Journal of Philosophy, Inc.

Instrumental Transformism and the Unrealities of Realism

Author(s): J. R. Kantor
Source: The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, Vol. 16, No. 17 (Aug.
14, 1919), pp. 449-461
Published by: Journal of Philosophy, Inc.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2939955 .
Accessed: 09/10/2014 17:11

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Journal of Philosophy, Inc. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journal
of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
VOL. XVI, No. 17. AuGUST 14, 1919

THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY

PSYCHOLOGYAND SCIENTIFIC METHODS

INSTRUMENTAL TRAiNSFORMISM AND THE UNREALITIES

OF REALISM
T HE instrumentalists in philosophy are reaping a rich harvest of
criticism and contempt because of the wild oats they have
sown. But as true votaries of a genuine empiricism they do not
deny the excesses of their youth. Not by way of excusing their ex-
cesses, but by way of explaining them, do the pragmatists describe
the original state of their rebellion from the traditions of philosophy.
It was because pragmatism arose as a criticism of the closed system
of absolute idealism that James rejected logic, fairly, squarely and
irrevocably.' And because the pragmatist could not tolerate the
implication that the value of thought was to be judged by an ex-
ternal correspondence of ideas to "Reality," he laid himself open to
the charge that truth is what gives satisfaction.2 In spite of the fact
that besides the criterion of the satisfaction of practical needs, James
also insisted upon the agreement of thought with actual objects, and
in spite of the faet that the instrumentalist disclaims all responsibil-
ity for the former criterion,3 it is precisely that one which is still
held up to instrumentalism as its cardinal error. We observe then
that not because instruimnentalismis really responsible for the sins
imputed to it, is it willing to trace its growth from a precarious posi-
tion, but because it hopes thereby to contribute to the clarification of
thought.
The outstanding criticisms of the instrumental attitude made by
both the idealists and new realists may be summed up in two coordi-
nate propositions. The first asserts that the instrumentalist has no
logic, because he is interested merely in the satisfaction of practical
needs. Th.e second point in the indictment is that instrumientalism
leaves no place for sol-idity; its worid is entirely elusive and arbi-
trary. Since the issue seems so definite, this paper proposes to review
some of the salient features of instrumental logic by way of clearing
up some points of agreement and disagreement between the instru-
1 A Pluralistic Universe, Lecture V., p. 212.
2 James: Pragmatim. Leetures II. and VI.; cf. Dewey, Essays in Experi-
mental Logic, pp. 320 ff.
S Dewey: op. oit., p. 331.
449

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
450 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY

mentalist and his critics. The way to this task is indicated by the
fact that for the instrumentalist as for the realist, logic is the essence
of philosophy.
Instrumentalism considers its most positive achievement to be the
capacity to bring order and system into a world of shifting occur-
rences. It is the necessity to relate things which makes a logic neces-
sary at all, and in the fact that instrumental logic is able to do this
lies its fundamental significance. Instrumental logic is not a self-
subsisting activity indulged in for its own sake; rather, it is pur-
posive and makes for some factual reconstruction indicated by the
emergence of some actual problem. Its function is to carry us over
from one event to another, making our world meaningful and our
actions with respect to it possible and worth while. The essence of
Jogic is to give meaning to objects and events by way of evaluating
them, and this means to connect them with our previous and present
experience. This kind of logic gives thought its wings, not the logic
of absolute relations.5 And to borrow an excellent description from
Russell, instrumental logic "brings with it-as a new and powerful
method of investigation always does--a sense of power and a hope
of progress more reliable and better grounded than any that rests on
hasty and fallacious generalizations as to the nature of the universe
at lar(ge."0
The process of giving meaning to objects and their relations is
the work of the categorization function in the course of scientific
analysis and synthetic generalization. These last-menytioned proc-
esses refer to the way in which we start with a specific happening,
say the explosion of a chemical substance which for the present con-
fuses our world of reality, and end with a solution of our defined
problem and the consequent enlargement of reality. It is at this point
that the instrumentalist unblushingly asserts that he constantly
creates7 his world anew.8 And this is because for him the world is a
denotative term for men, metals, electricity, steam, and all other
things forces and processes with which he actually deals. It is not
absurd to expect the public to believe that man can transform his
world in order to further his activity, since everybody can see it
done. To deny the possibility of this is to deny the function and
4Cf. Russell: Scientific Method in Philosophy, pp. 33, 239 and elsewhere.
5Cf. Russell: op. cit., p. 59.
6 Ibid., p. 30. Cf. Dewey's criticism of Russell's problem of the "world,"
Essays in Experimental Logic, Chap. XI.
7 Note that this creationi is always a tranisformation of crude facts ilato

cvery-(lay knowledge, arid(scienitific facts and( laws. The problem of the universe
at large as formulate(d by the idealist and realist is never involved.
8 Cf. Caldwell: Pragmatism and Idealis-m, p. 135.

