Navigation Theory
Navigation Theory
Navigation Theory
Q. Draw up a set of Master's standing orders for handing over watch at sea.
• Officer being relieved should ensure that the relieving officer is fully capable of
performing his duties and not under influence of drug or alcohol or sickness.
• Officer being relieved should ensure that relieving officer's vision is adjusted to
prevailing conditions.
• Relieving officer should ensure vessels position, course and speed, ships draught,
state of wind, tide or current and state of visibility.
• Relieving officer should ensure that all navigational equipment are performing in
correct manner.
• Relieving officer should check performance of gyro and magnetic compass together
with any errors.
• Relieving officer must read and sign the Master's "night order book" and follow
instructions detailed.
• Relieving officer should check on engine status and steering (auto / manual).
• Relieving officer should ensure that he is aware of the respective traffic and other
vessel movements in the vicinity.
• Relieving officer should make sure that the navigational lights are working during
hours of darkness.
• Relieved officer should make sure that the relieving officer is in full command of the
watch and comfortable with the situation around him with regards to traffic.
• Relieving officer should be made aware of any navigational hazards, and the effects of
heel, trim and squat will not infringe UKC, which might have been anticipated by the
officer being relieved.
Principle : Its principle is to utilise the resources of the many merchant vessels which
are at sea at any one time following a maritime incident.
Operating body : United States Coastguard with centres in New York and San
Francisco.
Participation : It is a voluntary service and vessels over 1000 GRT which are engaged
in voyages of 24 hours or more participate in it. Initial ship's data regarding the ship's
size, speed, communications, equipment and facilities are kept in confidential record,
and no information is disclosed except those relevant to SAR operations. It is a
worldwide operation and free of charge with the exception of only UK stations (refer M-
155).
Format : Message format can be obtained from ALRS vol.1. Additional information can
be obtained from Commander Pacific Area, Commander Atlantic Area and
Commandant US Coastguard.
5(b). List the messages that should be sent by a participating vessel, indicating
the content.
- Port of destination;
- ETA at destination;
- Route information;
- Ship's name.
Position Report : sent within 24 hours after departure and 48 hours thereafter.
- Port of destination;
- ETA to destination;
Deviation Report: sent if any changes are made to the sailing plan at the Master's
discretion. To include the following:-
- Ship's name;
- Details of deviation;
- Revised ETA.
Arrival Report : sent just prior to or on arrival to pilot roads at the port of destination.
To include the following :-
5(c). List three other reporting systems with which you are familiar.
• AUSREP
• INSPIRES
• MAREP
March,'96
Adopted Schemes are intended for use by all vessels, by day and by night, in all
weathers, in ice free waters or under light ice conditions where no extraordinary
manoeuvres or assistance by ice breakers are required. All routeing systems, adopted
by the IMO in accordance with Rule 10 of International regulations for Preventing
Collision at Sea (1972), applies to all vessels in or near an area of TSS adopted by the
IMO and does not relieve any vessel of her obligation under any other rule.
• Admiralty Sailing Directions mention all TSS, whether or not it has been adopted by
IMO.
• Annual Summary of Admiralty Notices to Mariners lists all the TSS shown on
Admiralty charts and also indicates which schemes have been adopted by the IMO.
• Mariner's Routeing Guide Charts (5500 - English Channel and 5501 - Gulf of Suez)
also show the routeing systems.
5(a). List the titles of the main sections of the Weekly Notices to Mariners.
5(b). State the information contained in EACH section of the Notices to Mariners.
Section I : contains explanatory notes and advise on the use of charts and
publications followed by index of notices and chart folio index of charts affected
together with geographical index.
Section II : contains notices for correction of charts, including all notices effecting
navigational charts, and are listed consecutively from the onset of the year. The section
also includes 'T' and 'P' notices relevant to the week. The last weekly notice of each
month will also list the 'T' and 'P' notices which are remaining current. Any new edition
of charts together with new publications issued are listed in this section. Latest edition
of publications are listed at the end of March, June, September and December.
Section III : contains list of all Navarea messages in force with reprints of those issued
during the week. It also list other Hydrolants, Hydropacs, US special warnings received
together with edited reprints of selected messages in force for those areas. The first
weekly notice of each year contains a list of Navarea, Hydrolant and Hydropac
messages.
Section IV : contains all corrections effecting Sailing Directions for that week. A
cumulative list of these corrections in force is also published on a monthly basis.
Section V : contains all corrections effecting the Admiralty List of Lights and Fog
Signals for that week.
Section VI : contains all corrections effecting Admiralty List of Radio Signals for that
week.
For H-102 :-
• General location.
• Subject.
• Publications affected.
For H-102A :-
• Name of port.
• General remarks.
• Anchorages.
• Pilotage.
• Directions.
• Tugs.
• Wharves.
• Cargo handling.
• Cranes.
• Repairs.
• Supplies.
• Services.
• Port authority.
• Views
5(c). State the publications from which the report may be obtained.
November, '94
1(b). Explain, in general, the factors which make all routes indirect.
Following are the factors which make all routes indirect are :-
• General climatic conditions such as pressure, sea surface temperature, currents, fog,
etc.).
• Seasonal winds affecting the areas over oceans such as SW'ly monsoons.
• Tropical storms as to which areas are usually affected and which periods of the year
are they expected .
• Depressions sweep across the oceans in north and south hemisphere, all with
uninterrupted winds of long duration and build up heavy seas and swell, and are an
important factor in deciding the route of a passage.
• Loadline Rules.
• Ice Limits.
• Distance and safety of the vessel overall plays an important role in deciding in making
routes indirect .
1(c). Explain why the route recommended for vessel 'B' is so different from all the
other routes.
• This route keeps the SW monsoon and winds on bow for major port of voyage.
4(a). Discuss the problems involved in making stellar observations in the Red sea.
• Abnormal refraction causes an angle between the true direction and apparent
directions of the body as a result of which the body could appear higher than their
actual altitude.
• As temperatures around the Red sea are very high, the altitudes of a body can be
affected by refraction as it depends upon temperature and pressure of the atmosphere.
• Nautical tables have table giving mean refraction based on standard sea level and
pressure values .
• Refraction changes values of "dip" as refraction can also alter a visible horizon.
4(b). (i).State, with reasons, the minimum number of stars required to obtain a
reliable position.
• The stars should be well spread around the horizon, and hence, the fix will be inside
the cocked hat; otherwise, the position will be outside the cocked hat.
• Altitudes of the stars should be between 30-60 degrees for a good fix, and where
possible, with approximately the same altitude.
• Generally, four stars are preferred, if possible, 90 degrees apart in azimuth, because
any error due to abnormal refraction will be eliminated by using opposite horizons.
4(b). (ii). Explain which observation, if spread over a period, should be made first.
Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) is developed by the IMO and
included in the SOLAS convention.
The basic concept of GMDSS is to rapidly alert Search and Rescue authorities ashore
and to the shipping in the immediate vicinity of a vessel in distress so as to co-ordinate
search and rescue operation with the minimum of delay. The system also provides for
urgency and safety communications, and the dissemination of Marine Safety
Information including navigational warnings and weather messages.
5(a). (ii). List the sea areas designated by GMDSS and the means of
communication within each.
Sea Area A1 : within the range of shore-based VHF stations (20-50 nm); ships will
carry VHF equipment and either a satellite EPIRB or a VHF EPIRB.
Sea Area A2 : excluding Sea Area A1, and within the range of shore-based MF stations
(150-200 nm); ships will carry VHF and MF equipment, and a satellite EPIRB.
Sea Area A3 : excluding Sea Area A1 and A2, and within the range of geo-stationary
satellite (eg. INMARSAT), covering roughly between 70 N and 70 S; ships will carry
VHF, MF, a satellite EPIRB and either HF or satellite communications equipment.
Sea Area A4 : excluding Sea Areas A1, A2 and A3, covers area beyond INMARSAT
range ie. greater than 70 N or 70 S (Arctic and Antartic Ocean); ships will carry VHF,
MF and HF equipment, and a satellite EPIRB.
NB : Additionally, all ships will carry equipment for receiving MSI broadcasts.
March,'94
3(b). If there was doubt as to a suspected index error of the sextant used for the
observation indicate reliability of the position.
Index error 'on' the arc is subtracted from the sextant altitude, and
If the incorrect altitude is larger (i.e.+ I.E.) than the actual, then the PL is offset towards
the observed body;
If the incorrect altitude is smaller (i.e.- I.E.) than the actual, then the PL is offset away
from the observed body.
In both the cases, the distance of the offset will be equal to the error.
CI Calculated Intercept
CM Longitude or Meridian
CL Latitude
C Actual Position
Z Azimuth of "X"
If there was no error in the altitude, the intercept would have been zero, C and I would
coincide, thus, causing an error in Latitude | AC and in Departure | BC.
(i). the Master should give the Pilot on boarding his vessel
(6). Navigation equipment and aids; any error or faults in navigational aids.
4(b). State which topics must be discussed and agreed before vessel proceeds.
(1). With present draught, what are the areas of reduced underkeel clearance ?
(4). What tides and currents will affect the vessel's route and it's ETA ?
