Procrastination

Procrastination (from Latin's "procrastinare", that translates in to: the prefix pro-, 'forward', and the suffix -crastinus,
'till next day' from cras, 'tomorrow') is the avoidance of doing a task that needs to be accomplished. Sometimes,
procrastination takes place until the "last minute" before a deadline. Procrastination can take hold on any aspect of life—
putting off cleaning the stove, repairing a leaky roof, seeing a doctor or dentist, submitting a job report or academic
assignment or broaching a stressful issue with a partner. Procrastination can lead to feelings of guilt, inadequacy,
depression, and self-doubt.

Contents
Prevalence
Behavioral criteria
Psychological perspective
Perfectionism
Coping responses
Health perspective
Figurative synonyms
Management
Negative impact
Correlates
Academic
See also
References
Further reading
Procrastination
Impulse control
Motivation
External links

Prevalence
In a study of academic procrastination from the University of Vermont, published in 1984, 46% of the subjects reported
that they "always" or "nearly always" procrastinate writing papers, while approximately 30% reported procrastinating
studying for exams and reading weekly assignments (28% by and 30% respectively). Nearly a quarter of the subjects
reported that procrastination was a problem for them, regarding the same tasks. However, as many as 65% indicated that
they would like to reduce their procrastination when writing papers and approximately 62% indicated the same for
studying for exams and 55% for reading weekly assignments.[1]
A 1992 study showed that "52 [percent] of surveyed students indicated having a moderate to high need for help concerning
procrastination."[2] It is estimated that 80–95% of college students engage in procrastination, and approximately 75%
consider themselves procrastinators.

In a study performed on university students, procrastination was shown to be greater on tasks that were perceived as
unpleasant or as impositions than on tasks for which the student believed he or she lacked the required skills for
accomplishing the task.[3]

Behavioral criteria
Gregory Schraw, Theresa Wadkins, and Lori Olafson in 2007 proposed three criteria for a behavior to be classified as
academic procrastination: it must be counterproductive, needless, and delaying.[4] Steel reviewed all previous attempts to
define procrastination, and concluded in a 2007 study that procrastination is "to voluntarily delay an intended course of
action despite expecting to be worse off for the delay."[5] Sabini & Silver argued that postponement and irrationality are
the two key features of procrastination. Putting a task off is not procrastination, they argue, if there are rational reasons
for doing so.

An approach that integrates several core theories of motivation as well as meta-analytic research on procrastination is the
temporal motivation theory. It summarizes key predictors of procrastination (expectancy, value, and impulsiveness) into a
mathematical equation.[5]

Psychological perspective
The pleasure principle may be responsible for procrastination; one may prefer to avoid negative emotions, and to delay
stressful tasks. As the deadline for their target of procrastination grows closer, they are more stressed and may, thus,
decide to procrastinate more to avoid this stress.[6] Some psychologists cite such behavior as a mechanism for coping with
the anxiety associated with starting or completing any task or decision.[7] Piers Steel indicated in 2010 that anxiety is just
as likely to get people to start working early as late, and that the focus of studies on procrastination should be
impulsiveness. That is, anxiety will cause people to delay only if they are impulsive.[8]

Perfectionism
Traditionally, procrastination has been associated with perfectionism: a tendency to negatively evaluate outcomes and
one's own performance, intense fear and avoidance of evaluation of one's abilities by others, heightened social self-
consciousness and anxiety, recurrent low mood, and "workaholism". However, adaptive perfectionists—egosyntonic
perfectionism—were less likely to procrastinate than non-perfectionists, while maladaptive perfectionists, who saw their
perfectionism as a problem—egodystonic perfectionism—had high levels of procrastination and anxiety.[9] In a regression
analysis study of Steel, from 2007, it is found that mild to moderate level of perfectionists typically procrastinate slightly
less than others, with "the exception being perfectionists who were also seeking clinical counseling".[5]

Coping responses
Negative coping responses of procrastinating individuals tend to be avoidant or emotional rather than task-oriented or
focused on problem-solving. Emotional and avoidant coping is employed to reduce stress (and cognitive dissonance)
associated with putting off intended and important personal goals. This option provides immediate pleasure and is
consequently very attractive to impulsive procrastinators at their first knowledge of achievable goals.[10][11] There are
several emotion-oriented strategies, similar to Freudian defense mechanisms, coping styles and self-handicapping.
Coping responses of procrastinators include the following.