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 PSYCHOLOGY AND SCIENTIFIC METHODS 451

progress of science and knowledge. We may place our finger upon

the nerve of the absolutist's criticism of instrumnentalismby indi-
cating that the critic never is talking about the instrumentalist's
world. The pragmatic attitude is to disclaim all commerce with, and
knowledge of the eternal worlds of the idealist and the realist, and
the instrumentalist is entire-ly willing to forego all powers with
respect to themY
The question arises as to whether the instrumentalist's insistence
that he is constantly retransforming his world means that he makes
it an arbitrary construction. Such a question is impossible when we
remember that the values or determinations which the scientist gives
to the objects with which he deals, are tool.s forged in the course of
actual contact with things, -and are designed to increase the possibili-
ties of such contacts. The categories of instrumentalism enlarge and
further experience by discovery of larger implications of facts. It is
not at all to the point to argue that, after all, nothing is created and
that we must look upon the -new objects o,f science as having always
existed. The instrumentalist insists that the world was very consid-
erably remade when Faraday discovered that "static electric charges
and forces were dependent upon the characteristics of the material
substance in which electrified bodies were immersed, " and still
further remade when Hertz showed experimentally that electro-mag-
netic energy passed through vacuous space, and that this radiant
energy was undoubtedly of the ;sam,etype as light and heat.'0 We
must be sure of our ground at this point, and insist that it is pre-
cisely because the inistrumentalist is thinking in terms of human ac-
tions and the possibility of increasing those actions and capacities
for action, that his recategorization of the world at the point of
specific problems means a transformation by creative discovery of
that world.1"
Besides t.he criticism with which we have just dealt, namely the
eonception that the work of science is not a transformation of the
"real" world, there is another type of criticism which claims to be
more scientific, and takes the form that while these transformations
are possible and do;occur, they do so because they answer to a set of
absolute laws. These thinkers start from scientific premises; that is,
the new realists mean to discuss logic as operating in a domain of
scientific fact, although they soon get far away from that position.
To insist that our knowledge is such as it is, because there are abso-
lute laws and relations, if not logical atoms, eternally existing in the
9 Cf. Russell: op. cit., p. 17.
10 More: The Limitations of Science, p. 160.
11 Cf. Mead: Creative Intelligence, p. 225.

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
452 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY

world, is entirely a non-scientific attitude, since the work of science

is precisely to determine just what laws, relations and things exist.
The realist suggests that he really means that if we hold up as an
ideal the existence of such absolute laws we won't blame nature for
our mistakes but only oursolves.12 In this statement lies the fallacy
of thinking that the work of evaluating objects and relations is a
trivial occupation, and that we need only have a worthless promise
to keep us at our task. This viewpoint entirely overlooks the fact
that our task of evaluation is a process of making our difficult way
with unrelenting facts, which are constantly presenting us with
newer and more complex problems. The realist forgets that it is the
instrumentalist who is developing a logic of things, and moreover a
logic of genuine things.13 For this reason the instrumentalist has no
problem as to why he succeeds ;14 he succeeds because he sets himself
no false problems, but works zealously at those nature sets him, and
every cne interested in nature knows that such an occupation leaves
no time to pursue supernatural mysteries. And by the same token
the logic of absolute relations must always be seeking and never find-
ing, because it starts with the presupposition that real things are
metaphysical."5 It is not a perversion of the realistic logic to make
it end with logical atoms as Costello asserts ;"' that is the way it must
end, unless one does what Costello would do, namely, forget the atoms
and leave their systems of relations.'7 And when Costello does this
the question arises as to whether 'he accomplishes more than he as-
serts the idealistic logicians do, namely revive the Greek concept of
perfection. The idealist might reply that Costello does not do so
much, namely that his system is just as arbitrary but not so perfect.
Costello maintains his pious hope concerning the final outcome of the
"truly relational" logic because he thinks it is not what he calls one
of the old logics with a new face.'8
The new realists condemn all those who can not believe that there
are reals in experience, that there are in science eternal and immu-
table laws. "The laws of space, number and of matter and energy
have not chaniged from the times of Euclid and Pythagoras and
Archimedes; the laws of gasoline engines were just the same in the
days of the ancient Athenians as now. We know them and they did
12 Cf. Costello: Studies in the History of Ideas, Columbia University, 1918,
p. 257.
13Cf. Costello: ibid., p. 267.
14Ibid.
l5 Ibid., p. 257.
16 Ibid., p. 261.
17 Ibid., p. 262.
18 It has become a favorite form of self-delusion with the new realists
to
think that they have little or nothing in common with Aristotle.