(6). What berth and which side alongside ? Tugs (Y/N) and Tug lines (Y/N).
(2). Monitor own vessel and other position of other vessels in the vicinity.
4(d). State the action, in the absence of the Master, that the O.O.W. should take if
he is in doubt as to a Pilot's intention.
In the absence of the Master, the O.O.W. remains the Master's reprasentative inspite of
the pilot.
(i). he should consult the Pilot and draw his attention to the passage plan. If necessary,
he should take instantaneous action to reduce to minimum speed required for steerage.
(i). he should not hesitate to overide the Pilot's instructions to maintain the safety of
the vessel, and call the Master immediately telling him about the prevailing
circumstances and position of the ship with regard to the intended passage;
4(e). State the Master's safest course of action, in a compulsory pilotage area, if
the Pilot is unable to continue his duties.
The safest course of action for the Master, in a compulsory pilotage area, if the Pilot is
unable to continue his duties are the following :-
• Master relieves the Pilot and takes the con of the vessel.
• Inform the Port Control or Pilotage Authority over the VHF or phone, and request for a
relief Pilot.
• Should the unlikely situation develop, a statement should be made in the logbook.
• 15 : Underkeel Clearance
NB :
Co-tidal lines : are lines which join places having the same MHWI (Mean High Water
Interval).
Co-range lines : are lines which join having the same MSR (Mean Spring Range).
MHWI : is the interval between the moon's meridian passage at Greenwich and the next
high water time at a particular place.
Purpose of co-tidal / co-range charts : to determine times and heights of high water
offshore in areas and places between secondary ports.
5(b). State the factors which may modify predicted times and heights of tides
particularly in coastal waters.
Normal tidal movements are generally stronger in coastal regions than in open sea
conditions.
The factors which may modify predicted times and heights of tides, particularly in
coastal waters are as follows :-
• Tidal currents are altered by wind or river running off coastal regions.
• Estuaries and basins in local areas, eg. Bay of tundy (range 21 m.) & the
Mediterranean - virtually nil (nearly land locked).
• Spring and Neap tides will cause greater and lesser volumes of water movement in
and out of basin / estuaries.
• Tides enter estuaries and their tributaries as a progressive wave. The times and
height in basins and estuaries of coastal areas may well be modified by storm.
• ATTENTION to Annual Summary Notice 15a - Negative Storm Surges warning service.
Due to meterological effect, indifference can be anticipated on a negative surge.
5(c). State the factors which may cause actual soundings to differ from those
expected in a harbour approach area.
The factors which may cause actual soundings to differ fro those expected in a harbour
approach area are as follows :-
• Risk of negative tidal surges which could reduce depth from that predicted.
• Small scale charts may have insufficient data for sounding comparison (use large
scale charts).
• The sea bottom is continuously changing and therefore, no chart can be 100%
reliable (refer Annual Summary Notice no. 15 w.r.t. UKC).
• Use of foreign charts which may employ a different datum could generate depth errors
on transferred positions eg. for USA, use MLW.
November,'93
2(a). Write a set of Master's standing orders for the procedures required when
operating in or near an area of restricted visibility.
• Reduce the vessel's speed in accordance with the Regulations for the Prevention of
Collision at Sea and proceed at a safe speed.
• The Master should be informed of the state of visibility as soon as possible after
reduced visibility is encountered.
• Inform engine room of the state of visibility and maneouvring speed to be maintained
until conditions have improved.
• Post lookouts at wings and forward and astern, in addition to normal watch.
3(a). Give details of a bridge routine that will ensure that vessel does not meet
storm unexpectedly.
• The O.O.W. should monitor weather reports for each watch period.
• The O.O.W. should advice Master immediately if there is any evidence of a TRS.
• The sea temperature, barometric tendency, wind force and swell must be monitored
continuously (every three hours).
3(b). If a TRS is detected, explain how the Master may ascertain the vessel's
position relative to the storm path by onboard observations. (Q.3a / June,'93)
• Once the direction and force of wind have been ascertained, he should employ "BUY
BALLOTS LAW" to estimate the storm centre and this would provide a relative bearing
of the storm centre, i.e. in the southern hemisphere and with the observer facing the
wind, take a bearing 8 compass points to the left and take a bearing 12 compass points
to the left. The centre of the storm lies between these two bearings.
• The semi circle in which the vessel is situated by observation of the true wind shift;
• Vessel's position would also be indicated by direction of swell and associated weather,
satellite pictures and facsimile charts.
(Q.5a / March,'89)
• Scale.
In addition,
• Low powered are vessel's which are damaged or engaged in towing having a sea-
going speed of less than 10 knots.
NB : Low powered routes (vessel) are not shown on diagrams within the Oceans
Passages. However, general advice on low / average routes is given within the text.
5(b). State why there is no time given in the nautical almanac for Nautical
Twilight in high latitudes on 4th August, 1976.
• Sunlight is visible to the observer when the sun is 18 degrees below the horizon.
• Sunlight before sunrise and after sunset is known as twilight. This phenomenon is
due to atmospheric refraction of the light and also reflection from the particles
suspended up in the air high above
• Depending upon the position of the sun, twilight is named as follows :- (a). Civil
Twilight : from 6 degrees below horizon. (b). Nautical Twilight : 6 degrees to12
degrees below horizon. (c). Astronomical Twilight : 12 degrees to 18 degrees below
horizon.
• At the equator, the sun sets and rises out of horizon perpendicular and twilight time
is short. In high latitudes, due to angle of the sun rising and setting, twilight time is
longer because sun is for a longer time within the 18 degress band below the horizon. If
the sun does not go below the 18 degress band, then twilight will last all night .
Hence, (Latitude + Declination) must not be less than 72 degrees for the twilight to last
all night.
In this case as Nautical twilight = 12 degress below the horizon (90 degrees -
Declination) = (Latitude + 12 degrees)
5(c). "There was evidence of abnormal refraction near the horizon". State the
precautions to be taken when planning and plotting the star sights to minimise
effects of abnormal refraction.
Precautions in planning :
Precautions in plotting :
• Use separarate corrections for dip and refraction. Do not use Total Correction Tables.
• Use Temperature / Pressure Correction Tables because standard values are given for
Mean Refraction Table assuming that the table is for sea level.
• When conditions give rise to abnormal refraction always use sight results with
caution.
• If stars are evenly spread around the horizon, the position should be inside the
cocked hat. If stars are taken on one side, the fix is almost certainly out of cocked hat.
• Systematic error solution may indicate probable position. Target error could be due to
human error.
4(b). (i). When checking compass error by the amplitude method, state the correct
position of the sun in relation to the visible horizon, giving reasons for your
answer.
When observing the amplitude, the centre of the observed body should be on the
celestial (sensible) horizon of the observer. But the visible horizon does not coincide
with the celestial horizon because of the combined effects of refraction, parallax and
dip.
Thus, when checking compass error by amplitude method, the lower limb of the sun
must be semi-diameter above the visible horizon whereby the sun's centre will be at the
celestial horizon.
4(b). (ii). Explain why in high latitudes, the observation of the sun for checking
compass error by the Amplitude Method is unreliable.
March,'93
1(a). Discuss the choice of morning stars w.r.t. bearing, altitude and the minimum
number of stars for a high confidence fix when making this landfall.
Best choice of morning stars : As due to sunrise, stars observed must be east or
west. The order in which they must be observed are as follows :-
stars chosen for the sight should be all around the horizon; in other words, widely
spread eg. 60 degrees apart. This achieves a good angle of cut and vessel's position is
inside the 'cocked hat'; if the stars are taken only on one side, vessel's position will be
out of the 'cocked hat'.
• When stars are below 15 degrees, (i). refraction errors are variable, (ii). dim stars are
not visible, and (iii). assume that PL obtained is incorrect.
a minimum of three stars is to be taken and if possible, more than three are preferred.
3(a). (i). List the publications to be consulted when planning an Ocean Passage.
(4). NP 5011
(16). M-Notices
• World map of areas / list of volumes which are covered by the Sailing Directions.
• Chapter 1 : Charts, books, system of names, IHO and IMO (navigational information,
charts & diagrams, supply of charts, navigational warnings, Admiralty Notices to
Mariners, Upkeep of chart outfit, books, system of names, IHO and IMO)
• Chapter 4 : The sea (Tides, Tidal streams, Ocean currents, Waves, Underwater
volcanoes & earthquakes, Density/salinity/colour of the sea, Submarine springs,
Coral, Sand waves and Local magnetic anamolies)
• Chapter 7 : Operation in polar regions and where ice is prevalent (Polar regions,
Approaching ice, The Master's duty regarding ice, Ice reports, Ice accumulation on
ships, Operating in ice, Icebreaker assistance and Exposure to cold)
3(b). State the factors that the Master must take into account when choosing an
optimum route for an Ocean Passage. (Q.3a / June,'89)
Following are the factors that the Master must take into account when choosing an
optimum route for an Ocean Passage :-
• Type of vessel, draft and underkeel clearance at various stages of the voyage.
• Predominant currents / tidal streams being either adverse or favourable to the ship's
course.
• Distances off from Islands and other navigational hazard, incase of engine failure.
