Price and Output Determination under Monopoly

Monopoly is that market form in which a single producer controls the whole supply of a
single commodity which has no close substitute.

From this definition there are two points that must be noted:

(i) Single Producer: There must be only one producer who may be an
individual, a partnership firm or a joint stock company. Thus single firm
constitutes the industry. The distinction between firm and industry disappears
under conditions of monopoly.
(ii) No Close Substitute: The commodity produced by the producer must have no
closely competing substitutes, if he is to be called a monopolist. This ensures
that there is no rival of the monopolist. Therefore, the cross elasticity of
demand between the product of the monopolist and the product of any other
producer must be very low.

PRICE-OUTPUT DETERMINATION UNDER MONOPOLY:

A firm under monopoly faces a downward sloping demand curve or average revenue
curve. Further, in monopoly, since average revenue falls as more units of output are sold,
the marginal revenue is less than the average revenue. In other words, under monopoly
the MR curve lies below the AR curve.

The Equilibrium level in monopoly is that level of output in which marginal revenue
equals marginal cost. The producer will continue producer as long as marginal revenue
exceeds the marginal cost. At the point where MR is equal to MC the profit will be
maximum and beyond this point the producer will stop producing.

Y MC
Revenue /
Cost

AC
P P’
L
T

E AR
MR

O M X
Output
It can be seen from the diagram that up till OM output, marginal revenue is greater than
marginal cost, but beyond OM the marginal revenue is less than marginal cost.
Therefore, the monopolist will be in equilibrium at output OM where marginal revenue is
equal to marginal cost and the profits are the greatest. The corresponding price in the
diagram is MP’ or OP. It can be seen from the diagram at output OM, while MP’ is the
average revenue, ML is the average cost, therefore, P’L is the profit per unit. Now the
total profit is equal to P’L (profit per unit) multiply by OM (total output).

In the short run, the monopolist has to keep an eye on the variable cost, otherwise he will
stop producing. In the long run, the monopolist can change the size of plant in response
to a change in demand. In the long run, he will make adjustment in the amount of the
factors, fixed and variable, so that MR equals not only to short run MC but also long run
MC.

COMPARISON OF PRICE DETERMINATION UNDER PERFECT COMPETITION AND

MONOPOLY:
The key points of comparison of price determination under Perfect Competition and
Monopoly is as below:

Perfect Competition Monopoly

(i) The demand curve or average revenue (i) The demand curve or average revenue
curve is perfectly elastic and is a horizontal curve is relatively elastic and a downward
straight line. sloping from left to right.

(ii) The firm is in equilibrium at the level

of output where MC is equal to MR. Since
in perfect competition MR is equal to AR
(ii) The firm is in equilibrium at the level
or price, therefore, when MC is equal to
of output where MC is equal to MR.
MR, it is also equal to AR or price at the
equlibrium position, i.e., MC=MR=AR
(Price)

(iii) In equilibrium position, the price (iii) In equilibrium position, the price
charged by the firm equals to MC. charged by the firm is above MC.

(iv) The firm is in long-run equilibrium at (iv) The firm is in long-run equilibrium at
the minimum point of the long-run AC the point where AC curve is still declining
curve. and has not reached the minimum point.
 (v) The firm is in equilibrium at the level of
(v) The firm is in equilibrium at the level of
output at which MR curve is sloping
output at which MC curve is rising, and is
downwards, and MC curve is cutting it
cutting MR curve from below.
from below or above. (See figure 1)

(vi) In the long run, the firm is earning

normal profit. There may be super normal (vi) The firm can earn abnormal or
profit in the short run but they will be supernormal profit even in the long run, as
swept away in the long run, as new firms there is no competitor in the industry.
entered into the industry.

(vii) Price can be set lower at greater output

(vii) Price is set higher and output smaller
in case of constant-cost and decreasing-cost
by the monopolist. (See Figure 2)
industries.