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 PSYCHOLOGY AND SCIENTIFIC METHODS 453

not."'" And Montague might have added that these laws were just
the same thousands and thousands of centuries before Athens. In at-
tempting to find some meaning in this statement we might begin by
asking whether the new realist means to say that he believes un-
critically there must be changeless laws of space and number and so
on throughout the whole range of science. The question is suggested
by the fact that Montague mentions Euclid in connection with the
laws of space, and of course Montague would hardly care to say that
the Euclidean law is an immutable law of space.20 He probably
would be just as unwilling to say that Lobatchewsky's law is an abso-
lute law of space, and if so the result is that Montague stands for
absolute laws which merely "are," but which nobody knows and
which have nothing to do with science. But no, Montague says we
know these absolute laws, while only the Athenians did not. There
are two questions raised here; the first is why doesn't Montague state
what these. absolute laws are; LeRoy, Mach, Duhem, Poincare and
others were forced to confess their inability to find them. The second
question is what right has Montague to declare that in the two thou-
sand years ahead of us there won't be such progress made in the dis-
covery of absolute laws as in the two thousand years past.
But let us not hold Montague too rigidly to his statement. He
might with excellent ground argue against the extreme contingentists
who seem to deny any stability in science. Montague might then
mean that we do not know any absolute laws but that unless there
were such laws, events would not occur as they do. In other words
Montague might mean that there must be laws, in the sense that the
idealist thinks there must be a world, behind phenomena. Professor
Dewey has convincingly discussed this situation.21 He refers to the
case of a man who has been rescued from drowning under peculiarly
precarious circumstances. A bystander remarks that now he is a
saved man. "Yes," replies someone, "but he was a saved man all the
time, and the process of rescuing, while it gives evidence of the fact,
does not constitute it." Dewey is discussing the problem of the
truth of ideas, but the illustration has point here. The reaflist seems
to believe that whatever happens, happens because of immutable
laws, and not that because things happen thus and thus we can frame
by induction various laws; and thus he differs from the instrumental-
ist who considers that were it not for pulling the man out of the
water, there would have been no saved man. The ultimate laws of
19 Montague: Studies in the History of Ideas, p. 236.
20 Note that he has just said the Athenians did not know these absolute
laws, but I mean to suggest that there might be good reasons for not taking the
Euclidean law as the absolute one.
21 Influence of Darwin on Philosophy and other Essays, p. 143.

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
454 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY

science as the instrumentalist reinterprets the new realistic stand-

point, are nothing more than evaluations of phenomena, their be-
havior and relations, which are formulated in handling these phe-
nomena in actual scientific pursuits; and from the pragmatic stand-
point these ultimate laws are nothing less than the means by which
the world of things becomes intelligible to us and amenable to our
reconstructions of it.
The instrumentalist is entirely in sympathy with the new realist
in asserting the existence of definite laws of science. The former is
keenly aware of the brute stubbornness of facts, and the lack of
arbitrariness in things, but this does not drive him to believe in un-
known and unknowable laws, which always imply a metaphysics
which can mean nothing and accomplish nothing. The instrumental-
ist, working always with concrete problems, looks upon the laws of
science -asbroad and general evaluations derived from a long experi-
ence with actual things. Since the entire procedure of knowledge is
to understand and control phenomena, it is obvious that man can not
create the crude facts with which he is dealing. It is these crude
facts which are given. All the crude facts of disease, the organiza-
tion and decomposition of matter, the changes in geological struc-
ture and on through all the myriads of happenings among which the
scientist works, are not made by him. They do not depend upon him
for their crude existence or their crude laws. Even if we overlook
the work of Wolff, Mirbel, Von Baer and others, we must say that
the crude facts of cellular biology were given to and not made by
Schwann -and Schleiden; but is it possible to overlook the difference
between biological reality before and after their work? Similarly,
Newton did not create the crude facts of gravitation, nor Darwin
those of transformation of species, but if these men are taken as ex-
amples of scientists their accomplishment in transforming the world
is unequivocal. We are immediately brought face to face with the
problem of the relation of science to its crude facts. In a general
way this is the problem of the relation of things known to things. All
science and philosophy deal with observable things and relations.
Perhaps one of the first facts about things is that we observe them
differently. Our contact with things depends upon our previous
observations and these differ with each person. In order to gener-
alize them for our scientific purposes we must adopt standards of
reference. These latter become laws of things known and are inde-
pendent of the individuals whose observations go to make these laws.
Our laws of mechanics whose sole validity and value lie in their
character as genuine evaluations of our crude every-day facts, do not
of course precisely represent any specific event. It is because these

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 PSYCHOLOGY AND SCIENTIFIC METHODS 455

laws are made for the guidance and enlargement of action that they
are made universal, in the sense that they answer to all, though not
precisely to any specific fact. Thus, to borrow some examples from
Aliotta, "according to the laws of pure mechanics, a pendulum
should continue its isochronous oscillations to all eternity, whereas
it stops after a certain time; a projectile thrown in a straight
line should pursue the same direction with a uniform motion
ad infinitum, whereas in reality we see it fall after having de-
scribed a parabola."22 These laws are rigid and independent in so
far as our evaluations of things are rigidly determined with refer-
ence to the actual things from which they are abstracts and in-
terpretations. This condition accounts for the difference in abso-
luteness of scientific laws. The fact is that all laws, being after all
laws of things observed, are subject to modification, and revision.23
These modifications are the natural consequen,cesof meeting with new
phenomena in the ordinary course of human life. The conflicts of
science are occasioned by -thediscovery of an exception to a law which
was formulated on the basis of certain observed facts. In such cases
the laws are expanded to include the new phenomena. It is because
the new realist fails to appreciate the true nature of a scientific law
that he assumes that there are 'conflicts;between immutable laws an;d
perceptual facts, or between reason and sense. To quote Montague
as an example, we find that what he considers a conflict between a
law and a perceptual fact, is the type iof puzzle which Zeno first
formulated.24
The instrumentalist is far from denying the independence of real-
ity, but when this independence signifies anything he considers it a
limiting conception, in the same sense that the law of conservation of
matter or energy is a limiting con,ception. It is a formulation of re-
lated events which makes for freedom and variety of action and
knowledge. There is nothing arbitrary or artificial about these laws,
since the scientist is dealing with actual things, well named by Poin-
care crude facts; these crude facts stimulate the scientist to evaluate
them as scientific facts, and to formulate them into scientific laws.
Of course Poincare is seriously at fault in thinking that all the sci-
entist does is to create the language in which he enunciates facts.25
The evaluations of the scientist consist of a working over of the spe-
cific crude facts by comparison and testing into a scientific fact,
22 The Idealistic Reaction against Science, p. 338.
23 It is because Russell considers the laws of science as entirely without re-
lation to actual empirical happenings, that he thinks these laws absolute. Cf.
Principles of Mathematics, p. 493.
24 Cf. Studies in the History of Ideas, pp. 228 ff.
25 The Foundations of Science, p. 332.

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
456 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY

which makes for an enlargement of the domain of science into which

the crude fact forced its entry. The crude facts are not lost, but
integrated, and this is the reason that the scientific manipulation
transforms genuine reality. The complete world of science, if it is
genuine and, critical, would constitute the entire world of things and
relations. The facts o'fscience must be looked upon as the crude facts
of naYiveeexperiencestandardized, criticized, and interpreted.
The range of categories for the instrumentalist would therefore
cover all phases of phenomena, whether the crude facts of our every-
day life or the most abstract determinations of science and philos-
ophy. The point is that every category represents in its final analy-
sis some kind of contact of a human being with objects or events.
In the lowest stages of this interpretation procedure the categories
merely stand for the particular contact, while in science and phi-
losophy the categories represent the most intimate significance of
these contacts. In the latter cases it is not important merely to
know that the contacts have occurred, but to understand them and
to increase their possibilities.
The instrumentalist looks upon the categories time, space, motion,
causality and force -as values abstracted from actual empirical phe-
nomena for the purpose of controlling them. Causality is a category
which aids us in the work of organizing successive facts in a world of
rapidly shifting experiences. It enables us to relate in specific ways
older and newer experiences, thus giving a serviceable continuity to
the world of changing things. The category oif substance, for ex-
ample, is a scientific evaluation designed to reach back to certain
specific qualities or conditions 'of things. The instrumental character
of the categories lies in the fact that, although not themselves con-
crete things, they enable us to deal with those things. Depending
upon the functional value of the.categories for specific scientific pur-
poses, substance, for example, may be further characterized as mat-
ter, energy or electricity, and as Brown26 has pointed out it happens
to be most useful in science to-day to make no separation.between the
categories of matter and energy.
We must point out again that in all cases in which the categories
are of actual service in the control of certain phenomena, they are
derived from those phenomena. Thus, Euclidean space is the space
of science because it is built up through actual contact with things,
and consequently is the most serviceable in the description and con-
trol of such things. When 'data will accumulate which can not be
handled by Eucli.dean space, then a multidimensional space will have
to be employed. It is only in so, far as mathematical physics is not
26 This JOURNAL, XIV., p. 64.

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 PSYCHOLOGY AND SCIENTIFIC METHODS 457

employed with the immediate control of phenomena that it may

posit a multidimensional space, and reduce matter or substance to
quantity. The main point here is that the abstract concepts of sci-
ence are developed in an attempt to control the fallings and break-
ings, the movings and restings of actual things, now, a while ago, and
in the hours to come. Since these objects and events are real, the
evaluations which are continuations and elaborations of them must
also be real. The instrumentalists are the last persons on earth to
be called nihilists ior nominalists, since the former start and end with
the only sort of reality there is. The instrumentalists have thus in
common with the fictionist27 and the contingentist28 the idea that sci-
ence and its categories are instruments in the service of man. But
unlike the fictionist the instrumentalist derives his categories from
actual events and tests them by those events; consequently these cate-
gories are realities, and this characteristic applies to all evaluations,
whether of the physical, biological or social sciences. The inLstru-
mentalist differs from the contingentist in that the categories;for the
former are merely realities for action. The instrumentalist recog-
nizes no other reality than the world of naive phenomena, whether
described as the durational immediacy of the intuitionist, known
through philosophical categories, or as an extremely mediate reality
of the Neo-Kantians, which is never known at all. And so while the
instrumentalist is a realist, he differs widely from the new or present-
ative realists, since we have already observed that their reality comes
to be a series of unknown entities far removed from actual things.
Our study thus far has indicated that the categories or determi-
nations of experience must represent a graded series which reach
down below the level of cognition. The categories in our perceptual
experiences are not knowledge elements in any genuine sense. Our
primary categories are reactions or modes of response to objects.
What things mean is merely the way we react to them. During the
course of our experience with these things we find that with the ca-
pacity to control our responses there is correlated the process of lift-
ing meanings out of the field of actual happening; that is, things are
pointed out, intended and known. The primary function of scien-
tific concepts or categories is to give us a means of control over our
experiences. It is extremely essential therefore that these categories
should have the broadest identity with and reference to original
happenings.
The question arises ;as to what the specific function of the philo-
sophical categories are, and it is the lack of explicit statement con-
27Vaihinger.
28 LeRoy, Mach, Bergson, etc.