• War zones, fishing traffic, oil and gas offshore developments and abnormal waves.
3(c). Explain how the Master should resolve the situation when different factors
suggest different routes.
• Any route selected should not stand the vessel into danger. The prime consideration
should be safe naviagation of the vessel throughout the voyage and therefore, all
information must be gathered on various recommended routes.
• The Master should obtain the monthly weather chart and current forecasts from the
Met Office.
• He should consider the capabilities of his own vessel, speed, reliability of machinery,
etc.
• He should take into account the time of the year and of any recommendations made
by shore routeing organizations.
• Least time with least damage can be a popular option where financial savings can be
made with less heavy weather damage being incurred by the ship or cargo
• Depending upon the nature of cargo, consideration towards limiting damage must
also be taken, especially to sensitive cargo.
• Special featured vessels follow special routes eg. deep draught vessels follow deep
draught route and vessels with no ice class follow ice free route.
5. Describe the World Wide Navigation Warning System and include in the answer,
(1). Types of warnings; (2). Areas covered; (3). Who issues each type; (4). Contents
of warnings; (5). How are they promulgated.
The types of warnings, together with the area covered by each and issued by, are as
follows :-
Navigational Area Warnings : is the worldwide warning service and is divided into 16
geographic areas called NAVAREA's. The authority for collecting and issuing these long
range warnings is known as Area Co-ordinator. They are published by the British
Admiralty in the Weekly Notices to Mariners and each Navarea are shown in diagrams
in the Annual Summary of Notices to Mariners and the Mariners Handbook.
• Navarea warnings which ocean going vessels require for safe navigation.
• Areas where SAR, anti-pollution, cable lying activities are taking place.
Coastal Warnings : effect a specific coastal region in the area of the hazard and are
broadcast by country of origin. It assists the mariner in coastal navigation, between
ports and outer limits of ports. They are transmitted by CRS in english and national
language on W/T, R/T, VHF and Navtex. The times and details of transmission are
given in the ALRS volume 3.
Contents of warnings :-
• Anti-pollution operations.
Methods of promulgation :-
4(a). Describe briefly how a least time track is constructed on board a vessel
equipped with a radio facsimile receiver and trading in Eastern North Atlantic
Ocean. (November,'88)
(1). Knowing the port of departure, destination and expected date and time of
departure, the routeing officers will study the latest appropriate surface synoptic and
prognostic charts, together with sea state charts, to identify the general weather and
sea state conditions that are expected to be encountered.
Using their experience, the routeing officers will identify the part of the ocean where the
least time objective is likely to be achieved. Ice conditions, current, etc. are also taken
into account at this stage. Having done this, a detailed investigation of the area is next
carried out.
(2). From the initial starting position five or six tracks, approximately 10 to 15 degrees
apart are drawn on a transparent overlay which is placed over a prognostic wave height
chart for the 12 hour period after the expected time of sailing.
(3). After the study of the prevailing prognostic and wave height charts, and the ship's
performance curves, the estimated 12 hours per run distance is plotted on each of the
tracks is plotted.
(4). These positions are joined together to form a contour line known as the "Time
Front".
(7). The position on the 48 hours contour which is the nearest to the ship's destination
is that point which the Master is advised to route by.
(8). When estimating distance on the projected tracks, allowance is made for fog and
ice or other navigation hazards.
4. A vessel is routed by 'Metroute', the ship routeing service of the UK Met office.
4(a). List the information that the Master has to give to the Metroute Routeing
Office or List the information that the Routeing Officer will require from the
Master of vessel (i). before sailing (ii). whilst on voyage.
Before sailing
• Type of cargo.
• Stability aspect
• State of loading.
Whilst on voyage
(3). Any Deviation : Off track is reported together with reason (eg. ice).
4(b). List the routeing information that is sent to the Master of the routed vessel
and state when he should receive it (Q.4b / June,'90).
A provisional route is sent to the Master prior to sailing with the routeing information
consisting of an analysis of present synoptic features affecteing the area together with a
weather forecast, and may also contain a forecast of future storm tracks.
Meteorology office checks weather every 6 hours and ships, too, report to the office
every 6 hours with updates on position and weather, otherwise once daily.
If the forecast conditions are significant but unavoidable, then an advisory message
will be sent to the Master every 48 hours or more often confirming or amending the
route and giving details of the weather to be expected
4(c). State the benefits of Metroute to (i). the Master, (ii). the owner / charterer /
manager.
• Regular signals during passage provide detailed vessel specific weather forecasts.
• Avoidance of adverse conditions reduces the chance of vessel damage and weather
related accidents to crew and cargo.
• Clear documentation of weather related vessel performance over the whole voyage
from acknowledged experts in global weather.
4(d). Describe a Hindcast chart and explain its use to the ship's Master / owner /
Charterer. (Q.3c / November,'94; Q.4c / June,'90)
5. State the standing orders that a ship's Master should issue with respect to each
of the following situations.
• The duties of the lookout shall include the detection of ships, all navigation marks or
lights, all floating objects, prominent navigational feature, derelicts and other hazards
to navigation, any sighting of ice (no matter in what form), any malfunction of own
ship's navigational lights, ships or aircrafts in distress, shipwrecked persons, wreck
and debris.
• The lookout must be able to give full attention to the keeping of a proper lookout and
no other duties shall be undertaken or assigned which could interefere with that task.
• The duties of the lookout and helmsman are separate and the helmsman shall not be
considered to be the lookout while steering.
• The O.O.W. may be the sole lookout in daylight, provided on each such occasion,
(i). the situation has been carefully assessed and it has been established without doubt
that it is safe to do so;
• The naviagation officer should maintain all navigation charts and publications used
by the vessel.
• Full use should be made of all weekly notices and supplements to update charts and
publications.
• Any missing corrections which are not available should be reported to the Master.
• All corrections made to charts should be recorded both on the respective chart and in
the chart correction log.
• All new charts together with revised editions and publications should be ordered and
received on board prior to vessel's sailing.
• Current T and P notices in force should be checked as per the monthly listing.
• Do not make erasures or use tippex / snow paint on the charts and in publications.
• Standard compass error determined at least once a watch, and when possible, after
any major alteration of course; the standard and gyro compasses to be frequently
compared and all repeaters synchronozed with the master compass.
• All navigational and signal lights and other navigational equipment checked for
proper functioning.
* Echo sounder to be used, where appropriate, and soundings verified from the chart at
known positions.
• Steering gear to be tested prior sailing with duty engineer standing by to sight the
testing of the gear in the steering flat.
• Any entry to the fact that any equipment has been tested or used, should be inserted
in the log book, together with any defects experienced, in which case Master should be
informed
June,'92
2. A vessel is to make a passage through an area of pack ice where ice accretion
may also be encountered. Describe the problems that may be encountered with
respect to each of the following :-
• Radar scanner may become frozen up with ice accretion. Ice particles adhering to the
reflecting surface of the scanner will reduce radar energy both inward and outward.
• As ship's head will vary considerably when navigating in ice conditions, hence, DF
operations are unreliable.
• Reliability of Decca station in very cold climates can often effect the transmission
without warning.
• The use of Magnetic compass in high latitudes may become unreliable especially in
polar region due to large angle of dip.
• Compass face plates are often obscured with ice crystals making visual bearings
difficult.
• Echo sounder may not give correct readings due to false echoes.
• The intensity and arc of visibility of navigational lights may be reduced due to ice
formation.
• The courses through pack ice will vary with ice conditions. Navigation will depend
upon leads in the ice being available and a course will be dictated by the flow and leads
of the pack.
• Ice movement can and will influence the 'set' of the vessel. The subsequent holding of
the course is, therefore, difficult; the amount of set being variable.
• Movement in pack ice often necessitates astern movements and this disrupts an
accurate DR.
• The use of floating marks and beacons for the purpose of navigation is extremely
limited in the ice season as many harbour authorities remove navigational marks to
avoid loss or damage.
• Other marks such as spar buoys are pushed beneath the ice and are not visible for
use as a navigational aid.
• Where floats are visible, ice accretion can cause some discolouration and change of
appearance of mark.
• Floats can be expected to be out of position where heavy ice (eg. pack ice) is
experienced.
• Position of any floating mark cannot be relied upon and therefore, should be used
with extreme caution. Such floats should not be used for position fixing.
• Windows of the lights may be covered by frost / ice which greatly reduces sighting
and visible range of lights, thereby, making them unreliable. (especially noticeable with
green sectored lights).
• Coloured lights tend to diffuse and appear as white sectors. The lantern glass may
have moisture build up due to temperature changes and could further diffuse light
rays.
• Due to extreme weather and ice conditions, the lights may be subjected to failure
especially if unmanned and also maintenance may be difficult.
Hence, sectored leading lights should not be relied upon and position fixing must be
carried out by other means.
3(a). State the factors that the four Masters should take into consideration when
determining which of them will take on the role of the Co-ordinator Surface
Search (CSS).
• Communications
• Rescue boats
• Man-power
• Relative position
• Vessel's speed
3(b). List the information that CSS will require from each of the other three
Masters.
• Present position.