Y Y
MC

P’ P P’ P
AC=MC
AC
T L
T
L AR
MR AR MR

O M X O M X

Equilibrium with rising MC Equilibrium with constant MC

Y
P’ P
L
T
AC

AR
MR MC
O M X

Equilibrium with falling MC

Figure 1: Equilibrium with rising, constant & falling MC under Monopoly

 MPS SRS
Y D’ Y
S
D Price D
P’
P” Q
P E
P”’ S
LRS
S D
D’ MR
D
O M M’ M” X O M L X
Output Output
Equilibrium Position in a Decreasing Cost Industry under Equilibrium Position under Monopoly
Perfect Competition

Figure 2: Comparison of Equilibrium Position

between Perfect Competition & Monopoly

PRICE DISCRIMINATION IN MONOPOLY:

Price discrimination may be (a) personal, (b) local, or (c) according to trade or use:

(a) Personal: It is personal when different prices are charged for different persons.
(b) Local: It is local when the price varies according to locality.
(c) According to Trade or Use: It is according to trade or use when different prices
are charged for different uses to which the commodity is put, for example,
electricity is supplied at cheaper rates for domestic than for commercial purposes.

Some monopolists used product differentiation for price discrimination by means of

special labels, wrappers, packing, etc. For example, the perfume manufacturers
discriminate prices of the same fragrance by packing it with different labels or brands.

Conditions of Price-Discrimination: There are three main types of situation:

(a) When consumers have certain preferences or prejudices. Certain consumers

usually have the irrational feeling that they are paying higher prices for a good
because it is of a better quality, although actually it may be of the same quality.
Sometimes, the price differences may be so small that consumers do not consider
it worthwhile to bother about such differences.
(b) When the nature of the good is such as makes it possible for the monopolist to
charge different prices. This happens particularly when the good in question is a
direct service.
(c) When consumers are separated by distance or tariff barriers. A good may be
sold in one town for Re. 1 and in another town for Rs. 2. Similarly, the
monopolist can charge higher prices in a city with greater distance or a country
levying heavy import duty.
Conditions making Price Discrimination Possible and Profitable: The following
conditions are essential to make price discrimination possible and profitable:

(a) The elasticities of demand in different markets must be different. The market is
divided into sub-markets. The sub-market will be arranged in ascending order of
their elasticities, the higher price being charged in the least elastic market and vice
versa.
(b) The costs incurred in dividing the market into sub-markets and keeping them
separate should not be so large as to neutralise the difference in demand
elasticities.
(c) There should be complete agreement among the sellers otherwise the
competitors will gain by selling in the dear market.
(d) When goods are sold on special orders because then the purchaser cannot know
what is being charged from others.

Price Determination under Price Discrimination:

(i) First of all, the monopolist divides his total market into sub-markets. In the
following diagrams, the monopolist has divided his total market into two sub-
markets, i.e., A and B:

Y Market A Y Market B Y Total Market

Price Price Price

P’ P1 MC
P2
P”

E’ E” AR” CMR
MR’ AR’ MR”
O M1 X O M2 X O M X
Output Output Output
Price Discrimination in Monopoly

(ii) The monopolist has now to decide at what level of output he should produce.
To achieve maximum profit, hence, he will be in equilibrium at output at
which MR=MC, and MC curve cuts the MR curve from below. In the above
diagram (c) it is shown that the equilibrium of the discriminating monopolist
is established at output OM at which MC cuts CMR. The output OM is
distributed between two markets in such a way that marginal revenue in each
is equal to ME. Therefore, he will sell output OM1 in Market A, because only
at this output marginal revenue MR’ in Market A is equal to ME (M1E’ =
ME). The same condition is applied in Market B where MR” is equal to ME
(M2E” = ME). In the above diagram, it is also shown that in Market B in
which elasticity of demand is greater, the price charged is lower than that in
Market B where the elasticity of demand is less.