching the specimen surfaces. After polishing, the specimen surfaces were

subjected to immersion and electrolytic etching with two different solutions.

Because all constituent materials o f the composites are corrosion resistant,

 53

vigorous etching reagents were necessary to optically enhance microstructural

features. The first reagent was a mixture o f 15 mL nitric acid (HNO3) + 1 5 mL

acetic acid (CH3COOH) + 60 mL hydrochloric acid (HC 1) + 15 Ml water (H2O),

which is the standard solution for immersion etching of cobalt-based alloys. This

solution must be aged for 1 h before use and the samples need to be immersed in

the reagent for up to 30 s [1,68]. The second reagent composition and also its

etching procedures are presented in Table 4.3. These solutions and also etching

procedures were selected because they are well known for identifying carbides in

cobalt-based superalloys [1,68,69],

4.1.3 Apparatus

The images o f microstructural features of the specimens were obtained with an

Olympus PM-63 light microscope, shown in Fig. 4.4. The microscope is capable o f

obtaining images in the magnification range of 50x to lOOO*.

The scanning electron microscope is one o f the most versatile instruments for

investigating the microstructure o f materials. An SEM has a greater resolution than a

traditional optical microscope since it uses electrons instead o f visible light that is used in

optical microscopes. Also, because a SEM has a better depth of field than an optical

microscope, the sharpness o f the SEM images is much higher than that o f the optical

images. In the present research, a Hitachi S-570 model o f SEM, shown in Fig. 4.5, with

energy dispersive X-ray spectrum was used to produce the high-resolution images o f the

specimens’ microstructures and to analyze the chemical characterization o f the

 54

specimens. The microscope is capable of obtaining images in the magnification range o f

35x to 15000* and uses a tungsten filament thermionic emission gun as its electron beam

emission source. Once cleaned and dried, the specimens were coated prior to mounting

by a thin layer of graphite to become electrically conductive. This task was to prevent the

accumulation of static electric fields on the specimen due to the electron irradiation

required during imaging and also to improve the contrast o f the image.

4.1.4 Carbide Volume Fraction Analysis

To identify carbides and thereby to determine the volume fraction of carbides in

the specimens, image analysis software, Clemex Vision Lite™ was employed. To obtain

accurate measurements, instrument calibration was made for each objective lens since the

width represented by a pixel would change with magnification. Then the images obtained

from the light microscopy o f specimens subjected to the aforementioned first etching

solution were loaded and the pictures went through different grey level operations to alter

the intensity values associated with each pixel in order to polish up the grey images and

produce high contrast pictures. The next step was thresholding to classify the pixels that

fell within a restricted range o f grey levels into an editable entity called a bitplane. These

bitplanes were the objects measured finally rather than the underlying image. To remove

the artifacts within one bitplane and eliminate the very small features, which should have

not been inserted in a specific bitplane, several binary operations such as trap and chord

size operations were performed. At this stage, the area percent o f all detected phases was

measured with respect to the total area covered by the field o f analysis for each picture.

The area with carbides was used to calculate the carbide volume fraction based on the
 55

Delesse principle, i.e., the ratio o f the area occupied by a non-classically shaped object

relative to the entire profile area is a consistent estimate o f its volume fraction [6 j. For

each specimen, fifteen different images were captured and analyzed in three

magnifications (50*, 100*, and 200*), respectively.

4.2 Density Measurement

Composite materials cannot usually achieve full density since in their

microstructure porosity is inevitably present that undoubtedly affect the properties o f the

materials. However, the HEP/sintering powder metallurgy method normally results in

porosity elimination in composites [1,11,41], Therefore, a density measurement may be

necessary for composite materials to determine if the part has been densified, either

overall or in a critical region, to the degree required for the intended application.

The immersion density technique was employed in accordance with the ASTM

Standard B 311-08 [12] to determine the density of the specimens. The density o f water

at room temperature was assumed to be 1 g/cm3. This technique is based on Archimedes

principles described below:

• Weigh the specimen in air (w j )

• Weigh the specimen in distilled water (w/) while suspended by thin wires

The following formula was used to calculate the density of the materials [12,70]:
 56

p . ~ .............. :.J'--------.
Wd - (Wfl - W**» - H W J

where />* is the specific density o f the specimen, g/cm3, Wd is the mass o f the specimen in

air, g, pj 7 is the density o f distilled water, g/cm3, Wp is the weight o f the specimen in

distilled water, g, Wwires is the weight o f the Kevlar wires, g, and Wbeaker is the weight o f

beaker, g.

The basic experimental apparatus, shown in Fig. 4.6, is a Sartorius 6080 electronic

balance, which is accurate to 0 .1 mg and allows for both dry (at air) and wet (in bath)

weighing o f specimens. The setup includes a small metallic stand that fits into the

balance and a small perforated plastic beaker that is suspended from the stand with two

Kevlar wires. The beaker is submerged in a one-litre distilled water bath, allowing the

specimen to be totally immersed while being measured. Care should be taken to avoid

any contact between the beaker and wall o f the water bath.

4.3 Corrosion Test

One o f the main features o f superalloys or Stellite alloys is their good corrosion

resistance. However, these materials can corrode in several different ways. These alloys

can be attacked by various corrosive aqueous media such as mineral or organic acids,

oxidizing environment at ordinary or high temperatures, and different types o f salts in the

air necessary for combustion for instance. Also, hot corrosion might occur in gas

turbines, incinerators, and boiler tubes due to the use of sulfur- and sodium-containing

fuels [1,11]. To evaluate the corrosion resistance o f the fabricated materials, immersion
 57

corrosion tests were performed on the fabricated specimens in accordance with the

ASTM Standard G 31-72 [14]. This test was intended to represent a worst-case situation

as a guide rather than a complete standardization by reproducing a certain environment or

a specific condition o f exposure. Therefore, the selected test medium was the oxidizing

acid 65% HNO 3 at boiling temperature.

Since corrosion is a surface phenomenon, the surface condition of the specimen

directly affects the results of the tests [71]. According to the ASTM Standard G 1-03 [13]

the surface o f the cylindrical specimens with 0.64 cm (0.25 in) diameter and 1 cm (0.4 in)

height, Fig. 4.7, were polished to 0.05 pm finish, cleaned in ultrasonic bath, and air-dried.

The geometric area o f each specimen was calculated to 1% accuracy and weighing o f the

specimens was accurate to 0.1 mg. The specimens were then immersed in the corrosive

solution for 72 hours and were removed afterwards for examination. Shortly after

removing from the medium, the specimens were properly cleaned by soft brushing under

warm tap water to remove bulky deposits and corrosion products without significant

removal o f the base materials. Then the specimens were dried with ethanol and a blow

dryer.

The mass loss o f each specimen due to corrosion was determined by weighing the

specimen before and after the corrosion test. To assess the corrosion damage, the average

corrosion rates o f the specimens were obtained as follows [13,14]:

Corrosion Rate = ( 5 x M ) /(A x t x p ) , (4-2)

 58

where B is a constant equal to 3.45 * 106 for desired corrosion rates in mils per year, t is

the time o f exposure in hour, A is the area o f exposure in cm2, M is mass loss in g, and p

is the density o f specimen material in g/cm3.

4.4 Hardness Test

4.4.1 Macrohardness

Hardness represents the resistance o f a material to permanent deformation or

indentation [72]. It is generally known that hardness of a material relates closely to its

resistance to wear. The harder the material, the more wear resistant it is [1], In order to

correlate the wear resistance with the hardness o f the fabricated materials, the hardness o f

the fabricated specimens was determined on a Rockwell hardness tester in accordance

with the ASTM Standard E 18-08b [15] in the standard laboratory atmosphere. Rockwell

is considered as an empirical indentation hardness test that might be useful in selection of

materials and in quality control [73], The test determines the hardness o f a material by

using diamond spheroconical, tungsten carbide, or steel ball indenters to make an

indentation on the surface o f the testing specimen under specified conditions. For each

measurement, the hardness is obtained by measuring the difference in depth of

penetration as the force on the indenter is increased from a specified preliminary test

force (preload) to a specified total test force (major load) and then returns to die preload.

The test results, which are dimensionless numbers, may also correlate to some other

characteristics o f the specimens such as tensile strength, wear resistance, and ductility.

There are different scales in Rockwell hardness test; therefore, the test results should be
 59

quoted as a number followed by the symbol HRX where X represents the scale

designation [15,73],

The test apparatus used in this research is a Wilson®, Norwood, USA, Series 2000

Rockwell machine shown in Fig. 4.8. In this machine the depth measurement is

automatically converted to the Rockwell hardness value. The hardness value and

Rockwell scale are then indicated by an electronic device. The test specimens, 10 mm

(0.39 in.) in thickness, were ground and polished to get smooth and flat surfaces at the

top and on the bottom. The tests were conducted using a diamond spheroconical indenter

with the preliminary test force of 10 kgf (98 N) and the total test force o f 150 kgf (1471

N) as the test parameters. For each designation, at least ten different hardness

measurements were performed and the average o f hardness values was reported as the

final hardness value o f the designation.

4.4.2 Microhardness

A Microhardness Tester Unit, Model SMT-X7 Dual Indenter, shown in Fig. 4.9,

with a load capacity o f 1 kgf (9.8 N), was also employed in this research. This instrument

allows measuring hardness in Vickers o f a material on micro level, which means that

hardness o f each phase in the microstructure can be quantified. In order to measure the

variations o f hardness in the region around carbon fibres o f the fabricated composites, a

series o f indentations were performed from the interface o f carbon fibres and the alloy

matrix gradually away to the matrix. The purpose o f this test was to further confirm if

any carbon diffusion had occurred in the fabricated composites. The carbon diffusion
 60

from carbon fibres into the alloy matrix would form carbides in the region around carbon

fibres that cause alteration of the matrix hardness in the fibre-matrix interface region.

4.5 Wear and Friction Tests

4.5.1 Sliding Wear

A very important feature o f superalloys and Stellite alloys in particular is their

wear-resistance properties. One main intended application o f the fabricated materials in

this research is for wear resistance. Therefore, the tribological behavior o f the fabricated

materials was investigated under sliding wear using a TEER-POD-2, Droitwich, UK,

computer controlled pin-on-disk tribometer, shown in Fig. 4.10.

Sliding or abrasive wear refers to a type o f wear generated by the sliding o f one

solid hard surface along another softer surface [74]. Therefore, in a pin-on-disk test, two

specimens are required which are known as the pin and disk. The pin used in this

research was a 5 mm diameter AISI 52100 steel ball, provided by TEER Coating

Limited, with the hardness o f 60-67 HRC, equivalent to 697-900 Vickers. The pin

specimen was positioned perpendicular to a flat surface known as disk. The disk was the

tested specimens cut from the HEPed materials with 10 mm thickness. These specimens

were polished to 0.05 pm finish, cleaned in an ultrasonic bath, and then dried. The

masses o f the polished, cleaned, and dried specimens were measured to 1 0 -4 g accuracy

before the wear test.

 61

4.5.2 Test Parameters

The tests were conducted under a dry-lubricating condition and in accordance

with ASTM Standard G 99-05 [16], The test parameters were selected as:

• Load: 10 N, the value o f normal force at the wearing contact.

• Speed: 0.1 m/s selected as the relative sliding speed between the contacting

surfaces.

• Time: 83 min, the duration o f each test.

• Distance: ~ 500 m, the accumulated sliding distance within the period o f wear test,

calculated from the time and the speed.

• Atmosphere: The tests were conducted in the standard laboratory atmosphere with

the relative humidity o f 40% and the temperature of 23°C.

Dining the test the pin (ball) was wearing the disk (specimen) surface which was

spinning at a rotational speed o f 308 rpm under a compressive force o f 10 N for 83

min without lubrication. As a result, a wear track was formed in the specimen surface.

4.5.3 Data Collection

Three types o f data were obtained from the pin-on-disk tests:

• Wear loss: After the test, the disk specimens were cleaned by soft-brushing under

warm tap water to remove debris generated dining the wear test, dried, and

weighed to 0.000lg accuracy. Assuming that there is no significant pin wear, the
 following equation was used to calculate the volume losses o f the specimens due

to the wear [16]:

A V = — xlOOO, (4-3)
P

where A V is volume loss, mm3, m is mass loss, g, and p is the density o f the specimen,
7
g/cm '.

• Wear factor: Using the formula expressed below, the wear factor or the specific

wear rate o f each specimen was obtained [16]:

(4-4)

where k is wear factor, mm 3/N.m, A V is volume loss, mm3, F is normal force, N, and

As is sliding distance, m.

• Friction coefficient: The coefficient o f friction of each specimen was recorded

automatically throughout the test with the aid of a linear variable displacement

transducer so that the variation o f the friction coefficient with time could be

obtained.

To understand the wear mechanism o f the fabricated composites and investigate

the enhancement effect o f the reinforcements on the friction and wear behavior o f the
 63

composites, the worn surfaces of all the specimens were examined using optical

microscopy and SEM along with the EDX spectroscopy for elemental analysis.

4.6 Thermal Conductivity

4.6.1 Background

Friction heat is generated at the rubbing surfaces o f materials during wear. The

produced heat causes adhesion o f the contact surfaces and thereby speeds up the wear

loss o f the materials, hi addition to their excellent wear resistance, carbon fibres possess

good thermal conductivity, which helps dissipate the friction heat when they are added to

the materials exposed to wear conditions. The reduction o f friction heat would mitigate

adhesive wear damage and thus enhances the overall wear resistance o f materials. In

order to confirm the beneficial effect o f carbon fibres on friction heat dissipation, thermal

conductivity of the fabricated specimens was investigated using a 240x320 pixel-IR

camera, shown in Fig. 4.11, which has a thermal sensitivity o f 20 mK at 303 K and a

spectral response in the long wave infrared from 8 .0 to 8 .8 mm.