3(c). State the sources of assistance that the CSS can call upon in determining
both the datum and the search pattern details or State the information required
by other 3 Masters from the CSS to conduct efficient search.
• Inmarsat, if Epirbed.
4(c). The SOLAS convention requires the Master of any vessel to report
encountering certain meteorological conditions. State the conditions that are to
be reported and to whom the report is made.
The International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, requires Masters of every
ship to report encountering the following meteorological conditions :-
• Dangerous Ice.
• Dangerous derelict.
• Sub-freezing air temperature associated with gale force causing severe ice acceration
on the superstructure of the ship.
• Winds of force 10 or above on Beaufort scale for which no storm warning is received.
The report is to be made by all available means to ships in the vicinity and to the
nearest coast radio station or signal station. The report should be made in english for
preference or by the International Code Of Signals. If sent by radiotelegraphy, the
message should be preceeded by the safety signal "TTT" and if by radiotelephony, the
spoken word "SECURITE"; repeated three times in each case.
For dangerous derelict and any danger to navigation, the message contains the
following :-
(3). Position, true course and speed of vessel when observation was made.
(4). Barometric pressure at mean sea level (not corrected for diurnal variation).
(8). The height of the swell and the direction from which it comes.
March,'92
4. Shore based ship routeing services can give a number of different types of
route depending upon specific requirements of the vessel. (March,'89)
(ii). State which type(s) vessel will use each of the different routes.
• Least time : The main objective is to reduce time on passage regardless of other
considerations. Usually confined to tankers, product carriers and bulk carriers of
large / medium size, which are unlikely to suffer cargo damage and are less susceptible
to hull damage.
• Least time with least damage : The main objective is to reduce time of passage and
costs of damage. These recommended routes will minimises rough weather and ice
while at the same time achieve a quick passage time eg. Containers, passenger and roll
on / roll off vessels.
• Constant speed : As required by Charterers (eg. all vessels without ice classification).
The aforementioned routes would be associated with additional criteria for vessels
which require the following :-
• Ice free route for vessels without Class A1 with no or part ice strengthening.
• Fuel saving, often the same as least time with least damage route, for steam turbine
ships as it is more economical if constant throttle is maintained. (eg. VLCC's - steam
turbines).
4(b). (i). State the general areas of the world where it is advantageous to use
weather routeing, either shipboard or shore based.
Weather routeing makes use of the actual weather and the resulting forecast weather
in the vicinity of the anticipated route. Routes are selected as per the weather forecast
and then modified as necessary as the vessel proceeds on its voyage.
Weather routeing is extensively used for passages across North / South Atlantic and
North / South Pacific Oceans. In these oceans, the weather changes are very rapid
and without any or much indication and therefore, it is advantageous to use ship's or
shore based weather routeing to avoid the climatic effects of the weather like gales,
storms heavy swells, ice and icebergs which may damage the vessel and cause delays
in voyages.
4(b). (ii). State the type of area in which climatological routeing will be
satisfactory.
Climatological routeing makes use of the prevailing currents and winds. These routes
are shown on the Routeing Charts as well as considered in the Ocean Passages of the
World.
5. The GMDSS is being phased in between 1st February,'92 and 1st February,'99.
Outline the elements of this system.
• A VHF installation with a capability of transmitting and receiving digital selective calls
(DSC) on Channel 70 and radiotelephony on Channels 6, 13 and 16.
• Equipment which allows continuous DSC watch to be maintained on VHF Ch. 70.
• The capability to receive the International Navtex Service broadcasts when operating
in any area where Navtex is provided.
• An onboard facility for the reception of the Marine Safety Information (MSI) by
INMARSAT Enhanced Group Call System (EGC) when engaged on voyages where
Navtex coverage is not provided.
• Search and Rescue Transponders (SART's) operating in 9 Ghz band; minimum two.
• Ship-to-Ship Alerting.
• On-scene Commander.
• Bridge-to-Bridge Communications.
(3). Ground
3(a). State the sources of information which are aviailable to the Master as to the
latest ice situation in the North Atlantic.
Before sailing :-
• Ice reports available from Ice Patrol and distributed by the US Coastguard and US
Naval Oceanographic Office.
• Ship routeing advisory service available from the Meteorological Office at Bracknell
(England).
Whilst enroute :
• Reports from other shipping which is outward bound from respective ice effected
regions.
• Radio advisory warning reports from Halifax, Nova Scotia; refer to ALRS.
• Navtex - Ice reports via. various transmitters, eg. Norwegian Sea and Icelandic areas
by Norway, and by Swedish Ice Service.
On sighting : A Master should send an obligatory report made by all available means
to ships in the vicinity and to the nearest coast radio station or signal station. The
report should be made in english for preference or by the International Code Of Signals.
If sent by radiotelegraphy, the message should be preceeded by the safety signal "TTT"
and if by radiotelephony, the spoken word "SECURITE"; repeated three times in each
case.
Report Content :
NB : I would consider any ice to be dangerous ice for surface navigation in the sense
that if one piece of ice is sighted in an area, there is a distinct possibility of another
piece and perhaps much bigger than the one sighted. It is very easy as well as
dangerous to underestimate the size of ice. Dangerous ice can, thus, be defined as any
ice that impose risk to safe surface navigation. For example, brash ice is not dangerous
to surface navigation. However, what may have been within it's coverage area can be
growler which may not be detectable by radar. Hence, all ice is dangerous to surface
navigation.
4. Draw up a set of Master's standing orders for a 30,000 DWT and 15 knots bulk
carrier for each of the circumstances listed below :-
• The O.O.W. remains the Master's representative on the bridge in the absence of the
Master. The O.O.W. will at no time leave the bridge while under pilotage conditions
unless releived by the Master or his designated representative.
• The O.O.W. should monitor the vessel's position at regular intervals and whenever
safe navigation requires despite the presence of the Pilot.
• The O.O.W. should continuosly monitor the UKC throughout the pilotage and not
stand the vessel into danger.
• Full use of all navigational equipment should be made by the O.O.W. taking into
account that the Pilot may be unfamiliar with specific instruments.
• All instructions from the Pilot should comply with the projected passage plan and any
intended deviation from the plan should be reported to the Master before they occur.
• The O.O.W. should monitor all communications affecting the safe navigation of the
vessel, including the Pilot communication and keep the Master advised accordingly.
• The O.O.W.should not hesitate to override the Pilot's instructions to avoid the vessel
being stood into danger.
• Lookout :-
All traffic / navigation marks and beacons must be reported to the OOW and the Pilot.
The lookout is designated to lookout duties only and must not be given additional
duties.
The quartermaster must respond to the Pilot's instructions except where the Master or
his OOW take the con of the vessel.
Any loss of steering or fault must be reported to the OOW and the Pilot.
• report to the bridge in ample time and fully capable of performing their duties; not
impaired by alcohol, drugs or sickness.
• be satisfied with any "standing orders" or specific "night orders" given by the Master.
• be familiar with predicted tides and currents, weather reports, state of visibility and
their subsequent effect on navigation.
• ensure that the navigational situation regarding the performance of gyro and
magnetic compass together with any errors is in order.
• ensure that respected traffic and other vessels movements does not endanger own
vessel.
• clearly in advance confirm any navigational hazards that might be anticipated; heel,
trim and squat should not affect the UKC of the vessel.
• A minimum of three position lines should be employed to fix the vessel's position.
• Both primary and secondary position fixing methods must be used when monitoring
ship's progress.
• Instruments should be used with due regard to their reliability, accuracy and with
attention to potential instrument error.
• Full use should be made of any associated navigational aid such as echo sounder to
corroborate obtained position.
• It is recommended that all corrections are kept in a file with the latest list of
corrections in force on the top. The file should be consulted when using the parent
book to ensure if any correction affecting the area under consideration are in force.
• The arrows represent surface currents, their predominant direction and average rates.
• The arrow flows with the currents and are related to the prevailing winds.
• The rate which is an (average figure) is indicated at the tail of the arrow.
• The arrow presentation vary in thickness and its thickness represents the constancy.
June,'91
2(a). List publications navigators should consult when planning a passage and give
details of information found in each. (Q.3b / June,'89)
Navigational Charts : Give depths of water, land / coast, lights and navigational aids.
Routeing Charts : Provides information for planning ocean passages for the month
required, recommended tracks and distances to chief ports, loadline limits, ice
conditions, predominant winds and currents.
Weekly Notices to Mariners : To check, update, correct charts and latest information
pertaining to navigation.
Admiralty List of Lights and Fog Signals : Gives updated details / characteristic of
fog signals / lights, light buoys, light vessels, structure of lighthouses, etc. for a
particular area.
Admiralty List Radio Signals : Gives worldwide radio information, coast radio
stations, port frequencies, Pilotage, minimum notices w.r.t. ETA's, VHF working
channels, DF stations etc.
Admiralty Tide Tables : Tidal information, tidal streams and tidal levels for areas
concerned.
Other publications :
Nautical almanac
Navigational warnings.
IALA buoyage
2(c). Discuss the problems associated with fixing the vessels position on passage
from Nagoya to Brisbane by the following :-
(i). By astro navigation :- depends on factors such as horizon, clouds, angle of cut,
altitude and spread of azimuth. Thus,
• The horizon at all times may not be clear due to onset of fog, mist and clouds, or
presence of islands.
