Casino Math Guide

A Guide to Casino Mathematics

Robert C. Hannum
University of Denver

This guide contains a brief, non-technical discussion of the basic mathematics

governing casino games and shows how casinos make money from these
games. The article addresses a variety of topics, including house advantage,
confusion about win rates, game volatility, player value and comp policies, casino
pricing mistakes, and regulatory issues. Statistical advantages associated with
the major games are also provided.

Introduction

At its core the business of casino gaming is pretty simple. Casinos make money on their games
because of the mathematics behind the games. As Nico Zographos, dealer-extraordinaire for
the ‘Greek Syndicate’ in Deauville, Cannes, and Monte Carlo in the 1920s observed about
casino gaming: “There is no such thing as luck. It is all mathematics.”

With a few notable exceptions, the house always wins – in the long run – because of the
mathematical advantage the casino enjoys over the player. That is what Mario Puzo was
referring to in his famous novel Fools Die when his fictional casino boss character, Gronevelt,
commented: “Percentages never lie. We built all these hotels on percentages. We stay rich on
the percentage. You can lose faith in everything, religion and God, women and love, good and
evil, war and peace. You name it. But the percentage will always stand fast.”

Puzo is, of course, right on the money about casino gaming. Without the “edge,” casinos would
not exist. With this edge, and because of a famous mathematical result called the law of large
numbers, a casino is guaranteed to win in the long run.

Why is Mathematics Important?

Critics of the gaming industry have long accused it of creating the name “gaming” and using this
as more politically correct than calling itself the “gambling industry.” The term “gaming,”
however, has been around for centuries and more accurately describes the operators’ view of
the industry because most often casino operators are not gambling. Instead, they rely on
mathematical principles to assure that their establishment generates positive gross gaming
revenues. The operator, however, must assure the gaming revenues are sufficient to cover
deductions like bad debts, expenses, employees, taxes and interest.

Despite the obvious, many casino professionals limit their advancements by failing to
understand the basic mathematics of the games and their relationships to casino profitability.
One casino owner would often test his pit bosses by asking how a casino could make money on
blackjack if the outcome is determined simply by whether the player or the dealer came closest
to 21. The answer, typically, was because the casino maintained “a house advantage.” This was
fair enough, but many could not identify the amount of that advantage or what aspect of the
game created the advantage. Given that products offered by casinos are games, managers
must understand why the games provide the expected revenues. In the gaming industry,
nothing plays a more important role than mathematics.

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Mathematics should also overcome the dangers of superstitions. An owner of a major Las
Vegas strip casino once experienced a streak of losing substantial amounts of money to a few
“high rollers.” He did not attribute this losing streak to normal volatility in the games, but to bad
luck. His solution was simple. He spent the evening spreading salt throughout the casino to
ward off the bad spirits. Before attributing this example to the idiosyncrasies of one owner, his
are atypical only in their extreme. Superstition has long been a part of gambling – from both
sides of the table. Superstitions can lead to irrational decisions that may hurt casino profits. For
example, believing that a particular dealer is unlucky against a particular (winning) player may
lead to a decision to change dealers. As many, if not most, players are superstitious. At best, he
may resent that the casino is trying to change his luck. At worst, the player may feel the new
dealer is skilled in methods to “cool” the game. Perhaps he is even familiar with stories of old
where casinos employed dealers to cheat “lucky” players.

Understanding the mathematics of a game also is important for the casino operator to ensure
that the reasonable expectations of the players are met. For most persons, gambling is
entertainment. It provides an outlet for adult play. As such, persons have the opportunity for a
pleasant diversion from ordinary life and from societal and personal pressures. As an
entertainment alternative, however, players may consider the value of the gambling experience.
For example, some people may have the option of either spending a hundred dollars during an
evening by going to a professional basketball game or at a licensed casino. If the house
advantage is too strong and the person loses his money too quickly, he may not value that
casino entertainment experience. On the other hand, if a casino can entertain him for an
evening, and he enjoys a “complimentary” meal or drinks, he may want to repeat the
experience, even over a professional basketball game. Likewise, new casino games themselves
may succeed or fail based on player expectations. In recent years, casinos have debuted a
variety of new games that attempt to garner player interest and keep their attention. Regardless
of whether a game is fun or interesting to play, most often a player will not want to play games
where his money is lost too quickly or where he has a exceptionally remote chance of returning
home with winnings.