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
458 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY

cerning them which is one of the instrumentalist's most flagrant sins

of omission.29 The categories of philoisophy are of course continu-
ous with the categories of science and of every-day life. It is not at
all a sign of the bankruptcy of philosophy30that it uses the same cate-
gories as science; it is rather a sign of progress and expansion, an
indication that philosophy is accomplishing something, and signify-
ing something. The idealist who seeks entirely !other categories for
philosophy, seeks, though he hesitates to say so, something that will
carry him out of the actual world into a realm 'beyond. As a result
the idealist criticizes the instrumentalist for thinking in terms of
organism and environment, because the former mistakenly thinks
that to remain in this concrete world of ours excludes him from a
genuine spiritual life. It seems clear that the spiritual life the
idealist wants has nothing to do with life, and that accounts for his
inability to think of himself as a biological organism. What the
idealist means when he opposes the instrumental movement is that it
does not " express reality in its completeness. "'31 And when he speaks
of philosophical adventure32 and freedom of reason33he is speaking
of a "yearning isoul which first expresses itself in lloyalty to society
and in good citizenship, but which can find no final satisfaction until
it completes itself in the knowledge and thought of God, in union
with whom alone the individual comes to be that which he really iS."34
The instrumentalist must look upon philosophy as, theoretical
science; its material is precis-ely that of science, but its attitude is
broader. Science has two closely related phases of activity that are
still distinct. In the first place it is interested in the solution of im-
mediate practical problems. In conformity with this interest it
evaluates things precisely for the purposes at hand, without regard
to their larger implications. The theoretical phase of science which
makes for a larger control and understanding of phenomena is morre
critical in its determinations. Thus in order to solve some specific
bio-chemical problem, for example, we make an absolutely mechan-
ical determination of phen'omena, while when we are interested in
enlarging the scope of our researches we may very well question
whether the phenamena of biology are entirely mechanical. For
29Here again there has not been an entire neglect of the matter, but because
instrumentalismhas faced the necessity of overcomingthe inertia of absolutism,
it has,exposed itself to the charge of being anti-philosophical. Cf. Dewey: The
Subject Matter of Metaphysical Inquiry, this JOURNAL,XII., p. 337.
30 Howard, this JOURNAL, XV., p. 154.
31Bosanquet: Realism and Metaphysics,Philos. Rev., XXVI., p. 8, quoted by
Howard.
32 Howard: loc. cit., p. 156.
33 Ibid., p. 157.
34Bosanquet: The Principles of Individuality and Value, p. 403.

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 PSYCHOLOGY AND SCIENTIFIC METHODS 459

some purposes we may think that things are absolutely static and
without possibility of variation, while for others we may not make
any such assumption. In a general way we think of the theoretical
phases of science as checks on the practical pursuits; so the possibili-
ties of changing our technique of investigation are not precluded by
a prejudice of the case. The theiolreticalor philosophical determina-
tions then, are in a way relatively ultimate, complete and final; that
is, they remain unchanged, pending the discovery of new facts.35
This domain of theoretical science is a genuine speculative realm,
in which the motive of practical accomplishment plays only such a
part as to allow us to say that the phenomena involved are continuous
with those of the specific sciences. In following lout the function of
the categories as the instrumentalist uses them, we find that the
philosophical categories break across the boundaries of the specific
sciences such as physical, biological and psychological, and determine
phenomena on the basis of the factual contribution of all of these.
Within the doomainof the special sciences and various phases of prac-
tical life the use of categories peculiar to each domain must be rigidly
adhered to. We can not fail to recognize the striking incongruity of
using teleological categories as evaluations in the field of mechanics.
An important implication throughout the discussion of the in-
strumentalist's doctrine of categories is the significant place which
consistency and correspondence play in the use of them. In the first
place because the pragmatic attitude is an evaluation of actual things
the evaluation must correspond to the concrete things evaluated.
This is not of course a correspondence between mutually exclusive
elements, but in the practical manipulation 'of science the categories
stand over against actual things.36 In the second place, since the
values are primarily instruments for the enlargement of our con-
tacts with the world of things, there must be a consistency in our
attitudes. If our interest is merely to control a specific phenomenon,
it is only necessary that the particular categforiesreferring to it must
hold together. We may thus have an indefinite number of categori-
zation systems. But if our interest is theoretical, and we wish, for
example, to test our evaluation -of the substance of things, as energy
or electricity, then there must not be within this d'omain any con-
tradictions. On the one hand, since we are not interested in any ab-
solute world presupposed prior to experience,37 we may very well
35 The practical solutions of science as compared with the theoretical are
fleeting and tentative.
36 We have indicated above that a scientific category does not refer to any
particular thing.
37 What Dewey calls creational and eschatological interests, this JOURNAL,
XII., p. 354.