• Due to clouds, rain and fog, celestial bodies (eg sun, moon and stars) may not be
visible.
• Bodies such as stars may not be spread out around the horizon.
• Transit systems may have long time gap between one fix and the next; sometimes
exceeding 12 hours in low latitudes.
• Helm hard over to the side on which the man has fallen.
• Inform the E/R and have the main engines ready for immediate manoeuvring.
• Hoist International Code Flag "O" and sound "O" (- - -) on the whistle.
• Plot the datum position / appropriate search pattern, and complete the manoeuvre.
(ii). Stranding
• Stop engines.
• Post lookouts.
NB : If the vessel is stopped in the event of both emergency and auxillary systems
failure, a warning report may become necessary, depending on the vessel's position eg.
English Channel TSS.
3(b). The Master must ensure that his officers are thoroughly familiar with the
content of the above checklist and procedures. Explain the ways that this can be
achieved.
Master should
• issue guidance notes and instructions to his officers in way of standing orders or
night orders.
• ensure that the company's or managements safety instructions and manuals have
been read and understood.
• ensure that all watchkeepers should read M-1102 and Bridge Procedures Guide (ICS).
• ensure that all watchkeepers are to familiarise themselves with the standing orders
and all the checklists in the guides, and sign to confirm that they are fully understood.
• ensure that all navigational instruments and gear are tested atleast once a week and
a steering changeover, from auto to manual and back to auto again, checked once
every watch.
• have mock up drills on all possible emergencies with an O.O.W. incharge of situation.
5(a). In the absence of any other sights or PL, assess the value of series of Pole
star sights in monitoring the following :-
As the vessel is on course of 090 degrees (T), the series of pole star sights
will give a poor indication of advance of the vessel along its track as PL's
are almost parallel or in line with the track or course of the vessel.
A series of these pole star sights will give a good indication of cross track
error along the vessel's course.
3(b). Describe the alternative courses of action that could be taken by the Master
to keep his vessel safe and explain how each could keep the vessel clear of the
worst of the storm.
(1). The Master as he already knows that the storm has resumed and is heading SSW'ly
at 15 knots can keep plotting the storms tracks with latest updates. Initially, he is
about 540 nm from the storm centre.
(2). The Master can proceed on his normal course if he wishes and is plotting the
storms path as it curves. This option is not the best option but would put the vessel on
the navigable semicircle of the TRS.
(3). A SW'ly course would be most suitable, as firstly, it would take the vessel away
from the eye of the storm, and secondly, the vessel will be on the navigable semi-circle
of the TRS with plenty of sea room. At the same time, the storm's path will have to be
plotted. This course would only take the vessel away from the destination.
(4). Another option is to head on a W'ly course and probably look for cover in sheltered
areas. This course, too, would keep vessel atleast 250-300 miles away from eye of
storm. It will keep the vessel in navigable semi-circle and avoid getting on to a lee
shore. This would be a little time saving for the voyage but will still feel the effect of the
storm and swell.
4(b). State the advantages to the navigating officer of having Navtex Receiver on
Bridge.
• Movement of rigs in the offshore region can be obtained and position charted.
• With the information received from the Navtex Receiver, passage plan can be
amended as required for the safety of the vessel.
• It is quick and easy to receive unlike the morse code signal received by the Radio
Officer.
• Unwanted or irrelevant messages not set into receiver will not be printed.
5(a). List the factors that the Master should take into consideration when
determining the composition of watches.
Watchkeeping arrangements
• Always adequate to the prevailing circumstances and conditions and should take into
account the needs of maintaining a proper lookout.
• At no time should the Bridge be left unattended; one O.O.W. and one rating as
lookout with an additional rating on immediate call, if required and a helmsman, where
appropriate.
• The need to use manual steering or autopilot; autopilot is designed to relieve the
helmsman but not the lookout rating.
• During daylight, rating may work in immediate vicinity but must be readily available.
• Bridge watches as follows : C/O (04-08), 3/0 (08-12), 2/0 (12-04) and duties as per
Master's standing orders and good lookout.
• Engines on bridge control, engineers on day work and an engineer on immediate call
at night, if required.
• Engines on bridge control and on manoeuvring speed ready for immediate use.
• Engine room to operate a three watch system and C/E to be in engine room as
required.
• If restricted visibility persists for more than 12 - 24 hours, then consider doubling of
watches.
• The need for a continuous radar watch and the level of navigational duties such as
frequent position fixing.
• C/E to be in E/R at all times additionally with duty engineer and one engine room
rating.
December,'90
3(c). List the meteorological phenomena that a vessel is obliged to report under
M.S. Navigational Safety Regulations No. 534 of 1980.
As per the MSA regulations a vessel is obliged to report the when the following are
encountered :-
• Dangerous Ice.
• Dangerous derelict.
• Sub-freezing air temperature associated with gale force causing severe ice acceration
on the superstructure of the ship.
• Winds of force 10 or above on Beaufort scale for which no storm warning is received.
NB : A Master should send an obligatory report made by all available means to ships in
the vicinity and to the nearest coast radio station or signal station. The report should
be made in english for preference or by the International Code Of Signals. If sent by
radiotelegraphy, the message should be preceeded by the safety signal "TTT" and if by
radiotelephony, the spoken word "SECURITE"; repeated three times in each case.
4(a). State the hazards to navigation associated with each of the above offshore
features.
• Slant drilling;
• Small traffic;
• Safety zones;
• Toxic wastes;
• Helicopter Operations;
• Position changing;
• Charts unmarked;
• Diving operations;
• No go zones.
• No anchoring;
• Submarime pipelines;
4(b). State where the navigator will find details of the position of (i). Production
platforms and (ii). Exploration rigs.
• Charts;
• Lists of lights;
• Sailing directions;
• Navigational warnings;
• T and P Notices;
• Navtex;
• Pilots;
NB : In any exploration area, caution is advised and written reports should be checked
as some variance may occur.
4(c). State the additional instructions, w.r.t. the oilfield, that the Master should
give to the Officer drawing up the passage plan to ensure that the vessel passes
these hazards safely.
(1). Observe all safety zones (500 mtrs.) and fairways when laying of courses / tracks.
(2). Observe a slow speed or safe speed in areas of oil / gas operations (Ref. no.20).
(9). Emphasize monitoring points (primary and secondary system of position fixing).
(13). Potential hazard area for Master on con, Pilots and double personnels.
The prime objective of Ship's Routeing system adopted by IMO may include some or all
of the following :-
• The organisation of traffic flow in or around areas areas where navigation by all ships
or by certain classes of ships is dangerous or undesirable.
• The guidance of traffic clear of fishing grounds or the organization of traffic through
fishing grounds.
The advantages of Shop's Routeing system is to provide a route that will allow vessels
to reach their destination by :-
• that will cause least damage to the cargo and the ship.
• that will be the safest option when considering the season, class of vessel and ship's
characteristics (ie. deep draught, ice strengthened, etc.).
June,'90
5. State the types of information that may be obtained from ALRS volume 6 (Pilot
operations) in respect to a major port.
• Services for small craft (information on Marina and Harbour VHF facilities).
• Pilots : Minimum notice periods, working frequencies, embarkations points and pilot
area limits.
• Associated diagrams.
2(b). Describe the type of search patterns which should be used if raft is not
sighted on arrival in area.
• meteorological visibility.
• prevailing weather.
• sea condition.
• day or night.
Patterns :-
Considering the last known position was a day away, the liferafts could have drifted
due to current and wind. The position of the liferaft would be quite close to the distress
position. But nothing is given for sure that the two liferafts are together. Therefore, the
expanding square search pattern would be employed as targets could be well spread.
2(c). State the information that needs to be exchanged between the two vessels
prior to arrival in the search area.
• Exchange own vessel's capabilities such as speed, type of vessel, man power,
communication ability, nature of cargo and ETA to search area.
3. A passenger vessel in 24 degrees north and 73.5 degrees west is bound for New
York from Kingston (Jamaica) at a speed of 22 kts. and is working to a very tight
schedule.
A hurricane has been reported to be 120 miles to the eastward and moving in
NW'ly direction.
3. (a). Explain how the Master may ascertain the vessel's position relative to the
storms path by onboard observations.
• Once the direction and force of wind have been ascertained, he should employ "BUY
BALLOTS LAW" to estimate the storm centre and this would provide a relative bearing
of the storm centre, i.e. in the northern hemisphere and with the observer facing the
wind, take a bearing 8 compass points to the right and take a bearing 12 compass
points to the right. The centre of the storm lies between these two bearings.
• The force of wind being experienced by the vessel would also indicate the range of the
ship from the storm, i.e.
• The semicircle in which the vessel is situated by observation of the true wind shift;
• Vessel's position would also be indicated by direction of swell and associated weather,
satellite pictures and facsimile charts.
3. (b). If these observations confirm that the vessel is in the advance semicircle of
the storm state, making reference to the vessel schedule, the action that the
Master should take to expediate the voyage. A chartlet of the area is provided for
information only.