Mathematics also plays an important part in meeting players’ expectations as to the possible
consequences of his gambling activities. If gambling involves rational decision-making, it would
appear irrational to wager money where your opponent has a better chance of winning than you
do. Adam Smith suggested that all gambling, where the operator has an advantage, is irrational.
He wrote “There is not, however, a more certain proposition in mathematics than that the more
tickets [in a lottery] you advertise upon, the more likely you are a loser. Adventure upon all the
tickets in the lottery, and you lose for certain; and the greater the number of your tickets, the
nearer you approach to this certainty.”

Even where the house has an advantage, however, a gambler may be justified if the amount
lost means little to him, but the potential gain would elevate him to a higher standing of living.
For example, a person with an annual income of $30,000 may have $5 in disposable weekly
income. He could save or gamble this money. By saving it, at the end of a year, he would have
$260. Even if he did this for years, the savings would not elevate his economic status to another
level. As an alternative, he could use the $5 to gamble for the chance to win $1 million. While
the odds of winning are remote, it may provide the only opportunity to move to a higher
economic class.

Since the casino industry is heavily regulated and some of the standards set forth by regulatory
bodies involve mathematically related issues, casino managers also should understand the
mathematical aspects relating to gaming regulation. Gaming regulation is principally dedicated

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to assuring that the games offered in the casino are fair, honest, and that players get paid if they
win. Fairness is often expressed in the regulations as either requiring a minimum payback to the
player or, in more extreme cases, as dictating the actual rules of the games offered. Casino
executives should understand the impact that rules changes have on the payback to players to
assure they meet regulatory standards. Equally important, casino executives should understand
how government mandated rules would impact their gaming revenues.

The House Edge

The player’s chances of winning in a casino game and the rate at which he wins or loses money
depends on the game, the rules in effect for that game, and for some games his level of skill.
The amount of money the player can expect to win or lose in the long run – if the bet is made
over and over again – is called the player’s wager expected value (EV), or expectation. When
the player’s wager expectation is negative, he will lose money in the long run. For a $5 bet on
the color red in roulette, for example, the expectation is –$0.263. On the average the player will
lose just over a quarter for each $5 bet on red.

When the wager expectation is viewed from the casino’s perspective (i.e., the negative of the
player’s expectation) and expressed as a percentage, you have the house advantage. For the
roulette example, the house advantage is 5.26% ($0.263 divided by $5). The formal calculation
is as follows:

EV = (+5)(18/38) + (–5)(20/38) = –0.263

(House Advantage = 0.263/5 = 5.26%)

When this EV calculation is performed for a 1-unit amount, the negative of the resulting value is
the house edge. Here are the calculations for bets on a single-number in double-zero and
single-zero roulette.

Double-zero roulette (single number bet):

EV = (+35)(1/38) + (–1)(37/38) = –0.053
(House Advantage = 5.3%)

Single-zero roulette (single number bet):

EV = (+35)(1/37) + (–1)(36/37) = –0.027
(House Advantage = 2.7%)

The house advantage represents the long run percentage of the wagered money that will be
retained by the casino. It is also called the house edge, the “odds” (i.e., avoid games with bad
odds), or just the “percentage” (as in Mario Puzo’s Fools Die). Although the house edge can be
computed easily for some games – for example, roulette and craps – for others it requires more
sophisticated mathematical analysis and/or computer simulations. Regardless of the method
used to compute it, the house advantage represents the price to the player of playing the game.

Because this positive house edge exists for virtually all bets in a casino (ignoring the poker room
and sports book where a few professionals can make a living), gamblers are faced with an uphill
and, in the long run, losing battle. There are some exceptions. The odds bet in craps has zero
house edge (although this bet cannot be made without making another negative expectation
wager) and there are a few video poker machines that return greater than 100% if played with
perfect strategy. Occasionally the casino will even offer a promotion that gives the astute player
a positive expectation. These promotions are usually mistakes – sometimes casinos don’t check

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the math – and are terminated once the casino realizes the player has the edge. But by and
large the player will lose money in the long run, and the house edge is a measure of how fast
the money will be lost. A player betting in a game with a 4% house advantage will tend to lose
his money twice as fast as a player making bets with a 2% house edge. The trick to intelligent
casino gambling – at least from the mathematical expectation point of view – is to avoid the
games and bets with the large house advantages.

Some casino games are pure chance – no amount of skill or strategy can alter the odds. These
games include roulette, craps, baccarat, keno, the big-six wheel of fortune, and slot machines.
Of these, baccarat and craps offer the best odds, with house advantages of 1.2% and less than
1% (assuming only pass/come with full odds), respectively. Roulette and slots cost the player
more – house advantages of 5.3% for double-zero roulette and 5% to 10% for slots – while the
wheel of fortune feeds the casino near 20% of the wagers, and keno is a veritable casino cash
cow with average house advantage close to 30%.

Games where an element of skill can affect the house advantage include blackjack, video
poker, and the four popular poker-based table games: Caribbean Stud poker, Let It Ride, Three
Card poker, and Pai Gow poker. For the poker games, optimal strategy results in a house edge
in the 3% to 5% range (CSP has the largest house edge, PGP the lowest, with LIR and TCP in
between). For video poker the statistical advantage varies depending on the particular machine,
but generally this game can be very player friendly – house edge less than 3% is not uncommon
and some are less than 1% – if played with expert strategy.

Blackjack, the most popular of all table games, offers the skilled player some of the best odds in
the casino. The house advantage varies slightly depending on the rules and number of decks,
but a player using basic strategy faces little or no disadvantage in a single-deck game and only
a 0.5% house edge in the common six-deck game. Despite these numbers, the average player
ends up giving the casino a 2% edge due to mistakes and deviations from basic strategy.
Complete basic strategy tables can be found in many books and many casino-hotel gift shops
sell color-coded credit card size versions. Rule variations favorable to the player include fewer
decks, dealer stands on soft seventeen (worth 0.2%), doubling after splitting (0.14%), late
surrender (worth 0.06%), and early surrender (uncommon, but worth 0.24%). If the dealer hits
soft seventeen it will cost you, as will any restrictions on when you can double down.

Probability versus Odds

Probability represents the long run ratio of (# of times an outcome occurs) to (# of times
experiment is conducted). Odds represent the long run ratio of (# of times an outcome does not
occur) to (# of times an outcome occurs). If a card is randomly selected from a standard deck of
52 playing cards, the probability it is a spade is 1/4; the odds (against spade) are 3 to 1. The
true odds of an event represent the payoff that would make the bet on that event fair. For
example, a bet on a single number in double-zero roulette has probability of 1/38, so to break
even in the long run a player would have to be paid 37 to 1 (the actual payoff is 35 to 1).

Confusion about Win Rate

There are all kinds of percentages in the world of gaming. Win percentage, theoretical win
percentage, hold percentage, and house advantage come to mind. Sometimes casino bosses
use these percentages interchangeably, as if they are just different names for the same thing.
Admittedly, in some cases this is correct. House advantage is just another name for theoretical

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win percentage, and for slot machines, hold percentage is (in principle) equivalent to win
percentage. But there are fundamental differences among these win rate measurements.

The house advantage – the all-important percentage that explains how casinos make money –
is also called the house edge, the theoretical win percentage, and expected win percentage. In
double-zero roulette, this figure is 5.3%. In the long run the house will retain 5.3% of the money
wagered. In the short term, of course, the actual win percentage will differ from the theoretical
win percentage (the magnitude of this deviation can be predicted from statistical theory). The
actual win percentage is just the (actual) win divided by the handle. Because of the law of large
numbers – or as some prefer to call it, the law of averages – as the number of trials gets larger,
the actual win percentage should get closer to the theoretical win percentage.

Because handle can be difficult to measure for table games, performance is often measured by
hold percentage (and sometimes erroneously called win percentage). Hold percentage is equal
to win divided by drop. In Nevada, this figure is about 24% for roulette. The drop and hold
percentage are affected by many factors; we won’t delve into these nor the associated
management issues. Suffice it to say that the casino will not in the long term keep 24% of the
money bet on the spins of roulette wheel – well, an honest casino won’t.

To summarize: House advantage and theoretical win percentage are the same thing, hold
percentage is win over drop, win percentage is win over handle, win percentage approaches the
house advantage as the number of plays increases, and hold percentage is equivalent to win
percentage for slots but not table games.