Avoidance: Avoiding the location or situation where the task takes place (e.g. a graduate student avoiding driving into
the university).
Denial and trivialization: Pretending that procrastinatory behavior is not actually procrastinating, but rather a task
which is more important than the avoided one, or that the essential task that should be done is not of immediate
importance.
Distraction: Engaging or immersing in other behaviors or actions to prevent awareness of the task (e.g. intensive
video game playing or web browsing). They are very sensitive to instant gratification and become powerless.
Descending counterfactuality: Comparing a life situation with others who have it worse (e.g. "Yes, I procrastinated and
got a B− in the course, but I didn't fail like one other student did.")
Valorisation: Pointing in satisfaction to what one achieved in the meantime while one should have been doing
something else.
Blaming: Delusional attributions to external factors, such as rationalizing that the procrastination is due to external
forces beyond one's control (e.g. "I'm not procrastinating, but this assignment is tough.")
Mocking: Using humor to validate one's procrastination. The person uses slapstick or slipshod methods to criticize
others' striving towards the goal as funny.
Task- or problem-solving measures are taxing from a procrastinator's outlook. If such measures are pursued, it is less
likely the procrastinator would remain a procrastinator. However, pursuing such measures requires actively changing
one's behavior or situation to prevent and minimize the re-occurrence of procrastination.

In 2006, it was suggested that neuroticism has no direct links to procrastination and that any relationship is fully
mediated by conscientiousness.[12] In 1982, it had been suggested that irrationality was an inherent feature of
procrastination. "Putting things off even until the last moment isn't procrastination if there is a reason to believe that they
will take only that moment".[13] Steel et al. explained in 2001, "actions must be postponed and this postponement must
represent poor, inadequate, or inefficient planning".[14]

Health perspective
To a certain degree it is normal to procrastinate and it can be regarded as a useful way to identify what is important, due to
a lower tendency of procrastination on truly valued tasks (for most people).[15] On the other hand, excessive
procrastination can become a problem and impede normal functioning. When this happens, procrastination has been
found to result in health problems, stress,[16] anxiety, sense of guilt and crisis as well as loss of personal productivity and
social disapproval for not meeting responsibilities or commitments. Together these feelings may promote further
procrastination and for some individuals procrastination gets almost chronic. Such procrastinators may have difficulties
seeking support due to procrastination itself, but also social stigma and the belief that task-aversion is caused by laziness,
lack of willpower or low ambition. In some cases problematic procrastination might be a sign of some underlying
psychological disorder, but not necessarily.[5]

Research on the physiological roots of procrastination have been concerned with the role of the prefrontal cortex,[17] the
area of the brain that is responsible for executive brain functions such as impulse control, attention and planning. Which
is consistent with the notion that procrastination is strongly related to exactly these functions, or lack of them. The
prefrontal cortex also acts as a filter, decreasing distracting stimuli, from other brain regions. Damage or low activation in
this area of the brain can reduce an individual's ability to filter out distracting stimuli and result in poorer organization, a
loss of attention, and increased procrastination. This is similar to the prefrontal lobe's role in attention-deficit
hyperactivity disorder, where it is commonly underactivated.[18]

In a 2014 U.S. study surveying procrastination and impulsiveness in fraternal- and identical twin pairs, both traits were
found to be "moderately heritable". The two traits were not separable at the genetic level (rgenetic = 1.0), meaning no
unique genetic influences of either trait alone was found.[19] The authors confirmed three constructs developed from the
evolutionary hypothesis that procrastination arose as a by-product of impulsivity: "(a) Procrastination is heritable, (b) the
two traits share considerable genetic variation, and (c) goal-management ability is an important component of this shared
variation."[19]

Figurative synonyms
Kicking the can down the road and 'kicking the problem into the long grass'[20] are metaphors for procrastination.

Management
Psychologist William J. Knaus estimated that more than 90% of college students procrastinate.[21] Of these students, 25%
are chronic procrastinators and they are usually the ones who end up dropping out of college.

Perfectionism is a prime cause for procrastination[22] because demanding perfection usually results in failure. Unrealistic
expectations destroy self-esteem and lead to self-repudiation, self-contempt, and widespread unhappiness. To overcome
procrastination, it is essential to recognize and accept the power of failure without condemning,[23] to stop focusing on
faults and flaws and to set goals that are easier to achieve.

To overcome procrastination:

Be aware of habits and thoughts that lead to procrastinating.

Seek help for self-defeating problems such as fear, anxiety, difficulty in concentrating, poor time management,
indecisiveness, and perfectionism.
Evaluate your own goals, strengths, weaknesses, and priorities.
Set realistic goals, and develop a personal positive link between the tasks and the concrete, meaningful goals.
Restructure activities of daily life.
Modify your environment for that newly gained perspective. For example, eliminate or minimize noise or distraction;
put effort into relevant matters; reduce day-dreaming.
Discipline yourself to the priorities you set.
Motivate yourself with enjoyable activities, socializing and constructive hobbies.
Tackle issues in small blocks of time, instead of trying to solve whole problems at once and then be intimidated.
To prevent relapse, reinforce your pre-set goals based on needs and allow yourself to be rewarded in a balanced way
for accomplished tasks.
Making a plan to complete tasks in a rigid schedule format might not work for everyone. There is no hard-and-fast rule to
follow such a process if it turns out to be counter-productive. Instead of scheduling, it may be better to execute tasks in a
flexible, unstructured schedule which has time slots for only necessary activities.[24]

Piers Steel suggests[25] that better time management is a key to overcoming procrastination, including being aware of and
using one's "power hours" (being a "morning person" or "night owl"). A good approach is to creatively tap one's internal
circadian rhythms that are best suited for the most challenging and productive work. Steel says that it is essential to have
realistic goals, to tackle one problem at a time and to cherish the "small successes". Ann McGee-Cooper says that "if we
learn to balance excellence in work with excellence in play, fun, and relaxation, our lives become happier, healthier, and a
great deal more creative."[26]

After contemplating his own procrastination habits, philosopher John Perry authored an essay entitled "Structured
Procrastination",[27] wherein he proposes a "cheat" method as a safer approach for tackling procrastination: using a
pyramid scheme to reinforce the unpleasant tasks needed to be completed in a quasi-prioritized order. In other words, the
procrastinator should postpone tasks with a mental note that one feels to do while engaged in a work that requires their
current attentional focus.
Negative impact
For some people, procrastination can be persistent and tremendously disruptive to everyday life. For these individuals,
procrastination may be symptomatic of a psychological disorder. Procrastination has been linked to a number of negative
associations, such as depression, irrational behaviour, low self-esteem, anxiety and neurological disorders such as ADHD.
Others have found relationships with guilt[28] and stress.[16] Therefore, it is important for people whose procrastination
has become chronic and is perceived to be debilitating to seek out a trained therapist or psychiatrist to see if an underlying
mental health issue may be present.[29]

With a distant deadline, procrastinators report significantly less stress and physical illness than do non-procrastinators.
However, as the deadline approaches, this relationship is reversed. Procrastinators report more stress, more symptoms of
physical illness, and more medical visits,[16] to the extent that, overall, procrastinators suffer more stress and health
problems.

Correlates
As noted above, procrastination is consistently found to be strongly correlated with conscientiousness, and moderately so
with impulsiveness.

Though the reasons for the relationship are not clear, there also exists a relationship between procrastination and
eveningness; that is, those who procrastinate more are more likely to go to sleep later and wake later. It is known that
conscientiousness increases across the lifespan, as does morningness.[30] Procrastination too decreases with age.[5][31]
However, even controlling for age, there still exists a relationship between procrastination and eveningness, which is yet to
be explained.

Testing the hypothesis that procrastinators have less of a focus on the future due to a greater focus on more immediate
concerns, college undergraduates completed several self-report questionnaires, which did indeed find that procrastinators
focus less on the future. Researchers had also expected to find that procrastination would be associated with a hedonistic
and "devil-may-care" perspective on the present; against their expectations, they found that procrastination was better
predicted by a fatalistic and hopeless attitude towards life.[32] This finding fits well with previous research relating
procrastination and depression.[1]

Academic
According to an Educational Science Professor, Hatice Odaci, academic procrastination is a significant problem during
college years in part because many college students lack efficient time management skills in using the Internet. Also, Odaci
notes that most colleges provide free and fast twenty-four-hour Internet service which some students are not usually
accustomed to, and as a result of irresponsible use or lack of firewalls these students become engulfed in a world of
procrastination.[33]

"Student syndrome" refers to the phenomenon where a student will begin to fully apply himself or herself to a task only
immediately before a deadline. This negates the usefulness of any buffers built into individual task duration estimates.
Results from a 2002 study indicate that many students are aware of procrastination and accordingly set binding deadlines
long before the date for which a task is due. These self-imposed binding deadlines are correlated with a better
performance than without binding deadlines though performance is best for evenly spaced external binding deadlines.
Finally, students have difficulties optimally setting self-imposed deadlines, with results suggesting a lack of spacing before
the date at which results are due.[34] In one experiment, participation in online exercises was found to be five times higher
in the final week before a deadline than in the summed total of the first three weeks for which the exercises were available.
Procrastinators end up being the ones doing most of the work in the final week before a deadline.[14]

Other reasons cited on why students procrastinate include fear of failure and success, perfectionist expectations, as well as
legitimate activities that may take precedence over school work, such as a job.[35]

Procrastinators have been found to receive worse grades than non-procrastinators. Tice et al. (1997) report that more than
one-third of the variation in final exam scores could be attributed to procrastination. The negative association between
procrastination and academic performance is recurring and consistent. Howell et al. (2006) found that, though scores on
two widely used procrastination scales[1][36] were not significantly associated with the grade received for an assignment,
self-report measures of procrastination on the assessment itself were negatively associated with grade.[37]

In 2005, a study conducted by Angela Chu and Jin Nam Choi was published in the Journal of Social Psychology, in which
they intended to understand task performance among procrastinators with the definition of procrastination as the absence
of self-regulated performance, from the 1977 work of Ellis & Knaus. In their study they identified two types of
procrastination: the traditional procrastination which they denote as passive, and active procrastination where the person
finds enjoyment of a goal-oriented activity only under pressure. The study calls this active procrastination positive
procrastination, as it is a functioning state in a self-handicapping environment. In addition, it was observed that active
procrastinators have more realistic perceptions of time and perceive more control over their time than passive
procrastinators, which is considered a major differentiator between the two types. But surprisingly, active and passive
procrastinators showed similar levels of academic performance. The population of the study was college students and the
majority of the sample size were women and Asian in origin. Comparisons with chronic pathological procrastination traits
were avoided.[38]

Different findings emerge when observed and self-report procrastination are compared. Steel et al. constructed their own
scales based on Silver and Sabini’s "irrational" and "postponement" criteria. They also sought to measure this behavior
objectively.[14] During a course, students could complete exam practice computer exercises at their own pace, and during
the supervised class time could also complete chapter quizzes. A weighted average of the times at which each quiz was
finished formed the measure of observed procrastination, whilst observed irrationality was quantified with the number of
practice exercises that were left uncompleted. Researchers found that there was only a moderate correlation between
observed and self-reported procrastination (r = 0.35). There was a very strong inverse relationship between the number of
exercises completed and the measure of postponement (r = −0.78). Observed procrastination was very strongly negatively
correlated with course grade (r = −0.87), as was self-reported procrastination (though less so, r = −0.36). As such, self-
reported measures of procrastination, on which the majority of the literature is based, may not be the most appropriate
measure to use in all cases. It was also found that procrastination itself may not have contributed significantly to poorer
grades. Steel et al. noted that those students who completed all of the practice exercises "tended to perform well on the
final exam no matter how much they delayed."