• if in path of dangerous quadrant, place wind on starboard bow and proceed at best
speed, progressively altering course to starboard as wind veers.
• if in path of navigable semicircle, place wind on starboard quarter and proceed at best
speed, progressively altering course to port as wind seeks.
5. State the type of information that is contained under each of the following
paragraph headings in the "sailing directions" :-
(i). Directions :
• Tidal streams;
• Navigational aids;
(ii). Anchorage :
• Depths;
• Holding ground;
• Shelter afforded;
(iii). Pilot :
• Controlling authority;
• Regulations;
(iv). Communications :
• Port radio and information services with frequencies and hours of operating;
November,'89
3. State the standing orders that a Master should issue to cover the following
circumstances :-
• Determine and plot the ship's position on the appropriate chart as soon as
practicable; the position of the anchor to be recorded together with the amount of cable
paid out.
• Observe meteorological and tidal conditions and the state of the sea; echo sounder
switched on at regular intervals, and rise and fall of tide recorded.
• Ensure that the state of readiness of the main engines and other machinery.
• Ensure that the ship exhibits the appropriate lights / shapes and that appropriate
sound signals are made at all times, as required.
• If visibility deteriorates, notify the Master and comply with the applicable regulations
for preventing collision at sea.
• Notify the Master and undertake all necessary measures if own or other ship drags
anchor.
• Keep continuous listening watch on VHF Ch.16 and port / pilot channel.
• Have contingency plan ready with regards to own vessel or other vessel dragging
anchor.
• Establish early communication with the Pilot boat; give ETA to pilot boarding ground,
ship's particulars and information as required by the Pilot, and confirm pilot ladder on
which side and height above the waterline.
• Inspect chart for available depth of water, sea room, obstructions, entry and exit
courses.
• Hoist International Code Flag "G" or "H" as required or any local signals.
• Ensure engines on standby and vessel in all respect ready for manoeuvring.
• Approach at slow speed, identify targets and create a 'lee' for the pilot boat; take
precautions against swamping and interaction.
• Ascertain current set and drift, and adjust the course and speed accordingly.
• Post lookouts and brief them as the usual contact is lost during manoeuvre under
freeboard or around the stern.
• Boarding point clear of all obstructions and free from any slippery substances.
• Ensure pilot ladder well rigged as per instructions with two man-ropes; lifebuoy with
self-igniting light and a safety line kept ready for immediate use at the boarding point.
• If high freeboard, then rig the pilot ladder in conjunction with the accomodation
ladder.
• A Responsible Officer to inspect that the pilot ladder is in good condition and well
rigged, and with communications to standby at the pilot ladder to receive the Pilot;
sufficient number of deck hands ready to assist, if required.
The purpose of the Cumulative List of Notices to Mariners is for checking and updating
charts. It records the chart number, edition and the notices to mariners affecting the
chart from previous till the latest notice prior publishing to this list. The list is
published by the Hydrographic Department of the Navy every six months and contains
correction to charts for previous two years. It affects BA Admiralty charts as well as
Australian and New Zealand charts which have been republished with the Admiralty
series.
• Navtex.
• Ship routeing advisory service (weather reports and facsimile messages) available
from Meteorological Office at Bracknell.
• General reference should be made to all official publications which provide ice
information and additionally to Baltic Pilot volumes I / II / III, Mariners Handbook and
ALRS volume 3.
• Relevant charts of the area and the use of Weekly Notices to Mariners should be
consulted for "T " and "P" notices.
• Local information from Finish and Swedish Ice Services. These services also operate
ice breakers.
5(b). (i). State, where amongst the official publications, the Master would find
details of the Ice Breaker services available in Swedish waters.
5(b). (ii). State what broad details should be found in these publications.
• ALRS volumes 6 and 7 :- includes full procedures for requesting service, such as
name and address of authority, areas covered, notification required, communication,
frequency and limits, and Ice Breaker position in daily reports. It also gives general
• Ice pilot have local knowledge of the area and therefore, is aware of the concentration
of ice in the area.
• Ice pilot have experience in handling ships in ice conditions and therefore, is an
appropriate person for safely navigating the vessel through ice.
• Ice pilot make best use of ice leads as well as Ice Breakers.
The use of ice pilots is not compulsory although in some countries, certain types of
ships will be required to take one. A master, inexperienced in navigating in an ice area,
would be advised to use the services of an ice pilot.
4. A vessel is navigating in open pack ice with fast ice along a snow covered
coastline. State the advice / orders the Master should give to the Bridge with
respect to the following :-
• Radar scanners may become frozen with ice accretion. Ice particles adhering to the
reflecting surface of the scanner may become frozen up with ice accretion, thereby
reducing radar energy both inward and outward, and hence reducing the working
range of the radar to six miles or less appropriate to the prevailing circumstances and
conditions.
• Concenterated pack ice detectable in all sea conditions at minimum three miles
range.
• Leads and openings will not show unless more than 0.25 nm wide.
• In rough sea conditions, sea clutter extends beyond 1 mile and therefore, radar
should be used with caution. In calm seas most ice formation can be clearly detected.
4. (b). The use of headlands and other topographical features for visual bearings
when position fixing and for cleaing lines.
• Special care should be exercised if using clearing lines / bearings off such headlands
and topographical features as the clearance may not what really is on the chart.
• Topography may not be the same to the one shown in the Sailing Directions due to
the diposition of snow and such features should not be relied upon due to lack of
survey.
• Windows of the lights may be covered by frost / ice which greatly reduces sighting
and visible range of lights, thereby, making them unreliable.
• Coloured lights tend to diffuse and appear as white sectors. The lantern glass may
have moisture build up due to temperature changes and could further diffuse light
rays.
• The width of the sector of lights is affected; effect is greatest with green and weak
lights whereas with white lights, the sector tends to extend.
• Due to extreme weather and ice conditons, the lights may be subjected to failure
especially if unmanned and also maintenance may be difficult.
Hence, sectored leading lights should not be relied upon and position fixing must be
carried out by other means.
• Main engines on immediate notice and running continuously, either ahead or astern,
to avoid build up round the vessel.
• Reports from ship's Masters on H-102 and H-102a as per weekly notices.
5. (b). One of the navigating officer draws the Master's attention to a features not
contained on or at variance to the chart. Explain giving details the action that
should be taken.
• Master should ascertain that the chart is corrected upto the latest weekly notice to
mariners.
• According to S.I. No. 534 of 1980, any additional information sighted and which is not
marked on the chart should be relayed by all available means to all the ships in the
vicinity.
• Master must make an obligatory report by radio or any available means to (i). all
ships in the vicinity, (ii). the nearest coast radio station, (iii). Hydrographic Department
• The information regarding the feature should be filled in the form H-102 / H-102A,
obtained from Admiralty Chart agent or at the back of the weekly notices to mariners.
* General location.
* Subject.
* Publications affected.
These reports are obligatory for Masters of ships registered in the U.K. and a failure to
send such a report is fined upto £500.
March,'89
3. (b). Draw up a set of Master's standing orders for main engine failure.
(Q.4b / June,'96)
• Inform Master at the earliest and the C/E or D/E, if unmanned E/R.
• Prepare for emergency anchoring; have anchors ready for deep water anchoring.
• Advise vessels in immediate vicinity and if in TSS, inform respective reporting station,
if any.
• Post lookouts.
• Be in contact with the E/R regarding repairs and update Master accordingly.
(Q.5b / November,'94)
Three message priorities are used to dictate the timing of the first broadcast of a new
warning in the Navtex service. In descending order of urgency, they are :-
VITAL :-
IMPORTANT :-
for broadcast at the next available period when the frequency is unused;
ROUTINE :-
Both 'vital' and 'important' warnings will normally need to be repeated, if still valid, at
the next scheduled transmission period.
4. (b). State the type of messages that are broadcast over this system.
• A - Navigational warnings
• B - Meteorological warnings
• C - Ice reports
• E - Meteorological forecast
• G - Decca messages
• H - Loran messages
• I - Omega messages
• "V"
• V - Special services
• W - Special services
• X - Special services
• Y - Special services
• Z - No message on hand
NB : Subject indicators "A", "B" and "D" cannot be rejected by a NAVTEX operator.
5. (b). Current rose charts, vector mean charts and predominant current charts
are all available to the navigator. Describe how these charts differ and explain the
use of each.
NB :- Details of currents can be found in the current atlas, chart of worls currents,
routeing charts and sailing directions.
• Shows the variability of the ocean currents in the area that it covers.
• The function of the rose is to indicate the degree of current variability in the region. It
is divided into 16 compass sectors to process the number of observations (current
speeds less than 6 nm per day are ignored).
• The upper figure in the centre of the rose represents the total number of observations.
• The lower figures represents the percentage frequency of the observations with speeds
less than 6 nm per day
• Shows the long term displaceent of water in the world oceans by means of an arrow
pointing in the appropriate direction. It potrays the overall movement of water over a
period of three months to which the chart refers and is also called General Circulation.
• The figure above the arrow indicates speed, while the range of values within which the
speed falls is shown by the thickness of the arrow.
• The figure beneath the arrow shows the number of observations used to determine
the vector mean.
• The vector mean current indicated is the resultant value of all observations being
considered for that area.
• Shows the current which is more likely to be experienced in the area being
considered.
• The current direction being indicated by an arrow and its thickness reflects
constancy.
• Direction is established by the use of 24 sectors, one of which will have the largest
number of observations in an indicated direction.
• The average rate of the current, in miles per day, is determined by observations in a
predominant sector and is given by the figure at the tail end of the arrow.
(a). Observations made for 90 degrees sectors round the compass and each sector
displays 15 degrees from the other, and totalled.
(b). The mid direction of the sector contains the number of observations that are made
in the predominant direction.
• Provides local area knowledge to the navigator regarding rates and direction for the
current movement.
• Used to establish overall movement of water which are of considerable value for
oceanographic purposes, where net transport of surface water is required.
• Is the one which is of the greatest value to the navigator as it gives the general picture
of circulation of the currents.
• The predominant current direction is not only the one shown on the chart but
includes all directions 15 degrees on either side of it.
Differences :-
Vector Current Charts : Overall water movement over three months period and
provides resultant circulation.
November,'88
2(b). (i). State the Master's statutory duties on receiving radio reports indicating
that dangerous ice ahead on the vessel's track.
As per SOLAS requirements, the Master of every ship, when ice is reported on or near
his course, to alter course to pass well clear of danger zone and proceed at moderate
speed at night.
3(c). Describe, briefly, any other reporting system with which you are familiar.
• Mandatory for all merchant vessels including coastal and fishing vessel's of more than
300 GRT.
• The purpose of the system is to provide for SAR operations vessel traffic management,
weather forecasting, and the prevention and containment of marine pollution.
• There are four types of messages (all messages with ship's name and call sign) :
Sailing Plan : sent prior to sailing or after sailing within INSPIRE's area.
- Port of departure;
- Port of destination;
- ETA at destination;
- Route;
- Sailing draft;
- Cargo details;
- Ship's agent.
Position Report : sent every 6 hours or according to the schedule listed in ALRS vol.1
(part 1). To include the following :-
- ETA to destination;
Deviation Report : sent when changing reported route or when estimated position
varies significantly. To include the following :-
- Port of destination.
Final Report : sent on arrival at destination or when leaving the INSPIRE's area. To
include the following :-
June,'88
Explain how the information on the navigational chart may be used to assess the
possibility of lesser depth occuring between the charted depths.
• Source data diagrams show the dates of the survey being carried out and area
covered.
• Charts based on older surveys may be expected to have changes within the 20 metres
contour.
• Not necessarily all dangers can be scanned by the modern equipment used for
syrveys.
• Contact port control by telex and obtain any latest chart update.
• Passing over wrecks should not be considered unless they are wire swept.
• Allowance should be made for the waves and swell as they affect the UKC; use echo
sounder.
3(b). Give a brief account of how the advice on the chart 5500, can be used by the
Master of a VLCC inward bound through the English Channel towards Europort.
The Master of the VLCC should plan his passage through the English Channel as per
the recommendations given in 5500 (section 4) which gives information regarding
details and dangers for a deep drafted vessels bound for Europort.
When eastbound, a deep drafted route is shown on the passage plan chart for
Europort. Details regarding the squat that is likely to be encountered on different leg
during the passage is shown. It also recommends the use of "deep draft" passage
planning guide which is published by the Netherlands Hydrographic Service.
The passage planning guide also gives details regarding ETA's to be sent by deep
drafted vessels before passing the Dover Straits and ascertaining that normal
conditions exists. Also that deep draft vessels should not transit Dover Straits without
an operational radar and Decca.
(Section 2) gives details regarding pilot boarding points for deep sea pilots when bound
for Europort. Information regarding Tidal ranges and Co-Tidal lines are given in this
section to ascertain the state of tide.
In addition, all reporting points (MAREP) are depicted on the chart including stations
for reporting and the information to be reported.
Miscellaneous
Surface Synoptic Analysis Chart provides illustration of the existing conditions at the
proceeding synoptic hour, and shows position of isobars and other synoptic detail such
as fronts, trough, etc. It may also include ship and land reports.
Change of pressure charts show isobaric lines i.e. lines joining places of equal
pressure. These charts help to forecast movement of depressions.
Ice Charts show the amount and boundaries of icebergs, pack ice and leads for
selected areas eg. NW Atlantic and Gulf of Lawrence.
Upper Air Charts are use by shorebased meteorologists to obtain information on the
movement of depressions and other expected weather conditions. They include factual
charts of :-
• Standard Admiralty chart folios or selected charts made up into folios as required.
• Chart Catalogue.
• The supplier of the outfit will state the number of the last notices to mariners to
which it has been corrected.
• Working charts to be corrected first and last correction noted by consecutive number.
• All new charts and new editions to be ordered and logged on board prior to the vessel
sailing.
• All blocks should be applied so as not to cause distortion (paste chart and not the
correction block).
• All navigation warnings from whatever source, relevant to the chart should be noted
on the chart.
Q. Correction to publications :-
• The Navigation Officer is responsible for ordering and maintaining the ships statutory
publications.
• All new publications and new editions must be ordered and received on board prior to
vessel's sailing.
• Annual publications, eg. Nautical Almanac, must be ordered well in advance of their
operational date so that the vessel is not left without current navigational information.
• Sailing Directions must be corrected upto and inclusive of the latest supplement.
• Admiralty List of Lights and Fog Signals must be corrected upto the latest weekly
notices by the junior navigation officer.
• Admiralty List of radio Signals must be corrected upto the latest weekly notices by the
communication officer.
• Publications should be retained on Bridge and not removed without the express
permission of the Master.
Q. State the sources of information to ascertain chart reliability and lesser depth.
(15). Navtex.
Charts are not infallible, and the scale cannot cover every depth in total.
Depth contours will also be affected by topographic changes.
• Sea bottom may also be unstable and not present a correct representation as per old
surveys.
• Paper of chart may have some distortion when being printed from various causes.
• Extreme caution should be exercised with the use of small scale charts and mariners
are continually advised to use the largest scale chart available.
• Obtain all meteorological data which could effect the respective routes for the season
and the areas.
• Note recommendations from the Ocean Passages of the World and the Routeing
Charts.
• Lay of recommended routes and tracks on consecutive charts (use chart catalogue for
order and scale).
• Check safety features on routes and that the vessel's characteristics are applicable ie.
ice class, deep water, etc.
ECS equipment which displays electronic charts but does not and will not satisfy the
SOLAS requirements to carry a full set of Navigational Charts (includes all systems
using Non Official Data).
Raster Chart Display System (RCDS) is a system capable of displaying Official Raster
Charts and meets the minimum standards on performance.
• Non Official - describes an electronic chart which has been derived by a commercial
company from the data owned by NHO's. They are not endorsed by the Hydrographic
Office nor are they in any way guaranteed in quality.
Construction :-
Q. List the main considerations taken into account by Ship Routeing Services
when routeing ships in the North Atlantic.
• Economics from cargo - sensitive or special requirements eg. for coal, surface
ventilation.
• Complete the plot and prepare a radar report. (course, speed, CPA, TCPA, aspect).
• Observe all options and alternatives (stop, reduce / increase speed, altering course
port / stbd, astern or combination and long range scanning).
• Why was the action taken and what will be new consequences ?
• Will the action taken result in a new close quarters situation developing ?
Q. State and explain what errors could be anticipated when radar plotting.
Errors in Bearing :-
• When taken on Relative Motion display, error can be upto +/- 2 degrees.
• Time interval errors may be incurred with some electronic cursors which are difficult
to align.
Errors in Range :-
• Maximum value of error 2.5% of range scale in use; 5%, if set is old.
• Larger percentage of error incured if target is slow moving, making the plot
inaccurate.
• Wrong input gives rise to large errors in course and speed of target estimates.
• Maintain continued check on own vessel's performance for course and speed.
• Human error.
• Plot is unreliable.
• Human error.
• Plot unreliable.
System.
4B. AMVER
8. Submarine information.
15. UK allowance.
• Mine clearence vessels or mine counter activity clearence atleast 1000 metres; may
have small boat activity, ball-diamond-ball, divers and controlled explosions.
• Vessels undergoing speed trials signal - "SM". Sharp manouevres 180 degrees turn.
• Vessels constrained by her draught; take account of available depth and width of
channel. Definations of CBD vesssel - width of panama canal.
• Hovercraft / air cushion vessels; high speeds 80kts and high noise level, may not
hear sound signals.
• Incinerator vessels; smoke and flames are from distress; pass to windward if possible,
may be shown on chart.
• Manual steering.
• Note charted areas for UKC and squat, and possible areas of interaction.
Q. Hazards to Pilots :-
• Physical faults :
No illumination.
• High freeboard additional facilities required; accomodation ladder or Pilot hoist and
ladder.
• Approach : Communicate with the pilot station atleast 1 hour before embarkation of
the pilot and obtain ladder details and local weather details.
• SBE and Master alerted : Bridge placed on alert status, manual steering engaged,
lookouts doubled and briefed, and ladder rigged correctly.