• Hold % = Win/Drop
• Win % (actual) = Win/Handle
• H.A. = Theoretical Win % = Limit(Actual Win %) = Limit(Win/Handle)
• Hold Percentage ≠ House Edge

Furthermore, the house advantage is itself subject to varying interpretations. In Let It Ride, for
example, the casino advantage is either 3.51% or 2.86% depending on whether you express the
advantage with respect to the base bet or the average bet. Those familiar with the game know
that the player begins with three equal base bets, but may withdraw one or two of these initial
units. The final amount put at risk, then, can be one (84.6% of the time assuming proper
strategy), two (8.5%), or three units (6.9%), making the average bet size 1.224 units. In the long
run, the casino will win 3.51% of the hands, which equates to 2.86% of the money wagered. So
what’s the house edge for Let It Ride? Some prefer to say 3.51% per hand, others 2.86% per
unit wagered. No matter. Either way, the bottom line is the same either way: assuming three $1
base bets, the casino can expect to earn 3.5¢ per hand (note that 1.224 x 0.0286 = 0.035).

The question of whether to use the base bet or average bet size also arises in Caribbean Stud
Poker (5.22% vs. 2.56%), Three Card Poker (3.37% vs. 2.01%), Casino War (2.88% vs. 2.68%),
and Red Dog (2.80% vs. 2.37%).

For still other games, the house edge can be stated including or excluding ties. The prime
examples here are the player (1.24% vs. 1.37%) and banker (1.06% vs. 1.17%) bets in
baccarat, and the don’t pass bet (1.36% vs. 1.40%) in craps. Again, these are different views on
the casino edge, but the expected revenue will not change.

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That the house advantage can appear in different disguises might be unsettling. When properly
computed and interpreted, however, regardless of which representation is chosen, the same
truth (read: money) emerges: expected win is the same.

Volatility and Risk

Statistical theory can be used to predict the magnitude of the difference between the actual win
percentage and the theoretical win percentage for a given number of wagers. When observing
the actual win percentage a player (or casino) may experience, how much variation from
theoretical win can be expected? What is a normal fluctuation? The basis for the analysis of
such volatility questions is a statistical measure called the standard deviation (essentially the
average deviation of all possible outcomes from the expected). Together with the central limit
theorem (a form of the law of large numbers), the standard deviation (SD) can be used to
determine confidence limits with the following volatility guidelines:

Volatility Analysis Guidelines

• Only 5% of the time will outcomes will be more than 2 SD’s from expected outcome
• Almost never (0.3%) will outcomes be more than 3 SD’s from expected outcome

Obviously a key to using these guidelines is the value of the SD. Computing the SD value is
beyond the scope of this article, but to get an idea behind confidence limits, consider a series of
1,000 pass line wagers in craps. Since each wager has a 1.4% house advantage, on average
the player will be behind by 14 units. It can be shown (calculations omitted) that the wager
standard deviation is for a single pass line bet is 1.0, and for 1,000 wagers the SD is 31.6.
Applying the volatility guidelines, we can say that there is a 95% chance the player’s actual win
will be between 49 units ahead and 77 units behind, and almost certainly between 81 units
ahead and 109 units behind.

A similar analysis for 1,000 single-number wagers on double-zero roulette (on average the
player will be behind 53 units, wager SD = 5.8, 1,000 wager SD = 182.2) will yield 95%
confidence limits on the player win of 311 units ahead and 417 units behind, with win almost
certainly between 494 units ahead and 600 units behind.

Note that if the volatility analysis is done in terms of the percentage win (rather than the number
of units or amount won), the confidence limits will converge to the house advantage as the
number of wagers increases. This is the result of the law of large numbers – as the number of
trials gets larger, the actual win percentage should get closer to the theoretical win percentage.
Risk in the gaming business depends on the house advantage, standard deviation, bet size, and
length of play.

Player Value and Complimentaries

Using the house advantage, bet size, duration of play, and pace of the game, a casino can
determine how much it expects to win from a certain player. This player earning potential (also
called player value, player worth, or theoretical win) can be calculated by the formula:

Earning Potential = Average Bet × Hours Played × Decisions per Hour × House Advantage

For example, suppose a baccarat player bets $500 per hand for 12 hours at 60 hands per hour.
Using a house advantage of 1.2%, this player’s worth to the casino is $4,320 (500 × 12 × 60 ×

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.012). A player who bets $500 per spin for 12 hours in double-zero roulette at 60 spins per hour
would be worth about $19,000 (500 × 12 × 60 × .053).