4.6.2 Methodology

Thermal conductivity, K, is defined as the intrinsic property o f a material in heat

transfer. When a temperature gradient exists in a material, heat conduction occurs by

transferring energy through vibration between the material’s adjacent atoms and

molecules. Higher rates o f heat transfer occur across the materials with high thermal

conductivities than across materials with low thermal conductivities [4,75], The variation

o f thermal conductivity between different materials can be analyzed using the pulsed
thermography method. This method is known as an active thermographic inspection in

which energy sources (flash lamps) are required to apply energy to the specimen o f

interest using a pulsed excitation in order to produce a thermal contrast between the

specimen’s front and back surfaces. Dining the cool down process, the temperature at the

specimen’s back surface can be detected by an infrared camera.

In the 240x320-pixel IR camera, two xenon flash lamps, each powered by a

2400 J power supply, were used as energy sources. Each sample was inspected from both

the front and back surfaces. Each thermogram contained 740 frames that were acquired at

60 Hz and the last frame in the acquisition was obtained at 8.15 s [75].

The following formulas were used to calculate the thermal conductivity o f the

materials [75]:

Ar = -2_, (4-5)
2e^jTrt

CK = —- , (4-6)
P

where ATisthe temperature difference between the frontand back surfaces, K, Q is the

energydensity applied at the surface, J/m , t is the frame acquisition time, s, e is the

thermal effusivity, J-m~2-K~1s~1/2, p is the density, g/cm3, C is the specific heat capacity,

J, and K is the thermal conductivity, W m '1k '1. From pulsed thermography experiments

on an aluminum plate (A1 2024-T3) and the theoretical e value calculated from literature

[75], Q was estimated to be -50,000 J/m2.

 65

Chapter 5: Experimental Results

5.1 Plain Carbon Fibre Reinforced Composites

5.1.1 Microstructure

To verify the fabrication process parameters, the pure Stellite 25 specimen

(specimen A) was examined by optical microscopy in an unetched condition, as shown in

Fig. 5.1(a). The microstructure of this specimen looks well alloyed and dense with no

obvious porosity and cracking. This confirmed that the processing parameters were

properly selected. Fig. 5.1(b) shows the typical unetched microstructure o f the composite

specimens (specimen F) with the carbon fibres embedded in the Stellite 25 matrix. By

closely examining the microstructures of the composite specimens, a few small voids can

be found, as shown in Fig. 5.1 (c) for specimen C. The presence of voids is common in

composites because o f the incorporation o f reinforcing materials that have different

properties from the matrix material [65], Also, the sintering process normally causes

some voids in the matrix o f composite materials because o f the point contacts between

the necked particles [65]. However, due to the low amount o f porosity in the composites’

microstructures, it can be inferred that the fabrication parameters were selected properly.

To identify the phases present in the microstructure o f the fabricated specimens,

they were first subjected to the etching procedure given in Table 4.3 and then examined
 66

by scanning electron microscopy. It was observed that the matrices o f the composite

specimens are similar to that of the pure Stellite 25 specimen. Fig. 5.2 shows the SEM

micrograph o f the matrix o f the etched composite F in an area close to carbon fibres. The

phases present in the matrices o f the fabricated specimens include a primary Co solid

solution matrix, an intermetallic phase, and two types o f carbides: W-rich carbide in

white and Cr-rich carbide in black. Due to the large content o f W in Stellite 25 alloy, the

amount o f W-rich carbide (WeC) is much more than that o f Cr-rich carbide (Cr?C 3

and/or Cr2 3 C 6 ). Thus, the main carbide in the matrices of the fabricated specimens is the

tungsten-rich carbide WeC. The existing phases in the matrices o f the fabricated

specimens were further examined using the EDX technique. Fig. 5.3 shows the SEM

image o f the specimen F at high magnification together with the EDX spectra for phase

identification. Firstly, the light grey area in Fig. 5.3(a) represents the fee Co solid

solution. Secondly, with the EDX major pick of W, the white phase is the tungsten-rich

carbide. Thus, tungsten not only serves as a solid solution strengthener, but owing to the

high content, also forms WgC in the matrix alloy. Thirdly, the dark grey phase in Fig.

5.3(a) represents the intermetallic phase containing Co, W and Cr, as identified in the

EDX spectrum in Fig. 5.3(c). Finally, the black phase in Fig. 5.3(a) represents the Cr-rich

carbide with the major picks o f Cr and C as seen in its EDX spectrum in Fig. 5.3(d).

One main interest o f this research is to investigate whether carbon fibres induce

carbides in the composite specimens during the P/M process. In order to measure the

volume fraction o f carbides in each specimen, the specimens were etched with the

standard cobalt-based alloys’ etching solution mentioned before in Chapter 4. The optical
 67

microstructure o f the pure Stellite 25 specimen in the etched condition is shown in Fig.

5.4. The carbides (W-rich and Cr-rich) are identified in black in the cobalt-solid solution

matrix after etching with this solution. After etching, the specimens were analyzed

utilizing an optical microscope and the image analysis software Clemex Vision Lite™.

The microstructures o f all the specimens and some o f the pictures used for the evaluation

of carbide volume fraction are presented in Fig. 5.5, which shows the matrices of the

developed materials in the vicinity of carbon fibres. In this carbide volume fraction

analysis, the small carbides were neglected and only the large-size carbides were taken

into consideration.

The corresponding volume fractions o f carbides in each specimen are reported in

Table 5.1. It is demonstrated that the carbide volume fractions in the composite

specimens are slightly more than that in the pure Stellite 25 specimen. Also, the

comparison in carbide volume fraction between the composite specimens suggests that

the volume fraction o f carbides increases with increasing the carbon fibre content in the

specimens. These two observations indicate that the diffusion o f carbon from the carbon

fibres occurred at the high temperatures during the sintering process. However, the

carbide volume fraction increment is very small since the maximum carbide volume

fraction in specimen F (with 5 wt% o f carbon fibre) is only 6.4 vol.%. It is worth

comparing the carbide volume fraction between Stellite alloys and the carbon fibre

reinforced Stellite alloy composites. The volume fraction o f carbides in the former varies

between 3% ~ 50% while the carbon content varies between 0.1 to 3.3 wt% [1,22,76],

However, the volume fraction o f carbides in the latter varies only between 3.8% ~ 6.4%
 68

while the carbon content varies between 0.1 wt% in specimen A to about 5.1 wt% in

specimen F (0.1 wt% carbon in Stellite 25 plus 5 wt% carbon fibre). This implies that

employing carbon fibre in Stellite alloys is superior to adding carbon, as viewed from the

volume fraction o f carbides in the alloys. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that the

carbon diffusion from the carbon fibres during the sintering process does not significantly

affect the volume fraction o f carbides in the matrices of the composites.

5.1.2 Density

The results o f the density test are presented in Table 5.2. The density o f specimen

A is about 18% higher than the reported value for Stellite 25 alloy in literature [58], This

implies that the HEP densification process employed in this research for fabricating the

Stellite 25 specimen was well designed and the Stellite 25 powder was densified with a

combination o f high pressure and high temperature applied in the consolidation process.

This process led to a dense microstructure with very low porosity, which can be seen in

Fig. 5.1(a). The pure alloy specimen has higher specific density than the composite

specimens. This is because carbon fibre is a lightweight material with a lower density

compared with Stellite 25 alloy. In addition, as mentioned before, the fabricated

composites would technically have more voids compared with the matrix material due to

the presence o f fibres. As a result, the density of specimen F that has the highest carbon

fibre content is about 14% less than that o f specimen A.

5.1.3 Corrosion Resistance

The corrosion rates o f the specimens, represented in mils per year, are shown in
 69

Fig. 5.6. It is demonstrated that the corrosion rate o f Stellite 25 increases when reinforced

with carbon fibres and the corrosion rate o f the Stellite 25 composite increases with the

carbon fibre content as well. It should be noted that the low-carbon Stellite alloys, Stellite

25 for instance, are mainly designed to combat corrosion while some other properties o f

these alloys such as wear resistance are sacrificed to some degree. However, the

corrosion resistance o f the fabricated composites is still quite high compared with high-

and medium-carbon Stellite alloys. Even specimen F, which has the lowest corrosion

resistance among all the specimens, exhibits higher corrosion resistance than the

medium-carbon Co-Cr-W alloy, Stellite 6B [76],

Under a similar condition o f corrosion exposure, Stellite 6B (containing ~ 1 wt%

carbon) showed a corrosion rate greater than 985 mils/yr [76], whereas composite F

(containing 5 wt% carbon fibre) exhibited a corrosion rate o f only about 192 mils/yr, one

fifth lower than that o f Stellite 6B. It is well known that the corrosion resistance o f

Stellite alloys decreases with the increased carbon content because the presence o f

carbides initiates the interfaces in the alloys, which tends to aggravate the corrosion of

the alloys [1,76]. In addition, Stellite alloys with more carbon content suffer more from

the chemical segregation in their matrices and lack o f chief alloying elements imparting

corrosion resistance in their microstructures [1,36,77], The comparison indicates that the

fabricated composites would be more corrosion resistant than medium-carbon Stellite

alloys. This result is attractive since it implies that with a same amount o f carbon content,

the alloy containing carbon fibre is much more corrosion resistant than the alloy

containing carbon element. Therefore, it can be concluded that carbon fibre is superior to
 70

carbides in Stellite alloys with respect to corrosion resistance.

It should be emphasized that the highly corrosive environment simulated in this

research is not aimed at duplicating a practical condition o f exposure, but is intended to

show the high corrosion resistivity of the fabricated composites. The reason lies in the

fact that corrosion is a complex process that is simultaneously affected by the chemical

composition of the exposed material and the environment o f the exposure.

5.1.4 Hardness

About ten readings o f hardness at different positions on each specimen were taken

and the average o f these measurements was reported as the Rockwell hardness o f the

specimen. As presented in Fig. 5.7, pure Stellite 25 (specimen A), has the lowest

hardness among the specimens. Compared with the hardness value o f cast Stellite 25

alloy, provided by the manufacturer in Table 3.3, specimen A which was fabricated by

the P/M route shows about 41% increase in hardness. This increase was owing to the use

o f HIP process as the fabrication method, which naturally results in a material with lower

porosity and higher density [11]. The hardness of specimen A increases with addition o f

carbon fibres. It can be observed that the hardness o f Stellite 25 can be enhanced up to

49% by incorporating 5 wt% carbon fibre (specimen F). This improvement in the

hardness is due to the fact that these fibres are inherently harder than the matrix material.

The hardness values o f Stellite 25 based composites can also be influenced by the

presence o f slightly increased carbides due to diffusion of carbon fibres in these materials

as well.
 71

5.1.5 Friction and Wear Resistance

The evolution o f the friction coefficients of the test materials during the wear test

are presented in Fig. 5.8. As illustrated, the friction coefficients for each specimen go up

at the initial stage until reaching a narrow peak. The coefficients of friction then drop to

lower values and become more or less constant afterwards. While the constant values o f

friction coefficient for all the composite specimens vary in a range o f 0.13 < / / < 0.16

after about 35 min sliding, the coefficient o f friction for the pure Stellite specimen is 0.31

after 55 min sliding. The significant reduction in friction coefficients o f the composites

can be attributed to the generation o f a thin transfer film o f graphite from the carbon

fibres on the counter surfaces. This behavior is in agreement with the analyses carried out

by other researchers [42,46,47,48,51], Under the cyclic load occurring during the wear

process, the surface o f the specimen experienced plastic deformation [78]. The removal

o f the surface layer of the specimen caused the carbon fibres to expose to wear. Under the

contact force, the carbon fibres were partially milled into fine graphite particles. The

particles o f graphite, which is known as a good solid lubricant, produced the thin films on

the wear surfaces o f the specimen and its counterface. It is believed that the friction for

all the composite specimens is reduced due to the presence o f this film, which prevents

the metal-to-metal contact between the composite and its counterpart.

The wear losses o f the specimens, represented by the volume losses, in the wear

tests are illustrated in Fig. 5.9. The corresponding specific wear rates are illustrated in

Fig. 5.10. The wear rate of pure Stellite 25 is reduced drastically (up to one order o f

magnitude) by adding carbon fibres. Specimen F, containing the highest content of

 72

carbon fibre among the specimens, exhibits the highest wear resistance with a low

specific wear rate about 0.86 x 10'5 mm3/N m . The wear resistance o f this specimen is

improved by about 12 times compared with the pure Stellite 25 specimen. Interestingly,

the tribological properties o f specimen F are also better than those of Stellite 694

(medium-carbon) and comparable to those o f Stellite 712 (high-carbon), which are all

fabricated by the sintering/HIPing process and tribologically tested under the same

parameter conditions [23],

To further study the tribological behaviour o f these new materials, the worn

surfaces o f the tested specimens were examined using optical and SEM microscopy

techniques and the chemical characterization o f the worn surfaces were performed by the

EDX technique. The images o f the wear tracks obtained by optical microscopy are

presented in Fig. 5.11. It can be observed that the width o f the wear track in the pure

Stellite 25 specimen surface is much larger than those of the composite specimens, which

is consistent with the high wear rate of pure Stellite 25. It is also noted that the width o f

the wear track decreases with the increase o f the carbon fibre content in the specimen,

which agrees with the wear rate results. In addition, severe wear scars and deep grooves

are observed on the surface o f this specimen, as shown in the surface image at high

magnification (Fig. 5.12). It is also interesting to note that the wear tracks in the

composite specimens are intermittent, as shown in Fig. 5.11(b) to Fig. 5.11(f). Compared

with the worn surface o f pure Stellite 25 specimen in Fig. 5.12, mild and shallow wear

scars can be observed in the wear track o f the composite specimen at high magnification

in Fig. 5.13. The intermittent wear tracks o f the composite specimens is definitely
 73

attributed to the presence of carbon fibres since the friction behavior o f Stellite 25 matrix

with the counterface differs from that o f carbon fibre with the counterface, which results

in variation o f the friction force along the wear track.

The SEM micrographs and the corresponding EDX spectra of the wear tracks o f

the pure Stellite 25, specimen A, and the composite specimen F are respectively provided

in Fig. 5.14 and Fig. 5.15. While pure Stellite 25 shows severe wear scars on its wear

track, as observed in Fig. 5.14(a), the worn surface of specimen F in Fig. 5.15(a) is

smooth and the wear track is discontinuous. Also, comparing the EDX spectra in Fig.

5.14(b) and Fig. 5.15(b), in addition to large amounts of Co, Cr and W identified in both

surfaces, there is a peak of carbon in the EDX spectrum of specimen F wear track. This

verifies that the carbon content on the wear track of specimen F is much higher than that

of specimen A. This proves the presence o f the carbon-rich film on the wear track o f the

composite specimens. In addition, the presence of slightly more iron on the wear tracks o f

the fabricated composites (Fe peak in Fig. 5.15(b)) is due to the transferred debris from

the counterpart material (AISI 52100 steel ball). The worn surface of the carbon fibre in

the composite specimens was also examined and the corresponding SEM image and EDX

spectrum are given in Fig. 5.16. No obvious wear damage other than fibre milling is

observed on the carbon fibre surface in Fig. 5.16(a). This very smooth surface further

proves the beneficial effect o f the carbon fibres on the wear resistance o f the reinforced

Stellite 25 based composites. The corresponding EDX spectrum in Fig. 5.16(b) indicates

a large amount o f C identified in the carbon fibre surface.

 74

5.2 Ni-Coated Carbon Fibre Reinforced Composites

5.2.1 Microstructure

The micrographs o f the specimens with Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforcement

along with the microstructure of the pure Stellite 25 specimen are presented in Fig. 5.17.

Similar analyses made on the plain carbon fibre reinforced composites apply to the Ni-

coated carbon fibre reinforced composites. Again, it is observed that the pure Stellite 25

specimen and all the fabricated composites exhibit a very similar fine grayish matrix

microstructure in the unetched condition. The presence of porosity in the matrices o f the

fabricated composites is visible, as seen in Fig. 5.18. However, as the amounts o f voids

are very small, it is reasonable to conclude that the fabrication parameters were selected

properly.

With the use o f the aforementioned first etching solution, W-rich and Cr-rich

carbides can be easily identified in the microstructures due to their blackish colour

compared with the matrix colour. In general, there is not much difference in the matrix

microstructure o f the plain carbon fibre reinforced composites and the Ni-coated carbon

fibre reinforced composites. Fig. 5.19 presents some pictures used for carbide fraction

analysis o f the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composite specimens. The results o f

carbide volume fraction measurement are shown in Table 5.3. It is shown that the carbide

volume fractions in all the specimens are very close. In other words, addition o f Ni-

coated carbon fibres has no significant influence on the carbide volume fraction in the

Stellite 25 matrix o f the composite specimens. This implies that the nickel coating o f the

fibres inhibited carbon diffusion at the high temperature during the sintering process.
 75

5.2.2 Density

The specific densities o f the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composite

specimens are presented in Table 5.4, together with the density value o f the pure Stellite

25 specimen for comparison. As expected, the densities of the composites are lower than

that o f the pure Stellite 25 specimen because the fillers are lighter than the matrix. Also,

as previously mentioned, the presence o f more voids is inevitable in the composites

compared to the pure Stellite 25 specimen due to the incorporation of fibres in the matrix

material. Therefore, the density o f specimen P containing the highest fibre content is the

lowest among the specimens and about 18.5% less than that o f specimen A.

5.2.3 Corrosion Resistance

The corrosion rates of the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composite specimens

expressed in mils per year are illustrated in Fig. 5.20, together with the corrosion rate

value o f the pure Stellite 25 specimen for comparison. The results show that the corrosion

rate o f the pure Stellite 25 specimen is the lowest among the specimens. This behavior is

similar to that o f the plain carbon fibre reinforced composite specimens. Among the

composites, specimen P that contains the highest carbon fibre content shows the highest

corrosion rate with a value of 597 mils/yr. However, compared with the corrosion-

resistant medium-carbon Stellite alloy, Stellite 6B, which has a corrosion rate value o f

985 mils/yr for the same test condition [76], specimen P shows better corrosion

resistance. Considering the fact that the relationship between the corrosion resistance o f

Stellite alloys and their carbon content is normally inverse [76], this behavior is more

interesting when the carbon contents in Stellite alloys and in the Ni-coated carbon fibre
 76

reinforced composites are compared. For instance, composite P contains 10 wt% carbon

fibre (carbon) while Stellite 6B contains only 1 wt% carbon. At 1 wt% carbon (Stellite

6B), the carbides constitute approximately 13 wt% o f the material, these being

predominantly chromium-rich eutectic carbides o f the M7C3 type [79], Therefore, the

carbon in the alloy forms carbides with the alloy elements which deteriorate the corrosion

resistance whereas the Ni-coated carbon fibres in the composite do not induce carbides.

As presented in Table 5.3, the Ni-coated carbon fibres induce nearly no carbides

in the alloy when they are added into the alloy as the reinforcement even with a high

content. Thus, the composites exhibit better corrosion resistance, compared with the

Stellite alloys that contain a much lower content o f carbon than the content o f carbon

fibre in the composites, for example, comparing carbon content and corrosion resistance

between Stellite 6B and composite specimen P. In addition, the good corrosion resistance

o f the composites may be attributed to the high corrosion resistance o f both Stellite 25

and carbon fibres. It should be again mentioned that the intention for the use o f such

highly corrosive environment was not to duplicate a practical condition o f exposure but

to demonstrate the good corrosion resistance of the fabricated composites. This is

because corrosion is a complicated process which depends not only on the environment

o f the exposure but also on the chemical composition o f the exposed material.

5.2.4 Hardness

The hardness test results o f the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composite

specimens are illustrated in Fig. 5.21, together with the hardness value o f the pure Stellite
 77

25 specimen for comparison. The hardness of the pure Stellite alloy specimen is

enhanced (up to 57%) by the addition o f Ni-coated carbon fibres. As the fibre content

increases the hardness o f the composite increases. In particular, composite P, with the

largest amount o f carbon fibre, exhibits the highest hardness (53.3 HRC). This

improvement can be explained by the highest proportion o f the fibre which has higher

hardness than the matrix material.

5.2.5 Friction and Wear Resistance

The variations o f friction coefficients with the sliding time for the Ni-coated

carbon fibre reinforced composite specimens are presented in Fig. 5.22. The friction

coefficient value for the pure Stellite 25 specimen is also presented in the figure for

comparison. For each specimen the coefficient o f friction increases initially and then

decreases until it reaches a nearly constant level, as observed for the plain carbon fibre

reinforced composite specimens as well. The constant value o f friction coefficient for the

pure Stellite specimen is about 0.31 after 55 min sliding, whereas those o f the composites

vary in a range o f 0.14 < fi < 0.2. It is clear that adding carbon fibres in the Stellite alloy

greatly reduces the friction. This may be attributed to the formation o f a thin solid

lubricating film consisting o f graphite and metal oxides on the counter surfaces. This

behavior is in agreement with the investigations made by other researchers

[42,46,47,48,51], Carbon fibre is composed of microcrystals o f graphite, which is known

as a good solid lubricant. Under the repeating operation o f friction force during the

sliding process, carbon fibres are milled into fine graphite particles which generate the

thin film on the moving surfaces. This film prevents direct metal-to-metal-contact
 78

between the two counterfaces. The difference in the generation of the thin graphite film

between the plain carbon fibre reinforced composites and the Ni-coated reinforced ones is

noteworthy. In the latter composites, the graphite particles are exposed and milled only

after the Ni-coatings are worn out. Therefore, the graphite films are generated gradually

on the moving counterfaces during the wear process.

The wear losses represented by the volume losses of the Ni-coated carbon fibre

reinforced composite specimens in the pin-on-disc wear tests are illustrated in Fig. 5.23.

The corresponding specific wear rates are reported in Fig. 5.24. The wear values for the

pure Stellite 25 specimen are also presented in these figures for comparison. It is shown

that addition of Ni-coated carbon fibres can make a remarkable improvement (up to one

order o f magnitude) in the wear resistance o f Stellite 25. Composite P with the highest

amount o f carbon fibre exhibits the highest wear resistance among all the composites

with a specific wear rate of 0.65 x 10' mm /N.m. The wear resistance o f Stellite 25 is

increased by about sixteen times due to addition o f Ni-coated carbon fibres up to 10 wt%

in specimen P. With the same wear test parameters, the specific wear rate o f composite P

is less than that of the sintered Stellite 694 (medium-carbon alloy) and comparable with

the specific wear rate o f the sintered Stellite 712 (high-carbon alloy) [23]. The

micrographs o f the worn surfaces of the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composite

specimens, obtained by optical microscopy, are shown in Fig. 5.25. The micrograph o f

the wear track o f pure Stellite 25 is also presented for comparison. It can be seen that the

widths o f the wear tracks o f the composite specimens are much less than that o f the pure

Stellite 25 specimen, which correspond to the results o f wear loss and specific wear rate.
It is also observed that the worn surfaces of the composite specimens exhibit obviously

less damage than that of the pure Stellite 25 specimen in Fig. 5.25(a). The SEM

micrograph and the worn track EDX spectrum o f one o f the Ni-coated carbon fibre

reinforced composite specimens, specimen O, are presented in Fig. 5.26. Compared with

the EDX spectrum o f specimen A, shown in Fig. 5.14(b), it can be concluded that the

concentration of carbon on the wear track o f specimen O is much higher than that o f

specimen A. This would be considered as a proof for the generation o f the thin graphite

film on the wear track o f the composite specimens due to the presence o f the nickel

coated carbon fibres.

5.3 Supporting Test Results

5.3.1 Microhardness

In order to further investigate the diffusion o f carbon from the carbon fibres into

the alloy matrix, microhardness test was conducted on the composite specimens.

Specimen F and specimen O were selected for these tests since the former contains the

highest carbon fibre content among the plain carbon fibre reinforced composite group,

while the latter contains the same weight fraction o f carbon fibre with specimen F in the

Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composite group. Four indentations were made at the

interface o f carbon fibres and the alloy matrix and gradually away to the matrix, as shown

in Fig. 5.27. Also, the microhardness o f the black carbidic phase in the composite

specimens subjected to the standard cobalt-based alloys’ etching solution was measured,

as shown in Fig. 5.28. The mean microhardness values are presented in Table 5.5. No

significant change was observed in the microhardness values obtained at the fibre/matrix
 80

interface area. Since carbides are much harder than their matrix solid solution, as reported

also in literature [1], the test results imply that no major carbide formation occurred in the

vicinity o f the carbon fibres.

5.3.2 Thermal Conductivity

The wear test results demonstrate that carbon fibre has beneficial effects on the

tribological properties o f the composites. One o f its contributions is suggested to be the

improved heat transfer, owing to the good thermal conductivity of carbon fibres [57], To

verify this presumption, a comparison study in thermal conductivity on the three

specimens, specimen A, specimen F and specimen O, representing pure Stellite 25, 5

wt% plain carbon fibre reinforced composite and 5 wt% Ni-coated carbon fibre

reinforced composite, respectively, was performed using the pulsed thermography

method. Although the actual thermal conductivity values o f the specimens cannot be

measured with this method, the results can be used as an indication for the heat

conduction properties o f the specimens. The specimens prepared for this study are shown

in Fig. 5.29(a). The PT thermograms o f the specimens at 1 s and 8.15 s (last frame in the

acquisition) are presented in Fig. 5.29(b) and Fig. 5.29(c), respectively. The experimental

results are reported in Table 5.6. The C x K values represent the relative thermal

conductivity among the three tested specimens, where the specific heat capacity (C) is

assumed to be identical for the three specimens because their base materials are the same.

It is shown that specimen O has the largest value o f C x K among the three

specimens. The values o f C * K are improved 19.3% and 21.8% respectively for
specimens F and O compared with that o f specimen A. Thus, it can be inferred that

adding carbon fibres improves the thermal conductivity o f Stellite 25. Comparing

composite specimens F and O, the C * K value o f the latter is 2% better than the former.

Although there are no data about the thermal conductivities o f the two different types o f

reinforcements, this behaviour seems to be reasonable knowing that the thermal

conductivity is normally analogous to electrical conductivity [4,42]. Thus, the nickel

coated carbon fibres which have better electrical conductivity than the plain carbon fibres

[60] possess better thermal conductivity as well. The results of the PT test prove the

hypothesis that improving the heat dissipation properties o f the composite specimens has

a direct role in improving their wear resistance.

 82

Chapter 6: Discussion

6.1 Carbide Volume Fraction

One of the main characteristics o f Stellite alloys is their wear resistance. Carbides

play the most significant role in the wear resistance o f Stellite alloys. However, the

formation o f unwanted carbidic phases, oxidation of carbides, transformation o f carbides,

and inhomogeneous distribution o f carbidic phases cause many problems in Stellite

alloys. Considering these problems associated with the presence of carbon in Stellite

alloys, the present research attempted to design and develop new materials, which are

Stellite alloy based composites reinforced with carbon fibres. Because o f the nature o f

carbon fibre, the carbon fibre reinforced composites demonstrated their superior

tribological properties (lower friction coefficient and higher wear resistance) to Stellite

alloys with lower carbon contents but higher carbide volume fractions.

It is worth making the following comparison; for Stellite alloys, at 1 wt% carbon

level (Stellite 6B), the carbides constitute approximately 13 wt% or 16 vol.% o f the

material. Also, at a carbon level o f 2.4 wt% (Stellite 3), the carbides constitute about 30

wt% or 35 vol.% o f the material [1]. However, this research showed that the carbide

volume fraction is only 6.4% for the composite containing 5 wt% plain carbon fibre plus

0.1 wt% carbon in its Stellite 25 matrix alloy. In addition, for the composite containing 5
wt% Ni-coated carbon fibre plus 0.1 wt% carbon in the matrix alloy, the carbide volume

fraction is even less, only 3.7%. Furthermore, considering composite specimens D and

M, which contain 1 wt% carbon fibre, the carbide volume fractions are 5.2% and 3.9%

respectively. Therefore, with the same amount of carbon, the carbide volume fraction in

the carbon fibre reinforced Stellite alloy composite is much less than that in Stellite

alloys. One important feature of the carbon fibre reinforced Stellite alloy composite is

that even with much less carbide volume fraction their wear resistance is superior or

comparable to commercial medium-carbon Stellite 694 or high-carbon Stellite 712,

respectively [23]. Therefore, in terms of the undesirable effects of carbides, carbon fibre

reinforced Stellite alloy composites are much more favorable than the conventional

Stellite alloys.

The above comparison reveals that, unlike carbon element, carbon fibre is much

more stable at high temperatures in terms o f formation o f carbides with the alloying

elements o f Stellite alloys. This is because carbon fibres are chemically inert or

unreactive materials [57], The inertness o f carbon fibres makes them stable when they are

incorporated with other materials. However, the carbide volume fraction analysis

indicated minor increase in carbide volume fraction when plain carbon fibres were added

to Stellite 25. This implied that carbon diffusion from the carbon fibres into the Stellite

alloy matrix did occur during the P/M process. However, the amount o f increase in

carbide content is trivial compared with that o f carbides in medium-carbon and

high-carbon Stellite alloys. Nickel coating on the carbon fibres prohibited the carbon
 84

diffusion even further and made the use o f carbon fibres more attractive in consideration

o f carbide formation.

6.2 Beneficial Effects of Carbon Fibres

The results of the density test showed that the densities of the composites are

lower than that o f the pure Stellite 25 specimen since carbon fibres are much lighter than

the Stellite 25 alloy matrix. In particular, specimens F and P are respectively 14% and

18.5% lighter than specimen A that might be interpreted as higher structural efficiency

for the composites compared with the pure Stellite 25 alloy.

Carbon fibre is known as a reinforcing material that can induce good mechanical

properties and wear resistance in composites so that it is expected to be comparable to the

carbides in Stellite alloys in terms o f these properties while the drawbacks o f the

carbides, as mentioned earlier, could be eliminated. The corrosion and wear tests in this

research demonstrated that the carbon fibre reinforced Stellite alloy composites possess

superior properties to conventional Stellite alloys.

The corrosion test showed that both the plain carbon fibre reinforced and the Ni-

coated carbon fibre reinforced composites had better corrosion resistance than medium-

carbon and high-carbon Stellite alloys. The reason lies in the fact that the key factor

affecting the corrosion behaviour of Stellite alloys is the carbides precipitated in the alloy

matrices due to the presence of carbon. This is because o f chemical micro-segregation

and also shortage o f vital corrosion resistant alloying elements such as chromium in the
 85

matrix of Stellite alloys after formation of carbides. Therefore, the amount of carbides

present in the alloys controls their corrosion performance. Owing to the homogeneous

microstructure o f their composite matrices with minor carbides and more chromium in

the solid solution, the fabricated carbon fibre reinforced materials exhibited better

corrosion resistance compared with medium- and high-carbon Stellite alloys.

The corrosion mechanisms o f the fabricated composites include galvanic

corrosion and aqueous corrosion (surface oxidation). Galvanic corrosion happens because

dissimilar materials possessing different surface potential are electrically coupled in the

conductive corrosive media [46]. While the conductive corrosive media is the dilute

boiling nitric acid, the dissimilar materials include the matrix alloy, conducting non-metal

o f carbon fibres and the nickel coating on the carbon fibres. Since graphite (carbon fibre)

is placed almost at the top o f the galvanic series as one o f the noblest materials, the

matrix material becomes anodic to the fibres.

Another involved corrosion mechanism in these composites is aqueous corrosion

that is caused by electrochemical reactions between the corrosive media o f dilute boiling

nitric acid, the matrix material and the fibres resulting in a form of degradation in the

composites. It can be observed in Fig. 5.6 and Fig. 5.20 that the corrosion rate increases

with increasing the fibre content. This can be explained by the increased contact area

between the corrosive media and the composite materials due to the higher void content

in the composites. Also, raising the carbon fibre content increases the interface area

between the alloy matrix and the fibre.

 86

Hardness is one o f the important factors in the characterization o f a material. In

particular, hardness is used quite often in the field o f wear resistance as a qualitative

indicator for judging alloys, coatings, hardfacings and overlays. It was shown in this

research that adding carbon fibres enhanced the hardness o f Stellite 25 and the hardness

increased with the increase o f carbon fibre content in the composite. This is

understandable because the hardness of the reinforcing elements is a leading factor that

affects the hardness of the composites. It is interesting to compare hardness between the

carbon fibre reinforced Stellite alloy composites and conventional medium-carbon

Stellite alloys or high-carbon Stellite alloys. For instance, high-carbon Stellite alloys such

as Stellite 1, Stellite 3, Stellite 20 and Stellite 720 that contain a similar amount o f carbon

(about 2.5 wt%) have a hardness value around HRC 60, and medium-carbon Stellite

alloys such as Stellite 6, Stellite 694 and Stellite 706 with 1 wt% ~ 1.2 wt% carbon have

a hardness value between HRC 40 and HRC 50 [1], However, from the hardness test

results in Fig. 5.7, specimen F containing 5 wt% carbon fibre has a hardness value o f

HRC 50.5, and specimen D and specimen E containing 1 wt% and 2 wt% carbon fibre,

respectively, have the corresponding hardness values of HRC 44.6 and HRC 49.4,

accordingly.

This comparison shows that the influence o f carbon fibre content on the hardness

for the composites is not as significant as carbon content on the hardness for Stellite

alloys. This is not surprising if the carbide amount in Stellite alloys is considered. As was

well known, the hardness o f Stellite alloys is predominated by the amount o f carbides

precipitated in the solid solution matrix, except for low-carbon Stellite alloys [1]. For the
 87

Stellite alloys containing about 2.5 wt% carbon, the carbides constitute about 30 wt% o f

the materials, corresponding to the volume fraction between 30% ~ 40% [1], which is

much larger than the volume fraction of the carbon fibres in specimen F (19.6% shown in

Table 3.8). However, from the above comparison, it is worth noting that the composite

containing the same amount o f carbon fibre as the amount o f carbon in Stellite alloys has

comparable hardness to the Stellite alloys, while the carbide volume fraction in the

composite is much less than that in the Stellite alloys.

The repair and replacement of damaged parts caused by the dimensional size loss

because o f wear are very costly in industry. The tribological tests demonstrated that

adding carbon fibres reduced the friction coefficient and significantly increased the wear

resistance o f Stellite 25. Also, compared with conventional Stellite alloys, the carbon

fibre reinforced Stellite alloy composites containing 5 wt% plain carbon fibre and 10

wt% Ni-coated carbon fibre possess better wear resistance than those o f medium-carbon

Stellite alloys and comparable to those o f high carbon Stellite alloys. The factors

contributing to these improved features can be summarized as follows:

(1) Graphite film formation:

Friction is known as the force resisting the sliding o f one solid body over or along

another body. The resistant force tends to oppose the relative motion o f the two

moving surfaces in mechanical contact [26,28,74], The causes for the formation o f

this resistant force, which commonly occurs in machinery, include a set o f

microscopic interactions between the moving surfaces. These interactions are

influenced by physical, geometrical, mechanical and chemical characteristics o f the

sliding surfaces, their surrounding atmosphere, and overall functional sliding

conditions. When two surfaces are in contact with each other, the actual mechanical

contact area comprises a number of small local asperities. Thus, the actual contact

area is much smaller than the nominal contact area that leads to an undesirable wear

and surface damage caused by the friction force [26,28,74]. Therefore, various liquid

lubricants including water, oil, and grease are used to reduce the friction and

consequently wear by providing easier sliding.

Although they could efficiently control the system friction, liquid lubricants have

usage constraints for many reasons including complicated housing design problems

for oilways, accelerated corrosion damage in hostile environments, environmental

considerations, and operational problems [26], To this end, there is a strong desire

among industrial designers to produce self-lubricating materials that effectively

lessen friction without employing any external liquid lubricants. Self-lubricants are

any solid materials that show low friction in motion without application o f liquid

lubricants. Graphite, molybdenum disulfide (M 0 S 2 ), boron nitride (BN), and

polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) are the predominant materials used as solid

lubricants. These materials are introduced between two rubbing surfaces for the

purpose of reducing friction and providing protection from damages that happen

during relative movement [26,28,74],

 89

Friction is also known as a course of energy transformation. According to the law

o f conservation o f energy, in the rubbing process of the sliding surfaces some o f the

energy is transformed into heat, which can deteriorate the strength o f the surface

materials, thus the wear resistance of the surfaces. The formation o f the graphite film

on the carbon fibre reinforced Stellite alloy composites and their mating surfaces, as

proved by the worn surface analysis, not only reduces the friction by increasing the

real contact moving area and providing solid lubrication but also lowers the friction

heat generated in the rubbing process by providing easier sliding where metal-to-

metal contact is avoided. Thus, adhesive wear due to the localized bonding between

the contacting asperities is mitigated in the composites. In addition, the graphite film

on the composite surfaces also inhibits abrasive wear since the friction force is not

large enough to pull out the fibres from the Stellite alloy matrix. Therefore,

compared with pure Stellite 25 alloy, it can be concluded that due to the presence o f

the carbon fibres the wear resistance o f the fabricated composites is enhanced while

their friction coefficient is reduced.

(2) Abrasion resistance improvement:

The increase in wear resistance o f the composites can be also attributed to the

abrasion reducing role o f carbon fibres. Since the dominant wear mechanism o f

sliding wear is abrasion, the contact surfaces are normally damaged by groove

ploughing, as shown in Fig. 5.11(a) and Fig. 5.25(a). Without carbon fibre

reinforcement, specimen A surface suffered severe abrasive wear, characterized by

numerous long and deep grooves which corresponded to a large volume o f material
being scratched out from the surface, as shown in Fig. 5.12. This type o f abrasion is

promoted in Stellite alloys due to the entrapment o f carbide particles between contact

surfaces in relative motion. When removed by micro cutting from the matrix o f

Stellite alloys, carbides, which are super hard particles, can plough both the matrix

and their opposing moving surfaces. The produced debris can even further aggravate

the abrasive wear between the two metallic surfaces as a third body.

On the contrary, the detached small particles o f carbon fibres are milled into soft

graphite powder during the sliding process. In this case, the new reinforcing elements

(carbon fibres) not only improve surface abrasion resistance by eliminating carbides,

but also provide surface lubrication. Both result in less groove ploughing, less

material defragmentation, and much narrower wear tracks in composites compared

with pure Stellite 25 alloy, which can be clearly observed in Fig. 5.11(b) to Fig.

5.11(f) and Fig. 5.25(b) to 5.25(g). Therefore, in light o f the much lower wear rates

offered by the fibres, it can be concluded that the fibres might have a wear-

preventive role by acting as hard barriers to control the size and the shape o f the wear

fragments in the composites. In addition, no abrasive wear due to the pulled out fibre

from the matrix, caused by the mechanical attack during the sliding process, was

observed in the wear test. This implies that the interface bonding between the matrix

and the fibres in the composites is good.

 91

(3) Fibre/matrix interface compatibility:

The interface bonding between the reinforcement and the matrix is always a major

consideration for composite materials, because the failure o f the interface results in

spallation of the reinforcement from the matrix under mechanical attack. For wear

resistance applications, the spallation o f the reinforcement from the matrix under the

wear load greatly increases the wear loss o f the material. For the composites

fabricated in this research, no carbon fibre spallation is observed from the worn

surface analysis. Further investigation o f the interface bonding behaviour o f the

composite specimens was performed utilizing a Vickers hardness tester. The

indentations were made with the sharp comer diamond pyramid indenter o f the tester

in the locations close to and at the fibre-matrix interface. If the interface is weak,

under the indentation load the sharp indent would initiate cracks at the interface or in

the matrix. A load level o f 60 kg was used for this purpose; however, no cracking

was observed on any o f the composite specimens. The samples o f the indentation

images are presented in Fig. 6.1 and Fig. 6.2. Although this test did not provide a

quantitative estimation o f the interface bonding strength o f the composite specimens,

it indicated indirectly that the interface bonding o f the composites is strong.

The HEP/sintering process employed for fabricating the specimens and the

compatibility o f the matrix material with the reinforcing elements m ay be the main

contributing factor to the strong interface bonding o f the composites. The term

“compatibility” in metal matrix composites means that no undesirable chemical

reaction is experienced at the matrix/reinforcement interface [31]. These reactions

 may have deleterious effects on mechanical and tribological properties o f MMCs by

forming detrimental products such as intermetallic compounds and carbidic phases at

the matrix/reinforcement interface. The unwanted intermetallic and carbidic products

not only reduce the matrix to reinforcement load transferring capability o f MMCs but

also act as crack nucleation sites [42]. The microhardness test results on the

composite specimens in Table 5.5 show that hardness is fairly constant around the

interface and identical to the overall matrix hardness. This also indicates indirectly

that no detrimental products were formed at the fibre-matrix interface o f the

composites in the fabrication process. The two experiments mentioned in this section

support the wear test observation that the interface of the composites is strong

enough to avoid the carbon fibre pull-out from the matrix under the wear load.

(4) Hardness augmentation:

Although no single definable material property can explain wear behaviour, it is

believed that the wear resistance o f a material is affected by its hardness. In general,

increasing the hardness of a material enhances its wear resistance since with the

higher hardness the material is the less prone to deform plastically [1,3,9,28,48]. The

experimental results show that the hardness o f Stellite 25 is enhanced by the addition

o f carbon fibres. It is evident that the hardness induced by carbon fibres contributes

to the high wear resistance of the carbon fibre reinforced Stellite alloy composites.
 93

(5) H eat dissipation im provem ent:

If the heat generated due to friction during the sliding process is not properly

dissipated, the temperature rise can change the surface property o f the rubbing

counterfaces that results in more adhesive wear [28,42,80], Another noticeable

reason that the carbon fibre reinforced composites exhibited better tribological

properties than their matrix materials might lie in the improved thermal conductivity

o f the composites. Due to their excellent thermal conductivity, carbon fibres can

serve not only as reinforcement, but also as an additive to improve the thermal

conductivity o f the composites [57]. Since these fibres have higher thermal

conductivity than the alloy matrix [22,42,46,57,58,60], the presence o f the fibres can

reduce the surface temperature during wear and thus enhance the resistance to wear.

This is more evident knowing that increasing the content level o f carbon fibres

results in escalating their wear resistance. Such hypothesis was also discussed by

other researchers for carbon fibre reinforced composites including discontinuous

fibre reinforced aluminum alloy composites (DFRACs) [28,42,46,51,80],

The comparison study o f thermal conductivity of pure Stellite 25, plain carbon

fibre reinforced composite and Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composite was

performed in this research. The results, presented in Table 5.6, showed that the

relative thermal conductivity o f pure Stellite 25 was improved by 19.3% and 21.8%

with addition of plain carbon fibre and Ni-coated carbon fibre, respectively.

Therefore, it can be concluded that carbon fibres also improve the thermal
 94

conductivity o f the composites, thus reducing the friction heat in the wear process

and resultant wear damage.

6.3 Effects of Nickel Coating

Two types of carbon fibre were selected to reinforce the composites fabricated in

this research: plain carbon fibre and Ni-coated carbon fibre. The purpose o f using these

two different carbon fibres was to investigate if nickel coating would benefit the

performance o f the composites.

(1) Carbide volume fraction:

The carbide volume fraction analysis indicated that Ni coating on the carbon

fibres, as an isolator between the carbon fibre and the alloy matrix, did prohibit carbon

diffusion, which avoided formation o f carbides. In other words, the Ni-coating on carbon

fibres can lead to elimination o f the detrimental effects o f carbides in Stellite alloys,

when carbon fibres are incorporated.

(2) Density:

As shown in Fig. 6.3, with the same weight content of carbon fibre, the composite

reinforced with Ni-coated carbon fibres has higher specific density than that reinforced

with plain carbon fibres. This difference may exist because o f two reasons: firstly, the

density of Ni-coated carbon fibre is much higher than that o f plain carbon fibre (about

50%), as presented in Table 3.4 and Table 3.6. Secondly, the Ni-coating on carbon fibre

may have reduced porosity o f the composites which usually develops during the sintering
 95

process. The less porous structure o f the Ni-coated fibre reinforced composites can be

explained by the presence o f the Ni-coating which acts as the interface between the alloy

matrix and the carbon fibre. Since nickel is more cohesive to Stellite 25 than carbon fibre,

the cohesion o f the two dissimilar constituent materials (carbon fibre and Stellite 25) in

Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composites might be enhanced.

(3) Corrosion resistance:

The comparison of corrosion resistance between the plain carbon fibre reinforced

composites and the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composites is illustrated in Fig. 6.4.

The results show that the plain carbon fibre reinforced composites possess better

corrosion resistance than the Ni-coated reinforced composites. The rate o f galvanic

corrosion is usually determined by the difference in nobility of materials [71], In the

galvanic series, nickel is placed lower than graphite (carbon fibre). Therefore, the nickel

coating becomes anodic to the fibres. Also, between the nickel coating and Stellite 25

alloy, the matrix material becomes cathodic. Thus, nickel coating takes the form o f

galvanic anode to control the corrosion o f the matrix by means of cathodic protection.

Therefore, the galvanic corrosion o f Stellite 25 only happens after the nickel coating

decays. The high corrosion rates in the Ni-coated composites compared with the plain

carbon fibre composites can be explained by the virtue o f the more galvanic corrosion o f

nickel in the former composites.

 96

(4) Hardness:

The hardness values o f the two groups of composites are compared in Fig. 6.5.

With the same content o f carbon fibre, the hardness values o f the composites reinforced

with plain carbon fibres are higher than those of the composites reinforced with Ni-

coated carbon fibres. The most pronounced reason for such difference is that the Ni-

coating prohibited carbon diffusion from the carbon fibres into the Stellite alloy matrix

during the specimen fabrication process so that the formation of new carbides was

suppressed. Therefore, the overall volume fraction of hard carbidic compounds in the

plain carbon fibre reinforced composites is relatively higher than that in the Ni-coated

carbon fibre reinforced composites which results in higher hardness values in these

composites.

(5) Friction and wear resistance:

The comparisons of friction and wear resistance between the two groups o f

composites are illustrated in Fig. 6.6 and Fig. 6.7, respectively. It is shown that the plain

carbon fibre reinforced composites possess better tribological properties. As observed,

the friction coefficient o f the plain carbon fibre reinforced composites varies in a range o f

0.13 < p < 0.16, while that o f the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composites varies in a

range of 0.14 < /i < 0.2. The higher friction force in the latter composites is due to the

fact that the lubricating graphite film is generated gradually on their moving counterfaces

during the wear process only after the Ni-coating is worn out and the graphite particles

are milled between the asperities.

 97

Considering the aforementioned factors influencing the tribological properties o f

the fabricated composites, it can be noticed that even though the Ni-coated reinforced

composites possess relatively better thermal conductivity, they have some downsides

including higher friction coefficient values due to the delay in formation o f graphite film

layer on the specimen surface, lower overall hardness, and higher abrasive wear rate

because of the presence of the milled nickel coating particles. The reduction in wear

resistance o f the composites reinforced with Ni-coated carbon fibres compared with those

reinforced with plain carbon fibres may have two other reasons. Firstly, the carbide

volume fraction in the former is less than that in the latter when their carbon fibre

contents are the same. The less carbide in the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced

composites results in the reduction in wear resistance o f the matrix that eventually leads

to the increased wear rate o f the composites. Secondly, the higher friction coefficient o f

the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composites is another reason for their higher wear

rate.

(6) Thermal conductivity:

The thermal conductivity test showed that the C * K product for composite

specimen O (with Ni-coated carbon fibre) is 2% higher than that for the composite

specimen F (with plain carbon fibre). Therefore, it can be inferred that the relative

thermal conductivity o f the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composites is better than

that o f the plain carbon fibre reinforced composites. Considering that the volume fraction

of carbon fibres in composite O (13.9 vol.%) is lower than that in composite F (19.6

vol.%), it can be inferred that the nickel coating increases the thermal conductivity o f
 98

carbon fibres. This statement is in agreement with the general behavior o f metallic

materials for which the best electrical conductors are the best thermal conductors as well

[4,42].

Although the present research is not aimed at recommending the fabricated

composites for any specific application, it is worth comparing the properties o f these

composites with self-lubricating slider bearing materials. Under the same conditions o f

exposure, the fabricated composites show better tribological properties and corrosion

resistances than PTFE based sliding bearing materials [28], As presented in Table 6.1,

while maintaining the super low coefficient o f friction of PTFE because o f the lubricating

effect o f the thin transfer film o f graphite, the fabricated composites possess superior

corrosion and wear resistance than those o f PTFE based composites. Therefore, one main

application for the fabricated composites can be in the bearing industry. The formation o f

graphite film on the composites and their sliding counterfaces can ensure the workability

o f the potential bearings in applications where the thin-film lubrication or boundary

lubrication regimes are predominant.

 99

Chapter 7: Conclusions and Future Work

7.1 Conclusions

Two groups o f carbon fibre reinforced Stellite alloy composites have been

designed and developed in this research. Conventional Stellite 25 was selected as the

matrix of the fabricated composites because it contains very low carbon content. The

reinforcing elements included plain carbon fibres and nickel-coated carbon fibres. The

specimens were produced successfully by the sintering/hot isostatic pressing routine.

Based on the experimental results and the discussion, the following conclusions can be

drawn from this research:

1. The pure Stellite 25 specimen and all the composite specimens have a very

similar matrix microstructure comprising of three different phases. These

phases include the cobalt solid solution, the tungsten-rich carbide and the

chromium-rich carbide.

2. The presence o f carbon fibres increases slightly the carbide volume fraction o f

the plain carbon fibre reinforced composites compared with that o f pure

Stellite 25 alloy. This implies that carbon fibres are stable at high

temperatures and differ from carbon which forms carbides with metallic
 100

elements. This feature o f carbon fibres avoids the undesirable effects o f

carbides in Stellite alloys.

3. The carbide volume fractions in all the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced

group specimens are nearly equal, which indicates that the carbon did not

diffuse from the fibres into the alloy matrix to induce carbides at the high

temperature during the sintering process. The diffusion deterrence may be

attributed to both the high-temperature stability o f carbon fibres and the nickel

coating.

4. The sintering/hot isostatic pressing process employed in this research

produced the specimens with low porosity, thus achieving fairly high density.

However, the composite specimens have lower density than that o f the pure

Stellite 25 specimen, owing to the light weight nature of carbon fibres.

5. Addition o f carbon fibre into the low-carbon Stellite alloy, Stellite 25,

enhances its hardness and improves its tribological properties significantly.

Both the hardness and wear resistance o f the fabricated composites increase

with the content o f the carbon fibre added.

6. The superior tribological properties of carbon fibre reinforced Stellite alloy

composites to those o f Stellite alloys are ascribed to three beneficial effects o f

carbon fibre on these alloys: (1) increased hardness, (2) reduced friction due
 101

to the formation o f graphite film on the composite surface during wear, and

(3) improved thermal conductivity and hence reduced friction heat.

7.2 Contributions
The novel manufactured composites solve the main problems caused by the

carbides in Stellite alloys and exhibit superior tribocorrossion properties to these alloys.

The main contributions o f this research can be outlined as follows:

1. The fabricated composites, even the specimens with the highest content o f

carbon fibre, exhibit better corrosion resistance than medium-carbon Stellite

alloys, for example, Stellite 6B. This is attributed to the beneficial feature o f

the carbon fibre reinforcement that induces either no or little amount o f

carbides in the alloy matrix.

2. The tribological properties of the composite with 5 wt% plain carbon fibre and

the composite with 10 wt% Ni-coated carbon fibre are better than those o f

medium-carbon Stellite alloys and comparable to those of high-carbon Stellite

alloys.

3. The newly fabricated carbon fibre reinforced composite materials avoid the

detrimental effects o f carbides in Stellite alloys while improving/maintaining

their good properties. Therefore, these composites can become a new

generation o f self-lubricating wear/corrosion resistant materials for various

 102

industrial applications. The new composites can find applications in gas

turbine, chemical and petrochemical industries for instance where components

such as pumps and impellers must withstand the simultaneous wear and

corrosion.

7.3 Future Work

Following the studies described in this thesis, a number o f issues should be

explored in the future work including:

1. The newly fabricated materials should also be fabricated with casting techniques.

For this fabrication method, optimum process parameters should be identified.

2. The cast specimens should be characterized in terms of the microstructure,

hardness, corrosion and wear resistance. It is also important to compare these

properties with those o f the P/M specimens characterized in this research.

3. The effects of the shape, size and aspect ratio o f the filler (carbon fibre) on the

performance o f the composites should be investigated by using non-bundle carbon

fibres.

4. Further investigation o f the performance o f carbon fibre in the composites could

be accomplished by selecting a carbon-free Stellite alloy instead o f the low-

carbon Stellite 25 alloy as the matrix in order to eliminate the influences o f the
carbides in Stellite alloys on the final properties o f the composites or to mitigate

the problems caused by carbides in the final composites.

Material characterization tests on these new composites can be conducted at

elevated temperatures to study the functionality of these materials in more severe

environments.
 104

References

[1] ASM Handbook Committee, “Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys”, ASM

International, Cleveland, USA, 2000.

[2] W. Betteridge, “Cobalt and its Alloys”, Ellis Horwood Ltd., Cambridge, England,

1982.

[3] R. Liu, M.X. Yao, and X. Wu, “Influence o f Carbon Content in Cobalt-Based

Superalloys on Mechanical and Wear Properties”, Journal o f Engineering

Materials and Technology, Vol. 126 (2), 2004, pp. 204-12.

[4] J.R. Davis, “Metals Handbook Desk Edition”, 2nd Edition, ASM International,

Cleveland, USA, 1998.

[5] M J. Donachie and S.J. Donachie, “Superalloys, A Technical Guide”, Second

Edition, ASM International, Cleaveland, USA, 2002.

[6] J. Shin, J. Doh, J. Yoon, D. Lee, and J. Kim, “Effect of Molybdenum on the

Microstructure and Wear Resistance o f Cobalt-Base Stellite Hardfacing Alloys”,

Surface and Coatings Technology, Vol. 166, 2003, pp. 117-26.

 105

[7] P. Waldner, E. Knigsberger, and H. Gamsjfiger, “Computer-Assisted

Optimization o f Cobalt-Base Alloy Compositions”, Journal o f Alloys and

Compounds, Vol. 220, 1995, pp. 148-51.

[8] D. Lou, J. Heilman, J. Limatainen, and V.K. Lindroos, “Interactions between

Tungsten Carbide (WC) Particulates and Metal Matrix in WC-Reinforced

Composites”, Materials Science and Engineering A, Vol. 340,2003, pp. 155-62.

[9] W.H. Jiang, X.D. Yao, H.R. Guan, and Z. Q. Hu, “Carbide Behavior during High

Temperature Low Cycle Fatigue in a Cobalt-Base Superalloy”, Journal o f

Materials Science, Vol. 34,1999, pp. 2859-64.

[10] W. Jiang, X. Yao, and Z. Hu, “Secondary MeC Precipitation in a Cobalt-Base

Superalloy”, Journal o f Materials Science Letters, Vol. 18,1999, pp. 303-5.

[11] ASM Handbook Committee, “Powder Metal Technologies and Applications”,

Vol. 7, ASM International, Cleveland, USA, 1998.

[12] ASTM Standard Committee, “Standard Test M ethod for Density o f Powder

Metallurgy (PM) Materials Containing Less Than Two Percent Porosity”, (B

311-08), ASTM International, USA, 2009.

 106

[13] ASTM Standard Committee, “Standard Practice for Preparing, Cleaning, and

Evaluating Corrosion Test Specimens”, (G l-03), ASTM International,

USA, 2007.

[14] ASTM Standard Committee, “Standard Practice for Laboratory Immersion

Corrosion Testing o f Metals”, (G 31-72), ASTM International, USA, 2004.

[15] ASTM Standard Committee, “Standard Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness o f

Metallic Materials”, (E 18-08b), ASTM International, USA, 2009.

[16] ASTM Standard Committee, “Standard Test Method, for W ear Testing with a

Pin-on-Disk Apparatus”, (G 99-05), ASTM International, USA, 2005.

[17] F.C. Campbell, “Manufacturing Technology for Aerospace Structural

Materials”, Elsevier Science and Technology Books, St. Louis, USA, 2006.

[18] R.C. Reed, “The Superalloys Fundamentals and Applications”, 1st Edition,

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2006.

[19] A. Beltran, E. Brown, W. Chambers, and D. Chang, “Superalloys II”, Wiley

Inc., New York, USA, 1987.

 107

[20] A. Raman, “Materials Selection and Applications in Mechanical Engineering”,

Industrial Press, New York, USA, 2007.

[21] R.S. Young, “Cobalt, Its Chemistry, Metallurgy, and Uses”, Reinhold

Publishing Corporation, New York, USA, 1960.

[22] ASM Handbook Committee, “Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and

Special-Purpose Materials”, Vol. 2, 10thEdition, ASM International, Cleveland,

USA, 1990.

[23] C. Opris, R. Liu, X. Yao, and X. Wu, “Development o f Stellite Alloy

Composites with Sintering/HIPing Technique for Wear-Resistant Applications”,

Materials and Design, Vol. 28,2007, pp. 581-91.

[24] Y.Q. Wang and B.L. Zhou, “Behavior o f Coating on Reinforcements in Some

Metal Matrix Composites”, Composites Part A, 27A, 1996, pp. 1139-45.

[25] D. Raghu and J. B. Wu, “Recent Development in Wear and Corrosion-

Resistant Alloys”, Materials Performance, Vol. 36, 1997, pp. 27-36.

[26] A. Khoddamzadeh, “Development o f Lead-Free PTFE Based Sliding Bearing

Materials”, M.A.Sc Materials, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace

Engineering o f Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada, 2005.

 108

[27] W. Xu, “The Influence o f Chemical Composition and Heat Treatment on

Microstructure and Mechanical/Tribological Properties o f Cobalt-Based

Tribaloy Alloys”, Department o f Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering o f

Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada, 2005.

[28] A. Khoddamzadeh, R. Liu, and X. Wu, “Novel Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

Composites with Newly Developed Tribaloy Alloy Additive for Sliding

Bearings”, Wear Journal, Vol. 266, 2009, pp. 646-657.

[29] M.X. Yao, J. Wu, and Y. Xie, “Wear, Corrosion and Cracking Resistance o f

Some W- or Mo-Containing Stellite Hardfacing Alloys”, Materials Science and

Engineering A, Vol. 407, 2005, pp. 234-44.

[30] C. Sims, N. Stoloff, and W. Hagel, “Superalloys It: High Temperature Materials

for Aerospace and Industrial Power”, John Wiley & Sons, Toronto, Canada,

1987.

[31] A. Frenk and J. D. Wagniere, “Laser cladding with cobalt-based hardfacing”,

Journal de Physique IV, 1991, pp. 65-8.

[32] Z. Oksiuta, J.R. Dabrowski, and A. Olszyna, “Co-Cr-M o-Based Composite

Reinforced with Bioactive Glass”, Journal o f Materials Processing Technology,

Vol. 209, 2009, pp. 978-85.

 109

[33] S. C. Lim and M. F. Ashby, “Wear-Mechanism Maps”, Acta Metallurgica, Vol.

35, 1987, pp. 1-24.

[34] A. Frenk and W. Kurz, “Microstructural Effects on the Sliding Wear Resistance

o f a Cobalt Based Alloy”, Wear Journal, Vol. 174,1994, pp. 81-91.

[35] C. J. Heathcock, A. Ball, and B. E. Protheroe, “Cavitation Erosion o f Cobalt-

Based Stellite Alloys, Cemented Carbides and Surface-Treated Low Alloy

Steels”, Wear Journal, Vol. 74, 1981, pp. 11-26.

[36] A. Davin and D. Coutsouradis, “Development o f Abrasion- and Corrosion-

Resistant Alloys for Use in Aqueous Media”, Cobalt Journal, Vol. 52, 1971, pp.

160-1.

[37] D. L. Klarstrom, “Wrought Cobalt-Base Superalloys”, Journal o f Material

Engineering Performance, Vol. 2, 1993, pp. 523-30.

[38] L. C. Wang and D. Y. Li, “Effects o f Yttrium on Microstructure, Mechanical

Properties, and High Temperature Wear Behaviour o f Cast Stellite 6 Alloy”,

Wear Journal, Vol. 255, 2003, pp. 535-44.

[39] I. Radu, D. Y. Li and R. Llewellyn, “Tribological Behaviour o f Stellite 21

Modified with Yttrium”, Wear Journal, Vol. 257,2004, pp. 1154-66.

 110

[40] G. Y. Lai, J. J. Barnes, and J. E. Bames, “A Burner Rig Investigation o f the Hot

Corrosion Behaviour o f Several Wrought Superalloys and Intermetallics”,

ASME, New York, USA, 1991.

[41] F.R. Morral, “Cobalt-Base Superalloys Produced from Powder”,

Planseeberichte fr Pulvermetallurgie, Vol. 20, 1972, pp. 3-19.

[42] ASM Handbook Committee, “Composites”, Vol. 21, ASM International,

Cleveland, USA, 2001.

[43] N. Chawla and K. Chawla, “Metal Matrix Composites”, Springer, New York,

USA, 2006.

[44] B. Ralph, H.C. Yuen, and W. B. Lee, “The Processing o f Metal Matrix

Composites-An Overview”, Journal o f Materials Processing Technology, Vol.

63, 1997, pp. 339-53.

[45] Y. Q. Wang, B.L. Zhou, “Behavior of Coating on Reinforcements in Some

Metal Matrix Composites”, Composites Part A, 27A, 1996, pp. 1139-45.

[46] L. Liu, T. Ping, and S. Bin, “Friction and W ear Properties of Short Carbon Fibre

Reinforced Aluminum Matrix Composites”, Wear, Vol. 266,2009, pp. 733-8.

 Ill

[47] J. Song and K. Had, “Effect o f Volume Fraction o f Carbon Fibres on W ear

Behavior o f AI/AI2O3/C Hybrid Metal Matrix Composites”, Composite

Structures, Vol. 39, 1997, pp. 309-318.

[48] D. Jun, L. Yaohui, Y. Sirong, and D. Handa, “Effect of Fibre-orientation on

Friction and Wear Properties o f AI2 O 3 and Carbon Short Fibres Reinforced

AlSinCuMgNi Hybrid Composites”, Wear Journal, Vol. 254, 2003, pp. 164—

72.

[49] S. Li and C. Chao, “Effects of Carbon Fibre/Al Interface on Mechanical

Properties of Carbon-Fibre-Reinforced Aluminum-Matrix Composites”,

Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, Vol. 35,2004, pp. 2153-60.

[50] A. Diwanji and I. Hall, “Fibre and Fibre-Surface Treatment Effects in

Carbon/Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites”, Journal of Materials Science,

Vol. 27, 1992, pp. 2093-100.

[51] A. Daoud, “Wear Performance o f 2014 A1 Alloy Reinforced with Continuous

Carbon Fibres Manufactured by Gas Pressure Infiltration”, Materials Letters,

Vol. 58, 2004, pp. 3206-13.

[52] L. Kong, Y. Lu, and B. Yang, “Investigation of Friction and W ear Behaviour o f

Carbon Fibre Felt Reinforced Aluminium-Matrix Composites", Tribology, Vol.

 112

21, 2001, pp. 448—451.

[53] C.S. Lee, Y.H. Kim, and K.S. Han, “Wear Behaviour of Aluminium Matrix

Composite Materials”, Journal o f Materials Science, Vol. 27,1992, pp. 793-800.

[54] J. Xu, H. Yu, L. Xia, and H. Yang, “Effects o f Some Factors on the Tribological

Properties o f the Short Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Copper Composite”, Materials &

Design, Vol. 25, 2004, pp. 489-93.

[55] L. Xia, B. Jia, J. Zeng, and J. Xu, “Wear and Mechanical Properties o f Carbon

Fibre Reinforced Copper Alloy Composites”, Materials Characterization, Vol. 60,

2009, pp. 363-369.

[56] Z. Jun, X. Jincheng, H. Wei, and L. Lei, “Wear Performance o f the Lead Free

Tin Bronze Matrix Composite Reinforced by Short Carbon Fibres”, Applied

Surface Science, Vol. 255,2009, pp. 6647-51.

[57] Zoltek Committee, “User’s Guide for Short Carbon Fibre Composites”, Zoltek

Companies Inc., St. Louis, USA, 2000.

[58] Deloro Stellite Committee, “Stellite 25 Technical Data”, Deloro Stellite

Company, Goshen, USA, 2009.

 113

[59] J. Davies, “Cobalt Base Alloys MSDS”, Deloro Stellite Company, Goshen,

USA, 2007.

[60] Toho Tenax Committee, “Tenax Chopped Products Technical Data”, Toho

Tenax America, Inc., Rockwood, USA, 2006.

[61] G. Hohne and W. Hemminger, “Differential Scanning Calorimetry”, 2nd

Edition, Springer, Berlin, Germany, 1996.

[62] ASTM Standard Committee, “Standard Terminology Relating to Thermal

Analysis and Rheology” , (E 473 - 08), ASTM International, USA, 2008.

[63] J. Overton, “Thermophysical Property and Phase Transformation Determination

o f TiAl Intermetallics”, M.A.Sc, Department o f Mechanical and Aerospace

Engineering o f Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada, 2006.

[64] ASTM Standard Committee, “Standard Test Method for Enthalpies of Fusion

and Crystallization by Differential Scanning Calorimetry”, (E 793 - 06), ASTM

International, USA, 2006.

[65] R. German, “Powder Metallurgy Science”, Second Edition, Metal Powder

Industries Federation Press, New Jersey, USA, 1994.

 114

[66] ASTM Standard Committee, “Standard Guide for Preparation o f Metallographic

Specimens”, (E 1-01), ASTM International, USA, 2007.

[67] “The Science Behind Materials Preparation”, Buehler Ltd., Lake Bluff, USA,

2004.

[68] ASM Handbook Committee, “Metallography and Microstructures”, Vol. 9,

ASM International, Cleveland, USA, 2004.

[69] J.W. Weeton and R.A. Signorelli, “Effect o f Heat Treatment upon

Microstructures, Microconstituents, and Hardness o f a Wrought Cobalt Base

Alloy”, Trans. Am. Soc. Met., Vol. 47, 1955, pp. 815-52.

[70] Y. Ning, “Effects o f Sintering Process and the Coating of the Reinforcements

on the Microstructure and Performance o f Co-Based Superalloy Composites”,

M.A.Sc, Department o f Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering o f Carleton

University, Ottawa, Canada, 2004.

[71] ASM Handbook Committee, “Corrosion: Fundamentals, Testing and

Protection”, Vol. 13.A, ASM International, Cleveland, USA, 2003.

[72] ASTM Standard Committee, “Standard Terminology Relating to Methods o f

Mechanical Testing”, (E 6-09a), ASTM International, USA, 2009.

 115

[73] ASM Handbook Committee, “Mechanical Testing and Evaluation”, Vol. 8,

ASM International, USA, Cleveland, 2000.

[74] ASM Handbook Committee, “Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology”,

Vol. 18, ASM International, Cleveland, USA, 1992.

[75] M. Genest, “Image Processing for Automated Flaw Detection in Pulsed

Thermography”, 6th International Workshop-NDT Signal Processing, London,

Canada, August 24-27, 2009.

[76] ASM Technical Book Committee, “Elements of Metallurgy and Engineering

Alloys”, ASM International, Cleveland, USA, 2008.

[77] A. Bakkar and V. Neubert, “Corrosion Behaviour o f Carbon Fibres/Magnesium

Metal Matrix Composite and Electrochemical Response o f its Constituents”,

Electrochimica Acta, Vol. 54, 2009, pp. 1597-606.

[78] R. Liu and D.Y. Li, “A Finite Element Model Study on W ear Resistance o f

Pesudoelastic TiNi Alloy”, Materials Science and Engineering A, Vol. 277,2000,

pp. 169-175.
 116

[79] R. Liu R, M.X. Yao, X. Wu, and P.C. Patnaik, “An Improved Wear-Resistant

PTA Hardfacing: VWC/Stellite 21” Journal of Composite Materials, Vol. 40,

2006, pp. 2203-15.

[80] A. Khoddamzadeh, R. Liu, M. Liang, and Q. Yang, “Novel Wear-Resistant

Materials - Carbon Fibre Reinforced Low-Carbon Stellite Alloy Composites”,

Composites: Part A, Vol. 43, 2012, pp. 344—352.

[81] D. C. Zipperian, “Metallographic Specimen Preparation and Hardness Testing

Basics”, Pace Technologies, Tucson, USA, 2007.

Tables
 118

Table 2.1 Physical properties o f elemental cobalt [1,2,21]

Property Unit Nominal Value

g/cc 8.85
Density*^
(lb/in3) (0.319)
°C 1493
Melting Point
(°F) (2719)
°C 3100
Boiling Point
(°F) (5612)

Thermal Conductivity(a) W /m .K 69.04

Coefficient o f Thermal Expansion(a) p m /m . K 13.8

Specific Heat(a) k J /k g .K 0.414

Electrical Conductivity(a) % IACS 27.6

Note: (a) At 20°C

Table 2.2 Mechanical properties of elemental cobalt [1,2,21]

Property Unit Nominal Value

Hardness(a) HV 140-250
MPa 800-875
Tensile Strength^5
(ksi) (116-127)

Elongation^ % 15-30

MPa 305-345
0.2 % yield strength^
(ksi) (44-50)
GPa 211
Yoimg’s Modulus
(psi) (30.6 x 106)
GPa 82
Shear Modulus (11.9 x 106)
(psi)
GPa 183
Compressive Modulus
(psi) (26.5 x 106)
Note: (a) At 20 °C, (b) Annealed high purity (99.5 %) vacuum-melted cobalt
 119

Table 2.3 Chemical compositions (wt%) of Tribaloy alloys

Tribaloy Laves phase content

Co Ni Cr Mo Si
alloy (vol%)
T-400 62 - 8.5 28.5 2.6 -45
T-800 52 - 17 28 3 -55
T-700 - 50 15 32 3 -6 0
T-100 55 - - 35 10 -65

Table 2.4 Compositions (wt%, Co in balance) of various Stellite alloys

Alloy Process Cr W Mo C Fe Ni Si Mn Others

Stellite 1 Cast 30 13 0.5 2.5 3 1.5 1.3 0.5

Stellite 3 P/M 30 12.5 2.4 5 3.5 2 2 IB
Stellite 4 Cast 30 14 1 0.57 3 3 2 1
Stellite 6 Cast 29 4.5 1.5 1.2 3 3 1.5 1
Stellite 6B Wrought 30 4 1.5 1 3 2.5 0.7 1.4
Stellite 12 Cast 30 8.3 1.4 3 1.5 0.7 2.5
Stellite 21 Cast 27 5.5 0.25 3 2.75 1 1
Stellite 20 Cast 33 17.5 2.45 2.5 2.5 1
Stellite 22 Cast 27 11 0.25 3 2.75 1 1
Stellite 31 Cast 22 7.5 0.5 1.5 10 0.5 0.5
Stellite 694 Cast, P/M 28 19 1 5 1 1
Stellite 712 Cast, P/M 29 8.5 2 3 3 1.5 1.5
Stellite 720 Cast 33 18 2.5 3 3 1.5 1.5 0.3B
Stellite 703 Cast 32 12 2.4 3 3 1.5 1.5
Stellite 706 Cast 29 5 1.2 3 3 1.5 1.5
Stellite 706K Wrought 29 6 1.4 3 3 1.5 1.5
Stellite 6B Wrought 30 4 1.5 1 3 2.5 0.7 1.4
Stellite 98M2 P/M 30 18.5 0.8 2 5 3.5 1 1 4.2V, IB
 120

Table 3.1 Nominal chemical composition (wt%) o f Stellite 25 [58]

Alloy Co Cr W C Fe Ni Si Mn/Mo

Stellite 3
Bal. 20 15 0.1 10 1 1.5
25 (max)

Table 3.2 Physical properties o f Stellite 25 [58]

Property Unit Nominal Value

g/cc 8.31
D ensity^
(lb/in.3) (0.300)
°C 1329-1410
Melting Range
(°F) (2425-2573)
9.37w
Thermal Conductivity W /m .K
11 .8300
Coefficient o f Thermal Expansion(c) pm /m . K 12.24

Note: (a) At 20 °C, (b) At 149 °C, and (c) At 93 °C

Table 3.3 Mechanical properties o f Stellite 25 at room temperature [58]

Property Unit Nominal Value

Hardness HRC 24
MPa 925
Tensile Strength
(ksi) (134)
Elongation A% 5
MPa 895
0.2 % yield strength
(ksi) (130)
GPa 207
Young’s Modulus
(psi) (30.0 x 106)
 121

Table 3.4 Physical properties o f chopped plain carbon fibre at room temperature [60]

Property Unit Nominal Value

g/cc 1.8
Density
(lb/in.3) (0.065)
mm 3
Fibre Length
(in.) (1/8)
pm 6
Filament Diameter
(in.) (0.24 x 10"3)
pm 3.3 x 10 s
Cross-Sectional Area/Filament
(in.) (4.7 x icr8)
Moisture Content % 0.3

Electrical Resistivity pQ/inch 657

Table 3.5 Mechanical properties of chopped plain CF at room temperature [60]

Property Unit Nominal Value

MPa >3450
Tensile Strength
(ksi) (>500)

Elongation % 1.7

GPa >207
Young’s Modulus
(psi) (30.0 x 106)

Table 3.6 Physical properties o f chopped nickel-coated CF at room temperature [60]

Property Unit Nominal Value

g/cc 2.7
Density without Size
(lb/in3) (0.098)
g/cc 0.4
Bulk Density
(lb/in3) (0.014)
mm 6±1.5
Fibre Length
(in) (0.24±0.06)
pm 7.5 + 0.25
Filament Diameter + Nickel Layer
(in) ((295 + 9) x KT6)
pm 0.25
Thickness o f Nickel Layer
(in) (9.8 x icr6)
Electrical Resistivity pO/inch 3.94
 122

Table 3.7 Mechanical properties o f chopped nickel-coated CF at room temperature [60]

Property Unit Nominal Value

MPa 2550
Tensile Strength
(ksi) (370)

Elongation % 1.7

GPa 238
Young’s Modulus
(psi) (34.5 x 106)

Table 3.8 Chemical compositions of Stellite 25 and Stellite 25-based composites

Stellite 25 Chopped CF Ni-Coated CF

Designation
wt% (vol.%) wt% (vol.%) wt% (vol.%)

A 100 (100) 0(0) 0

B 99.75 (98.8) 0.25 (1.2) 0
C 99.5 (97.7) 0.5 (2.3) 0
D 99 (95.5) 1 (4.5) 0
E 98 (91.4) 2 (8.6) 0
F 95 (80.4) 5 (19.6) 0
K 99.75 (99.2) 0 0.25 (0.8)
L 99.5 (98.4) 0 0.5 (1.6)
M 99 (97) 0 1(3)
N 98(94.1) 0 2 (5.9)
O 95 (86.1) 0 5 (13.9)
P 90 (74.5) 0 10(25.5)
 123

Table 4.1 General properties of phenolics [66,81]

Property Unit Quality / Nominal Value

Resin Type - Thermoset

Form - Granular

Colours - Black, Red, Green

Clarity - None

Cost - Low

Ease o f Use - Excellent

Cycle Times - Excellent

Edge Retention - Fair

g/cc 1.4
Specific Gravity
(lb/in3) (0.050)
Hardness - Low
 124

Table 4.2 The procedure of grinding and polishing operations [66-68]

Base
Load N (Lb.)/ Time
Surface Abrasive/Size Speed(rpm)/
Specimen Direction (min:sec)
CarbiMet® 320 - (P400)
Grit SiC Until
Abrasive Grinding 27(6) 2 5 0 /Contra8
Plane
Discs Water Cooled

BuehlerHercules™ 9pm MetaDi®

S Supreme
27(6) 100 / Comp.b 5:00
Rigid Grinding Diamond
Disc Suspension

3 pm MetaDi®
TexMet® 1000
Supreme
Polishing Pad 27(6) 1 0 0 /Contra8 5:00
Diamond
Suspension

1pm MetaDi®
TexMet® 1000
Supreme
Polishing Pad 27 (6) 100 / Contra8 3:00
Diamond
Suspension

0.05 pm
Microcloth MasterPrep®
27 (6) 100 / Contra8 3:00
Polishing Pad Alumina
Suspension

Note:
(a) Contra = platen and specimen holder rotate in opposite directions
(b) Comp. = Complementary (platen and specimen holder both rotate in the same direction)

Table 4.3 Carbide identifying reagent and etching procedure [1,68,69]

First Etchant Staining Method

Solution Method Solution Method

1 Part (20% Potassium

2% Chromic Permanganate (K M n04) +
Acid (H2C r0 4) Light 80% Water (H20 )) +
+ Immerse 7 s at
Electrolytic 1 Part (8% Sodium
Room Temperature
98% Water Etch Hydroxide
(H20 ) (NaOH) + 92% Water
(H20 )
 125

Table 5.1 Carbide volume fraction in plain CF reinforced composite specimens

Carbide
Standard
Designation Fraction
Deviation
(vol.%)

A 3.8 0.1
B 4.2 0.1
C 4.8 0.3
D 5.2 0.2
E 5.8 0.2
F 6.4 0.4

Table 5.2 Specific densities of the plain CF reinforced composite specimens

Specific Density
Designation
g/cm3 (lb/in3)

A 9.823 (0.3549)
B 8.769(0.3175)
C 8.751 (0.3161)
D 8.716(0.3149)
E 8.647(0.3124)
F 8.437 (0.3048)
 126

Table 5.3 Carbide volume fraction in Ni-coated CF reinforced composite specimens

Carbide
Designation Fraction
(vol.%)

A 3.8
K 3.9
L 3.8
M 3.9
N 3.9
0 3.7
P 3.8

Table 5.4 Specific densities o f Ni-coated CF reinforced composite specimens

Specific density
Designation
g/cm3 (lb/in.3)

A 9.823 (0.3549)
K 9.744 (0.3520)
L 9.709 (0.3507)
M 9.609 (0.3471)
N 9.403 (0.3397)
O 8.833(0.3191)
P 8.001 (0.2890)
 127

Table 5.5 Mean microhardness values o f specimen F, specimen 0 , and their

carbidic phase.

Standard
Indentation HRC (HV)
Deviation
F, 482 (48) 22
f2 520 (50) 16
f3 580 (54) 19
f4 566 (53) 25
0, 434 (44) 13
o2 483 (48) 26
o3 494 (49) 39
o4 518 (50) 7
Carbide 1510 (-) 45

Table 5.6 Relative thermal properties obtained with pulsed thermography

technique

AT Normalized C x K(a) C x K(b)

Specimen
(°C) (J.W -m ^k'1) (J.W m‘l k_1)

A 1.198 1410 173.2

F 1.184 1682 206.5
0 1.145 1717 210.9
Note: (a) At t =ls, and (b) At t=8.15s (last frame in the acquisition)

Table 6.1 Property comparison between the developed composites and PTFE
based sliding bearing materials

Corrosion Rate Friction Specific Wear Rate

Designation
(mils/yr) Coefficient^ (10‘5mm3/N.m)

F 192.57 0.15 0.86

O 269.19 0.15 1.89
z (b) 310.42 0.159 2.6
Note: (a) The constant value after 55 min sliding, and (b) 40 wt% PTFE, 45 wt% bronze and 15 wt% T-401
Figures
 129

Laves phase

Eutectic Co
solid solution

L. 48731 £ 8 KV K588

(a)

f- ' ,

v:'‘ S

Eutectic Co Laves phase

solid solution

8 0 9 813 K j

(b)
Fig. 2.1. Typical microstructure o f Tribaloy alloys: (a) T-400 and (b) T-800.
 130

m 6c
Carbides

(a)

1|!, Semi-continuous
carbidic phase
Cobalt solid solution

(b)
 131

f
^ & ‘S
Broken up
carbides
Cobalt solid solution!
V ,

#
\
fc

IP

'J
0
7 4
*20 utm ■kif
r.-f , / v

(C)

Cr23C6
Co solid solution

Eutectic Cr?C3 I

(d)
Fig. 2.2. Typical microstructure o f Stellite alloys: (a) Stellite 1, (b) Stellite 6 (cast), (c)
Stellite 6B (wrought), and (d) Stellite 21 [70]
Fig. 3.1. Three dimensional Turbula type T2C mixer.