Procrastination is considerably more widespread in students than in the general population, with over 70 percent of
students reporting procrastination for assignments at some point.[39] A 2014 panel study from Germany among several
thousand university students found that increasing academic procrastination increases the frequency of seven different
forms of academic misconduct, i.e., using fraudulent excuses, plagiarism, copying from someone else in exams, using
forbidden means in exams, carrying forbidden means into exams, copying parts of homework from others, fabrication or
falsification of data and the variety of academic misconduct.[40] This study argues that academic misconduct can be seen as
a means to cope with the negative consequences of academic procrastination such as performance impairment.

See also
 Avoidance coping Attention management
Distraction Decision making
Laziness Temporal motivation theory
Life skills Time management
Tardiness (vice) Trait theory
Akrasia Time perception
Attention economy Work aversion
Avoidant personality disorder Workaholism
Distributed Practice Dunning–Kruger effect
Passive-aggressive behavior Restraint bias
Postponement of affect Empathy gap
Precastination Egosyntonic and egodystonic
Resistance (creativity) Law of triviality
Emotional self-regulation Zeigarnik effect

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36. Tuckman, BW (1991). The Development and Concurrent Validity of the Procrastination Scale [1] (http://psycnet.apa.or
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37. Howell, AJ; Watson, DC; Powell, RA; Buro, K (2006). "Academic Procrastination: The Pattern and Correlates of
Behavioral Postponement" (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886906000055). Personality and
Individual Differences. 40: 1519–30. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.023 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.paid.2005.11.023).
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Further reading

Procrastination
Steel, Piers (2010). The Procrastination Equation: How to Stop Putting Things Off and Start Getting Stuff Done. New
York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0061703621
Johnson, Juliet McEwen, The 9 Reasons People Procrastinate with Social Media (http://www.nasp.com/article/E1698
E92-0CBD/the-9-reasons-people-procrastinate-with-social-media.html)
Jane B. Burka; Lenora M. Yuen (2008). Procrastination: Why You Do It, What to Do About It Now. Da Capo Lifelong
Books. p. 336. ISBN 978-0738211701.
We're Sorry This Is Late ... We Really Meant To Post It Sooner: Research Into Procrastination Shows Surprising
Findings; Gregory Harris; ScienceDaily.com; Jan. 10, 2007 (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/01/07011009
0851.htm) (their source (http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-01/uoc-wst010907.php))
Why We Procrastinate And How To Stop; ScienceDaily.com; Jan. 12, 2009 (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/200
9/01/090112110106.htm)
Perry, John (2012). The Art of Procrastination: A Guide to Effective Dawdling, Lollygagging and Postponing. New
York: Workman. ISBN 978-0761171676
Urban, Tim (2013). Why Procrastinators Procrastinate (https://waitbutwhy.com/2013/10/why-procrastinators-procrastin
ate.html). waitbutwhy.com

Impulse control
 Look Before You Leap: New Study Examines Self-Control; ScienceDaily.com; June 2, 2008 (http://www.sciencedaily.c
om/releases/2008/05/080530132101.htm)

Motivation
"Integrating Theories of Motivation" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120417115233/http://webapps2.ucalgary.ca/~stee
l/images/Integrating.pdf) (PDF). Academy of Management Review. 31 (4): 889–913. 2006.
doi:10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 (https://doi.org/10.5465%2Famr.2006.22527462).

External links
CalPoly – Procrastination (http://www.sas.calpoly.edu/ASC/ssl/procrastination.html)

Lay, CH; Schouwenburg, HC (1993). "Trait procrastination, time management, and academic behavior" (https://www.r
esearchgate.net/publication/209836122_Trait_procrastination_time_management_and_academic_behavior). Journal
of social behavior and personality. 8 (4): 647–62.

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