Many casinos set comp (complimentary) policies by giving the player back a set percentage of
their earning potential. Although comp and rebate policies based on theoretical loss are the
most popular, rebates on actual losses and dead chip programs are also used in some casinos.
Some programs involve a mix of systems. The mathematics associated with these programs will
not be addressed in this article.

Casino Pricing Mistakes

In an effort to entice players and increase business, casinos occasionally offer novel wagers,
side bets, increased payoffs, or rule variations. These promotions have the effect of lowering the
house advantage and the effective price of the game for the player. This is sound reasoning
from a marketing standpoint, but can be disastrous for the casino if care is not taken to ensure
the math behind the promotion is sound. One casino offered a baccarat commission on winning
banker bets of only 2% instead of the usual 5%, resulting in a 0.32% player advantage. This is
easy to see (using the well-known probabilities of winning and losing the banker bet):

EV = (+0.98)(.4462) + (–1)(.4586) = 0.0032

(House Advantage = –0.32%)

A casino in Biloxi, Mississippi gave players a 12.5% edge on Sic Bo bets of 4 and 17 when they
offered 80 to 1 payoffs instead of the usual 60 to 1. Again, this is an easy calculation. Using the
fact that the probability of rolling a total of 4 (same calculation applies for a total of 17) with three
dice is 1/72 (1/6 x 1/6 x 1/6 x 3), here are the expected values for both the usual and the
promotional payoffs:

Usual 60 to 1 payoff: EV = (+60)(1/72) + (–1)(71/72) = –0.153

(House Advantage = 15.3%)

Promotional 80 to 1 payoff: EV = (+80)(1/72) + (–1)(71/72) = +0.125

(House Advantage = –12.5%)

In other promotional gaffes, an Illinois riverboat casino lost a reported $200,000 in one day with
their “2 to 1 Tuesdays” that paid players 2 to 1 (the usual payoff is 3 to 2) on blackjack naturals,
a scheme that gave players a 2% advantage. Not to be outdone, an Indian casino in California
paid 3 to 1 on naturals during their “happy hour,” offered three times a day, two days a week for
over two weeks. This promotion gave the player a whopping 6% edge. A small Las Vegas
casino offered a blackjack rule variation called the “Free Ride” in which players were given a
free right-to-surrender token every time they received a natural. Proper use of the token led to a
player edge of 1.3%, and the casino lost an estimated $17,000 in eight hours. Another major
Las Vegas casino offered a “50/50 Split” blackjack side bet that allowed the player to stand on
an initial holding of 12-16, and begin a new hand for equal stakes against the same dealer up
card. Although the game marketers claimed the variation was to the advantage of the casino, it
turned out that players who exercised the 50/50 Split only against dealer 2-6 had a 2%
advantage. According to one pit boss, the casino suffered a $230,000 loss in three and a half
days.

In the gaming business, it’s all about “bad math” or “good math.” Honest games based on good
math with positive house advantage minimize the short-term risk and ensure the casino will

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make money in the long run. Players will get “lucky” in the short term, but that is all part of the
grand design. Fluctuations in both directions will occur. We call these fluctuations good luck or
bad luck depending on the direction of the fluctuation. There is no such thing as luck. It is all
mathematics.

Gaming Regulation and Mathematics

Casino gaming is one of the most regulated industries in the world. Most gaming regulatory
systems share common objectives: keep the games fair and honest and assure that players are
paid if they win. Fairness and honesty are different concepts. A casino can be honest but not
fair. Honesty refers to whether the casino offers games whose chance elements are random.
Fairness refers to the game advantage – how much of each dollar wagered should the casino
be able to keep? A slot machine that holds, on average, 90% of every dollar bet is certainly not
fair, but could very well be honest (if the outcomes of each play are not predetermined in the
casino’s favor). Two major regulatory issues relating to fairness and honesty – ensuring random
outcomes and controlling the house advantage – are inextricably tied to mathematics and most
regulatory bodies require some type of mathematical analysis to demonstrate game advantage
and/or confirm that games outcomes are random. Such evidence can range from
straightforward probability analyses to computer simulations and complex statistical studies.
Requirements vary across jurisdictions, but it is not uncommon to see technical language in
gaming regulations concerning specific statistical tests that must be performed, confidence
limits that must be met, and other mathematical specifications and standards relating to game
outcomes.

Summary Tables for House Advantage

The two tables below show the house advantages for many of the popular casino games. The
first table is a summary of the popular games and the second gives a more detailed breakdown.

House Advantages for Popular Casino Games

Game House Advantage
Roulette (double-zero) 5.3%
Craps (pass/come) 1.4%
Craps (pass/come with double odds) 0.6%
Blackjack – average player 2.0%
Blackjack – 6 decks, basic strategy* 0.5%
Blackjack – single deck, basic strategy* 0.0%
Baccarat (no tie bets) 1.2%
Caribbean Stud* 5.2%
Let It Ride* 3.5%
Three Card Poker* 3.4%
Pai Gow Poker (ante/play)* 2.5%
Slots 5% - 10%
Video Poker* 0.5% - 3%
Keno (average) 27.0%
*optimal strategy

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HOUSE ADVANTAGES FOR MAJOR CASINO WAGERS

Game Bet HA*
Baccarat Banker (5% commission) 1.06%
Baccarat Player 1.24%
Big Six Wheel Average 19.84%
Blackjack Card-Counting −1.00%
Blackjack Basic Strategy 0.50%
Blackjack Average player 2.00%
Blackjack Poor Player 4.00%
Caribbean Stud Ante 5.22%
Casino War Basic Bet 2.88%
Craps Any Craps 11.11%
Craps Any Seven 16.67%
Craps Big 6, Big 8 9.09%
Craps Buy (any) 4.76%
Craps C&E 11.11%
Craps don’t pass/Don’t Come 1.36%
Craps don’t pass/Don’t Come w/1X Odds 0.68%
Craps don’t pass/Don’t Come w/2X Odds 0.45%
Craps don’t pass/Don’t Come w/3X Odds 0.34%
Craps don’t pass/Don’t Come w/5X Odds 0.23%
Craps don’t pass/Don’t Come w/10X Odds 0.12%
Craps Don’t Place 4 or 10 3.03%
Craps Don’t Place 5 or 9 2.50%
Craps Don’t Place 6 or 8 1.82%
Craps Field (2 and 12 pay double) 5.56%
Craps Field (2 or 12 pays triple) 2.78%
Craps Hard 4, Hard 10 11.11%
Craps Hard 6, Hard 8 9.09%
Craps Hop Bet – easy (14-1) 16.67%
Craps Hop Bet – easy (15-1) 11.11%
Craps Hop Bet – hard (29-1) 16.67%
Craps Hop Bet – hard (30-1) 13.89%
Craps Horn Bet (30-1 & 15-1) 12.50%
Craps Horn High – any (29-1 & 14-1) 16.67%
Craps Horn High 2, Horn High 12 (30-1 & 15-1) 12.78%
Craps Horn High 3, Horn High 11 (30-1 & 15-1) 12.22%
Craps Lay 4 or 10 2.44%
Craps Lay 5 or 9 3.23%
Craps Lay 6 or 8 4.00%
Craps Pass/Come 1.41%
Craps Pass/Come w/1X Odds 0.85%
Craps Pass/Come w/2X Odds 0.61%
Craps Pass/Come w/3X Odds 0.47%
Craps Pass/Come w/5X Odds 0.33%
Craps Pass/Come w/10X Odds 0.18%
Craps Place 4 or 10 6.67%
Craps Place 5 or 9 4.00%
Craps Place 6 or 8 1.52%
Craps Three, Eleven (14-1) 16.67%
Craps Three, Eleven (15-1) 11.11%

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Craps Two, Twelve (29-1) 16.67%

Craps Two, Twelve (30-1) 13.89%
Keno Typical 27.00%
Let It Ride Base bet 3.51%
Pai Gow Poker Skilled player (non-banker) 2.54%
Pai Gow Poker Average player (non-banker) 2.84%
Red Dog Basic bet (six decks) 2.80%
Roulette Single-zero 2.70%
Roulette Double-zero (except five-number) 5.26%
Roulette Double-zero, five-number bet 7.89%
Sic Bo Big/Small 2.78%
Sic Bo One of a Kind 7.87%
Sic Bo 7, 14 9.72%
Sic Bo 8, 13 12.50%
Sic Bo 10, 11 12.50%
Sic Bo Any three of a kind 13.89%
Sic Bo 5, 16 13.89%
Sic Bo 4, 17 15.28%
Sic Bo Three of a kind 16.20%
Sic Bo Two-dice combination 16.67%
Sic Bo 6, 15 16.67%
Sic Bo Two of a kind 18.52%
Sic Bo 9, 12 18.98%
Slots Dollar Slots (good) 4.00%
Slots Quarter Slots (good) 5.00%
Slots Dollar Slots (average) 6.00%
Slots Quarter Slots (average) 8.00%
Sports Betting Bet $11 to Win $10 4.55%
Three Card Poker Pair Plus 2.32%
Three Card Poker Ante 3.37%
Video Poker Selected Machines −0.50%
*House Advantages under typical conditions, expressed “per hand” and including ties,
where appropriate. Optimal strategy assumed unless otherwise noted.

Selected Bibliography

Cabot, Anthony N., and Hannum, Robert C. (2002). Gaming Regulation and Mathematics: A
Marriage of Necessity, John Marshall Law Review, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 333-358.

Cabot, Anthony N. (1996). Casino Gaming: Policy, Economics, and Regulation, UNLV
International Gaming Institute, Las Vegas, NV.

Eadington, William R., and Cornelius, Judy (eds.) (1999). The Business of Gaming: Economic
and Management Issues, Institute for the Study of Gambling and Commercial Gaming,
University of Nevada, Reno, NV.

Eadington, William R., and Cornelius, Judy (eds.) (1992). Gambling and Commercial Gaming:
Essays in Business, Economics, Philosophy and Science, Institute for the Study of
Gambling and Commercial Gaming, University of Nevada, Reno, NV.

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Epstein, Richard A. (1995). The Theory of Gambling and Statistical Logic, revised edition,
Academic Press, San Diego, CA.

Feller, William (1968). An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications, 3rd ed., Wiley,
New York, NY.

Griffin, Peter A. (1999). The Theory of Blackjack, 6th ed., Huntington Press, Las Vegas, NV.

Griffin, Peter (1991). Extra Stuff: Gambling Ramblings, Huntington Press, Las Vegas, NV.

Hannum, Robert C. and Cabot, Anthony N. (2001). Practical Casino Math, Institute for the Study
of Gambling & Commercial Gaming, University of Nevada, Reno.

Humble, Lance, and Cooper, Carl (1980). The World’s Greatest Blackjack Book, Doubleday,
New York, NY.

Kilby, Jim and Fox, Jim (1998). Casino Operations Management, Wiley, New York, NY.

Levinson, Horace C. (1963). Chance, Luck and Statistics, Dover Publications, Mineola, NY.

Millman, Martin H. (1983). “A Statistical Analysis of Casino Blackjack,” American Mathematical

Monthly, 90, pp. 431-436.

Packel, Edward (1981). The Mathematics of Games and Gambling, The Mathematical
Association of America, Washington, D.C.

Thorp, Edward O. (1984). The Mathematics of Gambling, Gambling Times, Hollywood, CA.

Thorp, Edward O. (1966). Beat the Dealer, Vintage Books, New York, NY.

Vancura, Olaf, Cornelius, Judy A., and Eadington, William R. (eds.) (2000). Finding the Edge:
Mathematical Analysis of Casino Games. Institute for the Study of Gambling and
Commercial Gaming, University of Nevada, Reno, NV.

Vancura, Olaf (1996). Smart Casino Gambling, Index Publishing Group, San Diego, CA.

Weaver, Warren (1982). Lady Luck: The Theory of Probability, Dover Publications, New York,
NY.

Wilson, Allan (1970). The Casino Gambler’s Guide, Harper and Row, New York.

Selected Internet Resources

Urbino – a casino and gaming management site.

www.urbino.net

Institute for the Study of Gambling and Commercial Gaming, University of Nevada, Reno.
www.unr.edu/gaming

The Wizard of Odds – an excellent site for general game mathematics and odds.

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www.thewizardofodds.com

Blackjack (mainly) sites.

www.bjmath.com
www.bj21.com
www.advantageplayer.com

About the Author

Bob Hannum is an Associate Professor of Statistics at the University of Denver where he

teaches courses in probability, statistics and the theory of gambling. His publications include
Practical Casino Math (co-authored with Anthony N. Cabot) and numerous articles in scholarly
and gaming industry journals. Hannum regularly speaks on casino mathematics to audiences
around the globe. (Some of this guide has been excerpted from Practical Casino Math.)

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