Fig. 3.2. Consolidation container specimens.

 133

Fig. 3.3. Vacuum outgassing pump.

Fig. 3.4. Netzsch 404C Pegasus heat flux DSC instrument.

 134

DSC Heating/Cooling Cycle

1600
(80,1500) (140,1500)
1400

1200
1000
20 °C/min
S> 800

600
(190,500)
400

200
(10, 100)

100 120 140 160 180 200

Time (min)

Fig. 3.5. DSC heating/cooling cycle.

DSC /(uV/mg)
I exo

1.00
P«fc 1425.1 *C

0.50

Onset 1384.3 "C End: 1431.5*C

0.0

-0.50 Onset 1296,9 *C End 1305.4 *C

- 1.00

Peak: 1303.0'C

-1.50

600 800 1000 1200 1400

T em p eratu re /°C

(a)
 135

DSC /(uV/m g)

P e a t 1247.1 *C
0.60
1244.1 *C End: 1251.3 *C

Onset 13585*0 End 1416.4*0

0.20

O nset 13323*0 End 1355.4 *C

0.0

- 0.20

-0.40 Peak 1350B *C

6G0 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
T em p eratu re / X

(b)

DSC /(uV/mg)

P e a t 1373.8*0

O nset 13673 *C
0.60 End 1403.7 *C

P e a t 1251.0 *C Peak 12685 *C

Onset 1249.6 *C
0.40

End 1272.0*0

0.20 Onset: 1266.7 *C

P eat 933.4 *C
0.0
Onset: 13335*C End 13735 *C

0.20
-

Peak 1227.9 *C

Peak 1366.2 *C

-0.40

600 900 1000 1200 1400

T em p eratu re f *0

(c)
 136

DSC /(UV/mg)
I exo

100

0.50

0.0

1 1292.0 *C End 12995 *C

- 1.00

-1.50
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Tem perature / X

(d)
Fig. 3.6. DSC thermograms: (a) specimen A, (b) specimen B, (c) specimen C and (d)
specimen K.

1400

1200 (1 3 0 ,1 1 5 0 ) (280,1150)

1000

800 (3 1 5 ,8 0 0 ) (3 3 0 ,8 0 0 )

600
(4 5 ,4 6 0 )* _ * t6 0 ,460)
400

1 0 °C /m ln
200
(410, 0)
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 30 0 350 400 450

T im e (m in)

Fig. 3.7. Sintering cycle for pure Stellite 25 and Stellite 25 based composites.
 G

Fig. 3.8. Mounted sintered specimens.

sisi ti

Fig. 4.1. Struers Secotom-10 cutting machine.

 I
1I 11 J
j1 II _J
i 'I
■I

Fig. 4.2. LaboPress-3 mounting press (Courtesy of Struers Co.).

wry \

Fig. 4.3. Buehler Ecomet-4 semiautomatic grinder polisher.

 Fig. 4.4. Olympus PM-63 optical microscope.

Fig. 4.5. Hitachi S-570 scanning electron microscope.

 Fig. 4.6. Density measurement setup.

,' // " / / / / / / / / ' " a ■, ,

/ cm .

Fig. 4.7. Immersion corrosion test specimens.

 141

Fig. 4.8. Rockwell hardness test apparatus.

Fig. 4.9. SMT-X7 dual indenter microhardness tester.

 142

Fig. 4.10. TEER-POD-2 computer controlled pin-on-disk tribometer.

Fig. 4.11. Pulsed thermography test setup.

 143

^ ■
2 0 |jm

(a)

Stellite 25
matrix

Carbon fibre

(b)
 144

Voids

(C)

Fig. 5.1. Optical microstructural images o f the specimens in an unetched condition: (a) pure
Stellite 25 (specimen A), (b) composite specimen F and (c) presence of voids in the
composite specimen (specimen C).
 145

| Cr-rich
Carbide

, *; £*:f a- ’r :& C*
■'•• * ? ' , ' - / ' ? * • - ' . V I '-2 ' ' * " - '- * V * - •'■ “■* ' ' • ' > • ‘n ’ l ’ ' »•* • V . ‘ ' ■ A i ' V v . ' i i ' * ' : f . *>. . V ; > .»> . * .• ;• * ’ • — s.
-i '■-••- •;.-!--,»t :-,,:.->'.v- a :-_-. '•■.-■ ' • W-rich Carbide
Acc.V Spot Magn Det WD I------------------------1 50 pm i?;
20.0 kV 3.0 1000x BSE 6.0 Sample F £1

Fig. 5.2. SEM image o f the etched composite F in an area close to carbon fibres.

W6C Carbide

■Co Solid
(Solution (fee)

Intermetallic
Compound |Cr-rich
ICarbide

Acc.V Spot Magn Det WD-I---------------

20.0 kV 4.0 15000x BSE 6.0 Sample F

(a)
 146

Sample F. white phase

Co
Co Mo W
W

Mn Co W

2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00

(b)

Sample F, gray phase

Co

W
W
W
W ________

2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00

(C)
 147

Sample F, dark phase

Cr

Mn Co

Mn
W
Mo
Co W
W

2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00

(d)

Fig. 5.3. SEM/EDX analysis o f specimen F: (a) SEM microstructural image at high
magnification, (b) EDX spectrum of white phase, (c) EDX spectrum of dark
grey phase and (d) EDX spectrum o f black phase.
 148

Carbides

Solid Solution
Matrix

Fig. 5.4. Optical microstructural image of the etched pure Stellite 25 specimen.
 (q)

00

6P1
 150

r*j£$?5ioo|jnfc

(d)
 ^

Fig. 5.5. Micro structural pictures used for the evaluation o f carbide volume fraction: (a)
specimen A, (b) specimen B, (c) specimen C, (d) specimen D, (e) specimen E
and (f) specimen F.
 152

■ Corrosion rate ■Standard deviation

Specimen

Fig. 5 .6. Corrosion resistances o f plain carbon fibre reinforced specimens in oxidizing acid
65% HNO 3 at boiling temperature.

■ H a rd u e ss a S ta n d a r d deviatio n

Specimen

Fig. 5.7. Rockwell hardnesses o f plain carbon fibre reinforced specimens.

 153

0.4
0.35

| 0.25

is 0.2
0
a 0.15
1 0.1
u
fa
0.05

0 20 40 60 80
Duration time (m in)

Fig. 5.8. Variations o f friction coefficient o f plain carbon fibre reinforced specimens
with sliding time.

I
Specimen

Fig. 5.9. Volume losses o f plain CF reinforced specimens due to sliding wear.
 154

■ Specific wear rate a Standard deviation

12
10.22

8.56

1.93
0.86
I 0.1

Specimen

Fig. 5.10. Specific wear rates o f plain CF reinforced specimens under sliding wear.

(a)
 156

(e)
 157

789pm

200|J m

Fig. 5.11. Optical images o f worn surfaces: (a) specimen A, (b) specimen B, (c) specimen C,
(d) specimen D, (e) specimen E and (f) specimen F.
 Fig. 5.12. Severe wear scars in the specimen A surface

Fig. 5.13. Intermittent nature o f the wear tracks in plain CF reinforced composites.
 159

:s>
o .-

frr - 4. * • ' i'& £ § * $ . / {

P cc.V Spot Magn Deti ii H

WDb I--------------- 5 0 0 pm
20.0 kV 3.0 150x BSE 5.9 Sample A
J v lr . ' ^ ( 1 4 S E & tX X
(a)

Sample A, matrix w ear track

Co Co
Co

Mn
W W

Mo
W
W w
W

2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00

(b)
Fig. 5.14. Worn surface analyses of pure Stellite 25 specimen: (a) SEM morphology and (b)
EDX spectrum.
 160

(a)

Sample F, wear track

W
W
W
W
■Jffai
2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00

(b)
Fig. 5.15. Worn surface analyses o f composite specimen F: (a) SEM morphology and (b) EDX
spectrum.
 161

Carbon Fibre

(a)

Sample F, wear track. C fiber

Co
Fe
Fe Co

2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00

(b)
Fig. 5.16. Worn surface analyses of carbon fibres in composite specimen F: (a) SEM
morphology and (b) EDX spectrum.
 162

iiii

(b)
 163

(d)

Fig. 5.17. Microstructural images: (a) Unetched pure Stellite 25 (specimen A), (b) unetched Ni-
coated CF reinforced composite (specimen P), (c) unetched specimen P at higher
magnification and (d) the matrix of etched specimen P in an area close to the fibres.
 164

Fig. 5.18. Presence o f voids i

"> AeNi-coated carbon fibre reinforced
composites.
 165

(c)
 166

ilOOjim,

(d)

(e)
 167

(g)

Fig. 5.19. Pictures used for carbide volume fraction analysis: (a) specimen A, (b) specimen K,

(c) specimen L, (d) specimen M, (e) specimen N, (f) specimen O and (g) specimen P.
 168

7QQ ______________________ 1 Corrosion rate » Standard deviation

597.38
600

£ 500 -

I 400 ^
300 -I 269.19

t 200 ' 142.85

93.73 H
52.24 H
0.410.2 2.2 I 13-4 ^ H 7 .7
0
M N
Specimen

Fig. 5.20. Corrosion test results of Ni-coated CF reinforced composite specimens.

MHardness » Standard rievisatlon

Specimen

Fig. 5.21. Rockwell hardness test results of the Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composite
specimens.
 169

0.35

0.25

0.15

0.05

Time (min)

Fig. 5.22. Variations o f friction coefficient for Ni-coated carbon fibre composite
specimens with sliding time.

A£
0.51

III...
0.5 -

% 0.4 -

J 0.3 -
2
1 0.2 -

0.1 -

0 - ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ----- 1
A K L M N O P

Specimen

Fig. 5.23. Volume losses o f Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composite specimens
under pin-on-disc wear.
 170

MSpecific wear rate ■ Standard deviation

Specimen

Fig. 5.24. Specific wear rates of Ni-coated carbon fibre reinforced composite specimens under
pin-on-disc wear.
 171

(b)
 172

1,081 jjnd

(d)
 (})

turlg28

uirigeg

ez.i
 174

(g)
Fig. 5.25. Worn surfaces: (a) specimen A, (b) specimen K, (c) specimen L, (d) specimen M, (e)
specimen N, (f) specimen O and (g) specimen P.

s r. • •»

L<\cc.V Spot Magn D el WD I--------------

[20.0 kV 4.0 3 QQx BSE 5.8 Sam ple 0

(a)
 Sam ple O', w ear track

Co
Fe
do
S_T1

w w
w
w
Z.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00

(b)
Fig. 5.26. Worn surface analyses of specimen O: (a) SEM micrograph and (b) EDX spectrum.
 (b)
Fig. 5.27. Microhardness test: (a) specimen F (100x) and (b) specimen O (100x).

Fig. 5.28. Microhardness test o f the carbidic phase in specimen F (500x)

 177

(a)

(b)

O
(c)

Fig. 5.29. Thermal conductivity study: (a) tested specimens, (b) PT thermogram at 1 s and (c)
PT thermogram at 8.15 s.
 178

(b)

Fig. 6.1. Vickers hardness indentations on specimen F under load of 60 kg: (a) close to the
interface and (b) at the interface.
 179

(b)

Fig. 6.2. Vickers hardness indentations on specimen O under load of 60 kg: (a) close to the
interface and (b) at the interface.
 180

■ Ni-coated fiber

0.25% 0.50% 1% 2%
Carbon fiber content

Fig. 6.3. Comparison of specific density between plain fibre reinforced composites
and Ni-coated fibre reinforced composites.

300

250
•£ ?
t/i*
200
9)
150

■
■Plain fiber
100 ■ Ni-coated fiber
o
U 50

1
0.25% 0.50% 1% 2% 5%
Carbon fiber content

Fig. 6.4. Comparison o f corrosion rate between plain fibre reinforced composites
and Ni-coated fibre reinforced composites.
 181

■ Plain fiber
■ Ni-coated fiber

Carbon fiber content

Fig. 6.5. Comparison of hardness between plain fibre reinforced composites and
Ni-coated fibre reinforced composites.

■Ni-coated fiber

0.25% 0.50% 1% 2%
Carbon fiber content

Fig. 6.6. Comparison o f friction coefficient between plain fibre reinforced

composites and Ni-coated fibre reinforced composites.
 182

8999999995

IPlain fiber
59901
IN i-coated fiber

■
0.25% 0.50% 1% 2% 5%
C arb on fib er con ten t

Fig. 6.7. Comparison of wear rate between plain fibre reinforced composites and
Ni-coated fibre reinforced composites.