• Passage plan and approach revised in the light of weather update, UKC, route
outward considered prior to entry, once pilot embarked.
• Land marks and position fixing criterior identified, navigation instruments checked,
engines tested and speed reduced in plenty of time to operate safely.
• Echo sounder 'ON', anchors cleared and position continually monitored by OOW.
• Secondary tow and /or tow recovery following loss of tow - buoy.
• Prior to departure - Tow Master and another Master to inspect the towline
arrangements.
• On failure to sight land, a navigation mark or obtain soundings by the expected time.
The dangers and difficulties faced are the same as those experienced in narrow
channels and harbours i.e. close proximity of shore and other traffic leading to
interaction. These are aventuated by the prevalence of bad weather and by the
generally foul rocky characters of the anchorages.
Very strong cross tidal streams are not uncommon features and thus, vessel should
have good manoeuvrability at all times. Many vessels use the straits and therefore,
there is a risk of meeting another vessel simultaneously with one of the violent and
unpredictable squalls which are very common in these areas. Since the straits are
narrow in most parts, it is very difficult and mostly impossible to seek a shelter.
In bad weather east bound vessels may find it difficult to make landfall which is very
essential before a vessel enters the straits. Also, tidal streams in the east part of the
straits are less favourable to a east bound ship.
Zone 1 : 0 ~ 20 Degrees :- Slight to moderate swell rarely heavy from SE in the east
part of the zone, and from between SE & E in the west part.
Zone 2 : 20 ~ 40 Degrees :- The swell is mainly moderate but heavy at times. In the
east part, it is from S, and direction is variable in the west part. With high proportion
from between NE and N, reports of confused swell are frequent.
Zone 3 : 40 ~ 60 Degrees :- Mainly moderate but sometimes very heavy in the extreme
South. Throughout the year, worst conditions between 40 ~ 50 degrees South. Heavy
swell is present during 30% to 70% of the time between 50 ~ 60 degrees South. Most of
the high seas and swell appear to be raised by the Westerlies.
Navigator : Note CSP, plot datum and search area limits (if known), plot alteration
course points and monitor ship's position by alternative fixing method.
Engine Room : Speed to be reduced during search period, according to visibility, sea
state and weather conditions.
O.O.W. : Double watchkeepers, radar operator, long range scanning, lookouts, reliefs,
record and logs, traffic and VHF listening watch.
• Pass own position and details with relevant SAR operation update to RCC.
• Provide information to engine room and advise standby and manoeuvring speed.
• Radar operational at various ranges; long range scanning and plotting on-going.
• Update RCC.
• AMVER is a voluntary organisation and is a "free "service from the USCG (charges
now made by UK).
• The duty officer shall test all bridge and navigational equipment atleast 1 hour before
sailing.
• The duty engineer should standby to sight the testing of the steering gear in the
steering flat.
• Steering gear must be seen to reach "hard over" positions to port and starboard with
each test both at the bridge site and steering flat.
• Any defects whatsoever, in any of the tested equipment should be reported to the
Master.
• Any entry to the fact that the gear has been tested, should be inserted in the log book,
together with any defects experienced.
• Once bridge equipment has been tested, the Master should be informed.
• Prior to turning the propeller, the duty officer should visually sight that the water
around the propellor area is clear of obstructions.
• Once bridge equipments have been tested, it should be left in standby condition or
operational mode and not switched off.
• Special attention should be made to compare gyro and magnetic compasses during
the testing of the bridge equipment.
Q. Standing orders by Master to the bridge team for passage through an ice
region.
• Continuos lookout by the OOW, and additional lookouts posted one on foc'sleand one
at a high point (crows nest).
• Two Radars operational and continuously monitored but not solely relied upon.
Q.Offshore Installations
Offshore Supply vessel (OSV) : cargo carrying capacity for mud, cement and fresh
water; anchor handling is optional.
Diving support vessel (DSV) : specially equipped for safe diving operations as per
1983 guidelines; moon pool and decompression facility.
Rapid Intervention vessel: (RIV) : safety of life, survivors have to be recovered from
leeward side, and fire fighting from the windward side.
• Manual steering.
• Anchors available.
• Anchors - moorings and slant drilling techniques, project wells into navigational
areas.
• Increased traffic density in the areas - DSV'S, storage tankers, transfer vessels,
supply boats, drill ships, semi - submersibles, anchor handling, etc.
• The engines and steering gear of any ship must be reliable and capable of quick
response to manoeuvrability orders.
• The vessel should be ballasted and trimmed to keep propellor submerged; but care
must be taken as excessive trim can spoil manoeuvrability.
• Ballast and fresh water tanks should be kept not more than 90% full to avoid risk of
damage due to freezing of water.
• The first principle of safe navigation through ice is to maintain freedom of manoeuvre.
Once the ship becomes trapped, it starts drifting with the ice.
• Try to determine the type, thickness, hardness, floe size and concentration of the ice.
• Area of operation.
• Draft and depth of the water over the propellor tips and rudder.
• The ice should be entered from leeward, if possible, as wave actions are less on
leeward side.
• The ice edge often has bights seperated by projecting tongues. By entering at one of
the bights the surge will be less.
• Ice should be entered at very low speed and at right angles to the Ice edge to receive
the initial impact and once into the ice, speed should be increased to maintain head
way and control of the ship.
• Routeing charts.
• Climatic charts.
• Turning radius.
• Loaded tonnage.
• Draught.
• Maximum speed.
• Inform OOW of the ship's position in the convoy in relation to Ice Breaker command
vessel.
• State distance required between ships; may change on instructions from commander.
Greatest benefits at 150 m from Ice Breaker.
• Monitor position and progress; lookout maintained and a man standing by.
Q State the actions of the OOW on sighting fast ice, first year ice and ice cakes
ahead.
• The OOW should alter the course away from the immediate danger in accordance
with SI No.534.
Subsequent actions :-
• Post extra lookouts and breif them regarding ice sightings and recognition.
Q What actions would you take if 7/10 pack ice was sighted ahead of your own
vessel ?
• 7/10 pack ice is considered that level where drift ice becomes known as pack ice or
more.
• Upto this level, navigation is still an available (practical) option. Investigation must
include radio information concerning limits and open water considered navigable.
Baltic sea :
• Vessel to get into contact with Ice breaker as soon as possible and also report to
nearest CRS or signal station.
• Daily Ice reports also state where compulsory reporting of ship is necessary.
• The Ice breaker decides if a vessel has to be taken into a tow. Ice breaker's give a
rendezvous position, route and order a convoy .
Ice Class, cargo quantity, destination, ETA of Ice waters, signals from Ice breakers on
to be immediately repeated by each assisted vessel in turn begining with the one
nearest the Ice breaker on vessel making the signal.
• Decca reliable
• Radar beacon (racon) on, fitted to light houses, light structures and landfall buoys in
approach to ports (ALRS volume 3).
For this type of routeing the best value obtained is some trade wind areas and in the
Indian Ocean and South China sea when the occurence and behaviour of the monsoon
are very regular. For most other regions, weather over short periods does not always
confirm to the seasonal pattern which afterall is only an average.
Strategic Routeing : is planned for one particular voyage.It is based on the latest
weather analysis; 3 to 5 day forecast chart. Some idea of the furhter outlook and
seasonal probabilities are also taken into consideration.
An important consideration in route selection is the location of the track along which
the storm tracks, rather than the displacement of the storm along the track.
Q. State the contents of the Chart 5500 (Mariners Routeing Guide to English
Channel and North Sea).
Routeing : Specific Regulations such as ships over 300 GRT should be fitted with
electronic position fixing equipment.
Passage Planning : Special classes of vessels such as tankers and ships carrying
dangerous cargo, and deep draught vessels and those bound for Europort.
Radio Beacon Service : Includes illustration of radio beacons and their groupings,
together with effective range, frequency, service being offered and station identification.
Tidal information : Offshore tidal data with an illustration / example of the use of co-
tidal and co-range lines.
Pilotage service : Boarding information and details of request for deep sea pilots for
respective ports and the relevant communications required.
• The title of the chart reflecting the coverage area, specific monthly period that the
chart refers to, together with the scale for a given latitude for which the chart potrays.
• The date and number with the monthly consecutive number, and the last correction
found in the lower border.
• Main shipping routes and distances between principal ports are indicated as black
track lines.
• Limits of Loadline Zones indicated with specific date and latitudes, and are presented
in pastal colours :-
• The extreme iceberg limit is presented by a broken line in a pale red colour :
----+----+----+----
Maximum limits of pack ice are shown in the same colour but with a distinctive broken
line pattern :- .. ___..____..____
• Ocean currents are presented in 'green' and reflect the predominant direction of sea-
surface currents for the quarter year prior to the monthly date of the chart.
Where insufficient observations are made, the probable direction is shown as following :
.....
(b). Mean air temperature degree F and mean air pressure in millibars.
(c). Mean sea temperature degree F and dew point temperature degree F.
(d). Percentage frequency of low visibility of less than 5 miles and percentage frequency
of fog, where visibility is less than 0.5 mile.
• Prominent geographic places and landmarks are indicated with sea passages and
respective course alteration points.