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
460 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY

consider our evaluation systems as mutually incompatible. And be-

cause we may not in all our activities of evaluation be interested in
specific problems-,but in the continuity and significance of our gen-
eral knowledge of things we must have our categories carry over
from one realm of science to another, and thus cohere in a functional
totality.
It is an entire misrepresentation to say the, instrumentalist abhors
systems.38 What he does abhor are absolute systems which have no
relevancy or significance and ;no,thingto recornmend them but their
systematization. The realist clearly criticizes the instrumentalist fo-r
not building systems, merely for the sake of building39 them, in spite
of the latter's constant reiteration that his systems must serve some
functi-on. The instrumentalist is constantly campaigning; his whole
method is that of overcoming the autocracy and arrogance of the
brute facts of expe,rience, but he can never merely campaign, just
for the sake of campaigning. He has discovered by hard experience
that to approach scientific problems with empty abstractions and
ready-made systems is like equipping an army to-day with blunder-
busses and brass cannon. Each problem is unique and the instru-
ments to solve it must arise out of the situation at hand. To believe
otherwise is to believe in a set of eternal and unchangeable conditions
which must forever lie beyond the pale of verifiable science.
To summarize, the instrumental movement represents one of the
specific types of reaction to, absolutism, which is slowly but persist-
ently being forced out of philosophy. Among other reactions to
absolutism, that knoiwn as new realism is characterized by the fact
that it merely shifts the ground of the absolutism, and instead of
conceiving reality as being behind experience, puts it into experience
as absolute entities, relations or immutable laws. As over against
this presentative realistic position, instrumentalism denies all abso-
lutes, whether essences, relations or laws. It considers the work of
science and philosophy not to be that olf finding reals in experience,
but assumes that our actual world of concrete things and events is
real, and that there is nothing beyond or behind them. Thus the
facts and laws derived from this domain of reality are reals, but still
subject to the transforming influence of the creative evaluation of
science. To assert the existence of any absolute thing or relation is
to fly in the face of all scientific facts. This last proposition includes
all absolutes, and sio the instrumentalist refutes the idlea of Mach and
his disciples, that reality is reducible to mental states,40 by pointing
38 Cf. Costello: this JOURNAL, XV., pp. 60 ff.
30 Ibid., p. 68.
40 Science of Mechanics, 1917, p. 482. Analysis of the Sensations, Intro-
ductory remarks,and elsewhere.

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 PSYCHOLOGY AND SCIENTIFIC METHODS 461

out that these sensations are themselves abstractions from things and
can not therefore be their underlying reality. Sensations are cate-
gories referring to certain specific qualities of things during the
course of their interpretation. It is clear that the instrumentalist is
a frank and consistent, naive, or common sense realist, and takes as
his ultimates the crude facts of every-day experience. He takes to
be real only that which can be observed, tested, and made to yield
conviction by proving genuine in the course of experimentation.
And thu.s because the instrumentalist is not an idealistic creator
nor possessed of a transcendental reason capable of grasping abso-
lute reality in the new realistic manner, he does not set over against
his philosophical method an impossible task. And finally, since in-
strumental logic is the method of science it is submitted to thinkers
upon its merits. What is claimed for it is that it will increase man's
capacity to understand and control phenomena, that is, real things.
In support of this claim we may point out that the critics of instru-
mentalism have never really disputed it, but have attacked the prag-
matic attitude because it can not yield absolute reality. Our study
has indicated that absolute reality is an unsound fabrication. Is it
fair then, to condemn the instrumental method because it can not
find phantoms that it does not seek?
J. R. KANTOR.
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.

SOCIETIES

THE NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE WESTERN

PHILOSOPHICAL ASSOCIATION
T HE Western Philosophical Association held its nineteenth annual
meeting at the State University of Iowa, Iowa City, on April
18 and 19, 1919. The programme covered a fairly wide range of
topics, though the major emphases fell on political philosophy and
on the present obligations and opportunities of philosophy in the
fields of educational and, more generally, of social reconstruction.
While there were few instances of what might properly be called
a clash of opinion, there were many delightful differences as to the
manner in which subjects were approached and viewed. This was
strikingly true of the symposium on "The Function of Philosophy
in Social Reconstruction." The subject was in this instance, illu-
mined from the standpoints of the history of philosophy and of
culture, of ethical reflection, of psychological description and
analysis, and of metaphysics. In all, twelve institutions were repre-

This content downloaded from 201.240.39.172 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 17:11:59 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions