Copper and Copper Alloys

®
ASM Specialty Handbook
Copper and Copper Alloys
Edited by
J. R. Davis
Davis & Associates
Prepared under the direction of the

ASM International Handbook Committee
ASM International Staff

Scott D. Henry, Assistant Director of Reference Publications
Bonnie R. Sanders, Manager of Production
Nancy Hrivnak, Copy Editor
Jill A. Kinson, Production Editor
William W. Scott, Jr., Director of Technical Publications
ASM International
Materials Park, OH 44073-0002
www.asminternational.org
Copyright © 2001
by
ASM International®
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
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copyright owner.
First printing, August 2001
Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this book, but it should be made clear that NO WAR-
RANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MER-
CHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH
THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that
favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by
persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are
outside of ASM’s control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information.
No claim of any kind, whether as to products or information in this publication, and whether or not based on neg-
ligence, shall be greater in amount than the purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which dam-
ages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REME-
DY OF BUYER, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR
CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLI-
GENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to
specification is essential. Therefore, specific testing under actual conditions is recommended.
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Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publications Data

Copper and copper alloys / edited J. R. Davis;
prepared under the direction of the ASM International Handbook Committee.
p. cm. — (ASM specialty handbook)
1. Copper—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Copper alloys—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
I. Davis, J.R. (Joseph R.) II. ASM International. Handbook Committee. III. Series.
TA480.C7 C714 2001 620.1’82—dc21 2001022956
ISBN: 0-87170-726-8
SAN: 204-7586
ASM International®
Materials Park, OH 44073-0002
www.asminternational.org
Printed in the United States of America

Preface
Copper is mankind’s oldest metal, dating back some 10,000 years. Recognizing the industrial importance of this metal, ASM International
All of the great civilizations of the past, including the Sumerian, has devoted the eighth volume of the ASM Specialty Handbook series to
Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Chinese, used copper and copper alloys the engineering aspects of copper and copper alloys. Divided into four
(principally bronze and later brass) for both decorative and utilitarian pur- major sections, this book describes the metallurgy and applications of
poses. From antiquity through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, cop- wrought, cast, and powder metallurgy alloys; fabrication and finishing
per was used for military purposes, artistic applications such as church procedures; metallography, microstructures, and phase diagrams; and
bells and statuary, tools, and numerous other functional objects. However, engineering properties and service characteristics. Although several
it was the Industrial Revolution that brought about a tremendous change excellent texts have been published on copper during the past 25 years,
in the production and consumption of copper and copper alloys. Electrical none can match the breadth of coverage offered in this Handbook.
engineering in the modern industrial sense followed from Michael
Faraday’s discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831, Werner von The sustained growth and development of the copper industry can be
Siemens’ invention of the electric dynamo in 1866, and Thomas Edison’s attributed in large part to the following technical organizations: the
invention of the electric light bulb in 1878 and his construction of the first Copper Development Association Inc. (CDA), the International Copper
electrical power generating plant in 1882. To this day, copper remains the Association, Ltd. (ICA), and the Canadian Copper & Brass Development
key to modern power generation. Association (CCBDA). ASM International wishes to express its thanks
for the cooperation it received from these organizations during the course
The industrial importance of copper in the 20th and 21st centuries has of this project. The editor also extends his appreciation to these organiza-
been extended by the ease with which it combines with other metals. Tin tions as well as the hard working and cooperative ASM Editorial and
and zinc are and always have been the principal alloying elements, but Library staffs. Lastly, the contributions of the many authors who have
many others—aluminum, nickel, beryllium, chromium, cadmium, man- written articles on copper and copper alloys published in the ASM
ganese, etc.—form alloys with unique combinations of mechanical and Handbook should also be recognized. Their respective works are
physical properties and excellent corrosion and wear resistance. These acknowledged throughout this Handbook.
attributes have contributed toward copper and its alloys being the materi-
al of choice for building construction (e.g., plumbing, wiring, and roof- Joseph R. Davis
ing), but have also led to the use of copper in many demanding engineer- Davis & Associates
ing applications in the marine, automotive, chemical, and electronics Chagrin Falls, Ohio
industries. Continuing developments in superconductors, electric vehi-
cles, solar heating, and large-scale desalination of water should ensure
that copper remains an essential material in the future.
vii
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Nonstructural Applications of Copper and Copper Alloy

Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Metallurgy, Alloys, and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Shape Memory Alloys and Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Shape Memory Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Introduction and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Copper-Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Major Groups of Copper and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Tungsten-Copper P/M Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Properties of Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Molybdenum-Copper P/M Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Fabrication Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Multifilament Composite Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Alloy Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Copper-Clad Brazing Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Temper Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Copper and Copper Alloy Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
The Copper Industry: Occurrence, Recovery, and Consumption . . . . 10 Copper Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Production of Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Alkaline Plating Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Copper Fabricators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Acid Plating Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Markets and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Surface Preparation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Standard Designations for Wrought and Cast Copper and Bath Composition and Operating Variables . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Plating in Dilute Cyanide Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Alloy Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Plating in Rochelle Cyanide Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Temper Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Plating in High-Efficiency Sodium and Potassium
International Alloy and Temper Designations . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Cyanide Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Physical Metallurgy: Heat Treatment, Structure, and Properties . . . . . 31 Plating in Noncyanide Copper Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Commercially Pure Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Plating in Pyrophosphate Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Copper-Zinc Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Plating in Acid Sulfate Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Copper-Tin Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Plating in Fluoborate Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Copper-Zinc-Tin Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Wastewater Control and Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Copper-Base Leaded Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Copper Plating Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Copper-Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Characteristics of Copper Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Copper-Beryllium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Copper in Multiplate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Designating Copper and Its Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Copper Alloy Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Families . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Brass Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Strengthening Mechanisms for Wrought Copper Alloys . . . 65 Bronze Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Classification of Wrought Copper Products . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Waste Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Refinery Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Electroless Copper Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Wire Mill Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Bath Chemistry and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Flat-Rolled Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Deposit Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
The Manufacture of Sheet and Strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Tubular Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Pretreatment and Post-Treatment Processes . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Rod, Bar, and Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Cast Copper and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Copper Casting Alloy Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Environmental and Safety Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Wear-Resistant and Corrosion-Resistant Copper Alloy
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Powder Metallurgy Copper and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Wear-Resistant Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
The Powder Processing Route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Corrosion-Resistant Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Pure Copper P/M Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Bronze P/M Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Building Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Brass and Nickel Silver P/M Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Electrical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Copper-Nickel P/M Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Electronic Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Copper-Lead P/M Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Industrial Machinery and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Copper-Base Friction Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Copper-Base Contact Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Consumer and General Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Copper-Base Brush Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Fabrication and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Copper-Infiltrated Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Copper-Base Dispersion-Strengthened Materials . . . . . . . 115 Melting and Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
iii
Fabrication and Finishing (continued) Type I (Free-Cutting) Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Type II (Short-Chip) Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Casting Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Type III (Long-Chip) Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Melting Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Additional Factors Affecting Machinability . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Fluxing of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Selecting Copper Alloys for Machinability . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Degassing of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Recommended Machining Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Deoxidation of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Nontraditional Machining Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Grain Refining of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Filtration of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Melt Treatments for Group I to III Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Alloy Metallurgy and Weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Production of Copper Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Factors Affecting Weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Casting Process Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Arc Welding Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Gating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Filler Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Welding of Coppers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Welding of High-Strength Beryllium Coppers . . . . . . . . . 284
General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Welding of High-Conductivity Beryllium Copper . . . . . . . 287
Effects of Composition, Cold Work, and Heat Welding of Cadmium and Chromium Coppers . . . . . . . . . 287
Treatment on Formability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Welding of Copper-Zinc Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Formability of Copper Alloys versus Other Metals . . . . . . 197 Welding of Copper-Zinc-Nickel Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Blanking and Piercing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Welding of Phosphor Bronzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Welding of Aluminum Bronzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Drawing and Stretch-Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Welding of Silicon Bronzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Coining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Welding of Copper-Nickel Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Welding of Dissimilar Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Contour Roll Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Safe Welding Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Rubber-Pad Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Other Non-Arc Fusion Welding Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Specialized Forming Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Oxyfuel Gas Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Springback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Resistance Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Forming Limit Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Electron Beam and Laser Beam Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Bending of Rod, Bars, and Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Solid-State Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Bending and Forming of Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Brazing, Soldering, and Adhesive Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Rotary Swaging of Rod, Bars, and Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Forming of Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Forging and Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Adhesive Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Hot Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Surface Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Cold Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Cleaning and Finishing Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Cold Heading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Preparation for Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Coining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Plating, Coating, and Coloring Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Hot Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Powder Metallurgy Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Metallography, Microstructures, and Phase Diagrams . . . . . . . . 335
Production of Copper Powder by the Reduction of
Metallography and Microstructures of Copper and Copper Alloys . . 337
Copper Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Macroexamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Production of Copper Powder by Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . 225
Microexamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Production of Copper Powder by Atomization . . . . . . . . . 229
Metallography and Microstructures of Beryllium-Copper Alloys . . . 354
Production of Copper Powder by Hydrometallurgical
Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Specimen Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Production of Copper Alloy Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Macroexamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Powder Pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Microexamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Sintering Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Microstructures of Beryllium-Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . 356
Sintering Practices for Bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Solidification Structures of Copper Alloy Ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Sintering Practices for Brass and Nickel Silvers . . . . . . . . 238
Dendrites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Heat Treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Homogenizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Ingot Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Phase Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Stress Relieving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Engineering Properties and Service Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . 383
Heat-Treating Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Protective Atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Corrosion Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Heat Treating of Beryllium-Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Nature of the Protective Oxide Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Heat Treating of Chromium-Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Effects of Alloy Compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Heat Treating of Zirconium-Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Types of Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Heat Treating of Miscellaneous Precipitation-Hardening Factors Influencing Alloy Selection in
Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Specific Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Heat Treating of Spinodal-Hardening Alloys . . . . . . . . . . 259 Atmospheric Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Heat Treating of Aluminum Bronzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Corrosion in Soils and Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Corrosion in Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Defining Machinability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Corrosion in Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Machinability of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Corrosion in Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
iv
Engineering Properties and Service Characteristics (continued) C22000 90Cu-10Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
C22600 87.5Cu-12.5Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Corrosion in Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 C23000 85Cu-15Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Corrosion in Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 C24000 80Cu-20Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Corrosion in Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 C26000 70Cu-30Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
SCC of Copper Alloys in Specific Environments . . . . . . . 411 C26800, C27000 65Cu-35Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Protective Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 C28000 60Cu-40Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Corrosion Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 C31400 89Cu-9.1Zn-1.9Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Stress-Corrosion Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 C31600 89Cu-8.1Zn-1.9Pb-1Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Environmental Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 C33000 66Cu-33.5Zn-0.5Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Metallurgical Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 C33200 66Cu-32.4Zn-1.6Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Mechanical and Geometrical Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 C33500 65Cu-34.5Zn-0.5Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
SCC Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 C34000 65Cu-34Zn-1Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Mitigation of SCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 C34200 64.5Cu-33.5Zn-2Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Cracking Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 C35300 62Cu-36.2Zn-1.8Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Effect of Temperature on Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 C34900 62Cu-37.5Zn-0.3Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Low-Temperature Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 C35000 62.5Cu-36.4Zn-1.1Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
High-Temperature Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 C35600 62Cu-35.5Zn-2.5Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Fatigue Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 C36000 61.5Cu-35.5Zn-3Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Alloy Metallurgy and General Mechanical Properties . . . . 440 C36500, C36600, C36700, C36800 60Cu-39.4Zn-0.6Pb . . 496
Fatigue Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 C37000 60Cu-39Zn-1Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Fatigue Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 C37700 60Cu-38Zn-2Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Structure, Processing, and Property Relationships . . . . . . 443 C38500 57Cu-40Zn-3Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Properties of Pure Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 C40500 95Cu-4Zn-1Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Atomic and Electron Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 C40800 95Cu-2Sn-3Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Crystal Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 C41100 91Cu-8.5Zn-0.5Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Density and Volume Change on Freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 C41500 91Cu-7.2Zn-1.8Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Electrical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 C41900 90.5Cu-4.35Zn-5.15Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 C42200 87.5Cu-11.4Zn-1.1Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Magnetic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 C42500 88.5Cu-9.5Zn-2Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Optical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 C43000 87Cu-10.8Zn-2.2Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Nuclear Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 C43400 85Cu-14.3Zn-0.7Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 C43500 81Cu-18.1Zn-0.9Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 C44300, C44400, C44500 71Cu-28Zn-1Sn . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Properties of Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 C46400, C46500, C46600, C46700 60Cu-39.2Zn-0.8Sn . . 504
C10100, C10200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 C48200 60.5Cu-38Zn-0.8Sn-0.7Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
C10300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 C48500 60Cu-37.5Zn-1.8Pb-0.7Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
C10400, C10500, C10700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 C50500 98.7Cu-1.3Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
C10800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 C50710 97.7Cu-2.0Sn-0.3Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
C11000 99.95Cu-0.04O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 C51000 94.8Cu-5Sn-0.2P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
C11100 99.95Cu-0.04O-0.01Cd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 C51100 95.6Cu-4.2Sn-0.2P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
C11300, C11400, C11500, C11600 99.96Cu Ag-0.4O . . 462 C52100 92Cu-8Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
C12500, C12700, C12800, C12900, C13000 . . . . . . . . . . 463 C52400 90Cu-10Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
C14300, C14310 99.9Cu-0.1Cd; 99.8Cu-0.2Cd . . . . . . . . 464 C54400 88Cu-4Pb-4Sn-4Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
C14500 99.5Cu-0.5Te . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 C60600 95Cu-5Al . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
C14700 99.6Cu-0.4S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 C60800 95Cu-5Al . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
C15000 99.85Cu-0.15Zr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 C61000 92Cu-8Al . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
C15100 99.9Cu-0.1Zr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 C61300 90Cu-7Al-2.7Fe-0.3Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
C15500 99.75Cu-0.11Mg-0.06P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 C61400 91Cu-7Al-2Fe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
C15710 99.8Cu-0.2Al2O3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 C61500 90Cu-8Al-2Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
C15720 99.6Cu-0.4Al2O3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 C62300 87Cu-10Al-3Fe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
C15735 99.3Cu-0.7Al2O3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 C62400 86Cu-11Al-3Fe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
C16200 99Cu-1Cd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 C62500 82.7Cu-4.3Fe-13Al . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
C17000 98Cu-1.7Be-0.3Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 C63000 82Cu-10Al-5Ni-3Fe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
C17200, C17300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 C63200 82Cu-9Al-5Ni-4Fe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
C17410 99.2Cu-0.3Be-0.5Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 C63600 95.5Cu-3.5Al-1.0Si . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
C17500 97Cu-0.5Be-2.5Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 C63800 95Cu-2.8Al-1.8Si-0.40Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
C17600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 C65100 98.5Cu-1.5Si . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
C18100 99Cu-0.8Cr-0.16Zr-0.04Mg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 C65400 95.4Cu-3.0Si-1.5Sn-0.1Cr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
C18200, C18400, C18500 99Cu-1Cr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 C65500 97Cu-3Si . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
C18700 99Cu-1Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 C66400 86.5Cu-1.5Fe-0.5Co-11.5Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
C19200 98.97Cu-1.0Fe-0.03P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 C68800 73.5Cu-22.7Zn-3.4Al-0.4Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
C19210 99.87Cu-0.1Fe-0.03P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 C69000 73.3Cu-22.7Zn-3.4Al-0.6Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
C19400 Cu-2.35Fe-0.03P-0.12Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 C69400 81.5Cu-14.5Zn-4Si . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
C19500 97Cu-1.5Fe-0.1P-0.8Co-0.6Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 C70250 95.4Cu-3.0Ni-0.6Si-0.1Mg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
C19520 97.97Cu-0.75Fe-1.25Sn-0.03P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 C70400 92.4Cu-5.5Ni-1.5Fe-0.6Mn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
C19700 99.15Cu-0.6Fe-0.2P-0.05Mg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 C70600 90Cu-10Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
C21000 95Cu-5Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 C71000 80Cu-20Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
v
Engineering Properties and Service Characteristics (continued) C90700 89Cu-11Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
C91700 8612Cu-12Sn-112Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
C71500 70Cu-30Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 C92200 88Cu-6Sn-112Pb-412Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
C71900 67.2Cu-30Ni-2.8Cr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 C92300 87Cu-8Sn-1Pb-4Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
C72200 83Cu-16.5Ni-0.5Cr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 C92500 87Cu-11Sn-1Pb-1Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
C72500 88.2Cu-9.5Ni-2.3Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 C92600 87Cu-10Sn-1Pb-2Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
C74500 65Cu-25Zn-10Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 C92700 88Cu-10Sn-2Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
C75200 65Cu-18Ni-17Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526 C92900 84Cu-10Sn-212Pb-312Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
C75400 65Cu-20Zn-15Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526 C93200 83Cu-7Sn-7Pb-3Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
C75700 65Cu-23Zn-12Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 C93400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
C77000 55Cu-27Zn-18Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 C93500 85Cu-5Sn-9Pb-1Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
C78200 65Cu-25Zn-8Ni-2Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 C93700 80Cu-10Sn-10Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Properties of Cast Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 C93800 78Cu-7Sn-15Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
C81100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 C93900 79Cu-6Sn-15Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
C81300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 C94300 70Cu-5Sn-25Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
C81400 99Cu-0.8Cr-0.06Be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 C94500 73Cu-7Sn-20Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
C81500 99Cu-1Cr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 C95200 88Cu-3Fe-9Al . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
C81800 97Cu-1.5Co-1Ag-0.4Be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 C95300 89Cu-1Fe-10A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
C82000 97Cu-2.5Co-0.5Be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 C95400 (85Cu-4Fe-11Al) and C95410 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
C82200 98Cu-1.5Ni-0.5Be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 C95500 81Cu-4Fe-4Ni-11Al . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
C82400 98Cu-1.7Be-0.3Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 C95600 91Cu-2Si-7Al . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
C82500 97.2Cu-2Be-0.5Co-0.25Si . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 C95700 75Cu-3Fe-8Al-2Ni-12Mn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
C82600 97Cu-2.4Be-0.5Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 C95800 82Cu-4Fe-9Al-4Ni-1Mn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
C82800 96.6Cu-2.6Be-0.5Co-0.3Si . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 C96200 90Cu-10Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
C83300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 C96400 70Cu-30Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
C83600 85Cu-5Sn-5Pb-5Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 C96600 69.5Cu-30Ni-0.5Be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
C83800 83Cu-4Sn-6Pb-7Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 C97300 56Cu-2Sn-10Pb-20Zn-12Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
C84400 81Cu-3Sn-7Pb-9Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 C97600 64Cu-4Sn-4Pb-8Zn-20Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
C84800 76Cu-212Sn-612Pb-15Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 C97800 66.5Cu-5Sn-1.5Pb-2Zn-25Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
C85200 72Cu-1Sn-3Pb-24Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 C99400 90.4Cu-2.2Ni-2.0Fe-1.2Al-1.2Si-3.0Zn . . . . . . . . 561
C85400 67Cu-1Sn-3Pb-29Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 C99500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
C85700, C85800 63Cu-1Sn-1Pb-35Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 C99700 56.5Cu-5Ni-1Al-1.5Pb-12Mn-24Zn . . . . . . . . . . 561
C86100, C86200 64Cu-24Zn-3Fe-5Al-4Mn . . . . . . . . . . . 540 C99750 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
C86300 64Cu-26Zn-3Fe-3Al-4Mn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 Beryllium copper 21C 97Cu-2Be-1Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
C86400 59Cu-0.75Sn-0.75Pb-37Zn-1.25Fe-0.75Al- Beryllium copper nickel 72C 68.8Cu-30Ni-1.2Be . . . . . . 562
0.5Mn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
C86500 58Cu-39Zn-1.3Fe-1Al-0.5Mn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
C86700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
C86800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Specification Cross-Reference for Wrought and Cast Products . . . . 567
C87300 (formerly C87200) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Approximate Equivalent Hardness Numbers for Wrought Coppers . . 588
C87600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Approximate Equivalent Hardness Numbers for Cartridge Brass . . . 589
C87610, Silicon Bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
C87500, C87800 82Cu-4Si-14Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
C87900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
C90300 88Cu-8Sn-4Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
C90500 88Cu-10Sn-2Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 Alloy Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
vi
Metallurgy, Alloys, and Applications
Introduction and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Copper-Base Brush Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Major Groups of Copper and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Copper-Infiltrated Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Properties of Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Copper-Base Dispersion-Strengthened Materials . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Fabrication Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Nonstructural Applications of Copper and
Alloy Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Copper Alloy Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Temper Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Shape Memory Alloys and Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . 121
The Copper Industry: Occurrence, Shape Memory Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Recovery, and Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Copper-Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Production of Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Tungsten-Copper P/M Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Copper Fabricators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Molybdenum-CopperP/M Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Markets and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Multifilament Composite Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Copper-Clad Brazing Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Standard Designations for Wrought and Cast Copper and
Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Copper and Copper Alloy Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Alloy Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Copper Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Temper Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Alkaline Plating Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
International Alloy and Temper Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Acid Plating Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Surface Preparation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Physical Metallurgy: Heat Treatment, Bath Composition and Operating Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Structure, and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Plating in Dilute Cyanide Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Plating in Rochelle Cyanide Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Commercially Pure Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Plating in High-Efficiency Sodium and
Copper-Zinc Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Potassium Cyanide Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Copper-Tin Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Plating in Noncyanide Copper Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Copper-Zinc-Tin Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Plating in Pyrophosphate Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Copper-Base Leaded Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Plating in Acid Sulfate Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Copper-Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Plating in Fluoborate Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Copper-Beryllium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Wastewater Control and Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Copper Plating Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Characteristics of Copper Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Designating Copper and Its Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Copper in Multiplate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Strengthening Mechanisms for Wrought Copper Alloys . . . . . . 65 Copper Alloy Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Classification of Wrought Copper Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Brass Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Refinery Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Bronze Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Wire Mill Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Waste Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Flat-Rolled Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Electroless Copper Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
The Manufacture of Sheet and Strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Bath Chemistry and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Tubular Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Deposit Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Rod, Bar, and Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Pretreatment and Post-Treatment Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Cast Copper and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Copper Casting Alloy Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Environmental and Safety Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Wear-Resistant and Corrosion-Resistant Copper Alloy Coatings . . 150
Wear-Resistant Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Powder Metallurgy Copper and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Corrosion-Resistant Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
The Powder Processing Route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Pure Copper P/M Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Bronze P/M Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Building Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Brass and Nickel Silver P/M Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Electrical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Copper-Nickel P/M Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Electronic Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Copper-Lead P/M Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Industrial Machinery and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Copper-Base Friction Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Copper-Base Contact Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Consumer and General Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Introduction and Overview
COPPER was first used by man more than wrought alloys are available in various cold- detailed explanation of the UNS system can be
10,000 years ago. Small, decorative pendants worked conditions, and the room-temperature found in the article “Standard Designations for
and other items discovered in the Middle East strengths and fatigue resistances of these alloys Wrought and Cast Copper and Copper Alloys”
have been dated about 8700 B.C. These objects depend on the amount of cold work as well as the in this Handbook. Some copper and copper
were hammered to shape from nuggets of alloy content. Typical applications of cold- alloys are also identified by descriptive names,
“native copper,” pure copper found in conjunc- worked wrought alloys (cold-worked tempers) for example, Muntz metal (Cu-40Zn). Such
tion with copper-bearing ores. The earliest arti- include springs, fasteners, hardware, small gears, descriptive names are discussed in the section
facts known to be made from smelted metal cams, electrical contacts, and components. “Alloy Terminology” in this article.
were also copper. These were excavated in Certain types of parts, most notably plumbing
Anatolia (now Turkey) and have been dated as fittings and valves, are produced by hot forging
early as 7000 B.C. The discovery of a copper-tin simply because no other fabrication process can Properties of Importance
alloy and its uses led to the Bronze Age, which produce the required shapes and properties as
began in the Middle East before 3000 B.C. More economically. Copper alloys containing 1 to 6% Along with strength, fatigue resistance, and
recent discoveries in Thailand, however, indicate Pb are free-machining grades. These alloys are ability to take a good finish, the primary selec-
that bronze technology was known in the Far widely used for machined parts, especially those tion criteria for copper and copper alloys are:
East as early as 4500 B.C. The Bronze Age ended produced in screw machines.
about 1200 B.C., after which iron technology
• Electrical conductivity
• Thermal conductivity
(the Iron Age) became common. • Corrosion resistance
Today, copper and copper alloys remain one Major Groups of
• Color
of the major groups of commercial metals, rank- Copper and Copper Alloys • Ease of fabrication (See the section
ing third behind only iron/steel and aluminum in “Fabrication Characteristics” in this article
production and consumption. They are widely The elements most commonly alloyed with for details.)
used because of their excellent electrical and copper are aluminum, nickel, silicon, tin, and
thermal conductivities, outstanding resistance to zinc. Other elements and metals are alloyed in
corrosion, ease of fabrication, and good strength Electrical Conductivity
small quantities to improve certain material
and fatigue resistance. They are generally non- characteristics, such as corrosion resistance or As shown in Table 1, a little more than 60% of
magnetic. They can be readily soldered and machinability. Copper and its alloys are divided all copper and copper alloys consumed in the
brazed, and many coppers and copper alloys can into nine major groups. These major groups are: United States are used because of electrical con-
be welded by various gas, arc, and resistance
• Coppers, which contain a minimum of ductivity. The bulk of these applications are wire
methods. For decorative parts, standard alloys
99.3% Cu and cable, for example, telecommunications
having specific colors are readily available.
• High-copper alloys, which contain up to 5% wire and cable, electronic wire and cable, build-
Copper alloys can be polished and buffed to ing wire, magnet wire, power cable, and auto-
almost any desired texture and luster. They can alloying elements
• Copper-zinc alloys (brasses), which contain motive wire and cable.
be plated, coated with organic substances, or The electrical conductivity scale estab-
chemically colored to further extend the variety up to 40% Zn
• Copper-tin alloys (phosphor bronzes), which lished in 1913 was based on a copper standard
of available finishes. defined as 100%, and the electrical conductivity
Pure copper is used extensively for cables and contain up to 10% Sn and 0.2% P
• Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum of any material is still expressed as percent
wires, electrical contacts, and a wide variety of IACS (International Annealed Copper
other parts that are required to pass electrical bronzes), which contain up to 10% Al
• Copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronzes), Standard), equal to 100 times the ratio of the
current. Coppers and certain brasses, bronzes, volume resistivity of the annealed copper stan-
and cupronickels are used extensively for auto- which contain up to 3% Si
• Copper-nickel alloys, which contain up to dard (0.017241 μΩ m) at 20 °C (68 °F) to the
mobile radiators, heat exchangers, home heating value measured for the material concerned. The
systems, panels for absorbing solar energy, and 30% Ni
various other applications requiring rapid con- • Copper-zinc-nickel alloys (nickel silvers),
which contain up to 27% Zn and 18% Ni Table 1 Copper and copper alloy
duction of heat across or along a metal section. consumption in the United States by
Because of their outstanding ability to resist cor- • Special alloys, which contain alloying ele-
ments to enhance a specific property or char- functional use in 1997
rosion, coppers, brasses, some bronzes, and
acteristic, for example, machinability End use Millions of pounds %
cupronickels are used for pipes, valves, and fit-
tings in systems carrying potable water, process Alloys falling into these nine groups are iden- Electrical conductivity 5023 61
Corrosion resistance 1701 20
water, or other aqueous fluids. tified by their Unified Numbering System Heat transfer 949 11
In all classes of copper alloys, certain alloy (UNS) designation. Each designation consists of Structural capability 515 6
compositions for wrought products have counter- five numbers following the prefix letter “C.” In Aesthetics 131 2
parts among the cast alloys; this enables the this system, wrought alloys of copper are desig- Total 8319 100
designer to make an initial alloy selection before nated by numbers C1xxxx to C7xxxx, and cast Source: Copper Development Association Inc.
deciding on the manufacturing process. Most alloys are designated C8xxxx to C9xxxx. A more
4 / Metallurgy, Alloys, and Applications
highest purity copper produced today (99.999% Effect of Composition. All additives to pure often based on the trade-off between strength
Cu) has been found to be 103% IACS. As shown copper reduce its electrical conductivity, and conductivity (Fig. 2). Figure 3 shows the
in Table 2, only silver has a higher electrical depending upon the element and amount in general trade-off between strength and con-
conductivity than copper. solid solution. Only small decreases are caused ductivity for solid-solution, dispersion, and
Effect of Temperature. Electrical conductiv- by elements added in excess of solubility. The precipitation hardening. The optimal trade-
ity is sensitive to temperature: for copper it data in Table 3 show the solubility of each ele- off is achieved by precipitation hardening,
drops from 800% IACS at –240 °C (–400 °F) to ment in copper at room temperature and the which is usually the most costly because of
38% IACS at 425 °C (800 °F). degree to which each element decreases electri- either the alloy additions or extra processing.
Effect of Grain Size and Cold Working. cal conductivity by indicating the resistivity Precipitation-hardening alloys exhibit
The conductivity of copper is independent of its increase per 1 wt% added. There is a cumulative increases in electrical conductivity along with
crystal orientation and does not vary significant- effect when more than one element is added. increased strength during the aging heat treat-
ly with grain size. Cold working an annealed The drop in electrical conductivity caused by ment, as elements are removed from supersat-
copper to about 90% reduction can cause a drop additions of commonly used alloying elements urated solid solution to form precipitates of
of 2 to 3% IACS. is illustrated by Fig. 1, which shows the strong- intermetallic compounds.
ly detrimental effects of phosphorus and iron When additional demands are placed on the
Table 2 Electrical conductivity values for and the relatively mild decreases caused by sil- material—corrosion or oxidation resistance, for
various metals and alloys ver and zinc additions. Oxygen in standard- example—the combinations become more
Material %IACS grade copper reacts with many impurities, complex. Hence, understanding the properties
yielding insoluble oxides and thereby greatly demanded by a given application is of para-
Pure silver 106
Pure copper (99.999% Cu) 103.06 reducing the harmful effects. Where oxygen- mount importance.
C10100 (oxygen-free electronic, OFE) 101 free or deoxidized copper is used, impurity lev-
C10200 (oxygen-free, OF) 101 els must be reduced below those in cathode cop-
C11000 (electrolytic tough pitch, ETP) 101 Thermal Conductivity
C10700 (oxygen-free with Ag, OFS) 100
per to achieve 100% IACS.
C11300 (tough pitch with Ag) 100 Effect of Alloying and Condition. As with Copper and its alloys are also good conductors
C10300 (OF extra-low P) 99 other metal systems, copper is intentionally of heat, making them ideal for heat-transfer appli-
C12000 (phosphorus deoxidized, low-residual P, 98 alloyed to improve strength without unduly
DLP)
cations, for example, radiators and heat exchang-
C12900 (fire-refined tough pitch with Ag, FRSTP) 98
degrading ductility or workability. However, it ers. Changes in thermal conductivity generally
C18700 (Cu-0.8–1.5Pb) 96 should be recognized that additions of alloy- follow those in electrical conductivity in accor-
C14700 (Cu-0.20–0.50S) 95 ing elements also degrade electrical and ther- dance with the Wiedemann-Franz relationship,
C14500 (Cu-0.40–0.7Te) 93 mal conductivity by various amounts, depend-
C15000 (Cu-0.10–0.20Zr) 93
which states that thermal conductivity is propor-
C15700 (dispersion-strengthened with Al2O3) 93
ing on the alloying element and the tional to the product of electrical conductivity and
C10800 (oxygen-free low-residual P, OFLP) 92 concentration and location in the microstruc- temperature. Table 4 compares the thermal con-
C16200 (Cu-0.7–1.2Cd) 90 ture (solid solution, precipitate, dispersoid). ductivities of various metals and alloys.
C12200 (phosphorus deoxidized, high-residual P, 85 The choice of alloy and condition is most
DHP)
90Ag-10Cu 85 Corrosion Resistance
C18200 (Cu-0.6–1.2Cr) 80 Table 3 Solubility limits and electrical
C15760 (dispersion-strengthened with Al2O3) 78 resistivity effects of copper alloying ele-
Pure gold 73.4 ments Copper is a noble metal, but unlike gold and
Pure aluminum 65 other precious metals, it can be attacked by com-
Solubility Resistivity increase
C16500 (Cu-0.02Fe-0.50–0.7Sn-0.6–1.0Cd) 60
at 293 K, per 1 wt% addition,
mon reagents and environments. Pure copper
Al 1100 (O) 59 resists attack quite well under most corrosive
Element wt% · cm
C21000 (Gilding, 95%) 56
C19100 (99.5% min Cu+Fe-Ni-Pb-Zn-Te-P) 55 Ag 0.1 0.355 conditions. Some copper alloys, however, have
C19500 (96.0% min Cu+Fe-Sn-Zn-Pb-P-Co) 50 Al 9.4 2.22 limited usefulness in certain environments
Al 2024 (O) 50 As 6.5 5.67 because of hydrogen embrittlement or stress-
C50500 (Cu-1.3Sn) 48 Au 100 0.185
B 0.06 8.25 corrosion cracking (SCC).
C17410 (beryllium copper, 0.3% Be) 45
Al 7075 (O) 45 Be 0.2 4.57 Hydrogen embrittlement is observed
Al 6061 (T6) 43 Ca … 4.77 when tough pitch coppers, which are alloys
C31400 (leaded commercial bronze) 42 Cd 0.5 0.172 containing cuprous oxide, are exposed to a
C22600 (jewelry bronze, 87.5%) 40 Co 0.2 7.3
Cr 0.03 4.9 reducing atmosphere. Most copper alloys are
Pure magnesium 38.6
C23000 (Cu-15Zn) 37 Fe 0.14 10.6
Al 7075 (T6) 33 Ga 20 1.27 100
Pure tungsten 30 Ge 11 3.2
Hg … 0.32 Cd
Zn-27Al-1.2Cu-0.015Mg 29.7 90 Zn Ag
Al 5056 (O) 29 In 3 0.615
Ir 1.5 2 Ni
Pure zinc 28.27
Conductivity, %IACS
Mg 1 4.2 80
C26000 (Cu-30Zn) 28
Mn 24 3.37
C42500 (Cu-9.5Zn-2Sn-0.2P) 28
Ni 100 1.2 70
C37700 (Cu-38Zn-2Pb) 27 Ni
O 0.0002 21
Pure nickel 25.2 P 0.5 14.3
C17200 (beryllium copper, 2% Be) 22 Pb 0.02 1.02 60 Sn
Pure iron 17.6 Pd 40 9.57 Al
C51000 (Cu-5Sn-0.2P) 15 Pt 100 0.635 50 Fe
1010 steel 14.5 Rh 20 1.5
Carbon steel (0.65% C) 9.5 S 0.0025 18.6 Be
C70600 (Cu-10Ni-1.4Fe) 9 Sb 2 2.9 40 P
C74500 (Cu-25Zn-10Ni) 9 Si
Se 0.002 8.5
C65500 (Cu-3Si) 7 Si 2 7 30
C71500 (Cu-30Ni-0.5Fe) 4 Sn 1.2 1.65 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Type 316 stainless steel 2.5 Te 0.0005 4 Alloy element content, wt%
Ti 0.4 21.6
Note: Copper and copper alloys categorized as high-conductivity Zn 30 0.286
materials have conductivities ranging from ~50 to 100% IACS. Zr 0.01 8 Fig. 1 Effect of alloying elements on the conductivity of
oxygen-free high-conductivity copper
LIVE GRAPH
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Introduction and Overview / 5
deoxidized and thus are not subject to hydro- ations reintroduce stresses and resensitize the Workability. Copper and copper alloys are
gen embrittlement. parts to SCC. readily cast into cake (slabs of pure copper, gen-
Stress-corrosion cracking most commonly Dealloying is another form of corrosion that erally 200 mm thick and up to 8.5 m long, or 8
occurs in brass that is exposed to ammonia or affects zinc-containing copper alloys. In deal- in. by 28 ft), billet, rod, or plate—suitable for
amines. Brasses containing more than 15% Zn loying, the more active metal is selectively subsequent hot or cold processing into plate,
are the most susceptible. Copper and most cop- removed from an alloy, leaving behind a weak sheet, rod, wire, or tube—via all the standard
per alloys that either do not contain zinc or are deposit of the more noble metal. rolling, drawing, extrusion, forging, machining,
low in zinc content generally are not susceptible Copper-zinc alloys containing more than and joining methods. Copper and copper alloy
to SCC. Because SCC requires both tensile 15% Zn are susceptible to a dealloying process tubing can be made by the standard methods of
stress and a specific chemical species to be pres- called dezincification. In the dezincification of piercing and tube drawing as well as by the con-
ent at the same time, removal of either the stress brass, selective removal of zinc leaves a rela- tinuous induction welding of strip. Copper is hot
or the chemical species can prevent cracking. tively porous and weak layer of copper and worked over the temperature range 750 to 875
Annealing or stress relieving after forming alle- copper oxide. Corrosion of a similar nature °C (1400 to 1600 °F), annealed between cold
viates SCC by relieving residual stresses. Stress continues beneath the primary corrosion layer, working steps over the temperature range 375 to
relieving is effective only if the parts are not sub- resulting in gradual replacement of sound 650 °C (700 to 1200 °F), and is thermally stress
sequently bent or strained in service; such oper- brass by weak, porous copper. Unless arrested, relieved usually between 200 and 350 °C (390
dealloying eventually penetrates the metal, and 660 °F). Copper and copper alloys owe their
Table 4 Thermal conductivity values for weakening it structurally and allowing liquids excellent fabricability to the face-centered cubic
various metals and alloys or gases to leak through the porous mass in the crystal structure and the twelve available dislo-
remaining structure. cation slip systems. Many of the applications of
Material
Thermal conductivity,
W/m · K
A more detailed description of the corrosion copper and copper alloys take advantage of the
resistance of copper can be found in the articles work-hardening capability of the material, with
Pure silver 428
Pure copper 398
“Corrosion Behavior” and “Stress-Corrosion the cold processing deformation of the final
C10100 (oxygen-free electronic, OFE) 391 Cracking” in this Handbook. forming steps providing the required
C11000 (electrolytic tough pitch, ETP) 391 strength/ductility for direct use or for subsequent
C10400 (oxygen-free with Ag) 388 forming of stamped components. Copper is eas-
C12200 (Cu-0.02P) 339 Color ily processible to more than 95% reduction in
C18100 (Cu-0.04Mg-0.15Zr-0.8Cr) 324
Pure gold 317.9 area. The amount of cold deformation between
Pure aluminum 247 Copper and certain copper alloys are used for softening anneals is usually restricted to 90%
Al 1100 (O) 222 decorative purposes alone, or when a particular
C17410 (beryllium copper, 0.3% Be) 208 color and finish is combined with a desirable 100
Al 2024 (O) 193 Cu
mechanical or physical property of the alloy. Solid-solution hardened
Al 6061 (O) 180 90
Al 6061 (T6) 167 Table 5 lists the range of colors that can be Cr
Dispersion hardened
Precipitation hardened
Pure tungsten 160 obtained with standard copper alloys. 80
Pure magnesium 155 70
Conductivity, %IACS
Al 2024 (T6) 151 Fe-P
Al 7075 (T6) 130 60 5% Zn
C26000 (Cu-30Zn) 121 Fabrication Characteristics 50 1% Sn Fe-Co-P-Sn
Al 5056 (O) 117
Pure zinc 113 40
C51100 (Cu-4.2Sn-0.2P) 84 As stated previously, ease of fabrication is one 15% Zn 0.5% Be
Pure nickel 82.9 of the properties of importance for copper and 30 10% Zn- 30% Zn
Pure iron 80.4 copper alloys. These materials are generally 2% Sn
Pure cobalt 69.04 20 8% Sn
Pure tin 62.8 capable of being shaped to the required form and 5% Sn Zn-Al-Co
C61300 (Cu-6.8Al-2.5Fe-0.35Sn) 55 dimensions by any of the common forming or 10 10% Ni Ni-Zn
30% Ni
1020 carbon steel 51.9 forging processes, and they are readily assem- 0
C74500 (Cu-25Zn-10Ni) 45 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
bled by any of the various joining processes. A
Pure lead 33.6 Ultimate tensile strength, MPa
C71500 (Cu-30Ni-0.5Fe) 29 brief review of the fabrication characteristics of
(a)
Type 410 stainless steel 28.7 copper and its alloys is given subsequently.
Pure carbon 23.9 More detailed information can be found in the 100
Pure zirconium 21.1 articles contained in the Section “Fabrication Cu
Type 316 stainless steel 16.2 90
Pure titanium 11.4 and Finishing” in this Handbook. Cr
80
Mg-P
Conductivity, %IACS
70
Fe-P
Material Tensile strength Electrical conductivity 60
Copper 5% Zn Fe-Co-P-Sn
50
Commercial bronze
15% Zn 0.5% Be
Chromium copper, 1% Cr 40
Cartridge brass 30% Zn
30 1% Sn
Free-cutting brass
5% Sn 2% Be
Nickel silver, 27% Zn 20 8% Sn Zn-Al-Co
Beryllium copper, 0.65% Be
10 10% Ni Ni-Zn
Phosphor bronze, 8% Sn 30% Ni
Beryllium copper, 2% Be 0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
0 50 100 150 200 0 25 50 75 100 125 Ultimate tensile strength, MPa
(0) (345) (690) (1034) (1379) (b)
Tensile strength, ksi (MPa) Electrical conductivity, %IACS

Fig. 3 Electrical conductivity as a function of tensile
strength for (a) annealed and (b) 60% cold-
Fig. 2 Relationship between strength and electrical conductivity for copper and copper alloys reduced copper alloy strip
LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH

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maximum to avoid excessive crystallographic coat. Variations in solderability are the result of ASTM, American Society of Mechanical
texturing, especially in rolling of sheet and strip. the effect of alloying additions on formation of Engineers, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Although copper obeys the Hall-Petch relation- the metallurgical bond at the substrate-solder and similar organizations, long-standing famil-
ship and grain size can be readily controlled by interface. Under these conditions, most copper iar alloys continue to be identified by traditional
processing parameters, work hardening is the only alloys are easily solderable using mildly activated descriptive and/or colloquial names. Definitions
strengthening mechanism used with pure copper. rosin fluxes. Table 6 ranks various representative of some of the more common examples are
Whether applied by processing to shape and thick- alloy groups in order of decreasing solderability, given subsequently for coppers, high-copper
ness, as a rolled strip or drawn wire, or by forming showing the adverse effects of zinc and nickel. alloys, and copper-base alloys. It should be
into the finish component, as an electrical connec- For most conditions, the use of a more aggres- emphasized that these names should not be used
tor, the amount of work hardening applied is lim- sive flux achieves the desired class I or II sol- whenever an alloy is cited on engineering draw-
ited by the amount of ductility required by the derability, even for the alloys more difficult to ings or purchase agreements.
application. Worked copper can be recrystallized solder. However, aggressive fluxes are not used
by annealing at temperatures as low as 250 °C for electronic applications. Soldering involving
(480 °F), depending on the prior degree or cold slower heating than in the immersion test ampli- Coppers and High-Copper Alloys
work and the time at temperature. While this facil- fies the alloy effects noted in Table 6 or requires
itates processing, it also means that softening more severe fluxes to remove oxides. Coppers are metals that have a designated
resistance during long-time exposures at moder- Brazeability. The effects of alloying on braz- minimum copper content of 99.3% or higher.
ately elevated temperatures can be a concern, ing are similar to those for soldering, but because Dilute or high-copper alloys (~94% Cu min)
especially in electrical and electronic applications brazing is carried out at a higher temperature contain small amounts of various alloying ele-
where resistance (I2R) heating is a factor. than soldering, the presence of reactive alloying ments, such as beryllium, cadmium, or chromi-
Weldability. Copper and copper alloys are elements intensifies the problem of detrimental um, each having less than 8 at.% solubility.
most frequently welded using gas tungsten arc oxide formation. Again, more aggressive fluxes Because high-copper alloys retain the face-cen-
welding, especially for thin sections, because and faster heating reduce the adverse effects tered cubic structure of copper, their physical
high localized heat input is important in materi- caused by such alloy additions. Braze materials properties are similar to those of the pure metal.
als with high thermal conductivity. In thicker that melt at higher temperatures may also cause Alloying generally serves to impart higher
sections, gas metal arc welding is preferred. The base-metal erosion or, in the case of the zinc strength, thermal stability (resistance to soften-
weldability varies among the different alloys for brasses, give rise to zinc fuming, which degrades ing), or other mechanical attributes while retain-
a variety of reasons, including the occurrence of the structural integrity of the braze joint. ing sufficient electrical conductivity for the
hot cracking in the leaded (free-machining) Machinability. All copper alloys are machin- intended use. The term “modified copper” has
alloys and unsound welds in alloys containing able in the sense that they can be cut with stan- also been used to describe metal for which the
copper oxide. Tin and zinc both reduce the weld- dard machine tooling. High-speed steel suffices specified minimum copper content is less than
ability of copper alloys. The presence in the for all but the hardest alloys. Carbide tooling can 99.88% but not less than 99.3%, silver being
alloy of residual phosphorus is beneficial to be used but is rarely necessary, and while grind- counted as copper. This term is no longer rec-
weldability because it combines with absorbed ing may be required for a few alloys in very hard ommended for usage.
oxygen, thereby preventing the formation of tempers, these are not conditions to be expected
copper oxide in the weld. Resistance welding is in high-speed production. For mass-produced 100
C36000
also widely used, particularly in alloys with low- screw machine parts made from free-cutting
thermal conductivity. Oxygen-bearing coppers brass or one of the other leaded copper alloys,
can be subject to gassing and embrittlement, high-speed steel is the standard tool material. 80
particularly in oxyacetylene welding. Figure 4 compares the machining characteristics
Machinability index
C34000 Aluminum
Solderability. Copper is among the easiest of of copper alloys with those of an aluminum 60 alloy
all engineering metals to solder. Oxides or tar- alloy and a free-machining steel. C46400 2011-T3
nish films are easily removed by mild fluxing or Surface Finishes. For decorative parts, stan-
Leaded
precleaning in a dilute acid bath. A superior met- dard alloys in specific colors are readily avail- 40
steel
allurgical bond is obtained with the use of a gen- able. Copper alloys can be polished and buffed 12L14
eral-purpose solder composed of tin in the range to almost any desired texture and luster. They
20
of 35 to 60% and the balance lead. Alloys of can be plated, coated with organic substances, or
copper exhibit a range of solderability, depend- chemically colored to further extend the variety
ent upon the type and level of alloying addition of available finishes. 0
and method of soldering. Workpiece material
The immersion test is one common method to
evaluate solderability. It involves immersion of a Alloy Terminology Fig. 4 Machinability ratings for copper alloys, alu-
substrate alloy in a molten solder bath. The sam- minum alloy 2011, and a free-machining steel.
ple after removal is graded on a scale of I to V, Although UNS designations have been incor- The theoretical maximum machining rate for free-cutting
brass (C36000) is five times higher than that of leaded
based on the surface characteristics of the solder porated in most relevant standards published by low-carbon free-machining steel AISI 12L14 (UNS
G12144). In this figure, production rates (determined by
Table 5 Standard color-controlled wrought copper alloys ASTM E 618) have been normalized and shown as a
“machinability index.”
UNS number Common name Color description
C11000 Electrolytic tough pitch copper Soft pink Table 6 Solder immersion test ranking
C21000 Gilding, 95% Red-brown
C22000 Commercial bronze, 90% Bronze-gold of copper alloys using a mildly activated
C23000 Red brass, 85% Tan-gold rosin flux
C26000 Cartridge brass, 70% Green-gold
Solder class Alloys
C28000 Muntz metal, 60% Light brown-gold
C63800 Aluminum bronze Gold I (best) Cu and very dilute Cu alloys
C65500 High-silicon bronze, A Lavender-brown II Cu-10%Zn, Cu-Sn, Cu-Ni-Sn, Cu-Al-Si
C70600 Copper-nickel, 10% Soft lavender III Cu-Zn-Sn
C74500 Nickel silver, 65-10 Gray-white IV Cu-Ni
C75200 Nickel silver, 65-18 Silver V (worst) Cu-15 and 30% Zn, Cu-Zn-Ni
beryllium copper (C17000, C17200, and susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement, and aluminum bronzes (C60800–C64210). Copper
C17500). Precipitation-hardenable copper has an electrical conductivity slightly lower alloys with aluminum as the principal alloying
alloy containing varying amounts of beryllium than that of high-conductivity copper. element, normally in the range of 3 to 15% with
(nominally 2% Be) and sometimes small phosphorus-deoxidized copper, tellurium- or without the additions of other elements.
amounts of cobalt, nickel, and iron. It is capa- bearing (C14500, C14510). A modified architectural bronze (C38500). An alloy con-
ble of being formed readily when in the soft deoxidized copper containing the designated taining nominally 57% Cu, 3% Pb, and 40%
(annealed) condition and heat treated to hard- element (tellurium) in amounts as agreed Zn, generally available in extruded or drawn
nesses and strengths approaching those of upon between the supplier and the consumer shapes and rod; used for architectural trim
high-strength steels. to improve machinability. The electrical con- and for some mechanical applications. The
cadmium copper (C16200). A high-copper ductivity is somewhat lower than that of elec- alloy is not technically a bronze, but because
alloy containing up to 1.2% Cd for improved trolytic tough pitch copper. of long usage the term “architectural bronze”
resistance to thermal softening and increased silver-bearing copper. Any copper containing has been used.
wear resistance. substantial amounts of silver, regardless of beta. The name of a second phase in the internal
cathode copper. A commercially pure copper origin or treatment. structure of certain copper alloys, generally
electrolytically refined in cathode form. silver-bearing tough pitch copper (C11300, C11400, harder and less ductile than the alpha phase.
chromium copper (C18200, C18400). A pre- C11500, C11600). A commercially pure high- The beta phase renders the alloy more ductile
cipitation-hardening high-copper alloy con- conductivity tough pitch copper containing when hot and less ductile when cold.
taining up to 1.2% Cr for higher strength and silver in amounts agreed upon between the brass. Any copper alloy with zinc as the princi-
improved thermal softening resistance, but supplier and the consumer for the purpose of pal alloying element, with or without small
with an electrical conductivity higher than raising the thermal softening temperature. quantities of some other elements.
80% IACS. tough pitch copper (C11000, C11030, C11100, bronze. Originally a term for copper alloys
electrolytic tough pitch copper (C11000). A C11300, C11400, C11500, C11600, C12900). having tin as the only or principal alloying
commercially pure high-conductivity copper Commercially pure or modified copper, element. In modern usage the term bronze is
of any origin that has been refined by elec- either electrolytically, chemically, or fire seldom used alone, and the terms phosphor
trolytic deposition, then melted, oxidized, and bronze or tin bronze are used for indicating
refined, containing a controlled amount of
brought to tough pitch or controlled low oxy- copper-tin alloys. In fact, the term bronze,
oxygen for the purpose of obtaining a level
gen content, and finally cast into cakes, bil- together with a suitable modifying adjec-
set in the casting.
lets, wire bars, and so on, suitable for hot or tive, has been extended to apply to any of a
cold working, or both. great variety of copper alloys.
fire-refined copper. A commercially pure cop- Copper Alloys cartridge brass, 70% (C26000). An alloy con-
per of any origin or type that is finished by taining nominally 70% Cu and 30% Zn, and
furnace refining without at any stage having Copper alloys are metals with copper contents generally available in flat products, rod, wire,
been electrolytically refined. less than about 94%, but not less than 50%, and and tube.
high-conductivity copper. A copper that in the having no other element specified in excess of commercial bronze, 90% (C22000). An alloy
annealed condition, has a minimum electrical the copper content. An exception to this defini- containing nominally 90% Cu and 10% Zn,
conductivity of 100% IACS. tion occurs in the case of some cast copper-lead generally available in flat products, wire, rod,
oxygen-free copper (C10100, C10200). A com- alloys where the lead slightly exceeds the copper and tube. The alloy is not technically a
mercially pure high-conductivity copper that content in certain alloys that are commonly des- bronze, but because of long usage the term
has been produced in such manner as to con- “commercial bronze” has been used.
ignated as copper alloys (e.g., alloy C98840 con-
tain no oxide or residual deoxidants. It has copper-nickel (C70100–C72950). A copper
taining 44.0–58.0 Pb).
very high resistance to hydrogen embrittle- alloy composed of copper and nickel with
ment. nickel content up to 40% and with small addi-
admiralty, inhibited (arsenical, antimonial, or
oxygen-free, silver-bearing copper (C10400, tions of elements such as iron and manganese.
phosphorized) (C44300, C44400, C44500,
C10500, C10700). A commercially pure Also referred to as cupronickels.
respectively). Admiralty modified by the
high-conductivity copper containing the des- cupronickels. See copper-nickel.
addition of 0.02 to 0.10% of arsenic, antimo- deep-drawing brass, drawing brass. Terms
ignated element (silver) in amounts as agreed
upon between the supplier and the consumer ny, or phosphorus to inhibit dezincification. sometimes used, but not recommended, to
for the purpose of raising the thermal soften- admiralty metal (C44200). An alloy containing denote non-leaded brasses at nominal cop-
ing temperature. nominally 71% Cu, 1% Sn, and 28% Zn, orig- per content ranging from 65 to 70%. See
phosphorus-deoxidized arsenical copper inally developed by the British Admiralty and preferred terms cartridge brass, 70%, and
(C14200). A modified deoxidized copper con- generally available in tube, flat products, and yellow brass.
taining the designated element (arsenic) in wire. Its principal use is in heat exchanger and engraver’s brass. A term sometimes used, but
amounts as agreed upon between the supplier condenser tubes. An inhibitor may be added not recommended, to denote extra-high-lead-
and the consumer mainly for the purpose of to increase the resistance to dezincification. ed brass and high-leaded brass.
increasing corrosion resistance. alpha. The name of a phase or of a certain range extra-high-leaded brass (C35600). An alloy
phosphorus-deoxidized copper, high-residual of copper alloys that contain one or more containing nominally 63% Cu, 2.5% Pb, and
phosphorus (C12200). A commercially pure alloying elements dissolved in copper, the 34.5% Zn, generally available in flat rolled
copper that has been deoxidized with phospho- phase being a homogeneous solid solution. products, and used for engraving and other
rus, leaving a relatively high residual phospho- alpha-beta brass. A series of copper-zinc alloys operations requiring considerable cutting.
rus content. It is not susceptible to hydrogen containing approximately 55 to 63% Cu and forging brass (C37700). An alloy containing
embrittlement, but is of relatively low electrical the remainder mostly, if not all, zinc and com- nominally 59% Cu, 2% Pb, and 39% Zn, gen-
conductivity due to the amount of phosphorus posed of crystals or grains of both the alpha erally available in rod, bar, tube, and shapes
present. and the beta phases. and recommended for fabrication by hot forg-
phosphorus-deoxidized copper, low-residual aluminum brass (C68700). An alloy containing and hot pressing. It has excellent machin-
phosphorus (C12000). A commercially pure ing nominally 77.5% Cu, 2% Al, and 20.5% ability, approaching that of free-cutting brass.
copper that has been deoxidized with phos- Zn with an inhibitor, available in tube form. free-cutting brass (C36000). An alloy contain-
phorus in such a manner as to leave a very low Its principal use is in heat exchanger and ing nominally 61.5% Cu, 3% Pb, and 35.5%
residual phosphorus content. It is not readily condenser tubes. Zn, generally available in rod and drawn bar
and in extruded shapes. It is the most com- low brass, 80% (C24000). An alloy containing examples include (see also free-cutting phos-
monly used alloy for automatic screw nominally 80% Cu and 20% Zn and generally phor bronze B-2):
machine work, or for other applications where available in flat products, rod, and wire.
material of maximum machinability is low-leaded brass (C33500). An alloy containing • phosphor bronze, 1.25% E (C50500)
desired. nominally 65% Cu, 0.5% Pb, and 34.5% Zn, • phosphor bronze, 5% A (C51000)
free-cutting Muntz metal (C37000). An alloy generally available in flat products. It is wide- • phosphor bronze, 8% C (C52100)
containing nominally 60% Cu, 1% Pb, and ly used for stamping and light drawing opera- • phosphor bronze, 10% D (C52400)
39% Zn, generally available as tube. It is used tions. platers’ brass. A term sometimes used, but not
for automatic screw machine products where low-leaded brass (tube) (C33000). An alloy recommended, to indicate specific alloys used
maximum machinability is not necessary. containing nominally 66% Cu, 0.5% Pb, and as anodes for brass plating. These vary in
free-cutting phosphor bronze B-2 (C54400). 33.5% Zn, and used where a combination of composition from 80 to 90% Cu, 10 to 20%
An alloy containing nominally 88% Cu, 4% moderate machinability, strength, and ductili- Zn, and sometimes 1 to 2% Sn.
Sn, 4% Zn, and 4% Pb, generally available in ty is required. radiator core brass. A term used to indicate strip
rod and flat products. manganese bronze (A) (C67500). An alloy con- brass or suitable characteristics for forming
gilding, 95% (C21000). An alloy containing taining nominally 58.5% Cu, 1% Sn, 1.4% Fe, radiator cores. It is sometimes used, but not
nominally 95% Cu and 5% Zn, generally 0.1% Mn, and 39% Zn, generally available in recommended, to designate a specific alloy.
available in flat products, rod, and wire. The rod, flat products, shapes, and wire. This alloy red brass, 85% (C23000). An alloy containing
terms “commercial bronze, 95%” and “gild- is appreciably harder and stronger than naval nominally 85% Cu and 15% Zn, and generally
ing metal” are not recommended. brass (C46400) and is, therefore, preferred to available in flat products, rod, wire, and tube.
hardware bronze. See preferred terms leaded the latter for many structural uses. It is also an 70-30 brass. A term sometimes used, but not rec-
commercial bronze and leaded red brass. excellent brazing alloy. ommended, for cartridge brass, 70% (C26000).
high brass. See preferred term yellow brass. medium-leaded brass (C34000). An alloy con- silicon bronze (C64700–C66100). Any copper
high-leaded brass (C34200, C35300). Alloys taining nominally 65% Cu, 1% Pb, and 34% alloy with silicon as the main alloying ele-
containing nominally 65% Cu, 2% Pb, and Zn, generally available in flat products, rod, ment, with or without additions of such ele-
33% Zn (C34200); and 62% Cu, 2% Pb, and shapes, and wire, and used where a compro- ments as zinc, manganese, aluminum, iron, or
36% Zn (C35300), generally available in flat mise between drawing properties and machin- nickel. The more commonly used silicon
products and rod. They are used where easy ability is necessary. bronzes are:
stamping and machining are desired, as for Muntz metal (C28000). An alloy containing
instance, in clock and watch backs and gears nominally 60% Cu and 40% Zn, and general- • high-silicon bronze A (C65500), nominal-
ly available in flat products, rod, wire, and ly containing 96% Cu and 3% Si
and for engraving.
high-leaded brass (tube) (C33200). An alloy tube. Named after George Muntz, who patent- • low-silicon bronze B (C65100), nominally
ed a process for the manufacture of 60Cu- containing 97.7% Cu and 1.5% Si
containing nominally 66% Cu, 1.6% Pb, and
32.4% Zn. It is recommended for automatic 40Zn brass in 1832. spring brass. A term used to designate copper-
screw machine operations. naval brass (C46400). An alloy containing zinc strip or wire in spring or harder tempers.
jewelry bronze, 87.5% (C22600). An alloy nominally 60% Cu, 0.75% Sn, and 39.25% It is sometimes used, but not recommended,
containing nominally 87.5% Cu and 12.5% Zn, generally available in rod, bar, wire, to designate a specific alloy.
Zn, having a rich golden color. It is used for shapes, tube, and to some extent in flat prod- spring bronze. A term used to designate cop-
costume jewelry, slide fasteners, and as a base ucts. It is used in marine construction where a per-tin strip, rod, or wire in spring or harder
for gold-filled articles. Variations may contain strong, hard material is required. tempers. This term is sometimes used, but not
small amounts of tin. nickel silver (C73500–C79800). Copper alloys recommended, to designate a specific alloy.
leaded commercial bronze (C31400). An alloy containing nickel and zinc, formerly some- tin bronze. See phosphor bronzes
containing nominally 89% Cu, 1.75% Pb, and times called German silver. These alloys are yellow brass (C26800, C27000). An alloy con-
9.25% Zn, generally available in rod, shapes, primarily used for their distinctive colors that taining nominally 65% Cu and 35% Zn, and
and bar, and used extensively for hardware. range from yellow to silvery white. generally available in flat products, wire,
The alloy is not technically a bronze, but Specific examples include: and rod.
because of long usage the term “leaded com-
mercial bronze” has been used. Hardware • nickel silver, 65-10 (C74500). An alloy
nominally containing 65% Cu, 10% Ni, Temper Terminology
bronze is a term formerly used to designate and 25% Zn
any one of a broad range of similar alloys; this This section describes the terminology in gen-
term is not recommended. • nickel silver, 65-18 (C75200). An alloy
nominally containing 65% Cu, 18% Ni, eral use for indicating the basic processes used
leaded Muntz Metal (C36500). An alloy con- and 17% Zn to produce the different tempers in copper and
taining nominally 60% Cu, 0.6% Pb, and copper alloy products. In the copper industry,
39.4% Zn, generally used for condenser tube
• nickel silver, 65-15 (C75400). An alloy
nominally containing 65% Cu, 15% Ni, the term “temper” refers to the metallurgical
plates. and 20% Zn structure and properties of a product resulting
leaded naval brass (C48500). An alloy contain- from thermal or mechanical processing. A clas-
ing nominally 60% Cu, 0.75% Sn, 1.75% Pb,
nominally containing 65% Cu, 12% Ni, sification system (i.e., an alphanumeric code) of
and 37.5% Zn, generally available in rod, and 23% Zn tempers can be found in the article “Standard
shapes, and bar. This alloy has the equivalent Designations for Wrought and Cast Copper and
strength and corrosion resistance of naval
nominally containing 55% Cu, 18% Ni, Copper Alloys” in this Handbook.
brass (C46400) plus considerably improved and 27% Zn
machinability. anneal (annealing). A thermal treatment to
leaded red brass (C32000). An alloy containing phosphor bronzes (C50100–C52480). Copper change the properties or grain structure of a
nominally 85% Cu, 2% Pb, and 13% Zn, gen- alloys with tin as the principal alloying ele- product. (1) When applied to a cold-worked
erally available in rod and drawn bar. ment, deoxidized with phosphorus. Various product having a single phase: to produce
Hardware bronze is a term formerly used to types are available in flat products, rod, tube, softening by recrystallization or recrystalliza-
designate any one of a broad range of similar wire, and shapes, the most common ones con- tion and grain growth, with the accompanying
alloys; this term is not recommended. taining nominally 1.25% to 10% Sn. Specific changes in properties. (2) When applied to a
cold-worked product having a single phase: to quench hardening. A treatment for copper- tempering. A thermal treatment of a quench-
produce softening by changes in phase rela- aluminum alloy products consisting of heat- hardened product to improve ductility.
tionships that may include recrystallization ing above the betatizing temperature fol- thermal treatment. A controlled heating; time
and grain growth. lowed by quenching to produce a hard at maximum temperature-cooling cycle as
cold work. Controlled mechanical operations martensitic structure. needed to satisfy the property and grain struc-
for changing the form or cross section of a solution heat treatment. A thermal treatment ture requirements of the temper.
product and for producing a strain-hardened of a product to put alloying elements into
product at temperatures below the recrystal- solution in the base metal by heating into the SELECTED REFERENCES
lization temperature. temperature range of solid solubility, fol-
drawn stress relieved (DSR). A thermal lowed by cooling at a sufficient rate to retain • J. Crane and J. Winter, Copper: Properties
treatment of a cold-drawn product to them in a supersaturated solid solution. and Alloying, Encyclopedia of Materials
reduce residual stress variations, thus spinodal heat treatment. A thermal treatment of Science and Engineering, Vol 2, M.B. Bever,
reducing susceptibility of product to stress a solution heat-treated product to produce prop- Ed., Pergamon Press and the MIT Press,
corrosion or season cracking, without sig- erty changes such as hardening, strengthening, 1986, p 848–855
nificantly affecting its tensile strength or and conductivity increase by spinodal decom- • J. Crane and J. Winter, Copper: Selection of
microstructure. position of a solid solution. This treatment has Wrought Alloys, Encyclopedia of Materials
hot working. Controlled mechanical operations also been called “age hardened,” “spinodal Science and Engineering, Vol 2, M.B. Bever,
for shaping a product at temperatures above hardened,” or “spinodally decomposed.” Ed., Pergamon Press and the MIT Press,
the recrystallization temperature. strain hardening. The increase in strength and 1986, p 866–871
order strengthening. A thermal treatment of a hardness and decrease in ductility as a result • “Standard Practice for Temper Designations
cold-worked product at a temperature below of permanent deformation of the structure by for Copper and Copper Alloys—Wrought
its recrystallization temperature causing cold working. and Cast,” ASTM B 601-99a, ASTM, Jan
ordering to occur to obtain an increase in stress relief. A treatment of a product to reduce 2000
yield strength. residual stresses. (1) Stress relief by thermal • Standards Handbook: Wrought Copper and
precipitation heat treatment. A thermal treat- treatment should be carried out without caus- Copper Alloy Mill Products, Part 3—
ment of a solution heat-treated product to pro- ing recrystallization. (2) Stress relief by Terminology, Copper Development
duce property changes such as hardening, mechanical treatment should be carried out Association Inc., 1975
strengthening, and conductivity increase by without causing a significant change in size. • P.W. Taubenblat, Copper: Selection of High
precipitation of constituents from the super- temper annealing. A thermal treatment above Conductivity Alloys, Encyclopedia of
saturated solid solution. This treatment has the eutectoid temperature for copper-alu- Materials Science and Engineering, Vol 2,
also been called “age hardened” and “precipi- minum alloy products to minimize the pres- M.B. Bever, Ed., Pergamon Press and the
tation hardened.” ence of the stable eutectoid structure. MIT Press, 1986, p 863–866
The Copper Industry: Occurrence,
Recovery, and Consumption
THE COPPER INDUSTRY in North emerging as finished products. Figure 1 is a sim- als, principally chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), chalcocite
America, broadly speaking, is composed of two plified flow chart of the copper industry. (Cu2S), and bornite (Cu5FeS4 ). The main
segments: producers (mining, smelting, and processes used in the production of copper from
refining companies) and fabricators (wire mills, Production of Copper sulfide ores are shown in Fig. 2. The mined ore,
brass mills, foundries, and powder plants). The which contains only 0.5 to 2.0% Cu, is finely
end products of copper producers, the most Primary copper is produced from sulfide cop- ground, and then is concentrated by flotation to
important of which are refined copper cathode per minerals and oxidized copper minerals. form copper concentrates containing 25 to 30%
and wire rod, are sold almost entirely to copper These materials are processed pyrometallurgi- Cu. The concentrates are then smelted at high
fabricators. The end products of copper fabrica- cally and/or hydrometallurgically to produce a temperatures (about 1250°C, or 2280°F) to form
tors can be generally described as mill products high-purity electrorefined or electrowon copper a molten mixture of copper and iron sulfide
and foundry products, and they consist of wire containing less than 40 parts per million (ppm) called matte containing up to 60% Cu. The
and cable, sheet, strip, plate, foil, rod, bar impurities, which is suitable for all electrical, molten matte is converted to blister copper
mechanical wire, tubing, forgings, extrusions, electronic, and mechanical uses. Secondary cop- (98.5% Cu) by oxidizing the remaining iron and
castings, and powder metallurgy (P/M) shapes. per is produced from recycled scrap. Recycling sulfur in a converter. After removing the residual
These products are sold to a wide variety of of scrap accounts for approximately 40% of cop- sulfur and oxygen in an anode furnace, copper
industrial users. Certain mill products—chiefly per production worldwide. anodes are cast and then refined electrolytically
wire, cable, and most tubular products—are to produce high-purity copper cathode copper
used without further metalworking. On the other Production of Copper from (99.95% Cu), which is suitable for most uses.
hand, most flat-rolled products, rod, bar, Smelting Processes. The reverberatory fur-
mechanical wire, forgings, and castings go
Sulfide Minerals nace (Fig. 3) is the oldest and most widely used
through multiple metalworking, machining, fin- More than 90% of the primary copper in the smelting process. It consists of a refractory-lined
ishing, and/or assembly operations before Western world is produced from sulfide miner- chamber, typically 30 m (100 ft) long by 10 m
Fig. 1 Copper supply and consumption in the United States. See text for details. Source: Copper Development Association Inc.
The Copper Industry: Occurrence, Recovery, and Consumption / 11
(30 ft) wide, into which copper concentrates and drained separately from the furnace through tap- treatment costs. These processes use oxygen
silica flux are charged. Fuel-fired burners melt holes into ladles. The slag is discarded, while enrichment and oxidize more iron sulfide to gen-
the charge, driving off the labile sulfur by the matte is transferred to the converting step. The erate more heat and produce mattes with higher
following reaction: sulfur evolved during smelting leaves the fur- copper levels (50 to 75% Cu). The smelting
nace in a 1 to 2% SO2 gas stream, which is too reaction for these processes can be represented
2CuFeS2 → Cu2S · 2FeS(l) 12 S(g) (Eq 1) dilute for economic treatment. by the following reaction:
Because the reverberatory furnace cannot
Little iron sulfide is oxidized, so that fuel meet current requirements for low-energy con- 2CuFeS2 2 SiO2 + (1 + 3) O2
requirements are high, about 6.3 106 kJ per sumption and environmental standards, more → Cu2S 2(1 )FeS 2 FeO SiO2
metric tonne (5.4 10 6 Btu per ton) of copper efficient smelting processes have been devel- (1 2)SO2 (Eq 2)
concentrate. Two molten layers are formed in oped since the 1960s. These processes use much
the furnace: an upper layer slag of iron silicate less energy (typically 0.8 to 2.1 10 6 kJ per where is the fraction of FeS reacted (typically,
with little copper (
0.5% Cu), and a lower layer metric tonne of copper concentrate) and produce in the range 0.5 to 0.9). As shown in Fig. 2,
of matte (30 to 40% Cu). The slag and matte are a strong SO2 gas stream (10% SO2) to reduce modern smelting processes fall into two cate-
gories: flash smelting and bath smelting. In flash
smelting, dry concentrate is dispersed in an oxi-
Sulfide ores dizing gas stream, and the smelting reactions
(0.5–2% Cu)
occur very rapidly as the particles fall down a
reaction shaft (Fig. 4). The molten matte and slag
are collected in a hearth, and the SO2-containing
Comminution gases exit via an uptake shaft. In bath smelting,
moist concentrate is smelted continuously in a
molten bath of matte and slag, which is vigor-
ously stirred by the injection of air or oxygen-
enriched air. In one commercial process reactor,
Flotation the air is injected through tuyeres into a vessel
similar to an elongated converter.
Matte Converting. The molten matte is con-
Drying Concentrates (20–30% Cu) verted to blister in Peirce-Smith converters (Fig.
5). The converter is a refractory-lined, cylindri-
Reverberatory cal vessel, typically 10 m (30 ft) in length and 4
furnace m (13 ft) in diameter. The converter can be rotat-
ed about its axis, and is fitted on one side with a
Flash Bath row of approximately 50 tuyeres through which
smelting smelting air is injected. The top of the converter has a
(Outokumpu) Matte Matte (30–40% Cu) Matte (Noranda)
(50–65% Cu) (65–75% Cu) large mouth for charging molten matte and
removing slag and product copper. Converting is
a batch operation; initially several ladles of
matte are charged, the air turned on, and the con-
Converting
verter rotated until the tuyeres are submerged.
The air, bubbling violently through the bath,
gradually oxidizes the matte in two stages. In the
Blister copper (98.5 + % Cu)
first or slag-forming stage, iron sulfide is oxi-
dized and fluxed with silica to form a fluid slag
Anode refining by the following reaction:
and casting
2FeS(l) 2SiO2(s) + 3O2(g)

→ 2FeO SiO2(l) 2SO2(g) (Eq 3)
The converter slag contains some copper (1 to

Anodes (99.5% Cu) 5% Cu), and is recycled to the smelting furnace
or treated in a separate process. When all the
iron has been removed, the remaining copper
Electrorefining sulfide is further oxidized to blister copper by
the following reaction:
Cathodes (99.99 + % Cu)
Cu2S(l) + O2(g) → 2Cu(l) SO2(g) (Eq 4)
Melting
The converting process is sufficiently exother-
mic that no additional fuel is required. The blis-
Continuous ter copper from the converter is transferred by
Open-mold casting ladle to the anode furnace, where the residual
casting sulfur and oxygen levels in the copper are
reduced further. The copper is then cast into
anodes for electrorefining.
Fabrication and use Sulfur Fixation. Smelting and converting a
typical copper concentrate generates over 0.50
Fig. 2 Flow sheet of copper production from sulfide minerals metric tonne SO2 per metric tonne concentrate
(0.55 ton SO2 per ton concentrate) and the per sulfate and free sulfuric acid is continu- are more effectively treated by hydrometallur-
resulting SO2 emissions must be controlled to ously circulated. When direct current is gical processes. The ore is crushed, ground if
meet local environmental standards. This is applied, the copper in the anodes is electro- necessary, and leached with dilute sulfuric
generally achieved by converting the SO2 to chemically dissolved and then plated as pure acid, either by percolation through heaps of
sulfuric acid in a contact acid plant, as long as copper on the cathodes. Some of the anode ore or by agitation in tanks. Copper is recov-
the SO2 concentration exceeds 4% and a impurities, such as arsenic and nickel, are less ered from the resulting solution by either
viable market for acid exists. If local condi- noble than copper and dissolve in the elec- cementation or solvent extraction-electrowin-
tions are favorable, it is also possible to make trolyte, but they do not plate out at the cathode ning. In cementation, copper is precipitated
liquid SO2 or elemental sulfur from strong as long as their concentrations are controlled. by contact with scrap iron to form an impure
SO2 gases. The other impurities, such as silver, lead, and cement copper, which is smelted, then
Electrorefining. The objective of electrore- selenium, are virtually insoluble in the elec- refined. Solvent extraction-electrowinning
fining is to remove the remaining impurities in trolyte and fall as slimes to the bottom of the has become the preferred process. In solvent
the anode copper (principally As, Bi, Ni, Pb, tank. These slimes are recovered and extraction special organic reagents are used to
Sb, and Se) and produce a pure cathode cop- processed for eventual recovery of selenium selectively extract copper from solution. The
per (99.95 % Cu). Also, many copper ores and the precious-metal values. resulting copper-containing organic phase is
contain appreciable amounts of precious met- then stripped to give a pure and more concen-
als (Ag, Au, Pt, and so on), which are concen- Production of Copper from trated aqueous copper solution for electrowin-
trated into the anode copper during smelting Oxidized Minerals ning. Electrowinning is similar to electrore-
and are recovered as valuable by-products in fining, except that an inert anode is used and
electrorefining. The impure anodes are sus- About 10% of primary copper originates more energy is required. Although electrowon
pended alternately with pure copper cathodes from oxidized copper ores, principally oxides, cathode copper is generally not as pure as
in tanks through which an electrolyte of cop- silicates, and sulfates. Oxidized copper ores electrorefined copper, it is still suitable for
many applications.
Concentrate
Off gas
One of the newest developments in
or calcine hydrometallurgy is referred to as “bioleach-
(to waste
Charging heat ing.” In this emerging process, the copper
conveyor boilers) concentrate is transported to a drum contain-
Fuel ing thermophillic bacteria and slightly acidic
warm water. The resultant slurry is constantly
Slag stirred, allowing the bacteria to “eat” sulfur,
Converter arsenic, and other contaminants. In approxi-
slag
mately four days a copper solution containing
30 g of pure copper for every liter of water is
produced. this solution is subsequently elec-
Air trolytically refined.
Matte
Production of Copper from Scrap
Burners
Charging pipes
Slag The box at the lower left in Fig. 1 represents
Matte the portion of the copper supply provided by
scrap. In recent years, well over half the copper
consumed in the United States has been derived
Fig. 3 Cutaway view of a reverberatory furnace for copper smelting
Exhaust gas
Dry concentrates
and flux
Concentrate burners (1 to 4)
Movable
Uptake hood cover Siliceous
O2-enriched air flux
Reaction
shaft
Flux
Tuyere gun
pipes
Air Air
Pneumatic
Off-gas
punchers
Matte Slag Matte Settler Air

Slag
Fig. 5 Cutaway view of a horizontal side-blown Peirce-Smith converter for produc-

Fig. 4 Cutaway view of an oxygen-enriched flash-smelting furnace ing blister copper from matte
The Copper Industry: Occurrence, Recovery, and Consumption / 13
from recycled scrap, and this percentage has remaining 55%. Free-cutting brass rod, which Table 1 Recently published data on
grown somewhat over the last three decades. exhibits outstanding machinability and good the leading copper markets in the
Approximately 55% of this scrap has been new corrosion resistance, and brass strip, which has United States
scrap, such as turnings from screw-machined high strength, good corrosion resistance,
Consumption
rod, as opposed to old scrap, such as used elec- excellent formability, and good electrical prop-
Application lb 106 %
trical cable or auto radiators. Scrap recycled erties, together constitute 80% of the total
tonnage of copper alloys shipped from U.S. Building wire 1215 16
within a particular plant or company (run- Plumbing and heating 1147 15.1
around scrap) is not included in these statistics. brass mills. Other alloy types of major com- Air conditioning and 671 8.8
About one-third of the scrap recycled in the mercial significance include tin bronzes (phos- commercial refrigeration
United States is fed into the smelting or refining phor bronzes), which are noted for their excel- Power utilities 647 8.5
lent cold-forming behavior and strength; tin Telecommunications 544 7.2
stream and quickly loses any identity. The Automotive (electrical) 511 6.7
remainder is consumed directly by brass mills; brasses, known for outstanding corrosion In-plant equipment 500 6.6
by ingot makers, whose main function is to resistance; copper-nickels, which are strong Electronics 409 5.4
process scrap into alloy ingot for use by and particularly resistant to seawater; nickel Automotive (nonelectrical) 276 3.6
foundries; by foundries themselves; by powder silvers, which combine a silvery appearance Industrial valves and fittings 239 3.2
Lighting and wiring devices 231 3.1
plants; and by others, such as the chemical, alu- with good formability and corrosion resist- All others 1201 15.8
minum, and steel industries. ance; beryllium-coppers, which provide out- Total 7591 100
standing strength when hardened; and alu-
Source: Copper Development Association Inc.
minum bronzes, which have high strength
Copper Fabricators along with good resistance to oxidation, chem-
ical attack, and mechanical abrasion. harnesses are the most important products in this
Foundries use prealloyed ingot, scrap, and vir- category. Finally, consumer and general prod-
The four classes of copper fabricators togeth-
gin metal as raw materials. Their chief products ucts include electrical appliances, fasteners, ord-
er account for 97% of the total copper (includ-
are shaped castings for many different industrial nance, coinage, and jewelry. Table 1 provides a
ing alloying metal) consumed each year in the
and consumer goods, the most important of listing of the largest markets for copper and cop-
United States (Fig. 1). Other industries, such as
which are plumbing products and industrial per alloys in the United States. Additional infor-
steel, aluminum, and chemical producers, con-
valves. Centrifugal and continuously cast prod- mation on the supply and consumption of copper
sume the remaining 3%.
ucts find major application as bearings, cylin- can be found in statistical data available from the
The share of metal consumed by wire rod
ders, and other symmetrical components. Powder Copper Development Association Inc., the U.S.
mills has grown sharply over the last 35 years to
plants produce powder and flake for further fab- Geological Survey in the U.S. Department of the
the current level of 51.5%; consumption by
rication into powder metallurgy parts, chiefly Interior, and the Bureau of the Census in the
brass mills has dropped to 41.5%. Foundries
small sintered porous bronze bearings. U. S. Department of Commerce.
account for about 4% of fabricated mill prod-
ucts, and powder plants use less than 1% of the
U.S. supply of copper. SELECTED REFERENCES
Wire mill products are destined for use as
Markets and Applications
electrical conductors. Starting with wire rod, • A.K. Biswas and W.G. Davenport, Extractive
these mills cold draw the material (with neces- The five major market categories shown at the Metallurgy of Copper, 2nd ed., Pergamon,
sary anneals) to final dimensions through a far right in Fig. 1 constitute the chief customer 1980
series of dies. The individual wires can be industries of the copper fabricators. Of the chief • D.P. Cox, Copper Resources, in Encyclopedia
stranded and normally are insulated before being customer industries, the largest is building con- of Materials Science and Engineering, Vol 2,
gathered into cable assemblies. struction, which, purchases large quantities of M.B. Bever, Ed., Pergamon Press and the MIT
Brass mills melt and alloy feedstock to make electrical wire, tubing, and parts for building Press, 1986, p 855–859
strip, sheet, plate, tube, rod, bar, mechanical hardware and for electrical, plumbing, heating, • W.G. Davenport, Copper Production, in
wire, forgings, and extrusions. Less than half the and air-conditioning systems. The second largest Encyclopedia of Materials Science and En-
copper input to brass mills is refined; the rest is category is electrical and electronic products, gineering, Vol 2, M.B. Bever, Ed., Pergamon
scrap. Fabricating processes such as hot rolling, including those for telecommunications, elec- Press and the MIT Press, 1986 p 841–848
cold rolling, extrusion, and drawing are tronics, wiring de-vices, electric motors, and • G. Joseph and K.J.A. Kundig, Copper: Its
employed to convert the melted and cast feed- power utilities. The industrial machinery and Trade, Manufacture, Use, and Environmen-
stock into mill products. equipment category includes industrial valves tal Status, International Copper Association,
Approximately 45% of the output of U.S. and fittings; industrial, chemical, and marine Ltd., and ASM International, 1999
brass mills is unalloyed copper and high-cop- heat exchangers; and various other types of • J.G. Peacey, Copper Metallurgy, McGraw-
per alloys, chiefly in such forms as plumbing heavy equipment, off-road vehicles, and Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technol-
and air conditioning tube, busbar and other machine tools. Transportation applications ogy, Vol 2, 7th ed., 1992, p 420–423
heavy-gage current-carrying flat products, and include road vehicles, railroad equipment, and • E.G. West, Copper and its Alloys, Ellis
roofing sheet. Copper alloys make up the aircraft parts; automobile radiators and wiring Horwood Limited, 1982
Standard Designations for Wrought and
Cast Copper and Copper Alloys
STANDARD DESIGNATION SYSTEMS are classified as “other copper-zinc alloys” method. Copper alloys are said to have a harder
for copper and copper alloys described in this (wrought compositions) or “special alloys” (cast temper if they have been cold worked, heat treat-
article include: compositions). Table 2 lists the chemical com- ed, or both, and a softer temper when they are in
positions for 50 wrought coppers and 265 the as-hot-formed condition or when the effects
• The Unified Numbering System (UNS) alloy wrought copper alloys covered by UNS designa- of cold work and/or heat treatment have been
designation system for wrought and cast cop-
tions. Compositions for 148 cast coppers and removed by annealing. As usual, higher strength
per and copper alloy products
copper alloys are listed in Table 3. The alloys and hardness, that is, harder tempers, are gained
• Temper designations for wrought and cast
described in Tables 2 and 3 are listed in CDA at the expense of reduced ductility. Temper, as
copper and copper alloy products
Standard Designations for Wrought and Cast applied to heat treated copper alloys, carries
• International alloy and temper designa-
Copper and Copper Alloys, 1999 edition. This exactly the opposite meaning than for heat treat-
tion systems
publication is updated periodically with new ed steels where tempering generally implies
alloys being added and alloys that are no longer softening (e.g., quenched and tempered steels).
Alloy Designations produced being deleted. Tempers for copper alloys are defined in
ASTM B 601, “Standard Practice for Temper
In North America, the accepted designations Temper Designations Designations for Copper and Copper Alloys—
for copper and copper alloys are now part of the Wrought and Cast.” As shown in Table 4, this
Unified Numbering System (UNS) for Metals Copper alloys are also described by their tem- standard establishes an alphanumeric code for
and Alloys (Ref 1), which is managed jointly by pers, which are terms that define metallurgical use in designating product tempers. It should be
American Society for Testing and Materials condition, heat treatment, and/or casting noted, however, that the temper designations
(ASTM) and the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) International. Under the UNS Table 1 Generic classification of coppers and copper alloys
system, coppers and copper alloys are designated Generic name UNS No. Composition
by five-digit numbers preceded by the letter “C.”
Wrought alloys
The five-digit codes are based on, and supersede,
Coppers(a) C10100–C15815 99% Cu
an older three-digit system developed by the U.S. High-copper alloys(b) C16200–C19900 96% Cu
copper and brass industry. The older system was Brasses C20100–C28000 Cu-Zn
administered by the Copper Development Leaded brasses C31200–C38500 Cu-Zn-Pb
Association (CDA), and alloys are still sometimes Tin brasses C40400–C48600 Cu-Zn-Sn-Pb
Phosphor bronzes C50100–C52480 Cu-Sn-P
identified by their “CDA numbers.” The UNS Leaded phosphor bronzes C53400–C54400 Cu-Sn-Pb-P
designations are simply two-digit extensions of Copper-phosphorus and copper-silver-phosphorus alloys(c) C55180–C55284 Cu-P-Ag
the CDA numbers to accommodate new compo- Aluminum bronzes C60800–C64210 Cu-Al-Ni-Fe-Si-Sn
sitions. For example, free-cutting brass, once Silicon bronzes C64700–C66100 Cu-Si-Sn
Other copper-zinc alloys C66300–C69710 Cu-Zn-Mn-Fe-Sn-Al-Si-Co
known as CDA Alloy No. 360, became UNS Copper nickels C70100–C72950 Cu-Ni-Fe
C36000. UNS designations have been incorporat- Nickel silvers C73500–C79830 Cu-Ni-Zn
ed in most relevant standards by ASTM, Cast alloys
American Society of Mechanical Engineers Coppers(a) C80100–C81200 99% Cu
(ASME), SAE, and similar organizations. Long- High-copper alloys(d) C81400–C82800 94% Cu
standing familiar alloys continue to be identified Red and leaded red brasses C83300–C83810 Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb (82–94% Cu)
by descriptive names or trade names, but for the Semi-red and leaded semi-red brasses C84200–C84800 Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb (75–82% Cu)
Yellow and leaded yellow brasses C85200–C85800 Cu-Zn-Pb
sake of clarity, UNS designations are preferred Manganese bronzes and leaded manganese bronzes(e) C86100–C86800 Cu-Zn-Mn-Fe-Pb
throughout industry for engineering drawings and Silicon brasses/bronzes C87300–C87800 Cu-Zn-Si
purchase documents. Copper-bismuth and copper-bismuth-selenium alloys C89320–C89940 Cu-Sn-Zn-Bi-Se
In the UNS system, numbers from C10000 Tin bronzes C90200–C91700 Cu-Sn-Zn
Leaded tin bronzes C92200–C94500 Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb
through C79999 denote wrought alloys, while Nickel-tin bronzes C94700–C94900 Cu-Ni-Sn-Zn-Pb
cast alloy designations range from C80000 Aluminum bronzes C95200–C95900 Cu-Al-Fe-Ni
through C99999. As shown in Table 1, within Copper nickels C96200–C96950 Cu-Ni-Fe
these two categories, the compositions are Nickel silvers C97300–C97800 Cu-Ni-Zn-Pb-Sn
Leaded coppers C98200–C98840 Cu-Pb
grouped into distinct families of coppers and Special alloys C99300–C99750 Cu-Zn-Mn-Al-Fe-Co-Sn-Pb
copper alloys, including the six major branch-
es—coppers, high-alloy coppers, brasses, (a) Metals that have a designated Cu content of 99.3% or higher. (b) For wrought products, those alloys with designated Cu contents less than 99.3%, but
more than 96% that do not fall into any other copper alloy group. (c) Brazing filler metal alloys. (d) Cast high-copper alloys have designated Cu contents
bronzes, copper nickels, and nickel silvers. in excess of 94%, to which Ag may be added for special properties. (e) Also referred to as high-strength and leaded high-strength yellow brasses
Alloys not falling into one of these six branches
Standard Designations for Wrought and Cast Copper and Copper Alloys / 15
only imply specific mechanical properties when In addition, some copper alloys derive their single-phase metals such as pure copper, copper-
used in association with a particular alloy, prod- mechanical properties from controlled grain nickels, and low-zinc brasses.
uct form, and size. For example, in order to sizes or through combinations of heat treatment Lightly cold-worked tempers such as 18 hard
specify a copper alloy correctly it is necessary to and cold work. Tempers describing these metal- and 14 hard give improved machinability yet
indicate (Ref 2): lurgical conditions are also listed in Table 4. retain sufficient ductility for forming operations.
The choice of temper depends on the prop- Hard, extra hard, and spring tempers produce
• UNS number, for example, UNS C36000 erties required and on the type of processing maximum strength, but at the expense of ductil-
• Product form and size, for example, 6.4 mm to be done (Ref 2). The 12 hard (H02) cold- ity. Machinability, as measured by tool wear
(14 in.) round rod worked temper in Table 4 is most frequently rates, usually (but not always) deteriorates in
• Temper, for example, H02, 12 hard specified for screw machine products because proportion to the hardness of the alloy.
it combines the best levels of strength and Electrical and thermal conductivity vary with
Properties vary considerably for different ductility to suit both machinability and func- the degree of temper, but the nature and extent of
forms and tempers of the same alloy (Ref 2). tional requirements. the effect depends strongly on the type of alloy
For example, a 25 mm (1 in.) rod of free-cut- Annealed tempers such as O50 or O60 refer to and its metallurgical condition. Chemical prop-
ting brass (UNS C36000) in the H02 temper soft, formable structures ordinarily specified for erties such as corrosion resistance and plateabil-
has a yield strength of 310 MPa (45 ksi); cold-formed rather than machined products. ity are not strongly affected by temper, although
whereas the same alloy produced as a 25 by Annealed alloys may have inferior machinabili- residual cold-work-induced tensile stresses ren-
150 mm (1 by 6 in.) bar in the soft (O60) ty, with poor surface finishes, because of a ten- der some copper alloys more susceptible to
temper has a yield strength of only 138 MPa dency for chips to tear away from the work dur- stress-corrosion cracking than would be the case
(20 ksi). ing cutting. This is observed particularly in when the metals are in the annealed state.
Table 2 Chemical compositions of wrought coppers and copper alloys

Composition values are given as maximum percentages, unless shown as a range or minimum.
Coppers
Composition, wt%
Ag, min
Cu, min, Other named
Copper No. Designation Description (incl Ag), % % Troy oz As Sb P Te elements
C10100 OFE Oxygen-free electronic 99.99(b) … … 0.0005 0.0004 0.0003 0.0002 (c)
C10200(a) OF Oxygen free 99.95 … … … … … … 0.0010O
C10300 OFXLP … 99.95(d) … … … … 0.001–0.005 … …
C10400(a) OFS Oxygen-free with Ag 99.95 0.027 8 … … … … …
C10500(a) OFS Oxygen-free with Ag 99.95 0.034 10 … … … … …
C10700 OFS Oxygen-free with Ag 99.95 0.085 25 … … … … …
C10800 OFLP … 99.95(d) … … … … 0.005–0.012 … …
C10920 … … 99.90 … … … … … … 0.02O
C10930 … … 99.90 0.044 13 … … … … 0.02O
C10940 … … 99.90 0.085 25 … … … … 0.02O
C11000(a) ETP Electrolytic tough pitch 99.90 … … … … … … (e)
C11010(a) RHC Remelted high conductivity 99.90 … … … … … … (e)
C11020(a) FRHC Fire-refined high conductivity 99.90 … … … … … … (e)
C11030(a) CRTP Chemically refined tough pitch 99.90 … … … … … … (e)
C11040(a) … … 99.90 … … 0.0005 0.0004 … 0.0002 (f)
C11100(a) … Electrolytic tough pitch, 99.90 … … … … … … (g)
anneal resistant
C11300(a) STP Tough pitch with Ag 99.90 0.027 8 … … … … (e)
C11700 … … 99.9(h) … … … … 0.04 … 0.004–0.02B
C12000 DLP Phosphorus deoxidized, 99.90 … … … … 0.004–0.012 … …
low residual phosphorus
C12100 … … 99.90 0.014 4 … … 0.005–0.012 … …
C12200(a) DHP Phosphorus deoxidized, … 99.9 … … … … 0.015–0.040 …
high residual phosphorus
C12210 … … 99.90 … … … … 0.015–0.025 … …
C12220 … … 99.9 … … … … 0.040–0.065 … …
(continued)
incl, including. (a) These are high conductivity coppers that have in the annealed condition a minimum conductivity of 100% International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS). (b) Copper is determined by the difference between
the impurity total and 100%. (c) The following additional maximum limits apply: Bi, 1 ppm (0.0001%); Cd, 1 ppm (0.001%); Fe, 10 ppm (0.0010%); Pb, 5 ppm (0.0005%); Mn, 0.5 ppm (0.00005%); Hg, 1 ppm (0.0001%); Ni,
10 ppm (0.0010%); oxygen, 5 ppm (0.0005%); Se, 3 ppm (0.0003%); Ag, 25 ppm (0.0025%); S, 15 ppm (0.0015%); Sn, 2 ppm (0.0002%); Zn, 1 ppm (0.0001%). (d) Includes P. (e) The following additional maximum limits
apply: Oxygen and trace elements can vary depending on the process. (f) Se, 2 ppm (0.0002%); Bi, 1.0 ppm (0.00010%); group total, Te Se Bi, 3 ppm (0.0003%). Sn, 5 ppm (0.0005%); Pb, 5 ppm (0.0005%); Fe, 10 ppm
(0.0010%); Ni, 10 ppm (0.0010%); S, 15 ppm (0.0015%); Ag, 25 ppm (0.0025%); oxygen, 100-650 ppm (0.010–0.065%). The total maximum allowable of 65 ppm (0.0065%) does not include oxygen. (g) Small amounts of Cd
or other elements can be added by agreement to improve the resistance to softening at elevated temperatures. (h) Includes B P. (i) This includes oxygen-free copper that contains P in an agreed-upon amount. (j) Includes Te
Se. (k) Includes Cd. Deoxidized with lithium or other suitable agreed-upon elements. (l) Includes Cu Ag Sn. (m) Includes Te Sn. (n) Includes oxygen-free or deoxidized grades with deoxidizers (such as phosphorus, boron,
lithium, or other) in an agreed-upon amount. (o) All aluminum present as Al2O3; 0.04% oxygen present as Cu2O with a negligible amount in solid solution with copper. (p) Cu sum of named elements, 99.5% min. (q) Ni
Co, 0.20% min; Ni Fe Co, 0.6% max. (r) Includes Co. (s) Cu sum of named elements, 99.9% min. (t) Cu sum of named elements, 99.8% min. (u) Cu + sum of named elements, 99.7% min. (v) Cu sum of named
elements, 99.6% min. (w) For tube over 5 in. outside diameter, the Pb can be 0.20%. (x) For flat products, the iron is 0.10% max. (y) Cu, 61.0% min for rod. (z) Pb can be reduced to 1.0% by agreement. (aa) For tubular prod-
ucts, the minimum Sn content can be 0.9%. (bb) Cu Sn Fe P, 99.5% min. (cc) Cu sum of named elements, 99.85% min. (dd) When the product is for subsequent welding applications and is so specified by the pur-
chaser, Cr, Cd, Zr, and Zn will each be 0.05% max. (ee) Fe content shall not exceed Ni content. (ff) Not including Co. (gg) Fe Co, 1.8-2.3%. (hh) Al Zn, 25.1-27.1%. (ii) The following additional maximum limits apply:
When the product is for subsequent welding applications and is so specified by the purchaser, 0.50% Zn, 0.02% P, 0.02% Pb, 0.02% S (0.008% S for C71110), and 0.05% C. (jj) The following additional maximum limits apply:
0.02% C, 0.015% Si, 0.003% S, 0.002% Al, 0.001% P, 0.0005% Hg, 0.001% Ti, 0.001% Sb, 0.001% As, 0.001% Bi, 0.05% Co, 0.10% Mg, and 0.005% oxygen. For C70690, Co will be 0.02% max. (kk) The following maxi-
mum limits apply: 0.07% C, 0.15% Si, 0.024% S, 0.05% Al, and 0.03% P. (ll) 0.02% P, max; 0.25% Si, max; 0.01% S, max; 0.20-0.50% Ti. (mm) 0.005% Pb, max, for hot rolling. (nn) 0.05% Pb, max, for rod and wire. Source:
Copper Development Association Inc.
Table 2 (continued)
Coppers
Composition, wt%
Ag, min
Cu, min, Other named
Copper No. Designation Description (incl Ag), % % Troy oz As Sb P Te elements
C12300 … … 99.90 … … … … 0.015–0.040 … …

C12500 … … 99.88 … … 0.012 0.003 … … 0.025Te+Se,
0.003Bi,
0.004Pb,
0.050Ni
C12510 … … 99.9 … … … 0.003 0.03 … 0.025Te+Se,
0.005Bi,
0.020Pb,
0.050Ni,
0.05Fe,
0.05Sn,
0.080Zn
C12900 FRSTP Fire-refined tough pitch with Ag 99.88 0.054 16 0.012 0.003 … 0.025(j) 0.050Ni,
0.003Bi,
0.004Pb
C14180 … … 99.90 … … … … 0.075 … 0.02Pb,
0.01Al
C14181 … … 99.90 … … … … 0.002 … 0.002Cd,
0.005C,
0.002Pb,
0.002Zn
C14200 DPA Phosphorus deoxidized arsenical 99.4 … … 0.15–50 … 0.015–0.040 … …
C14300 … Cadmium copper, deoxidized 99.90(k) … … … … … … 0.05–0.15Cd
C14410 … … 99.90(l) … … … … 0.005–0.020 … 0.05Fe,
0.05Pb,
0.10–0.20Sn
C14415 … … 99.96(l) … … … … … … 0.10–0.15Sn
C14420 … … 99.90(m) … … … … … 0.005–0.05 0.04–0.15Sn
C14500(n) … Tellurium bearing 99.90(m) … … … … 0.004–0.012 0.40–0.7 ….
C14510 … Tellurium bearing 99.90(m) … … … … 0.010–0.030 0.30–0.7 0.05Pb
C14520 DPTE Phosphorus deoxidized, 99.40(m) … … … … 0.004–0.020 0.40–0.7 …
tellurium bearing
C14530 … … 99.90(j)(l) … … … … 0.001–0.010 0.003–0.023(j) 0.003–0.023Sn
C14700 … Sulfur bearing 99.90(n) … … … … 0.002–0.005 … 0.20–0.50S
C15000 … Zirconium copper 99.80 … … … … … … 0.10–0.20Zr
C15100 … … 99.82 … … … … … … 0.005Al,
0.005Mn,
0.05–0.15Zr
C15500 … … 99.75 0.027–0.10 8–30 … … 0.040–0.080 … 0.08–0.13Mg
Composition, wt%
Other named
Copper No. Cu (incl Ag), min Al(o) Fe Pb O(o) elements
C15715 99.62 0.13–0.17 0.01 0.01 0.12–0.19 …

C15715 99.62 0.13–0.17 0.01 0.01 0.12–0.19 …
C15720 99.52 0.18–0.22 0.01 0.01 0.16–0.24 …
C15725 99.43 0.23–0.27 0.01 0.01 0.20–0.28 …
C15760 98.77 0.58–0.62 0.01 0.01 0.52–0.59 …
C15815 97.82 0.13–0.17 0.01 0.01 0.19 1.2–1.8B
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Alloys C16200—C19160 (high-copper alloys)
Composition, wt%
Copper Previous trade Other named

alloy No. name Cu (incl Ag) Fe Sn Ni Co Cr Si Be Pb elements
C16200 Cadmium copper bal(p) 0.02 … … … … … … … 0.7–1.2Cd

C16500 … bal(p) 0.02 0.50–0.7 … … … … … … 0.6–1.0Cd
C17000 Beryllium copper bal(p) (q) … (q) (q) … 0.20 1.60–1.79 … 0.20Al
C17200 Beryllium copper bal(p) (q) … (q) (q) … 0.20 1.80–2.00 0.02 0.20Al
C17300 … bal(p) (q) … (q) (q) … 0.20 1.80–2.00 0.20–0.6 0.20Al
C17410 … bal(p) 0.20 … … 0.35–0.6 … 0.20 0.15–0.50 … 0.20Al
C17450 … bal(p) 0.20 0.25 0.50–1.0 … … 0.20 0.15–0.50 … 0.20Al
C17460 … bal(p) 0.20 0.25 1.0–1.4 … … 0.20 0.15–0.50 ... 0.20Al,
0.10–0.50Zr
C17500 Beryllium copper bal(p) 0.10 … … 2.4–2.7 … 0.20 0.40–0.70 … 0.20Al
C17510 … bal(p) 0.10 … 1.4–2.2 0.30 … 0.20 0.20–0.6 … 0.20Al
C17530 … bal(p) 0.20 … 1.8–2.5(r) … … 0.20 0.20–0.40 … 0.6Al
C18000 … bal(p) 0.15 … 1.8–3.0(r) … 0.10–0.8 0.40–0.8 … … …
C18030 … bal(s) … 0.08–0.12 … … 0.10–0.20 … … … 0.005–0.015P
C18040 … bal(n) … 0.20–0.30 … … 0.25–0.35 … … … 0.005–0.015P,
0.05–0.15Zn
C18050 … bal(t) … … … … 0.05–0.15 … … … 0.005–0.015Te
C18070 … 99.0(t) … … … … 0.15–0.40 0.02–0.07 … … 0.01–0.40Ti
C18090 … 96.0 min(cc) … 0.50–1.2 0.30–1.2 … 0.20–1.0 … … … 0.15–8Ti
C18100 … 98.7 min(p) … … … … 0.40–1.2 … … … 0.03–0.06Mg,
0.08–0.20Zr
C18135 … bal(p) … … … … 0.20–0.6 … … … 0.20–0.6Cd
C18140 … bal(p) … … … … 0.15–0.45 0.005–0.05 … … 0.05–0.25Zr
C18150 … bal(u) … … … … 0.50–1.5 … … … 0.05–0.25Zr
C18200 Chromium copper bal(p) 0.10 … … … 0.06–1.2 0.10 … 0.05 …
C18400 Chromium copper bal(p) 0.15 … … … 0.40–1.2 0.10 … … 0.005As, 0.005Ca,
0.05Li, 0.05P, 0.7Zn
C18600 … bal(p) 0.25–0.8 … 0.25 0.10 0.10–1.0 … … … 0.05–0.50Ti,
0.05–0.50Zr
C18610 … bal(p) 0.10 … 0.25 0.25–0.8 0.10–1.0 … … … 0.05–0.50Ti,
0.05–0.50Zr
C18665 … 99.0 min … … … … … … … … 0.40–0.9Mg,
0.002–0.04P
C18700 … bal(p) … … … … … … … 0.8–1.5 …
C18835 … 99.0 min(p) 0.10 0.15–0.55 … … … … … 0.05 0.01P
C18900 … bal(p) … 0.6–0.9 … … … 0.15–0.40 … 0.02 0.05P, 0.01Al,
0.10–0.30Mn, 0.10Zn
C18980 … 98.0(p) … 1.0 … … … 0.50 … 0.02 0.50Mn, 0.15P
C18990 … bal(s) … 1.8–2.2 … … 0.10–0.20 … … … 0.005–0.015P
C19000 … bal(p) 0.10 … 0.9–1.3 … … … … 0.05 0.8Zn, 0.015–0.35P
C19010 … bal(p) … … 0.8–1.8 … … 0.15–0.35 … … 0.01–0.05P
C19015 … bal(t) … … 0.50–2.4 … … 0.10–0.40 … … 0.02–0.20P,
0.02–0.15Mg
C19020 … bal(t) … 0.30–0.9 0.50–3.0 … … … … … 0.01–0.20P,
0.35Mn+Si
C19025 … bal(u) … 0.7–1.1 0.8–1.2 … … … … … 0.03–0.07P
C19030 … bal(u) 0.10 1.0–1.5 1.5–2.0 … … … … 0.02 0.01–0.03P
C19100 … bal(p) 0.20 … 0.9–1.3 … … … … 0.10 0.50Zn, 0.35–0.6Te,
0.15–0.35P
C19140 … bal(p) 0.05 0.05 0.8–1.2 … … … … 0.40–0.8 0.50Zn
C19150 … bal(p) 0.05 0.05 0.8–1.2 … … … … 0.50–1.0 0.15–0.35P
C19160 … bal(p) 0.05 0.05 0.8–1.2 … … … … 0.8–1.2 0.50Zn, 0.15–0.35P
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Alloys C19200–C19900 (high-copper alloys)
Composition, wt%
Copper Other named
alloy No. Cu Fe Sn Zn Al Pb P elements
C19200 98.5 min(t) 0.8–1.2 … 0.20 … … 0.01–0.04 …

C19210 bal(t) 0.05–0.15 … … … … 0.025–0.040 …
C19220 bal(t) 0.10–0.30 0.05–0.10 … … … 0.03–0.07 0.005–0.015B,
0.10–0.25Ni
C19260 98.5 min(s) 0.40–0.8 … … … … … 0.20–0.40Ti,
0.20–0.15Mg
C19280 bal(t) 0.50–1.5 0.30–0.7 0.30–0.7 … … 0.005–0.015 …
C19400 97.0 min 2.1–2.6 … 0.05–0.20 … 0.03 0.015–0.15 …
C19410 bal(t) 1.8–2.3 0.6–0.9 0.10–0.20 … … 0.015–0.050 …
C19450 bal(t) 1.5–3.0 0.8–2.5 … … … 0.005–0.05 …
C19500 96.0 min(t) 1.0–2.0 0.10–1.0 0.20–0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01–0.35 0.30–1.3Co
C19520 96.6 min(t) 0.50–1.5 … … … 0.01–3.5 … …
C19700 bal(t) 0.30–1.2 0.20 0.20 … 0.05 0.10–0.40 0.01–0.20Mg, 0.05Ni,
0.05Co, 0.05Mn
C19710 bal(p) 0.05–0.40 0.20 0.20 … 0.05 0.07–1.5 0.10NiCo, 0.05Mn,
0.03–0.06Mg
C19720 bal(p) 0.05–0.50 0.20 0.20 … 0.05 0.05–0.15 0.10NiCo, 0.05Mn,
0.06–0.20Mg
C19750 bal(t) 0.35–1.2 0.05–0.40 0.20 … 0.05 0.10–0.40 0.01–0.20Mg, 0.05Ni,
0.05Co, 0.05Mn
C19900 bal(p) … … … … … … 2.9–3.4Ti
Copper-zinc alloys (brasses)
Composition, wt%
Copper Other named
alloy No. Previous trade name Cu Pb Fe Zn elements
C21000 Gilding, 95% 94.0–96.0(t) 0.03 0.05 bal …

C22000 Commercial bronze, 90% 89.0–91.0(t) 0.05 0.05 bal …
C22600 Jewelry bronze, 87.5% 86.0–89.0(t) 0.05 0.05 bal …
C23000 Red brass, 85% 84.0–86.0(t) 0.05 0.05 bal …
C23030 … 83.5–85.5(t) 0.05 0.05 bal 0.20–0.40Si
C23400 … 81.0–84.0(t) 0.05 0.05 bal …
C24000 Low brass, 80% 78.5–81.5(t) 0.05 0.05 bal …
C24080 … 78.0–82.0(t) 0.20 … bal 0.10Al
C25600 … 71.0–73.0(u) 0.05 0.05 bal …
C26000 Cartridge brass, 70% 68.5–71.5(u) 0.07 0.05 bal …
C26130 … 68.5–71.5(u) 0.05 0.05 bal 0.02–0.08As
C26200 … 67.0–70.0(u) 0.07 0.05 bal …
C26800 Yellow brass, 66% 64.0–68.5(u) 0.15 0.05 bal …
C27200 … 62.0–65.0(u) 0.07 0.07 bal …
C28000 Muntz metal, 60% 59.0–63.0(u) 0.30 0.07 bal …
Copper-zinc-lead alloys (leaded brasses)
Composition, %
Copper Other named
C31200 … 87.5–90.5(v) 0.7–1.2 0.10 bal 0.25Ni

C31400 Leaded commercial bronze 87.5–90.5(v) 1.3–2.5 0.10 bal 0.7Ni
C31600 Leaded commercial bronze 87.5–90.5(v) 1.3–2.5 0.10 bal 0.7–1.2 Ni,
(nickel-bearing) 0.04–0.10P
C32000 Leaded red brass 83.5–86.5(v) 1.5–2.2 0.10 bal 0.25Ni
C33000 Low leaded brass (tube) 65.0–68.0(v) 0.25–0.7(w) 0.07 bal …
C33200 High leaded brass (tube) 65.0–68.0(v) 1.5–2.5 0.07 bal …
C33500 Low leaded brass 62.0–65.0(v) 0.25–0.7 0.15(x) bal …
C34000 Medium leaded brass, 64.5% 62.0–65.0(v) 0.8–1.5 0.15(x) bal …
C34200 High leaded brass, 64.5% 62.0–65.0(v) 1.5–2.5 0.15(x) bal …
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Copper-zinc-lead alloys (leaded brasses)
Composition, %
Copper Other named
C34500 … 62.0–65.0(v) 1.5–2.5 0.15 bal …

C35000 Medium leaded brass, 62% 60.0–63.0(v)(y) 0.8–2.0 0.15(x) bal …
C35300 High leaded brass, 62% 60.0–63.0(p)(y) 1.5–2.5 0.15(x) bal …
C35330 … 60.5–64.0(p) 1.5–3.5(z) … bal 0.02–0.25As
C35600 Extra high leaded brass 60.0–63.0(p) 2.0–3.0 0.15(x) bal …
C36000 Free-cutting brass 60.0–63.0(p) 2.5–3.7 0.35 bal …
C36500 Leaded Muntz metal, uninhibited 58.0–61.0(v) 0.25–0.7 0.15 bal 0.25Sn
C37000 Free-cutting Muntz metal 59.0–62.0(v) 0.8–1.5 0.15 bal …
C37100 … 58.0–62.0(v) 0.6–1.2 0.15 bal …
C37700 Forging brass 58.0–61.0(p) 1.5–2.5 0.30 bal …
C37710 … 56.5–60.0(p) 1.0–3.0 0.30 bal …
C38000 Architectural bronze, low leaded 55.0–60.0(p) 1.5–2.5 0.35 bal 0.50Al, 0.30Sn
C38500 Architectural bronze 55.0–59.0(p) 2.5–3.5 0.35 bal …
Copper-zinc-tin alloys (tin brasses)
Composition, wt%
Copper Other named
alloy No. Previous trade name Cu Pb Fe Sn Zn P elements
C40400 … bal(u) … … 0.35–0.7 2.0–3.0 … …
C40500 … 94.0–96.0(u) 0.05 0.05 0.7–1.3 bal … …
C40810 … 94.5–96.5(u) 0.05 0.08–0.12 1.8–2.2 bal 0.028–0.04 0.11–0.20Ni
C40850 … 94.5–96.5(u) 0.05 0.05–0.20 2.6–4.0 bal 0.02–0.04 0.05–0.20Ni
C40860 … 94.0–96.0(u) 0.05 0.01–0.05 1.7–2.3 bal 0.02–0.04 0.05–0.20Ni
C41000 … 91.0–93.0(u) 0.05 0.05 2.0–2.8 bal … …
C41100 … 89.0–92.0(u) 0.10 0.05 0.30–0.7 bal … …
C41120 … 89.0–92.0(u) 0.05 0.05–0.20 0.30–0.7 bal 0.02–0.05 0.05–0.20Ni
C41300 … 89.0–93.0(u) 0.10 0.05 0.7–1.3 bal … …
C41500 … 89.0–93.0(u) 0.10 0.05 1.5–2.2 bal … …
C42000 … 88.0–91.0(u) … … 1.5–2.0 bal 0.25 …
C42200 … 86.0–89.0(u) 0.05 0.05 0.8–1.4 bal 0.35 …
C42500 … 87.0–90.0(u) 0.05 0.05 1.5–3.0 bal 0.35 …
C42520 … 88.0–91.0(u) 0.05 0.05–0.20 1.5–3.0 bal 0.02–0.04 0.05–0.20Ni
C43000 … 84.0–87.0(u) 0.10 0.05 1.7–2.7 bal … …
C43400 … 84.0–87.0(u) 0.05 0.05 0.40–1.0 bal … …
C43500 … 79.0–83.0(u) 0.10 0.05 0.6–1.2 bal … …
C43600 … 80.0–83.0(u) 0.05 0.05 0.20–0.50 bal … …
C44300 Admiralty, arsenical 70.0–73.0(v) 0.07 0.06 0.8–1.2(aa) bal … 0.02–0.06As
C44400 Admiralty, antimonial 70.0–73.0(v) 0.07 0.06 0.8–1.2(aa) bal … 0.02–0.10Sb
C44500 Admiralty, phosphorized 70.0–73.0(v) 0.07 0.06 0.8–1.2(aa) bal 0.02–0.10 …
C46200 Naval brass, 63.5% 62.0–65.0(v) 0.20 0.10 0.50–1.0 bal … …
C46400 Naval brass, uninhibited 59.0–62.0(v) 0.20 0.10 0.50–1.0 bal … …
C46500 Naval brass, arsenical 59.0–62.0(v) 0.20 0.10 0.50–1.0 bal … 0.02–0.06As
C47000 Naval brass welding 57.0–61.0(v) 0.05 … 0.25–1.0 bal … 0.01Al
and brazing rod
C47940 … 63.0–66.0(v) 1.0–2.0 0.10–1.0 1.2–2.0 bal … 0.10–0.50Ni
(including Co)
C48200 Naval brass, medium leaded 59.0–62.0(v) 0.40–1.0 0.10 0.50–1.0 bal … …
C48500 Naval brass, high leaded 59.0–62.0(v) 1.3–2.2 0.10 0.50–1.0 bal … …
C48600 … 59.0–62.0(v) 1.0–2.5 … 0.8–1.5 bal … 0.02–0.25As
Copper-tin-phosphorus alloys (phosphor bronzes)
Composition, wt%
Copper Other named
alloy No. Previous trade name Cu(p) Pb Fe Sn Zn P elements
C50100 … bal 0.05 0.05 0.50–0.8 … 0.01–0.05 …
C50200 … bal 0.05 0.10 1.0–1.5 … 0.04 …
C50500 Phosphor bronze, 1.25% E bal 0.05 0.10 1.0–1.7 0.30 0.03–0.35 …
C50510 … bal(u) … … 1.0–1.5 0.10–0.25 0.02–0.07 0.15–0.40Ni
C50580 … bal 0.05 0.05–0.20 1.0–1.7 0.30 0.02–0.10 0.05–0.20Ni
C50700 … bal 0.05 0.10 1.5–2.0 … 0.30 …
C50710 … bal … … 1.7–2.3 … 0.15 0.10–0.40Ni
C50715 … bal(bb) 0.02 0.05–0.15 1.7–2.3 … 0.025–0.04 …
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Copper-tin-phosphorus alloys (phosphor bronzes)
Composition, wt%
Copper Other named
alloy No. Previous trade name Cu(p) Pb Fe Sn Zn P elements
C50725 … 94.0 min(p) 0.02 0.05–0.20 1.5–2.5 1.5–3.0 0.02–0.06 …
C50780 … bal(p) 0.05 0.05–0.20 1.7–2.3 … 0.02–0.10 0.05–0.20Ni
C50900 … bal 0.05 0.10 2.5–3.8 0.30 0.03–0.30 …
C51000 Phosphor bronze, 5% A bal 0.05 0.10 4.2–5.8 0.30 0.03–0.35 …
C51080 … bal(p) 0.05 0.05–0.20 4.8–5.8 0.30 0.02–0.10 0.05–0.20Ni
C51100 … bal 0.05 0.10 3.5–4.9 0.30 0.03–0.35 …
C51800 Phosphor bronze bal 0.02 … 4.0–6.0 … 0.10–0.35 0.01Al
C51900 … bal 0.05 0.10 5.0–7.0 0.30 0.03–0.35 …
C52100 Phosphor bronze, 8% C bal 0.05 0.10 7.0–9.0 0.20 0.03–0.35 …
C52400 Phosphor bronze, 10% D bal 0.05 0.10 9.0–11.0 0.20 0.03–0.35 …
C52480 … bal 0.05 0.05–0.20 9.0–11.0 0.30 0.02–0.10 0.05–0.20Ni
Copper-tin-lead phosphorus alloys (leaded phosphor bronzes)
Composition, wt%
Copper
alloy No. Previous trade name Cu(p) Pb Fe Sn Zn P
C53400 Phosphor bronze B-1 bal 0.8–1.2 0.10 3.5–5.8 0.30 0.03–0.35
C54400 Phosphor bronze B-2 bal 3.5–4.5 0.10 3.5–4.5 1.5–4.5 0.01–0.50
Copper-phosphorus and copper-silver-phosphorus alloys (brazing alloys)
Composition, wt%
Copper alloy No. Cu(cc) Ag P
C55180 bal … 4.8–5.2
C55181 bal … 7.0–7.5
C55280 bal 1.8–2.2 6.8–7.2
C55281 bal 4.8–5.2 5.8–6.2
C55282 bal 4.8–5.2 6.5–7.0
C55283 bal 5.8–6.2 7.0–7.5
C55284 bal 14.5–15.5 4.8–5.2
Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronzes)
Composition, wt%
Copper Other named
alloy No. Cu (incl Ag) (p) Pb Fe Sn Zn Al Mn Si Ni (incl Co) elements
C60800 bal 0.10 0.10 … … 5.0–6.5 … … … 0.02–0.35As

C61000 bal 0.02 0.50 … 0.20 6.0–8.5 … 0.10 … …
C61300 bal(t) 0.01 2.0–3.0 0.20–0.50 0.10(dd) 6.0–7.5 0.20 0.10 0.15 0.015P(dd)
C61400 bal 0.01 1.5–3.5 … 0.20 6.0–8.0 1.0 … … 0.015P
C61500 bal 0.015 … … … 7.7–8.3 … … 1.8–2.2 …
C61550 bal 0.05 0.20 0.05 0.8 5.5–6.5 1.0 … 1.5–2.5 …
C61800 bal 0.02 0.50–1.5 … 0.02 8.5–11.0 … 0.10 … …
C61900 bal 0.02 3.0–4.5 0.6 0.8 8.5–10.0 … … … …
C62200 bal 0.02 3.0–4.2 … 0.02 11.0–12.0 … 0.10 … …
C62300 bal … 2.0–4.0 0.6 … 8.5–10.0 0.50 0.25 1.0 …
C62400 bal … 2.0–4.5 0.20 … 10.0–11.5 0.30 0.25 … …
C62500 bal … 3.5–5.5 … … 12.5–13.5 2.0 … … …
C62580 bal 0.02 3.0–5.0 … 0.02 12.0–13.0 … 0.04 … …
C62581 bal 0.02 3.0–5.0 … 0.02 13.0–14.0 … 0.04 … …
C62582 bal 0.02 3.0–5.0 … 0.02 14.0–15.0 … 0.04 … …
C63000 bal … 2.0–4.0 0.20 0.30 9.0–11.0 1.5 0.25 4.0–5.5 …
C63010 78.0 min(t) … 2.0–3.5 0.20 0.30 9.7–10.9 1.5 … 4.5–5.5 …
C63020 74.5 min 0.03 4.0–5.5 0.25 0.30 10.0–11.0 1.5 … 4.2–6.0 0.20Co, 0.05Cr
C63200 bal 0.02 3.5–4.3(ee) … … 8.7–9.5 1.2–2.0 0.10 4.0–4.8(ee) …
C63280 bal 0.02 3.0–5.0 … … 8.5–9.5 0.6–3.5 … 4.0–5.5 …
C63380 bal 0.02 2.0–4.0 … 0.15 7.0–8.5 11.0–14.0 0.10 1.5–3.0 …
C63400 bal 0.05 0.15 0.20 0.50 2.6–3.2 … 0.25–0.45 0.15 0.15As
C63600 bal 0.05 0.15 0.20 0.50 3.0–4.0 … 0.7–1.3 0.15 0.15As
C63800 bal 0.05 0.20 … 0.8 2.5–3.1 0.10 1.5–2.1 0.20(ff) 0.25–0.55Co
C64200 bal 0.05 0.30 0.20 0.50 6.3–7.6 0.10 1.5–2.2 0.25 0.15As
C64210 bal 0.05 0.30 0.20 0.50 6.3–7.0 0.10 1.5–2.0 0.25 0.15As
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronzes)
Composition, wt%
Copper Other named
alloy No. Previous trade name Cu(p) (incl Ag) Pb Fe Sn Zn Mn Si Ni (incl Co) elements
C64700 … bal 0.10 0.10 … 0.50 … 0.40–0.8 1.6–2.2 …

C64710 … 95.0 min … … … 0.20–0.50 0.10 0.50–0.9 2.9–3.5 …
C64730 … 93.5 min … … 1.0–1.5 0.20–0.50 0.10 0.50–0.9 2.9–3.5 …
C64900 … bal 0.05 0.10 1.2–1.6 0.20 … 0.8–1.2 0.10 0.10Al
C65100 Low silicon bronze B bal 0.05 0.8 … 1.5 0.7 0.8–2.0 … …
C65400 … bal 0.05 … 1.2–1.9 0.50 … 2.7–3.4 … 0.01–0.12Cr
C65500 High silicon bronze A bal 0.05 0.8 … 1.5 0.50–1.3 2.8–3.8 0.6 …
C65600 … bal 0.02 0.50 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.8–4.0 … 0.01Al
C66100 … bal 0.20–0.8 0.25 … 1.5 1.5 2.8–3.5 … …
Other copper-zinc alloys
Composition, wt%
Copper Other named
alloy No. Previous trade name Cu(p) (incl Ag) Pb Fe Sn Zn Ni (incl Co) Al Mn Si elements
C66300 … 84.5–87.5 0.05 1.4–2.4 1.5–3.0 bal … … … … 0.35P, 0.20Co

C66400 … bal 0.015 1.3–1.7(gg) 0.05 11.00–12.0 … … … … 0.30–0.7Co(gg)
C66410 … bal 0.015 1.8–2.3 0.05 11.0–12.0 … … … … …
C66700 Manganese brass 68.5–71.5 0.07 0.10 … bal … … 0.8–1.5 … …
C66800 … 60.0–63.0 0.50 0.35 0.30 bal 0.25 0.25 2.0–3.5 0.50–1.5 …
C66900 … 62.5–64.5(t) 0.05 0.25 … bal … … 11.5–12.5 … …
C66950 … bal 0.01 0.50 … 14.0–15.0 … 1.0–1.5 14.0–15.0 … …
C67000 Manganese bronze B 63.0–68.0 0.20 2.0–4.0 0.50 bal … 3.0–6.0 2.5–5.0 … …
C67300 … 58.0–63.0 0.40–3.0 0.50 0.30 bal 0.25 0.25 2.0–3.5 0.50–1.5 …
C67400 … 57.0–60.0 0.50 0.35 0.30 bal 0.25 0.50–2.0 2.0–3.5 0.50–1.5 …
C67420 … 57.0–58.5 0.25–0.8 0.15–0.55 0.35 bal 0.25 1.0–2.0 1.5–2.5 0.25–0.7 …
C67500 Manganese bronze A 57.0–60.0 0.20 0.8–2.0 0.50–1.5 bal … 0.25 0.05–0.50 … …
C67600 … 57.0–60.0 0.50–1.0 0.40–1.3 0.50–1.5 bal … … 0.05–0.50 … …
C68000 Bronze, low fuming (nickel) 56.0–60.0 0.05 0.25–1.25 0.75–1.10 bal 0.20–0.8 0.01 0.01–0.50 0.04–0.15 …
C68100 Bronze, low fuming 56.0–60.0 0.05 0.25–1.25 0.75–1.10 bal … 0.01 0.01–0.50 0.04–0.15 …
C68700 Aluminum brass, arsenical 76.0–79.0 0.07 0.06 … bal … 1.8–2.5 … … 0.02–0.06As
C68800 … bal 0.05 0.20 … 21.3–24.1(hh) … 3.0–3.8(hh) … … 0.25–0.55Co
C69050 … 70.0–75.0 … … … bal 0.50–1.5 3.0–4.0 … 0.10–0.6 0.01–0.20Zr
C69100 … 81.0–84.0 0.05 0.25 0.10 bal 0.8–1.4 0.7–1.2 0.10 min 0.8–1.3 …
C69400 Silicon red brass 80.0–83.0 0.30 0.20 … bal … … … 3.5–4.5 …
C69430 … 80.0–83.0 0.30 0.20 … bal … … … 3.5–4.5 0.03–0.06As
C69700 … 75.0–80.0 0.50–1.5 0.20 … bal … … 0.40 2.5–3.5 …
C69710 … 75.0–80.0 0.50–1.5 0.20 … bal … … 0.40 2.5–3.5 0.03–0.06As
Copper-nickel alloys
Composition, wt%
Copper Other named
alloy No. Previous trade name Cu (incl Ag) Pb Fe Zn Ni (incl Co) Sn Mn elements
C70100 … bal(p) … 0.05 0.25 3.0–4.0 … 0.50 …
C70200 … bal(p) 0.05 0.10 … 2.0–3.0 … 0.40 …
C70230 … bal(p) … … 0.50–2.0 2.2–3.2 0.10–0.50 … 0.10AgB,
0.40–0.8Si
C70250 … bal(p) 0.05 0.20 1.0 2.2–4.2 … 0.10 0.05–0.30Mg,
0.25–1.2Si
C70260 … bal(p) … … … 1.0–3.0 … … 0.20–0.7Si, 0.010P
C70280 … bal(p) 0.02 0.015 0.30 1.3–1.7 1.0–1.5 … 0.02–0.04P,
0.22–0.30Si
C70290 … bal(p) 0.02 0.015 0.30 1.3–1.7 2.1–2.7 … 0.02–0.04P,
0.22–0.30Si
C70400 Copper-nickel, 5% rem(p) 0.05 1.3–1.71.0 1.0 4.8–6.2 … 0.30–0.8 …
C70500 Copper-nickel, 7% bal(p) 0.05 0.10 0.20 5.8–7.8 … 0.15 …
C70600 Copper-nickel, 10% bal(p) 0.05(ii) 1.0–1.8 1.0(ii) 9.0–11.0 … 1.0 (ii)
C70610 … bal(p) 0.01 1.0–2.0 … 10.0–11.0 … 0.50–1.0 0.05S, 0.05C
C70620 … 86.5(p) 0.02 1.0–1.8 0.50 9.0–11.0 … 1.0 0.05C, 0.02P, 0.02S
C70690 … bal(p) 0.001 0.005 0.001 9.0–11.0 … 0.001 (jj)
C70700 … bal(p) … 0.05 … 9.5–10.5 … 0.50 …
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Composition, wt%
Copper Other named
alloy No. Previous trade name Cu (incl Ag) Pb Fe Zn Ni (incl Co) Sn Mn elements
C71100 … bal(p) 0.05 0.10 0.20 22.0–24.0 … 0.15 …
C71300 … bal(p) 0.05 0.20 1.0 23.5–26.5 … 1.0 …
C71500 Copper-nickel, 30% bal(p) 0.05(ii) 0.40–1.0 1.0(ii) 29.0–33.0 … 1.0 (ii)
C71520 … 65.0 min(p) 0.02 0.40–1.0 0.50 29.0–33.0 … 1.0 0.05C, 0.02P, 0.02S
C71580 … bal(p) 0.05 0.50 0.05 29.0–33.0 … 0.30 (kk)
C71581 … bal(p) 0.02 0.40–0.7 … 29.0–32.0 … 1.0 (ll)
C71590 … bal 0.001 0.15 0.001 29.0–31.0 0.001 0.50 (jj)
C71640 … bal(p) 0.01 1.7–2.3 … 29.0–32.0 … 1.5–2.5 0.03S, 0.06C
C71700 … bal(p) … 0.40–1.0 … 29.0–33.0 … … 0.30–0.7Be
C71900 … bal(p) 0.015 0.50 0.05 28.0–33.0 … 0.20–1.0 2.2–3.0Cr,
0.02–0.35Zr,
0.01–0.20Ti,
0.04C, 0.25Si,
0.15S, 0.02P
C72150 … bal(p) 0.05 0.10 0.20 43.0–46.0 … 0.05 0.10C, 0.50Si
C72200 … bal(t) 0.05(ii) 0.50–1.0 1.0(ii) 15.0–18.0 … 1.0 0.30–0.7Cr,
0.03Si, 0.03Ti (ii)
C72420 … bal(u) 0.02 0.7–1.2 0.20 13.5–16.5 0.10 3.5–5.5 1.0–2.0Al, 0.50Cr,
0.15Si, 0.05Mg,
0.15S, 0.01P 0.05C
C72500 … bal(t) 0.05 0.6 0.50 8.5–10.5 1.8–2.8 0.20 …
C72650 … bal(u) 0.01 0.10 0.10 7.0–8.0 4.5–5.5 0.10 …
C72700 … bal(u) 0.02 0.50 0.50 8.5–9.5 5.5–6.5 0.5–0.30 0.10Nb, 0.15Mg
C72800 … bal(u) 0.005 0.50 1.0 9.5–10.5 7.5–8.5 0.05–0.30 0.10Al, 0.001B,
0.001Bi, 0.10–0.30Nb,
0.005–0.15Mg, 0.005P,
0.0025S, 0.02Sb,
0.05Si, 0.01Ti
C72900 … bal(u) 0.02(mm) 0.50 0.50 14.5–15.5 7.5–8.5 0.30 0.10Nb, 0.15Mg
C72950 … bal(u) 0.05 0.6 … 20.0–22.0 4.5–5.7 0.6 …
Copper-nickel-zinc alloys (nickel silvers)
Composition, wt%
Copper Other named
alloy No. Previous trade name Cu(p) (incl Ag) Pb Fe Zn Ni (incl Co) Mn elements
C73500 … 70.5–73.5 0.10 0.25 bal 16.5–19.5 0.50 …
C74000 … 69.0–73.5 0.10 0.25 bal 9.0–11.0 0.50 …
C74300 … 63.0–66.0 0.10 0.25 bal 7.0–9.0 0.50 …
C74400 … 62.0–66.0 0.05 0.05 bal 2.0–4.0 … …
C74500 Nickel silver, 65-10 63.5–66.5 0.10(nn) 0.25 bal 9.0–11.0 0.50 …
C75200 Nickel silver, 65-18 63.5–66.5 0.05 0.25 bal 16.5–19.5 0.50 …
C76000 … 60.0–63.0 0.10 0.25 bal 16.5–19.5 0.50 …
C76200 … 57.0–61.0 0.10 0.25 bal 11.0–13.5 0.50 …
C76400 … 58.5–61.5 0.05 0.25 bal 16.5–19.5 0.50 …
C76700 Nickel silver, 56.5-15 55.0–58.0 … … bal 14.0–16.0 0.50 …
C77000 Nickel silver, 55-18 53.5–56.5 0.05 0.25 bal 16.5–19.5. 0.50 …
C77300 … 46.0–50.0 0.05 … bal 9.0–11.0 … 0.01Al, 0.25P,
0.04–0.25Si
C77400 … 43.0–47.0 0.20 … bal 9.0–11.0 … …
C78200 … 63.0–67.0 1.5–2.5 0.35 bal 7.0–9.0 0.50 …
C79000 … 63.0–67.0 1.5–2.2 0.35 bal 11.0–13.0 0.50 …
C79200 … 59.0–66.5 0.8–1.4 0.25 bal 11.0–13.0 0.50 …
C79800 … 45.5–48.5 1.5–2.5 0.25 bal 9.0–11.0 1.5–2.5 …
C79830 … 45.5–47.0 1.0–2.5 0.45 bal 9.0–10.5 0.15–0.55 …
Table 3 Chemical compositions of cast coppers and copper alloys

Composition values are given as maximum percentages, unless shown as a range or minimum.
Coppers
Copper No. Cu (incl Ag), % min P Total other elements
C80100 99.95 … …
C80410 99.9 … 0.10
C81100 99.70 … …
C81200 99.9 0.045–0.065 …
High-copper alloys
Copper
alloy No. Cu (a) Be Co Si Ni Fe Al Sn Pb Zn Cr
C81400 bal 0.02–0.10 … … … … … … … … 0.6–1.0

C81500 bal … … 0.15 … 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.40–1.5
C81540 95.1 min(b) … … 0.40–0.8 2.0–3.0(c) 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.10–0.6
C82000 bal 0.45–0.8 2.40–2.70(c) 0.15 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.10
C82200 bal 0.35–0.8 0.30 … 1.0–2.0 … … … … … …
C82400 bal 1.60–1.85 0.20–0.65 … 0.20 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.10
C82500 bal 1.90–2.25 0.35–0.70(c) 0.20–0.35 0.20 0.25 0.15 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.10
C82510 bal 1.90–2.15 1.0–1.2 0.20–0.35 0.20 0.25 0.15 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.10
C82600 bal 2.25–2.55 0.35–0.65 0.20–0.35 0.20 0.25 0.15 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.10
C82700 bal 2.35–2.55 … 0.15 1.0–1.5 0.25 0.15 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.10
C82800 bal 2.50–2.85 0.35–0.70(c) 0.20–0.35 0.20 0.25 0.15 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.10
Red and leaded red brasses
Copper
alloy No. Cu(d)(e) Sn Pb Zn Fe Sb As Ni (incl Co) S P(f) Al Si
C83300 92.0–94.0 1.0–2.0 1.0–2.0 2.0–6.0 … … … … … … … …

C83400 88.0–92.0 0.20 0.50 8.0–12.0 0.25 0.25 … 1.0 0.08 0.03 0.005 0.005
C83450 87.0–89.0 2.0–3.5 1.5–3.0 5.5–7.5 0.30 0.25 … 0.8–2.0 0.08 0.03 0.005 0.005
C83500 86.0–88.0 5.5–6.5 3.5–5.5 1.0–2.5 0.25 0.25 … 0.50–1.0 0.08 0.03 0.005 0.005
C83600 84.0–86.0 4.0–6.0 4.0–6.0 4.0–6.0 0.30 0.25 … 1.0 0.08 0.05 0.005 0.005
C83800 82.0–83.8 3.3–4.2 5.0–7.0 5.0–8.0 0.30 0.25 … 1.0 0.08 0.03 0.005 0.005
C83810 bal 2.0–3.5 4.0–6.0 7.5–9.5 0.50(g) (g) (g) 2.0 … … 0.005 0.10
Semi-red and leaded semi-red brasses
Copper
alloy No. Cu(d)(e) Sn Pb Zn Fe Sb Ni (incl Co) S P(f) Al Si Bi
C84200 78.0–82.0 4.0–6.0 2.0–3.0 10.0–16.0 0.40 0.25 0.8 0.08 0.05 0.005 0.005 …
C84400 78.0–82.0 2.3–3.5 6.0–8.0 7.0–10.0 0.40 0.25 1.0 0.08 0.02 0.005 0.005 …
C84410 bal 3.0–4.5 7.0–9.0 7.0–11.0 (h) (h) 1.0 … … 0.01 0.20 0.05
C84500 77.0–79.0 2.0–4.0 6.0–7.5 10.0–14.0 0.40 0.25 1.0 0.08 0.02 0.005 0.005 …
C84800 75.0–77.0 2.0–3.0 5.5–7.0 13.0–17.0 0.40 0.25 1.0 0.08 0.02 0.005 0.005 …
Yellow and leaded yellow brasses
Copper Ni
alloy No. Cu(d) Sn Pb Zn Fe Sb (incl Co) Mn As S P Al Si
C85200 70.0–74.0(i) 0.7–2.0 1.5–3.8 20.0–27.0 0.6 0.20 1.0 … … 0.05 0.02 0.005 0.05
C85400 65.0–70.0(j) 0.50–1.5 1.5–3.8 24.0–32.0 0.7 … 1.0 … … … … 0.35 0.05
C85500 59.0–63.0(i) 0.20 0.20 bal 0.20 … 0.20 0.20 … … … … …
C85700 58.0–64.0(k) 0.50–1.5 0.8–1.5 32.0–40.0 0.7 … 1.0 … … … … 0.8 0.05
C85800 57.0 min(k) 1.5 1.5 31.0–41.0 0.50 0.05 0.50 0.25 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.55 0.25
Manganese bronze and leaded manganese bronze alloys
Copper
alloy No. Cu(d)(l) Sn Pb Zn Fe Ni (incl Co) Al Mn Si
C86100 66.0–68.0 0.20 0.20 bal 2.0–4.0 … 4.5–5.5 2.5–5.0 …

C86200 60.0–66.0 0.20 0.20 22.0–28.0 2.0–4.0 1.0 3.0–4.9 2.5–5.0 …
C86300 60.0–66.0 0.20 0.20 22.0–28.0 2.0–4.0 1.0 5.0–7.5 2.5–5.0 …
C86400 56.0–62.0 0.50–1.5 0.50–1.5 34.0–42.0 0.40–2.0 1.0 0.50–1.5 0.10–1.5 …
C86500 55.0–60.0 1.0 0.40 36.0–42.0 0.40–2.0 1.0 0.50–1.5 0.10–1.5 …
C86550 57.0 min 1.0 0.50 bal 0.7–2.0 1.0 0.50–2.5 0.10–3.0 0.10
C86700 55.0–60.0 1.5 0.50–1.5 30.0–38.0 1.0–3.0 1.0 1.0–3.0 0.10–3.5 …
C86800 53.5–57.0 1.0 0.20 bal 1.0–2.5 2.5–4.0 2.0 2.5–4.0 …
(continued)
incl, including. bal, balance. (a) Cu sum of named elements, 99.5% min. (b) Includes Ag. (c) Ni Co. (d) In determining copper min, copper can be calculated as Cu Ni. (e) Cu sum of named elements, 99.3% min. (f)
For continuous castings, P will be 1.5%, max. (g) Fe Sb As will be 0.50% max. (h) Fe Sb + As will be 0.8% max. (i) Cu sum of named elements, 99.1% min. (j) Cu sum of named elements, 98.9% min. (k) Cu
sum of named elements, 98.7% min. (l) Cu sum of named elements, 99.0% min. (m) Cu sum of named elements, 99.2% min. (n) 0.01–2.0% as any single or combination of Ce, La or other rare earth* elements, as agreed
upon. *ASM International definition: one of the group of chemically similar metals with atomic numbers 57 through 71, commonly referred to as lanthanides. (o) Bi:Se 2:1. (p) Cu + sum of named elements, 99.4% min. (q)
Cu + sum of named elements, 99.7% min. (r) Fe shall be 0.35% max, when used for steel-backed bearings. (s) For continuous castings, S will be 0.25% max. (t) The mechanical properties of C94700 (heat treated) may not be
attainable if the lead content exceeds 0.01%. (u) Cu sum of named elements, 99.8% min. (v) Fe content shall not exceed Ni content. (w) When the product or casting is intended for subsequent welding applications, and so
specified by the purchaser, the Nb content will be 0.40% max. (x) The following additional maximum impurity limits will apply: 0.10% Al, 0.001% B, 0.001% Bi, 0.005–0.15% Mg, 0.005% P, 0.0025% S, 0.02% Sb, 7.5–8.5%
Sn, 0.01% Ti, 1.0% Zn. (y) Cu sum of named elements, 99.6% min. (z) Pb and Ag can be adjusted to modify the alloy hardness. (aa) Includes Co. Source: Copper Development Association
Table 3 (continued)
Silicon bronzes and silicon brasses
Copper Other named
alloy No. Cu(a) Sn Pb Zn Fe Al Si Mn Mg Ni (incl Co) S elements
C87300 94.0min … 0.20 0.25 0.20 … 3.5–4.5 0.8–1.5 … … … …

C87400 79.0min(m) … 1.0 12.0–16.0 … 0.8 2.5–4.0 … … … … …
C87500 79.0min … 0.50 12.0–16.0 … 0.50 3.0–5.0 … … … … …
C87600 88.0min … 0.50 4.0–7.0 0.20 … 3.5–5.5 0.25 … … … …
C87610 90.0min … 0.20 3.0–5.0 0.20 … 3.0–5.0 0.25 … … … …
C87800 80.0min 0.25 0.15 12.0–16.0 0.15 0.15 3.8–4.2 0.15 0.01 0.20 0.05 0.01P, 0.05As,
0.05Sb
Copper-bismuth and copper-bismuth-selenium alloys
Copper Ni Other named
alloy No. Cu Sn Pb Zn Fe Sb (incl Co) S P Al Si Bi Se elements
C89320 87.0–91.0(a) 5.0–7.0 0.09 1.0 0.20 0.35 1.0 0.08 0.30 0.005 0.005 4.0–6.0 … …
C89325 84.0–88.0(l) 9.0–11.0 0.10 1.0 0.15 0.50 1.0 0.08 0.10 0.005 0.005 2.7–3.7 … (n)
C89510 86.0–88.0(a) 4.0–6.0 0.25 4.0–6.0 0.30 0.25 1.0 0.08 0.05 0.005 0.005 0.50–1.5 0.35–0.7 …
C89520 85.0–87.0(a) 5.0–6.0 0.25 4.0–6.0 0.30 0.25 1.0 0.08 0.05 0.005 0.005 1.6–2.2 0.8–1.2 (o)
C89831 87.0–91.0(l) 2.7–3.7 0.10 2.0–4.0 0.30 0.25 1.0 0.08 0.050 0.005 0.005 2.7–3.7 … (n)
C89833 87.0–91.0(l) 4.0–6.0 0.10 2.0–4.0 0.30 0.25 1.0 0.08 0.050 0.005 0.005 1.7–2.7 … (n)
C89835 85.0–89.0(l) 6.0–7.5 0.10 2.0–4.0 0.20 0.35 1.0 0.08 0.10 0.005 0.005 1.7–2.7 … (n)
C89837 84.0–88.0(a) 3.0–4.0 0.10 6.0–10.0 0.30 0.25 1.0 0.08 0.050 0.005 0.005 0.7–1.2 … (n)
C89550 58.0–64.0(a) 0.50–1.5 0.20 32.0–40.0 0.7 … 1.0 … … 0.30–0.7 … 0.7–2.0 0.07–0.25 …
C89844 83.0–86.0(a) 3.0–5.0 0.20 7.0–10.0 0.30 0.25 1.0 0.08 0.05 0.005 0.005 2.0–4.0 … …
C89940 64.0–68.0(a) 3.0–5.0 0.01 3.0–5.0 0.7–2.0 0.10 20.0–23.0 0.05 0.10–0.15 0.005 0.15 4.0–5.5 … 0.20Mn
Tin bronzes
Copper
alloy No. Cu(d)(p) Sn Pb Zn Fe Sb Ni (incl Co) S P(f) Al Si
C90200 91.0–94.0 6.0–8.0 0.30 0.50 0.20 0.20 0.50 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.005
C90300 86.0–89.0 7.5–9.0 0.30 3.0–5.0 0.20 0.20 1.0 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.005
C90500 86.0–89.0(q) 9.0–11.0 0.30 1.0–3.0 0.20 0.20 1.0 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.005
C90700 88.0–90.0 10.0–12.0 0.50 0.50 0.15 0.20 0.50 0.05 0.30 0.005 0.005
C90710 bal 10.0–12.0 0.25 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.05–1.2 0.005 0.005
C90800 85.0–89.0 11.0–13.0 0.25 0.25 0.15 0.20 0.50 0.05 0.30 0.005 0.005
C90810 bal 11.0–13.0 0.25 0.30 0.15 0.20 0.50 0.05 0.15–0.8 0.005 0.005
C90900 86.0–89.0 12.0–14.0 0.25 0.25 0.15 0.20 0.50 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.005
C91000 84.0–86.0 14.0–16.0 0.20 1.5 0.10 0.20 0.8 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.005
C91100 82.0–85.0 15.0–17.0 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.20 0.50 0.05 1.0 0.005 0.005
C91300 79.0–82.0 18.0–20.0 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.20 0.50 0.05 1.0 0.005 0.005
C91600 86.0–89.0 9.7–10.8 0.25 0.25 0.20 0.20 1.2–2.0 0.05 0.30 0.005 0.005
C91700 84.0–87.0 11.3–12.5 0.25 0.25 0.20 0.20 1.2–2.0 0.05 0.30 0.005 0.005
Leaded tin bronzes
Copper
alloy No. Cu(d)(e) Sn Pb Zn Fe Sb Ni (incl Co) S P(f) Al Si Mn
C92200 86.0–90.0 5.5–6.5 1.0–2.0 3.0–5.0 0.25 0.25 1.0 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.005 …
C92210 86.0–89.0 4.5–5.5 1.7–2.5 3.0–4.5 0.25 0.20 0.7–1.0 0.05 0.03 0.005 0.005 …
C92220 86.0–88.0(d) 5.0–6.0 1.5–2.5 3.0–5.5 0.25 … 0.50–1.0 … 0.05 … … …
C92300 85.0–89.0 7.5–9.0 0.30–1.0 2.5–5.0 0.25 0.25 1.0 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.005 …
C92310 bal 7.5–9.0 0.30–1.5 3.5–4.5 … … 1.0 … … 0.005 0.005 0.03
C92400 86.0–89.0 9.0–11.0 1.0–2.5 1.0–3.0 0.25 0.25 1.0 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.005 …
C92410 bal 6.0–8.0 2.5–3.5 1.5–3.0 0.20 0.25 0.20 … … 0.005 0.005 0.05
C92500 85.0–88.0 10.0–12.0 1.0–1.5 0.50 0.30 0.25 0.8–1.5 0.05 0.30 0.005 0.005 …
C92600 86.0–88.5 9.3–10.5 0.8–1.5 1.3–2.5 0.20 0.25 0.7 0.05 0.03 0.005 0.005 …
C92610 bal 9.5–10.5 0.30–1.5 1.7–2.8 0.15 … 1.0 … … 0.005 0.005 0.03
C92700 86.0–89.0 9.0–11.0 1.0–2.5 0.7 0.20 0.25 1.0 0.05 0.25 0.005 0.005 …
C92710 bal 9.0–11.0 4.0–6.0 1.0 0.20 0.25 2.0 0.05 0.10 0.005 0.005 …
C92800 78.0–82.0 15.0–17.0 4.0–6.0 0.8 0.20 0.25 0.8 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.005 …
C92810 78.0–82.0 12.0–14.0 4.0–6.0 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.8–1.2 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.005 …
C92900 82.0–86.0 9.0–11.0 2.0–3.2 0.25 0.20 0.25 2.8–4.0 0.05 0.50 0.005 0.005 …
High-leaded tin bronzes
Copper
alloy No. Cu Sn Pb Zn Fe Sb Ni (incl Co) S P(f) Al Si
C93100 bal(d)(l) 6.5–8.5 2.0–5.0 2.0 0.25 0.25 1.0 0.05 0.30 0.005 0.005
C93200 81.0–85.0(d)(l) 6.3–7.5 6.0–8.0 1.0–4.0 0.20 0.35 1.0 0.08 0.15 0.005 0.005
C93400 82.0–85.0(d)(l) 7.0–9.0 7.0–9.0 0.8 0.20 0.50 1.0 0.08 0.50 0.005 0.005
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
High-leaded tin bronzes
Copper
alloy No. Cu Sn Pb Zn Fe Sb Ni (incl Co) S P(f) Al Si
C93500 83.0–86.0(d)(l) 4.3–6.0 8.0–10.0 2.0 0.20 0.30 1.0 0.08 0.05 0.005 0.005
C93600 79.0–83.0(e) 6.0–8.0 11.0–13.0 1.0 0.20 0.55 1.0 0.08 0.15 0.005 0.005
C93700 78.0–82.0(l) 9.0–11.0 8.0–11.0 0.8 0.7(r) 0.50 0.50 0.08 0.10 0.005 0.005
C93720 83.0min(l) 3.5–4.5 7.0–9.0 4.0 0.7 0.50 0.50 … 0.10 … …
C93800 75.0–79.0(l) 6.3–7.5 13.0–16.0 0.8 0.15 0.8 1.0 0.08 0.05 0.005 0.005
C93900 76.5–79.5(j) 5.0–7.0 14.0–18.0 1.5 0.40 0.50 0.8 0.08 1.5 0.005 0.005
C94000 69.0–72.0(k) 12.0–14.0 14.0–16.0 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.50–1.0 0.08(s) 0.05 0.005 0.005
C94100 72.0–79.0(k) 4.5–6.5 18.0–22.0 1.0 0.25 0.8 1.0 0.08(s) 0.05 0.005 0.005
C94300 67.0–72.0(l) 4.5–6.0 23.0–27.0 0.8 0.15 0.8 1.0 0.08(s) 0.08 0.005 0.005
C94310 bal(l) 1.5–3.0 27.0–34.0 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.25–1.0 … 0.05 … …
C94320 bal(l) 4.0–7.0 24.0–32.0 … 0.35 … … … … … …
C94330 68.5–75.5(l) 3.0–4.0 21.0–25.0 3.0 0.7 0.50 0.50 … 0.10 … …
C94400 bal(l) 7.0–9.0 9.0–12.0 0.8 0.15 0.8 1.0 0.08 0.50 0.005 0.005
C94500 bal(l) 6.0–8.0 16.0–22.0 1.2 0.15 0.8 1.0 0.08 0.05 0.005 0.005
Nickel-tin bronzes
Copper
alloy No. Cu Sn Pb Zn Fe Sb Ni (incl Co) Mn S P Al Si
C94700 85.0–90.0(k) 4.5–6.0 0.10(t) 1.0–2.5 0.25 0.15 4.5–6.0 0.20 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.005
C94800 84.0–89.0(k) 4.5–6.0 0.30–1.0 1.0–2.5 0.25 0.15 4.5–6.0 0.20 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.005
C94900 79.0–81.0(p) 4.0–6.0 4.0–6.0 4.0–6.0 0.30 0.25 4.0–6.0 0.10 0.08 0.05 0.005 0.005
Aluminum bronzes
Copper Other named
alloy No. Cu, min Pb Fe Ni (incl Co) Al Mn Mg Si Zn Sn elements
C95200 86.0(l) … 2.5–4.0 … 8.5–9.5 … … … … … …

C95210 86.0(l) 0.05 2.5–4.0 1.0 8.5–9.5 1.0 0.05 0.25 0.50 0.10 …
C95220 bal(a) … 2.5–4.0 2.5 9.5–10.5 0.50 … … … … …
C95300 86.0(l) … 0.8–1.5 … 9.0–11.0 … … … … … …
C95400 83.0(a) … 3.0–5.0 1.5 10.0–11.5 0.50 … … … … …
C95410 83.0(a) … 3.0–5.0 1.5–2.5 10.0–11.5 0.50 … … … … …
C95420 83.5(a) … 3.0–4.3 0.50 10.5–12.0 0.50 … … … … …
C95500 78.0(a) … 3.0–5.0 3.0–5.5 10.0–11.5 3.5 … … … … …
C95510 78.0(u) … 2.0–3.5 4.5–5.5 9.7–10.9 1.5 … … 0.30 0.20 …
C95520 74.5(a) 0.03 4.0–5.5 4.2–6.0 10.5–11.5 1.5 … 0.15 0.30 0.25 0.20Co,
0.05Cr
C95600 88.0(l) … … 0.25 6.0–8.0 … … 1.8–3.2 … … …
C95700 71.0(a) … 2.0–4.0 1.5–3.0 7.0–8.5 11.0–14.0 … 0.10 … … …
C95710 71.0(a) 0.05 2.0–4.0 1.5–3.0 7.0–8.5 11.0–14.0 … 0.15 0.50 1.0 0.05P
C95720 73.0(a) 0.03 1.5–3.5 3.0–6.0 6.0–8.0 12.0–15.0 … 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.20Cr
C95800 79.0(a) 0.03 3.5–4.5(v) 4.0–5.0(v) 8.5–9.5 0.8–1.5 … 0.10 … … …
C95810 79.0(a) 0.10 3.5–4.5(v) 4.0–5.0(v) 8.5–9.5 0.8–1.5 0.05 0.10 0.50 … …
C95820 77.5(a) 0.02 4.0–5.0 4.5–5.8 9.0–10.0 1.5 … 0.10 0.20 0.20 …
C95900 bal(a) … 3.0–5.0 0.50 12.0–13.5 1.5 … … … … …
Copper-nickels
Copper Other named
alloy No. Cu(a) Pb Fe Ni (incl Co) Mn Si Nb C Be elements
C96200 bal 0.01 1.0–1.8 9.0–11.0 1.5 0.50 1.0(w) 0.10 … 0.02S, 0.02P
C96300 bal 0.01 0.50–1.5 18.0–22.0 0.25–1.5 0.50 0.50–1.5 0.15 … 0.02S, 0.02P
C96400 bal 0.01 0.25–1.5 28.0–32.0 1.5 0.50 0.50–1.5 0.15 … 0.02S, 0.02P
C96600 bal 0.01 0.8–1.1 29.0–33.0 1.0 0.15 … … 0.40–0.7 …
C97600 bal 0.01 0.40–1.0 29.0–33.0 0.40–1.0 0.15 … … 1.1–1.2 0.15–0.35Zr,
0.15–0.35Ti
C96800 bal 0.005 0.50 9.5–10.5 0.05–0.30 0.05 0.10–0.30 … … (x)
C96900 bal 0.02 0.50 14.5–15.5 0.05–0.30 … 0.10 … … 0.15Mg,
7.5–8.5Sn,
0.50Zn
C96950 bal 0.02 0.50 11.0–15.5 0.05–0.40 0.30 0.10 … … 5.8–8.5Sn,
0.15Mg
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
Nickel silvers
Copper
alloy No. Cu Sn Pb Zn Fe Sb Ni (incl Co) S P Al Mn Si
C97300 53.0–58.0(l) 1.5–3.0 8.0–11.0 17.0–25.0 1.5 0.35 11.0–14.0 0.08 0.05 0.005 0.50 0.15
C97400 58.0–61.0(l) 2.5–3.5 4.5–5.5 bal 1.5 … 15.5–17.0 … … … 0.50 …
C97600 63.0–67.0(q) 3.5–4.5 3.0–5.0 3.0–9.0 1.5 0.25 19.0–21.5 0.08 0.05 0.005 1.0 0.15
C97800 64.0–67.0(y) 4.0–5.5 1.0–2.5 1.0–4.0 1.5 0.20 24.0–27.0 0.08 0.05 0.005 1.0 0.15
Copper-lead alloys
Copper
alloy No. Cu Sn Pb Ag Zn P Fe NI Sb
C98200 bal(a) 0.6–2.0 21.0–27.0 … 0.50 0.10 0.7 0.50 0.50

C98400 bal(a) 0.50 26.0–33.0 1.5 0.50 0.10 0.7 0.50 0.50
C98600 60.0–70.0 0.50 30.0–40.0 1.5 … … 0.35 … …
C98800 56.5–62.5(b) 0.25 37.5–42.5(z) 5.5(z) 0.10 0.02 0.35 … …
C98820 bal 1.0–5.0 40.0–44.0 … … … 0.35 … …
C98840 bal 1.0–5.0 44.0–58.0 … … … 0.35 … …
Special alloys
Copper Other named
alloy No. Other designations Cu(q) Sn Pb Ni Fe Al Co Si Mn elements
C99300 Incramet 800 bal 0.05 0.02 13.5–16.5 0.40–1.0 10.7–11.5 1.0–2.0 0.02 … …
C99350 … bal … 0.15 14.5–16.0(aa) 1.0 9.5–10.5 … … 0.25 7.5–9.5Zn
C99400 … bal … 0.25 1.0–3.5 1.0–3.0 0.50–2.0 … 0.50–2.0 0.50 0.50–5.0Zn
C99500 … bal … 0.25 3.5–5.5 3.0–5.0 0.50–2.0 … 0.50–2.0 0.50 0.50–2.0Zn
C99600 Incramute 1 bal 0.10 0.02 0.20 0.20 1.0–2.8 0.20 0.10 39.0–45.0 0.20Zn, 0.05C
C99700 … 54.0 min 1.0 2.0 4.0–6.0 1.0 0.50–3.0 … … 11.0–15.0 19.0–25.0Zn
C99750 … 55.0–61.0 0.50–2.5 … 5.0 1.0 0.25–3.0 … … 17.0–23.0 17.0–23.0Zn
Table 4 ASTM B 601 temper designation codes for copper and copper alloys
Temper name Temper name
Temper designation or material condition Temper designation or material condition
Cold-worked tempers(a) Cold worked and stress-relieved tempers

H00 1/8 hard HR06 H06 and stress relieved
H03 3/4 hard HR20 As finned
H04 Hard HR50 Drawn and stress relieved
H06 Extra hard
H08 Spring Cold rolled and order-strengthened temper(c)
H10 Extra spring HT04 H04 and order heat treated
H12 Special spring HT08 H08 and order heat treated
H13 Ultra spring As-manufactured tempers
H14 Super spring
M01 As-sand cast
Cold worked tempers(b) M02 As-centrifugal cast
H50 Extruded and drawn M03 As-plaster case
H52 Pierced and drawn M04 As-pressure die cast
H55 Light drawn; light cold rolled M05 As-permanent mold cast
H58 Drawn general purpose M06 As-investment cast
H60 Cold heading; forming M07 As-continuous cast
H63 Rivet M10 As-hot forged and air cooled
H64 Screw M11 As-forged and quenched
H66 Bolt M20 As-hot rolled
H70 Bending M25 As-hot rolled and rerolled
H80 Hard drawn M30 As-hot extruded
H85 Medium-hard-drawn electrical wire M40 As-hot pierced
H86 Hard-drawn electrical wire M45 As-hot pierced and rerolled
H90 As finned Annealed tempers(d)
Cold worked and stress-relieved tempers O10 Cast and annealed (homogenized)
HR01 H01 and stress relieved O11 As-cast and precipitation heat treated
HR02 H02 and stress relieved O20 Hot forged and annealed
HR04 H04 and stress relieved O25 Hot rolled and annealed
(continued)
(a) Cold-worked tempers to meet standard requirements based on cold rolling or cold drawing. (b) Cold-worked tempers to meet standard requirements based on temper names applicable to specific products. (c) Tempers pro-
duced by controlled amounts of cold work followed by a thermal treatment to produce order strengthening. (d) Annealed to meet specific mechanical property requirements. (e) Annealed to meet prescribed nominal average grain
size. (f) Tempers of heat-treated materials as supplied by the mill resulting from combinations of cold work and precipitation heat treatment or spinodal heat treatment. (g) Tempers to meet standard requirements based on cold
rolling or cold drawing. (h) Tempers of fully finished tubing that has been drawn or annealed to produce specified mechanical properties or that has been annealed to produce a prescribed nominal average grain size are com-
monly identified by the appropriate H, O, or OS temper designation
Table 4 (continued)
Temper name Temper name
Temper designation or material condition Temper designation or material condition
Annealed tempers(d) Mill-hardened tempers(f)

O30 Hot extruded and annealed TM08 XHMS
O31 Extruded and precipitation heat treated
O40 Hot pierced and annealed Quench-hardened tempers
O50 Light annealed TQ00 Quench hardened
O60 Soft annealed TQ30 Quench hardened and tempered
O61 Annealed TQ50 Quench hardened and temper annealed
O65 Drawing annealed TQ55 Quench hardened and temper annealed,
O68 Deep-drawing annealed cold drawn and stress relieved
O70 Dead-soft annealed TQ75 Interrupted quench hardened
O80 Annealed to temper, 1/8 hard
Precipitation-hardened or spinodal-heat-treated, cold-worked,
and thermal-stress-relieved tempers
TR01 TL01 and stress relieved
Annealed tempers(e) TR02 TL02 and stress relieved
OS005 Average grain size, 0.005 mm TR04 TL04 and stress relieved
OS010 Average grain size, 0.010 mm
OS015 Average grain size, 0.015 mm Solution-treated, cold-worked, and spinodal-heat-treated tempers(g)
OS025 Average grain size, 0.025 mm TS00 1/8 hard and spinodal hardened
OS060 Average grain size, 0.060 mm TS04 Hard and spinodal hardened
OS065 Average grain size, 0.065 mm TS06 Extra hard and spinodal hardened
OS070 Average grain size, 0.070 mm TS08 Spring and spinodal hardened
OS100 Average grain size, 0.100 mm TS10 Extra spring and spinodal hardened
OS120 Average grain size, 0.120 mm TS12 Special spring and spinodal hardened
OS150 Average grain size, 0.150 mm TS13 Ultra spring and spinodal hardened
OS200 Average grain size, 0.200 mm TS14 Super spring and spinodal hardened
Solution-treated temper Solution-treated and spinodal-heat-treated temper

TB00 Solution heat treated TX00 Spinodal hardened
Solution-treated and cold-worked tempers Tempers of welded tubing(h)
TD00 TB00 cold worked to 1/8 hard WH00 Welded and drawn to 1/8 hard
TD04 TB00 cold worked to full hard WH04 Welded and drawn to full hard
WH06 Welded and drawn to extra hard
Solution-treated and precipitation-hardened temper
WH55 Welded and cold reduced or
TF00 TB00 and precipitation hardened light drawn
TF01 TB00 and precipitation-hardened WH58 Welded and cold reduced or
plate–low hardness light drawn–general purpose
TF02 TB00 and precipitation-hardened WH80 Welded and reduced or hard drawn
plate–high hardness WM00 As welded from H00 (1/8-hard) strip
Cold-worked and precipitation-hardened tempers WM01 As welded from H01 (1/4-hard) strip
WM02 As welded from H02 (1/2-hard) strip
TH01 TD01 and precipitation hardened WM03 As welded from H03 (3/4-hard) strip
TH02 TD02 and precipitation hardened WM04 As welded from H04 (full-hard) strip
TH03 TD03 and precipitation hardened WM06 As welded from H06 (extra-hard) strip
TH04 TD04 and precipitation hardened WM08 As welded from H08 (spring) strip
Precipitation-hardened or spinodal-heat-treated and cold-worked tempers WM10 As welded from H10 (extra-spring) strip
TL00 TF00 cold worked to 1/8 hard WM15 WM50 and stress relieved
TL04 TF00 cold worked to full hard WM22 WM02 and stress relieved
TL08 TF00 cold worked to spring WM50 As welded from annealed strip
TL10 TF00 cold worked to extra spring WO50 Welded and light annealed
WO60 Welded and soft annealed
Mill-hardened tempers(f) WO61 Welded and annealed
TM00 AM WR00 WM00; drawn and stress relieved
TM01 1/4 HM WR01 WM01; drawn and stress relieved
TM04 HM WR04 WM04; drawn and stress relieved
TM06 XHM WR06 WM06; drawn and stress relieved
(a) Cold-worked tempers to meet standard requirements based on cold rolling or cold drawing. (b) Cold-worked tempers to meet standard requirements based on temper names applicable to specific products. (c) Tempers pro-
duced by controlled amounts of cold work followed by a thermal treatment to produce order strengthening. (d) Annealed to meet specific mechanical property requirements. (e) Annealed to meet prescribed nominal average grain
size. (f) Tempers of heat-treated materials as supplied by the mill resulting from combinations of cold work and precipitation heat treatment or spinodal heat treatment. (g) Tempers to meet standard requirements based on cold
rolling or cold drawing. (h) Tempers of fully finished tubing that has been drawn or annealed to produce specified mechanical properties or that has been annealed to produce a prescribed nominal average grain size are com-
monly identified by the appropriate H, O, or OS temper designation
International Alloy and identify the material, and final third letter is used A Elongation
Temper Designations to identify the classification of individual copper B Spring bending limit
material groups and to enlarge the capacity of the G Grain size
H Hardness (HB for castings,
designation system. A summary of the preferred HV for wrought products)
International Alloy Designations. A common number ranges and letters allocated by the CEN M As-manufactured, that is,without
designation system used within the International numbering system to the different copper alloy specified mechanical properties
Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a com- groups is shown in Table 5. R Tensile strength
Y 0.2% proof stress (yield strength)
positional system described in ISO 1190 Part 1, Tables 6 and 7 cross reference some
based on the element symbols and the descending International Organization for Standardization
order of magnitude of alloying elements. For (ISO), British Standard, Comité Européen de
example, a leaded brass containing 60% Cu and Normalisation (CEN), and near-equivalent UNS For example, tensile strength R250 indicates
2% Pb is designated CuZn38Pb2. Because this designations. Additional information on interna- the minimum of 250 MPa (36 ksi), a hardness
system is unwieldy when used to describe com- tional designation systems for coppers and cop- of H090 indicates a value of 90 (Vickers for
plex alloys, a European numbering system has per alloys is available from the CDA. wrought materials and Brinell for cast), and
been formulated by the Comité Européen de International Temper Designations. For tem- Y140 indicates a 0.2% proof stress of 140 MPa
Normalisation (CEN). CEN/TC 132 describes a per designations, CEN/TC 133 covering copper (20 ksi). This designation system meets the
six-digit alpha-numerical system. The first letter, and copper alloys has agreed to use a system sim- requirements of the wide variety of customers
“C,” indicates a copper alloy. A second letter was ilar to that already established by Deutsches who have individual needs for special proper-
introduced to indicate the material state (i.e., “W” Institut für Normung (DIN) indicating the mini- ties to ensure fitness for purpose, but do not
for a wrought material, “C” for castings, and “M” mum value of specified properties. Letter symbols need to know the way in which a temper was
for master alloys). Three numbers are then used to for property designations are as follows: originally produced.
Table 5 Summary of preferred designators for copper alloys in the Comité Européen de Normalisation system
Number ranges available Final letter, designating Number range allocated to
Material groups for positions 3, 4, and 5 material group materials preferred by CEN
Copper 001–999 A 001–049A

001–999 B 050–099B
Miscellaneous copper alloys 001–999 C 100–149C
001–999 D 150–199D
001–999 E 200–249E
001–999 F 250–299F
Copper-aluminum alloys 001–999 G 300–349G
Copper-nickel alloys 001–999 H 350–399H
Copper-nickel-zinc alloys 001–999 J 400–449J
Copper-tin alloys 001–999 K 459–499K
Copper-zinc alloys, binary 001–999 L 500–549L
001–999 M 550–599M
Copper-zinc-lead alloys 001–999 N 600–649N
001–999 P 650–699P
Copper-zinc alloys, complex 001–999 R 700–749R
001–999 750–799S
Copper material not standardized by CEN/TC 133 800–999 A-S(a) 800–999(a)
(a) Letter as appropriate for the material group
Table 6 Cross-reference for ISO, British Standard, CEN, and UNS wrought copper and copper alloy designations
ISO British Standard CEN UNS ISO British Standard CEN UNS
Coppers High-alloy coppers

Cu-ETP1 C100 CW003A … CuCd1 C108 … C16200
Cu-ETP C101 CW004A C11000 CuCdSn … … …
Cu-Ag(0.04) C101 CW011A … CuCr1 CC101 CW105C C18200
Cu-Ag(0.07) … CW012A … CuCr1Zr CC102 CW106C …
Cu-Ag(0.10) … CW013A … CuNi1Si … CW109C C19010
Cu-FRHC C102 CW005A C11020 CuNi2Si … CW111C C70250
Cu-HCP … CW021A … CuNi3Si1 … CW112C C70320
Cu-DLP … CW023A C12000 CuNi4AlSi … … …
Cu-FRTP C104 CW006A C12500 CuNi1P C113 CW108C …
CuAs C105 … … CuBe1.7 … CW100C …
Cu-DHP C106 CW024A C12200 CuBe2 CB101 CW101C C17200
CuAsP C107 … C14200 CuBe2CoNi … … …
Cu-Ag(0.04P) … CW014A … CuBe2Pb … CW102C C17300
Cu-Ag(0.07P) … CW015A … CuNi2Be … CW110C C17510
Cu-Ag(0.10P) … CW016A … CuCo2Be C112 CW104C C17500
Cu-OF1 … CW007A … CuCo1Ni1Be … CW103C …
Cu-OF C103 CW008A C10200 CuZr … CW120C C15000
Cu-OFE C110 CW009A C10100 CuSi1 … CW115C C65100
Cu-OFS C103 … … CuSi3Mn1 CS101 CW116C C65500
Cu-PHCE … CW022A … CuSn0.15 … CW117C …
(continued)
Source: Copper Development Association

Table 6 (continued)
High-alloy coppers Special copper-zinc alloys

CuTeP C109 CW118C C14500 CuZn40Mn1Pb1AlFeSn CZ114 CW721R …
CuSP C111 CW114C C14700 CuZn40Mn1Pb1FeSn CZ115 CW722R …
CuPb1P … CW113C C18700 CuZn40Mn2Fe1 … CW723R …
CuZn35Ni3Mn2AlPb … CW710R …
Brasses (Cu-Zn alloys)
CuZn25Al5Fe2Mn2Pb CZ116 CW705R C67000
CuZn5 CZ125 CW500L C21000
CuZn10 CZ101 CW501L C22000 Nickel silvers
CuZn15 CZ102 CW502L C23000 CuNi10Zn27 NS103 CW401J C74500
CuZn20 CZ103 CW503L C24000 CuNi10Zn28Pb1 NS111 … …
CuZn28 … CW504L … CuNi12Zn24 NS104 CW403J C75700
CuZn30 CZ106 CW505L C26000 CuNi12Zn25Pb1 … CW404J C79200
CuZn33 … CW506L C26800 CuNi12Zn29 … CW405J …
CuZn35 … … C27000 CuNi12Zn30Pb1 … CW406J C79000
CuZn36 CZ107 CW507L C27200 CuNi14Zn44Pb NS102 … …
CuZn37 CZ108 CW508L C27400 CuNi15Zn21 NS105 … …
CuZn40 CZ109 CW509L C28000 CuNi18Zn20 NS106 CW409J C75200
Leaded brasses CuNi18Zn19Pb1 NS113 CW408J C67300
CuNi18Zn27 NS107 CW410J C77000
CuZn9Pb2 … … C31400 CuNi20Zn17 NS108 … …
CuZn20Pb CZ104 … … CuNi25Zn18 NS109 … …
CuZn35Pb1 CZ118 CW600N C34000 CuNi7Zn39Pb3Mn2 … CW400J …
CuZn35Pb2 CZ119 CW601N C34200 CuNi10Zn42Pb2 NS101 CW402J C79830
CuZn36Pb3 CZ124 CW603N C36000 CuNi12Zn38Mn5Pb2 … CW407J …
CuZn36Pb2As CZ132 CW602N …
CuZn37Pb0.5 … CW604N C33500 Copper-tin alloys
CuZn37Pb1 … CW605N C35000 CuSn4 PB101 CW450K C51100
CuZn37Pb2 CZ131 CW606N C35300 CuSn4TeP … CW457K …
CuZn38Pb1 CZ129 CW607N C35000 CuSn4Pb2P … CW455K C53200
CuZn38Pb2 CZ128 CW608N C37700 CuSn4Pb4Zn4 … CW456L …
CuZn38Pb4 CZ121-Pb4 CW609N … CuSn5 PB102 CW451K C51000
CuZn39Pb0.5 CZ137 CW610N C36500 CuSn5PB1 … CW458K C53400
CuZn39Pb1 CZ129 CW611N C37100 CuSn5Te … … …
CuZn39Pb2 CZ120 CW612N C37700 CuSn6 PB103 CW452K C51900
CuZn39Pb2Sn … CW613N C48500 CuSn8 … CW453K …
CuZn39Pb3 CZ121-Pb3 CW614N C38500 CuSn8P PB104 CW459K C52100
CuZn39Pb3Sn … CW615N … CuSn3Zn9 … CW454K …
CuZn40Pb CZ123 … …
CuZn40Pb2 CZ122 CW617N C38010 Copper-nickel alloys
CuZn40Pb2Sn … CW619N … CuNi5Fe CN101 … C70400
CuZn43Pb2 CZ130 CW623N … CuNiSn … … …
CuZn40Pb1Al … CW616N … CuNi9Sn2 … CW351H C72500
CuZn40Pb2Al … CW618N … CuNi10Fe1Mn CN102 CW352H C70600
CuZn41Pb1Al … CW620N … CuNi15 CN103 … C70900
CuZn42PbAl … CW621N … CuNi20 CN104 … C71000
CuZn43Pb1Al … CW622N C38000 CuNi25 CN105 CW350H C71300
CuZn43Pb2Al CZ130 CW624N … CuNi30Mn1Fe CN107 CW354H C71500
CuNi30Fe2Mn2 CN108 CW353H C71640
Special copper-zinc alloys
CuNi45 … … …
CuZn13AlNiSi CZ127 CW700R …
CuZn19Sn … CW701R C43500 Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronzes)
CuZn23Al3Co … CW703R … CuAl5 CA101 … …
CuZn28Sn1Al CZ111 … … CuAl6Si2Fe CA107 CW301G …
CuZn20Al2As CZ110 CW702R … CuAl7Si2 … CW302G C64200
CuZn29As CZ105 … … CuAl7 CA102 … C61400
CuZn30As CZ126 CW707R … CuAl7Fe3 … … …
CuZn31Si1 … CW708R … CuAl8Fe3 CA106 CW303G C62300
CuZn32Pb2AsFeSi … CW709R … CuAl9 CA103 … …
CuZn36Pb2Sn1 CZ134 CW711R C48400 CuAl9Pb … … …
CuZn37Pb1Sn1 … CW714R C48200 CuAl9Ni3Fe2 … CW304G …
CuZn38Sn1 CZ112 … … CuAl9Fe2Ni2Mn2 … … …
CuZn38Sn1As … CW717R … CuAl10Fe1 … CW305G C61800
CuZn39Sn1 CZ133 CW719R C46400 CuAl10Fe3Mn2 … CW306G …
CuZn36Sn1Pb … CW712R C48200 CuAl10Ni5Fe4 CA104 CW307G C63000
CuZn39Mn1AlPbSi … CW718R … CuAl10Fe3Ni7Mn2 CA105 … …
CuZn37Mn3Al2PbSi CZ135 CW713R C67420 CuAl10Fe3Ni5Mn2 … … …
CuZn40Mn1Pb1 CZ136 CW720R … CuAl10Fe5Ni5Mn2 … … …
CuZn38Mn1Al … CW716R … CuAl11Fe6Ni6 … CW308G …
CuZn38AlFeNiPbSn … CW715R … CuMn12Al8Fe3Ni2 … … …

Table 7 Cross-reference for ISO, British Standard, CEN, and UNS cast copper and copper alloy designations
High-conductivity coppers Copper-tin-phosphorus alloys

Cu-C HCC1 CC040A … CuSn11Pb2-C PB4 CC482K C92700
G-CuSn … … … G-CuSn8Pb4Zn1 LPB1 … C93100
CuCr1-C CC1-TF CC140C …
Copper-tin-lead alloys (leaded bronzes)
G-CuNiP … … …
G-CuNi2Si … … … CuSn5Pb9-C LB4 CC494K C93500
G-CuCo2Be … … … CuSn10Pb10-C LB2 CC495K C93700
G-CuBe … … … CuSn7Pb15-C LB1 CC496K C93800
CuSn5Pb20-C LB5 CC497L C94300
Brasses (Cu-Zn alloys)
CuZn15As-C SCB6 CC760S … Copper-tin-zinc-lead alloys (gunmetals)
G-CuSn25Pb3Sn2 SCB1 … C85200 G-CuSn10Zn2 G1 … C90200
CuZn33Pb2-C SCB3 CC750S … G-CuSn8Zn4Pb G2 … C90300
G-CuZn36Sn SCB4 … … G-CuSn7Ni5Zn3 G3 … …
CuZn39Pb1Al-C DCB3 CC754S C85700 CuSn3Zn8Pb5-C LG1 CC490K C83800
CuZn39Pb1AlB-C (fine grained) DCB3a CC755S C85700 CuSn5Zn5Pb5-C LG2 CC491K C83600
G-CuZn40PB PCB1 … … G-CuSn7Pb4Zn2 LG3 … C92200
CuZn38Al-C DCB1 CC767S C85700 CuSn7Zn2Pb3-C LG4 CC492K …
CuZn37Al1-C … CC766S … CuSn7Zn4Pb7-C … CC493L …
CuZn35Pb2Al-C(As 0.15) DZR1 CC752S …
CuZn33Pb2Si-C DZR2 CC751S …
CuZn37Pb2Ni1AlFe-C … CC753S … CuNi30Cr2FeMnSi-C CN1 CC382H …
CuNi30Fe1Mn1NbSi-C CN2 CC383H …
Special copper-zinc alloys (high tensile brasses) CuNi10Fe1Mn1-C … CC380H …
CuZn35Mn2Al1Fe1-C HTB1 CC765S C86400 CuNi30Fe1Mn1-C … CC381H …
CuZn32Al2Mn2Fe1-C HTB1 (Pb) CC763S C86700
Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronzes)
CuZn34Mn3Al2Fe1-C … CC764S …
CuZn25Al5Mn4Fe3-C HTB3 CC762S C86200 CuAl9-C … CC330G …
CuZn37Pb2Ni1AlFe-C … CC753S … G-CuAl9Fe2Mn3 … … …
CuZn16Si4-C … CC761S C87400 CuAl10Fe2-C AB1 CC331G C95200
CuAl10Ni3Fe2-C … CC332G …
Copper-tin-phosphorus alloys CuAl10Fe5Ni5-C AB2 CC333G C95500
CuSn11P-C PB1 CC481K … G-CuAl6Si2Fe AB3 … …
G-CuSn11 CT1 … … G-CuAl11Fe5Ni5Mn2 … … …
CuSn10-C … CC480K … CuAl11Fe6Ni6-C … CC334G …
CuSn12-C PB2 CC483K … CuMn11Al8Fe3Ni3-C CMA1 CC212E …
CuSn12Ni-C CT2 CC484K C91700 G-CuMn13Al9Fe3Ni3 CMA2 … …
REFERENCES Engineers, Inc., 1999 (see also SAE J1086 2. Copper Rod Alloys for Machined Products,
and ASTM E 527, both of which describe the Publication No. A7005-92/96, Copper
1. Metals & Alloys in the Unified Numbering UNS system) Development Association, 1996
System, 8th ed., Society of Automotive
Physical Metallurgy: Heat Treatment,
Structure, and Properties
COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS have a A comment about the use of the terms “brass” atomic size, cause locally elastically strained
wide range of properties that account for their and “bronze” is in order here. Generally, brass regions and hence decrease conductivity. This is
extensive use as engineering materials. As means copper-zinc alloys. However, bronze is the major effect of impurities. However, if the
described in the article “Introduction and used to describe many different copper-base second element combines with the copper to
Overview” in this Handbook, their high electri- alloys, and an attempt is sometimes made to dis- form a second phase (e.g., Cu2O), then the pres-
cal and thermal conductivity, ease of fabrication, tinguish them (e.g., aluminum bronze, a Cu-Al ence of this second phase usually reduces the
and excellent corrosion resistance under certain alloy). In any case, it is difficult to employ the conductivity mainly because there is less vol-
conditions are three characteristics that make two terms, brass and bronze, without being very ume of the copper to carry the current. This
them attractive. careful to modify them when referring to specif- effect is not as important as when the second ele-
The most common use of copper is in appli- ic alloys. Therefore, in this article, these terms ment is in solid solution.
cations requiring high electrical conductivity, are not employed extensively. Effect of Impurities on Conductivity.
and the reason that this element (or its alloys) is Figure 1 shows the effect of various solutes on
preferred is illustrated in Table 1. (Although sil- the resistivity of copper. Note that silver, lead,
ver has a slight advantage over copper in this Commercially Pure Copper zinc, and cadmium increase the resistivity/
respect, it is more expensive.) Attaining high decrease the conductivity only slightly, whereas
conductivity requires the use of copper in the There are several grades of commercially phosphorus has a potent effect. Note also that
“pure” form, and therefore in this article com- pure copper, the variety reflecting mainly the these curves cover the range up to only 0.1 wt%,
mercially pure copper is discussed first. Because need for high-electrical conductivity but with showing that the impurity levels of importance
the electrical conductivity of copper is very other properties. For example, solid-solution are quite low. Now, in the manufacture of pure
impurity-sensitive, considerable attention is paid elements will strengthen pure copper but lower copper from the ore, these elements are present
to the effects of minor amounts of other ele- the electrical conductivity; thus, some alloys from the ore itself, and most are reduced to
ments present. The brasses, copper-zinc alloys have a chemical composition that strives for a acceptable levels, usually by selective oxidation.
that are essentially noted for their formability, balance between these two effects. In this sec- That is, most of these elements have a greater
are then discussed. The bronzes—copper-tin and tion, only three commercially pure copper affinity for oxygen than for copper, and hence in
copper-aluminum alloys—are described next, alloys, which are widely used mainly for their liquid copper will react with oxygen more read-
and finally the age-hardening copper-beryllium high electrical conductivity, are examined in ily than with copper, forming oxides that are
alloys are addressed. Although there are many some detail: deoxidized copper, oxygen-free transferred to a slag layer that is immiscible with
other copper-base alloys of importance, the alloy copper, and tough pitch copper. the liquid copper. Once these elements are
systems chosen for close examination serve well Any disturbance of the periodicity of the cop-
to demonstrate the variety of alloys available per lattice will scatter electrons and hence 2.4
and the principles of physical metallurgy associ- decrease the electrical conductivity. Solute ele- Ti P Fe
ated with copper-base alloys. ments in the copper lattice, with their different 2.3
Co
2.2 Si
Resistivity, μΩ · cm
Table 1 Electrical and thermal conductivity of copper and several other commercially
pure metals at 20 °C (68 °F) 2.1 As
Relative electrical conductivity Relative thermal conductivity Cr
Metal (copper 100) (copper 100) 2.0 Be
Silver 106 108 Mn
Copper 100 100 1.9 Sb
Gold 72 76
Al
Aluminum 62 56
Magnesium 39 41 1.8 Sn
Ni
Zinc 29 29 Pb
Nickel 25 15 1.7
Cadmium 23 24 1.68 Cd Zn Ag
Cobalt 18 17
Iron 17 17 1.6
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10
Steel 13–17 13–17
Platinum 16 18 Content of alloying element, wt%
Tin 15 17
Lead 8 9 Fig. 1 Effects of alloying elements on electrical resistiv-
Antimony 4.5 5 ity of copper. Note: an increase in resistivity, ,
is equivalent to a decrease in electrical conductivity, ,
Source: Ref 1 because the electrical conductivity of a material is simply
the reciprocal of the resistivity, or 1/. Source: Ref 2
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 2 The copper-oxygen phase diagram. See text for details.
reduced to low values, then oxygen will be pres- and the oxide Cu2O. Note that in the solid state After extensive plastic deformation and anneal-
ent in the liquid copper. Upon solidification, this the solubility of oxygen is quite low, so that ing, the eutectic structure loses its identity, and
oxygen has an effect on the conductivity, and invariably most of the oxygen is in the oxide. the oxides may appear as elongated inclusions,
hence it must be contended with. The eutectic composition is 0.39% O. as shown in Fig. 4. The effect of these oxide
The copper-oxygen phase diagram is shown In the as-cast condition, the structure, if the inclusions on mechanical properties is slight, as
in Fig. 2. In the range of interest, the alloys oxygen content is below 0.39%, will consist of shown in Fig. 5. Here the effects of cold work-
undergo an eutectic reaction, forming upon cool- primary crystals showing coring and eutectic ing and of subsequent annealing on tensile-
ing the copper-rich terminal solid solution () solid. Figure 3 shows typical microstructures. mechanical properties and on hardness show lit-
Physical Metallurgy: Heat Treatment, Structure, and Properties / 33
Fig. 3 Microstructures typical of as-cast copper-oxygen alloys. The light areas are the copper dendrite cells, out- Fig. 4 Microstructure typical of wrought and then
lined by the dark Cu-Cu2O eutectic network. The larger black regions are shrinkage voids. (a) 0.05% O. annealed copper-oxygen alloys. This is elec-
(b) 0.09% O. Both as polished (not etched); 100 trolytic tough pitch copper that has been hot rolled. The
dark particles are Cu2O inclusions. 250
tle difference between tough pitch copper with
about 0.05% O and oxygen-free, high-conduc-
tivity copper with essentially no oxygen. (These LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH
two grades of copper are discussed shortly.)
Figure 6 shows that increasing the amount of
Cu2O does lower the impact energy, although
the material remains relatively tough. However,
where extensive plastic deformation is required
in fabrication, a copper containing lower oxygen
may have to be used.
The grades of commercially pure copper
available are related to the refining processes
used. The most common practice is to take
concentrated copper sulfides and pass oxygen
(usually as air) through the molten material,
effecting separation of an impure copper prod-
uct known as blister copper. This product con-
tains sufficient impurities that it must be fur-
ther refined to obtain usable industrial copper.
One method is to melt the blister copper and
further oxidize the molten copper to remove
most impurities to an immiscible liquid slag or
to vaporize them. This method is usable
because of the greater affinity of the impurities
for the oxygen dissolved in the liquid copper
than for the copper itself. To effect removal of
these elements to a sufficiently low value,
however, requires using excess oxygen, so
after these impurities are lowered to an accept-
able level, oxygen remains dissolved in the liq- Fig. 5 Comparison of the effect of cold working (by rolling at 25 °C, or 75 °F) and subsequent annealing on the ten-
sile mechanical properties and hardness of tough pitch copper (0.05% O) and oxygen-free, high-conductivity
uid copper and may also be present as Cu2O if (OFHC) copper. Note that the two materials are affected in essentially the same way. Source: Ref 3
the solubility of oxygen is exceeded (Fig. 2).
Thus, the oxygen must then be lowered to an mation of the less-dense oxide compensates If oxygen-bearing copper is heated above
acceptable level. This is accomplished by the partially for the volume decrease when the approximately 400 °C (750 °F) in a hydrogen-
use of reducing gases, which convert the dis- solid copper forms from the liquid. In addition, containing atmosphere (or in some cases other
solved oxygen to gaseous oxides and reduce some dissolved hydrogen is released and also reducing gases), the hydrogen dissolves readily
the Cu2O back to copper. If only pure copper compensates for contraction. If the test ingot in the copper and then diffuses rapidly. On
remains, shrinkage during solidification leaves shows little shrinkage of the surface upon encountering the Cu2O particles, the following
a depression on the surface of a test ingot. freezing, then the copper is called tough pitch. reaction occurs:
However, if some oxygen is present, Cu2O The oxygen content is about 0.05%, nearly all
forms during solidification, along with the low present in the solidified copper as Cu2O (about 2 H Cu2O ↔ 2 Cu H2O
oxygen content copper (). (See the phase dia- 0.5% Cu2O present). Note from the phase dia- (dissolved (gas)
gram in Fig. 2.) The oxide has a density of gram shown in Fig. 2 that 0.05% O will give in copper
lattice)
about 6 g/cm3 compared to ~9 g/cm3 for pure upon solidification primary (almost pure
copper, and hence when the copper-oxygen copper) and a small amount of eutectic solid
liquid freezes, less contraction occurs than if consisting of and Cu2O. This is shown in the The H2O molecules formed combine readily
the liquid were pure copper. That is, the for- microstructures in Fig. 3. into gas (steam) pockets, as these molecules are
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 7 Microstructure of a wrought tough pitch copper

sample that has been heated in hydrogen (2 min
at 850 °C, or 1560 °F) to form water vapor pockets, which
impair the mechanical properties. 300 . Source: Ref 5
this copper can be used where extensive cold

working is involved and can be heat treated in
reducing gases, whereas, as described previ-
ously, tough pitch copper cannot.
Note that all three commercially pure cop-
Fig. 6 Average Charpy impact energy at 20 °C (68 °F) for electrolytic tough pitch copper of different oxygen contents.
The datum at zero oxygen is for oxygen-free copper. Source: Ref 4 pers in Table 2 have the same hardness. Thus
the presence of Cu2O and of solute atoms in the
insoluble in the copper. This leaves a porous which then after solidification shows up dis- lattice has negligible effect on the strength
structure, and the strength is reduced drastical- solved in the solid copper lattice. There are properties, but they have a potent effect on the
ly. Thus, in manufacturing copper tubing and different grades of phosphorus-deoxidized electrical resistivity and also on the thermal
pipe, if annealing is to be in hydrogen to reduce copper, depending upon the amount of residual conductivity. Also, recall that tough pitch cop-
oxidation, tough pitch copper cannot be used. phosphorus. Phosphorus-deoxidized, low- per is desirable because the solidification
Figure 7 is a microstructure showing void for- residual phosphorus contains from 0.01 to shrinkage is small, so that the ingot solidifies
mation due to heating in hydrogen. 0.04% P. According to Fig. 1, this should lead with a rather flat top. Ingots cast from oxygen-
There are two important reasons why tough to a significant reduction in the electrical con- free or from deoxidized copper will have on top
pitch copper with the Cu2O particles is unde- ductivity, and this is substantiated by the val- a large “pipe,” or shrinkage cavity, and this por-
sirable: such copper cannot be used in reduc- ues in Table 2. The phosphorus-deoxidized tion will have to be removed before hot work-
ing gases at elevated temperatures, and fabri- copper has an electrical resistivity about 15% ing the ingot, contributing to scrap loss.
cation, especially by cold working, may be higher than that of tough pitch copper (15% These commercially pure coppers were
difficult. One method of reducing the oxygen lower conductivity). Thus, this copper is more chosen to illustrate the principles involved in
content is to add to the molten copper an ele- widely used for piping and tubing than for the uses of the pure coppers. There are many
ment that has a greater affinity for oxygen than electrical applications. reasons that specifications call for control of
for copper. One element commonly used is If high electrical conductivity and a low con- specific elements and that alloying additions
phosphorus. In the molten state, it will readily centration of Cu2O are desired, it is common to are made to copper. Two examples are exam-
react with essentially all of the dissolved oxy- use oxygen-free electronic copper, previously ined below.
gen to form phosphorus oxide, which will pass referred to as oxygen-free, high-conductivity Example 1: Effect of Lead Content. As dis-
into the immiscible slag. It is difficult, howev- copper. This copper is made by very carefully cussed earlier, one advantage of touch pitch cop-
er, to control the reaction so that the amount of controlling deoxidation during refining, so that per is that it solidifies with a flat top on the
phosphorus added is just sufficient to combine both the residual oxygen content and the deox- ingot, so that the entire ingot can be hot worked.
with the oxygen but not leave any unreacted idizer content are low. Table 2 shows that this A chemical-composition specification on elec-
phosphorus dissolved in the copper. A practi- copper has an electrical resistivity about the trolytic tough pitch copper is that lead should
cal compromise must be made, and this leads same as that of tough pitch copper, but a much not be present in amounts greater than 0.005% if
to the presence of some excess phosphorus, lower oxygen (and hence Cu2O) content. Thus, the copper is to be hot worked. The reason for
this can be seen by examining the copper-lead
Table 2 Approximate oxygen content and properties of three commercially pure coppers phase diagram shown in Fig. 8. The melting
and a silver-bearing copper points of copper and lead differ greatly, and
Electrical Thermal there is an eutectic at 99.94% Pb. From 326 to
resistivity at conductivity at 955 °C (619–1751 °F), a two-phase region exists
Copper Oxygen 20 °C (68 °F), 20 °C (68 °F), Hardness,
content, wt% content, wt% Others, wt% m/mm2 W/m · K HRF with lead-rich liquid in equilibrium with the
copper-rich, terminal solid solution. The solubil-
Tough pitch 99.0 min 0.04–0.05 … 58.6 226 40
copper (Cu Ag) ity of lead in solid copper is extremely small,
Deoxidized 99.90 0.01 0.004–0.012 P 49.3 196 40 being about 0.007%. Thus, if the lead content of
low-phosphorus the copper exceeds this value, upon heating the
copper copper to the hot-working range (500–900 °C,
Oxygen-free 99.99 min 0.001 max … 58.6 226 40
electronic copper or 930–1650 °F), the alloy is in the two-phase
Silver-bearing 99.90 … 0.03–0.05 Ag 58.0 226 40 region. The liquid wets the a grain boundaries
(10–15 oz per ton) and forms a film on them, and upon hot working,
Source: Ref 6
the alloy disintegrates. (This effect is called hot
shortness.) For this reason, the chemical specifi-
cation of lead in tough pitch copper is set at The data in Table 3 are consistent with the For example, the solubility of indium is only
0.005% maximum. data in Fig. 11, which show the effect of several about 1 at.%. (Note in Table 3 that tin is an
Example 2: Effect of Silver Additions. The solutes on the critical resolved shear stress, attractive possibility, and Fig. 11 shows that it
silver-bearing copper is an interesting example which is the shear stress on a crystallographic has a significant strengthening effect; the cop-
of the reason for the addition of a specific ele- plane in a certain direction that causes slip (Ref per-tin alloys are discussed subsequently.) The
ment. In many electrical applications, strength 11). Those elements that show strong strength- effect of zinc is not as potent as that of several of
is required and is obtained by cold working. ening of copper generally have low solubility. the other solutes, but its high solubility allows
However, copper has a rather low recrystalliza-
tion temperature (e.g., 140 °C, or 284 °F), and LIVE GRAPH
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it is desirable to alloy it with an element that
will raise the recrystallization temperature and
yet retain usable electrical conductivity. Figure
1 shows that the element that reduces the elec-
trical conductivity least is silver; the addition
of about 0.05% reduces the conductivity only
about 1%. However, in most solid solutions the
addition of only a very small amount of solute
reduces the atom mobility and hence increases
the recrystallization temperature. Figure 9
shows the effect of several solutes on the
recrystallization temperature of copper, and it
is seen that the addition of 0.05% Ag increases
this temperature from 140 to about 340 °C
(284–645 °F). Although some of the other ele-
ments have a comparable effect, they very
markedly lower the electrical conductivity
(Fig. 1). Thus, silver is the most obvious ele-
ment to add to retard softening of cold-worked
copper and yet retain excellent electrical con-
ductivity. Table 2 compares properties of a sil-
ver-bearing copper with those of the three
commercial coppers previously discussed. Note
the high electrical and thermal conductivity.
Copper-Zinc Alloys
Copper-zinc solid-solution alloys are prob-
ably the most widely used copper-base
alloys. They retain the good corrosion resist-
ance and formability of copper but are con-
siderably stronger. Zinc is hexagonal close-
packed, so the solubility in copper cannot be
complete. However, copper is face-centered
cubic, a close-packed structure, and the atom
size difference is only about 4%, so extensive
solubility is expected. The phase diagram is
shown in Fig. 10, where it is seen that the max-
imum solubility of zinc in copper is about
38%, and at 20 °C (68 °F) it is about 35%.
(The dashed lines indicate that equilibrium is
slow to attain, so that the solubility boundary
at about 200 °C, or 390 °F, is valid at 20 °C, or
68 °F). Note that four intermetallic compounds
form in this system.
It is useful to examine the size difference
between copper and solute atoms to predict the
extent of solid-solution strengthening. A large
size difference should favor strengthening, but
this usually causes limited solubility. Thus the
more usable solutes for solid-solution
strengthening are those for which the size dif-
ference is modest and the solubility large.
Table 3 lists the atom size difference for sever-
al solutes, along with the approximate maxi-
mum solubility. Note that zinc has the best
combination of size difference and solubility Fig. 8 (a) The copper-lead phase diagram. The schematic diagram in (b) shows more clearly the location of the eutec-
(except for gold, which is expensive). tic at almost pure lead and the low solubility of lead in copper.
the strengthening to be significant at contents in important. If the grain size becomes approxi- (plain strain). A continued force must be exert-
the 30% range (Fig. 12). mately the same as, or exceeds, the thickness ed to cause the metal to flow, and the material
of the tensile specimen (or the sheet in the must have sufficient strength to withstand the
case of the data in Fig. 15), then there are few longitudinal force and the ability to plastically
Factors Influencing or no grain boundaries to inhibit slip and con- strain without necking to prevent thinning of
Fabrication Characteristics tribute to work hardening, and as the grain the wall of the tube.
size increases the metal shows less elongation As the diameter of the circular blank increas-
One of the main uses of copper is in fabricat- at fracture. Thus control of grain size before es, necessary to form a longer tube, the force
ing intricate shapes by deformation (such as deep cold deformation is quite important, and the required to form the tube is greater than for a
drawing). The copper-zinc solid-solution alloys prior annealing processes must be carefully smaller-diameter blank (Fig. 16b). this is
have the advantage that they retain this deforma- regulated to yield a fine grain size (see the because a greater volume of metal is forced into
tion ease yet have higher strength than copper. article “Heat Treating” in this Handbook for the same die opening. A measure of drawability
Figure 13 shows the tensile strength and elonga- additional information). of a metal is the maximum ratio of the diameter
tion at fracture (at 20 °C, or 68 °F) of commer- How these mechanical properties are related of the blank to that of the punch (drawing ratio)
cially pure copper and several commercial cop- to the ease of fabrication by cold deformation allowable without fracture or wrinkling. Table 4
per-zinc alloys as a function of the amount of operations is addressed next. To illustrate the shows the drawing ratio for pure copper and for
cold rolling. Note that even in the initial, relationship, deep drawing is considered. The a Cu-30Zn alloy (cartridge brass) for various
annealed condition the copper-zinc alloys con- response of the metal to drawing depends upon amounts of prior work. Note that both materials
taining 20 and 30% Zn show a greater elongation a number of factors, such as loading rate, retain their deformation ability quite well as the
than pure copper and the alloys with less zinc. lubrication, and die radius. The description degree of prior cold work increases.
Although the copper-zinc alloys are stronger given here is simplified and is designed to In the drawing operation in Fig. 16 it is obvious
than copper, they work harden at a lower rate illustrate only the general aspects of the that a wrinkling effect will occur. To avoid this, it
(Fig. 14), and necking occurs at a higher strain. process. One type of deep drawing is depicted is common to use a plate on the blank to maintain
Thus upon forcing these alloys into a die, the schematically in Fig. 16(a). Here a circular the thickness constant and to force the blank to
metal can be deformed extensively before the blank is drawn into a cup. The blank is forced move horizontally (for the configuration in Fig.
danger of necking appears, leading to an unde- into a die by a punch, and in the case shown, 16) into the die. Also, the clearance between the
sirable local dimensional change and to fracture. the clearance between the die and punch is the die and the punch can be less than the blank thick-
Note also in Fig. 13 that the 20 and 30% Zn same as the thickness of the blank. During cold ness, so that the tube height is increased. All of
alloys retain their superiority as they are cold working, density changes only slightly so that these factors complicate the flow analysis and
worked, although all of the alloys show less duc- as the punch forces the metal into the opening, clearly point out that a material with high ductili-
tility with increasing cold deformation. the tube elongates. (Compare step 3 with step ty and high strength is required.
From the viewpoint of fabrication by defor- 4.) As the metal is drawn into the die, the
mation, the sensitivity of the elongation to the thickness does not change and plastic strain Table 3 Approximate atom diameter size
grain size, as illustrated by Fig. 15, is quite occurs only tangentially and longitudinally difference and approximate solubility in
copper of several solutes
Approximate
atom diameter Approximate
size difference, % solubility in
Solute (dCu dM)/dCu Cu, wt%
Oxygen +113 0
Beryllium +14 2
Aluminum –11 9
Silicon +9 5
Phosphorus +70 2
Nickel +2 100
Zinc –4 39
Arsenic +2 8
Silver –11 8
Cadmium –14 3
Tin –15 15
Antimony –12 11
Gold –11 100
Bismuth –18 0
Lead –27 0
Table 4 Drawability of pure copper and

Cu-30Zn alloy
Approximate % Maximum
reduction in drawing
thickness by rolling ratio using
at 20 °C (68 °F) hemispherical
(temper designation) punch
High- 0 (O) 2.20

conductivity 11 (1/4 H) 2.17
copper 21 (1/2 H) 2.12
37 (H) 1.72
70/30 brass 0 (O) 2.17
LIVE GRAPH 11 (1/4 H) 2.12
Click here to view 21 (1/2 H) 2.07
37 (H) 1.80
Fig. 9 Effect of solute content on the recrystallization temperature of pure copper. These data are for oxygen-free cop-
per, but quite similar curves are obtained for tough pitch copper. The samples were annealed for 30 min at Drawability is maximum ratio of the diameter of a circular blank to that
600 °C (1110 °F) then cold rolled at 20 °C (68 °F) to a reduction in thickness of 75%. Note that pure copper has a recrys- of the punch: see Fig. 16. Source: Ref 13
tallization temperature of 140 °C (285 °F). Source: Ref 7
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Fig. 10 The copper-zinc phase diagram. See text for details.

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120
800
100 30% Zn 700

20% Zn
Tensile strength, MPa

600
Tensile strength, ksi

80 15% Zn
10% Zn
500
5% Zn
60 400
Pure Cu
300
40
Fig. 12 Effect of zinc content on the critical resolved
200
shear stress at 20 °C (68 °F) of copper-zinc solid-
solution alloys. Source: Ref 9 20
0 20 40 60 80
Reduction in thickness, %
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80
Elongation at fracture, %
60
30% Zn
40
20% Zn
15% Zn
20 10% Zn
5% Zn
Fig. 11 Approximate effect of solute content on the Pure Cu
critical resolved shear stress at 20 °C (68 °F) of
dilute copper-base solid solutions. Source: Ref 8–10 0
0 20 40 60 80
Reduction in thickness, %
Pure copper . . electrolytic tough pitch 15% Zn . . . red brass

(ETP) copper 20% Zn . . . low brass
5% Zn . . . . . . . gilding 30% Zn . . . cartridge brass
10% Zn . . . . . . commercial bronze
Fig. 13 Effect of cold rolling at 20 °C (68 °F) on the

tensile strength and elongation at fracture of 1
mm (0.040 in.) thick sheet of copper and copper-zinc
single-phase commercial alloys
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70
0.80 mm Metal thickness
65
Elongation, in 50 mm (2 in.)
60 0.40 mm Metal thickness
55
50
45
0.15 mm Metal thickness
40
35
.01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09 .10 .11 .12 .13 .14 .15
Average grain size, mm
Fig. 14 Schematic engineering stress–engineering strain curves for pure copper and a Cu-30Zn solid solution alloy, Fig. 15 Influence of initial grain size and sheet thick-
showing that the alloy has a higher tensile strength and a lower work-hardening rate, necks at a higher ness on the elongation at fracture for the com-
strain, and has a greater fracture strain (elongation at fracture). mercial alloy cartridge brass (Cu-30Zn). Source: Ref 12
Effect of Beta () Phase on Structure per and zinc atoms are located at random on the the phase diagram in Fig. 18 can be used. Here,
and Properties lattice sites. There is a binding energy between the phase is considered stable to 20 °C (68 °F).
the copper and the zinc atoms, and hence a ten- The process by which the ordered structure
dency for the atoms to take on preferential posi- forms from the disordered lattice can be quite
The higher-zinc alloys in which the phase is tions relative to each other in the lattice. complex and in some alloys is not well under-
present (Fig. 10) are now examined. These However, at high temperatures the thermal ener- stood. However, a simplified description of a
alloys have rather complex phase transforma- gy, in the form of lattice vibrations, is sufficient possible process is useful in pointing out some
tions, which give rise to a variety of microstruc- to keep the atoms dispersed randomly on the lat- factors that might affect mechanical proper-
tures and hence properties. Their usefulness tice sites. As the temperature decreases, the ties. Figure 19(a) depicts a (110) plane for a 50
relies on excellent hot workability and excellent vibrations are reduced, and a temperature is at.% Zn-Cu alloy. The atoms are placed ran-
machinability. To illustrate these alloys, the reached (called the critical temperature) below domly in the schematic drawing. The picture in
60Cu-40Zn alloy is discussed in some detail. which this preferential siting occurs. The phase Fig. 19(a) would change with time, as the lat-
This alloy is essentially the commercial alloy is then said to be ordered (long-range ordered), tice thermal vibrations would allow atoms to
Muntz metal. or to have formed a superlattice. This is the move from one lattice site to another. This
Structure. The phase is referred to as an phase in Fig. 10. The crystal structure is shown would occur mainly by vacancy movement, but
intermetallic compound, meaning a phase in Fig. 17. the vacancies are not shown in the figure and
based on an approximate stoichiometry of the The critical temperature for the ordering they are neglected for simplicity in the follow-
elements. Thus, note in Fig. 10 that the process is dependent upon the composition of ing description.
phase is approximately centered at copper- the phase, and this is the line shown in Fig. 10 The description in Fig. 19(a) typifies that of
zinc. However, the chemical composition of separating the and the (the ordered struc- the alloy above the critical temperature.
intermetallic compounds can usually be varied ture) region. The lines extending into the However, as the temperature is lowered below
from the stoichiometric ratio and yet retain the and into the regions give the critical tem- the critical temperature, the lattice vibrations no
crystal structure of the compound. For the perature for the phase in equilibrium with longer are sufficiently strong to overcome the
phase in the copper-zinc system, at 800 °C either or . attraction between the copper and the zinc
(1472 °F) it is stable from about 39 to 55% Zn. Figure 10 shows that the phase undergoes a atoms, and if the atoms become arranged as they
This range decreases as the temperature is low- eutectoid reaction at 250 °C (482 °F), forming are in Fig. 17, the configuration will be stable.
ered, being stable only from 45 to 49% Zn at and . However, note that the phase boundaries Now, in spite of the fact that the arrangement in
500 °C (932 °F). are shown dashed, indicating considerable exper- Fig. 19(a) was achieved by placing the closed
The phase is body-centered cubic, and, in imental uncertainty in their location. Also, the and open circles randomly on the array, small
spite of the approximate stoichiometry, at tem- eutectoid reaction requires considerable time to regions can be found that have the ordered struc-
peratures above about 470 °C (880 °F) the cop- initiate. Therefore the phase boundaries shown in ture. When the alloy is cooled below the critical
temperature, these regions act as nuclei for the
ordering process. In Fig. 19(b) are shown two
perfectly ordered regions in the random arrange-
ment. Only these two act as nuclei. For these to
grow, atoms at the interface must relocate to
extend the arrangement. The required atom
exchanges, shown by the arrows in Fig. 19(b),
lead to the perfectly ordered regions increasing
their size as shown in Fig. 19(c). These small
ordered regions are call domains.
For the domains to grow further requires the
atoms in the disordered material right at the
domain-disordered lattice (or ) interface to
continue to rearrange in order to propagate the
correct arrangement. If the atoms are moved as
indicated in Fig. 19(d), the two domains even-
tually contact. However, note that the particu-
lar choice of the original domain nucleus leads
to a mismatch at the interface of the two
domains. Such an interface is called an
antiphase domain boundary.
Fig. 17 The ordered (superlattice) phase for the

Fig. 16 (a) Schematic illustration of a drawing operation. If the ratio of the diameter of the circular blank to that of exact composition of equal numbers of
the punch increases (b), the force to draw the tube increases, and the wall of the tube must withstand more atoms of copper and zinc (about 49 wt% Zn). The unit
force. This ratio of diameters is called the drawing ratio, and the maximum ratio that will withstand fracture is a meas- cell could just as well have been drawn with a copper
ure of drawability. Some data are given in Table 4. atom in the center and zinc atoms on the corners.
The perfection of the order within a domain is rapid cooling from cannot suppress the order- ence of the heat treatment on the degree of order
referred to as the degree of order. For example, ing. This is reasonable from the description in and on the domain structure. Figure 21 shows
each of the domains depicted in Fig. 19(d) is Fig. 19, as it is expected that many nuclei exist the influence of cooling rate from the region
perfectly ordered (with degree of order S 1). and that only a few atom exchanges will bring on the hardness. Very slow cooling should
If a few copper and zinc atoms swapped posi- the domains into contact, with the alloy locally induce the equilibrium amount of order and
tions, the degree of order would be less than per- completely ordered. The other characteristic is allow development of a relatively coarse domain
fect (S between 1 and 0). If the arrangement that a fine domain size should be established, size. Increased cooling rate from the region
were random, S 0. In the structure, the with many antiphase boundaries. This should should develop a fine domain size and perhaps
equilibrium degree of order is essentially unity contribute to strengthening. allow less than the equilibrium amount of order
below about 250 °C (480 °F), and approaches Properties. Some mechanical properties of to develop. This fine domain size is probably
zero as the critical temperature is approached. the phase are now examined. Figure 20 shows responsible for the increased hardness as the
However, the actual degree of order in an alloy that the strength of the ordered can be cooling rate increases. Again, it is necessary to
may be influenced by the heat treatment. increased by aging in the intermediate tempera- remember that even very rapid cooling cannot
Two characteristics can be established here. ture range (200–500 °C, or 390–930 °F) below suppress the ordering; it just develops a very fine
One is that in the copper-zinc phase, even the critical temperature. This reflects the influ- domain size.
The data in Fig. 22 show that above the criti-
cal temperature, the ductility and toughness of
the -composition alloys increase markedly.
Thus, the high-temperature, disordered phase
deforms much easier than the ordered struc-
ture. One important characteristic of copper-zinc
alloys containing and is that they show bet-
ter hot workability (but not cold workability)
than alloys consisting of only the phase.
With this brief description of the and
phases, the Cu-40Zn alloy is considered. The
alloy is not suitable for commercial use, as
it is brittle. However, alloys in which the
phase coexists with the ductile phase are
useful. The Cu-40Zn alloy can be heat treated
at high temperature so that it is all . The
structure developed at lower temperatures
depends upon the heat treatment, as this con-
trols the precipitation and formation of the
phase. If the alloy is cooled slowly from 800
°C (1470 °F), the phase diagram (Fig. 18)
shows that at 20 °C (68 °F) the alloy should
consist of approximately equal amounts of
and . Figure 23 shows a typical microstruc-
ture. The phase can be identified by the pres-
ence of annealing twins, characteristic of the
face-centered cubic structure.
The curves on the right-hand side of Fig. 24
show that the amount of influences the
hardness. The alloy was cooled slowly from
700 °C (1290 °F), where it was mostly , to 20
LIVE GRAPH °C (68 °F), then reheated to temperature for 30
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Fig. 18 The copper-zinc phase diagram in which the phase is stable below the critical temperature. This diagram min, followed by rapid cooling. Upon heating
is used in discussing the heat treatment of alloys containing the phase. at 800 °C (1470 °F), the structure is all , and
Fig. 19 Schematic illustration of a possible mechanism of the formation of two ordered domains. The plane shown is a (110) type (see Fig. 17).
LIVE GRAPH
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60 Table 5 Mechanical properties typical of cartridge brass (Cu-30Zn) and Muntz metal
Flow stress (yield strength), MPa

400
(Cu-40Zn)
Flow stress (yield strength)
Critical
temperature
at 0.9% strain, ksi
Tensile strength Yield strength

466 °C 300
Alloy MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, %
40
Cartridge brass 305–895 44–130 75–450 11–65 63-3
Muntz metal 395–510 57–74 145–380 21–55 52-10
200
Approximate properties for specific treatments
20 Tensile strength
100 Alloy MPa ksi Elongation, % Hardness, HRB
Cartridge brass
0 200 400 600 Annealed 345–415 50–60 65–50 10–50
Quenching temperature, °C Annealed + 40%
cold work 550–620 80–90 8–5 84–90
Annealed + 70%
Fig. 20 Yield strength as a function of quenching tem-
cold work 655–725 95–105 4 92–95
perature for brass (Cu-49.5Zn). The alloy was
Muntz metal
originally slowly cooled from 500 °C to 25 °C (930–75 °F)
Annealed 365–395 53–57 55–47 30–38
(giving a completely ordered structure), reheated for 15 min
Annealed + 40%
at temperature, then water quenched. In this condition the
cold work 550–620 80–90 10–5 85–90
flow stress was measured at 25 °C (75 °F). From 20 to about
Annealed + 70%
200 °C (68–390 °F) the alloy is essentially in the condition
cold work 695–710 101–103 6–4 93
obtained by slow cooling from 500 °C, which is why the
strength is about the same. However, from 200 to about
Source: Ref 3
500 °C (390–930 °F) the degree of order depends on the
temperature and hence affects the strength measured after
quenching. Source: Ref 14
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Table 6 Effect of aging on the strength of
a Cu-10Sn alloy
Cast, then annealed for
10 h at 760 °C (1400 °F),
water quenched, aged 5 h
Property As-cast at 315 °C (600 °F)
Yield strength, 145 (21) 140 (20)

MPa (ksi)
Tensile strength, 305 (44) 295 (43)
MPa (ksi)
Elongation, % 25 25
Hardness, HB 62 60
Source: Ref 22
Fig. 21 Effect of cooling rate from 500 °C (930 °F) on the hardness at 25 °C (75 °F) of brass (Cu-47Zn). The alloy was
held for 15 min at 500 °C (930 °F), then cooled in different media. The cooling rates shown are estimated, rang-
ing from water quenching to cooling in still air. Source: Ref 15
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Fig. 23 Typical microstructure of annealed Muntz

Fig. 22 Increased ductility of brass (approximately Cu-49Zn) above the critical temperature. (a) Plot of the diame- metal (Cu-40Zn). The clear, white regions are
ter of the impression of a steel ball dropped from a constant height, giving the impact hardness. Source: Ref the , and the dark and gray regions showing annealing
16. (b) Plot of the elongation at fracture in a tension test. Source: Ref 17 twins are . Light micrograph; 250 . Source: Ref 18
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Fig. 24 Influence of heat treatment on the hardness at 20 °C (68 °F) of a Cu-40Zn alloy. Source: Ref 19
Fig. 26 Microstructures of Cu-42Zn alloy quenched

from the region, then reheated to develop
an precipitate structure. The higher reheating tempera-
ture gives a coarser structure and hence a softer material.
(a) All . Quenched from 800 °C (1470 °F). (b) White
in . Quenched from 800 °C (1470 °F), reheated for 30
Fig. 25 Microstructures typical of Cu-40Zn alloys cooled rapidly from the region to 20 °C (68 °F). Even rapid cool- min at 400 °C (750 °F). (c) White in . Quenched from
ing has not prevented some from forming. (a) Cu-40Zn alloy, quenched into ice water from 825 °C (1520 800 °C (1470 °F), reheated for 30 min at 600 °C (1110
°F). Source: Ref 20. (b) Quenched Muntz metal. Both are light micrographs; 100 °F). All three are light micrographs; 100 . Source: Ref 5
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Fig. 28 Effect of cooling rate from the region on the

hardness of a Cu-40Zn alloy. Source: Ref 19
upon cooling rapidly little forms. However,

the orders to , giving a hardness around 90
HB. Reheating for 30 min in the lower temper-
ature range, 20 to 500 °C (68–930 °F), was not
sufficient to significantly affect the originally
slowly cooled structure, and the hardness
remains constant. In this temperature range,
the structure is approximately equal amounts
Fig. 27 Microstructure of a Cu-43Zn alloy after cooling from 700 °C (1290 °F), the region. (a) Furnace cooled. (b)
Air cooled. Both are light micrographs; 90 . Source: Ref 21 of and . However, as the temperature
increases from 500 °C (930 °F), 30 minutes is
sufficient time to allow the equilibrium
amounts and and to form. Thus, as the
temperature increases, increasing amounts of
and decreasing amounts of are present at
temperature, giving increasing amounts of
upon cooling rapidly to 20 °C (68 °F), and
hence a rise in hardness.
If the Cu-40Zn alloy is cooled rapidly to 20 °C
(68 °F) after sufficient holding (e.g., 30 min)
above about 750 °C (1380 °F), a structure of
essentially all is obtained. Often some is
observed to have formed in the grain bound-
aries, and the morphology will vary somewhat
depending upon the exact cooling rate. Usually,
the is present as “needles” emanating from the
boundaries, with a clear crystallographic relation
between the and the in which it has formed.
Figure 25 shows two examples.
Upon reheating in the intermediate tempera-
ture range, the morphology of the formed will
LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH vary depending upon the exact heat treatment.
Click here to view Click here to view Also, recall that reheating will influence the
Fig. 29 Comparison of the effect of zinc and tin on the hardness of the binary solid solutions. Tin has a greater solid- change in the ordered structure. Both changes
solution strengthening effect than zinc but the elongation decreases, so that copper-tin alloys are not as read- affect properties, and the hardness can be
ily fabricated as copper-zinc alloys. Source: Ref 3
increased considerably by judicious treatment. In
Figure 24 are shown hardness data for a Cu-40Zn
Table 7 Mechanical properties of copper-zinc and Cu-Zn-Sn solid solution alloys, alloy after reheating for 30 min following initial
illustrating the strengthening effect of tin (grain size 0.015 mm) treatment of quenching from 800 °C (1470 °F),
Yield strength Tensile strength giving a structure similar to those in Fig. 25.
Alloy MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, % Hardness, HRF Supposedly the maximum hardness obtained by
Cu-10Zn 105 15 275 40 44 65
treatment around 300 °C (570 °F) is caused by
Cu-9.5Zn-0.5Sn 125 18 310 45 43 70 the formation of a fine precipitate and some
Cu-30Zn 205 30 395 57 48 86 changes in the ordered phase. The type of
Cu-29Zn-1Sn 230 33 400 58 40 87 microstructures obtained for such heat treat-
Source: Ref 3
ments is illustrated in Fig. 26 for a Cu-42Zn
alloy. In this alloy the zinc content is suffi-
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Fig. 30 The copper-tin phase diagram. See text for details.

ciently high to completely suppress any for-

mation upon rapid cooling from , giving at
25 °C (75 °F) only (Fig. 26a). Reheating for
30 min at 400 °C (750 °F) gives a fine pre-
cipitate on the grain boundaries, and a fine
intercrystalline precipitate of (Fig. 26b).
Reheating for 30 min at a higher temperature,
600 °C (1110 °F), gives a coarser structure,
shown in Fig. 26(c).
If the rate of cooling from the region is quite
slow (several hours to 20 °C, or 68 °F), then
nucleates at a high temperature where the nucle-
ation rate is low, and the crystals grow rela-
tively large as few crystals nucleate. This gives a
rather coarse structure, typified by Fig. 27(a). As
the cooling rate increases, the nucleation rate
increases, but the individual crystals do not
have time to grow large before the temperature is
too low for significant growth to continue. This
Fig. 31 Microstructure of a Cu-10Sn alloy in the as-cast condition showing the presence of the phase. Light micro-
gives a finer structure (Fig. 27b) and will graph; 500 . Source: Ref 23
increase strength. Eventually, the cooling rate
becomes sufficient to suppress the formation of
altogether, giving a structure entirely of highly
unstable at 20 °C (68 °F). As was shown in
Fig. 25, however, it is difficult in the Cu-40Zn
alloy to completely suppress some formation
even upon rapid cooling. Figure 28 illustrates the
influence of cooling rate from on the hardness.
Table 5 presents the range of properties usual-
ly available for the commercial alloy Muntz
metal, which contains 40% Zn, and for commer-
cial cartridge brass, which contains 30% Zn. In
the 30% Zn alloy the range is obtained by choice
of the amount of cold work and of the annealing
treatment. In the 40% Zn alloy, the range is
achieved by cold working and by annealing.
However, in this alloy the annealing and cooling
rate from the high temperature affect the struc-
ture and the ordered structure, which affect
the hardness.
Again, alloys that consist of all are too brit- Fig. 32 Affect of cooling rate on microstructure of Cu-10Sn alloys. The faster cooling (chill cast) alloy (a) has formed
tle for industrial use, but the lower-zinc alloys considerably finer dendrites than the sand cast alloy (b). Both light micrographs; 200 . Source: Ref 23
with structures of are usable. However,
the data in Table 5 show that the Cu-40Zn alloy
is not preferred because of strength. Instead, the
phase has excellent hot workability, and thus
the 40% Zn alloy is frequently chosen to fabri-
cate objects by hot working. Further, it is found
that the 40% Zn alloy has better machinability
than the 30% Zn alloy, although the latter is con-
sidered to have good machinability. This charac-
teristic of the 40% Zn alloy is believed to be due
to the presence of the brittle , allowing
removal of material with less energy consump-
tion and the development of a fine surface finish.
Copper-Tin Alloys
Examination of Table 3 reveals that tin is a
solute that has a large size difference and rea-
sonably high solubility, so that the copper-tin
solid solutions should have quite usable
strength. Indeed, the copper-tin solid solutions
are considerably stronger than the copper-zinc
alloys in dilute solutions (Fig. 11), and Fig. 29
shows that a Cu-8Sn alloy is harder than a Cu- Fig. 33 Isotherm at 500 °C (932 °F) for the copper-rich corner of the Cu-Zn-Sn phase diagram. The solubility
30Zn alloy. However, note in Fig. 29 that the boundary at 300 °C (572 °F) is also shown.
LIVE GRAPH
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Fig. 34 Microstructure of a Cu-3Pb alloy, showing the configuration of the lead par-
ticles typical of leaded copper-base alloys. Light micrograph; 1000 . Source: Fig. 35 Effect of lead content on the machinability of yellow brass (Cu-33Zn). All the
Ref 24 lead is present as undissolved particles. Source: Ref 18
elongation decreases with increasing tin content. The copper-tin alloys containing up to 10% solubility at 300 °C (572 °F) is only 4%. For a
Although the Cu-8Sn alloy is quite ductile, it Sn (and higher ) are used for bearing applica- 30% Zn alloy, the solubility at 300 °C (572 °F)
does not have nearly the workability of a Cu- tions, which require high strength to support is only about %. Although the solubility of tin
30Zn solid-solution alloy. heavy loads and wear resistance. Apparently, in in the lower-zinc alloys is sufficient to
The copper-tin phase diagram in Fig. 30 the hard phase is important in the wear resist- make the addition of tin attractive, the problem
shows that the solubility of tin decreases ance, and the solid-solution strengthening of the formation of the brittle phase during
markedly with decreasing temperature. allows the development of strength. These casting limits the amount of tin to values less
However, below about 300 °C (570 °F) the rate alloys are frequently used for bearing applica- than 2%. However, even low tin contents meas-
of precipitation of is low, so that alloys up to tions in the as-cast condition, with no subse- urably strengthen the copper-zinc binary
about 10% Sn will be single-phase after quent heat treatment, so the initial properties alloys, as shown by the data in Table 7.
proper homogenization and cooling to 25 °C are dependent upon the development of dur- The addition of zinc to copper-tin alloys
(75 °F). It also appears that these alloys would ing the solidification process. If the alloy is to improves the soundness of the castings by
be precipitation hardenable, since has a high be used in the as-cast condition, then the prop- affecting the solidification process. This has led
hardness. But the precipitation process is quite erties can only be controlled by the casting to a group of alloys popular for making castings
slow, so that the time for precipitation is too process. The main factor is the primary grain that must be pressure tight, such as for high-
long to make such a treatment commercially size, and the -containing structure. The pri- pressure water valves.
feasible. The data in Table 6 show that aging a mary grain size can be reduced by increasing
Cu-10Sn alloy for 5 h produces no significant the nucleation rate from the liquid, either by Copper-Base Leaded Alloys
difference in tensile properties and hardness inoculation or by increasing the cooling rate.
from the as-cast condition. The effect of the cooling rate is shown in Fig. It was pointed out in the section
The wide temperature range between the liq- 32, where the faster cooling has formed consid- “Commercially Pure Copper” that the amount of
uidus and solidus makes these alloys very sus- erably finer dendrites. lead must be kept low to be able to hot work cop-
ceptible to coring. Also, cast alloys with tin con- per (and also the brasses), because if the quite low
tents as low as 8% Sn frequently contain , a solubility of lead in copper is exceeded, a lead-
result of the fact that coring allows the outside of Copper-Zinc-Tin Alloys rich liquid film wets the grain boundaries, reduc-
the dendrites to attain about 13.5% Sn. This ing the strength. However, if the lead content
composition of will react with the liquid to The solid-solution strengthening effect of exceeds approximately 0.5%, at 25 °C (75 °F) the
form some by a peritectic reaction. This then zinc on copper should be enhanced by substi- lead is essentially all located along the grain
decomposes by a eutectoid reaction to and ; tuting some tin for zinc. The ternary phase dia-
the then decomposes to form and . This gram (Fig. 33) shows that the combined solutes
sequence can be quite complex and dependent have extensive solubility in . For example, an Table 9 Effect of heat treatment on some
upon the cooling rate. Figure 31 shows an as- alloy containing 10% Zn will dissolve up to mechanical properties of a Cu-9.8Al alloy
cast microstructure of a copper-tin alloy. about 9% Sn at 500 °C (932 °F); however, the Approximate properties
Izod
impact
Table 8 Effect of heat treatment on hardness for a Cu-11.8Al (eutectoid) alloy and a Hardness, Elongation, energy,
Cu-10.2Al alloy Heat treatment HB % kgf · m
Cu-11.8Al Cu-10.2Al Quenched from 900 °C 155 7 4

(1650 °F)
Heat treatment Structure produced Brinell hardness Structure produced Brinell hardness
Annealed at 650 to 700 °C 110 40 5
Slowly cooled (furnace cooled) Pearlite (a Y2) 220 Primary a pearlite (a Y2) 150 (1200–1290 °F)
Rapidly cooled (water quenched) All- martensite 150 All- martensite 240 Annealed at less than 570 °C 115 30 1.5
Rapidly cooled, then tempered 30 min(a) a Y2 240 a Y2 110 (1060 °F)
(a) Cu-11.8Al tempered at 500 °C (930 °F); Cu-10.2Al, at 350 °C (660 °F). Source: Ref 19 Source: Ref 19
Table 10 Some mechanical properties of a Cu-1.9Be alloy for four different treatments
0.2% yield strength Tensile strength
Treatment Hardness MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, %
Solution annealed for 8 min at 800 °C 61 HRB 255 37 490 71 56

(1470 °F), water quenched
Solution annealed for 8 min at 800 °C (1470 °F), 100 HRB 740 107 795 115 5
water quenched, then cold rolled to a reduction
in thickness of 38%
Solution annealed treatment, then aged for 3h 42 HRC 1160 168 1290 187 4
at 345 °C (655 °F)
Solution annealed treatment, cold worked 38%, 42 HRC 1220 177 1370 199 3
then aged for 2 h at 345 °C (655 °F)
Source: Ref 27
boundaries as separated particles, not spread

along the grain boundaries. A typical microstruc-
ture is shown in Fig. 34. The leaded alloys usual-
ly do not have good hot-working characteristics,
but they can be cold worked and safely annealed.
The important advantage of adding lead is that the
machinability greatly improves. Since many
objects manufactured from copper-base alloys are
machined, this is an important consideration. The
effect is illustrated in Fig. 35. Thus, there are
numerous commercial copper-base alloys that are
leaded for machinability.
It is important to realize that the lead is very
finely distributed. According to the copper-lead
phase diagram (Fig. 8), upon solidification of an
alloy containing from 0.5 to 3% Pb, just prior to
the completion of freezing, the structure will con-
sist mainly of crystals with a small amount of
liquid of monoeutectic composition (36% Pb).
This liquid will freeze by forming simultaneously
more and lead-rich liquid. Upon further cooling,
this liquid rejects more copper, which forms on the
already existing crystals, until at 326 °C (619
°F), the liquid, almost pure lead now, undergoes an
eutectic reaction, forming almost all pure lead.
Thus in the as-cast alloy, these lead particles are
trapped between the primary dendrites.
However, upon hot working, or cold working and
annealing, the original crystals lose their identi-
ty, and the lead particles are found in the configu-
ration shown in Fig. 34. To give a fine and uniform
distribution of the lead particles, the solidification
process must be controlled to give a fine grain
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Fig. 36 Schematic illustration of the amount of material removed when a 116 in. diameter drill penetrates 0.004 in. Fig. 37 Comparison of the effect of aluminum, tin, and
The number of lead particles in the volume of material removed is about 150,000 for an alloy containing 3% zinc as solid-solution strengtheners of copper.
Pb, with the particle size shown in the higher-magnification photograph. Source: Ref 5, 18 Source: Ref 25
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Fig. 39 Microstructure of a Cu-11.8Al alloy, homoge-

nized at 800 °C (1470 °F) for 2 h, then cooled
slowly in the furnace. The structure is pearlite of alternate
plates of and 2. The is the white phase, and the 2 is
the dark.
Fig. 38 Copper-rich end of the copper-aluminum phase diagram
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Fig. 40 Microstructure of a Cu-11.8Al alloy, homoge-

nized for 2 h at 800 °C (1470 °F), then cooled Fig. 41 Effect of quenching temperature on the hardness of a Cu-10.2Al alloy. The samples were initially heat treat-
rapidly (water quenched). The structure is thin needles of ed to give a primary and 2 eutectoid structure, heated at indicated temperatures for 30 min, then
martensite, . quenched. Source: Ref 19
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Fig. 42 Microstructure of a Cu-10.2Al alloy quenched

from 750 °C (1380 °F), giving a structure of
and . 200 . Source: Ref 19
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Fig. 43 Effect of cooling rate from 900 °C (1650 °F) on

Fig. 44 Effect of tempering (for 30 min) on the hardness of a Cu-10.2Al alloy. The alloy was initially quenched from
the hardness of a Cu-10.2Al alloy. Source: Ref 19 900 °C (1650 °F). Source: Ref 19
Table 11 Recommended heat treatments for some commercial cast and wrought copper-beryllium alloys
Alloy designation Chemical composition, wt% Solution treatment(a) Aging treatment for maximum hardness
Cast alloys
C82400 98Cu-1.7Be-0.3Co 800–815 °C (1470 –1500 °F) 3 h at 345 °C (655 °F)
C82500 97.2Cu-2Be-0.5Co-0.25Si 790–800 °C (1455–1470 °F) 3 h at 345 °C (655 °F)
C82600 97Cu-2.4Be-0.5Co 790–800 °C (1455–1470 °F) 3 h at 345 °C (655 °F)
C82800 96.6Cu-2.6Be-0.5Co-0.3Si 790–800 °C (1455–1470 °F) 3 h at 345 °C (655 °F)
Wrought alloys
C17000 98Cu-1.7Be-0.3Co 775–800 °C (1425–1470 °F) 1 to 3 h at 315 to 345 °C (600–655 °F), depending
upon amount of cold working prior to aging
C17200 Cu-1.9Be-0.3Co 760–790 °C (1400–1455 °F) 1 to 3 h at 315 to 345 °C (600–655 °F), depending
upon amount of cold working prior to aging
(a) Time depends upon thickness of part. Allow 1 h for each 25 mm (1 in.) of thickness.
size, and freezing must be sufficiently rapid so as similar in size to those shown in Fig. 34, an revolution, the volume of material removed by
not to allow the lead-rich liquid to separate under alloy containing about 3% Pb will have a par- the drill will contain about 150,000 lead parti-
gravity but instead be trapped by the dendrites. ticle density of about 1010 particles per cubic cles (see Fig. 36). Thus, the cutting edge of the
To appreciate the fineness of the distribution inch of material. If a 116 in. diameter drill drill encounters a large number of lead parti-
of the lead particles, note that for particles removes about 0.004 in. of this material in one cles during the one revolution. The finely
(a) (b) (c)
Tensile Yield
strength strength
Specimen MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, % Hardness, HB
Chill cast 22 mm ( 78 in.) bar (Fig. 45a) 620 90 275 40 15 140

Ear of chilled test block (Fig. 45b) 520 75 255 37 12 140
Ear of sand cast test block (Fig. 45c) 415 60 295 43 8 160
Fig. 45 Microstructures (light micrographs) and properties of a Cu-10.5Al-1.0Fe alloy that was cooled at different rates from the liquid. The magnification is about 100 . The light
areas are primary , and the dark background consists of unresolved decomposition products of , which are either martensite or and 2, depending on the cooling
rate. (a) Chill cast 22 mm ( 78 i n.) bar. (b) Ear of chilled test block. (c) Ear of sand cast test block. Source: Ref 26
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Fig. 46 (a) The copper-beryllium phase diagram. (b) Copper-rich end of the copper-beryllium diagram Click here to view
divided lead makes the alloy relatively brittle copper, and several intermetallic compounds of the as-cast structure and annealing of the
and weak on a microscopic scale, as the lead occur for higher aluminum contents, some of cold-worked structure.
particles are weak, and the cutting tool more which have the same crystal structure and stoi- Figure 38 shows the copper-rich portion of the
easily fractures the matrix material separating chiometry as ones in the copper-zinc system. copper-aluminum phase diagram. The phases
the weak lead particles. In addition, the lead With a high atom-size difference combined with established at 500 °C (932 °F) are essentially
acts as a lubricant, so that less energy is a relatively high maximum solubility (Table 3), those at lower temperatures, unless extremely
required for machining. it would be expected that commercial copper- long annealing times are employed. Note that
aluminum alloys that are solid solutions would alloys with aluminum contents above about 8%
be available because of their strength. Figure 37 are subject to the formation of at high temper-
Copper-Aluminum Alloys shows that aluminum is indeed a potent ature, which, upon slow cooling, undergoes a
strengthener, and there are two common com- eutectoid reaction to and 2. Therefore, this
In a general sense, the copper-aluminum mercial copper-aluminum alloys (5 and 8% Al) eutectoid reaction is examined briefly, followed
phase diagram is similar to that for copper-zinc. that are solid solutions, their heat treatments by a discussion of a specific commercial alloy
There is a rather high solubility of aluminum in involving only the conventional homogenization (Cu-10Al) whose composition allows , , and
2 to be present.
LIVE GRAPH The Euctectoid Reaction. The phase is
Click here to view body-centered cubic, like the phase in the cop-
per-zinc system (Fig. 10), and the 2 phase is
similar to that of . The eutectoid composition is
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Fig. 48 Effect of beryllium content, aging temperature,

Fig. 47 Age-hardening response of a Cu-1.9Be alloy. It was solution heat treated for about 8 min at 800 °C (1470 and aging time on the precipitation hardening
°F), then water quenched, giving a hardness of approximately 60 HRB. Source: Ref 27 of copper-beryllium alloys. Source: Ref 27
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Tempering of the quenched Cu-10Al alloy
results in an increase in hardness if the alloy is
tempered around 350 °C (660 °F), but a decrease
in hardness when tempered at higher tempera-
tures (Fig. 44). The increase is due to the forma-
tion of a fine dispersion of the hard 2 in the soft-
er . However, at sufficiently high tempering
temperatures (i.e., above about 400 °C, or 750
°F), the tempering time is sufficient to allow
coarsening of the 2, and the hardness decreases.
Table 8 shows that the eutectoid Cu-11.8Al
alloy was hardest if the structure was 2,
formed either by cooling slowly from or by
tempering the martensite. However, increas-
ing aluminum content decreases the hardness of
the martensite (although it is not clear why).
Fig. 50 Effect of cold working on the aging response
Thus, the Cu-10Al alloy is hardest with the least
of copper-beryllium alloys. The alloys were
solution annealed at 800 °C (1470 °F) for 10 min, water amount of soft , and the maximum amount of
quenched, then reduced in thickness about 40% by . This is in the quenched condition.
Fig. 49 Microstructure of a Cu-2Be alloy solution rolling, then aged for 3 h. Source: Ref 27 The data in Fig. 41, 43, and 44 show that a
treated at 800 °C (1470 °F), water quenched,
then aged at 350 °C (660 °F) for 4 h. The dark lines are copper-aluminum alloy containing approxi-
the metastable precipitate. Transmission electron micro- formed upon rapid cooling. This hardness mately 10% Al would have the highest hard-
graph; 70,000 . Source: Ref 28 change reflects the influence of the very hard 2 ness when water quenched from the region,
on the hardness of the structure. or when water quenched and tempered below
at 11.8% Al, and upon cooling an alloy of this Also, in steels the hardness of the martensite approximately 400 °C (750 °F). However, the
composition slowly (e.g., 50 °C/h, or 90 °F/h) is reduced by heating the alloy below the eutec- toughness for these heat-treated conditions
after homogenization in the region (e.g., 1 h at toid temperature to convert the martensite to the must be considered. Table 9 shows that anneal-
800 °C, or 1470 °F), the and 2 phases form in equilibrium phases, a heat treatment called tem- ing below approximately 600 °C (1110 °F)
an alternate-layer configuration. This is similar pering. However, in the copper-aluminum alloy will embrittle the alloy. Note that the elonga-
in appearance to the eutectoid structure in iron- here, heating the martensite below the eutec- tion at fracture indicates considerable tough-
carbon alloys, where the morphology is called toid temperature (565 °C, or 1049 °F, as shown ness, but upon impact loading, the alloy is con-
pearlite, and this term is used here to describe in Fig. 38) will increase the hardness. If the siderably more brittle than for the other two
this eutectoid structure. Figure 39 shows a martensite has a hardness of approximately 70 heat treatments listed. (Note that these data are
microstructure typical of the eutectoid alloy HRB, then heating around 500 °C (930 °F) for for a 9.8% Al alloy). Thus, a heat-treating rec-
after slowly cooling from . 30 min will increase the hardness to about 90. ommendation for a Cu-9Al bronze for most
Rapid cooling from might be expected to Physical Metallurgy of the Cu-10Al Alloy. commercial purposes calls for annealing at 650
suppress the eutectoid reaction and to leave Table 8 lists the hardness and structure for dif- °C (1200 °F), and then quench. Annealing
retained at 20 °C (68 °F). This structure then ferent heat treatments for the eutectoid alloy. For below 570 °C (1060 °F) should be avoided
would decompose very slowly and, for practi- comparison, also shown are the hardness and along with cooling too slowly from the anneal-
cal purposes, be stable at this temperature. structure for a 10% Al alloy for similar heat ing temperature.
Then the properties of could be utilized for treatments. This 10% Al alloy is now examined It must be borne in mind that the properties of
the development of alloys. However, as in in some detail. these copper-aluminum alloys that involve pri-
steels (iron-carbon alloys), the undergoes a Figure 41 shows the effect of the quenching mary depend quite sensitively upon the pri-
transformation to another phase () even temperature on the hardness of a Cu-10Al alloy. mary grain size and shape. This is demonstrat-
upon the most rapid cooling practical. This is Heating above about 850 °C (1560 °F) results in ed by the microstructures in Fig. 45. This alloy
a nonequilibrium phase, not shown on the a structure that is all , and hence upon quench- was cooled from the liquid at different rates,
phase diagram. It has a hexagonal crystal ing, an all-martensite structure is formed, with a which affected not only the original grain size,
structure and is ordered. It forms by a marten- hardness of about 250 HB. The microstructure but the subsequent grain size that formed upon
site reaction (as in steels), with the decom- would be similar to that in Fig. 40. Holding cooling into the region. The cooling rate
posing into long needles. Upon rapid cooling, below about 850 °C (1560 °F) results in increas- also affects the decomposition of the . Note in
when a temperature of about 380 °C (715 °F) ing amounts of existing with the , and hence the figure that the finer the primary structure,
(the martensite start temperature, M s ) is the quenched alloy has an increasing amount of the greater the tensile strength. However, the
reached, these needles begin to appear with the soft present, decreasing the Brinell hard- complex structure brings about some unpredict-
great speed in the ; as cooling toward 20 °C ness to about 120. A microstructure typical to ed effects on properties. The hardness is almost
(68 °F) continues, the remaining decompos- that for the alloy quenched from the – region unaffected, and the structure with the coarser
es into these fine needles. The final structure is shown in Fig. 42. primary grain size has the least ductility. This
is illustrated in Fig. 40. If, instead of quenching from the region, the structure was the most slowly cooled of the three
Now in steels, martensite is the hardest struc- Cu-10Al alloy is cooled slowly (e.g., furnace sections of the casting, and hence the decompo-
ture. For example, in a eutectoid alloy, Fe-0.8C, cooled), a large amount (about 50% by a mass sition of into the more brittle 2 structure
the slowly cooled steel will have a hardness balance calculation) or primary will form, and was favored.
(typically) of about 20 HRC, whereas the the rest of the structure will be the eutectoid
martensite structure will be 65 HRC. Hence the pearlite. Even though the pearlite is harder than
use of quenching for hardening in steels. the martensite, the large amount of the soft
However, in the copper-aluminum eutectoid makes the alloy soft for this heat treatment. As Copper-Beryllium Alloys
alloy here, the martensite will be approximately the cooling rate decreases from rapid cooling,
70 HRB, and the pearlite formed after cooling increasing amounts of the soft and decreasing Table 3 shows that there is a size difference
slowly will be approximately 80 HRB. Thus, the amounts of martensite appear, and the hardness between beryllium and copper comparable to
slowly cooled product is slightly harder than that decreases (Fig. 43). that between copper and aluminum or tin.
Figure 46 shows that the solubility is quite cobalt compound that inhibits grain growth 6. A. Davidson, Ed., Handbook of Precision
limited, so that the addition of beryllium for during solution annealing. Also, the cast Engineering, Vol 2: Materials, McGraw-
solid-solution strengthening is not favorable. alloys have additions that act as grain refiners Hill, New York, 1971
However, alloys containing greater than 1.5% to control the as-cast grain size. Table 11 7. A. Butts, Ed., Copper, Van Nostrand
Be might be precipitation hardenable, since gives the recommended heat treatment for Reinhold Company, New York, 1954
around 800 °C (1470 °F) they will be single- some of the commercial copper-beryllium 8. W.K. Honeycombe, The Plastic
phase (or ), and at lower temperature, alloys. Note that the solution treatment and Deformation of Crystals, Edward Arnold
the (copper-beryllium) phase will precipi- the aging treatment are essentially independ- Ltd., London, 1968
tate from . Indeed, in this alloy remarkable ent of the exact alloy, which would be pre- 9. V. Goler and G. Sachs, Z. Phys., Vol 55,
precipitation strengthening occurs, with hard- dicted from the data in Fig. 49 and 50 (as dis- 1929, p 575
ness values above 40 HRC. (To place this in cussed previously). 10. D. McLean, Mechanical Properties of
perspective, this is the range normally associ- In heat treating, some precautions should Metals, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
ated with steels.) be taken. One is to avoid using too high a 1962
These copper-beryllium alloys show pre- solution temperature, as partial melting may 11. C.R. Brooks, Plastic Deformation and
cipitation-hardening behavior similar to that occur, and upon cooling the phase will Annealing, Chapter 1, Heat Treatment,
observed for copper-aluminum alloys. Figure form, which is difficult to dissolve upon sub- Structure and Properties of Nonferrous
47 illustrates the effect of aging time and of sequent solution annealing. The other is to Alloys, American Society for Metals, 1982,
aging temperature. For this Cu-1.9Be alloy, avoid too low a solution temperature, because p 1–73
the optimal aging temperature is around 350 will form at the solution temperature. Its 12. J.H. Mendenhall, Ed., Understanding
°C (660 °F). formation lowers the beryllium content of the Copper Alloys, Olin Corporation, East
The data in Fig. 48 show that for maximum , and the hardening response is reduced. Alton, IL, 1977
hardness the beryllium content should be Also, this is difficult to redissolve by reso- 13. C.J. Smithells, Metals Reference Book, Vol
between 1.8 and 2.0%. The aging temperature lution annealing. Also, if the alloy is not 2, Butterworths, London, 1962
should be around 350 °C (660 °F), and the cooled sufficiently rapidly from the solution 14. H. Green and N. Brown, Trans. AIME, Vol
aging time can be between 3 and 5 h. Note temperature, then some may form during 197, 1953, p 1240
that the aging temperature, aging time, and cooling. Thus, control of the water quenching 15. N. Brown, Acta Met., Vol 7, 1959, p 210
beryllium content are all rather flexible, and must be maintained. 16. C.S. Barrett, Trans. AIME, Vol 200, 1954,
yet an approximate maximum hardness of p 1003
about 40–45 HRC can be attained. 17. E.C.W. Perryman, Trans. AIME, Vol 203,
As in many other precipitation processes, ACKNOWLEDGMENT 1955, p 693
the equilibrium precipitate is preceded by the 18. D.K. Crampton, Met. Prog., Vol 46, 1944,
formation of a metastable phase. The hardening is p 276
This article was adapted from C.R. Brooks,
caused by the precipitation of this phase in an 19. T. Matsuda, J. Inst. Met., Vol 39, 1928, p 67
Copper-Base Alloys, Chapter 8, Heat
extremely finely dispersed manner, as illustrated 20. R.H. Heyer, Engineering Physical
Treatment, Structure and Properties of
in Fig. 49. The precipitates are disks from 200 to Metallurgy, Van Nostrand Reinhold
Nonferrous Alloys, American Society for
400 atoms in diameter, and approximately 50 Company, New York, 1939
Metals, 1982, p 275–327.
atoms thick, and very close together. As shown in 21. R.F. Mehl and G.T. Marzke, Trans. AIME,
Fig. 47, these alloys will overage as the structure Vol 93, 1931, p 123
coarsens, and the equilibrium precipitate forms. 22. E.M. Wise and J.T. Eash, Trans. AIME, Vol
The recrystallization temperature for these REFERENCES 111, 1934, p 218
alloys is in the range of 500 °C (930 °F) and 23. T.F. Pearson and W.A. Baker, J. Inst. Met.,
above. If these alloys are solution annealed, then 1. J.S. Smart, Jr., in Copper, A. Butts, Ed., Vol 67, 1941, p 231
cold worked prior to aging in the range 300 to Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New 24. R.M. Brick, A.W. Pense, and R.B.
385 °C (570–725 °F), the precipitation process York, 1954 Gordon, Structure and Properties of
will occur before recrystallization (and hence 2. P.W. Taubenblat, Copper: Selection of High Engineering Materials, McGraw-Hill,
softening) can occur. The effect of such a treat- Conductivity Alloys, Encyclopedia of New York, 1977
ment on hardness is shown in Fig. 50. Note that Materials Science and Engineering, Vol 2, 25. R.M. Brick, D.L. Martin, and R.P. Angier,
the hardness in this condition is not significant- M.B. Bever, Ed., Pergamon Press and the Trans. ASM, Vol 31, 1943, p 675
ly different from that of the aged material with- MIT Press, 1986, p 863–866 26. G.K. Dreher, Met. Prog., Vol 38, 1940, p 789
out prior cold working. However, the data in 3. R.A. Wilkens and E.S. Bunn, Copper and 27. G.K. Gohn, G.J. Herbert, and J.B. Kuhn,
Table 10 show that the yield and tensile strength Copper Base Alloys, McGraw-Hill, New The Mechanical Properties of Copper-
are greatly enhanced by prior cold working. York, 1943 Beryllium Alloy Strip, ASTM STP 367,
Note that in the aged condition, with or without 4. W.R. Opie, P.W. Taubenblat, and Y.T. Hsu, American Society for Testing and
prior cold work, the ductility is quite low. in Copper and Its Alloys, The Institute of Materials, 1964
The commercial precipitation-hardening Metals, 1970 28. J. Nutting and M.A.P. Dewey, in Heat
copper-beryllium alloys have alloy additions 5. C.H. Samans, Metallic Materials in Treatment of Metals, Special Report
other than beryllium. Many contain some Engineering, Macmillan Co., New York, 95, The Iron and Steel Institute,
cobalt, which forms an insoluble beryllium- 1963 London, 1966
Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys
WROUGHT COPPER AND COPPER erties of copper. Each of the remaining families strengthened by cold working. However, expo-
ALLOYS comprise one of the largest families of contains one of five major alloying elements as sure to elevated temperatures readily anneals the
engineering materials. In North America alone, its primary alloying ingredient: cold-worked microstructure. Coppers are inher-
there are currently more than 275 recognized ently resistant to atmospheric and aqueous cor-
“standard” wrought grades. Best known for high Family Alloying element Solid solubility(a), at.% rosion, and are relatively insensitive to stress-
conductivity and corrosion resistance, this large Brasses Zinc 37 corrosion cracking (SCC). Their most important
and diverse group of materials also offers a wide Phosphor bronzes Tin 9 characteristic is superior electrical conductivity.
range of mechanical and physical properties, Aluminum bronzes Aluminum 19 They are primarily used for electrical and elec-
often in unique combinations. Silicon bronzes Silicon 8 tronic products.
Copper-nickels, Nickel 100
nickel silvers Oxygen-free coppers (C10100 to C10700)
are generally reserved for applications requiring
Designating Copper and Its Alloys (a) At 20 °C (70 °F)
the highest electrical conductivity. Their con-
ductivity is at least 100% IACS (Inter-national
The purpose of adding alloying elements to Annealed Copper Standard, as described in the
A copper or copper alloy is identified by prod- copper is to optimize the strength, ductility
uct form (sheet or rod, for example), temper, and “Introduction and Overview” to this
(formability), and thermal stability, without Handbook). Electrolytic tough pitch copper
composition. Some are produced in all product inducing unacceptable loss in fabricability, elec-
forms, while others are limited to one or two. (C11000) is commonly used for electrical wire
trical/thermal conductivity, or corrosion resist- and cable, as well as for roofing and architectur-
The temper of a material describes both its ance. Copper alloys show excellent hot and cold
mechanical state and its properties. A temper al trim, while phosphorus-deoxidized copper
ductility, although usually not to the same (C12200) is the standard material for household
designation system for copper and its alloys is degree as the unalloyed parent metal. Even
detailed in ASTM B 601, “Standard Practice for water tube. Oxygen-free and deoxidized coppers
alloys with large amounts of solution-hardening can be welded without danger of embrittlement.
Temper Designations for Copper and Copper elements—zinc, aluminum, tin, and silicon—
Alloys—Wrought and Cast.” Silver imparts modest annealing resistance to
that show rapid work hardening are readily com- copper without significantly affecting its electri-
Under the Unified Numbering System (UNS), mercially processed beyond 50% cold work
copper and copper alloys are designated by five- cal conductivity. This is why coppers containing
before a softening anneal is required to permit residual silver have been used for electrical prod-
digit numbers preceded by the letter “C.” The additional processing. The amount of cold work-
format is essentially the Copper Development ucts that must not soften as a result of exposure
ing and the annealing parameters must be bal- to soldering temperatures. Arsenic, cadmium,
Association‘s former three-digit system expand- anced to control grain size and crystallographic
ed to accommodate new compositions. Using and zirconium-coppers (C14200, C14300, and
texturing. These two parameters are controlled C15000, respectively) have similar properties.
the UNS system, numbers ranging from C10000 to provide annealed strip products at finish gage
through C79999 denote wrought alloys. Cadmium also imparts wear resistance, a useful
that have the formability needed in the severe property for sliding electrical contacts. Arsenic
More detailed information on both the temper forming and deep drawing commonly done in
and UNS designations for copper alloys can be improves resistance to corrosion and high-tem-
commercial production of copper, brass, and perature oxidation, which are required for prod-
found in the article “Standard Designations for other copper alloy hardware and cylindrical
Wrought and Cast Copper and Copper Alloys” in ucts such as heat-exchanger tubing. Tellurium-
tubular products. bearing coppers (C14500 and C14510) and
this Handbook. International standards and desig- Table 1 lists nominal compositions, product
nations are also discussed in the same article. sulfur-bearing copper (C14700) are free-machin-
forms, and mechanical property ranges for ing, and are supplied as rods for making high-
wrought coppers and copper alloys. Physical conductivity parts by screw machining.
properties of representative wrought alloys are Coppers C15715 through C15760 are disper-
Wrought Copper and listed in Table 2. Tables 3 through 6 list sion-strengthened with aluminum oxide to
Copper Alloy Families wrought copper alloys ranked by their tensile inhibit softening at elevated temperatures. The
strength, yield strength, electrical conductivity, combination of thermal stability and high elec-
and thermal conductivity, respectively. trical conductivity is useful in applications such
The most common way to catalog copper and Additional property data can be found in the
copper alloys is to divide them into six families: as heavy-duty electrical connectors, vacuum
article “Properties of Wrought Copper and tube components, and resistance welding elec-
coppers, high-copper (or dilute) alloys, brasses, Copper Alloys” in this Handbook.
bronzes, copper-nickels, and nickel silvers. The trodes. More detailed information on dispersion-
first family, the coppers, is essentially commer- strengthened alloys can be found in the article
cially pure copper, which ordinarily is soft and “Powder Metallurgy Copper and Copper
ductile and contains less than about 0.7% total Coppers Alloys” in this Handbook.
impurities. The high-copper alloys contain small
amounts of various alloying elements, such as Wrought coppers (C10100 to C15999) must High-Copper Alloys
beryllium, cadmium, chromium, and iron, each contain at least 99.3% Cu, but may include
having less than 8 at.% solid solubility; these residual deoxidizers or minor alloying elements. As stated earlier, the high-copper or dilute
elements modify one or more of the basic prop- The normally soft, ductile metals can be alloys (C16200 to C19900) contain 94% Cu
Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys / 55
Table 1 Nominal compositions, product forms, and properties of commonly used wrought copper and copper alloys
Mechanical properties(b)
Elongation in
Commercial 50 mm (2 in.) Machinability
Alloy number (and name) Nominal composition, % forms (a) MPa ksi MPa ksi (b), % rating(c), %
C10100 (oxygen-free electronic copper) 99.99 Cu F, R, W, T, P, S 221–455 32–66 69–365 10–53 55–4 20
C10200 (oxygen-free copper) 99.95 Cu F, R, W, T, P, S 221–455 32–66 69–365 10–53 55–4 20
C10300 (oxygen-free 99.95 Cu, 0.003 P F, R, T, P, S 221–379 32–55 69–345 10–50 50–6 20
extra-low-phosphorus copper)
C10400, C10500, C10700 99.95 Cu(d) F, R, W, S 221–455 32–66 69–365 10–53 55–4 20
(oxygen-free silver-bearing copper)
C10800 (oxygen-free 99.95 Cu, 0.009 P F, R, T, P 221–379 32–55 69–345 10–50 50–4 20
low-phosphorus copper)
C11000 (electrolytic tough pitch copper) 99.90 Cu, 0.04 O F, R, W, T, P, S 221–455 32–66 69–365 10–53 55–4 20
C11100 (electrolytic tough pitch 99.90 Cu, 0.04 O, 0.01 Cd W 455 66 … … 1.5 in 1500 20
anneal-resistant copper) mm (60 in.)
C11300, C11400, C11500, C11600 99.90 Cu, 0.04 O, Ag(e) F, R, W, T, S 221–455 32–66 69–365 10–53 55–4 20
(silver-bearing tough pitch copper)
C12000, C12100 99.9 Cu(f) F, T, P 221–393 32–57 69–365 10–53 55–4 20
C12200 (phosphorus-deoxidized 99.90 Cu, 0.02 P F, R, T, P 221–379 32–55 69–345 10–50 45–8 20
copper, high residual phosphorus)
C12500, C12700, C12800, C12900, C13000 99.88 Cu(g) F, R, W, S 221–462 32–67 69–365 10–53 55–4 20
(fire-refined tough pitch with silver)
C14200 (phosphorus-deoxidized 99.68 Cu, 0.3 As, 0.02 P F, R, T 221–379 32–55 69–345 10–50 45–8 20
arsenical copper)
C14300 99.9 Cu, 0.1 Cd F 221–400 32–58 76–386 11–56 42–1 20
C14310 99.8 Cu, 0.2 Cd F 221–400 32–58 76–386 11–56 42–1 20
C14500 (phosphorus-deoxidized 99.5 Cu, 0.50 Te, 0.008 P F, R, W, T 221–386 32–56 69–352 10–51 50–3 85
tellurium-bearing copper)
C14700 (sulfur-bearing copper) 99.6 Cu, 0.40 S R, W 221–393 32–57 69–379 10–55 52–8 85
C15000 (zirconium-copper) 99.8 Cu, 0.15 Zr R, W 200–524 29–76 41–496 6–72 54–1.5 20
C15100 99.82 Cu, 0.1 Zr F 262–469 38–68 69–455 10–66 36–2 20
C15500 99.75 Cu, 0.06 P, 0.11 Mg, Ag(h) F 276–552 40–80 124–496 18–72 40–3 20
C15710 99.8 Cu, 0.2 Al2O3 R, W 324–724 47–105 268–689 39–100 20–10 …
C15720 99.6 Cu, 0.4 Al2O3 F, R 462–614 67–89 365–586 53–85 20–3.5 …
C15735 99.3 Cu, 0.7 Al2O3 R 483–586 70–85 414–565 60–82 16–10 …
C15760 98.9 Cu, 1.1 Al2O3 F, R 483–648 70–94 386–552 56–80 20–8 …
C16200 (cadmium-copper) 99.0 Cu, 1.0 Cd F, R, W 241–689 35–100 48–476 7–69 57–1 20
C16500 98.6 Cu, 0.8 Cd, 0.6 Sn F, R, W 276–655 40–95 97–490 14–71 53–1.5 20
C17000 (beryllium-copper) 99.5 Cu, 1.7 Be, 0.20 Co F, R 483–1310 70–190 221–1172 32–170 45–3 20
C17200 (beryllium-copper) 99.5 Cu, 1.9 Be, 0.20 Co F, R, W, T, P, S 469–1462 68–212 172–1344 25–195 48–1 20
C17300 (beryllium-copper) 99.5 Cu, 1.9 Be, 0.40 Pb R 469–1479 68–200 172–1255 25–182 48–3 50
C17400 99.5 Cu, 0.3 Be, 0.25 Co F 620–793 90–115 172–758 25–110 12–4 20
C17500 (copper-cobalt-beryllium alloy) 99.5 Cu, 2.5 Co, 0.6 Be F, R 310–793 45–115 172–758 25–110 28–5 …
C18200, C18400, C18500 99.5 Cu(i) F, W, R, S, T 234–593 34–86 97–531 14–77 40–5 20
(chromium-copper)
C18700 (leaded copper) 99.0 Cu, 1.0 Pb R 221–379 32–55 69–345 10–50 45–8 85
C18900 98.75 Cu, 0.75 Sn, 0.3 Si, 0.20 Mn R, W 262–655 38–95 62–359 9–52 48–14 20
C19000 (copper-nickel-phosphorus alloy) 98.7 Cu, 1.1 Ni, 0.25 P F, R, W 262–793 38–115 138–552 20–80 50–2 30
C19100 (copper-nickel-phosphorus- 98.15 Cu, 1.1 Ni, 0.50 Te, 0.25 P R, F 248–717 36–104 69–634 10–92 27–6 75
tellurium alloy)
C19200 98.97 Cu, 1.0 Fe, 0.03 P F, T 255–531 37–77 76–510 11–74 40–2 20
C19400 97.5 Cu, 2.4 Fe, 0.13 Zn, 0.03 P F 310–524 45–76 165–503 24–73 32–2 20
C19500 97.0 Cu, 1.5 Fe, 0.6 Sn, 0.10 P, 0.80 Co F 552–669 80–97 448–655 65–95 15–2 20
C19700 99 Cu, 0.6 Fe, 0.2 P, 0.05 Mg F 344–517 50–75 165–503 24–73 32–2 20
C21000 (gilding, 95%) 95.0 Cu, 5.0 Zn F, W 234–441 34–64 69–400 10–58 45–4 20
C22000 (commercial bronze, 90%) 90.0 Cu, 10.0 Zn F, R, W, T 255–496 37–72 69–427 10–62 50–3 20
C22600 (jewelry bronze, 87.5%) 87.5 Cu, 12.5 Zn F, W 269–669 39–97 76–427 11–62 46–3 30
C23000 (red brass, 85%) 85.0 Cu, 15.0 Zn F, W, T, P 269–724 39–105 69–434 10–63 55–3 30
C24000 (low brass, 80%) 80.0 Cu, 20.0 Zn F, W 290–862 42–125 83–448 12–65 55–3 30
C26000 (cartridge brass, 70%) 70.0 Cu, 30.0 Zn F, R, W, T 303–896 44–130 76–448 11–65 66–3 30
C26800, C27000 (yellow brass) 65.0 Cu, 35.0 Zn F, R, W 317–883 46–128 97–427 14–62 65–3 30
C28000 (Muntz metal) 60.0 Cu, 40.0 Zn F, R, T 372–510 54–74 145–379 21–55 52–10 40
C31400 (leaded commercial bronze) 89.0 Cu, 1.75 Pb, 9.25 Zn F, R 255–414 37–60 83–379 12–55 45–10 80
C31600 (leaded commercial bronze, 89.0 Cu, 1.9 Pb, 1.0 Ni, 8.1 Zn F, R 255–462 37–67 83–407 12–59 45–12 80
nickel-bearing)
C33000 (low-leaded brass tube) 66.0 Cu, 0.5 Pb, 33.5 Zn T 324–517 47–75 103–414 15–60 60–7 60
C33200 (high-leaded brass tube) 66.0 Cu, 1.6 Pb, 32.4 Zn T 359–517 52–75 138–414 20–60 50–7 80
C33500 (low-leaded brass) 65.0 Cu, 0.5 Pb, 34.5 Zn F 317–510 46–74 97–414 14–60 65–8 60
C34000 (medium-leaded brass) 65.0 Cu, 1.0 Pb, 34.0 Zn F, R, W, S 324–607 47–88 103–414 15–60 60–7 70
C34200 (high-leaded brass) 64.5 Cu, 2.0 Pb, 33.5 Zn F, R 338–586 49–85 117–427 17–62 52–5 90
C34900 62.2 Cu, 0.35 Pb, 37.45 Zn R, W 365–469 53–68 110–379 16–55 72–18 50
(continued)
(a) F, flat products; R, rod; W, wire; T, tube; P, pipe; S, shapes. (b) Ranges are from softest to hardest commercial forms. The strength of the standard copper alloys depends on the temper (annealed grain size or degree of cold
work) and the section thickness of the mill product. Ranges cover standard tempers for each alloy. (c) Based on 100% for C36000. (d) C10400, 250 g/Mg (8 oz/ton) Ag; C10500, 310 g/Mg (10 oz/ton); C10700, 780 g/Mg (25
oz/ton). (e) C11300, 250 g/Mg (8 oz/ton) Ag; C11400, 310 g/Mg (10 oz/ton); C11500, 500 g/Mg (16 oz/ton); C11600, 780 g/Mg (25 oz/ton). (f) C12000, 0.008 P; C12100, 0.008 P and 125 g/Mg (4 oz/ton) Ag. (g) C12700, 250
g/Mg (8 oz/ton) Ag; C12800, 500 g/Mg (10 oz/ton); C12900, 500 g/Mg (16 oz/ton); C13000, 780 g/Mg (25 oz/ton). (h) 260 g/Mg (8.30 oz/ton) Ag. (i) C18200, 0.9 Cr; C18400, 0.8 Cr; C18500, 0.7 Cr. (j) Values are for as-hot-
rolled material. (k) Values are for as-extruded material. (l) Rod, 61.0 Cu min. Source: Copper Development Association Inc.
Table 1 (continued)
Elongation in
C35000 (medium-leaded brass) 62.5 Cu, 1.1 Pb, 36.4 Zn F, R 310–655 45–95 90–483 13–70 66–1 70
C35300 (high-leaded brass) 62.0 Cu, 1.8 Pb, 36.2 Zn F, R 338–586 49–85 117–427 17–62 52–5 90
C35600 (extra-high-leaded brass) 63.0 Cu, 2.5 Pb, 34.5 Zn F 338–510 49–74 117–414 17–60 50–7 100
C36000 (free-cutting brass) 61.5 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 35.5 Zn F, R, S 338–469 49–68 124–310 18–45 53–18 100
C36500 to C36800 (leaded Muntz metal)(j) 60.0 Cu(l), 0.6 Pb, 39.4 Zn F 372 54 138 20 45 60
C37000 (free-cutting Muntz metal) 60.0 Cu, 1.0 Pb, 39.0 Zn T 372–552 54–80 138–414 20–60 40–6 70
C37700 (forging brass)(k) 59.0 Cu, 2.0 Pb, 39.0 Zn R, S 359 52 138 20 45 80
C38500 (architectural bronze)(k) 57.0 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 40.0 Zn R, S 414 60 138 20 30 90
C40500 95 Cu, 1 Sn, 4 Zn F 269–538 39–78 83–483 12–70 49–3 20
C40800 95 Cu, 2 Sn, 3 Zn F 290–545 42–79 90–517 13–75 43–3 20
C41100 91 Cu, 0.5 Sn, 8.5 Zn F, W 269–731 39–106 76–496 11–72 13–2 20
C41300 90.0 Cu, 1.0 Sn, 9.0 Zn F, R, W 283–724 41–105 83–565 12–82 45–2 20
C41500 91 Cu, 1.8 Sn, 7.2 Zn F 317–558 46–81 117–517 17–75 44–2 30
C42200 87.5 Cu, 1.1 Sn, 11.4 Zn F 296–607 43–88 103–517 15–75 46–2 30
C42500 88.5 Cu, 2.0 Sn, 9.5 Zn F 310–634 45–92 124–524 18–76 49–2 30
C43000 87.0 Cu, 2.2 Sn, 10.8 Zn F 317–648 46–94 124–503 18–73 55–3 30
C43400 85.0 Cu, 0.7 Sn, 14.3 Zn F 310–607 45–88 103–517 15–75 49–3 30
C43500 81.0 Cu, 0.9 Sn 18.1 Zn F, T 317–552 46–80 110–469 16–68 46–7 30
C44300, C44400, C44500 71.0 Cu, 28.0 Zn, 1.0 Sn F, W, T 331–379 48–55 124–152 18–22 65–60 30
(inhibited admiralty)
C46400 to C46700 (naval brass) 60.0 Cu, 39.25 Zn, 0.75 Sn F, R, T, S 379–607 55–88 172–455 25–66 50–17 30
C48200 (naval brass, medium-leaded) 60.5 Cu, 0.7 Pb, 0.8 Sn, 38.0 Zn F, R, S 386–517 56–75 172–365 25–53 43–15 50
C48500 (leaded naval brass) 60.0 Cu, 1.75 Pb, 37.5 Zn, 0.75 Sn F, R, S 379–531 55–77 172–365 25–53 40–15 70
C50500 (phosphor bronze, 1.25% E) 98.75 Cu, 1.25 Sn, trace P F, W 276–545 40–79 97–345 14–50 48–4 20
C51000 (phosphor bronze, 5% A) 95.0 Cu, 5.0 Sn, trace P F, R, W, T 324–965 47–140 131–552 19–80 64–2 20
C51100 95.6 Cu, 4.2 Sn, 0.2 P F 317–710 46–103 345–552 50–80 48–2 20
C52100 (phosphor bronze, 8% C) 92.0 Cu, 8.0 Sn, trace P F, R, W 379–965 55–140 165–552 24–80 70–2 20
C52400 (phosphor bronze, 10% D) 90.0 Cu, 10.0 Sn, trace P F, R, W 455–1014 66–147 193 28 70–3 20
(Annealed)
C54400 (free-cutting phosphor bronze) 88.0 Cu, 4.0 Pb, 4.0 Zn, 4.0 Sn F, R 303–517 44–75 131–434 19–63 50–16 80
C60800 (aluminum bronze, 5%) 95.0 Cu, 5.0 Al T 414 60 186 27 55 20
C61000 92.0 Cu, 8.0 Al R, W 483–552 70–80 207–379 30–55 65–25 20
C61300 92.65 Cu, 0.35 Sn, 7.0 Al F, R, T, P, S 483–586 70–85 207–400 30–58 42–35 30
C61400 (aluminum bronze, D) 91.0 Cu, 7.0 Al, 2.0 Fe F, R, W, T, P, S 524–614 76–89 228–414 33–60 45–32 20
C61500 90.0 Cu, 8.0 Al, 2.0 Ni F 483–1000 70–145 152–965 22–140 55–1 30
C61800 89.0 Cu, 1.0 Fe, 10.0 Al R 552–586 80–85 269–293 39–42.5 28–23 40
C61900 86.5 Cu, 4.0 Fe, 9.5 Al F 634–1048 92–152 338–1000 49–145 30–1 …
C62300 87.0 Cu, 3.0 Fe, 10.0 Al F, R 517–676 75–98 241–359 35–52 35–22 50
C62400 86.0 Cu, 3.0 Fe, 11.0 Al F, R 621–724 90–105 276–359 40–52 18–14 50
C62500(k) 82.7 Cu, 4.3 Fe, 13.0 Al F, R 689 100 379 55 1 20
C63000 82.0 Cu, 3.0 Fe, 10.0 Al, 5.0 Ni F, R 621–814 90–118 345–517 50–75 20–15 30
C63200 82.0 Cu, 4.0 Fe, 9.0 Al, 5.0 Ni F, R 621–724 90–105 310–365 45–53 25–20 30
C63600 95.5 Cu, 3.5 Al, 1.0 Si R, W 414–579 60–84 … … 64–29 40
C63800 95.0 Cu, 2.8 Al, 1.8 Si, 0.40 Co F 565–896 82–130 372–786 54–114 36–4 …
C64200 91.2 Cu, 7.0 Al F, R 517–703 75–102 241–469 35–68 32–22 60
C65100 (low-silicon bronze, B) 98.5 Cu, 1.5 Si R, W, T 276–655 40–95 103–476 15–69 55–11 30
C65400 95.44 Cu, 3 Si, 1.5 Sn, 0.06 Cr F 276–793 40–115 130–744 20–108 40–3 20
C65500 (high-silicon bronze, A) 97.0 Cu, 3.0 Si F, R, W, T 386–1000 56–145 145–483 21–70 63–3 30
C66700 (manganese brass) 70.0 Cu, 28.8 Zn, 1.2 Mn F, W 315–689 45.8–100 83–638 12–92.5 60–2 30
C67400 58.5 Cu, 36.5 Zn, 1.2 Al, 2.8 Mn, 1.0 Sn F, R 483–634 70–92 234–379 34–55 28–20 25
C67500 (manganese bronze, A) 58.5 Cu, 1.4 Fe, 39.0 Zn, 1.0 Sn, 0.1 Mn R, S 448–579 65–84 207–414 30–60 33–19 30
C68700 (aluminum brass, arsenical) 77.5 Cu, 20.5 Zn, 2.0 Al, 0.1 As T 414 60 186 27 55 30
C68800 73.5 Cu, 22.7 Zn, 3.4 Al, 0.40 Co F 565–889 82–129 379–786 55–114 36–2 …
C69000 73.3 Cu, 3.4 Al, 0.6 Ni, 22.7 Zn F 496–896 72–130 345–807 50–117 40–2 …
C69400 (silicon red brass) 81.5 Cu, 14.5 Zn, 4.0 Si R 552–689 80–100 276–393 40–57 25–20 30
C70250 96.2 Cu, 3 Ni, 0.65 Si, 0.15 Mg F 586–758 85–110 552–784 80–105 40–3 20
C70400 92.4 Cu, 1.5 Fe, 5.5 Ni, 0.6 Mn F, T 262–531 38–77 276–524 40–76 46–2 20
C70600 (copper-nickel, 10%) 88.7 Cu, 1.3 Fe, 10.0 Ni F, T 303–414 44–60 110–393 16–57 42–10 20
C71000 (copper-nickel, 20%) 79.0 Cu, 21.0 Ni F, W, T 338–655 49–95 90–586 13–85 40–3 20
C71300 75 Cu, 25 Ni F 338–655 49–95 90–586 13–85 40–3 20
C71500 (copper-nickel, 30%) 70.0 Cu, 30.0 Ni F, R, T 372–517 54–75 138–483 20–70 45–15 20
C71700 67.8 Cu, 0.7 Fe, 31.0 Ni, 0.5 Be F, R, W 483–1379 70–200 207–1241 30–180 40–4 20
C72500 88.2 Cu, 9.5 Ni, 2.3 Sn F, R, W, T 379–827 55–120 152–745 22–108 35–1 20
C73500 72.0 Cu, 10.0 Zn, 18.0 Ni F, R, W, T 345–758 50–110 103–579 15–84 37–1 20
C74500 (nickel silver, 65-10) 65.0 Cu, 25.0 Zn, 10.0 Ni F, W 338–896 49–130 124–524 18–76 50–1 20
C75200 (nickel silver, 65-18) 65.0 Cu, 17.0 Zn, 18.0 Ni F, R, W 386–710 56–103 172–621 25–90 45–3 20
C75400 (nickel silver, 65-15) 65.0 Cu, 20.0 Zn, 15.0 Ni F 365–634 53–92 124–545 18–79 43–2 20
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Elongation in
C75700 (nickel silver, 65-12) 65.0 Cu, 23.0 Zn, 12.0 Ni F, W 359–641 52–93 124–545 18–79 48–2 20
C76200 59.0 Cu, 29.0 Zn, 12.0 Ni F, T 393–841 57–122 145–758 21–110 50–1 …
C77000 (nickel silver, 55-18) 55.0 Cu, 27.0 Zn, 18.0 Ni F, R, W 414–1000 60–145 186–621 27–90 40–2 30
C72200 82.0 Cu, 16.0 Ni, 0.5 Cr, 0.8 Fe, 0.5 Mn F, T 317–483 46–70 124–455 18–66 46–6 …
C78200 (leaded nickel silver, 65-8-2) 65.0 Cu, 2.0 Pb, 25.0 Zn, 8.0 Ni F 365–627 53–91 159–524 23–76 40–3 60
Table 2 Physical properties of representative wrought copper alloys

Coefficient of
thermal expansion, Thermal conductivity, Specific heat, cal/g ·
106/°C (106/°F), W/m · K, at 20 °C Electrical conductivity, °C, at 20 °C, or
UNS No. Nominal composition, % Density, g/cm3 (lb/in.3) 20–300 °C (70–570 °F) (Btu/ft2/ft/h/°F, at 70 °F) %IACS, at 20 °C (70 °F) Btu/lb · °F, at 70 °F
Coppers (C10100–C15999)
C10200 99.95 Cu 8.94 (0.323) 17.7 (9.8) 391 (226) 101 0.092
C11000 99.9 Cu 8.94 (0.323) 17.7 (9.8) 391 (226) 101 0.092
C12200 99.90 Cu, 0.02 P 8.94 (0.323) 17.7 (9.8) 339 (196) 85 0.092
C15760 Cu, 0.6 Al, 0.57 O 8.80 (0.318) 16.6 (9.2) 322 (186) 78 0.092
High-copper alloys (C16200–C19199)
C17200 98.1 Cu, 1.9 Be, 0.2 (Ni Co) min 8.25 (0.298) 17.8 (9.9) 107 (62) 22 0.10
C17410 Cu, 0.5 Co, 0.3 Be 8.80 (0.318) 17.7 (9.8) 208 (120) 45 0.08
C18100 Cu, 0.04 Mg, 0.15 Zr, 0.8 Cr 8.83 (0.319) 19.4 (10.7) 324 (187) 80 0.094
C19400 97.4 Cu, 2.4 Fe, 0.13 Zn, 0.04 P 8.91 (0.322) 17.9 (9.2) 262 (150) 65 0.092
C19500 97 Cu, 1.5 Fe, 0.6 Sn, 0.1 P, 0.8 Co 8.92 (0.322) 16.9 (9.4) 197 (115) 50 0.092
Copper-zinc alloys (brasses, C21000–C28000)
C23000 85 Cu, 15 Zn 8.74 (0.316) 18.7 (10.4) 159 (92) 37 0.09
C26000 70 Cu, 30 Zn 8.52 (0.308) 20.1 (11.1) 121 (70) 28 0.09
C28000 60 Cu, 40 Zn 8.39 (0.303) 21.0 (11.6) 123 (71) 28 0.09
Copper-zinc-lead alloys (leaded brasses, C31200–C38500)
C34500 63.5 Cu, 34.5 Zn, 2 Pb 8.49 (0.307) 20.3 (11.3) 116 (67) 26 0.09
C35300 61.5 Cu, 36.5 Zn, 2.8 Pb 8.47 (0.306) 20.4 (11.3) 116 (67) 26 0.09
C36000 61.5 Cu, 35.4 Zn, 3.1 Pb 8.50 (0.307) 20.6 (11.4) 116 (67) 26 0.09
C37700 59.5 Cu, 38 Zn, 2 Pb 8.44 (0.305) 20.8 (11.5) 119 (69) 27 0.09
Copper-zinc-tin alloys (tin brasses, C40400–C48600)
C42500 88.5 Cu, 9.5 Zn, 2 Sn, 0.2 P 8.78 (0.317) 18.4 (10.2) 121 (69) 28 0.09
C44400 71 Cu, 28 Zn, 1 Sn, 0.02 Sb min 8.53 (0.308) 20.2 (11.2) 109 (64) 28 0.09
C46400 60 Cu, 39.2 Zn, 0.8 Sn 8.41 (0.304) 21.3 (11.8) 116 (67) 26 0.09
Copper-tin-phosphorus alloys (phosphor bronzes, C50100–C54200)
C50500 98.7 Cu, 1.3 Sn 8.89 (0.321) 17.8 (9.9) 87 (50) 48 0.09
C51000 94.8 Cu, 5 Sn, 0.2 P 8.86 (0.320) 17.9 (9.9) 69 (40) 15 0.09
C51100 95.6 Cu, 4.2 Sn, 0.2 P 8.86 (0.320) 17.8 (9.9) 84 (48.4) 20 0.09
Copper-tin-lead-phosphorus alloys (leaded phosphor bronzes, C53400–C53500)
C54400 88 Cu, 4 Sn, 4 Pb, 4 Zn, 0.5 P max 8.88 (0.321) 17.4 (9.6) 87 (50) 19 0.09
Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronzes, C60800–C64210)
C61300 90.3 Cu, 6.8 Al, 2.5 Fe, 0.35 Sn 7.94 (0.287) 16.3 (9.0) 55 (32) 12 0.09
C63000 82 Cu, 10 Al, 5 (Ni Co), 3 Fe 7.58 (0.274) 16.3 (9.0) 39 (22) 7 0.09
C63020 74.5 Cu min., 10.5 Al, 5 Ni, 4.75 Fe 7.45 (0.269) 16.3 (9.0) 47 (27) 6 …
C63800 95 Cu, 2.8 Al, 1.8 Si, 0.4 Co 8.28 (0.299) 17.1 (9.5) 41 (23) 10 0.09
Copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronzes, C64700–C66100)
C65500 97 Cu, 3 Si 8.52 (0.308) 18.0 (10.0) 36 (21) 7 0.09
Other copper-zinc alloys (C66400–C69710)
C67500 58.5 Cu, 39 Zn, 1.4 Fe, 1 Sn, 0.1 Mn 8.36 (0.302) 21.3 (11.8) 105 (61) 24 0.09
C69400 81.5 Cu, 14.5 Zn, 4 Si 8.19 (0.296) 20.3 (11.2) 26 (15) 6 0.09
Copper-nickel alloys (copper-nickels, C70100–C72950)
C70600 88.6 Cu, 10 Ni, 1.4 Fe 8.94 (0.323) 17.1 (9.5) 45 (26) 9 0.09
C71500 69.5 Cu, 30 Ni, 0.5 Fe 8.94 (0.323) 16.2 (9.0) 29 (17) 4 0.09
C72200 82.2 Cu, 16.5 (Ni Co), 0.8 Fe, 0.5 Cr 8.94 (0.323) 15.8 (8.8) 34 (20) 6.5 0.094
Copper-zinc-nickel alloys (nickel silvers, C73500–C79800)
C74500 65 Cu, 25 Zn, 10 Ni 8.69 (0.314) 16.4 (9.1) 45 (26) 9 0.09
C77000 55 Cu, 27 Zn, 18 Ni 8.70 (0.314) 16.7 (9.3) 29 (17) 5.5 0.09
Table 3 Copper alloys (rod form) ranked by tensile strength

Size Tensile strength
UNS No. mm in. Condition MPa ksi
C17200, C17300 9.5 0.375 TH04 1485 215
9.5–25.4 0.375–1 TH04 1413 205
76 3 TH04 1380 200
All sizes TF00 1310 190
C63020
25.4
1 TQ30, quenched and tempered 1000 145
25.4 1 TQ30, quenched and tempered 965 140
C17500, C17510 76.2 3 TH04 896 130
C17200, C17300 9.5 0.375 TD04 862 125
9.5–25.4 0.375–1 TD04 827 120
C17410 9.5 0.375 TH04 827 120
C17500, C17510 All sizes TF00 825 120
C63000 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 10% 814 118
50.8 2 Half hard, H02, 10% 793 115
C17200, C17300 25.4–76.2 1–3 TD04 760 110
C63000 76.2 3 Half hard, H02, 10% 772 112
C65500 25.4 1 Extra hard, 50% 745 108
C62400 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 10% 724 105
C63200 25.4 1 Light anneal, O50 724 105
C19100 3.2 0.125 Spring, TH04, 75%, heat treated 717 104
C63200 50.8 2 Light anneal, O50 710 103
76.2 3 Light anneal, O50 703 102
C64200 19 0.750 Hard, H04, 15% 703 102
C64700 12.7 0.500 Drawn and aged 703 102
C18000 25.4 1 TH04 690 100
C19150 1.3–9.5 0.05–0.375 TH04 690 100
C62500 All sizes As extruded, M30 690 100
C63000 101.6 4 As extruded, M30 690 100
C69400 19 0.750 Eighth hard, H00, 7% 690 100
C62300 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 15% 676 98
25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 15% 655 95
C62400 50.8–76.2 2–3 Half hard, H02, 10% 655 95
C19100 9.5 0.375 Spring, TH04, 60% 648 94
C64200 38 1.500 Hard, H04, 10% 641 93
C62300 50.8 2 Half hard, H02, 15% 634 92
C64200 12.7 0.500 Light anneal, O50 634 92
C65500 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 36% 634 92
C65600 25.4 1 Hard, H04 634 92
C67400 19 0.750 Half hard, HR02, stress relieved 1 h at 550 °F (288 °C) 634 92
C15760 7 0.275 Cold worked 74% 621 90
C19150 9.5–12.7 0.375–0.500 TH04 621 90
C62400 101.6 4 As extruded, M30 621 90
C64200 19 0.750 Light anneal, O50 621 90
C65100 25.4 1 Extra hard, H06, 50% 621 90
C66100 25.4 1 Hard, H04 621 90
C69400 12.7 0.500 Soft anneal, O60 621 90
C15760 7 0.275 Annealed at 600 °F (316 °C) 614 89
C62300 76.2 3 Half hard, H02, 15% 600 87
C18200, C18400 4 0.156 Solution heat treated, cold worked 90% and aged, TD01 593 86
C61400 25.4 1 Hard, H04 586 85
C61300 12.7 0.500 Hard, H04, 25% 586 85
C61800 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 15% 586 85
C69400 25.4 1 Soft anneal, O60 586 85
C69430 25.4 1 Hard, H04 586 85
C15760 7 0.275 Annealed at 1200 °F (649 °C) 579 84
C19100 3.2 0.250 Hard, TH04, 35%, heat treated 579 84
C67500 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 579 84
C15760 12.7 0.500 Cold worked 14% 572 83
C61800 50.8 2 Half hard, H02, 15% 565 82
C61400 25.4 1 Hard, H04 565 82
C61300 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 25% 565 82
C15760 13.7 0.540 As consolidated, M30 552 80
C19100 12.7 0.500 Hard, TH04, 35%, heat treated 552 80
C24000 7.9 0.312 Hard, H04 552 80
C46400 6.35 0.250 Half hard, H02, 20% 552 80
C52100 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 20% 552 80
C61300 50.8 2 Hard, H04, 25% 552 80
C61400 50.8 2 Hard, H04 552 80
C61800 76.2 3 Half hard, H02 552 80
C69400 50.8 2 Soft anneal, O60 552 80
C75700
25.4
1 Hard, H04 552 80
C18150 25.4 1 Hard and precipitation heat treated, TH04 538 78
C19100 25.4 1 Hard, TH04, 30%, heat treated 538 78
C65500 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 538 78
C16500 12.7 0.500 Extra hard, H06, 67% 531 77
C18200, C18400 13 0.500 Solution heat treated, cold worked 50%, aged and cold worked 6% 531 77
12.7 0.500 Solution heat treated, cold worked 60.5% and aged at 842 °F (450 °C) 531 77
C67500 25.4 1 Quarter hard, H01, 10% 531 77
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
C15760 7 0.275 Annealed 1800 °F (982 °C) 524 76
C17200, C17300 All sizes TB00 760 75
C17500, C17510 76.2 3 TD04 760 75
C46400, C48200, C48500 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 517 75
C51000 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 20% 517 75
C54400 12.7 0.500 Hard, H04, 35% 517 75
C62300 101.6 4 As extruded, M30 517 75
C64200 19 0.750 As extruded, M30 517 75
C67300 25.4 1 517 75
C67600 25.4 1 Half hard, H02 517 75
C71500 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 517 75
C18200, C18400 4 0.156 Solution heat treated and cold worked 91%, TD01 510 74
C16200 12.7 0.500 Hard, H04 503 73
C15715 7 0.275 Cold worked 94% 496 72
C15760 64 2.500 As consolidated, M30 496 72
C18200, C18400 25.4 1 Solution heat treated and aged, TF00 496 72
C28000 25.4 1 Quarter hard, H01 496 72
C67500 50.8 2 Quarter hard, H01, 10% 496 72
C79200 19 0.750 Hard, H04 496 72
C18135 0.500 12.7 Solution heat treated, cold worked 40% and aged, TH01 483 70
C18200, C18400 12.7 0.500 Solution heat treated and aged at 932 °F (500 °C), 3 h, TF00 483 70
50.8 2 Solution heat treated and aged, TF00 483 70
C23000 7.9 0.312 Hard, H04 483 70
C26000, C26130, C26200 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 483 70
C32000 25.4 1 Hard, H04 483 70
C34500 25.4 1 Half hard, H02 483 70
C35000 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 20% 483 70
C46200 25.4 1 Half hard, H02 483 70
C46400 6.35 0.250 Quarter hard, H01, 10% 483 70
C48200 50.8 2 Half hard, H02, 15% 483 70
C51000 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 483 70
C61000 19 0.750 Hard, H04 483 70
C65100 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 36% 483 70
C67400 19 0.750 Soft anneal, O60 483 70
C69710 25.4 1 Hard, H04 483 70
C75200 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 20% 483 70
C46400, C48200, C48500 25.4 1 Quarter hard, H01, 8% 476 69
C18135 50.8 2 Solution heat treated, cold worked 30% and aged 476 69
C15000 9.5 0.375 Solution heat treated, cold worked 80%, aged and cold worked 44% 469 68
C35600, C36000 6.35 0.250 Half hard, H02, 25% 469 68
C54400 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 25% 469 68
C15715 7 0.275 Annealed 600 °F (316 °C) 462 67
C22600 7.9 0.312 Hard, H04 462 67
C31600 12.7 0.500 Hard, H04, 38% 462 67
C46400, C48200 50.8 2 Quarter hard, H01, 8% 462 67
C15715 12.7 0.500 Cold worked 80% 455 66
C16500 12.7 0.500 Hard, H04, 35% 448 65
C18200, C18400 76.2 3 Solution heat treated and aged 448 65
C31600 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 38% 448 65
C67500 25.4 1 Soft anneal, O60 448 65
19 0.750 Solution heat treated, cold worked 50%, aged and cold worked 34% 434 63
C46400 6.35–25.4 0.250–1 Light annealed, O50 434 63
C48200 76.2 3 Quarter hard, H01, 4% 434 63
C48200 25.4 1 Light annealed, O50 434 63
C18135 12.7 0.500 Solution heat treated, cold worked 40% and aged 427 62
C15000 22.2 0.875 Solution heat treated, cold worked 48%, aged and cold worked 427 62
25.4 1 Solution heat treated, cold worked 48%, aged and cold worked 47% 427 62
5.2 0.204 Solution heat treated, aged and cold worked 76%, TD01 427 62
C15715 19 0.750 Cold worked 55% 427 62
C46400, C48200 50.8 2 Light annealed, O50 427 62
C18135 50.8 2 Solution heat treated, cold worked 30% and aged 421 61
C15725 All sizes As consolidated, M30 414 60
C31400 6.35 0.250 Half hard, H02, 37% 414 60
C15715 7 0.275 Annealed 1200 °F (649 °C), O61 407 59
C16200 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 25% 400 58
C35000 12.7 0.500 Quarter hard, H01, 10% 400 58
C34200, C35300, C35330, C35600, 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 400 58
C36000
C46400 6.35 0.250 Soft anneal, O60 400 58
C65500 25.4 1 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 400 58
C14700 9.5 0.375 Extra hard, H06, 56% 393 57
C15715 29 1.125 As consolidated, M30 393 57
7 0.275 Annealed 1800 °F (982 °C), O61 393 57
C18200, C18400 12.7 0.500 Solution treated and cold worked 60.5%, TD01 393 57
C46400, C48200, C48500 25.4 1 Soft anneal, O60 393 57
(continued)

Table 3 (continued)
C32000 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 25% 386 56
C46400, C48200 50.8 2 Soft anneal, O60 386 56
C75200 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.035 mm, OS035 386 56
C10100, C10200, C10300, C10400, 6.35 0.250 Hard, H04, 40% 379 55
C10500, C10700, C10800, C11000,
C11300, C11400, C11500, C11600,
C12000, C12100
C18200, C18400 101.6 4.0 Solution heat treated and aged, TF00 379 55
C18700 3.2 0.125 Hard, H04, 50% 379 55
C21000 7.9 0.312 Hard, H04 379 55
C26000, C26130, C26200, C26800, 25.4 1 Eighth hard, H00, 6% 379 55
C27000
C31400 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 25% 379 55
C34000 25.4 1 Quarter hard, H01, 10% 379 55
C35000 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.015 mm, OS015 379 55
C35600, C36000 50.8 2 Half hard, H02, 15% 379 55
C28000 25.4 1 Soft anneal, O60 372 54
C14500, C14520, C18700 6.35 0.250 Hard, H04, 45% 365 53
C28000, C37700 25.4 1 As extruded, M30 358 52
C31400 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 358 52
C34000 25.4 1 Grain size 0.025 mm, OS025 345 50
C35600, C36000 25.4 1 Soft anneal O60 338 49
C10100, C10200, C10300, C10400, 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 35% 331 48
C10500, C10700, C10800, C11000,
C11300, C11400, C11500, C11600,
C12000, C12100, C12900
C14500, C14520 12.7–25.4 0.500–1 Hard, H04, 35% 331 48
C18700 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 35% 331 48
12.7 0.500 Hard, H04, 35% 331 48
C26000, C26130, C26200, C26800, 25.4 1 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 331 48
C27000
C35000 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS015 331 48
C14700 6.35 0.250 Hard, H04, 36% 331 48
12.7 0.500 Hard, H04, 35% 331 48
C70600
64
2.500 Annealed, O61 324 47
C14700 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 29% 317 46
C10100, C10200, C10400, C10500, 50.8 2 Hard, H04, 16% 310 45
C10700, C10800, C11000, C11300,
C11400, C11500, C11600, C12000,
C12100
C12200 25.4 1 Hard, H04 310 45
C17500, C17510 All sizes TB00 310 45
C18200, C18400 12.7 0.500 TB00 310 45
C22000 12.7 0.500 Eighth hard, H00 310 45
C14500, C14520 6.35–12.7 0.250–0.500 Half hard, H02, 20% 296 43
C14700 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 20% 296 43
C18700 6.35 0.250 Half hard, H02, 20% 296 43
C14500, C14520 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 290 42
50.8 2 Half hard, H02, 15% 290 42
C14700 41 1.625 Hard, H04, 25% 290 42
C18700 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 290 42
C15000 … … Mill annealed and cold worked 10% 283 41
C14700 44 1.75 Hard, H04, 24% 276 40
C16500 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 276 40
C22000 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.035 mm 276 40
C19150 9.5 0.375 TD04 276 40
C32000 25.4 1 Grain size 0.050, OS050 276 40
C65100 25.4 1 Grain size 0.035 mm, OS035 276 40
C14500, C14520, C14700 12.7 0.500 Eighth hard, H00, 6% 262 38
C31400, C31600 25.4 1 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 255 37
C16200 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.025 mm, OS025 248 36
12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.050 mm , OS050 241 35
C14500, C14520, C14700 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.015 mm, OS015 228 33
C10100, C10200, C10400, C10500, 25.4 1 As hot rolled, M20 221 32
C10700, C11000, C11300, C11400,
C11500, C11600, C12000, C12100,
C12900
C10100, C10200, C10400, C10500, 25.4 1 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 221 32
C10700, C11000, C11300, C11400,
C11500, C11600, C12000, C12100,
C12900, C14500, C14520, C18700
C14700 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 221 32

Table 4 Copper alloys (rod form) ranked by 0.5% extension yield strength
Size Yield strength (0.5% extension)
C64700 12.7 0.500 Drawn and aged 621 90

C19150 1.3–9.5 0.050–0.375 TH04 585 85
C18200, C18400 4 0.156 Solution heat treated, cold worked 91%, TD01 531 77
C19100 3.2 0.125 Spring, TH04, 75% 531 77
9.5 0.375 Spring, heat treated, TH04 517 75
C19150 9.5–12.7 0.375–0.5 TH04 517 75
C63000 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 10% 517 75
C18200, C18400 4 0.156 Solution heat treated, cold worked 90% & aged, TH01 503 73
C19100 6.35 0.250 Hard, heat treated, TH04, 35% 503 73
C16500 12.7 0.500 Extra hard, H06, 67% 492 71
C19100 12.7 0.500 Hard, heat treated, TH04, 35% 483 70
C71500 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 483 70
C16200 12.7 0.500 Hard, H04 474 69
C19100 25.4 1 Hard, heat treated, TH04, 30% 469 68
C64200 19 0.750 Hard, H04, 15% 469 68
C18200, C18400 12.7 0.500 Solution heat treated, cold worked 60.5%, aged, cold worked 6% 462 67
C65100 25.4 1 Extra hard, 50% 462 67
C18200, C18400 25.4–50.8 1–2 Solution heat treated and aged, TF00 448 65
12.7 0.500 Solution heat treated, cold worked 60.5%, aged at 842 °F (450 °C) 3h, TH01 448 65
C51000, C52100 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 20% 448 65
C63000 50.8 2 Half hard, H02, 10% 446 65
C15000 9.5 0.375 Solution heat treated, cold worked 80%, aged, cold worked 44% 441 64
C24000 7.9 0.312 Hard, H04 434 63
C15000 12.7 0.500 Solution heat treated, cold worked 56%, aged, cold worked 47% 434 63
C54400 12.7 0.500 Hard 35% 434 63
C18135 50.8 2 Solution heat treated, cold worked 30% & aged 432 63
C15000 16 0.625 Solution treated, cold worked 61%, aged, cold worked 31% 427 62
C63000 76.2 3 Half hard, H02, 10% 427 62
C79200 19 0.750 Hard, H04 427 62
C18135 12.7 0.500 Solution heat treated, cold worked 40% & aged 421 61
C15000 19 0.750 Solution treated, cold worked 50%, aged, cold worked 34% 421 61
25.4 1 Solution treated, cold worked 48%, aged & cold worked 47% 414 60
22 0.875 Solution treated, cold worked 48%, aged & cold worked 52% 414 60
C32000 25.4 1 Hard, H04 414 60
C63000 101.6 4 As extruded, M30 414 60
C64200 38 1.5 Hard, H04, 10% 414 60
C67500 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 414 60
C75200 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 20% 414 60
C65500 25.4 1 Extra hard, H06, 50% 414 60
C31600 12.7 0.500 Hard, H04, 38% 407 59
C15000 32 1.250 Solution treated, cold worked 32%, aged & cold worked 17% 400 58
C34500 25.4 1 Half hard, H02 400 58
C51000 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 400 58
C61300 12.7 0.500 Hard, H04, 25% 400 58
C64200 12.7 0.500 Light anneal, O50 400 58
C31600 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 38% 393 57
C46400 6.35 0.250 Half hard, H02, 20% 393 57
C54400 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 25% 393 57
C69400 19 0.750 Eighth hard, H00, 7% 393 57
C15000 5.2 0.204 76% reduction after aging 386 56
C18200, C18400 12.7 0.500 Solution heat treated & cold worked 60.5%, TD01 386 56
C14700 9.5 0.375 Extra hard, H06, 56% 379 55
C16500 12.7 0.500 Hard, 35% 379 55
12.7 0.500 Solution heat treated and aged at 932 °F (500 °C) 3h, TF00 379 55
C31400 6.35 0.250 Half hard, H02, 37% 379 55
C61300 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 25% 379 55
C62500 All sizes As extruded, M30 379 55
C64200 19 0.750 Light anneal, O50 379 55
C65100 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 36% 379 55
C65500 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 36% 379 55
C65600, C66100 25.4 1 Hard, H04 379 55
C67300
25.4
1 379 55
C67400 19 0.750 Half hard, stress relieved 1h at 550 °F (288 °C), HR50 379 55
C18135 12.7 0.500 Solution heat treated, cold worked 40% & aged, TH01 365 53
50.8 2 Solution heat treated, cold worked 30% & aged, TH01 365 53
C46400 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 365 53
C48200 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 365 53
C48500 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 365 53
C75700
25.4
1 Hard, H04 365 53
C23000 7.9 0.312 Hard, H04 359 52
C26000, C26130, C26200 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 359 52
C35000 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 20% 359 52
C35600, C36000 6.35 0.250 Half hard, H02, 25% 359 52
(continued)

Table 4 (continued)
C48200 50.8 2 Half hard, H02, 15% 359 52

C62300 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 15% 359 52
C62400 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 10% 359 52
C63200 50.8 2 Light anneal, O50 359 52
76.2 3 Light anneal, O50 352 51
C10100, C10200, C10400, 6.35 0.250 Hard, H04, 40% 345 50
C10500, C10700, C10800,
C11000, C11300, C11400,
C11500, C11600, C12000,
C12100
C18700 3.2 0.125 Hard, H04, 50% 345 50
C22600 7.9 0.312 Hard, H04 345 50
C28000 25.4 1 Quarter hard, H01 345 50
C31400 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 25% 345 50
C46200 25.4 1 Half hard, H02 345 50
C62300 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 15% 345 50
C69430 25.4 1 Hard, H04 345 50
C14500, C14520, C18700 6.35 0.250 Hard, H04, 45% 338 49
C46400 6.35 0.250 Quarter hard, H01, 10% 331 48
C61300 50.8 2 Hard, H04, 25% 331 48
C62300 50.8 2 Half hard, H02, 15% 331 48
C62400 50.8 2 Half hard, H02, 10% 331 48
76.2 3 Half hard, 10% 324 47
C32000 25.4 1 Half hard, 25% 317 46
C46400, C48200, C48500 25.4 1 Quarter hard, H01, 8% 317 46
C16200 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 25% 310 45
C31400, C34200, C35600, 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 310 45
C36000
C61400 12.7 0.500 Hard, H04 310 45
C62300 76.2 3 Half hard, H02, 15% 310 45
C65500 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 310 45
C67500 25.4 1 Quarter hard, H01, 10% 310 45
C67600 25.4 1 Half hard, H02 310 45
C69400 12.7 0.500 Soft anneal, O60 310 45
C10100, C10200, C10300, 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 35% 303 44
C10400, C10500, C10700,
C10800, C11000, C11300,
C11400, C11500, C11600,
C12000, C12100, C12900
C14500, C14520 12.7–25.4 0.500–1.0 Hard, H04, 35% 303 44
C14700 12.7 0.500 Hard, H04, 35% 303 44
6.35 0.250 Hard, H04, 36% 303 44
C18700 12.7 0.500 Hard, H04, 35% 303 44
C35000 12.7 0.500 Quarter hard, H01, 10% 303 44
C35600, C36000 50.8 2 Half hard, H02, 15% 303 44
C14700 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 29% 296 43
C69400 25.4 1 Soft anneal, O60 296 43
C18700 25.4 1 Hard, H04, 35% 290 42
C34000 25.4 1 Quarter hard, H01, 10% 290 42
C61800 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 15% 290 42
C67500 50.8 2 Quarter hard, H01, 10% 290 42
C10100, C10200, C10300 50.8 2 Hard, H04, 16% 276 40
C10400, C10500, C10700, 50.8 2 Hard, H04, 16% 276 40
C10800, C11000, C11300,
C11400, C11500, C11600,
C12000, C12100
C14500, C14520 6.35–25.4 0.250–1 Half hard, 20% 276 40
C14700 12.7 0.500 Half hard, H02, 20% 276 40
C18700 6.35 0.250 Half hard, H02, 20% 276 40
C26000, C26130, C26200, 25.4 1 Eighth hard, H00, 6% 276 40
C26800, C27000
C46400, C48200 50.8 2 Quarter hard, H01, 8% 276 40
C12200, C61400, C69710 25.4 1 Hard, H04 276 40
C62400 101.6 4 As extruded, M30 276 40
C69400 50.8 2 Soft anneal, O60 276 40
C14500, C14520 50.8 2 Half hard, H02, 15% 269 39
C61800 76.2 3 Half hard, H02 269 39
50.8 2 Half hard, H02, 15% 269 39
C14700 41 1.625 Hard, H04, 25% 262 38
C18700 25.4 1 Half hard, H02, 20% 262 38
C14700 44 1.750 Hard, H04, 24% 248 36
C15000 6.35 0.250 Mill annealed and cold worked, 10% 248 36
C21000 7.9 0.312 Hard, H04 241 35
C22000 12.7 0.500 Eighth hard, H00 241 35
(continued)

Table 4 (continued)
C61400 50.8 2 Hard, H04 241 35

C62300 101.6 4 As extruded, M30 241 35
C64200 19 0.750 As extruded, M30 241 35
C67400 19 0.750 Soft anneal, O60 234 34
C70600
6.4
2.5 Annealed, O61 234 34
C48200 76.2 3 Quarter hard, H01, 4% 228 33
C14500, C14520 12.7 0.500 Eighth hard, 6% 207 30
C14700 12.7 0.500 Eighth hard, 6% 207 30
C46400 6.35–25.4 0.250–1 Light annealed, O50 207 30
C67500 25.4 1 Soft anneal, O60 207 30
C46400, C48200 50.8 2 Light annealed, O50 193 28
C46400 6.35 0.250 Soft annealed, O60 186 27
C35000 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.015 mm, OS015 172 25
C46400, C48200 25.4–50.8 1–2 Soft annealed, O60 172 25
C48500 25.4 1 Soft annealed, O60 172 25
C75200 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.035 mm, OS035 172 25
C65500 25.4 1 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 152 22
C28000 25.4 1 Soft annealed, O60 145 21
C28000, C37700 25.4 1 As extruded, M30 138 20
C34000 25.4 1 Grain size 0.025 mm, OS025 131 19
C35600, C36000 25.4 1 Soft annealed, O60 131 18
C26000, C26130, C26200, 25.4 1 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 110 16
C26800, C27000, C32000
C35000 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 110 16
C65100 25.4 1 Grain size 0.035 mm, OS035 103 15
C16500 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 97 14
C18200, C18400 All sizes Solution heat treated, TB00 97 14
C22000 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.035, OS035 97 14
C16200 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.025 mm, OS025 83 12
C14500, C14520, C14700 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.015 mm, OS015 76 11
C10100, C10200, C10400, 25.4 1 As hot rolled, grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 69 10
C10500, C10600, C10700,
C11000, C11300, C11400,
C11500, C12000, C12100,
C12900
C14700 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 69 10
C18700 25.4 1 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 69 10
C16200 12.7 0.500 Grain size 0.050 mm, OS050 48 7
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view Yield strength, MPa
and small amounts of various alloying elements Traditional materials such as copper
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
such as beryllium, cadmium, chromium, or iron, (C11000), cartridge brass (C26000), phosphor
Electrical conductivity, %IACS
120
each having less than 8 at.% solid solubility. bronze (C51000), tin brass (C42500), and C11000 Third-generation alloys
C15100
Some high-copper alloys also contain up to cobalt-modified aluminum brass (C68800) will
C19700
2% of nickel, cobalt, and tin. Because dilute continue to be used for garden-variety connec- 80
copper alloys retain the face-centered cubic (fcc) tors. Improved alloys such as zirconium-copper
-structure of copper, their physical properties (C15100), Cu-Fe-P alloy C19700, and Cu-Ni-Si C19400
are similar to those of the pure metal. Alloying alloy C70250 will capture the more demanding 40
C70250
generally serves to impart higher strength, ther- applications (Ref 2). However, beryllium- C26000 C17200
mal stability, or other mechanical attributes, coppers (C17000 to C17510) will probably con- C76200 C68800
while retaining sufficient electrical conductivity tinue as the materials of choice for military and 40 60 80 100 120 140
for the intended use. other severe duty connectors.
Yield strength, ksi
Recent interest in applications for these high- The traditional nickel-iron IC lead frame
copper alloys has focused on electrical/electronic alloys have given way, at least for plastic dual-
connectors and integrated-circuit (IC) lead frames. in-line packages, to the higher conductivity, Cu- Fig. 1 Strength versus electrical conductivity for select-
ed copper alloys. Both strength and conductivity
Alloys for electronic components used in the Fe-Zn-P alloy C19400. Packages requiring are prerequisites for electrical connector alloys. In auto-
increasingly severe, automotive under-the-hood higher strength use alloy C19500, which con- motive under-the-hood applications, conventional materi-
environment, for example, require a formidable tains strength-enhancing additions of tin and als (lower left curve) have largely been replaced by cop-
per alloys with improved properties (middle and upper
combination of properties: high stress-relaxation cobalt. If high heat dissipation is needed, alloy curves). However, future vehicles will require a third gen-
resistance between 135 and 200 °C (275 and 390 C15100 is recommended. The recently eration of materials (shaded area). Source: Ref 1
°F) to maintain adequate contact pressure; good improved tempers of alloys C19400 and
electrical conductivity to minimize Joule heating; C70250 are candidates for applications requir- welding equipment, can be specified in precipi-
high plateability without reacting with contact ing very high strength in thin sections (Ref 2). tation-hardenable chromium-coppers such as
coatings; sufficient and consistent deformation Lead frame materials are described in the article C18000 and C18100. For highest strength, how-
characteristics; and economy (Ref 1). Figure 1 “Applications” in this Handbook. ever, the beryllium-coppers are the material of
shows the strength and electrical conductivity Heavy-duty electromechanical products, such choice. Alloys containing nominally 2% Be (the
requirement for under-the-hood applications. as circuit breaker components and resistance “gold” alloys, C17000 to C17300) can be age
hardened to an ultimate tensile strength (UTS) work and machine. Increasing zinc content pro- The corrosion resistance of brass is adequate
exceeding 1380 MPa (200 ksi), while the lower- duces stronger and “springier” alloys, at the for service in most atmospheric environments.
beryllium “red” alloys, C17410 to C17510, expense of a moderate decrease in corrosion However, the alloys are subject to dezincifica-
aren’t as strong (UTS around 830 MPa, or 120 resistance. Although produced in all product tion in stagnant, acidic aqueous environments,
ksi), but have high conductivity. Various combi- forms, brasses are primarily used as sheet, for and may fail by SCC in the presence of moist
nations of strength and conductivity can be stampings (springs, and components of electri- ammonia, amines, and mercury compounds.
developed by appropriate overaging treatments. cal switches and sockets, for example); as tube, Electrical conductivity of brass is reasonably
Figure 2 compares the strength and electrical for lamp components, drain pipe, and plumbing high, ranging from 56% IACS for C21000 to
conductivity relationships of various copper goods; and as rod, for cold-headed fasteners 28% IACS for high-zinc alloys. The cartridge
alloys, including beryllium-copper alloys and forgings. brass (C26000) used in common electrical
C17000, C17200, C17410, and C17510. hardware has a conductivity of 28% IACS.
(The conductivities of carbon steel and
Table 6 Copper alloys ranked by thermal
Brasses austenitic stainless steel are about 8.5% and
conductivity
2.3% IACS, respectively.)
The common brasses (C21000 to C28000) Thermal conductivity Alloy selection among the brasses is nor-
at 20 °C (68 °F)
are copper alloys in which zinc is the principal mally made on the basis of formability
Btu/ft2/ft/h/°F
alloying element. Low-zinc alloys, such as gild- UNS No. W/m · K
(C26000 is generally regarded as having opti-
ing (C21000), retain the fcc a-structure, while C10100, C10200, C11000 391 226 mal forming characteristics), corrosion resist-
high-zinc brasses (39% Zn), such as Muntz C10400, C10500, C10700, 388 224
C11300, C11400,
ance (which favors low-zinc alloys that have
metal (C28000), contain mostly the hard body- C11500, C11600 more copper-like properties), or color (which
centered cubic -phase. Brasses containing C10300, C12000, C12100 386 223 ranges from reddish pink to pale yellow,
between 32 and 39% Zn may have a duplex C12900, C18700 377 218 depending on zinc content). Hot forged prod-
-structure, which makes them easier to hot C14700 374 216
C15000 367 212
ucts, if they must be lead-free, should be made
C15715 365 211 from duplex alloys, or mostly-b-phase compo-
Table 5 Copper alloys ranked by C18135 363 210 sitions such as alloy C28000.
electrical conductivity C16200 360 208 Leaded (Cu-Zn-Pb) Brasses. The lead in
C14500 355 205
Electrical conductivity, C10800 349 202
wrought leaded brasses (C31200 to C38500)
UNS No. %IACS at 20 °C (68 °F) C15725 344 199 provides high machinability by acting as a
C10100, C10200, C11000 101 C12200 339 196 microscopic chip breaker and tool lubricant.
C10400, C10500, C10700, 100 C18100, C18200, C18400 324 187 Leaded brasses are produced primarily as rod,
C11300, C11400, C11500, C11600 C15760 322 186
C16500 253 146
bar, shapes, and mechanical tubing. The alloys
C10300 99
C12000, C12100, C12900 98 C19100 251 145 have the same atmospheric corrosion resistance
C18700 96 C21000 234 135 as their unleaded counterparts. Alloy C35330
C14700 95 C17410, C17500, 208 120 also contains arsenic to inhibit dezincification.
C14500, C15000, C15715 93 C17510, C19150
C22000 189 109
Free-cutting brass (C36000) containing 3%
C10800, C18135 92
C16200 90 C31400 180 104 Pb is normally the first choice for a copper-base
C15725 87 C22600 173 100 screw-machine material. The theoretical
C12200, C14520 85 C64700 168 97 machinability of the alloy is more than five
C18100, C18200, C18400 80 C50700 164 95
C23000 159 92
times that of leaded low-carbon steel (American
C15760 78
C16500 60 C32000 156 90 Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) 12L14), which
C21000 56 C24000, C31600 140 81 the brass approaches in terms of mechanical
C19100, C19150 55 C28000, C38500 123 71 properties and far surpasses in corrosion resist-
C17410, C17500, C17510 45 C26000, C26130, C26200 121 70
C37000, C37700 119 69
ance. With the high scrap value of turnings, and
C22000 44
C31400 42 C26800, C27000, C33500, 116 67 no need for expensive electroplating, the total
C22600 40 C34000, C34200, C34500, cost of brass screw-machine products can be sig-
C64700 38 C35000, C35300, C35330, nificantly lower than that of leaded-steel parts.
C23000 37 C35600, C36000, C46400,
C48200, C48500
For products that require both machining and
C32000 36
C50700 35 C46200 111 64 cold forming, reduced-lead (2% Pb) copper
C24000, C31600 32 C17200, C17300 107 62 alloys such as C34500 or C35300 should be con-
C26000, C26130, 28 C67500 106 61 sidered (Ref 4).
C26200, C28000, C38500 C67400 100 58
C67000, C67600 99 57
Alloy C37700 is primarily specified for cor-
C26800, C27000, C37000, C37700 27
C33500, C34000, C34200, C34500, 26 C54400 87 50 rosion-resistant forgings, such as valves and fit-
C35000, C35300, C35330, C35600, C51000, C61000 69 40 tings, architectural hardware, and specialty fas-
C36000, C46400, C48200, C48500 C61400 67 39 teners. A modest lead content (2% Pb) makes
C46200 25 C61800 64 37
C52100 62 36
the alloy free-cutting. Like most brasses, it can
C67500 24
C67400 23 C62400 59 34 be finished to a high luster and readily accepts
C17200, C17300, C67000, C67600 22 C65100 57 33 decorative electroplated coatings.
C54400 19 C61300 55 32 Tin (Cu-Zn-Sn) brasses (C40400 to C48600)
C51000, C61000 15 C62300 54 31
C62500, C63020 47 27
are essentially high-zinc brasses containing tin
C61400 14
C52100, C61800 13 C64200, C70600, C74500 45 26 for better corrosion resistance and somewhat
C61300, C62300, C62400, C65100 12 C69710, C75700, C79200 40 23 higher strength. Tin, like arsenic, antimony, and
C62500 10 C63000 38 22 phosphorus, reduces susceptibility to dezincifica-
C70600, C74500 9 C65500, C75400 36 21
C63200, C65600, C66100 35 20
tion. These economical alloys have properties
C64200, C69710, C75700, C79200 8
C63000, C63200, C65500, C75400 7 C75200 33 19 somewhat better than those of the straight cop-
C65600, C66100, C63020, C69400, C75200 6 C71500 29 17 per-zinc brasses.
C71500 4 C69400, C69430 26 15 Tin brasses have good hot forgeability and
Source: Copper Development Association Inc. Source: Copper Development Association Inc.
reasonably good cold formability. In rod form,
they can be cold headed to produce high-
strength fasteners and similar parts. Leaded

alloys C48200 and C48500 are free machining.
Alloy C42500 is supplied as strip for fabricating
into electrical connectors, springs, and related
products. The admiralty brasses (C44300,
C44400, and C44500) and naval brasses
(C46400, C46500, and C46600) are used for
corrosion-resistant mechanical products. Leaded
naval brasses (C48200 and C48500) are sup-
plied in rod form for marine hardware, pump
shafts, valve stems, and corrosion-resistant
screw-machine parts.
Copper-Zinc Alloys (C66300 to C69710).
These miscellaneous copper-zinc alloys form a
subgroup of high-strength brasses in which
mechanical properties are enhanced by additions
of manganese, iron, tin, aluminum, silicon,
and/or cobalt. The alloys display a wide range of
properties, but they are best known for their
combination of high strength and moderately
high corrosion resistance. Alloy C67300 is a
familiar bearing material best used at high
speeds and medium loads. It machines well and
has reasonably good corrosion resistance. Alloy
C68800 in strip form is a common electrical
Fig. 2 Strength and electrical conductivity relationships in selected copper alloys. Each box represents the range of
properties spanned by available tempers of the indicated alloy. Source: Ref 3
connector material.
and tempered much like steels to produce tensile moderate to high strength is retained well at ele-
Bronzes strengths higher than 1000 MPa (145ksi). vated temperatures.
Aluminum bronzes have a very wide range of Low-nickel alloys (2 to 4% Ni) are used in strip
Bronzes are copper alloys in which the major applications. Common uses include marine form for electrical/electronic products, where
alloying addition is neither zinc nor nickel. hardware, shafts, and pump and valve compo- strength, thermal stability, and good bend forma-
Although there are exceptions, bronzes are gen- nents for handling seawater, sour mine waters, bility are needed. Alloys C70600 (10% Ni),
erally classified by their major alloying element nonoxidizing acids, and industrial process flu- C72200 (16% Ni, plus iron and chromium), and
or elements. ids. The good wear resistance of the alloys C71500 (30% Ni) are mostly produced as tubes
Tin (Cu-Sn-P) bronzes (C50100 to C52480), makes them excellent choices for heavy-duty for condensers in ships and seacoast power sta-
also commonly referred to as phosphor bronzes, sleeve bearings and machine-tool ways. Because tions. Rod and plate are used for a variety of
have superb spring qualities, high fatigue resist- the aluminum reduces density in addition to rais- marine products, including valves, pumps, fittings,
ance, excellent formability and solderability, and ing strength, these bronzes have relatively high and fouling-resistant sheathing for ship hulls and
high corrosion resistance. They are primarily strength-to-weight ratios. This explains why offshore oil/gas platforms (Ref 5–8).
produced as strip for electrical products. Other nickel-aluminum bronze (C63020) is sometimes Nickel Silvers. These Cu-Ni-Zn alloys
uses include corrosion-resistant bellows, substituted for beryllium-copper in aircraft land- (C73500 to C79830) can be thought of as nickel
diaphragms, and spring washers. ing-gear bearings. brasses, because they generally contain more zinc
Leaded (Cu-Sn-P-Pb) tin or phosphor Silicon (Cu-Si) bronzes (C64700 to C66100) than nickel. Nickel silvers combine good corro-
bronzes (C53400 and C54400) combine high resemble the lower-aluminum bronzes in sion resistance with moderately high strength,
strength and fatigue resistance with good mechanical properties, having nominal tensile which accounts for their wide use in food and
machinability, high wear resistance, and excel- strengths up to about 690 MPa (100 ksi). The beverage handling equipment. Their attractive sil-
lent corrosion resistance, especially in seawater. alloys exhibit the good corrosion resistance char- ver luster is exploited for decorative hardware,
They are frequently used for sleeve bearings, acteristic of all copper metals, although their electroplated tableware, optical and photographic
thrust washers, cam followers, and similar parts. resistance to SCC is somewhat lower than that of equipment, and musical instruments.
Leaded tin bronze bearings resist pounding, but the aluminum bronzes. Silicon bronzes are pro-
should be used against hardened journals (300 to duced in relatively low volumes for products
400 HB min), and only in applications where such as hydraulic fluid lines, high-strength fas- Strengthening Mechanisms for
reliable lubrication is assured. teners, wear plates, and marine and pole-line Wrought Copper Alloys
Aluminum (Cu-Al) bronzes (C60800 to hardware. The alloys have excellent weldability,
C64210) are best known for their combination and are commonly used as welding filler wire. Solution Hardening. Copper can be hard-
of high strength and excellent corrosion resist- ened by the various common methods without
ance. Their stress-corrosion fatigue resistance unduly impairing ductility or electrical conduc-
exceeds that of austenitic stainless steels. They Copper-Nickel Alloys tivity. The metallurgy of copper alloys is suited
are readily weldable, and can be machined or for using, singly or in combination, the various
ground, although good lubrication and cooling The copper-nickel alloys (C70100 to common strengthening mechanisms: solid solu-
are essential to obtain fine surface finishes. C72950) inhabit the copper-rich end of the tion and work hardening, as well as dispersed
Aluminum bronzes containing less than about binary copper-nickel system that also includes particle and precipitation hardening. The com-
9.5% Al are hardened through a combination of the Monel (67Ni-30Cu) alloys, and their prop- monly used solid-solution hardening elements
solid-solution strengthening, cold work, and the erties are similar to nickel-rich alloys. Copper- are zinc, nickel, manganese, aluminum, tin and
precipitation of an iron-rich phase. Tensile nickels are among the most corrosion resistant silicon, listed in approximate order of increasing
strengths range between 480 and 690 MPa (70 and thermally stable of all the copper alloys, effectiveness. Commercial alloys represent the
and 100 ksi), depending on composition and and are virtually immune to SCC. Like nickel- entire range of available solid-solution composi-
temper. High-aluminum alloys (9 to 11% Al), base alloys, copper-nickels exhibit high oxida- tions of each element up to 35% Zn, and up to
such as C63000 and C63020, can be quenched tion resistance in steam and moist air. Their (and even beyond) 50% Ni, 50% Mn, 9% Al,
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 4 The effect of cold rolling on the strength, hard-

ness, and ductility of annealed copper alloy
C26000 when it is cold rolled in varying amounts up to
62% reduction in thickness
ening alloys, UNS C17000 to C17530 and

C82000 to C82800. The wrought alloys contain
0.2 to 2.0% Be and 0.3 to 2.7% Co (or up to
2.2% Ni). They are solution heat treated in the
760 to 955 °C (1400 to 1750 °F) range and age
hardened to produce the beryllium-rich coherent
precipitates when aged in the 260 to 565 °C (500
to 1050 °F) range, with the specific temperature
being chosen for the particular alloy and desired
property combination (Fig. 5). The precipitation
sequence during aging consists of the formation
Fig. 3 Tensile strength of single-phase copper alloys as affected by percentage reduction in thickness by rolling (tem-
of solute-rich G-P zones, followed in sequence
per). Curves of lesser slope indicate a low rate of work hardening and a higher capacity for redrawing. ETP,
electrolytic tough pitch by coherent platelets of the metastable interme-
diate phases and . Overaging is marked by
11% Sn, and 4% Si. The relative amount of solu- (C26000). The degree of work hardening seen the appearance of the B2 ordered equilibrium -
tion strengthening obtained from each element with cold working several selected single-phase BeCu phase as particles within grains and along
or particular combination of elements is deter- copper alloys is illustrated by the cold-rolling grain boundaries, large enough to be seen in the
mined by the ability of the solute to interfere curves in Fig. 3. Many copper alloys are used in light microscope. The cobalt and nickel addi-
with dislocation motion and is reflected in the wrought forms in a worked temper, chosen for tions form dispersoids of equilibrium (Cu, Co,
work-hardening rate starting with the annealed the desired combination of work-hardened or Ni)Be that restrict grain growth during solu-
condition, as illustrated by the increase in tensile strength and formability, either for direct use in tion annealing in the two-phase field at elevated
strength with cold work shown in Fig. 3. service or for subsequent component fabrication. temperatures (Fig. 5b). A cold-working step fol-
Work hardening is the principal hardening Dispersion strengthening is used in copper lowing solution annealing is often used to
mechanism applied to most copper alloys, the alloys for hardening, controlling grain size, and increase the age-hardening response. Alloy
degree of which depends on the type and amount providing softening resistance, as exemplified C17200 (Cu-1.8Be-0.4Co), for example, can be
of alloying element and whether the alloying ele- by iron particles in copper-iron alloys, C19200 processed to reach high strength; that is, tensile
ment remains in solid solution or forms a disper- or C19400, and in aluminum bronzes, C61300 strengths after solutionization (470 MPa, or 68
soid or precipitate phase. Even those alloys that or C63380. Cobalt silicide particles in alloy ksi), after cold rolling to the hard temper (755
are commercially age hardenable are often pro- C63800 (Cu-2.8Al-1.8Si-0.4Co), for example, MPa, or 110 ksi), and after aging (1415 MPa, or
vided in the mill-hardened tempers; that is, they provide fine-grain control and dispersion harden- 205 ksi). While they are commercially available
have been processed with cold work preceding ing to give this alloy high strength with reason- in the heat-treatable (solutionized) condition, the
and/or following an age-hardening heat treat- ably good formability. Alloy C63800 offers an beryllium-copper alloys are commonly provided
ment. For the leaner alloys (below 12% Zn, or annealed tensile strength of 570 MPa (82 ksi) and in the mill-hardened temper with the optimal
3% Al, for example), processing generates dis- rolled temper tensile strengths of 660 to 900 MPa strength/ductility/conductivity combination suit-
locations that develop into entanglements and (96 to 130 ksi). Alloys offering exceptionally able for the application.
into cells, with some narrow shear band forma- good thermal stability have been developed using Other age-hardening copper alloys include
tion beyond 65% cold reduction in thickness. powder metallurgy techniques to incorporate dis- the chromium-coppers, which contain 0.4 to
After 90% cold work, the distinct “copper” or persions of fine Al2O3 particles (3 to 12 nm in 1.2% Cr (C18100, C18200, and C18400);
“metal” deformation crystallographic texture size) in a basic copper matrix, which is finish these alloys produce arrays of pure chromium
begins to develop. With the richer solid-solution processed to rod, wire, or strip products. This precipitates and dispersoid particles when
alloys that lower the stacking-fault energy, planar family of alloys, C15715 to C15760, can resist aged. The Cu-Ni-Si alloys, C64700 and
slip is the dominant dislocation mechanism, with softening up to and above 800 °C (1472 °F). C70250, age harden by precipitating the Ni2Si
associated higher work hardening. Beyond More detailed information on oxide-dispersion- intermetallic phase. Each of these alloys,
40% cold work in these richer alloys, stacking strengthened copper alloys is found in the article including the beryllium-coppers, can be ther-
faults, shear banding, and deformation twinning “Powder Metallurgy Copper and Copper momechanically processed to provide unique
become important deformation mechanisms that, Alloys” in this Handbook. combinations of strength, formability, electri-
beyond 90% cold work, lead to the “brass” or Precipitation Hardening. Age-hardening cal conductivity, softening resistance, and
“alloy” type of crystallographic deformation tex- mechanisms are used in those few but important stress-relaxation resistance.
ture and accompanying anisotropy of properties. copper systems that offer a decreasing solubility Spinodal Hardening. Alloys in the ternary
Figure 4 shows the variation in tensile properties for hardening phases. The beryllium-copper sys- Cu-Ni-Sn system, which lie in the range of Cu-
with cold working of an annealed Cu-30Zn alloy tem offers a series of wrought and cast age-hard- 4Ni-4Sn to Cu-15Ni-8Sn, exhibit the phenom-

Fig. 5 Phase diagrams for beryllium-copper alloys. (a) Binary composition for high-strength alloys such as C17200. (b) Pseudobinary composition for C17510, a high-conductivity alloy
enon known as spinodal decomposition. A • Cakes established for both electrorefined and elec-
number of commercial alloys have been devel- • Ingots trowon cathodes by various international trading
oped, the most important of which are C72700 centers and standards organizations (see, for
and C72900. Wire Mill Products are destined for use as example, ASTM B 115, “Specification for
Spinodal decomposition is similar to an age- electrical conductors. Starting with wire rod, Electrolytic Cathode Copper”).
hardening reaction and involves quenching and these mills cold draw the material (with neces- Most copper cathodes are sold for wire and
subsequent heat treatment, but instead of pre- sary anneals) to final dimensions through a cable production. They are continuously cast
cipitates forming by a conventional nucleation series of dies. The individual wires can be into wire rod as a precursor to wire drawing.
and growth mechanism, regular variations in stranded and normally are insulated before being They are also cast into billets, cakes, or ingots as
composition occur in the lattice with an gathered into cable assemblies. pure copper or alloyed with other metals.
extremely fine spacing between them. The two Brass Mill Products. Brass mills melt and Wire rods are round, hexagonal, or octagonal
constituents have the same crystal structure but alloy feedstock to make sheet, strip, plate, foil, sections about 8 mm ( 516 in.) in diameter that
different lattice parameters. The strain harden- tube, pipe, rod, bar, mechanical wire, forgings, and are furnished in coils (Fig. 7) or straight lengths.
ing produced leads to particularly good extrusions. Less than half of the copper input to Both copper producers and wire mills produce
mechanical properties, and no distortion occurs brass mills is refined; the rest is scrap. Fabricating continuously cast wire rod. Continuously cast
during the heat treatment. processes such as hot rolling, cold rolling, extru- wire rod meets the requirements of ASTM B 49,
sion, and drawing are employed to convert the “Specification for Rod Drawing Stock for
melted and cast feedstock into mill products. Electrical Purposes.”
Classification of Wrought Continuously cast wire rod has completely
Copper Products Refinery Shapes replaced wire bar, which was the traditional
starting material for wire production. The main
Copper is brought into the market initially in advantage of continuous cast wire rod is that it is
Wrought copper and copper alloy products available in coils whose size is limited only by
are broadly classified as refinery shapes, wire the form of cathodes, which are the end result of
the extraction and electrolytic refining process the capacity of the coil handling equipment
mill products, and brass mill products.
(see the article “The Copper Industry: either in the rod or the wire drawing plant. By
Refinery shapes are the products of primary
Occurrence, Recovery, and Consumption” in contrast, wire bar is limited to about 115 kg (250
copper producers. Along with recycled and re-
this Handbook). The cathodes are then convert- lb), requiring frequent butt welding of the small
refined scrap, they are the starting materials for
ed into wire rod, billets, cakes, or ingots. These wire coils to produce larger coil sizes. Coils as
the production of wrought (wire mill and brass
mill) products, foundry products, and powder refinery shapes are further processed in wire large as 4545 kg (10,000 lb) can be produced by
products (foundry and powder products are mills and brass mills. continuously casting wire rod.
described elsewhere in this Handbook). Refinery Cathodes are thick sheets (Fig. 6) of pure Billets are continuously cast 9 m (30 ft) long
shapes include: copper (99.98% Cu) that weigh between 90 logs about 200 mm (8 in.) in diameter of pure
and 155 kg (200 and 342 lb). Sizes range copper or of copper alloys. Billets are sawed into
• Cathodes between 960 and 1240 mm long by 767 to 925 shorter lengths that are extruded and then drawn
• Wire rod mm wide and 4 to 16 mm thick (roughly 3 ft by as tube, rod, and bar stock of various sizes and
• Billets 4 ft by 14 in.). Compositional limits have been shapes. Rod stock is used for forging.
Fig. 7 Copper wire rod—the principal intermediate product for wire manufacture
Classification of Copper Conductors 40(a) Cu-Sn, Cu-Sn-Cd

55(a) Cu-Sn-Cd
Copper metals used for electrical conductors 65(a) Cu-Sn, Cu-Sn-Cd
fall into three general categories: high-conduc- 80(a) Cu-Cd
tivity coppers, high-copper alloys, and electri- 85 Cu-Cd
cal bronzes. (a) Normally used for trolley-wire applications in either a round or
High-conductivity coppers are covered by grooved cross-sectional configuration, as set forth in ASTM B 9
ASTM B 5, “Specification for Electrolytic
Tough Pitch Copper Refinery Shapes,” and
ASTM B 170, “Specification for Oxygen-Free The compositions of these alloys must be
Electrolytic Copper—Refinery Shapes.” within the total limits prescribed in the follow-
Oxygen-free copper employs special manufac- ing table, and no alloy may contain more than
Fig. 6 Copper cathodes, as produced in an electrolytic
turing techniques to avoid hydrogen embrittle- the allowed maximum of any constituent other
refinery
ment when exposed to elevated temperatures than copper.
Cakes. Continuous or semicontinuous casting and reducing atmospheres.
is used to produce cast cake for conversion into High-copper alloys are specialty coppers Element
Composition limit,
% max
plate, sheet, strip, and foil by hot or cold rolling. produced by adding minimal amounts of hard-
ening agents (such as chromium, cadmium Fe 0.75
Cake has a slablike configuration—about 8.5 m Mn 0.75
(28 ft) long and 200 mm (8 in.) thick. zirconium, or beryllium). These are used in
Cd 1.50
Ingots are bricks of pure copper or copper applications where resistance to thermal soft- Si 3.00
alloys that are chill cast in metallic molds. They ening is required. Al 3.50
may be used by mills for alloying with other Electrical Bronzes. A series of bronzes has Sn 5.00
metals or used by foundries for casting. been developed for use as conductors; these Zn 10.50
Requirements for ingots are outlined in ASTM B alloys are covered by ASTM B 105, Cu 89.00 min
30, “Specification for Copper-Base Alloys in “Specification for Hard-Drawn Copper Alloy Sum of above elements 99.50 min
Ingot Form.” Wires for Electric Conductors.” These bronzes

are intended to provide better corrosion resist-
ance and higher tensile strengths than stan- Classification of Wire and Cable
Wire Mill Products dard conductor coppers. There are nine con-
ductor bronzes, designated 8.5 to 85 in Round Wire. Standard nominal diameters
Wire mills produce electrical conductors. accordance with their electrical conductivi- and cross-sectional areas of solid round copper
Products include round and flat wire, stranded ties, as given below: wires used as electrical conductors are pre-
wire, and coated wire. Wires can be in the form scribed in ASTM B 258, “Specification for
ASTM B 105 alloy designation Alternative alloy types
of single filaments, multiple filaments, or cable Standard Nominal Diameters and Cross-
(a group of insulated conductors twisted, or 8.5 Cu-Si-Fe, Cu-Si-Mn, Sectional Areas of AWG Sizes of Solid Round
Cu-Si-Zn, Cu-Si-Sn-Fe,
stranded, together). Major markets include Cu-Si-Sn-Zn
Wires Used as Electrical Conductors.” Wire
building wire and cable, magnet wire, telecom- 13 Cu-Al-Sn, Cu-Al-Si-Sn, sizes have almost always been designated in the
munications wire and cable, power cable, auto- Cu-Si-Sn American Wire Gauge (AWG) system. This sys-
motive wire and cable, and other wire and cable 15 Cu-Al-Si, Cu-Al-Sn, tem is based on fixed diameters for two wire
products such as apparatus wire, cord sets, and Cu-Al-Si-Sn, Cu-Si-Sn sizes (4/0 and 36 AWG, respectively) with a geo-
20 Cu-Sn metric progression of wire diameters for the 38
electronic wire and cable. See the article
30 Cu-Sn, Cu-Zn-Sn
“Applications” in this Handbook for additional intermediate gages and for gages smaller than 36
(continued) AWG (see Table 7). This is an inverse series in
information on markets for wire and cable.
which a higher number denotes a smaller wire cally laid wires, all layers having a common lay conventionally cast wirebar involves scalping
diameter. Each increase of one AWG number is length and direction. This type of wire some- the top surface of cast wirebar and subsequent-
approximately equivalent to a 20.7% reduction times is referred to as “smooth bunch.” The lay- ly die shaving the hot-rolled bar.
in cross-sectional area. ers usually have a left-hand lay. Wiredrawing. Single-die machines called
ASTM B 3, “Specification for Soft or Rope-lay stranded wire and cable are com- bull blocks are used for drawing special heavy
Annealed Copper Wire,” specifies soft (or posed of a stranded member (or members) as a sections such as trolley wire. Drawing speeds
annealed) copper wire with a maximum volu- central core, around which are laid one or more range from about 1 to 2.5 m/s (200 to 500
metric resistivity of 0.017241 mm2/m at 20 helical layers of similar stranded members. The ft/min). Tallow is generally used as the lubri-
°C (68 °F), which corresponds to a maximum members may be concentric or bunch stranded. cant, and the wire is drawn through hardened
weight-basis resistivity of 875.20 lb/mile2 ASTM B 173 and B 172 establish five classes of steel or tungsten carbide dies. In some
when the density is 8.89 g/cm3. This type of rope-lay stranded conductors: classes G and H, instances, multiple-draft tandem bull blocks (in
copper is used as the IACS for electrical con- which have concentric members; and classes I, sets of 3 or 5 passes) are used instead of single-
ductivity. Table 7 lists some properties of K, and M, which have bunched members. draft machines.
annealed copper wire for various AWG sizes. Construction details are shown in Tables 10 and Tandem drawing machines having 10 to 12
Tensile strengths are not specified for annealed 11. These cables are normally used to make dies for each machine are used for breakdown of
copper wire. large, flexible conductors for portable service, hot-rolled or continuous-cast copper rod. The
Hard-drawn copper wire and hard-drawn such as mining cable or apparatus cable. rod is reduced in diameter from 8.3 mm (0.325
copper alloy wire for electrical purposes are Bunch stranded wire is composed of any in.) to about 2 mm (0.08 in.) by drawing it
specified in ASTM B 1 and B 105, respective- number of wires twisted together in the same through dies at speeds up to 25 m/s (5000
ly. ASTM B 1, “Specification for Hard-Drawn direction without regard to geometric arrange- ft/min). The drawing machine operates continu-
Copper Wire,” specifies hard-drawn round ment of the individual strands. ASTM B 174 ously; the operator merely welds the end of each
wire that has been reduced at least four AWG provides for five classes (I, J, K, L, and M); rod coil to the start of the next coil.
numbers (60% reduction in area). Table 8 lists these conductors are commonly used in flexible Intermediate and fine wires are drawn on
the mechanical properties of hard-drawn cop- cords, hookup wires, and special flexible weld- smaller machines that have 12 to 20 or more dies
per wire and several hard-drawn copper alloy ing conductors. Typical construction details are each. The wire is reduced in steps of 20 to 25%
wires. The electrical resistivity and conductiv- given in Table 12. in cross-sectional area. Intermediate machines
ity of these hard-drawn wires at 20 °C (68 °F) Tin-Coated Wire. Solid and stranded wires can produce wire as small as 0.5 mm (0.020 in.)
are as follows: are available with tin coatings. These are manu- in diameter, and fine wire machines can produce
factured to the latest revisions of ASTM B 33, wire in diameters from 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) to less
Conductivity
which covers soft or annealed tinned-copper than 0.25 mm (0.010 in.). Drawing speeds are
Maximum resistivity
(volume wires, and B 246, which covers hard-drawn or typically 25 to 30 m/s (5000 to 6000 ft/min) and
Alloy basis), medium-hard-drawn tinned-copper wires. may be even higher.
(hard drawn) · mm2/m · lb/mile2 %IACS
Characteristics of tinned, round, solid wire are All drawing is performed with a copious sup-
Copper ply of lubricant to cool the wire and prevent
(ASTM B 1)
given in Table 13.
wire with rapid die wear. Traditional lubricants are soap
diameter of: Fabrication of Wire Rod and fat emulsions, which are fed to all machines
8.25 to 11.68 mm 0.017745 900.77 97.16 from a central reservoir. Breakdown of rod usu-
(0.325 to 0.460 in.) ally requires a lubricant concentration of about
1.02 to 8.25mm 0.017930 910.15 96.16
Continuous cast wire rod is generally rolled to
(0.0403 to 0.325 in.) intermediate before it is processed into wire. 7%; drawing of intermediate and fine wires,
Copper alloys Processing steps include cleaning, wiredrawing, concentrations of 2 to 3%. Synthetic lubricants
(ASTM B 105): annealing, coating, stranding, and/or insulating are becoming more widely accepted.
C65100 0.20284 10,169.0 8.5 Drawn wire is collected on reels or stem
C51000 0.13263 6,649.0 13
and jacketing.
C50700 0.057471 2,917.3 30 Preparation of Rod. In order to provide a packs, depending on the next operation. Fine
C16500 0.031348 1,591.3 55 wire of good surface quality, it is necessary to wire is collected on reels carrying as little as 4.5
C19600 0.023299 1,182.7 74 have clean wire rod with a smooth, oxide-free kg (10 lb); large-diameter wire, on stem packs
C16200 0.021552 1,094.0 80 carrying up to 450 kg (1000 lb). To ensure con-
surface. Conventional hot-rolled rod must be
cleaned in a separate operation, but with the tinuous operation, many drawing machines are
Square and Rectangular Wire. ASTM B 48 advent of continuous casting, which provides equipped with dual take-up systems. When one
specifies soft (annealed) square and rectangular better surface quality, a separate cleaning opera- reel is filled, the machine automatically flips the
copper wire. tion is not required. Instead, the rod passes wire onto an adjacent empty reel and simultane-
Stranded wire is normally used in electrical through a cleaning station as it exits from the ously cuts the wire. This permits the operator to
applications where some degree of flexing is rolling mill. unload the full reel and replace it with an empty
encountered either in service or during installa- The standard method for cleaning copper one without stopping the wiredrawing operation.
tion. In order of increasing flexibility, the com- wire rod is pickling in hot 20% sulfuric acid Production of Flat or Rectangular Wire.
mon forms of stranded wire are: concentric lay, followed by rinsing in water. When fine wire is Depending on size and quantity, flat or rectan-
unilay, rope lay, and bunched. being produced, it is necessary to provide rod gular wire is drawn on bull block machines or
Concentric-lay stranded wire and cable are of even better surface quality. This can be Turk’s-head machines, or is rolled on tandem
composed of a central wire surrounded by one or achieved in a number of ways. One is by open- rolling mills with horizontal and vertical rolls.
more layers of helically laid wires, with the direc- flame annealing of cold-drawn rod—that is, Larger quantities are produced by rolling, small-
tion of lay reversed in successive layers, and with heating to 700 °C (1300 °F) in an oxidizing er quantities by drawing.
the length of lay increased for each successive atmosphere. This eliminates shallow disconti- Annealing. Wiredrawing, like any other cold-
layer. The outer layer usually has a left-hand lay. nuities. A more common practice, especially working operation, increases tensile strength
ASTM B 8 establishes five classes of concen- for fine magnet-wire applications, is die shav- and reduces ductility of copper. Although it is
tric-lay stranded wire and cable, from AA (the ing, where rod is drawn through a circular cut- possible to cold work copper up to 99% reduc-
coarsest) to D (the finest). Details of concentric- ting die made of steel or carbide to remove tion in area, copper wire usually is annealed
lay constructions are given in Table 9. approximately 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) from the after 90% reduction.
Unilay stranded wire is composed of a central entire surface of the rod. A further refinement In some plants, electrical-resistance heating
core surrounded by more than one layer of heli- of this cleaning operation for rod made from methods are used to fully anneal copper wire as it
exits from the drawing machines. Wire coming similar protective atmosphere. Annealing tem- • Tin, ASTM B 33
directly from drawing passes over suitably spaced peratures range from 400 to 600 °C (750 to
Coatings are applied to:
contact pulleys that carry the electrical current 1100 °F) depending chiefly on wire diameter
necessary to heat the wire above its recrystalliza- and reel weight. • Retain solderability for hookup-wire
tion temperature in less than a second. Wire Coating. Four basic coatings are used applications
In plants where batch annealing is practiced, on copper conductors for electrical applications: • Provide a barrier between the copper and insu-
drawn wire is treated either in a continuous tun- lation materials, such as rubber, that would
nel furnace, where reels travel through a neutral • Lead, or lead alloy (80Pb-20Sn), ASTM B 189 react with the copper and adhere to it (thus
or slightly reducing atmosphere and are annealed • Nickel, ASTM B 355 making it difficult to strip insulation from the
during transit, or in batch bell furnaces under a • Silver, ASTM B 298 wire to make an electrical connection)
Table 7 Sizes of round wire in the American Wire Gauge (AWG) system and the properties of solid annealed copper wire (ASTM B 3)
Annealed copper (ASTM B 3)
Conductor diameter Conductor area at 20 °C (68 °F) Net weight (a)
Nominal resistance(c),
Conductor size, AWG mm in. mm2 circular mils kg/km lb/1000 ft Elongation(b), % /1000 ft (305 m)
4/0 11.684 0.4600 107.0 211,600 953.2 640.5 35 0.0490

3/0 10.404 0.4096 85.0 167,800 755.7 507.8 35 0.06180
2/0 9.266 0.3648 67.4 133,100 599.4 402.8 35 0.07792
1/0 8.252 0.3249 53.5 105,600 475.5 319.5 35 0.09821
1 7.348 0.2893 42.4 83,690 377.0 253.3 30 0.1239
2 6.543 0.2576 33.6 66,360 299.0 200.9 30 0.1563
3 5.827 0.2294 26.7 52,620 237.1 159.3 30 0.1971
4 5.189 0.2043 21.2 41,740 188.0 126.3 30 0.2485
5 4.620 0.1819 16.8 33,090 149.1 100.2 30 0.3134
6 4.115 0.1620 13.3 26,240 118.2 79.44 30 0.3952
7 3.665 0.1443 10.5 20,820 93.8 63.03 30 0.4981
8 3.264 0.1285 8.37 16,510 74.4 49.98 30 0.6281
9 2.906 0.1144 6.63 13,090 59.0 39.62 30 0.7923
10 2.588 0.1019 5.26 10,380 46.8 31.43 25 0.9992
11 2.304 0.0907 4.17 8,230 37.1 24.9 25 1.26
12 2.052 0.0808 3.31 6,530 29.5 19.8 25 1.59
13 1.829 0.0720 2.63 5,180 23.4 15.7 25 2.00
14 1.628 0.0641 2.08 4,110 18.5 12.4 25 2.52
15 1.450 0.0571 1.65 3,260 14.7 9.87 25 3.18
16 1.290 0.0508 1.31 2,580 11.6 7.81 25 4.02
17 1.151 0.0453 1.04 2,050 9.24 6.21 25 5.06
18 1.024 0.0403 0.823 1,620 7.32 4.92 25 6.40
19 0.912 0.0359 0.654 1,290 5.80 3.90 25 8.04
20 0.813 0.0320 0.517 1,020 4.61 3.10 25 10.2
21 0.724 0.0285 0.411 812 3.66 2.46 25 12.8
22 0.643 0.0253 0.324 640 2.89 1.94 25 16.2
23 0.574 0.0226 0.259 511 2.31 1.55 25 20.3
24 0.511 0.0201 0.205 404 1.82 1.22 20 25.7
25 0.455 0.0179 0.162 320 1.44 0.970 20 32.4
26 0.404 0.0159 0.128 253 1.14 0.765 20 41.0
27 0.361 0.0142 0.102 202 0.908 0.610 20 51.4
28 0.320 0.0126 0.081 159 0.716 0.481 20 65.2
29 0.287 0.0113 0.065 128 0.576 0.387 20 81.0
30 0.254 0.0100 0.051 100 0.451 0.303 15 104.0
31 0.226 0.0089 0.040 79.2 0.357 0.240 15 131.0
32 0.203 0.0080 0.032 64.0 0.289 0.194 15 162.0
33 0.180 0.0071 0.026 50.4 0.228 0.153 15 206.0
34 0.160 0.0063 0.020 39.7 0.179 0.120 15 261.0
35 0.142 0.0056 0.016 31.4 0.141 0.0949 15 330.0
36 0.127 0.0050 0.013 25.0 0.113 0.0757 15 415.0
37 0.114 0.0045 0.010 20.2 0.0912 0.0613 15 513.0
38 0.102 0.0040 0.0081 16.0 0.0720 0.0484 15 648.0
39 0.089 0.0035 0.0062 12.2 0.0552 0.0371 15 850.0
40 0.079 0.0031 0.0049 9.61 0.0433 0.0291 15 1,079.0
41 0.071 0.0028 0.0040 7.84 0.0353 0.0237 15(d) 1,323.0
42 0.0635 0.0025 0.0032 6.25 0.0281 0.0189 15(d) 1,659.0
43 0.056 0.0022 0.0023 4.48 0.0219 0.0147 15(d) 2,143.0
44 0.050 0.0020 0.0020 4.00 0.0180 0.0121 15(d) 2,593.0
45 0.045 0.00176 0.0016 3.10 0.0140 0.00938 (d) 3,345.6
46 0.040 0.00157 0.00125 2.46 0.0111 0.00745 (d) 4,216.0
47 0.036 0.00140 0.00099 1.96 0.00882 0.00593 (d) 5,291.6
48 0.031 0.00124 0.00078 1.54 0.00673 0.00466 (d) 6,734.7
49 0.028 0.00111 0.00062 1.23 0.00554 0.00372 (d) 8,432.1
50 0.025 0.00099 0.00050 0.980 0.00442 0.00297 (d) 10,583
51 0.022 0.00088 0.00039 0.774 0.00348 0.00234 (d) 13,400
52 0.020 0.00078 0.00031 0.608 0.00274 0.00184 (d) 17,058
53 0.018 0.00070 0.00025 0.490 0.00220 0.00148 (d) 21,166
54 0.016 0.00062 0.00019 0.384 0.00173 0.00116 (d) 27,009
55 0.014 0.00055 0.00015 0.302 0.00136 0.000914 (d) 34,342
56 0.012 0.00049 0.00012 0.240 0.00108 0.000726 (d) 43,214
(a) Based on a density of 8.89 g/cm3 at 20 °C (68 °F). (b) Minimum elongation in 250 mm (10 in.). (c) Based on a resistivity value of 0.017241 · mm2/m (875 · 20 · lb/mile2), which is the resistivity for the International
Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) of electrical conductivity. (d) Elongation not specified in ASTM B 3
Table 8 Tensile properties of hard-drawn copper and copper alloy round wire
Hard-drawn copper wire (ASTM B 1)
Minimum tensile strength of hard-drawn copper alloy wire (ASTM B 105) ASTM B 105
Nominal tensile Nominal breaking
Nominal minimum
strength(a) strength C65100 C51000 C50700 C16500 C19600 C16200
Conductor elongation(b) elongation(b),
size, AWG MPa ksi % N lbf MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi %
4/0 340 49.0 3.8 36,220 8,143 … … … … … … … … … … … … …

3/0 350 51.0 3.3 29,900 6,720 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
2/0 365 52.8 2.8 24,550 5,519 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
1/0 375 54.5 2.4 20,095 4,518 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
1 385 56.1 2.2 17,290 3,888 672 97.5 707 102.5 510 74.0 524 76.0 510 74.0 496 72.0 2.2
2 395 57.6 2.0 13,350 3,002 716 103.8 750 108.8 552 80.0 536 77.8 520 75.5 507 73.5 2.0
3 405 59 1.8 10,850 2,439 741 107.5 776 112.5 586 85.0 547 79.3 534 77.5 517 75.0 1.8
4 415 60.1 1.7 8,762 1,970 760 110.2 794 115.2 614 89.0 558 80.9 545 79.0 527 76.4 1.6
5 420 61.2 1.6 7,072 1,590 774 112.2 808 117.2 638 92.5 568 82.4 552 80.0 534 77.5 1.5
6 430 62.1 1.4 5,693 1,280 786 114.0 820 119.0 654 94.8 579 84.0 558 81.0 542 78.6 1.4
7 435 63 1.3 4,580 1,030 795 115.3 829 120.3 665 96.5 590 85.5 568 82.4 550 79.8 1.3
8 440 63.7 1.3 3,674 826.1 804 116.6 836 121.6 675 97.9 600 87.0 576 83.5 558 81.0 1.3
9 445 64.3 1.2 2,940 660.9 812 117.8 847 122.8 683 99.0 610 88.5 583 84.6 567 82.2 1.2
10 445 64.9 1.2 2,354 529.3 820 118.9 854 123.9 690 100.1 620 90.0 590 85.5 575 83.4 1.2
11 450 65.4 1.1 1,880 423 826 119.8 860 124.8 698 101.2 630 91.3 597 86.6 583 84.6 1.2
12 455 65.7 1.1 1,500 337 832 120.6 866 125.6 705 102.2 638 92.6 605 87.7 591 85.7 1.1
13 455 65.9 1.1 1,190 268 836 121.2 870 126.2 710 103.0 647 93.8 612 88.8 598 86.8 1.1
14 455 66.2 1.0 952 214 839 121.7 874 126.7 715 103.7 655 95.0 619 89.8 605 87.8 1.1
15 460 66.4 1.0 756 170 843 122.2 877 127.2 720 104.4 662 96.0 625 90.6 612 88.7 1.0
16 460 66.6 1.0 600 135 845 122.5 879 127.5 725 105.2 669 97.0 634 92.0 617 89.5 1.0
17 460 66.8 1.0 480 108 847 122.8 881 127.8 730 105.9 676 98.0 640 92.8 623 90.3 1.0
18 460 67.0 1.0 380 85.5 848 123.0 883 128.0 735 106.6 680 98.6 645 93.5 627 91.0 0.9
19 463 67.2 … 302 68.0 849 123.2 884 128.2 740 107.3 683 99.0 648 94.0 632 91.6 0.9
20 465 67.4 … 241 54.2 852 123.5 886 128.5 745 108.0 686 99.5 652 94.5 636 92.2 0.9
21 467 67.7 … 192 43.2 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
22 468 67.9 … 152 34.1 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
23 470 68.1 … 121 27.3 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
24 471 68.3 … 96.5 21.7 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
25 473 68.6 … 77.0 17.3 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
26 474 68.8 … 60.9 13.7 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
27 476 69.0 … 48.5 10.9 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
28 478 69.3 … 38.4 8.64 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
29 479 69.4 … 31.0 6.96 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
30 481 69.7 … 24.3 5.47 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
31 482 69.9 … 19.3 4.35 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
32 484 70.2 … 15.7 3.53 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
33 485 70.4 … 12.4 2.79 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
34 487 70.6 … 9.79 2.20 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
35 489 70.9 … 7.78 1.75 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
36 490 71.1 … 6.23 1.40 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
37 492 71.3 … 5.03 1.13 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
38 493 71.5 … 4.39 0.898 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
39 495 71.8 … 3.07 0.691 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
40–44 496 72.0 … 2.42– 0.543– … … … … … … … … … … … … …
1.00 0.226
(a) Tensile strengths cannot always be met if wire is drawn into coils of less than 480 mm (19 in.). (b) Elongation in 250 mm (10 in.)
• Prevent oxidation of the copper during high- degrees of flexibility; within the last three cate- strand passes through a closing die to form the
temperature service gories, a larger number of finer wires provides final bunch configuration. The finished strand
greater flexibility. is wound onto a reel that also remains within
Tin-lead alloy coatings and pure tin coatings Stranded copper wire and cable are made on the machine.
are the most common; nickel and silver are used machines known as bunchers or stranders. Supply reels in conventional stranders for
for specialty and high-temperature applications. Conventional bunchers are used for stranding large-diameter wire are fixed onto a rotating
Copper wire can be coated by hot dipping in a small-diameter wires (34 AWG up to 10 frame within the equipment and revolve about
molten metal bath, electroplating, or cladding. AWG). Individual wires are payed off reels the axis of the finished conductor. There are two
With the advent of continuous processes, elec- located alongside the equipment and are fed basic types of machines. In one, known as a
troplating has become the dominant process, over flyer arms that rotate about the take-up rigid-frame strander, individual supply reels are
especially because it can be done “on line” fol- reel to twist the wires. The rotational speed of mounted in such a way that each wire receives a
lowing the wiredrawing operation. the arm relative to the take-up speed controls full twist for every revolution of the strander. In
Stranded wire is produced by twisting or the length of lay in the bunch. For small, the other, known as a planetary strander, the
braiding several wires together to provide a flex- portable, flexible cables, individual wires are wire receives no twist as the frame rotates.
ible cable. (For a description of various strand usually 30 to 34 AWG, and there may be as These types of stranders are comprised of
constructions, see the section of this article enti- many as 150 wires in each cable. multiple bays, with the first bay carrying six
tled “Classification of Wire and Cable.”) A tubular buncher has up to 18 wire-payoff reels and subsequent bays carrying increasing
Different degrees of flexibility for a given cur- reels mounted inside the unit. Wire is taken off multiples of six. The core wire in the center of
rent-carrying capacity can be achieved by vary- each reel while it remains in a horizontal plane, the strand is payed off externally. It passes
ing the number, size, and arrangement of indi- is threaded along a tubular barrel, and is twist- through the machine center and individual
vidual wires. Solid wire, concentric strand, rope ed together with other wires by a rotating wires are laid over it. In this manner, strands
strand, and bunched strand provide increasing action of the barrel. At the take-up end, the with up to 127 wires are produced in one or
Table 9 Characteristics of concentric-lay stranded copper conductors specified in ASTM B 8

Class AA Class A Class B Class C Class D
Conductor Nominal Nominal Diameter of Diameter of Diameter of Diameter of Diameter of
size, circular weight (a), resistance(b), Number individual Number individual Number individual Number individual Number individual
mils or AWG lb/1000 ft /1000 ft(a) of wires wires(a), mils of wires wires(a), mils of wires wires(a), mils of wires wires(a), mils of wires wires(a), mils
5,000,000 15,890 0.002 178 … … 169 172.0 217 151.8 271 135.8 271 135.8
4,500,000 14,300 0.002 420 … … 169 163.2 217 144.0 271 128.9 271 128.9
4,000,000 12,590 0.002 696 … … 169 153.8 217 135.8 271 121.5 271 121.5
3,500,000 11,020 0.003 082 … … 127 166.0 169 143.9 217 127.0 271 113.6
3,000,000 9,353 0.003 561 … … 127 153.7 169 133.2 217 117.6 271 105.2
2,500,000 7,794 0.004 278 … … 91 165.7 127 140.3 169 121.6 217 107.3
2,000,000 6,175 0.005 289 … … 91 148.2 127 125.5 169 108.8 217 96.0
1,900,000 5,886 0.005 568 … … 91 144.5 127 122.3 169 106.0 217 93.6
1,800,000 5,558 0.005 877 … … 91 140.6 127 119.1 169 103.2 217 91.1
1,750,000 6,403 0.006 045 … … 91 138.7 127 117.4 169 101.8 217 89.8
1,700,000 5,249 0.006 223 … … 91 136.7 127 115.7 169 100.3 217 88.5
1,600,000 4,940 0.006 612 … … 91 132.6 127 112.2 169 97.3 217 85.9
1,500,000 4,631 0.007 052 … … 61 156.6 91 128.4 127 108.7 169 94.2
1,400,000 4,323 0.007 556 … … 61 151.5 91 124.0 127 105.0 169 91.0
1,300,000 4,014 0.008 137 … … 61 146.0 91 119.5 127 101.2 169 87.7
1,250,000 3,859 0.008 463 … … 61 143.1 91 117.2 127 99.2 169 86.0
1,200,000 3,705 0.008 815 … … 61 140.3 91 114.8 127 97.2 169 84.3
1,100,000 3,396 0.009 617 … … 61 134.3 91 109.9 127 93.1 169 80.7
1,000,000 3,088 0.010 88 37 164.4 61 128.0 61 128.0 91 104.8 127 88.7
900,000 2,779 0.011 75 37 156.0 61 121.5 61 121.5 91 99.4 127 84.2
800,000 2,470 0.013 22 37 147.0 61 114.5 61 114.5 91 93.8 127 79.4
750,000 2,316 0.014 10 37 142.4 61 110.9 61 110.9 91 90.8 127 76.8
700,000 2,161 0.015 11 37 137.5 61 107.1 61 107.1 91 87.7 127 74.2
650,000 2,007 0.016 27 37 132.5 61 103.2 61 103.2 91 84.5 127 71.5
600,000 1,853 0.017 63 37 127.3 37 127.3 61 99.2 91 81.2 127 68.7
550,000 1,698 0.019 23 37 121.9 37 121.9 61 95.0 91 77.7 127 65.8
500,000 1,544 0.021 16 19 162.2 37 116.2 37 116.2 61 90.5 91 74.1
450,000 1,389 0.023 51 19 153.9 37 110.3 37 110.3 61 85.9 91 70.3
400,000 1,235 0.026 45 19 145.1 19 145.1 37 104.0 61 81.0 91 66.3
350,000 1,081 0.030 22 12 170.8 19 135.7 37 97.3 61 75.7 91 62.0
300,000 926.3 0.035 26 12 158.1 19 125.7 37 90.0 61 70.1 91 57.4
250,000 771.9 0.042 31 12 144.3 19 114.6 37 82.2 61 64.0 91 52.4
4/0 653.3 0.049 99 7 173.9 7 173.9 19 105.5 37 75.6 61 58.9
3/0 518.1 0.063 04 7 154.8 7 154.8 19 94.0 37 67.3 61 52.4
2/0 410.9 0.079 48 7 137.9 7 137.9 19 83.7 37 60.0 61 46.7
1/0 326.0 0.100 2 7 122.8 7 122.8 19 74.5 37 53.4 … …
1 258.4 0.126 4 3 167.0 7 109.3 19 66.4 37 47.6 … …
2 204.9 0.159 4 3 148.7 7 97.4 7 57.4 19 59.1 … …
3 162.5 0.201 0 3 132.5 7 86.7 7 86.7 19 52.6 … …
4 128.9 0.253 4 3 118.0 7 77.2 7 77.2 19 48.9 … …
5 102.2 0.319 7 … … … … 7 68.8 19 41.7 … …
6 81.05 0.403 1 … … … … 7 61.2 19 37.2 … …
7 64.28 0.508 1 … … … … 7 54.5 19 33.1 … …
8 50.98 0.640 7 … … … … 7 48.6 19 29.5 … …
9 40.42 0.808 1 … … … … 7 43.2 19 28.2 … …
(a) Units used in ASTM B 8 specification. (b) Uncoated wire
two passes through the machine, depending on used, but this has been supplanted by synthetics properties, better aging characteristics, and
its capacity for stranding individual wires. such as butyl rubber and EPR. Synthetic rubbers freedom from environmental stress cracking.
Normally, hard-drawn copper is stranded on are used wherever good flexibility must be Special compounding can provide flame resist-
a planetary machine so that the strand will not maintained, such as in welding or mining cable. ance in XLPE. Typical uses include building
be as springy and will tend to stay bunched Many varieties of PVC are made, including wire, control cables, and power cables. The
rather than spring open when it is cut off. The several that are flame resistant. PVC has good usual maximum sustained operating tempera-
finished product is wound onto a power-driven dielectric strength and flexibility, and is one of ture is 90 °C (200 °F).
external reel that maintains a prescribed the least expensive conventional insulating and PTFE and FEP are used to insulate jet aircraft
amount of tension on the stranded wire. jacketing materials. It is used mainly for com- wire, electronic equipment wire, and specialty
munication wire, control cable, building wire, control cables, where heat resistance, solvent
Insulation and Jacketing and low-voltage power cables. PVC insulation resistance, and high reliability are important.
is normally selected for applications requiring These electrical cables can operate at tempera-
Of the three broad categories of insulation— continuous operation at temperatures up to tures up to 250 °C (480 °F).
polymeric, enamel, and paper-and-oil—poly- 75 °C (165 °F). All of the polymeric compounds are applied
meric insulation is the most widely used. Polyethylene, because of its low and stable over copper conductors by hot extrusion. The
Polymeric Insulation. The most common dielectric constant, is specified when better extruders are machines that convert pellets or
polymers are polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyeth- electrical properties are required. It resists abra- powders of thermoplastic polymers into contin-
ylene, ethylene propylene rubber (EPR), silicone sion and solvents. It is used chiefly for hookup uous covers. The insulating compound is loaded
rubber, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and flu- wire, communication wire, and high-voltage into a hopper that feeds into a long, heated
orinated ethylene propylene (FEP). Polyimide cable. Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE), chamber. A continuously revolving screw moves
coatings are used where fire resistance is of which is made by adding organic peroxides to the pellets into the hot zone where the polymer
prime importance, such as in wiring harnesses polyethylene and then vulcanizing the mixture, softens and becomes fluid. At the end of the
for manned space vehicles. Natural rubber was yields better heat resistance, better mechanical chamber, molten compound is forced out
through a small die over the moving conductor, Table 10 Characteristics of rope-lay stranded copper conductors having uncoated or
which also passes through the die opening. As tinned concentric members specified in ASTM B 173
the insulated conductor leaves the extruder it is Class G Class H
water cooled and taken up on reels. Cables jack- Conductor Diameter of Number Net Diameter of Number Net
eted with EPR and XLPE go through a vulcan- sizes, circular individual Number of wires weight(a), individual Number of wires weight(a),
izing chamber prior to cooling to complete the mils or AWG wires(a), mils of ropes each rope lb/1000 ft wires(a), mil of ropess each rope lb/1000 ft
cross-linking process. 5,000,000 65.7 61 19 16,052 53.8 91 19 15,057

Enamel Film Insulation. Film-coated wire, 4,500,000 62.3 61 19 14,434 51.0 91 19 14,429
4,000,000 58.7 61 19 12,814 48.1 91 19 12,835
usually fine magnet wire, is composed of a 3,500,000 55.0 61 19 11,249 45.0 91 19 11,234
metallic conductor coated with a thin, flexible 3,000,000 50.9 61 19 9,635 41.7 91 19 9,647
enamel film. These insulated conductors are 2,500,000 59.6 37 19 8,012 46.4 61 19 8,006
used for electromagnetic coils in electrical 2,000,000 53.3 37 19 6,408 41.5 61 19 6,405
1,900,000 52.0 37 19 6,099 40.5 61 19 6,100
devices and must be capable of withstanding 1,800,000 50.6 37 19 5,775 39.4 61 19 5,773
high breakdown voltages. Temperature ratings 1,750,000 49.9 37 19 5,617 38.9 61 19 5,627
range from 105 to 220 °C (220 to 425 °F), 1,700,000 49.2 37 19 5,460 38.3 61 19 5,455
depending on enamel composition. The most 1,600,000 47.7 37 19 5,132 37.2 61 19 5,146
1,500,000 59.3 61 7 4,772 46.2 37 19 4,815
commonly used enamels are based on polyvinyl 1,400,000 57.3 61 7 4,456 44.6 37 19 4,487
acetals, polyesters, and epoxy resins. 1,300,000 55.2 61 7 4,135 43.0 37 19 4,171
Equipment for enamel coating of wire often is 1,250,000 54.1 61 7 3,972 42.2 37 19 4,017
custom built, but standard lines are available. 1,200,000 53.0 61 7 3,814 41.3 37 19 3,847
1,100,000 50.8 61 7 3,502 39.6 37 19 3,537
Basically, systems are designed to insulate large 1,000,000 48.4 61 7 3,179 37.7 37 19 3,206
numbers of wires simultaneously. Wires are passed 900,000 45.9 61 7 2,859 35.8 37 19 2,891
through an enamel applicator that deposits a con- 800,000 43.3 61 7 2,544 33.7 37 19 2,562
trolled thickness of liquid enamel onto the wire. 750,000 41.9 61 7 2,383 32.7 37 19 2,412
700,000 40.5 61 7 2,226 31.6 37 19 2,252
Then the wire travels through a series of ovens to 650,000 39.0 61 7 2,064 30.4 37 19 2,085
cure the coating, and finished wire is collected on 600,000 37.5 61 7 1,908 29.2 37 19 1,923
spools. In order to build up a heavy coating of 550,000 35.9 61 7 1,749 28.0 37 19 1,768
enamel, it may be necessary to pass wires through 500,000 43.9 37 7 1,579 34.2 61 7 1,587
450,000 41.7 37 7 1,425 32.5 61 7 1,433
the system several times. Some manufacturers have 400,000 39.3 37 7 1,265 30.6 61 7 1,271
used powder-coating methods. These avoid evolu- 350,000 36.8 37 7 1,109 28.6 61 7 1,110
tion of solvents, which is characteristic of curing 300,000 34.0 37 7 947.1 26.5 61 7 953.0
conventional enamels, and thus make it easier for 250,000 31.1 37 7 792.4 24.2 61 7 794.8
4/0 39.9 19 7 666.6 28.6 37 7 670.1
the manufacturer to meet Occupational Safety and 3/0 35.5 19 7 527.7 25.5 37 7 532.7
Health Administration and Environmental 2/0 31.6 19 7 418.1 22.7 37 7 422.2
Protection Agency standards. Electrostatic sprayers, 1/0 28.2 19 7 333.0 20.7 37 7 334.3
fluidized beds, and other experimental devices are 1 25.1 19 7 263.8 18.0 37 7 265.4
2 36.8 7 7 206.9 22.3 19 7 208.2
used to apply the coatings. 3 37.8 7 7 164.4 19.9 19 7 165.8
Paper-and-Oil Insulation. Cellulose is one 4 29.2 7 7 130.3 17.7 19 7 131.2
of the oldest materials for electrical insulation 5 26.0 7 7 103.3 15.8 19 7 104.5
and is still used for certain applications. Oil- 6 23.1 7 7 81.52 14.0 19 7 82.06
impregnated cellulose paper is used to insulate 7 20.6 7 7 64.83 12.5 19 7 65.42
8 18.4 7 7 51.72 11.1 19 7 51.59
high-voltage cables for critical power-distribu- 9 15.3 7 7 40.59 9.9 19 7 41.04
tion applications. The paper, which may be 10 14.6 7 7 32.57 … … … …
applied in tape form, is wound helically 12 11.5 7 7 20.20 … … … …
around the conductors using special machines 14 9.2 7 7 12.93 … … … …
in which six to twelve paper-filled pads are (a) Units used in ASTM B 173
held in a cage that rotates around the cable.
Paper layers are wrapped alternately in oppo-
site directions, free of twist. Paper-wrapped products up to and including approximately Again, the choice of temper depends on the
cables then are placed inside special impreg- 4.8 mm (0.188 in.) thick and over 500 mm (20 application and the degree of deformation
nating tanks to fill the pores in the paper with in.) wide. Strip is defined as any flat product required to manufacture the finished product.
oil and to ensure that all air has been expelled other than flat wire. Thickness follows the Simple electrical springs, for example, may be
from the wrapped cable. range for sheet, although strip is furnished in stamped from hard temper strip, while complex-
The other major use of paper insulation is widths between 32 and 305 mm (1.25 and 12 shaped connectors and lead frames may require
for flat magnet wire. In this application, mag- in.) with drawn or rolled edges. Plate is softer starting material.
net-wire strip (with a width-to-thickness ratio defined as flat product that is more than 4.8 General requirements for wrought copper and
greater than 50 to 1) is helically wrapped with mm (0.188 in.) thick and over 300 mm (12 in.) copper alloy plate, sheet, and strip are covered
one or more layers of overlapping tapes. These wide. Dimensional ranges for flat-rolled prod- by ASTM B 248. Other ASTM specifications for
may be bonded to the conductor with adhe- ucts are given in Table 14. flat-rolled products are listed in Table 15.
sives or varnishes. The insulation provides Flat-rolled coppers are used in the manufac- Copper foil, which is nominally less than
highly reliable mechanical separation under ture of products ranging from roofing sheet to 0.50 mm (0.2 in.), is produced by rolling, elec-
conditions of electrical overload. coinage and electrical components. Product is troplating, or electroless plating. Foil is prima-
supplied in the annealed condition and in a range rily used in the manufacture of printed circuit
of as-rolled tempers. Tempers based on grain boards (see the article “Applications” in this
Flat-Rolled Products size are also available. The choice of grade and Handbook). In general, the rolled foil product
temper depends on the intended application. is used in applications where flexibility is
Flat-rolled brass mill products include sheet, Copper-alloy strip is also manufactured in a required. Typical foil properties are listed in
strip, plate, and foil. Sheets are flat-rolled range of tempers from soft to extra spring. Table 16.
Table 11 Characteristics of rope-lay stranded copper conductor shaving uncoated or tinned bunched members specified in ASTM B 172
Conductor Total Conductor Total
size, circular Class of Construction and number Approximate Net weight, size, circular Class of Construction and number Approximate Net weight,
mils or AWG strand wire size, AWG of wires diameter, in. lb/1000 ft mils or AWG strand wire size, AWG of wires diameter, in. lb/1000 ft
1,000,000 I 19 7 19/24 2,527 1.290 3306 250,000 K 7 7 61/30 2,499 0.638 802
K 37 7 39/30 10,101 1.329 3272 M 19 7 48/34 6,384 0.658 821
M 61 7 59/34 25,193 1.353 3239 4/0 I 19 28/24 532 0.569 683
900,000 I 19 7 17/24 2,261 1.217 2959 K 7 7 43/30 2,107 0.584 676
K 37 7 35/30 9,065 1.255 2936 M 19 7 40/34 5,320 0.598 684
M 61 7 53/34 22,631 1.279 2909 3/0 I 19 22/24 418 0.502 537
800,000 I 19 7 15/24 1,995 1.140 2611 K 7 7 34/30 1,666 0.516 535
K 19 7 60/30 7,980 1.174 2585 M 19 7 32/34 4,256 0.532 547
M 61 7 47/34 20,069 1.200 2580 2/0 I 19 18/24 342 0.452 439
750,000 I 19 7 14/24 1,862 1.099 2437 K 7 7 27/30 1,323 0.457 424
K 19 7 57/30 7,581 1.143 2455 M 19 7 25/34 3,325 0.467 427
M 61 7 44/34 18,788 1.160 2415 1/0 I 19 14/24 266 0.396 342
700,000 I 19 7 13/24 1,729 1.057 2262 K 19 56/30 1,064 0.408 338
K 19 7 52/30 6,916 1.089 2240 M 7 7 54/34 2,646 0.414 337
M 61 7 41/34 17,507 1.117 2251 1 I 7 30/24 210 0.350 267
650,000 I 19 7 12/24 1,596 1.014 2088 K 19 44/30 836 0.359 266
K 19 7 49/30 6,517 1.056 2111 M 7 7 43/34 2,107 0.368 268
M 61 7 38/34 16,226 1.074 2086 2 I 7 23/24 161 0.304 205
600,000 I 7 7 30/24 1,470 0.971 1906 K 19 35/30 665 0.319 211
K 19 7 45/30 5,985 1.010 1938 M 7 7 34/34 1,666 0.325 212
M 61 7 35/34 14,945 1.028 1921 3 I 7 19/24 133 0.275 169
550,000 I 7 7 28/24 1,372 0.936 1779 K 19 28/30 532 0.283 169
K 19 7 41/30 5,453 0.961 1766 M 7 7 27/34 1,323 0.288 168
M 61 7 32/34 13,664 0.981 1757 4 I 7 15/24 105 0.243 134
500,000 I 7 7 25/24 1,225 0.882 1588 K 7 60/30 420 0.250 132
K 19 7 38/30 5,054 0.924 1637 M 19 56/34 1,064 0.257 134
M 37 7 49/34 12,691 0.900 1631 5 I 7 12/24 84 0.216 107
450,000 I 7 7 23/24 1,127 0.845 1461 K 7 48/30 336 0.223 106
K 19 7 34/30 4,522 0.871 1465 M 19 44/34 836 0.226 105
M 37 7 44/34 11,396 0.892 1465 6 I 7 9/24 63 0.186 80
400,000 I 7 7 20/24 980 0.785 1270 K 7 38/30 266 0.197 84
K 19 7 30/30 3,990 0.816 1292 M 19 35/34 665 0.201 84
M 37 7 39/34 10,101 0.837 1298 7 K 7 30/30 210 0.174 66
350,000 I 7 7 18/24 882 0.743 1143 M 19 28/34 532 0.178 67
K 19 7 26/30 3,458 0.757 1120 8 K 7 /30 168 0.155 53
M 37 7 34/34 8,806 0.779 1132 M 7 60/34 420 0.158 53
300,000 I 7 7 15/24 735 0.675 953 9 K 7 19/30 133 0.137 42
K 7 7 61/30 2,989 0.701 959 M 7 48/34 336 0.140 42
M 19 7 57/34 7,581 0.720 975 10 M 7 37/34 259 0.122 33
250,000 I 7 7 13/24 637 0.626 826 12 M 7 24/34 168 0.097 21
Table 12 Characteristics of bunch stranded copper conductors having uncoated or The Manufacture of Sheet and Strip
tinned members specified in ASTM B 174
The manufacture of sheet and strip in the
Number and size Approximate Approximate
Conductor size, AWG Class of strand of wire, AWG diameter, in. weight, lb/1000 ft modern brass mill begins with one of two basic
7 I 52/24 0.168 64.9
casting processes:
8 I 41/24 0.148 51.1
9 I 33/24 0.132 41.2
• Vertical direct-chill (DC) semicontinuous
10 I 26/24 0.117 32.4 casting
J 65/28 0.118 31.9 • Horizontal continuous casting
K 104/30 0.120 32.1
12 J 41/28 0.093 20.1 The vertical DC semicontinuous casting
K 65/30 0.094 20.1 process is used to produce slabs of large cross
L 104/32 0.096 20.6 section, which are subsequently reheated, hot
14 J 26/28 0.073 12.7
K 41/30 0.074 12.7
rolled into heavy gage strip, and coiled. The
L 65/32 0.075 12.8 continuous casting process uses a horizontal
M 104/34 0.076 12.7 mold and casts a thin, rectangular section in
16 J 16/28 0.057 7.84 much longer lengths that are coiled directly
K 26/30 0.058 8.03
L 41/32 0.059 8.10
without hot rolling. The coils, in either case,
M 65/34 0.059 7.97 then have their surfaces milled to remove any
18 J 10/28 0.044 4.90 defects from casting or hot rolling. The next
K 16/30 0.045 4.94 set of operations provides the desired final
L 26/32 0.046 5.14
M 41/34 0.046 5.02
gage and temper by a series of cold-rolling,
20 J 7/28 0.038 3.43 annealing, and cleaning operations. Finally,
K 10/30 0.035 3.09 the sheet or strip may be slit into narrower
L 16/32 0.036 3.16 widths, leveled, edge rolled or otherwise treat-
M 26/34 0.037 3.19
ed, and packaged for shipment.
Hot Rolling of Slabs Table 13 Characteristics of tinned, solid, round copper wire specified in ASTM B 33,
B 246, B 258
The rolling of slab into sheet or strip products Soft (annealed) wire Hard-drawn wire
is performed for reduction in thickness and/or Nominal Minimum Nominal Minimum
grain refinement. The initial rolling of slabs is Net weight, resistance, elongation(a), resistance, breaking
Conductor size, AWG lb/1000 ft V/1000 ft % /1000 ft strength, lbf
for grain refinement as well as to begin reduc-
tion in thickness. For copper and copper alloys 2 200.9 0.1609 25 … …
3 159.3 0.2028 25 … …
that can be hot worked, the quickest and most 4 126.3 0.2557 25 0.2680 1773
economical method of reduction is hot rolling. 5 100.2 0.3226 25 0.3380 1432
To prepare the slab for hot rolling, the top or 6 79.44 0.4067 25 0.4263 1152
gate end is trimmed by sawing and then it is con- 7 63.03 0.5127 25 0.5372 927.3
8 49.98 0.6465 25 0.6776 743.1
veyed into a furnace for heating. Slabs or bars of 9 39.62 0.8154 25 0.8545 595.1
the same alloy are grouped together in a lot and 10 31.43 1.039 20 1.087 476.1
processed through the furnace and the hot mill. 11 24.9 1.31 20 1.37 381.0
The furnace temperature and the time for each bar 12 19.8 1.65 20 1.73 303.0
13 15.7 2.08 20 2.18 241.0
to pass through the furnace are adjusted in order 14 12.4 2.62 20 2.74 192.0
to allow the bar to reach the appropriate tempera- 15 9.87 3.31 20 3.46 153.0
ture throughout its thickness, length, and width by 16 7.81 4.18 20 4.37 121.0
the time it passes through to the exit conveyor. 17 6.21 5.26 20 … …
18 4.92 6.66 20 … …
Temperature control is an important factor in 19 3.90 8.36 20 … …
hot rolling. Hot rolling can be accomplished 20 3.10 10.6 20 … …
only within a certain temperature range for each 21 2.46 13.3 20 … …
alloy. The bars will be damaged and have to be 22 1.94 16.9 20 … …
23 1.55 21.1 20 … …
scrapped if hot rolling is attempted at a temper- 24 1.22 26.7 15 … …
ature that is too high or too low. Further, for all 25 0.970 34.4 15 … …
alloys, the grain size of the hot-rolled product is 26 0.765 43.5 15 … …
determined by the temperature at the last rolling 27 0.610 54.5 15 … …
28 0.481 69.3 15 … …
pass. Subsequent processing (that is, cold work- 29 0.387 86.1 15 … …
ing and annealing) to meet specified properties 30 0.303 110.0 10 … …
is dependent on this grain size. In some alloys, 31 0.204 141.0 10 … …
elements go into solution above certain temper- 32 0.194 174.0 10 … …
33 0.153 221.0 10 … …
atures and then precipitate out at lower tempera- 34 0.120 281.0 10 … …
tures. By completing hot rolling at a temperature
above the precipitation temperature and quench- (a) In 250 mm (10 in.)
ing in a high-pressure water spray, solution heat
treatment can be accomplished. This also affects
both the physical and the mechanical properties Table 14 Flat products (including rectangles and squares) furnished in rolls or in
attained in subsequent processing. straight lengths
The roll stand used for hot rolling is a very Products available at a given width
sturdy mill having two rolls (two-high) whose Thickness, in.
1.25 in. 1.25 to 12 in. 12 to 24 in. 24 in.
direction of rotation can be rapidly reversed so
0.188 Strip(a) … … …
the strip can be passed back and forth between Flat wire(b) Strip … Sheet
them. The large horizontal rolls that reduce the (including square wire)
0.188 Bar(c) … Plate …
thickness are supplemented by a pair of vertical
edging rolls. The vertical rolls are needed to (a) Product originally produced with slit, sheared, or sawed edges, whether or not such edges are subsequently rolled or drawn. (b) Product with all
maintain the proper width by rolling edges surfaces rolled or drawn, without previously having been slit, sheared, or sawed. (c) When bar is ordered, it is particularly desirable that the type of
edge be specified. Source: Copper Development Association Inc.
because an appreciable spread in width takes
place during hot rolling. The rolls are water
cooled to avoid overheating, which would cause
the surfaces to crack and check. Further, a pol- Table 15 ASTM specifications for copper and copper alloy flat-rolled products
ishing stone continuously dresses the rolls as Specification Product description
they operate. As the thickness is reduced, the bar B 36 Brass plate, sheet, strip, and rolled bar
length increases proportionately. After the final B 96 and B 96M (metric) Copper-silicon alloy plate, sheet, strip, and rolled bar for general purposes
rolling pass, the metal is spray cooled and coiled. B 103 Phosphor bronze plate, sheet, strip, and rolled bar
B 121 Leaded brass plate, sheet, strip, and rolled bar
Rolling temperatures and the percent of reduc- B 122 Copper-nickel-tin alloy, copper-nickel-zinc alloy (nickel silver), and
tion per pass are designed to suit each alloy. copper-nickel alloy plate, sheet, strip, and rolled bar
B 152 and B 152M (metric) Copper sheet, strip, plate, and rolled bar
B 169 and B 169M (metric) Aluminum bronze plate, sheet, strip, and rolled bar
Milling or Scalping B 194 Copper-beryllium alloy plate, sheet, strip, and rolled bar
B 291 Copper-zinc-manganese alloy (manganese brass) sheet and strip
B 422 Copper-aluminum-silicon-cobalt alloy, copper-nickel-aluminum-silicon alloy,
Along with continuous casting, an equipment copper-nickel-aluminum-magnesium alloy sheet and strip
development that significantly advanced produc- B 465 Copper-iron alloy plate, sheet, strip, and rolled bar
tion is the high-speed coil milling machine. All B 534 Copper-cobalt-beryllium alloy, copper-nickel-beryllium alloy plate,
coppers and copper alloys, produced with the sheet, strip, and rolled bar
B 591 Copper-zinc-tin alloy plate, sheet, strip, and rolled bar
good surface expected of brass mill sheet and B 592 Copper-zinc-aluminum-cobalt or nickel-alloy plate, sheet, strip, and rolled bar
strip, have their surfaces removed or scalped by B 694 Copper, copper alloy, and copper-clad stainless steel sheet and strip
a machining operation after breakdown rolling for electrical cable shielding
to remove all surface oxides remaining from B 740 Copper-nickel-tin spinodal alloy strip
casting or hot rolling. This operation is accom- workmanship, knowledge, and good rolling the work rolls are backed up by a cluster of
plished in a specially designed milling machine mills. To keep cost as low as possible and com- backup rolls placed with respect to the work
having rolls with inset blades that cut or mill petitive, the reduction in thickness to final gage rolls so they contain the rolling forces and pre-
away the surface layer of metal. The capability needs to be accomplished in the fewest opera- vent bending or springing of the work rolls. By
of this machine to handle the product in coiled tions compatible with quality requirements. the use of such rolling mills, the thickness from
form means that a much longer bar can be con- The basic problem is to reduce the thickness as width edge to edge across the 600 to 915 mm
veniently and economically milled. much as possible in each rolling operation (24 to 36 in.) metal coils can be kept uniform
Following hot rolling the DC cast bars are coil while maintaining uniformity of thickness through each gage reduction by rolling. This
milled, and after careful surface inspection are across the width and length of a coil that is 60 edge-to-edge gage control contributes to the
ready to be applied on orders for processing to to 180 m (200 to 600 ft) long at the first rolling maintenance of good shape. Good shape con-
final gage, temper, and width. pass and could be 7500 m (25,000 ft) long if tributes to the production of flat, straight metal
Continuous-cast bars arrive at this stage by a rolled to 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) finish gage. when slitting to the final specified width needed
somewhat different processing path. The Coupled with the need to maintain uniformity by the consumer.
coiled cast bars are annealed to provide a of thickness through all processing stages is the The control equipment included in the rolling
stress-free structure of maximum ductility. need to maintain flatness across the width and mill is a feature that bears directly on control of
They are then cold rolled to work the structure length of the coiled metal. Metal with unifor- the gage from end to end of a coil of metal dur-
sufficiently, so a fully recrystallized wrought mity of flatness across and along its length is ing rolling. For thickness control during high-
grain structure will develop in the subsequent described as having good shape. It is free of speed rolling, continuous measurement of this
anneal. The bars are then scalped by milling. humps, waves, and buckles. dimension is a necessity. Rolling mills are
Both hot-reduced and cold-reduced milled bars A rolling mill is capable of applying a large, equipped with x-ray and beta-ray instruments,
are typically in the thickness range of 7.5 to 10 but still limited, force upon the surfaces of the which continuously gage the metal and provide a
mm (0.300 to 0.400 in.). metal as it passes between the rolls to reduce continuous readout of thickness. There are also
its thickness. The applied force is spread control devices that actuate the screws in the roll
across the contact area of the rolls on the housings and automatically open or close the gap
Cold Rolling to Final Thickness metal. The larger the contact area, the smaller between the work rolls to adjust the thickness
the force that is applied per unit of area and the being produced as required. These gages may
The sequence of operations for processing smaller the reduction in thickness that can be also adjust back tension and forward tension
metal from milled condition to finish thickness achieved per pass through the rolls. Rolls of applied by payoff and recoil arbors to effect
or gage is designed to meet specified require- small diameter will have a small contact area, changes in the thickness of the rolled metal.
ments for each application. and greater force per unit of area. Small-diam- Roll Lubricants. Rolling also exerts consider-
The earliest stages of cold rolling and anneal- eter work rolls are most desirable for providing able influence on the surface quality of the
ing are designed to achieve the largest practical maximum use of roll force in reducing metal metal. Work rolls are made of hardened steel,
reduction in thickness (limits to the amount of thickness, but they lack the stiffness required. much harder than the copper alloy being rolled.
reduction are discussed in the section “Effect on The wider the metal to be rolled, the longer the As the rolls squeeze the metal to reduce its
Properties” in this article). In the final rolling rolls, and the greater the tendency for the rolls thickness, forward and backward slip between
operations, where the strip is brought to finish to bend or spring. To overcome the tendency, the rolls and the metal surfaces takes place. The
gage, the cold reductions are designed to meet four-high and cluster rolling mills are used for frictional forces between the roll and metal sur-
the specified property (temper) requirement. cold rolling in the brass mill. faces, if direct contact was made, would tear the
Meeting the tensile strength requirement, which Four-high rolling mills (Fig. 8a) contain a pair surface of the metal and load the roll surfaces
is the basic mechanical property requirement for of work rolls of relatively small diameter (for with bits of the metal. To avoid damaging the
rolled tempers, is accomplished by cold rolling example, 300 mm, or 12 in.). A second pair of surfaces in this manner, the metal and roll sur-
to the appropriate ready-to-finish gage, anneal- rolls, of large diameter (for example, 900 mm, or faces are flooded with cushioning lubricants.
ing to the desired grain size, and then rolling to 36 in.), is placed above and below the work rolls The selection of roll lubricants that will provide
finish gage. The percent reduction between in the stand to back them up and prevent them the protection needed without staining the metal,
ready-to-finish and finish gage is chosen to pro- from springing. This arrangement allows the will be readily removable from the metal sur-
vide the amount of work hardening needed to advantage of the small contact area of small faces, and will not interfere with the rolling mill
produce the tensile strength required. work rolls and the transmittal of high force performance is an important engineering func-
Unavoidable small variations in thickness at through the large backup rolls, while maintain- tion that influences the economic production of
both ready-to-finish and finish gages and in ing the rigidity required for gage control. The high-quality copper alloy strip.
grain size from the ready-to-finish anneal minimum size of the work rolls is limited by the Effect on Properties. The more metal is cold
require that the tensile strength requirement be forces in rolling, which tend to bow them back- worked, the harder and stronger it becomes. The
given as a range, rather than a single value. ward or forward during rolling. hardening that occurs when copper and copper
Rolling Mills. All thickness reduction is Cluster rolling mills (for example, Sendzimir alloys are cold rolled allows each of them to be
accomplished by cold rolling, and a variety of mills) were designed to counteract both the ver- produced with a range of strengths or tempers
rolling mills are used. Cold rolling of coppers tical and horizontal elements of the rolling that are suitable for a variety of applications.
and copper alloys into sheet and strip of excel- forces and thus enable the use of minimum- Starting with annealed temper, the metal will
lent quality requires a combination of skillful diameter work rolls (Fig. 8b). In cluster mills increase in strength approximately proportional-
ly by the amount of reduction by cold rolling. A
Table 16 Typical copper foil properties series of standard cold-rolled tempers for each
copper and copper alloy has been established. A
Tensile strength, min
Elongation in 50 mm, typical plot of reduction versus tensile properties
Nominal weight, g/m2
Temper designation Material and condition MPa ksi min, %
and hardness is shown in Fig. 4 for C26000 (car-
… Electrodeposited 153 105 15 3 tridge brass). Figure 3 shows the variation of
305 and over 205 30 3 tensile strength and elongation for various
O61 Rolled and annealed 153 105 15 5
305 140 20 10 degrees of reduction (and the associated rolling
610 and over 170 25 20 “temper” name).
H00 Light cold rolled 610 and over 220 32 5 For each of the coppers and copper alloys
H08 As rolled All weights 345 50 … there are limits to the amount of cold reduction
that is desirable before annealing the metal to products of combustion fill the furnace and reduce temperature rise also allows roll lubricants to
provide a recrystallized soft structure for further the metal oxidation rate. More commonly, coil vaporize and be carried off before the metal gets
cold reduction. Some alloys, such as the phos- annealing is done in bell furnaces where a con- so hot that surfaces can be harmed. After the
phor bronzes, the high-zinc-content nickel sil- trolled atmosphere can be maintained. The anneal- metal has reached the annealing temperature, it
vers, and the aluminum-containing high-zinc ing unit consists of a base on which the coils are is held there for a short period or soaked to pro-
brasses work harden rapidly. As they are cold stacked. Under the base is a fan for circulating the vide maximum uniformity. Then the furnace is
rolled, they quickly become too hard for further hot gases through the load, to provide more uni- turned off and removed, and the metal cools in
reduction and must be annealed. form and rapid heating. Surrounding the base is a the controlled atmosphere under the inner hood.
With large amounts of cold reduction prior to trough, which may be filled with water, oil, or Cooling may be aided by a cooling cover con-
annealing, some coppers and copper alloys will some other material to seal the inner hood when it taining a water spray system. The inner hood is
develop differences in their strength and ductili- is placed over the metal load to enclose it for not removed until the metal temperature is low
ty when these properties are measured along the atmosphere control. enough that no discoloring or oxidation of the
direction of rolling, compared to measurements In this type of batch annealing, bell furnaces metal takes place.
across the direction of rolling. This directionali- capable of annealing up to 45 Mg (100,000 lb) The controlled atmosphere is produced in
ty in mechanical properties arises from the fact of metal at a time are used. After the metal is gas-cracking units. Combustible gases are
that the normal random orientation of the atom- stacked on the base, temperature-control ther- burned with sufficient air to oxidize all the
ic planes from grain to grain is gradually forced mocouples are placed throughout the load to gaseous elements. The products of this com-
into a pattern conforming to the constant work- continuously measure the temperature. The bustion are then refined, and all gases that
ing of the metal in one direction. This direction- inner hood or retort is placed over the load and would be harmful to the metal surfaces are
ality can affect the fabricability and final per- sealed. Controlled atmosphere begins to flow removed by chemical means. Those remaining
formance of the strip or sheet. Its control through the hood, purging the air. The furnace is pass into the annealing hoods, where they
requires that the amount of reduction between placed over the hood and heating is begun. expel the air and protect the metal during
anneals and the temperature of successive In the well-equipped brass mill, large groups annealing. For most coppers and copper alloys
anneals be carefully controlled. of such annealing units may be connected to a a slightly oxidizing atmosphere is desirable.
central process-control computer. As the furnace For copper alloy C11000, the atmosphere must
Annealing and load thermocouples measure the tempera- be nearly free of hydrogen and the annealing
tures and relay them to the control unit, the heat temperature low enough to avoid hydrogen
The basic purpose of annealing is recrystal- input is constantly adjusted to maintain temper- embrittlement. For alloys containing zinc, the
lization and softening to prepare the metal for ature uniformity in the load. This controlled small amount of oxygen in the atmosphere
further cold working in the mill or by the con-
sumer. Anneals are usually designed to produce
a chosen grain size for a specified tensile
strength, which in annealed copper and copper Support roll
alloys is largely dependent on grain size, with
few exceptions. The effect of grain size on the
tensile strength of copper and brass strip is Working roll
shown in Fig. 9. The effect of grain size on the
elongation of C26000 is shown in Fig. 10. Strip
Besides strength, grain size also affects Working roll
workability, the control of directionality, and
surface roughness. The consistent performance
of the metal in subsequent cold working is Support roll
dependent on grain-size uniformity. All these
factors are considered when selecting the grain
size to be established by any of the anneals (a) (b)
included in the processing of each coil. Table
17 lists recommended applications of grain size Fig. 8 Typical roll arrangements for precision cold rolling of copper sheet and strip. (a) Four-high mill. (b) Cluster mill
ranges. Uniformity of grain size is influenced
by the type of annealing furnaces and the
method of operation. Each type of annealing
method has certain advantages and disadvan-
tages.
Coil Annealing. When annealing coiled
metal, heat from the furnace must be absorbed
through the coil surface and then penetrate to the
innermost wraps, mostly by conduction.
Temperature tends to vary in the coil with dis-
tance from the heat-absorbing surfaces. Coil
annealing must be carefully controlled by slow-
ly applying heat at a rate that will avoid over-
heating the surface, while the temperature of the
inner wraps rises and equalizes with that of the
outer wraps.
Coil annealing may be done in a roller hearth
furnace where the coils are slowly moved through
the furnace as they are gradually heated to the
annealing temperature. This type of furnace usual- Fig. 9 Effect of grain size on tensile strength of Fig. 10 Effect of grain size on elongation of annealed
annealed 0.040 in. strip of copper and brasses of 0.040 in. strip of copper and brasses of desig-
ly does not have a prepared atmosphere, but the designated zinc contents nated zinc contents

combines with the zinc fumes given off and Because every foot of a coil is exposed to the Following a water quench, which completes the
prevents them from attacking the metal parts in same temperature as it passes through the strip- cooling cycle, the metal passes through the clean-
the annealing unit. The oxide film that forms annealing furnaces, grain size from end to end ing tanks. A normal cleaning solution is dilute sul-
on the surface is very thin and readily removed should be uniform. Furnace instrumentation furic acid, which dissolves most of the oxide film
in the subsequent cleaning processes. continuously records the furnace temperature left on the metal by annealing. As noted earlier, the
Advantages and Disadvantages. One of the and controls the heat input. Strip speed through atmosphere in the furnace must be slightly oxidiz-
advantages of coil annealing in a controlled the furnace is similarly monitored. The combi- ing to prevent zinc fumes from attacking the fur-
atmosphere furnace is that the surface of the nation of furnace temperature and speed deter- nace steel framework. For most coppers and cop-
metal can be readily restored to its natural mines the temperature attained in the metal, and, per alloys this small amount of surface oxidation
color by appropriate cleaning following the therefore, the grain size. Samples commonly are is not detrimental after normal cleaning, and they
anneal. The rather rare exception is when an cut from each end of each coil after strip or coil are regularly strip annealed throughout process-
abnormally high annealing temperature is annealing, and the grain size or mechanical ing, including finish gage. They have a faintly dif-
required that causes excessive oxidation or properties are determined as a further control on ferent color than does bell-annealed and cleaned
dezincification of a high-zinc brass. Special the quality uniformity of the product. metal, but the difference is so slight that it is
cleaning methods that remove surface metal The continuous-strip anneal lines include pay- insignificant in most applications. In fact, brasses
are then required to correct this condition. The off reels, a stitcher for joining the front end of a containing 15% or more of zinc have surfaces that
more common situation is that annealing is coil to the trailing end of the preceding one, a many users feel are better suited for later fabricat-
done in a well-controlled atmosphere and fol- degreaser for removing roll lubricants, looping ing if the strip has been continuously annealed.
lowed by normal cleaning practices. This pro- towers for metal storage, a seven-story-high verti- The metal surface holds lubricants well and has a
duces a metal surface uniform in color and free cal furnace that includes a heating zone, a con- low coefficient of friction against tool steels, mak-
from detrimental oxides. trolled-atmosphere cooling zone, and a water ing it desirable for press forming and deep draw-
A disadvantage of coil annealing is that large quench tank. This is followed by acid cleaning ing. It is likely that some zinc oxide remains on the
coils of some alloys in thinner gages can be eas- tanks, a water rinse, a drying oven, and a reel for surface and acts as a natural lubricant. After acid
ily damaged. When the coiled metal is heated, it recoiling the metal. The fact that the metal is cleaning, rinsing, and drying, the surface is usual-
expands and the coil wraps get tighter. One wrap uncoiled before passing through the furnace ly coated with a detergent solution or a light sul-
can become welded to the next because of the removes annealing limitations on coil length. fur-free oil to protect it during handling in transit.
high temperature and pressure encountered, usu- Degreasing units remove roll lubricants from the Stress-relief heat treatments are sometimes
ally making the coil unsuitable for further pro- metal surfaces before the metal enters the furnace, required after the harder rolling tempers such as
cessing. Coil annealing is also time consuming. so a clean, uniform surface is presented for anneal- extra hard, spring, and extra spring. Although the
A large bell furnace full of metal may require ing. The metal passes over a large roller outside internal residual stresses left in the strip, from
from 24 to 40 h to complete an annealing cycle; the furnace at the top and does not touch anything edge to edge and along the length, from this severe
additional time is needed for cleaning, done as a inside while it is being heated. It then passes under working are relatively uniform, small variations
separate operation. another large roller at the bottom in the cooling sometimes exist that can cause a difference in
Continuous Strand Annealing. In the late water tank. This arrangement avoids any possibil- spring-back during subsequent forming opera-
1940s continuous strand, or strip annealing, ity of surface damage to the hot metal, which was tions. To reduce such residual-stress variations, the
lines came into use in brass mills. From these common in the earlier horizontal-strip anneal fur- metal is heated to a temperature below the recrys-
early beginnings, the high-speed vertical strip naces. Although the furnace temperature is high, tallization temperature, usually between 200 and
annealers were developed in the 1960s. the metal is exposed to it for only a few seconds. 350 °C (390 and 660 °F), and held there for 0.5 to
Annealing lines of this type are used for anneal- The furnace atmosphere may consist of hot 1 h. Such treatment results in a product with uni-
ing copper and copper alloy strip in thicknesses burned gases that are blown against the strip sur- form spring-back.
from under 0.25 mm to over 3 mm (0.010 to faces to heat the metal. The metal is rapidly and Heating for stress relief also can change other
over 0.125 in.). When several such lines are uniformly raised to the annealing temperature as properties. In phosphor bronzes tensile elonga-
available, a variety of thickness ranges can be it passes through the heating zone of the furnace, tion is increased and strength slightly decreased.
rapidly annealed, providing great flexibility in and is then cooled rapidly by cold burned gases These changes are an advantage in the case of
production scheduling and enabling fast delivery as it passes through the cooling zone, still pro- difficult-to-form parts requiring maximum
of finished strip. tected from excessive oxidation. strength. In the high-zinc alloys, stress-relief
heat treatment increases strength and decreases
Table 17 Available grain-size ranges and recommended applications tensile elongation. In this case, the formability
may be decreased.
Average grain size, mm Type of press operation and surface characteristics
0.005–0.015 Shallow forming or stamping. Parts will have good strength and very
smooth surface. Also used for very thin metal Cleaning
0.010–0.025 Stampings and shallow drawn parts. Parts will have high strength and
smooth surface. General use for metal under 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) thick
0.015–0.030 Shallow drawn parts, stampings, and deep drawn parts that require buffable As noted, following each anneal or heat
surfaces. General use for gages under 0.3 mm (0.012 in.) treatment the metal is cleaned. After cleaning
0.020–0.035 This grain-size range includes the largest average grain that will produce in the appropriate solution the metal is thor-
parts essentially free of orange peel. For this reason it is used for all sorts
of drawn parts produced from brass up to 0.8 mm (0.032 in.) thick. oughly washed in water, including brushing
0.025–0.040 Brass with 0.040 mm average grain size begins to show some roughening with wire or synthetic brushes when needed.
of the surface when severely stretched. Good deep drawing quality for 0.4 The rinse water usually contains a tarnish
to 0.5 mm (0.015 to 0.020 in.) gage range inhibitor, such as tolutriazole or benzotriazole,
0.030–0.050 Drawn parts from 0.4 to 0.635 mm (0.015 to 0.025 in.) thick brass
requiring relatively good surface, or stamped parts requiring no to protect the metal. For product at finish gage
polishing or buffing the rinse tank has a detergent solution added
0.040–0.060 Commonly used grain-size range for general applications for deep and shallow that further protects the metal when dried and
drawings of parts from brass in 0.5 to 1.0 mm (0.020 to 0.040 in.) gages. also lubricates it slightly to reduce the danger
Moderate orange peel may develop on drawn surfaces.
0.050–0.080, 0.060–0.090, 0.070–0.120 Large average-grain-size ranges are used for deep drawing of difficult shapes or of friction scratches during coiling and uncoil-
deep drawing parts for gages 1.0 mm (0.040 in.) and greater. Drawn ing. Squeegee rolls are used to remove the bulk
parts will have rough surfaces with orange peel except where smoothed of the rinse water, and drying ovens in the
by ironing. cleaning lines complete the job.
If desired for subsequent working, annealed tility and shear strength. It is for this purpose— lengths are resheared by hand. When circular
strip can also be coated with a film of light non- ease of cutting and machinability—that lead is blanks are required, they are die cut on a press.
tarnishing oil for protection and lubrication. added to copper alloys. The tolerances for the diameter of circular
Metal that is finished in a rolled temper will nor- As the metal comes from the slitter, both edges blanks are the same as those for slit metal of
mally contain a light film of rolling lubricant on of each strip, if distorted, will be distorted in the corresponding width.
the surfaces to protect and lubricate it during same direction. The immediately adjacent strips Edge rolling can produce rolled square edges,
coiling and uncoiling and in transit. will have edges distorted in the opposite direc- rounded edges, rounded corners, or rolled full-
tion. There are some applications for which it is rounded edges. It can only be done on a limited
desirable that any edge distortions be in the same range of gage, width, and temper combinations.
Slitting, Cutting, and Leveling direction relative to the part being produced. The Properties and tolerances are generally the same
user recognizes that the edges of every other coil as those for similar slit-edge products.
Following the final rolling or the final anneal- will be opposite and arranges to uncoil either over
ing and cleaning, the strip or sheet product is slit or under the coil so the edge condition entering
to its final width. Slitting is accomplished by the press is always the same (Fig. 12). Tubular Products
opposing rotary discs mounted on rotating Coil set, the curvature that remains in a strip
arbors. These knife sets mesh as the metal pass- when it is unwound from a coil, is an inherent Tube and pipe made of copper or copper
es between them and shear it into a variety of characteristic. The degree of this coil set is alloys are used extensively for carrying potable
widths. Slitter knife sets are assembled on dependent on a number of factors. The final coil- water in buildings and homes. These brass mill
arbors. The sets are assemblies of disc knives, ing operation takes place after slitting, and some products also are used throughout the oil, chem-
cylindrical metal and rubber fillers, and shims. measure of control over coil set can be exercised ical, and process industries to carry diverse flu-
Clearance between the opposing knife edges at this process stage. However, there are fre- ids, ranging from various natural and process
must be exact for the thickness, alloy, and tem- quently other considerations that also have a waters, to seawater, to an extremely broad range
per of the metal to be slit. The distance between bearing. For annealed tempers and the lightly of strong and dilute organic and inorganic chem-
knife edges on each arbor must be set accurate- cold-rolled tempers such as quarter hard and half icals. In the automotive and aerospace indus-
ly to cut the specified width within the tolerance hard, coil set may be established during final tries, copper tube is used for hydraulic lines,
allowed. Knife edges must be sharp and contin- coiling. The degree of set will be lowest when heat exchangers (such as automotive radiators),
uously lubricated. Dull knives or incorrect clear- the largest inside diameter compatible with the air conditioning systems, and various formed or
ance between knives for the particular material specified gage and weight can be used. For the machined fittings. In marine service, copper
being slit causes distorted or burred edges. harder rolled tempers and lighter gages, the coil tube and pipe are used to carry potable water,
Camber, that is, departure from edgewise set is actually controlled in the final rolling oper- seawater, and other fluids, but their chief appli-
straightness, has often been attributed incor- ation, rather than during coiling, and is usually cation is in tube bundles for condensers, econo-
rectly to poor slitting practice. It is true that kept to a minimum. mizers, and auxiliary heat exchangers. Copper
strips can be pulled crooked when slitting a Processing operations after final slitting tube and pipe are used in food and beverage
large number of them from a wide bar, because are occasionally required. Blanking and edge industries to carry process fluids for beet and
the slit strips are sometimes fanned out for rolling are two such operations. cane sugar refining, for brewing of beer, and for
subsequent coiling using divider plates. This Blanking of squares or rectangles is general- many other food-processing operations. In the
difficulty is diminished on slitters equipped ly done by cutting to length. The metal is first building trades, copper tube is used widely for
with over-arm separators because strips need flattened and then cut to length on a flying heating and air conditioning systems in homes,
not be fanned out as much. This kind of prob- shear. If the tolerance on length cannot be commercial buildings, and industrial plants and
lem can be anticipated, and, if necessary, the achieved on the automatic cutting lines, the cut offices. Table 18 summarizes the copper alloys
bar split at an intermediate stage in processing that are standard tube alloys, and gives ASTM
prior to the final slitting, so fewer cuts are specifications and typical uses for each of the
made in this last operation. alloys. As indicated in Table 18, copper and cop-
Instead of slitting practice, it is the mainte- per alloy tubing is available in seamless and
nance of good shape during each of the rolling welded forms.
operations that is most important in the control
of camber. If good control of thickness across
the width is maintained at each rolling opera-
tion, the edges and centers of the bar will have
elongated uniformly, and when narrow strips are
slit they will remain satisfactorily straight.
The shape of the slit edge of strip depends
to a great extent on the properties of the metal
being slit. The metal may be thick, soft, and duc-
tile, at one extreme of shearing characteristics,
to thin, hard, and brittle, at the other extreme.
Between these fall all the variations that are
characteristic of the gage, alloy, and temper
required for the final application. A certain
amount of edge distortion cannot be avoided
when slitting thick, soft metals (Fig. 11). Even
with the best slitter setup, the cross section of a Fig. 11 The different edge contours that can result
from slitting, depending on thickness, temper,
narrow strip will tend to have a “loaf” shape. By and alloy. (a) Thin gages; all alloys. Edges square with
contrast, thin, hard phosphor bronze or nickel almost no break. (b) Thin gages. On soft metal, set must be
silver in narrow widths will have a cross section adjusted to avoid wire edges. (c) Heavy gages; hard metal;
all alloys. Edges square with 25% cut balanced break. (d)
of rectangular shape with square cut edges.
Leaded brasses shear cleanly because the lead,
Heavy gages; soft metal; all alloys. Edges square with Fig. 12 Burr up/burr down relationship in slitting
slight roll. (e) As a rule, the heavy-gage, high copper alloys setup. Such burrs are never excessive on strip
present as microscopic globules, lowers the duc- have greatest tendency to roll and burr. released for shipment.
Joints junction with standard socket-type solder fit- specially designed compression fittings (Fig. 13)
tings, but threaded joints also can be considered are all common.
Joints in copper tube and pipe are made in semipermanent joints for pipe. Detachable joints
various ways. Permanent joints can be made by are almost always some form of mechanical
brazing or welding. Semipermanent joints are joint—flared joints, flange-and-gasket joints, Properties of Tube
made most often by soldering, usually in con- and joints made using any of a wide variety of
As with most wrought products, the
mechanical properties of copper tube depend
on prior processing. With copper, it is not so
much the methods used to produce tube, but
rather the resulting metallurgical condition
that has the greatest bearing on properties.
Table 19 summarizes tensile properties for the
standard tube alloys in their most widely used
conditions. Information on other properties of
tube alloys can be found in the data compila-
tions for the individual alloys; see the article
“Properties of Wrought Coppers and Copper
Alloys” in this Handbook.
Production of Tube Shells

Copper tubular products are typically pro-
duced from shells made by extruding or piercing
copper billets.
Extrusion of copper and copper alloy tube
shells is done by heating a billet of material
above the recrystallization temperature, and then
forcing material through an orifice in a die and
over a mandrel held in position with the die ori-
fice. The clearance between mandrel and die
determines the wall thickness of the extruded
tube shell.
In extrusion, the die is located at one end of
the container section of an extrusion press; the
metal to be extruded is driven through the die by
a ram, which enters the container from the end
opposite the die. Tube shells are produced either
by starting with a hollow billet or by a two-step
operation in which a solid billet is first pierced
Fig. 13 Selected pressure fittings for copper tubular products. Source: Ref 9 and then extruded.
Table 18 Copper tube alloys and typical applications

UNS No. Alloy type ASTM specifications Typical uses
C10200 Oxygen-free copper B 68, B 75, B 88, B 111, B 188, Bus tube, conductors, wave guides
B 280, B 359, B 372, B 395, B 447
C12200 Phosphorus deoxidized copper B 68, B 75, B 88, B 111, B 280, Water tubes; condenser, evaporator and heat-exchanger
B 306, B 359, B 360, B 395, B 447, tubes; air conditioning and refrigeration, gas,
B 543 heater and oil burner lines; plumbing pipe
and steam tubes; brewery and distillery tubes;
gasoline, hydraulic and oil lines; rotating bands
C19200 Copper B 111, B 359, B 395, B 469 Automotive hydraulic brake lines; flexible hose
C23000 Red brass, 85% B 111, B 135, B 359, B 395, B 543 Condenser and heat-exchanger tubes, flexible hose;
plumbing pipe; pump lines
C26000 Cartridge brass, 70% B 135 Plumbing brass goods
C33000 Low-leaded brass (tube) B 135 Pump and power cylinders and liners;
plumbing brass goods
C36000 Free-cutting brass … Screw-machine parts; plumbing goods
C43500 Tin brass … Bourdon tubes; musical instruments
C44300, C44400, and C44500 Inhibited admiralty metal B 111, B 359, B 395 Condenser, evaporator and heat-exchanger tubes;
distiller tubes
C46400, C46500, C46600, Naval brass … Marine hardware, nuts
and C46700
C60800 Aluminum bronze, 5% B 111, B 359, B 395 Condenser, evaporator and heat-exchanger tubes; distiller tubes
C65100 Silicon bronze B B 315 Heat-exchanger tubes; electrical conduits
C65500 Silicon bronze A B 315 Chemical equipment, heat-exchanger tubes;
piston rings
C68700 Arsenical aluminum brass B 111, B 359, B 395 Condenser, evaporator and heat-exchanger tubes;
distiller tubes
C70600 Copper-nickel, 10% B 111, B 359, B 395, B 466, B 467, Condenser, evaporator and heat-exchanger tubes;
B 543, B 552 salt water piping; distiller tubes
C71500 Copper-nickel, 30% B 111, B 359, B 395, B 446, B 467, Condenser, evaporator and heat-exchanger tubes;
B 543, B 552 distiller tubes; salt water piping
Extrusion pressure varies with alloy composi- extrusion depends on many factors, including an angle to the axis of the billet (Fig. 14). Guide
tion. C36000 (61.5Cu-3Pb-35.5Zn) requires a rel- copper content of the metal, amount of lubri- rolls beneath the billet prevent it from dropping
atively low pressure, whereas C26000 (70Cu- cant, and die design. from between the work rolls. Because the work
30Zn) and C44300 (71.5Cu-1Sn-27.5Zn-0.06As) Rotary piercing on a Mannesmann mill is rolls are set at an angle to each other as well as
require the highest pressure of all the brasses. another method commonly used to produce to the billet, the billet is simultaneously rotated
Most of the coppers require an extrusion pressure seamless pipe and tube from copper and certain and driven forward toward the piercing plug,
intermediate between those for C26000 and copper alloys. Piercing is the most severe form- which is held in position between the work rolls.
C36000. C71500 (70Cu-30Ni) requires a very ing operation customarily applied to metals. The The opening between work rolls is set small-
high extrusion pressure. process takes advantage of tensile stresses that er than the billet, and the resultant pressure act-
Extrusion pressure also depends on billet develop at the center of a billet when it is sub- ing around the periphery of the billet opens up
temperature, extrusion ratio (the ratio of the jected to compressive forces around its periph- tensile cracks, and then a rough hole, at the cen-
cross-sectional area of the billet to that of the ery. In rotary piercing, one end of a heated cylin- ter of the billet just in front of the piercing plug.
extruded section), speed of extrusion, and drical billet is fed between rotating work rolls The piercing plug assists in further opening the
degree of lubrication. The flow of metal during that lie in a horizontal plane and are inclined at axial hole in the center of the billet, smoothes
the wall of the hole, and controls the wall thick-
Table 19 Typical mechanical properties for copper alloy tube(a) ness of the formed tube.
Copper and plain alpha brasses can be
Tensile strength Yield strength(b) pierced, provided the lead content is held to less
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation(c), % than 0.01%. Alpha-beta brasses can tolerate
C10200 higher levels of lead without adversely affecting
OS050 220 32 69 10 45 their ability to be pierced.
OS025 235 34 76 11 45 When piercing brass, close temperature con-
H55 275 40 220 32 25
H80 380 55 345 50 8 trol must be maintained because the range in
which brass can be pierced is narrow. Each alloy
C12200
has a characteristic temperature range within
OS050 220 32 69 10 45
OS025 235 34 76 11 45 which it is sufficiently plastic for piercing to
H55 275 40 220 32 25 take place. Below this range, the central hole
H80 380 55 345 50 8 does not open up properly under the applied
C19200 peripheral forces. Overheating may lead to
H55(d) 290 42 205(e) 30(e) 35 cracked surfaces. Suggested piercing tempera-
C23000 tures for various alloys are as follows:
OS050 275 40 83 12 55
OS015 305 44 125 18 45 Piercing temperature
H55 345 50 275 40 30
H80 485 70 400 58 8 UNS number °C °F
C26000 C11000 815–870 1500–1600

C12200 815–870 1500–1600
OS050 325 47 105 15 65 C22000 815–870 1500–1600
OS025 360 52 140 20 55 C23000 815–870 1500–1600
H80 540 78 440 64 8 C26000 760–790 1400–1450
C33000 C28000 705–760 1300–1400
OS050 325 47 105 15 60 C46400 730–790 1350–1450
OS025 360 52 140 20 50
H80 515 75 415 60 7
C43500
Production of Finished Tubes
OS035 315 46 110 16 46
H80 515 75 415 60 10
Cold drawing of extruded or pierced tube
shells to smaller sizes is done on draw blocks for
C44300, C44400, C44500
coppers and on draw benches for brasses and
OS025 365 53 150 22 65
other alloys. With either type of machine, the
C46400, C46500, C46600, C46700(f) metal is cold worked by pulling the tube through
H80 605 88 455 66 18 a die that reduces the diameter. Concurrently,
C60800 wall thickness is reduced by drawing over a plug
OS025 415 60 185 27 55 or mandrel that may be either fixed or floating.
C65100 Cold drawing increases the strength of the mate-
OS015 310 45 140 20 55
H80 450 65 275 40 20
C65500
OS050 395 57 … … 70
H80 640 93 … … 22
C68700
OS025 415 60 185 27 55
C70600
OS025 305 44 110 16 42
H55 415 60 395 57 10
C71500
OS025 415 60 170 25 45
(a) Tube size: 25 mm (1 in.) outside diameter (OD) by 1.65 mm (0.065 in.) wall. (b) 0.5% extension under load. (c) In 50 mm (2 in.). (d) Tube size:
4.8 mm (0.1875 in.) OD by 0.76 mm (0.030 in.) wall. (e) 0.2% offset. (f) Tube size: 9.5 mm (0.375 in.) OD by 2.5 mm (0.097 in.) wall Fig. 14 Schematic diagram of metal piercing. Arrows
indicate direction of motion.
rial and simultaneously reduces ductility. Tube ence. Feeding and rotating are synchronized the tubular products. Seamless copper tube for
size is reduced—outside diameter, inside diame- with die motion and take place after the dies automotive applications (18 to 34 in. nominal
ter, wall thickness, and cross-sectional area all have completed their forward stroke. diameter) is covered by Society of Automotive
are smaller after drawing. Because the metal Tube reducing may be used for all alloys Engineers J528. Requirements for copper tube
work hardens, tubes may be annealed at inter- that can be drawn on draw benches. Slight and pipe to be used in condensers, heat
mediate stages when drawing to small sizes. changes in die design and operating condi- exchangers, economizers, and similar unfired
However, coppers are so ductile that they fre- tions may be required to accommodate differ- pressure vessels are given in the American
quently can be drawn to finished size without ent alloys. Small-diameter tube may be pro- Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
intermediate annealing. duced by block or bench drawing following specifications listed in Table 20. (ASME
Tube reducing is an alternative process for tube reducing. materials specifications are almost always
cold sizing of tube. In tube reducing, semicir- identical to ASTM specifications having the
cular grooved dies are rolled or rocked back same numerical designation; for example,
and forth along the tube while a tapered man- ASME SB111 is identical to ASTM B 111.)
drel inside the tube controls the inside diam- Product Specifications Certain tube alloys are covered in Aerospace
eter and wall thickness. The process yields Material Specifications (AMS), which apply
tube having very accurate dimensions and to materials for aerospace applications. These
better concentricity than can be achieved by Copper tube and pipe are available in a are given below:
tube drawing. wide variety of nominal diameters and wall
The grooves in the tube-reducing dies are thicknesses, from small-diameter capillary AMS
tapered, one end of the grooved section being tube to 300 mm (12 in.) nominal-diameter specifications Product Copper alloy
somewhat larger than the outside diameter of pipe. To a certain extent, dimensions and tol- 4555 Seamless brass tube, C26000, C33000
the tube to be sized. As the dies are rocked, erances for copper tube and pipe depend on light annealed
the tube is pinched against the tapered man- the type of service for which they are intend- 4558 Seamless brass tube, C33200
drawn
drel, which reduces wall thickness and ed. The standard dimensions and tolerances 4625 Phosphor bronze, hard C51000
increases tube length. The tube is fed longitu- for several kinds of copper tube and pipe are temper
dinally, and rotated on its axis to distribute the given in the ASTM specifications listed in 4640 Aluminum bronze C63000
cold work uniformly around the circumfer- Table 20, along with other requirements for 4665 Seamless silicon bronze C65500
tube, annealed
Table 20 ASTM and ASME specifications for copper tube and pipe
Tubular product ASTM ASME Rod, Bar, and Shapes
Seamless pipe and tube
Seamless copper alloy (C69100) pipe and tube B 706 … For the copper metals, rod is defined as a
Seamless pipe and tube, copper-nickel alloy(a) B 466 round, hexagonal, or octagonal product. Bar
B 466M(a) SB466
Seamless pipe and tube, copper-silicon alloy B 315 SB315
refers to square or rectangular cross sections,
Seamless pipe and tube, for electrical conductors B 188 … while shapes can have oval, half-round, geomet-
Seamless pipe, standard sizes B 42 … ric, or custom-ordered profiles. Examples of rod
Seamless pipe, threadless B 302 … and bar products are shown in Fig. 15, and a
Seamless tube variety of specialty shapes are shown in Fig. 16.
Seamless copper alloy tubes (C19200 and C70600), B 469 … The three basic product forms are differentiated
for pressure applications from wire in that they are sold in straight
Seamless copper-nickel tubes, for desalting plants B 552 …
Seamless tube(a) B 75 SB75
lengths, whereas wire is sold in coils.
B 75M(a) … Specifications and Properties. General
Seamless tube, brass(a) B 135 requirements for wrought copper and copper
B 135M(a) SB135 alloy rod, bar, shaped, and forgings are out-
Seamless tube, bright annealed(a) B 68 …
B 68M(a) …
lined in ASTM B 249. Other ASTM for rod,
Seamless tube, capillary, hard drawn B 360 … bar, and shapes are listed in Table 21. Tensile
Seamless tube, condenser and heat exchanger(a) B 111, B 395 SB111, SB395 and yield properties for rod are listed in
B 111M(a) … Tables 3 and 4.
B 395M(a) …
Seamless tube, condenser and heat exchanger, B 359 SB359
Forming. Bending and rotary swaging
with integral fins(a) of copper and copper alloy rod, bar, and
B 359M(a) … shapes are discussed in the article “Forming”
Seamless tube, for air conditioning B 280 … in this Handbook.
and refrigeration service
Seamless tube, drainage B 306 …
Seamless tube, general requirements(a) B 251 …
B 251M(a) … Forgings
Seamless tube, rectangular waveguide B 372 …
Seamless tube, water(a) B 88 …
B 88M(a) … Copper-base forgings represent a relatively
Welded pipe and tube small but important class of products. Forgings
Hard temper welded copper tube (C21000), B 642 … are typically moderate-size products, such as
for general plumbing and fluid conveyance valves, fittings, mechanical devices, and archi-
Welded brass tube, for general application B 587 … tectural hardware, rarely exceeding 90 kg (200
Welded copper tube, for air conditioning-refrigeration B 640 …
Welded pipe and tube, copper-nickel alloy B 467 SB467
lb). Because forgings tend to be somewhat more
Welded tube, C10800 and 12000(a) B 543 SB543 costly than comparably sized castings, forged
B 543M(a) … products are usually reserved for applications in
Welded tube, all other coppers B 447 … which special qualities are needed.
(a) Suffix “M” indicates a metric specification.
Strong, Tough Structures. Forging of copper
metals is performed hot, and the severe defor-
mation involved produces a dense, fibrous grain ing less than about 0.9 kg (2 lb). Tolerances are as dies for pressure die casting (a competing
structure that gives the products excellent slightly wider in heavier forgings, but dimen- process). Also, forging dies are usually a one-
mechanical properties. Forgings are therefore sions can be held as tight as 0.025 mm time expense to the customer, whereas the main-
preferred for thin-walled pressure-retaining (0.001 in.) in special cases. Flatness tolerances tenance, repair, and replacement of casting dies
devices, such as valves and fittings. are typically on the order of 0.12 mm/25 mm are usually the customer’s responsibility.
Fine Surface Finishes. Copper-base forgings (0.005 in./in.) for the first 25 mm and 0.075 Finally, forgings use significantly less metal per
can be expected to have surface finishes as fine mm/25 mm (0.003 in./in.) thereafter. part than castings or screw-machine products
as at least 32 m (125 in.). Finer finishes are Intricate detail and sharp lettering makes because forged products can be made with thin-
possible in many cases, but this depends very forging the preferred method of manufacture ner walls and lighter sections. Forging also gen-
much on the size and shape of the product. In for decorative and architectural products, such erates less runaround scrap, thereby reducing
general, better surface finishes are easier to as doorplates. energy consumption.
obtain on smaller products. Lower Environmental Risk. Unlike sand Materials. Ideal forging characteristics
Consistent Dimensions, Close Tolerances. casting, forging produces neither hazardous include low force requirements, little tendency
Copper-base forgings can be made to precise fumes nor residues that require expensive to crack, and good surface finishes. Forging
dimensions and to sections thinner than 3.2 mm clean up or special disposal. There is no brass, C37700, is by far the most commonly
(0.125 in.); however, section sizes are normally waste, and all unused metal is recycled to used alloy. It is a leaded yellow brass contain-
limited by the features of the part in question. make new alloy. ing sufficient beta phase to provide high-tem-
Typical commercial tolerances fall between Cost Considerations. Forgings are usually perature ductility. Forging brass also contains
0.2 and 0.4 mm (0.008 and 0.015 in.), more costly than castings, but there are excep- about 2% Pb, making it free machining. Other
depending on configuration, in forgings weigh- tions. Forging dies cost about one-half as much commonly forged copper alloys include naval
brass (C46400), lead naval brass (C48500),
Table 21 ASTM specifications for copper rod, bar, and shapes electrolytic tough pitch copper (C11000), tel-
lurium-copper (C14500), manganese bronze
Product ASTM(a) Alloy
(C67500), and aluminum-silicon bronze
Bar, bus bar, rod, shapes B 187/B 187M Copper (C64200). More detailed information on the
Forging, rod, bar, shapes B 124/B 124M Copper and copper alloys
Rod B 453/B 453M Leaded brass forging characteristics of forging alloys can be
Rod, bar, shapes B 16/B 16M Free-cutting brass found in the article “Forging and Extrusion” in
Rod, bar, shapes B 301/B 301M Free-cutting copper this Handbook.
Rod, bar, shapes B 21/B 21M Naval brass Specifications for copper and copper alloy
Rod, bar, shapes B 150/B 150M Aluminum bronze
Rod, bar B 196/B 196M Beryllium-copper forging alloys include ASTM B 124 (see Table
Rod, bar B 441 Alloy C17500 21), B 283 (die forgings—hot pressed), and B
Rod, bar B 411 Copper-nickel-silicon alloy 570 (beryllium-copper forgings and extrusions).
Rod, bar B 151/B 151M Nickel silver
Rod, bar, shapes B 98/B 98M Copper-silicon alloy
Rod, bar, shapes B 140/B 140M Leaded red brass or hardware bronze ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Rod B 371 Copper-zinc-silicon alloy
Rod, bar, shapes B 138/B 138M Manganese bronze
Rod, bar, shapes B 139/B 139M Phosphor bronze This article was adapted from:
(a) The suffix "M" indicates a metric specification. • D.E. Tyler and W.T. Black, Introduction to
Copper and Copper Alloys, Properties and
Fig. 15 Examples of copper bar and rod products Fig. 16 Examples of copper custom shapes
Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Special- (Covina, CA), Society for the 900365, (Warrendale, Pa.), Society of
Purpose Materials, Vol 2, ASM Handbook, Advancement of Material and Process Automotive Engineers Inc., 1990
ASM International, 1990, p 216–240 Engineering, 1993 5. C.J. Gaffoglio, “Concepts in Corrosion and
• D.E. Tyler, Wrought Copper and Copper 2. D. Tyler and A. Khan, “High Conductivity Biofouling Control Using Copper-Nickel,”
Alloy Products, Properties and Selection: Copper Alloys: Tailoring Performance to Proc. First OMAE Specialty Symposium on
Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose Application,” Proc. EHC ’93, Copper in Offshore and Arctic Frontiers, (New York,
Materials, Vol 2, ASM Handbook, ASM Technology and Energy Efficiency, (Potters Bar, N.Y.), American Society of Mechanical
International, 1990, p 241–264 Hertfordshire, U.K.), Copper Development Engineers, 1986
• Copper and Copper Alloys, Metals Assn. (U.K.), 1993 6. C.J. Gaffoglio, Copper-Nickel Sheathing
Handbook Desk Edition, 2nd ed., J.R. Davis, 3. J.C. Harkness, W.D. Spiegelberg, and W.R. Improving Jacket Performance, Offshore,
Ed., ASM International, 1998, p 506–558 Cribb, Beryllium-Copper and Other Nov 1985
• D.T. Peters and K.J.A. Kundig, Selecting Beryllium-Containing Alloys, Properties 7. E.K. Albaugh, Copper-Nickel Piping Reduces
Coppers and Copper Alloys, Part I: Wrought and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Costs, Biofouling/Corrosion, World Oil,
Products, Adv. Mater. Process., Vol 145 (No. Special-Purpose Materials, Vol 2, ASM Nov 1984
2), Feb 1994 Handbook, ASM International, 1990, p 8. J.L. Manzolillo, E.W. Thiele Jr., and A.H.
403–427 Tuthill, CA-706 Copper-Nickel Alloy Hulls:
REFERENCES 4. E.W. Thiele, K.J.A. Kundig, D.W. Murphy, G. The Copper Mariner’s Experience and
Soloway, and B. Duffin, “Comparable Economics, Society of Naval Architects and
1. J. Crane and A. Khan, “New Connector Machinability of Brasses, Steels and Marine Engineers Transactions, Vol 84, 1976
Materials for the Automobile,” Proc. Third Aluminum Alloys; CDA’s Universal 9. The Copper Tube Handbook, Copper
Japan International SAMPE Symposium, Machinability Index,” SAE Technical Paper Development Association Inc., 1995
Cast Copper and Copper Alloys
COPPER CASTING ALLOYS are primarily solidification process. The role of lead is to seal significantly higher strengths, higher hardness
selected for either their corrosion resistance or these intradendritic pores. This results in a pres- and wear resistance, higher fatigue resistance,
their combination of corrosion resistance and sure-tight casting, which is important for fluid- and better castability, yet they retain most of the
mechanical properties. These materials also fea- handling applications. electrical and thermal conductivity of pure cop-
ture good castability, high machinability, and, Lead also allows the machining of castings to per. Corrosion and oxidation resistance of these
compared with other corrosion-resistant alloys, be performed at higher speeds without the aid of alloys are as good or better than those of pure
reasonable cost. Additional benefits include bio- coolants because it acts as a lubricant for cut- copper, because alloying improves the chemical
fouling resistance—important in marine appli- ting-tool edges and promotes the formation of and mechanical properties of their protective
cations—and a spectrum of attractive colors. small, discontinuous chips that easily can be oxide films. Within their useful temperature
Many of the alloys also have favorable tribolog- cleared. This results in improved machine sur- range, which extends from the cryogenic region
ical properties, which explains their widespread face finishes. Lead also plays a role in providing to 400 °C (750 °F), depending on composition,
use for sleeve bearings, wear plates, gears, and lubricity during service as in cast copper bear- no other engineering materials can match their
wear-prone components. ings and bushings. Lead does not have an combination of conductivity, strength, and cor-
adverse effect on strength unless present in high rosion resistance.
concentrations, but it does reduce ductility. Chromium-Copper. Several of the high-
Copper Casting Alloy Families Although lead-containing copper alloys can be copper alloys can be age hardened. In the
soldered and brazed, they cannot be welded. fully aged condition, the strength of chromi-
The copper-base casting alloys are designated um-copper (C81500) is roughly twice that of
in the Unified Numbering System (UNS) with pure copper, and its electrical conductivity
Coppers and High-Copper Alloys
numbers ranging from C80000 to C99999 (see remains higher than 80% IACS. Chromium-
the article “Standard Designations for Wrought Cast coppers (C80100–C81200) are high- copper is used for electromechanical products
and Cast Copper and Copper Alloys” in this purity metals containing at least 99.3% Cu. such as welding-machine clamps, resistance
Handbook). Also, copper alloys in cast form are (Wrought coppers have a slightly higher mini- welding electrodes, and high-strength electri-
sometimes classified according to their freezing mum copper content.) Trace amounts of silver cal cable connectors.
range (that is, the temperature range between the or phosphorus (a deoxidizer) may be present. Beryllium Copper Grades. The age-hardening
liquidus and solidus temperatures). The freezing Silver imparts annealing resistance, while phos- beryllium coppers can be further categorized as
range of various copper alloys is discussed in the phorus facilitates welding. Neither element high-conductivity alloys, such as C82200 (nom-
section “Control of Solidification” in this article. affects electrical conductivity significantly inally 0.6% Be), and high-strength grades, such
when present in such small concentrations. as C82500 (2% Be). Alloy selection depends on
Electrical conductivity can be as high as 100% whether electrical or mechanical properties are
Cast versus Wrought Compositions
IACS, while thermal conductivity can reach 391 more important. In the fully aged condition
Compositions of copper casting alloys (Table W/m K (226 Btu/ft2/ft/h/°F). Coppers have (TF00 temper), the high-conductivity alloy
1) may differ from those of their wrought coun- very modest strength and cannot be hardened by develops about 60% of the strength, but twice
terparts for various reasons. Generally, casting heat treatment. the conductivity, of the high-strength alloy.
permits greater latitude in the use of alloying Oxygen-free copper (C80100) has the highest Beryllium coppers are relatively expensive,
elements because the effects of composition on electrical and thermal conductivity among the but they can be very cost effective when proper-
hot- or cold-working properties are not impor- cast copper alloys, but it is essentially identical ly used. Plastic injection molds, a common
tant. However, imbalances among certain ele- to phosphorus-deoxidized copper (C81200) in application, are a good example. Copper-berylli-
ments, and trace amounts of certain impurities in other respects. Both oxygen-free and deoxidized um casting alloys have high fluidity and can
some alloys, will diminish castability and can coppers are readily weldable. reproduce fine details in master patterns. Their
result in castings of lower quality. Ironically, while copper alloys are among the high conductivity enables high production
Lead Additions. Lead is commonly added to most easily cast engineering materials, unal- speed, while their good corrosion/oxidation
many cast copper alloys. As shown in Table 1, loyed copper presents a number of casting diffi- resistance promotes long die life. Other applica-
many alloys have lead contents of 5% or more. culties: coarse, often columnar grain structures; tions for beryllium copper alloys include inlet
Alloys containing such high percentages of lead rough surfaces; and a tendency to form shrink- guide vanes for helicopter turbine engines
are not suited to hot working, but they offer sev- age cavities. Although these problems can be (C82200), pitot tube housings for high-speed
eral advantages as castings. Because of the low overcome by proper foundry practice, use of cast aircraft, golf club heads (C82500), and compo-
solubility of lead in copper, true alloying does pure copper is generally reserved for applica- nents of undersea-cable repeater housings.
not occur to any measurable degree. During the tions that demand the highest electrical and/or
solidification of castings, some constituents in a thermal conductivities. Typical products include Brasses
given alloy form crystals at higher temperatures large electrical connectors and water-cooled,
relative to others, resulting in treelike structures hot-metal handling equipment such as blast-fur- Brasses (C83300–C87900 and C89320–
called dendrites. The small spaces between the nace tuyeres. C89940) are copper alloys in which zinc is the
dendrites can interconnect to form micropores. High-Copper Alloys. Compared with pure dominant alloying addition. Because of their
This microporosity is a consequence of the copper, the dilute alloys (C81400–C82800) have excellent castability, relatively low cost, and
Table 1 Compositions, uses, and characteristics of copper alloy castings

Other designations, Applicable
Composition(b), wt%
descriptive names casting
UNS No. (former SAE No.) processes(a) Cu Sn Pb Zn Ni Fe Other
Coppers: High-purity coppers with excellent electrical and thermal conductivities. Deoxidation of C81200 improves weldability.
C80100 Oxygen-free copper S, C, CL, PM, I, P 99.95(c) … … … … … …
C81100 High-conductivity copper S, C, CL, PM, I, P 99.70(c) … … … … … …
C81200 High-conductivity copper S, C, CL, PM, I, P 99.9(c) … … … … … 0.045–0.065P
High-copper alloys: Relatively high-strength coppers with good electrical and thermal conductivity. Strength generally inversely proportional to conductivities. Used where good combination
of strength and conductivity is needed, as in resistance welding electrodes, switch blades and components, dies, clutch rings, brake drums, as well as bearings and bushings. Beryllium coppers
have highest strength of all copper alloys and are used in bearings, mechanical products, and nonsparking safety tools.
C81400 70C S, C, CL, PM, I, P 98.5 min(d) … … … … … 0.02–0.10 Be, 0.6–1.0 Cr
C81500 Chromium-copper S, C, CL, PM, I, P 98.0 min(d) 0.10 0.02 0.10 … 0.10 0.15 Si, 0.10 Al,
0.40–1.5 Cr
C81540 Chromium-copper S, C, CL, PM, I, P 95.1 min(d)(e) 0.10 0.02 0.10 2.0–3.0(f) 0.15 0.40–0.8 Si, 0.10 Al,
0.10–0.6 Cr
C82000 10C S, C, CL, PM, I, P, D bal(d) 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.10 Al, 0.10 Cr, 0.15 Si,
2.40–2.70 Co(f),
0.45–0.8 Be
C82200 35C, 53B S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(d) … … … 1.0–2.0 … 0.35–0.80 Be, 0.30 Co
C82400 165C S, C, CL, PM, I, P, D bal(d) 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.20 0.20 0.20–0.65 Co, 1.60–1.85 Be,
0.15 Al, 0.10 Cr
C82500 20C S, C, CL, PM, I, P, D bal(d) 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.20 0.25 1.90–2.25 Be, 0.35–0.70 Co(f),
0.20–0.35 Si, 0.15 Al,
0.10 Cr
C82510 Increased-Co 20C S, C, CL, PM, I, P, D bal(d) 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.20 0.25 1.90–2.15 Be, 1.0–1.2 Co(f),
0.20–0.35 Si, 0.15 Al,
0.10 Cr
C82600 245C S, C, CL, PM, I, P, D bal(d) 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.20 0.25 2.25–2.55 Be, 0.35–0.65 Co,
0.20–0.35 Si, 0.15 Al,
0.10 Cr
C82700 Ni-Be-Cu S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(d) 0.10 0.02 0.10 1.0–1.5 0.25 2.35–2.55 Be, 0.15 Si,
0.15 Al, 0.10 Cr
C82800 275C S, C, CL, PM, I, P, D bal(d) 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.20 0.25 2.50–2.85 Be, 0.35–0.70 Co(f),
0.20–0.35 Si, 0.15 Al,
0.10 Cr
Cu-Sn-Zn and Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb alloys (red and leaded red brasses): High-copper brasses with reasonable electrical conductivity and moderate strength. Used for electrical hardware, including
cable connectors
C83300 131, contact metal S, C, CL 92.0–94.0(g)(h) 1.0–2.0 1.0–2.0 2.0–6.0 … … …
C83400 407.5, commercial bronze S, C, CL 88.0–92.0(g)(h) 0.20 0.50 8.0–12.0 1.0 0.25 0.25 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.03 P,
90/10, gilding metal 0.005 Si, 0.005 Al
C83450 Nickel-bearing leaded S, C, CL 87.0–89.0(g)(h) 2.0–3.5 1.5–3.0 5.5–7.5 0.8–2.0(i) 0.30 0.25 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.03 P(j),
red brass 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C83500 Leaded nickel-bearing S, C, CL 86.0–88.0(g)(h) 5.5–6.5 3.5–5.5 1.0–2.5 0.50–1.0(i) 0.25 0.25 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.03 P(j),
tin bronze 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
Cu-Sn-Zn and Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb alloys (red and leaded red brasses): Good corrosion resistance, excellent castability, and moderate strength. Lead content ensures pressure tightness. Alloy
C83600 is one of the most important cast alloys, widely used for plumbing fittings and other water-service goods. Alloy C83800 has slightly lower strength, but is essentially similar in proper-
ties and application.
C83600 115, 85-5-5-5, composition S, C, CL 84.0–86.0(g)(h) 4.0–6.0 4.0–6.0 4.0–6.0 1.0(i) 0.30 0.25 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.05 P(j),
bronze, ounce metal, 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
(SAE 40)
C83800 120, 83-4-6-7, commercial S, C, CL 82.0–83.8(g)(h) 3.3–4.2 5.0–7.0 5.0–8.0 1.0(i) 0.30 0.25 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.03 P(j),
red brass, hydraulic bronze 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C83810 Nickel-bearing leaded S, C, CL bal(g)(h) 2.0–3.5 4.0–6.0 7.5–9.5 2.0(i) 0.50(k) Sb(k), As(k), 0.005 Al, 0.10 Si
red brass
Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb alloys (leaded semired brasses): General-purpose alloys for plumbing and hardware goods. Good machinability and pressure tightness. Alloy C84400 is the most popular
plumbing alloy in U.S. Markets.
C84200 101, 80-5-21/2-121/2 S, C, CL 78.0–82.0(g)(h) 4.0–6.0 2.0–3.0 10.0–16.0 0.8(i) 0.40 0.25 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.05 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C84400 123, 81-3-7-9, valve S, C, CL 78.0–82.0(g)(h) 2.3–3.5 6.0–8.0 7.0–10.0 1.0(i) 0.40 0.25 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.02 P(j),
composition, 81 metal 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C84410 … S, C, CL bal(g)(1) 3.0–4.5 7.0–9.0 7.0–11.0 1.0(i) (m) Sb(m), 0.01 Al, 0.20 Si,
0.05 Bi
C84500 125, 78 metal S, C, CL 77.0–79.0(g)(h) 2.0–4.0 6.0–7.5 10.0–14.0 1.0(i) 0.40 0.25 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.02 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C84800 130, 76-3-6-15, 76 metal S, C, CL 75.0–77.0(g)(h) 2.0–3.0 5.5–7.0 13.0–17.0 1.0(i) 0.40 0.25 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.02 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
(continued)
(a) Casting processes: S, sand; D, die; C, continuous; I, investment; PM, permanent mold; CL, centrifugal; and P, plaster. (b) Composition values are given as maximum percentages, unless shown as a range or minimum. (c)
Including Ag, % min. (d) Cu + sum of named elements, 99.5% min. (e) Includes Ag. (f) Ni + Co. (g) In determining copper min, copper can be calculated as Cu + Ni. (h) Cu + sum of named elements, 99.3% min. (i) Including
Co. (j) For continuous castings, P is 1.5% max. (k) Fe + Sb + As is 0.50% max. (l) Cu + sum of named elements, 99.2% min. (m) Fe + Sb +As is 0.8% max. (n) Cu + sum of named elements, 99.1% min. (o) Cu + sum of named
elements, 98.7% min. (p) Cu + sum of named elements, 99.0% min. (q) Cu + sum of named elements, 99.4% min. (r) Cu + sum of named elements, 99.7% min. (s) Fe is 0.35% max, when used for steel-backed bearings. (t) Cu
+ sum of named elements, 98.9% min. (u) For continuous castings, S is 0.25% max. (v) The mechanical properties of C94700 (heat treated) may not be attainable if the lead content exceeds 0.01%. (w) Cu + sum of named ele-
ments, 99.8% min. (x) Fe content should not exceed Ni content. (y) The following additional maximum impurity limits shall apply: 0.10% Al, 0.001% B, 0.001% Bi, 0.005–0.15% Mg, 0.005% P, 0.0025% S, 0.02% Sb, 7.5–8.5%
Sn, 0.01% T, and 1.0% Zn. (z)Cu + sum of named elements, 99.6% min. (aa) Pb and Ag can be adjusted to modify the alloy hardness. Source: Copper Development Association Inc.
Cast Copper and Copper Alloys / 87
Table 1 (continued)
Composition(b), wt%
Copper-zinc and Cu-Zn-Pb alloys (yellow and leaded yellow brasses): Low-cost, low-to-moderate strength, general-purpose casting alloys with good machinability, adequate corrosion
resistance for many water-service applications including marine hardware and automotive cooling systems. Some compositions are amenable to permanent mold and die casting processes.
C85200 400, 72-1-3-24, high copper S, C, CL 70.0–74.0(g)(n) 0.7–2.0 1.5–3.8 20.0–27.0 1.0(i) 0.6 0.20 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.02 P,
yellow brass 0.005 Al, 0.05 Si
C85400 403, 67-1-3-29, commercial S, C, CL, PM, I, P 65.0–70.0(g)(o) 0.50–1.5 1.5–3.8 24.0–32.0 1.0(i) 0.7 0.35 Al, 0.05 Si
No. 1 yellow brass
C85500 60-40 yellow brass S, C, CL 59.0–63.0(g)(o) 0.20 0.20 bal 0.20(i) 0.20 0.20 Mn
C85700 405.2, 63-1-1-35, B2, S, C, CL, PM, I, P 58.0–64.0(g)(n) 0.50–1.5 0.80–1.5 32.0–40.0 1.0(i) 0.7 0.8 Al, 0.05Si
permanent mold brass
C85800 405.1, die casting yellow S, C, CL, PM, I, P, D 57.0 min(g)(o) 1.5 1.5 31.0–41.0 0.50(i) 0.50 0.05 Sb, 0.25 Mn, 0.05 As,
brass 0.05 S, 0.01 P, 0.55 Al,
0.25 Si
Manganese bronze and leaded manganese bronze alloys (high-strength and leaded-high-strength yellow brasses): Alloys with high mechanical strength, good corrosion resistance, and
favorable castability. Can be machined, but with the exception of C86400 and C86700, are less readily machined than leaded compositions. Alloy C86300 can attain tensile strengths exceeding
115 ksi (793 MPa). Used for mechanical devices: gears, levers, brackets, and valve and pump components for fresh and seawater service. When used for high-strength bearings, alloys C86300
and C86400 require hardened shafts.
C86100 423, 90,000 tensile S, CL, PM, I, P 66.0–68.0(g)(p) 0.20 0.20 bal … 2.0–4.0 4.5–5.5 Al, 2.5–5.5 Mn
manganese bronze
C86200 423, 95,000 tensile S, C, CL, PM, I, P, D 60.0–66.0(g)(p) 0.20 0.20 22.0–28.0 1.0(i) 2.0–4.0 3.0–4.9 Al, 2.5–5.0 Mn
manganese bronze,
(SAE 430 A)
C86300 424, 110,000 tensile S, C, CL, PM, I, P 60.0–66.0(g)(p) 0.20 0.20 22.0–28.0 1.0(i) 2.0–4.0 5.0–7.5 Al, 2.5–5.0 Mn
manganese bronze,
(SAE 430 B)
C86400 420, 60,000 tensile S, C, CL, PM, I, P, D 56.0–62.0(g)(p) 0.50–1.5 0.50–1.5 34.0–42.0 1.0(i) 0.40–2.0 0.50–1.5 Al, 0.10–1.5 Mn
manganese bronze
C86500 421, 65,000 tensile S, C, CL, PM, I, P 55.0–60.0(e)(m) 1.0 0.40 36.0–42.0 1.0(i) 0.40–2.0 0.50–1.5 Al, 0.10–1.5 Mn
manganese bronze,
(SAE 43)
C86700 422, 80,000 tensile S, C, CL, PM, I, P 55.0–60.0(g)(p) 1.5 0.50–1.5 30.0–38.0 1.0(i) 1.0–3.0 1.0–3.0 Al, 0.10–3.5 Mn
manganese bronze
C86800 Nickel-manganese bronze S, C, CL, PM, I, P 53.5–57.0(g)(p) 1.0 0.20 bal 2.5–4.0(i) 1.0–2.5 2.0 Al, 2.5–4.0 Mn
Copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronzes and silicon brasses): Moderate to high-strength alloys with good corrosion resistance and favorable casting properties. Used for mechanical products
and pump components where combination of strength and corrosion resistance is important. Similar compositions are commonly die and/or permanent mold cast in Europe and the United
Kingdom.
C87300 95-1-4, silicon bronze S, C, CL, PM, I, P 94.0 min(d) … 0.20 0.25 … 0.20 3.5–4.5 Si, 0.80–1.5 Mn
C87400 500 S, CL, PM, I, P, D 79.0 min(d) … 1.0 12.0–16.0 … … 0.80 Al, 2.5–4.0 Si
C87500 500 S, CL, PM, I, P, D 79.0 min(d) … 0.50 12.0–16.0 … … 0.50 Al, 3.0–5.0 Si
C87600 500, low zinc silicon brass S, CL, PM, I, P, D 88.0 min(d) … 0.50 4.0–7.0 … 0.20 3.5–5.5 Si, 0.25 Mn
C87610 … S, CL, PM, I, P, D 90.0 min(d) … 0.20 3.0–5.0 … 0.20 3.0–5.0 Si, 0.25 Mn
C87800 500, die cast silicon brass S, CL, PM, I, P, D 80.0 min(d) 0.25 0.15 12.0–16.0 0.20(i) 0.15 0.15 Al, 3.8–4.2 Si, 0.15 Mn,
0.01 Mg, 0.05 S, 0.01 P,
0.05 As, 0.05 Sb
Copper-bismuth and Cu-Bi-Se brasses: Good lubricity and machinability with very low lead. Meets potable water standards. Used for bearings and bushings, plumbing fixtures, valves, and
fittings for potable water and food processing.
C89510 SeBiLOY I S 86.0–88.08 4.0–6.0 0.25 4.0–6.0 1.0(f) … 0.5–1.5 Bi, 0.35–0.7 Se
C89520 SeBiLOY II S 85.0–87.0 5.0–6.0 0.25 4.0–6.0 1.0(f) … 1.6–2.2 Bi, 0.8–1.1 Se
C89550 SeBiLOY III PM 58.0–64.0 0.5–1.5 0.20 32.0–40.0 1.0(f) 0.7 0.30–0.7 Al, 0.7–1.0 Bi,
0.07–0.25 Se
Copper-tin alloys (tin bronzes): Hard, strong alloys with good corrosion resistance, especially against seawater. As bearings, they are wear resistant and resist pounding well. Moderately
machinable. Widely used for gears, wormwheels, bearings, marine fittings, piston rings, and pump components.
C90200 242, 93-7-0-0 S, C, CL, PM, I, P 91.0–94.0(g)(q) 6.0–8.0 0.30 0.50 0.50(i) 0.20 0.20 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.05 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C90300 225, 88-8-0-4, Navy “G” S, C, CL, PM, I, P 86.0–89.0(g)(q) 7.5–9.0 0.30 3.0–5.0 1.0(i) 0.20 0.20 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.05 P(j),
bronze, (SAE 620) 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C90500 210, 88-10-0-2, gun metal, S, C, CL, PM, I, P 86.0–89.0(g)(r) 9.0–11.0 0.30 1.0–3.0 1.0(i) 0.20 0.20 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.05 P(j),
(SAE 62) 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C90700 205, 89-11, (SAE 65) S, C, CL, PM, I, P 88.0–90.0(g)(q) 10.0–12.0 0.50 0.50 0.50(i) 0.15 0.20 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.30 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C90710 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(g)(q) 10.0–12.0 0.25 0.05 0.10(i) 0.10 0.20 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.05–1.2 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C90800 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P 85.0–89.0(g)(q) 11.0–13.0 0.25 0.25 0.50(i) 0.15 0.20 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.30 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C90810 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(g)(q) 11.0–13.0 0.25 0.30 0.50(i) 0.15 0.20 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.15–0.8 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Composition(b), wt%
Copper-tin alloys (tin bronzes) (continued)

0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C91100 84-16-0-0 S, C, CL, PM, I, P 82.0–85.0(g)(q) 15.0–17.0 0.25 0.25 0.50(i) 0.25 0.20 Sb, 0.05 S, 1.0 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C91300 194, 81-19 S, C, CL, PM, I, P 79.0–82.0(g)(q) 18.0–20.0 0.25 0.25 0.50(i) 0.25 0.20 Sb, 0.05 S, 1.0 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C91600 205N, 88-101/2,0-0-11/2, S, C, CL, PM, I, P 86.0–89.0(g)(q) 9.7–10.8 0.25 0.25 1.2–2.0(i) 0.20 0.20 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.30 P(j),
nickel gear bronze 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C91700 861/2-12-0-0-11/2, nickel S, C, CL, PM, I, P 84.0–87.0(g)(q) 11.3–12.5 0.25 0.25 1.20–2.0(i) 0.20 0.20 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.30 P(j),
gear bronze 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
Cu-Sn-Pb alloys (leaded tin bronzes): Lead improves machinability in these tin bronzes, but does not materially affect mechanical properties. The alloys are essentially free-cutting versions of
the tin bronzes, above, and have similar properties and uses.
C92200 245, 88-6-11/2-41/2, S, C, CL, PM, I, P 86.0–90.0(g)(h) 5.5–6.5 1.0–2.0 3.0–5.0 1.0(i) 0.25 0.25 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.05 P(j),
Navy “M” bronze, 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
steam bronze, (SAE 622)
C92210 … … 86.0–89.0(g)(h) 4.5–5.5 1.7–2.5 3.0–4.5 0.7–1.0 0.25 0.25 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.03 P,
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C92300 230, 87-8-1-4, leaded S, C, CL, PM, I, P 85.0–89.0(g)(h) 7.5–9.0 0.30–1.0 2.5–5.0 1.0(i) 0.25 0.25 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.05 P(j),
“G” bronze 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C92310 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(g)(h) 7.5–8.5 0.30–1.5 3.5–4.5 1.0(i) … 0.03 Mn, 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C92400 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P 86.0–89.0(g)(h) 9.0–11.0 1.0–2.5 1.0–3.0 1.0(i) 0.25 0.25 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.05 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C92410 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(g)(h) 6.0–8.0 2.5–3.5 1.5–3.0 0.20(i) 0.20 0.25 Sb, 0.05 Mn, 0.005 Al,
0.005 Si
C92500 200, 87-11-1-0-1, (SAE 640) S, C, CL, PM, I, P 85.0–88.0(g) 10.0–12.0 1.0–1.5 0.50 0.8–1.5(i) 0.30 0.25 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.30 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C92600 215, 87-10-1-2 S, C, CL, PM, I, P 86.0–88.50(g)(h) 9.3–10.5 0.8–1.5 1.3–2.5 0.7(i) 0.20 0.25 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.03 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C92610 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(g)(h) 9.5–10.5 0.30–1.5 1.7–2.8 1.0(i) 0.15 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si, 0.03 Mn
C92700 206, 88-10-2-0, (SAE 63) S, C, CL, PM, I, P 86.0–89.0(g)(h) 9.0–11.0 1.0–2.5 0.7 1.0(i) 0.20 0.25 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.25 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C92710 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(g)(h) 9.0–11.0 4.0–6.0 1.0 2.0(i) 0.20 0.25 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.10 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C92800 295, 79-16-5-0 ring metal S, C, CL, PM, I, P 78.0–82.0(g)(h) 15.0–17.0 4.0–6.0 0.8 0.80(i) 0.20 0.25 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.05 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C92810 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P 78.0–82.0(g) 12.0–14.0 4.0–6.0 0.50 0.8–1.2(i) 0.50 0.25 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.05 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C92900 84-10-21/2-0-31/2, leaded S, C, CL, PM, I, P 82.0–86.0(g) 9.0–11.0 2.0–3.2 0.25 2.8–4.0(i) 0.20 0.25 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.50 P(j),
nickel tin bronze 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
Cu-Sn-Pb alloys (high leaded tin bronzes): Most commonly used bearing alloys, found in bearings operating at moderate to high speeds, as in electric motors and appliances. Alloy C93200 is
considered the workhorse alloy of the series. Alloy C93600 has improved machining and antiseizing properties. C93800 noted for good corrosion resistance against concentrations of sulfuric
acid below 78%. Alloy C94100 is especially good under boundary lubricated conditions.
C93100 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(g)(p) 6.5–8.5 2.0–5.0 2.0 1.0(i) 0.25 0.25 Sb, 0.05 S, 0.30 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C93200 315, 83-7-7-3, bearing S, C, CL, PM, I, P 81.0–85.0(g)(p) 6.3–7.5 6.0–8.0 1.0–4.0 1.0(i) 0.20 0.35 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.15 P(j),
bronze, (SAE 660) 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C93400 311, 84-8-8-0 S, C, CL, PM, I, P 82.0–85.0(g)(p) 7.0–9.0 7.0–9.0 0.8 1.0(i) 0.20 0.50 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.50 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C93500 326, 85-5-9-1, (SAE 66) S, C, CL, PM, I, P 83.0–86.0(g)(p) 4.3–6.0 8.0–10.0 2.0 1.0(i) 0.20 0.30 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.05 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C93600 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P 79.0–83.0(h) 6.0–8.0 11.0–13.0 1.0 1.0(i) 0.20 0.55 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.15 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C93700 305, 80-10-10, bushing and S, C, CL, PM, I, P 78.0–82.0(p) 9.0–11.0 8.0–11.0 0.8 0.50(i) 0.7(s) 0.50 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.10 P(j),
bearing bronze, (SAE 64) 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C93720 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P 83.0 min(p) 3.5–4.5 7.0–9.0 4.0 0.50(i) 0.7 0.50 Sb, 0.10 P(j)
C93800 319, 78-7-15, anti-acid S, C, CL, PM, I, P 75.0–79.0(p) 6.3–7.5 13.0–16.0 0.8 1.0(i) 0.15 0.8 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.05 P(j),
metal, (SAE 67) 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C93900 79-6-15 S, C, CL, PM, I, P 76.5–79.5(t) 5.0–7.0 14.0–18.0 1.5 0.8(i) 0.40 0.50 Sb, 0.08 S, 1.5 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C94000 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P 69.0–72.0(o) 12.0–14.0 14.0–16.0 0.50 0.50–1.0(i) 0.25 0.50 Sb, 0.08 S(u), 0.05 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C94100 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P 72.0–79.0(o) 4.5–6.5 18.0–22.0 1.0 1.0(i) 0.25 0.8 Sb, 0.08 S(u), 0.05 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C94300 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P 67.0–72.0(p) 4.5–6.0 23.0–27.0 0.8 1.0(i) 0.15 0.80 Sb, 0.08 S(u), 0.08 P(j),
0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Composition(b), wt%
Cu-Sn-Pb alloys (high leaded tin bronzes) (continued)

C94310 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(p) 1.50–3.0 27.0–34.0 0.50 0.25–1.0(i) 0.50 0.50 Sb, 0.05 P(j)
C94320 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(p) 4.0–7.0 24.0–32.0 … … 0.35 …
C94330 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P 68.5–75.5(p) 3.0–4.0 21.0–25.0 3.0 0.50(i) 0.7 0.50 Sb, 0.10 P(j)
C94400 312, 81-8-11, phosphor S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(p) 7.0–9.0 9.0–12.0 0.8 1.0(i) 0.15 0.08 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.50 P(j),
bronze 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C94500 321, 73-7-20, medium S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(p) 6.0–8.0 16.0–22.0 1.2 1.0(i) 0.15 0.80 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.05 P,
bronze 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
Cu-Sn-Ni alloys (nickel-tin bronzes): High-strength structural castings. Easy to cast, pressure tight. Corrosion and wear resistant. C94700 is heat treatable. Alloys used for bearings, worm
gears, valve stems and nuts, impellers, screw conveyors, roller bearing cages, and railway electrification hardware.
C94700 88-5-0-2-5 S, C, CL, PM, I, P 85.0–90.0(o) 4.5–6.0 0.10(v) 1.0–2.5 4.5–6.0(i) 0.25 0.15 Sb, 0.20 Mn, 0.05 S,
0.05 P, 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C94800 87-5-1-2-5, leaded S, C, CL, PM, I, P 84.0–89.0(o) 4.5–6.0 0.30–1.0 1.0–2.5 4.5–6.0(i) 0.25 0.15 Sb, 0.20 Mn, 0.05 S,
nickel-tin bronze 0.05 P, 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
C94900 leaded nickel-tin bronze S, C, CL, PM, I, P 79.0–81.0(p) 4.0–6.0(i) 4.0–6.0 4.0–6.0 4.0–6.0(i) 0.30 0.25 Sb, 0.10 Mn, 0.08 S,
0.05 P, 0.005 Al, 0.005 Si
Cu-Al-Fe and Cu-Al-Fe-Ni alloys (aluminum bronzes): The aluminum bronzes are characterized by high strength and excellent corrosion resistance. Alloys containing more than 9.5% Al can
be heat treated, some to tensile strengths exceeding 120 ksi (827 MPa). Uses include a variety of heavy-duty mechanical and structural products including gears, worm drives, valve guides, and
seats. Excellent heavy-duty bearing alloys, but do not tolerate misalignment or dirty lubricants and generally should be used against hardened steel shafts, with both shaft and bearing machined
to fine surface finishes.
C95200 415, 88-3-9, aluminum S, C, CL, PM, I, P 86.0 min(p) … … … … 2.5–4.0 8.5–9.5 Al
bronze 9A, (SAE 68a)
C95210 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P 86.0 min(p) 0.10 0.05 0.50 1.0(i) 2.5–4.0 8.5–9.5 Al, 1.0 Mn, 0.05 Mg,
0.25 Si
C95220 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(p) … … … 2.5(i) 2.5–4.0 9.5–10.5 Al, 0.50 Mn
C95300 415, 89-1-10, aluminum S, C, CL, PM, I, P 83.0 min(p) … … … … 0.8–1.5 9.0–11.0 Al
bronze 9B, (SAE 68b)
C95400 415, 85-4-11, aluminum S, C, CL, PM, I, P 83.0 min(d) … … … 1.5(i) 3.0–5.0 10.0–11.5 Al, 0.50 Mn
bronze 9C
C95410 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P 83.0 min(d) … … … 1.5–2.5(i) 3.0–5.0 10.0–11.5 Al, 0.50 Mn
C95420 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P 83.5 min(d) … … … 0.50(i) 3.0–4.3 10.5–12.0 Al, 0.50 Mn
C95500 415, 81-4-4-11, aluminum S, C, CL, PM, I, P 78.0 min(d) … … … 3.0–5.5(i) 3.0–5.0 10.0–11.5 Al, 3.5 Mn
bronze 9D
C95510 Nickel-aluminum bronze S, C, CL, PM, I, P 78.0 min(w) 0.20 … 0.30 4.5–5.5(i) 2.0–3.5 9.7–10.9 Al, 1.5 Mn
C95520 Nickel-aluminum bronze S, C, CL, PM, I, P 74.5 min(d) 0.25 0.03 0.30 4.2–6.0(i) 4.0–5.5 10.5–11.5 Al, 1.5 Mn,
0.15 Si, 0.20 Co, 0.05 Cr
C95600 91-2-7, aluminum-silicon S, C, CL, PM, I, P 88.0 min(p) … … … 0.25(i) … 6.0–8.0 Al, 1.8–3.2 Si
bronze
C95700 75-3-8-2-12, manganese- S, C, CL, PM, I, P 71.0 min(d) … … … 1.5–3.0(i) 2.0–4.0 7.0–8.5 Al, 11.0–14.0 Mn,
aluminum bronze 0.10 Si
C95710 Manganese-aluminum S, C, CL, PM, I, P 71.0 min(d) 1.0 0.05 0.50 1.5–3.0(i) 2.0–4.0 7.0–8.5 Al, 11.0–14.0 Mn,
bronze 0.15 Si, 0.05 P
C95800 415, 81-5-4-9-1, nickel- S, C, CL, PM, I, P 79.0 min(d) … 0.03 … 4.0–5.0(i)(x) 3.5–4.5(x) 8.5–9.5 Al, 0.8–1.5 Mn,
aluminum bronze. 0.10 Si
propeller bronze
C95810 Nickel-aluminum bronze S, C, CL, PM, I, P 79.0 min(d) … 0.10 0.50 4.0–5.0(i)(x) 3.5–4.5(x) 8.5–9.5 Al, 0.8–1.5 Mn,
0.05 Mg, 0.10 Si
C95900 … S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(d) … … … 0.50(i) 3.0–5.0 12.0–13.5 Al, 1.5 Mn
Cu-Ni-Fe alloys (copper-nickels): Excellent corrosion resistance, especially against seawater. High strength and toughness from low to elevated temperatures. Very widely used in marine appli-
cations, as pump and valve components, fittings, flanges, etc. Beryllium-containing alloys can be heat treated to approximately 110 ksi (758 MPa).
C96200 90-10 copper-nickel S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(d) … 0.01 … 9.0–11.0(i) 1.0–1.8 1.5 Mn, 0.50 Si, 0.5–1.0 Nb,
0.10 C, 0.02 S, 0.02 P
C96300 80-20 copper-nickel S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(d) … 0.01 … 18.0–22.0(i) 0.50–1.5 0.25–1.5 Mn, 0.50 Si,
0.50–1.5 Nb, 0.15 C,
0.02 S, 0.02 P
C96400 70-30 copper-nickel S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(d) … 0.01 … 28.0–32.0(i) 0.25–1.5 1.5 Mn, 0.50 Si, 0.50–1.5 Nb,
0.15 C, 0.02 S, 0.02 P
C96600 717C, Be-Cu-Ni S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(d) … 0.01 … 29.0–33.0(i) 0.8–1.1 1.0 Mn, 0.15 Si, 0.40–0.7 Be
C96700 Be-Zr-Ti-Cu-Ni S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(d) … 0.01 … 29.0–33.0(i) 0.40–0.70 0.40–0.70 Mn, 0.15 Si,
1.1–1.2 Be, 0.15–0.35 Zr,
0.15–0.35 Ti
C96800 Spinodal alloy S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(d) … 0.005 … 9.5–10.5(i) 0.50 0.05–0.30 Mn, 0.05 Si,
0.10–0.30 Nb(y)
C96900 Spinodal alloy S, C, CL, PM, I, P bal(d) 7.5–8.5 0.02 0.50 14.5–15.5(i) 0.50 0.05–0.30 Mn, 0.10 Nb,
0.15 Mg
(continued)
ments, 99.8% min. (x) Fe content should not exceed Ni content. (y) The following additional maximumß impurity limits shall apply: 0.10% Al, 0.001% B, 0.001% Bi, 0.005–0.15% Mg, 0.005% P, 0.0025% S, 0.02% Sb, 7.5–8.5%
Table 1 (continued)
Composition(b), wt%
Cu-Ni-Zn alloys (nickel silvers): Moderately strong alloys with very good corrosion resistance and a pleasing silver color. Used in valves, fittings, and other components for dairy equipment
and as architectural and decorative trim.
C97300 56-2-10-20-12, 12% S, C, CL, PM, I, P 53.0–58.0(p) 1.5–3.0 8.0–11.0 17.0–25.0 11.0–14.0(i) 1.5 0.35 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.05 P,
nickel silver 0.005 Al, 0.50 Mn, 0.15 Si
C97400 59-3-5-17-16, 15% nickel S, C, CL, PM, I, P 58.0–61.0(p) 2.5–3.5 4.5–5.5 bal 15.5–17.0(i) 1.5 0.50 Mn
silver
C97600 64-4-4-8-20, 20% nickel S, C, CL, PM, I, P 63.0–67.0(r) 3.5–4.5 3.0–5.0 3.0–9.0 19.0–21.5(i) 1.5 0.25 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.05 P,
silver, dairy metal 0.005 Al, 1.0 Mn, 0.15 Si
C97800 66-5-2-2-25, 25% nickel S, C, CL, PM, I, P 64.0–67.0(z) 4.0–5.5 1.0–2.5 1.0–4.0 24.0–27.0(i) 1.5 0.20 Sb, 0.08 S, 0.05 P,
silver 0.005 Al, 1.0 Mn, 0.15 Si
Copper-lead alloys (leaded coppers): Ultrahigh lead alloys for special-purpose bearings. Alloys have relatively low strength and poor impact properties and generally require reinforcement.
C98200 Leaded copper, 25% S, C bal(d) 0.6–2.0 21.0–27.0 0.50 0.50 0.7 0.10 P, 0.50 Sb
SAE 49
C98400 Leaded copper, 30% S, C bal(d) 0.50 26.0–33.0 0.50 0.50 0.7 1.5 Ag, 0.10 P, 0.50 Sb
C98600 Leaded copper, 35% S, C 60.0–70.0 0.50 30.0–40.0 … … 0.35 1.5 Ag
SAE 480
C98800 Leaded copper, 40% S, C 56.5–62.5(e) 0.25 37.5–42.5(aa) 0.10 … 0.35 5.5 Ag(aa), 0.02 P
SAE 481
C98820 Leaded copper, 42% S, C bal 1.0–5.0 40.0–44.0 … … 0.35 …
SAE 484
C98840 Leaded copper, 50% S, C bal 1.0–5.0 44.0–58.0 … … 0.35 …
SAE 485
Special alloys: Alloys specifically designed for glassmaking molds, but also used for marine hardware.
C99300 Incramet 800 S, C, CL bal(r) 0.05 0.02 … 13.5–16.5 0.40–1.0 10.7–11.5 Al, 1.0–2.0 Co,
0.02 Si
C99350 Cu-Ni-Al-Zn alloy S, C, CL bal(r) … 0.15 7.5–9.5 14.5–16.0(i) 1.0 9.5–10.5 Al, 0.25 Mn
Special alloys: Moderate-strength alloys with good resistance to dezincification and dealuminification. Used in various products for marine (especially outboard) and mining equipment.
C99400 Nondezincification alloy, S, C, CL, I, P bal(r) … 0.25 0.50–5.0 1.0–3.5 1.0–3.0 0.50–2.0 Al, 0.50–2.0 Si,
NDZ 0.50 Mn
C99500 Cu-Ni-Al-Zn-Fe alloy S, C, CL bal(r) … 0.25 0.50–2.0 3.5–5.5 3.0–5.0 0.50–2.0 Al, 0.50–2.0 Si,
0.50 Mn
Special alloys: Special-purpose alloys with exceptionally high damping capacity.
C99600 Incramute 1 S, C, CL bal(r) 0.10 0.02 0.20 0.20 0.20 1.0–2.8 Al, 0.20 Co, 0.10 Si,
39.0–45.0Mn, 0.05 C
C99700 White manganese brass S, CL, PM, I, P, D 54.0 min(r) 1.0 2.0 19.0–25.0 4.0–6.0 1.0 0.50–3.0 Al, 11.0–15.0 Mn
C99750 Cu-Zn-Mn S, PM, I, P, D 55.0–61.0(r) 0.50–2.5 … 17.0–23.0 5.0 1.0 0.25–3.0 Al, 17.0–23.0 Mn
favorable combination of strength and corrosion machinability, but high levels of the element alloys C84400 and C84800 are the most wide-
resistance, brasses are by far the most common- diminish mechanical properties, particularly ly used members of this family. Like the red
ly cast copper alloys. There are six subcategories at elevated temperatures. brasses, the semired alloys are primarily spec-
of cast brasses: red and leaded red, semired and With their high aqueous and atmospheric cor- ified for plumbing fixtures, fittings, and low-
leaded semired, yellow and leaded yellow, high- rosion resistance, the red brasses are widely pressure valves.
strength and leaded high-strength yellow (man- used for plumbing goods, valves, fittings, pump The yellow and leaded yellow brasses
ganese bronzes), silicon brasses/silicon bronzes, housings and impellers, water meters, plaques (C85200–C85800) span a broad range of zinc
and copper-bismuth (Cu-Bi) and copper-seleni- and statuary, and countless other products. The contents (20–40%). As a result, the alloys
um-bismuth (Cu-Se-Bi) brasses. workhorse alloy is C83600, which is also known have microstructures that range from essen-
Red and Leaded Red Brasses. The cast red as 85-5-5-5 (85Cu-5Sn-5Pb-5Zn), ounce metal, tially all- to ones with substantial amounts of
brasses (C83300–C83810) are alloys of cop- and composition metal. C83600 has been used the hard phase. Properties vary accordingly,
per, zinc, tin, and in some cases, lead. A “red” commercially for several hundred years and cur- since is a potent strengthener. Although
copperlike color is evident in alloys contain- rently accounts for more tonnage than any other slightly impairs room-temperature ductility, it
ing less than about 8% Zn. These moderate- copper casting alloy. also markedly improves ductility at tempera-
strength alloys retain the face-centered cubic Semired and leaded semired brasses tures approaching the solidus. This feature is
() structure of pure copper. Their electrical (C84200–C84800) differ from the red brasses put to use in alloy C85800 (40% Zn), which is
conductivity, while not extremely high, is ade- primarily by their higher zinc contents, which suitable for both permanent mold casting and
quate for electromechanical equipment such range up to 15%. Zinc reduces corrosion pressure die casting because it can accommo-
as pole-line hardware. The leaded red brasses resistance (and cost) somewhat compared with date the high shrinkage strains that arise in
may contain up to 7% Pb. The primary func- red brasses, but it has little effect on strength. rigid molds.
tion of the element is to provide pressure Higher zinc also lightens alloy color. The Yellow brasses have a pleasing light color
tightness by sealing the interdendritic shrink- microstructure remains mostly single-phase , and can be polished to a high luster. Their cor-
age pores that form as these wide-freezing- although some body-centered cubic phase rosion resistance and cost are somewhat lower
range alloys solidify. Lead also improves may appear as a result of coring. The leaded than those of the semired brasses, but proper-
ties are well suited for the architectural trim, Bronzes High-leaded tin bronzes (C93100–C94500)
decorative hardware, and plumbing fixtures for are primarily used for sleeve bearings. Should
which these alloys are commonly used. The the flow of lubricant in such bearings be inter-
most widely used yellow brasses are C85200, Under the UNS system, the term bronze rupted, lead exudes from the alloy, smears over
C85400, and C85700. Alloy C85700 is essen- (C90200–C95900) applies to a broad class of the surface of the journal, and prevents galling
tially a cast version of the familiar 60Cu-40Zn alloys in which the principal alloying element is and seizing, at least temporarily. This “slow-
Muntz metal (C28000). neither zinc nor nickel. There are four broad cat- fail” feature is one of the principal advantages
High-Strength Brasses. Also called man- egories of bronzes: tin bronzes, leaded and high- that leaded-bronze sleeve bearings hold over
ganese bronzes and high-tensile brasses, these leaded tin bronzes, nickel-tin bronzes, and alu- rolling-element bearings.
Cu-Zn-Fe-Al-Mn alloys (C86100–C86800) are minum bronzes. The nickel-tin bronzes C94700 and C94800
among the strongest (as-cast) copper-base mate- Tin Bronzes. Tin is a potent solid-solution combine strength (585 MPa, or 85 ksi, tensile
rials. The mechanical properties of the high- strengthener in copper. It also increases corro- strength) and toughness with good bearing prop-
strength yellow brasses derive primarily from a sion resistance, as the hundreds of surviving erties and high corrosion resistance. They are
high phase content. Beta is stable in binary Bronze Age relics dramatically illustrate. In fact, amenable to most foundry processes, including
alloys containing more than 39.5% Zn, but current tin bronzes (C90200–C91700) are not permanent mold and investment (precision) cast-
strong stabilizers such as aluminum promote materially different from those cast more than ing. Bearings, rings, and gear blanks can be pro-
its presence at lower zinc contents, as in alloys 3500 years ago in Europe and China. duced by centrifugal and/or continuous casting.
C86200 (25% Zn, 4% Al) and C86300 (26% Zn, Binary copper-tin alloys retain the solid The alloys are soft and ductile in the as-cast or
6% Al). Additional strength is provided by iron, solution up to 15.8% Sn at 520 °C (968 °F), and solution-annealed and quenched condition, but
a grain refiner that appears as precipitates of an while the solubility of tin is much lower at room low-temperature aging (at 315 °C, or 600 °F)
iron-rich intermetallic compound. Manganese temperature, low-temperature transformations causes a spinodal decomposition that sharply
also contributes to strength, but its principal are very sluggish and can usually be ignored. Tin raises mechanical properties. The alloys find
functions may have more to do with castability. broadens the freezing range far more than zinc numerous uses as specialty bearings, pistons,
The high-zinc, low-aluminum alloys C86400 does, and the tin bronzes therefore tend to under- nozzles, shifter forks, feed mechanisms, mechan-
and C86500 have duplex ( ) structures. go an extended mushy stage during solidifica- ical actuators, and machinery components.
Their mechanical properties fall between those tion. Castings must be designed with this behav- Aluminum bronzes (95200–C95900) are
of yellow brasses and fully alloys such as ior in mind. best known for their combination of exceptional
C86200 and C86300. Tin bronzes are stronger and more ductile corrosion resistance; high mechanical strength,
The high-strength yellow brasses are mainly than red and semired brasses and are useable at toughness, and wear resistance; and good cast-
used for gears, bolts, valve stems, bridge trun- higher temperatures than leaded alloys. Their ing and welding characteristics. They comprise a
nions, and other mechanical products requiring high wear resistance and low friction coefficient large family of alloys ranging from ductile,
high-strength, good wear resistance, and rea- against steel are useful in bearings, gears, and moderate-strength grades to some of the
sonably good corrosion resistance. Where eco- piston rings. Other applications include valves, strongest copper-base compositions available.
nomically feasible, however, the high-strength fittings, and bells. Alloys C90300 and C90500 Alloys with less than about 9.25% Al display
brasses have increasingly been replaced by the can be used for pressure-retaining products at primarily -phase microstructures, which can be
more corrosion-resistant and equally strong temperatures up to 260 °C (500 °F). strengthened via precipitation of iron- or nickel-
aluminum bronzes. Leaded Tin Bronzes. The principal functions rich phases. Alloys with more than about 8.5%
Silicon Brasses/Bronzes. The foundry of lead in copper-tin and Cu-Sn-Zn alloys are to Al can contain mixtures of several phases in the
characteristics of silicon brasses improve machinability and pressure tightness. as-cast condition. The nature and occurrence of
(C87300–C87900) include favorably low melt- With proper foundry practice, most copper these phases are controlled by composition,
ing points and high fluidity. They are amenable alloys can produce pressure-tight castings, but cooling rate, and heat treatment.
to most casting methods, including permanent extended-freezing-range alloys such as the high- Simple aluminum bronzes such as C95200 to
mold and pressure die casting processes. tin bronzes often require some lead to seal inter- C95500 are actually Cu-Al-Fe ternary alloys.
Castings exhibit moderate strength and very connected microporosity. As little as 1% Pb is Of these, C95300, C95400, and C95500 can be
good aqueous and atmospheric corrosion usually sufficient, although more may be present quenched and tempered, although C95400, the
resistance, although susceptibility to stress- if it is needed to improve machinability or bear- most widely used of the three, is usually not
corrosion cracking (SCC) in severe environ- ing properties. Lead does reduce tensile strength heat treated.
ments has been reported. Silicon brasses have and ductility; however, the amount added can be Alloy C95600 is a silicon-aluminum bronze
been considered as possible lead-free replace- balanced with regard to machinability and with reportedly improved machinability and
ments for common plumbing brasses, but lim- strength requirements. bearing properties. C95700 is a high-strength
ited machinability restricts their wide-spread Many mechanical products are routinely cast Mn-Ni-Fe-Al bronze originally developed as a
acceptance. Current applications include bear- in leaded tin bronzes (C92200–C92900). Alloys marine propeller alloy. It has largely been
ings, gears, pole-line hardware, and intricately C92200 (Navy “M” bronze, steam bronze) and
shaped pump and valve components. C92300 (Navy “G” bronze) are specified for Table 2 Water-velocity guidelines for cop-
Copper-Bismuth and Cu-Se-Bi Brasses. The corrosion-resistant valves, fittings, and other per alloy castings
copper-bismuth and Cu-Se-Bi (SeBiLoy) red pressure-retaining products. C92200 may be
Peripheral velocity
brasses (alloys C89510 and C89520, respective- used for pressure-retaining parts at temperatures
UNS No. m/s ft/s
ly) are low-lead sand-cast alloys that are used in up to 290 °C (550 °F), whereas alloy C92300 is
food process and potable water applications limited to temperatures below 260 °C (500 °F) C83600 <9.1 <30
C87600 <9.1 <30
such as faucets and other plumbing fixtures. as a precaution against a form of embrittlement C90300 <13.7 <45
These alloys were developed to minimize lead that can occur at higher temperatures. Alloys C92200 <13.7 <45
leaching into potable water and to replicate the C92600 through C92900, which contain 10% C95200 <22.8 <75
high machinability and pressure tightness of Sn, are slightly stronger and more corrosion C86500 <22.8 <75
C95500 >22.8 >75
leaded brass. resistant than leaner alloys such as C92200. C95700 >22.8 >75
A selenium-bismuth-containing yellow brass None of the leaded alloys can be welded, but all C95800 >22.8 >75
(C89550) has also been developed for the per- can be soldered and many can be brazed, pro-
Note: Velocity guidelines for cast copper alloys in pumps and propellers
manent mold casting process. It too was devel- vided they can cool without constraint so as to operating in seawater
oped for use in potable water systems. avoid hot shortness (brittleness).
replaced in this application by C95800, a nickel- velocity liquid flow. They are noted for their (Incramet 800), which has high oxidation
aluminum bronze. Alloy C95800 cannot be heat exceptional corrosion resistance in seawater and resistance due to aluminum, good thermal
treated to improve mechanical properties, but it for their virtual immunity to SCC in media that fatigue resistance, and high hot hardness. This
is commonly temper annealed to enhance its attack other copper alloys (ammonia, amines, alloy was developed for glass processing
corrosion resistance. and nitrites, for example). Biofouling resistance including glassmaking molds and plate glass
The corrosion resistance of aluminum bronzes is highest in low-nickel alloys such as C96200 rolls. Other alloys falling under the “special
is generally very high, especially in seawater, (10% Ni), but other properties generally alloy” category include the manganese white
chlorides, and dilute acids, including sulfuric, improve with higher nickel content. Highest cor- brasses (C99700 and C99750), which are used
phosphoric, hydrochloric, and hydrofluoric. rosion resistance is observed in C96400 (30% in musical instrument components, decorative
Aluminum bronzes are much less susceptible to Ni). Since nickel content strongly affects alloy hardware requiring silver color, and compo-
crevice corrosion than stainless steels, and resist price, use of these alloys should be justified by nents that have good damping characteristics
both pitting and SCC. Largely because of the the severity of service conditions and the and attenuate noise well.
high alumina (Al2O3) content of their protective required product life.
corrosion-product films, aluminum bronzes have Copper-nickel alloys are typically used
very high erosion-corrosion and cavitation aboard ships, on offshore platforms, and in Selection Criteria
resistance. The data in Table 2 show that alu- coastal power plants. They are acknowledged to
minum bronzes can tolerate water velocities be the best materials for evaporative desalination The choice of an alloy for any casting usually
more than twice as high as the limits for other plants. Cast copper-nickels have also been con- depends on the following factors:
copper alloys. sidered as candidate materials for spent-nuclear-
Aluminum bronzes have a wide range of uses. fuel burial containers, along with pure copper • Castability
They have replaced other copper-base alloys in and aluminum bronze. • Properties, including mechanical properties,
traditional applications such as pump and valve Nickel Silvers. These Cu-Sn-Pb-Zn-Ni alloys corrosion resistance, and electrical and ther-
components, bearings, and wear rings. In many (C97300–C97800), some of which are actually mal conductivities
other cases, they have proven to be technically leaded nickel brasses, are named for their bright • Machinability
viable and cost-effective alternatives to stainless silvery luster. They have low to moderate strength, • Cost
steels and nickel-base alloys. Because the alloys depending on grade. The alloys exhibit high fluid-
resist biofouling, they are widely used in marine ity during casting and can reproduce fine details.
equipment, such as seawater piping, fittings, Tin and nickel impart good aqueous corrosion Castability
valves, pumps, propellers, and propeller hubs. resistance, while lead provides pressure tightness
Other applications include: bearings and and machinability. The nickel silvers are often Castability should not be confused with fluid-
pump/valve components in the chemical process thought of as ornamental alloys, and architectural ity, which is only a measure of the distance to
industries, wear rings for hydroelectric turbines, trim and musical-instrument valves are indeed two which a metal will flow before solidifying.
and large-diameter landing-gear bearings for of their better-known uses. However, alloy C97600 Fluidity is thus one factor determining the abili-
commercial and military aircraft. (20% Ni), which has a nominal as-cast tensile ty of a molten alloy to completely fill a mold
strength of 310 MPa (45 ksi), is also used for cavity in every detail. Castability, on the other
marine hardware and low-pressure valves and fit- hand, is a general term relating to the ability to
Other Alloys tings for the food, dairy, and beverage industries. reproduce fine detail on a surface. Colloquially,
Leaded coppers (C98200–C98840) are good castability refers to the ease with which an
Copper-Nickel Alloys. The copper-nickel essentially pure copper or high-copper alloys alloy responds to ordinary foundry practice
binary system includes the copper nickels containing lead. The leaded coppers offer the without requiring special techniques for gating,
(C96200–C96900) at its copper-rich end and the moderate corrosion resistance and high conduc- risering, melting, sand conditioning, or any of
Monel alloys (e.g., Ni-30Cu) in its nickel-rich tivity of the copper alloys, in addition to the the other factors involved in making good cast-
section. Copper nickels, also called cupronick- lubricity and low-friction characteristics of high- ings. High fluidity often ensures good castabili-
els, are solid-solution alloys to which iron, leaded bronzes. Applications include auto main ty, but it is not solely responsible for that quali-
chromium, niobium, and/or manganese are and connecting rod bearings. ty in a casting alloy.
added for improved strength and corrosion Special alloys (C99300–C99750) are those The castability of alloys is generally influenced
resistance, particularly under conditions of high- with unique characteristics, such as C99300 by their shrinkage characteristics and their freez-
ing range (which is not necessarily related direct-
Table 3 Foundry properties of the principal copper alloys for sand casting ly to shrinkage). Classification of copper casting
Approximate liquidus temperature alloys according to a narrow or wide freezing
Fluidity
UNS No. Common name Shrinkage allowance, % ˚C ˚F Castability rating(a) rating(a) range is discussed in the article “Melting and
C83600 Leaded red brass 5.7 1010 1850 2 6
Casting” in this Handbook and in the section
C84400 Leaded semired brass 2.0 980 1795 2 6 “Control of Solidification” in this article.
C84800 Leaded semired brass 1.4 955 1750 2 6 Foundry alloys are also classified as high-
C85400 Leaded yellow brass 1.5–1.8 940 1725 4 3 shrinkage or low-shrinkage alloys. The former
C85800 Yellow brass 2.0 925 1700 4 3
C86300 Manganese bronze 2.3 920 1690 5 2
class includes the manganese bronzes, alu-
C86500 Manganese bronze 1.9 880 1615 4 2 minum bronzes, silicon bronzes, silicon brasses,
C87200 Silicon bronze 1.8–2.0 … … 5 3 and some nickel-silvers. They are more fluid
C87500 Silicon brass 1.9 915 1680 4 1 than the low-shrinkage red brasses, more easily
C90300 Tin bronze 1.5–1.8 980 1795 3 6
C92200 Leaded tin bronze 1.5 990 1810 3 6
poured, and give high-grade castings in the sand,
C93700 High-lead tin bronze 2.0 930 1705 2 6 permanent mold, plaster, die, and centrifugal
C94300 High-lead tin bronze 1.5 925 1700 6 7 casting processes. With high-shrinkage alloys,
C95300 Aluminum bronze 1.6 1045 1910 8 3 careful design is necessary to promote direction-
C95800 Aluminum bronze 1.6 1060 1940 8 3
C97600 Nickel-silver 2.0 1145 2090 8 7
al solidification, avoid abrupt changes in cross
C97800 Nickel-silver 1.6 1180 2160 8 7 section, avoid notches (by using generous fil-
lets), and properly place gates and risers; all of
(a) Relative rating for casting in sand molds. The alloys are ranked from 1–8 in both overall castability and fluidity; 1 is the highest or best these design precautions help avoid internal
possible rating.
shrinks and cracks. Turbulent pouring must be
avoided to prevent the formation of dross shrinkage or microshrinkage. Because feeding 0.1% in high-strength manganese bronzes.
becoming entrapped in the casting. Liberal use cannot take place properly under these condi- Although manganese bronzes range in hardness
of risers or exothermic compounds ensures ade- tions, porosity results in the affected sections. In from 125 to 250 HB, they are readily machined.
quate molten metal to feed all sections of the overcoming this effect, design and riser place- Tin is added to the low-strength manganese
casting. Table 3 presents foundry characteristics ment, plus the use of chills, are important. bronzes to enhance resistance to dezincification,
of selected standard alloys, including a compar- Another means of overcoming interdendritic but it should be limited to 0.1% in high-strength
ative ranking of both fluidity and overall casta- shrinkage is to maintain close temperature con- manganese bronzes unless sacrifices in strength
bility for sand casting; number 1 represents the trol of the metal during pouring and to provide and ductility can be accepted.
highest castability or fluidity ranking. for rapid solidification. These requirements limit Manganese bronzes are specified for marine
All copper alloys can be successfully cast in section thickness and pouring temperatures, and propellers and fittings, pinions, ball bearing
sand. Sand casting allows the greatest flexibil- this practice requires a gating system that will races, worm wheels, gear shift forks, and archi-
ity in casting size and shape and is the most ensure directional solidification. Sections up to tectural work. Manganese bronzes are also used
economical casting method if only a few cast- 25 mm (1 in.) in thickness are routinely cast. for rolling mill screw-down nuts and slippers,
ings are made (die casting is more economical Sections up to 50 mm (2 in.) thick can be cast, bridge trunnions, gears, and bearings, all of
above 50,000 units). Permanent mold cast- but only with difficulty and under carefully con- which require high strength and hardness.
ing is best suited for tin, silicon, aluminum, trolled conditions. A bronze with a narrow solid- Various cast aluminum bronzes contain 9 to
and manganese bronzes and for yellow brass- ification (freezing) range and good directional 14% Al and lesser amounts of iron, manganese,
es. Die casting is well suited for yellow brass- solidification characteristics is recommended for or nickel. They have a very narrow solidification
es, but increasing amounts of permanent mold castings having section thicknesses greater than range; therefore, they have a greater need for
alloys are also being die cast. Size is a definite about 25 mm (1 in.). adequate gating and risering than do most other
limitation for both methods, although large It is difficult to achieve directional solidifica- copper casting alloys and thus are more difficult
slabs weighing as much as 4500 kg (10,000 lb) tion in complex castings. The most effective and to cast. A wide range of properties can be
have been cast in permanent molds. Brass die most easily used device is the chill. For irregular obtained with these alloys, especially after heat
castings generally weigh less than 0.2 kg (0.5 sections, chills must be shaped to fit the contour treatment, but close control of composition is
lb) and seldom exceed 0.9 kg (2 lb). The limi- of the section of the mold in which they are necessary. Like the manganese bronzes, alu-
tation of size is due to the reduced die life with placed. Insulating pads and riser sleeves some- minum bronzes can develop tensile strengths
larger castings. times are effective in slowing down the solidifi- well over 700 MPa (100 ksi).
Virtually all copper alloys can be cast suc- cation rate in certain areas to maintain direction- Most aluminum bronzes contain from 0.75 to
cessfully by the centrifugal casting process. al solidification. Further information on the 4% Fe to refine grain structure and increase
Castings of almost every size from less than 100 casting of copper alloys is given in the article strength. Alloys containing from 8 to 9.5% Al
g to more than 22,000 kg (0.25 to 50,000 lb) “Melting and Casting” in this Handbook. cannot be heat treated unless other elements
have been made. (such as nickel or manganese) in amounts over
Because of their low lead contents, aluminum Mechanical Properties 2% are added as well. They have higher tensile
bronzes, yellow brasses, manganese bronzes, strengths and greater ductility and toughness
low-nickel bronzes, and silicon brasses and Most copper-base casting alloys containing than any of the ordinary tin bronzes.
bronzes are best adapted to plaster mold casting. tin, lead, or zinc have only moderate tensile Applications include valve nuts, cam bearings,
For most of these alloys, lead should be held to a and yield strengths, low-to-medium hardness, impellers, hangers in pickling baths, agitators,
minimum because it reacts with the calcium sul- and high elongation. When higher tensile or crane gears, and connecting rods.
fate in the plaster, resulting in discoloration of the yield strength is required, the aluminum The heat treatable aluminum bronzes contain
surface of the casting and increased cleaning and bronzes, manganese bronzes, silicon brasses, from 9.5 to 11.5% Al; they also contain iron,
machining costs. Size is a limitation on plaster silicon bronzes, and some nickel-silvers are with or without nickel or manganese. These
mold casting, although aluminum bronze castings used instead. Most of the higher-strength castings are quenched in water or oil from tem-
that weigh as little as 100 g (0.25 lb) have been alloys have better-than-average resistance to peratures between 760 and 925 °C (1400 and
made by the lost-wax process, and castings that corrosion and wear. Mechanical properties of 1700 °F) and tempered at 425 to 650 °C
weigh more than 150 kg (330 lb) have been made copper-base casting alloys are presented in (800–1200 °F), depending on the exact compo-
by conventional plaster molding. Table 4. (Throughout this discussion, as well sition and the required properties.
Control of Solidification. Production of con- as in Table 4, the mechanical properties quot- From the range of properties shown in Table 4,
sistently sound castings requires an understand- ed are for sand cast test bars, unless otherwise it can be seen that all the maximum properties
ing of the solidification characteristics of the noted. Properties of the castings themselves cannot be obtained in any one aluminum bronze.
alloys as well as knowledge of relative magni- may be lower, depending on section size and In general, alloys with higher tensile strengths,
tudes of shrinkage. The actual amount of con- process-design variables.) yield strengths, and hardnesses have lower values
traction during solidification does not differ Tensile strengths for cast test bars of aluminum of elongation. Typical applications of the higher-
greatly from alloy to alloy. Its distribution, how- bronzes and manganese bronzes range from 450 hardness alloys are rolling mill screwdown nuts
ever, is a function of the freezing range and the to 900 MPa (65–130 ksi), depending on composi- and slippers, worm gears, bushings, slides,
temperature gradient in critical sections. tion; some aluminum bronzes attain maximum impellers, nonsparking tools, valves, and dies.
Manganese and aluminum bronzes are similar to tensile strength only after heat treatment. Aluminum bronzes resist corrosion in many
steel in that their freezing ranges are quite nar- Although manganese and aluminum bronzes substances, including pickling solutions. When
row—about 40 and 14 °C (70 and 25 °F), are often used for the same applications, the corrosion occurs, it often proceeds by preferen-
respectively. Large castings can be made by the manganese bronzes are handled more easily in tial attack of the aluminum-rich phases. Duplex
same conventional methods used for steel, as the foundry. As-cast tensile strengths as high as aluminum bronzes are more susceptible
long as proper attention is given to placement of 800 MPa (115 ksi) and elongations of 15 to 20% to preferential attack of the aluminum-rich phas-
gates and risers—both those for controlling can be obtained readily in sand castings; slight- es than are the all- aluminum bronzes.
directional solidification and those for feeding ly higher values are possible in centrifugal cast- Aluminum bronzes have fatigue limits that
the primary central shrinkage cavity. ings. Stresses can be relieved at 175 to 200 °C are considerably greater than those of man-
Tin bronzes have wider freezing ranges (350–400 °F). Lead can be added to the lower- ganese bronze or any other cast copper alloy.
(165 °C, or 300 °F, for C83600). Alloys with strength manganese bronzes to increase machin- Unlike copper-zinc and Cu-Sn-Pb-Zn alloys, the
such wide freezing ranges form a mushy zone ability, but at the expense of tensile strength and mechanical properties of aluminum and man-
during solidification, resulting in interdendritic elongation. Lead content should not exceed ganese bronzes do not decrease with increases in
Fig. 1 Distribution of hardness over 100 tests for three copper casting alloys of different tensile strengths. (a) C83600. Tensile strength, 235–260 MPa (34–38 ksi); 500 kg (1100
lbf) load. (b) C90300. Tensile strength, 275–325 MPa (40–47 ksi); 500 kg (1100 lbf) load. (c) C87500. Tensile strength, 420–500 MPa (61–72 ksi); 1500 kg (3300 lbf) load
casting cross section. This is because these section size. With increasing section sizes up approximate the conditions that will be encoun-
alloys have narrow freezing ranges, which result to about 50 mm (2 in.), the mechanical proper- tered in service. When used in a “recommended”
in denser structures when castings are properly ties—both strength and elongation—of the service application (see Table 8), copper metals
designed and properly fed. castings themselves are progressively lower generally give adequate service life. However,
Whereas manganese bronzes experience hot than the corresponding properties of separate- the table can only serve as a guide, and it should
shortness above 230 °C (450 °F), aluminum ly cast test bars. Elongation is particularly be used judiciously. Additional information on
bronzes can be used at temperatures as high as affected; for some tin bronzes, elongation of a the corrosion of copper alloys is given in the
400 °C (750 °F) for short periods of time with- 50 mm (2 in.) section may be as little as 110 articles “Corrosion Behavior” and “Stress-
out an appreciable loss in strength. For example, that of a 10 mm (0.4 in.) section or of a sepa- Corrosion Cracking” in this Handbook.
a room-temperature tensile strength of 540 MPa rately cast test bar. Atmospheric Corrosion. Copper alloy cast-
(78 ksi) declines to 529 MPa (76.7 ksi) at 260 °C The metallurgical behavior of many copper ings have been used for centuries for their supe-
(500 °F), 460 MPa (67 ksi) at 400 °C (750 °F), alloy systems is complex. The cooling rate (a rior resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
and 400 MPa (58 ksi) at 540 °C (1000 °F). function of casting section size) directly influ- Resistance is afforded by the formation of a
Corresponding elongation values change from ences grain size, segregation, and interdendritic coating or patina of basic copper sulfate, which
28% to 32, 35, and 25%, respectively. shrinkage; these factors, in turn, affect the ultimately reacts further to form some basic cop-
Unlike manganese bronzes, many aluminum mechanical properties of the cast metal. per carbonate. The sulfate is virtually insoluble
bronzes increase in yield strength and hardness Therefore, molding and casting techniques are in water and thus affords good protection.
but decrease in tensile strength and elongation based on metallurgical characteristics as well as Liquid Corrosion. Copper alloy castings are
upon slow cooling in the mold. Whereas some on casting shape. widely used for their superior corrosion resist-
manganese bronzes precipitate a relatively soft Property Rankings. Tables 5 to 7 list copper ance in many liquid media. Their resistance to
phase during slow cooling, aluminum bronzes casting alloys ranked by tensile strength, yield corrosion in liquids, like their resistance to
precipitate a hard constituent rather rapidly strength, and compressive strength, respectively. atmospheric corrosion, is increased by the for-
within the narrow temperature range of 565 to Unless otherwise noted, the data are typical for mation of a stable, adherent reaction product. If
480 °C (1050–900 °F). Therefore, large cast- sand cast test specimens. An explanation of the the coating is removed by chemical or mechani-
ings, or smaller castings that are cooled slowly, temper designations given in Tables 5 to 7 can be cal means, corrosion resistance is reduced, and
will have properties different from those of found in the article “Standard Designations for this reduction often is severe. Thus, rapid corro-
small castings cooled relatively rapidly. The Wrought and Cast Copper and Copper Alloys” sion takes place in aerated mineral acids or
same phenomenon occurs upon heat treating the in this Handbook. under conditions of severe agitation, impinge-
hardenable aluminum bronzes. Cooling slowly ment, or high-velocity flow.
through the critical temperature range after Corrosion Resistance Copper metals are attacked by strong organic
quenching, or tempering at temperatures within and inorganic acids and, to some extent, by weak
this range, will decrease elongation. An addition In Table 8, the relative corrosion resistance in organic acids. Although a copper metal may not
of 2 to 5% Ni greatly diminishes this effect. a wide variety of liquids and gases is given for visibly corrode, even a minute quantity of cop-
Nickel brasses, silicon brasses, and silicon 14 different classes of copper casting alloys. per ions in the solution is not acceptable in cer-
bronzes, although generally higher in strength Certain generalizations can be drawn from an tain applications. This is particularly true for
than red metal alloys, are used more for their examination of these data. In many liquids, the food products, in which adverse color or taste
corrosion resistance. yellow brasses do not have corrosion resistance can develop.
Distributions of hardness and tensile strength as high as that of the other copper alloys. Ammonium hydroxide attacks all copper
data for separately cast test bars of three differ- However, the high strength of the yellow brass- alloys severely, and these alloys are not recom-
ent alloys are shown in Fig. 1. es may make them more desirable even though mended where ammonium ions may be formed.
Properties of Test Bars. The mechanical prop- some corrosion may be encountered. Corrosion Copper metals are generally satisfactory for
erties of separately cast test bars often differ wide- of these alloys often takes place by dezincifica- applications involving neutral organic com-
ly from those of production castings poured at the tion; if this is a problem, alloys with copper con- pounds, including petroleum products, solvents,
same time, particularly when the thickness of the tents of 80% or more must be selected. and animal and vegetable products. However, in
casting differs markedly from that of the test bar. Often, experience must be relied on for the the presence of moisture, certain of these mate-
The mechanical properties of tin bronzes are proper selection of alloys. Laboratory tests are rials may form acids, which in turn may attack a
particularly affected by variations in casting only guides because they fail to duplicate or copper metal.
Table 4 Mechanical properties of copper casting alloys
Elongation,
Tensile strength Yield strength in 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness
As-cast (sand) After heat treatment As-cast (sand) After heat treatment As-cast After heat As-cast After heat
MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi (sand) treatment (sand) treatment
UNS No. Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Typ Typ
C80100 130(a) 170 19(a) 25 45(a)(c)(d) 62(c)(d) 6.5(a)(c)(d) 9(c)(d) 20(a) 40 44(f)
C80300 130 170 19 25 45(c)(d) 62(c)(d) 6.5(c)(d) 9(c)(d) 20 40 44(f)
C80500 130 170 19 25 45(c)(d) 62(c)(d) 6.5(c)(d) 9(c)(d) 20 40 44(f)
C80700 130 170 19 25 45(c)(d) 62(c)(d) 6.5(c)(d) 9(c)(d) 20 40 44(f)
C80900 130 170 19 25 45(c)(d) 62(c)(d) 6.5(c)(d) 9(c)(d) 20 40 44(f)
C81100 130 170 19 25 45(c)(d) 62(c)(d) 6.5(c)(d) 9(c)(d) 20 40 44(f)
C81300 365(a) 53(a) 250(a)(d) 36(a)(d) 11(a) 89(f)
C81400 365 53 250(d) 36(d) 11 B69(e)
C81500 310(a) 350 45(a) 51 240(a)(c) 275(c) 35(a)(c) 40(c) 12(a) 17 105(f)
C81700 585(a) 635 85(a) 92 425(a)(d) 470(d) 62(a)(d) 68(d) 5(a) 8 217(g)
C81800 50 620 705 90 102 25(d) 480(d) 515(d) 70(d) 75(d) 20 3 8 B55(e) B96(e)
C82000 50 655 690 95 100 20(d) 480(d) 515(d) 70(d) 75(d) 20 3 8 B55(e) B95(e)
C82100 585(a) 635 85(a) 92 425(a)(d) 470(d) 62(a)(d) 68(d) 5(a) 8 217(g)
C82200 57 620(a) 655 90(a) 95 30(d) 480(a)(d) 515(d) 70(a)(d) 75(d) 20 5(a) 8 B60(e) B96(e)
C82400 495 72 1000 1035 145 150 255(d) 37(d) 930(d) 965(d) 135(d) 140(d) 20 0 1 B78(e) C38(e)
C82500 550 80 1070 1105 155 160 310(d) 45(d) 795(d) 115(d) 20 0 1 B82(e) C40(e)
C82600 565 82 1105 1140 160 165 325(d) 47(d) 1035(d) 1070(d) 150(d) 155(d) 20 0 1 B83(e) C43(e)
C82700 1070 155 895(d) 130(d) 0
C82800 670 97 1035 1140 150 165 380(d) 55(d) 760(d) 1000(d) 110(d) 145(d) 20 0 1 B85(e) C45(e)
C83300 220 32 69(c) 10(c) 35 35(f)
C83400 240 35 69(c) 10(c) 30 F50(e)
C83600 205 255 30 37 95(c) 115(c) 14(c) 17(c) 20 30 60(f)
C83800 205 240 30 35 90(c) 110(c) 13(c) 16(c) 20 25 60(f)
C84200 195 240 28 35 95(c) 14(c) 15 27 60(f)
C84400 200 235 29 34 90(c) 105(c) 13(c) 15(c) 18 26 55(f)
C84500 200 240 29 35 90(c) 95(c) 13(c) 14(c) 16 28 55(f)
C84800 195 250 28 36 85(c) 95(c) 12(c) 14(c) 16 30 55(f)
C85200 240 260 35 38 85(c) 90(c) 12(c) 13(c) 25 35 45(f)
C85400 205 235 30 34 75(c) 85(c) 11(c) 12(c) 20 35 50(f)
C85500 380 415 55 60 160(c) 23(c) 25 40 B55(e)
C85700 275 345 40 50 19(c) 125(c) 14(c) 18(c) 15 40 75(f)
C85800 380(h) 55(h) 205(d)(h) 30(d)(h) 15(h) B55(e)(h)
C86100 620 655 90 95 310(c)(d) 345(c)(d) 45(c)(d) 50(c)(d) 18 20 180(g)
C86200 620 655 90 95 310(d) 330(d) 45(d) 48(d) 18 20 180(g)
C86300 760 795 110 115 415(c) 450(c) 60(c) 65(c) 12 15 225(g)
415(d) 570(d) 60(d) 83(d)

C86400 415 450 60 65 140(c)(d) 170(c)(d) 20(c)(d) 25(c)(d) 15 20 90(f)
105(g)
C86500 450 490 65 71 170(c)(d) 195(c)(d) 25(c)(d) 28(c)(d) 20 30 100(f)
C86700 550 585 80 85 220(c) 290(c) 32(c) 42(c) 15 20 B80(e)
C86800 540 565 78 82 240(c) 260(c) 35(c) 38(c) 18 22 80(g)
C87400 345 380 50 55 145(c) 165(c) 21(c) 24(c) 18 30 70(f)
C87500 415 460 60 67 165(c) 205(c) 24(c) 30(c) 16 21 115(f)
C87600 415 455 60 66 205(c) 220(c) 30(c) 32(c) 16 20 B76(e)
C87800 585(h) 85(h) 345(d)(h) 50(d)(h) 25(h) B85(e)(h)
C87900 480(h) 70(h) 240(d)(h) 35(d)(h) 25(h) B70(e)(h)
C89510 205 30 125(c) 18(c) 12 55(f)
C89520 170 205 25 30 125(c) 140(c) 18(c) 20(c) 6 10 54(f)
(continued)
Min, minimum; Typ, typical. (a) Suggested value. (b) These values are not for heat treated material, but are values for centrifugal or permanent mold castings. (c) 0.5% extension under load. (d) 0.2% offset. (e) Rockwell hardness. (f) Brinell hardness, 500 kg. (g) Brinell hardness,
3000 kg. (h) Values are for die castings not sand castings. Source: Canadian Copper & Brass Development Association
Table 4 (continued)

Elongation,
Tensile strength Yield strength in 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness
As-cast (sand) After heat treatment As-cast (sand) After heat treatment As-cast After heat As-cast After heat
MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi (sand) treatment (sand) treatment
UNS No. Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Min Typ Typ Typ
C90200 260 38 110(c) 16(c) 30 70(f)

C90300 275 310 40 45 125(c) 145(c) 18(c) 21(c) 20 30 70(f)
C90500 275 310 40 45 125(c) 150(c) 18(c) 22(c) 20 25 75(f)
C90700 240 305 35 44 380(b) 55(b) 125(c) 150(c) 18(c) 22(c) 205(b)(c) 30(b)(c) 10 20 16(b) 80(f) 102(b)(f)
C90900 275 40 140(c) 20(c) 15 90(f)
C91000 205 220 30 32 170(c) 25(c) 1 2 105(f)
C91100 240 35 170(c) 25(c) 2 135(g)
C91300 240 35 205(c) 30(c) 0.5 170(g)
C91600 240 305 35 44 310(b) 415(b) 45(b) 60(b) 115(c) 150(c) 17(c) 22(c) 170(b)(c) 220(b)(c) 25(b)(c) 32(b)(c) 10 16 10(b) 16(b) 85(f)
106(b)(f)
C91700 240 305 35 44 345(b) 415(b) 50(b) 60(b) 115(c) 150(c) 17(c) 22(c) 195(b)(c) 220(b)(c) 28(b)(c) 32(b)(c) 10 16 12(b) 16(b) 85(f)
106(b)(f)
C92200 235 275 34 40 110(c) 140(c) 16(c) 20(c) 24 30 65(f)
C92300 250 275 36 40 110(c) 140(c) 16(c) 20(c) 18 25 70(f)
C92500 240 305 35 44 140(c) 20(c) 10 20 80(f)
C92600 275 305 40 44 125(c) 140(c) 18(c) 20(c) 20 30 F78(e)
C92700 240 290 35 42 145(c) 21(c) 10 20 77(f)
C92800 275 40 205(c) 30(c) 1 B80(e)
C93200 205 240 30 35 95(c) 125(c) 14(c) 18(c) 15 20 65(f)
C93400 170 220 25 32 85(c) 110(c) 12(c) 16(c) 8 20 60(f)
C93500 195 220 28 32 85(c) 110(c) 12(c) 16(c) 15 20 60(f)
C93700 205 240 30 35 85(c) 125(c) 12(c) 18(c) 15 20 60(f)
C93800 180 205 26 30 95(c) 110(c) 14(c) 16(c) 12 18 55(f)
C93900 170 220 25 32 110(c) 150(c) 16(c) 22(c) 5 7 63(f)
C94300 165 185 24 27 90(c) 13(c) 10 15 48(f)
C94400 220 32 110(c) 16(c) 18 55(f)
C94500 170 25 85(c) 12(c) 12 50(f)
C94700 310 345 45 50 515 585 75 85 140(c) 160(c) 20(c) 23(c) 345(c) 415(c) 50(c) 60(c) 25 35 5 10 85(f) 180(g)
C94800 275 310 40 45 415 60 140(c) 160(c) 20(c) 23(c) 205(c) 30(c) 20 35 8 80(f) 120(f)
C95200 450 550 65 80 170(c) 185(c) 25(c) 27(c) 20 35 125(g)
C95300 450 515 65 75 550 585 80 85 170(c) 185(c) 25(c) 27(c) 275(c) 290(c) 40(c) 42(c) 20 25 12 15 140(g) 174(g)
C95400 515 585 75 85 620 725 90 105 205(c) 240(c) 30(c) 35(c) 310(c) 370(c) 45(c) 54(c) 12 18 6 8 170(g) 195(g)
C95500 620 690 90 100 760 825 110 120 275(c) 305(c) 40(c) 44(c) 415(c) 470(c) 60(c) 68(c) 6 12 5 10 195(g) 230(g)
C95600 415 515 60 75 195(c) 235(c) 28(c) 34(c) 10 18 140(g)
C95700 620 655 90 95 275(c) 310(c) 40(c) 45(c) 20 26 180(g)
C95800 585 655 85 95 240(c) 260(c) 35(c) 38(c) 15 25 159(g)
C96200 310 45 170(c) 25(c) 20
C96300 515 75 380(c) 55(c) 10 150(f)
C96400 415 470 60 68 220(c) 255(c) 32(c) 37(c) 20 28 140(g)
C96600 760 110 480(d) 70(d) 7 230(g)
C97300 205 240 30 35 105(c) 115(c) 15(c) 17(c) 8 20 55(f)
C97400 205 260 30 38 110(c) 115(c) 16(c) 17(c) 8 20 70(f)
C97600 275 310 40 45 115(c) 165(c) 17(c) 24(c) 10 20 80(f)
C97800 345 380 50 55 150(c) 205(c) 22(c) 30(c) 10 15 130(g)
C99300 655 95 380(c) 55(c) 2 200(g)
C99400 415 455 60 66 545 79 205(c) 235(c) 30(c) 34(c) 370(c) 54(c) 20 25 14.1 17.6 125(g) 170(g)
C99500 480 70 595 86 275(c) 40(c) 425(c) 62(c) 12 8 145(f) 196(f)
C99700 380 55 170(c) 25(c) 25 110(g)
Min, minimum; Typ, typical. (a) Suggested value. (b) These values are not for heat treated material, but are values for centrifugal or permanent mold castings. (c) 0.5% extension under load. (d) 0.2% offset. (e) Rockwell hardness. (f) Brinell hardness, 500 kg. (g) Brinell hardness,
3000 kg. (h) Values are for die castings not sand castings. Source: Canadian Copper & Brass Development Association
Table 5 Copper casting alloys ranked by typical tensile strength

Tensile strength Tensile strength
UNS No. Casting process(a) Temper MPa ksi UNS No. Casting process(a) Temper MPa ksi
C82600, C82800 S TF00 1138 165 C85500 S M01 414 60
C82500 S TF00 1103 160 C91600, C91700 CL, PM M02, M05 414 60
C82400 S TF00 1068 155 C94800 S TX00 414 60
C82800 S O11 862 125 C85800 D M04 379 55
C82500, C82600 S O11 827 120 C87300, C87400 S, CL M01, M02 379 55
C95500 S, CL TQ50 827 120 C90700 CL, PM M02, M05 379 55
C96600 S TF00 827 120 C97800, C99700 S M01 379 55
C86300 S M01 821 119 C81400 S TF00 365 53
C95400 S, CL TQ50 724 105 C81500 S TF00 352 51
C95410 S TQ50 724 105 C82000, C82200 S M01 345 50
C82400 S O11 690 100 C85700 S, CL M01, M02 345 50
C95500 S, CL M01, M02 690 100 C94700 S, C M01, M07 345 50
C82000 S TF00 662 96 C82000 S TB00 324 47
C82200 S TF00 655 95 C92900 S, PM, C M01, M05, M07 324 47
C86100 S M01 655 95 C82200 S TB00 310 45
C86200 S, CL, C M01, M02, M07 655 95 C90300 S, CL M01, M02 310 45
C95700, C99300 S M01 655 95 C90500 S, CL M01, M02 310 45
C95800 S, CL M01, M02 655 95 C94800 S, C M01, M07 310 45
C99500 S TF00 593 86 C97600 S M01 310 45
C86700, C95410 S M01 586 85 C90700, C92500 S M01 303 44
C87800 D M04 586 85 C91600, C91700, C92600 S M01 303 44
C94700 S, C TX00 586 85 C92700 S M01 290 42
C95300 S, CL, C TQ50 586 85 C90900, C92800 S M01 276 40
C95400 S, CL M01, M02 586 85 C92200, C92300 S, CL M01, M02 276 40
C86800 S M01 565 82 C85200 S, CL M01, M02 262 38
C82600, C82800 S M01 552 80 C90200, C97400 S M01 262 38
C82800 S TB00 552 80 C83600 S, CL M01, M02 255 37
C95200 S, CL M01, M02 552 80 C84800 S M01 255 37
C99400 S TF00 545 79 C83400, C84200, C84500, S M01 241 35
C82500, C95600 S M01 517 75 C91100, C91300, C97300
C95300 S, CL M01, M02 517 75 C83800, C93200, C93700 S, CL M01, M02 241 35
C96600 S TB00 517 75 C84400 S M01 234 34
C99750 S TQ50 517 75 C85400 S, CL M01, M02 234 34
C86500 S, CL M01, M02 490 71 C93800 CL M02 228 33
C82600 S TB00 483 70 C83300, C91000, C93400 S M01 221 32
C96400 S M01 469 68 C93500 S, CL M01, M02 221 32
C87500 S, CL M01, M02 462 67 C93900 C M07 221 32
C87600, C99400 S M01 455 66 C94400 S M01 221 32
C82000, C82200 S O11 448 65 C81400 S M01 207 30
C86400, C99750 S M01 448 65 C93800 S, CL M01, M02 207 30
C99700 D M04 448 65 C94300 S M01 186 27
C82400, C82500 S TB00 414 60 C80100, C81100, C94500 S M01 172 25
(a) Casting processes: S, sand; D, die; C, continuous, I, investment; CL, centrifugal; P, plaster; PM, permanent mold. Source: Copper Development Association Inc.
Table 6 Copper casting alloys ranked by typical yield strength

Yield strength Yield strength Yield strength
UNS No. Temper MPa ksi UNS No. Temper MPa ksi UNS No. Temper MPa ksi
0.2% offset 0.5% extension C92900 M01 179 26

C82600, C82800 TF00 1069 155 C96600 TF00 517 75 C87300, C91000, M01 172 25
C82500 TF00 1034 150 C95500 TQ50 469 68 C91100, C99700
C82400 TF00 1000 145 C99500 TF00 427 62 C87400, C97600 M01 165 24
C82800 O11 758 110 C94700 TX00 414 60 C85500, C94700, M01 159 23
C82500, C82600 O11 724 105 C99300 M01 379 55 C94800
C82400 O11 551 80 C95400, C95410 TQ50 372 54 C90500, C90700, M01 152 22
C82000, C82200 TF00 517 75 C99400 TF00 372 54 C91600, C91700
C86300 M01 462 67 C95700 M01 310 45 C93900 M07 152 22
C82600, C82800, M01 345 50 C95500 M01 303 44 C90300, C92700 M01 145 21
C86100, C87800 C86700 M01 290 42 C90900, C92200, M01 138 20
C86200 M01 331 48 C95300 TQ50 290 42 C92300, C92500,
C82200 O11 276 40 C81500 TF00 276 40 C92600
C82500 M01 276 40 C99750 TQ50 276 40 C93800 M02 138 20
C99750 TF00 276 40 C86800, C95800 M01 262 38 C85700, C93200, M01 124 18
C82000 O11 255 37 C96600 TB00 262 38 C93700
C81400 TF00 248 36 C96400 M01 255 37 C83600, C97300, M01 117 17
C82800 TB00 241 35 C95400, C95410 M01 241 35 C97400
C82600 TB00 207 30 C95600, C99400 M01 234 34 C83800, C90200, M01 110 16
C85800 M04 207 30 C87600, C99750 M01 221 32 C93400, C93500,
C86500 M01 193 28 C91600, C91700 M02, M05 221 32 C93800, C94400
C82500 TB00 172 25 C95400 M07 221 32 C84400 M01 103 15
C82200, C86400 M01 172 25 C87500, C91300, M01 207 30 C84200, C84500, M01 97 14
C82000 M01 138 20 C92800, C97800 C84800
C82400 TB00 138 20 C90700 M02, M05 207 30 C85200, C94300 M01 90 13
C93700 M01 110 16 C94800 TX00 207 30 C85400, C94500 M01 83 12
C82000 TB00 103 15 C86500 M01 200 29 C83300, C83400 M01 69 10
C81400 M01 83 12 C95200, C95300 M01 186 27 C80100, C81100 M01 62 9
C82200 TB00 83 12 C99700 M04 186 27
Table 7 Copper casting alloys ranked by compressive strength

Compressive Compressive Compressive
strength(a) strength(a) strength(a)
UNS No. Temper MPa ksi UNS No. Temper MPa ksi UNS No. Temper MPa ksi
0.1% set 1% set C87500 M01 517 75
C86300 M01 414 60 C90500 M01 276 40 C99750 M01 496 72
C86100, C86200 M01 345 50 C99750 M01 262 38 C95200 M01 483 70
C95300 TQ50 241 35 C97600 M01 207 30 C87300, C87600 M01 414 60
C99750 M01 193 28 C86300 M01 241 30 C97600 M01 393 57
C95300 TQ50 241 35 C92900 M01 345 50
C87500, C95200 M01 186 27
C92200, C95300 M01 138 20 C93400 M01 331 48
C86500 M01 166 24
C84500 M01 110 16 C93700 M01 324 47
C86400 M01 152 22
C93200 M01 317 46
C95300 M01 138 20 10% set C94400 M01 303 44
C93800 M02 131 19 C92600 M01 276 40
C87300 M01 124 18 C95500 TQ50 1034 150
C95700 M01 1034 150 C83600, C92200, M01 262 38
C92200 M01 103 15 C93800
C95400, C95410 TQ50 827 120
C83600 M01 97 14 C96200 M01 255 37
C95500 M01 827 120
C84500, C90300, M01 90 13 C95400, C95410, M01 690 100 C94500 M01 248 36
C93500, C93700 C95800 C92300 M01 241 35
C83800, C92600, M01 83 12 C86300 M01 669 97 C84500, C84800 M01 234 34
C93800 C95300 TQ50 621 90 C85200 M01 207 30
C94300 M01 76 11 C86400 M01 600 87 C83800 M01 200 29
C92300 M01 69 10 C95300 M01 572 83 C85400 M01 193 28
C85200, C85400 M01 62 9 C86500 M01 545 79 C94300 M01 159 23
(a) Stress required to produce the indicated percent permanent engineering strain (set) in a 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) thick compression specimen. Source: Copper Development Association Inc.
Table 8 Corrosion ratings of cast copper metals in various media

Ratings: A, recommended; B, acceptable; C, not recommended
Leaded High-lead Leaded Leaded Leaded Leaded Leaded
Corrosive Tin tin tin Leaded semired yellow high-strength High-strength Aluminum nickel nickel Silicon Silicon
medium Copper bronze bronze bronze red brass brass brass yellow brass yellow brass bronze brass bronze bronze brass
Acetate solvents B A A A A A B A A A A A A B
Acetic acid
20% A C B C B C C C C A C A A B
50% A C B C B C C C C A C B A B
Glacial A A A C A C C C C A B B A A
Acetone A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Acetylene(a) C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
Alcohols(b) A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Aluminum chloride C C C C C C C C C B C C C C
Aluminum sulfate B B B B B C C C C A C C A A
Ammonia, C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
moist gas
Ammonia, A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
moisture-free
Ammonium chloride C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
Ammonium C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
hydroxide
Ammonium nitrate C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
Ammonium sulfate B B B B B C C C C A C C A A
Aniline C C C C C C C C C B C C C C
and aniline dyes
Asphalt A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Barium chloride A A A A A C C C C A A A A C
Barium sulfide C C C C C C C C B C C C C C
Beer(b) A A B B B C C C A A C A A B
Beet sugar syrup A A B B B A A A B A A A B B
Benzine A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Benzol A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Boric acid A A A A A A A B A A A A A A
Butane A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Calcium bisulfite A A B B B C C C C A B A A B
Calcium chloride, B B B B B B C C C A C C A C
acid
Calcium chloride, C C C C C C C C C A C A C B
alkaline
Calcium hydroxide C C C C C C C C C B C C C C
Calcium hypochlorite C C B B B C C C C B C C C C
Cane sugar syrups A A B A B A A A A A A A A B
Carbonated A C C C C C C C C A C C A C
beverages(b)
Carbon dioxide, dry A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
(continued)
(a) Acetylene forms an explosive compound with copper when moist or when certain impurities are present and the gas is under pressure. Alloys containing less than 65% Cu are satisfactory under this use. When gas is not under
pressure, other copper alloys are satisfactory. (b) Copper and copper alloys resist corrosion by most food products. Traces of copper may be dissolved and affect taste or color. In such cases, copper metals often are tin coated.
Table 8 (continued)
Carbon dioxide, B B B C B C C C C A C A A B
moist(b)
Carbon tetrachloride, A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
dry
Carbon tetrachloride, B B B B B B B B B B B A A A
moist
Chlorine, dry A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Chlorine, moist C C B B B C C C C C C C C C
Chromic acid C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
Citric acid A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Copper sulfate B A A A A C C C C B B B A A
Cottonseed oil(b) A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Creosote B B B B B C C C C A B B B B
Ethers A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Ethylene glycol A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Ferric chloride, C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
sulfate
Ferrous chloride, C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
sulfate
Formaldehyde A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Formic acid A A A A A B B B B A B B B C
Freon A A A A A A A A A A A A A B
Fuel oil A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Furfural A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Gasoline A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Gelatin(b) A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Glucose A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Glue A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Glycerin A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Hydrochloric C C C C C C C C C B C C C C
or muriatic acid
Hydrofluoric acid B B B B B B B B B A B B B B
Hydrofluosilicic acid B B B B B C C C C B C C B C
Hydrogen A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Hydrogen peroxide C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
Hydrogen sulfide, dry C C C C C C C C C B C C B C
Hydrogen sulfide, C C C C C C C C C B C C C C
moist
Lacquers A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Lacquer thinners A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Lactic acid A A A A A C C C C A C C A C
Linseed oil A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Liquors
Black B B B B B C C C C B C C B B
Green C C C C C C C C C B C C C B
White C C C C C C C C C A C C C B
Magnesium chloride A A A A A C C C C A C C A B
Magnesium hydroxide B B B B B B B B B A B B B B
Magnesium sulfate A A A A B C C C C A C B A B
Mercury and C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
mercury salts
Milk(b) A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Molasses(b) A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Natural gas A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Nickel chloride A A A A A C C C C B C C A C
Nickel sulfate A A A A A C C C C A C C A C
Nitric acid C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
Oleic acid A A B B B C C C C A C A A B
Oxalic acid A A B B B C C C C A C A A B
Phosphoric acid A A A A A C C C C A C A A A
Picric acid C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
Potassium chloride A A A A A C C C C A C C A C
Potassium cyanide C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
Potassium hydroxide C C C C C C C C C A C C C C
Potassium sulfate A A A A A C C C C A C C A C
Propane gas A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Seawater A A A A A C C C C A C C B B
Soap solutions A A A A B C C C C A C C A C
Sodium bicarbonate A A A A A A A A A A A A A B
Sodium bisulfate C C C C C C C C C A C C C C
Sodium carbonate C A A A A C C C C A C C C A
Sodium chloride A A A A A B C C C A C C A C
Sodium cyanide C C C C C C C C C B C C C C
Sodium hydroxide C C C C C C C C C A C C C C
(continued)
Table 8 (continued)
Sodium hypochlorite C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
Sodium nitrate B B B B B B B B B A B B A A
Sodium peroxide B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
Sodium phosphate A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Sodium sulfate, silicate A A B B B B C C C A C C A B
Sodium sulfide, C C C C C C C C C B C C C C
thiosulfate
Stearic acid A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Sulfur, solid C C C C C C C C C A C C C C
Sulfur chloride C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
Sulfur dioxide, dry A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Sulfur dioxide, moist A A A B B C C C C A C C A B
Sulfur trioxide, dry A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Sulfuric acid
78% or less B B B B B C C C C A C C B B
78–90% C C C C C C C C C B C C C C
90–95% C C C C C C C C C B C C C C
Fuming C C C C C C C C C A C C C C
Tannic acid A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Tartaric acid B A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Toluene B B A A A B B B B B B B B A
Trichlorethylene, dry A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Trichlorethylene, moist A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Turpentine A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Varnish A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Vinegar A A B B B C C C C B C C A B
Water, acid mine C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
Water, condensate A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Water, potable A A A A A A B B B A A A A A
Whiskey(b) A A C C C C C C C A C C A C
Zinc chloride C C C C C C C C C B C C B C
Zinc sulfate A A A A A C C C C B C A A C
In aqueous solutions, attack is accelerated by containing silicon, cobalt, chromium, nickel, and • Intermediate machinable alloys with machin-
dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide. Thus, beryllium in various combinations. These alloys, ability ratings between about 30 and 70
although copper alloys are widely used for however, are expensive and less readily available • Difficult-to-machine alloys with machinabil-
plumbing goods, they are attacked by many nat- than the standardized alloys. Table 9 presents ity ratings below 30
ural waters, especially the very soft waters with some of the properties of these alloys after heat
high oxygen and carbon dioxide contents. In treatment. Tables 10 and 11 rank copper casting The relative machinability of alloys belonging
these waters, carbonic acid is formed, which alloys according to their electrical and thermal to the three groups is shown in Table 12.
prevents the development of a resistant layer or conductivities, respectively. Additional information on machining of copper
dissolves any previously formed layer. castings can be found in the article “Machining”
Dezincification of high-zinc alloys frequently in this Handbook.
results if they are used indiscriminately in fresh- Machinability Free-cutting alloys containing more than
water service. about 2% Pb are the easiest to machine. These
As a class, cast copper alloys are relatively alloys form small, fragmented machining
easy to machine, compared with steels, and far chips that literally burst away from the cut-
Electrical and Thermal Conductivity ting tool, generating very little heat and mak-
easier to machine than stainless steels, nickel-
base alloys, and titanium, their major competi- ing possible the high machining speeds for
Electrical and thermal conductivity of any
tors for corrosion-resistant products. which the free-cutting alloys are known. Tool
casting will invariably be lower than for wrought
Machinability ratings of copper castings can be wear is minimal, and surface finishes are gen-
metal of the same composition. Copper castings
separated into three groups: erally excellent.
are used in the electrical industry for their cur-
Highly machinable low-lead copper castings
rent-carrying capacity, and they are used for
water-cooled parts of melting and refining fur- • Leaded free-cutting copper castings with containing bismuth and selenium have also been
machinability ratings greater than about 70 developed. Like lead, bismuth is nearly insolu-
naces because of their high thermal conductivi-
ty. However, for a copper casting to be sound
and have electrical or thermal conductivity of at Table 9 Composition and typical properties of heat-treated copper casting alloys of high
least 85%, care must be taken in melting and strength and conductivity
casting. The ordinary deoxidizers (silicon, tin, Electrical
zinc, aluminum, and phosphorus) cannot be used Tensile strength Yield strength
conductivity,
because small residual amounts lower electrical UNS No. Nominal composition MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, % Hardness % IACS
and thermal conductivity drastically. Calcium C81400 99Cu-0.8Cr-0.06Be 365 53 250 36 11 69 HRB 70
C81500 99Cu-1Cr 350 51 275 40 17 105 HB 85
boride or lithium will help to produce sound C81800 97Cu-1.5Co-Ag-0.4Be 705 102 515 75 8 96 HRB 48
castings with high conductivity. C82000 97Cu-2.5Co-0.5Be 660 96 515 75 6 96 HRB 48
Cast copper is soft and low in strength. C82200 98Cu-1.5Ni-0.5Be 655 95 515 75 7 96 HRB 48
Increased strength and hardness and good con- C82500 97Cu-2Be-0.5Co-0.3Si 1105 160 1035 150 1 43 HRC 20
C82800 96.6Cu-2.6Be-0.5Co-0.3Si 1140 165 1070 155 1 46 HRC 18
ductivity can be obtained with heat treated alloys
ble in copper and copper alloys and, also like manganese bronzes, silicon brasses and bronzes, some variation in machinability among mem-
lead, it causes machining chips to break up into and nickel silvers. These alloys form short, brit- bers of this group. There is, however, a general
small, easily removed particles. Selenium tle, tightly curled chips that tend to break into tendency to form long, stringy chips that inter-
enhances the effect of bismuth in brasses; there- manageable segments. Surface finishes can be fere with high-speed machining operations. In
fore, it reduces the amount of bismuth needed to quite good for multiphase alloys; however, cut- addition, pure copper and high-nickel alloys
achieve the desired improvement in machinabil- ting speeds will be lower and tool wear higher tend to weld to the tool face. This impairs sur-
ity. Unlike lead-containing alloys, bismuth-sele- than with free-cutting grades. face finish.
nium-containing alloys are not known to be Difficult-to-Machine Alloys. The third
toxic to humans. group is made up of the unleaded single-phase Cost Considerations
Intermediate Machinable Alloys. Alloys of alloys, which include high-conductivity coppers,
the second group contain two or more phases high-copper alloys such as chromium copper During the design of a copper alloy casting,
(the free-cutting alloys contain a single copper- and the beryllium coppers, tin bronzes, red foundry personnel or the design engineer must
rich phase plus lead). Generally, the secondary brasses, aluminum bronzes, and copper nickels. choose a method of producing internal cavities.
phases are harder or more brittle than the matrix. The properties of the alloys range from soft and There is no general rule for choosing between
Examples include unleaded yellow brasses, ductile to very strong and tough, which leads to cored and coreless designs. A cost analysis will
determine which is the more economical method
Table 11 Copper casting alloys ranked by of producing the casting, although frequently the
Table 10 Copper casting alloys ranked by thermal conductivity choice can be decided by past experience.
electrical conductivity For example, costs were compared for pro-
Thermal conductivity
Electrical conductivity, ducing a small (13 mm, or 12 in.) valve disk both
W/m · K Btu/ft2/ft/h/˚F
UNS No. %IACS at 20 ˚C (68 ˚F)
UNS No. at 293 K at 68 ˚F
C80100 100 C80100 391 226 Table 12 Machinability ratings of copper
C81100 92 C81100 346 200
C81500 82
casting alloys
C81500 315 182
C81400 60 C81400, C82000 259 150 Wrought aluminum alloy 2011-T3 and free-machining
C82200 45 C83400 188 109 steel 12L14 are included for comparisons.
C82000 45 C82200 183 106
C83400 44 C82400 133 76.9 Machinability
C83300 32 C82500, C82700 130 74.9
UNS No. rating
C85500 26 C82600 126 73.0 Group 1 free-cutting alloys
C82400 25 C82800 123 70.8
C85700, C86500 22 C83800, C84400, C84500, 90
C85500 116 67.0 C84800
C82500, C85800 20 C86400 88.3 51.0
C82700 20 C89520 85
C85400 87.9 50.8 C83600 84
C85400 20 C86500 85.3 49.6
C86400 19 C84200, C85200, C85400, 80
C85200, C85700, 83.9 48.5 C85500, C85700, C85800,
C82600 19 C85800
C82800, C85200 18 C93700, C93800, C93900,
C90300, C90500, 74.8 43.2 C94300, C94400, C94500,
C86700 17 C92300
C84500 16 C99700, C99750
C83800, C84200, 72.4 41.8 C89510 75
C84200, C84400, C84800 16 C84400
C93500 15 C92800, C93200, C93400, 70
C83600, C84500, 72.0 41.6 C93500, C97300, C97600
C83600, C83800 15 C84800
C92200 14 C90700, C91600, 70.6 40.8 Group 2 intermediate machinable alloys
C90200, C95300, C95400, 13 C91700 C86400 65
C95410 C93500 70.4 40.7 C83400, C95400, C95410, 60
C92300, C93200, C93400, 12 C92200 69.6 40.2 C95600, C97400, C97800
C94800, C99400 C95300 62.8 36.3 C86700, C95300 55
C90300 12 C94300 62.7 36.2 C87400, C87500, C94800(a), 50
C90500, C92700 11 C90200 62.3 36.0 C95500, C95700, C99400,
C93800, C93900 11 C95400, C95410 58.7 33.9 C99500, 2011-T3(A1)
C95200, C96200 11 C92900, C93200, 58.2 33.6 C92700 45
C93700 10 C93400 C92200, C92300 42
C91600, C91700, C94400, 10 C94700 54.0 31.2 C87300, C87600, C87800, 40
C94500, C99400 C93800, C93900, 52.3 30.2 C92600, C92900, C94800(b)
C99500 10 C94400, C94500 C83300 35
C90700 10 C95200 50.4 29.1 C81700, C82000, C82200, 30
C91000 9 C92700 47.0 27.2 C82400, C82500, C82600,
C92900, C94300 9 C93700 46.9 27.1 C82700, C82800, C85300,
C86800, C92600, C99300 9 C96200 45.2 26.1 C86100, C86200, C86800,
C91100, C95500, C95600 8 C99300 43.9 25.4 C90300, C90500, C92500,
C86100, C86200 8 C95500 41.9 24.2 C94700(a)
C86300 8 C94800, C95600 38.6 22.3
C95800 7 C96300 36.8 21.3
Difficult-to-machine alloys
C91300 7 C95800 36.0 20.8 C86500 26
C87400, C87500, C87800 7 C86100, C86200, 35.5 20.5 12L14 (Steel) 21
C96300 6 C86300 C81300, C81400, C81500, 20
C87300, C87600 6 C96600 30.1 17.4 C81800, C90200, C90700,
C97300 6 C97300 28.6 16.5 C90900, C91000, C91600,
C97400 6 C96400 28.5 16.4 C91700, C94700(b), C95200,
C97600 5 C87300, C87600 28.4 16.4 C95800, C96400, C96600,
C96400 5 C87400, C87500, 27.7 16.0 C99300
C97800 4 C87800 C96300 15
C96600 4 C97400 27.3 15.8 C80100, C81100, C91100, 10
C95700 3 C97800 25.4 14.7 C91300, C96200
C99700 3 C97600 31.4 13.0 C86800, C86300 8
C99750 2 C95700 12.1 7.0
(a) M01 temper. (b) TF00 temper. Source: Copper Development
Source: Copper Development Association Inc. Source: Copper Development Association Inc. Association Inc.
as a cored casting and as a machined casting Applications • Electrical components

(internal cavities made without cores). The • Architectural and ornamental parts
machined casting could be produced for about Copper alloy castings are used in applications
78% of the cost of making the identical casting that require superior corrosion resistance, good Figure 2 illustrates the wide variety of intricate
using dry sand cores—a savings of 22% in favor bearing-surface qualities, high thermal or elec- shapes and sizes into which copper and its alloys
of the machined casting. In a similar instance, trical conductivity, and other special properties. are typically cast.
producing a larger (38 mm, or 1 12 in.) valve disk These applications may be divided into six prin- Plumbing Hardware, Pump Parts, Valves,
as a cored casting that required only a minimal cipal groups: and Fittings. The requirements for such fluid-
amount of machining saved more than 8% in handling components are pressure tightness to
overall cost compared to producing the same • Plumbing hardware, pump parts, and valves avoid leakage; reasonable mechanical strength
valve disk without cores. Thus, for two closely and fittings at low, room, and high temperatures to avoid
related parts, a difference in manufacturing • Bearings and bushings bursting; good corrosion resistance; and ease
economy may exist when all cost factors are • Gears of machining. In addition, for a pleasing
taken into account. • Marine castings appearance, as in water fixtures, the parts must
be easily platable.
Plumbing fixtures and pump parts for the water-
works industry are usually produced in red brass-
es and semired brasses (alloys C83300–C84800).
Yellow brass (C85200) is sometimes used to cast
plumbing fixtures. Similarly, pump parts are cast
in silicon bronze (C87200).
A variety of alloys, however, are used to
produce valves and fittings. These alloys are
specified in ASTM B 763 (copper alloy sand
castings for valve applications), and the list
includes semired brasses, leaded semired
brasses, silicon bronzes, silicon brasses, tin
bronzes, leaded tin bronzes, high-leaded tin
bronzes, nickel-tin bronzes, leaded nickel-tin
bronzes, aluminum bronzes, leaded nickel
bronzes, and so on.
Parts that do not require high strength are
usually produced in red brasses, semired brass-
es, tin bronzes, and so forth, but when higher
strength is required, the nickel-tin bronzes,
high-strength yellow brasses, and so on, are
preferred. For example, the valve stem in a
control valve is cast in nickel-tin bronze (alloy
C94700), whereas the facing is cast in alloy
C83600 (Fig. 3).
Fig. 2 Variety of intricate shapes and sizes obtained using continuous casting methods to produce brass and bronze
Equipment for handling more corrosive flu-
alloy parts
ids, such as crude oil and salt water encountered
in the oil field industry, is different from that of
the waterworks industry. The requirements are
corrosion resistance, pressure tightness, and bet-
ter mechanical properties. The aluminum
bronzes are widely used in the oil field industry
to meet these requirements. Similar specifica-
tions apply to valves used in hydroelectric gen-
erating plants (Fig. 4). One such example is the
reciprocating pump, in which all areas exposed
to the corrosive fluids being pumped are made of
aluminum bronzes (C95300 or C95800). Check
valves and diaphragm backs for use in oil wells
and chemical-processing equipment are cast in
nickel-tin bronze (C94700).
The requirements for pressure-tight valves and
fittings for different gases are higher than those
for liquids. Such components can still be pro-
duced in the semired brass (C83600). However,
care must be exercised in the casting process to
ensure that shrinkage porosity is avoided.
Pump parts, valves, and fittings are also pro-
duced for marine application (see the section
“Marine Castings” below).
Bearings and Bushings. Copper alloys have
Fig. 3 Cutaway views of an as-cast and finish machined/threaded body of a 50 mm (2 in.) gate valve-union bonnet
long been used for bearings because of their com-
assembly rated at 1.0 MPa (150 psi). The body section was sand cast of C83600 alloy (Cu–5
Sn–5Pb–5Zn composition) and weighs 2.4 kg (5.2 lb). bination of moderate-to-high strength, corrosion
resistance, and either wear resistance or self- Phosphor bronzes of higher tin content, such as ened matrix (by tin) provides the required
lubrication properties. The choice of an alloy C91100 and C91300, are used in bridge turnta- strength. There is enough ductility to permit cor-
depends on required corrosion resistance and bles, where loads are high and rotational move- rosion of minor misalignment with the hard steel
fatigue strength, rigidity of backing material, ment is slow. mating part. Also, because of the dissimilarity of
lubrication, thicknesses of bearing material, load, High-leaded tin bronzes are used when a materials, no galling or scuffing is encountered.
speed of rotation, atmospheric conditions, and softer metal is required at slow-to-moderate When lubrication is irregular or omitted as in
other factors. Copper alloys may be cast into plain speeds and at loads not exceeding 5.5 MPa chemical applications, leaded materials are used.
bearings, cast on steel backs, cast on rolled strip, (800 psi). Alloys of this type include C93200, One such alloy is the leaded nickel-tin bronze
made into sintered powder metallurgy shapes, or C93500, C93700, and C94100. C93700 is containing Cu-20Pb-5Ni-5Sn. For gears exposed
pressed and sintered onto a backing material. widely used in machine tools, electrical and to harsh atmospheric conditions, manganese
Three groups of alloys are used for bearings railroad equipment, steel mill machinery, and bronze (alloy C86500) has been successful.
and wear-resistant applications: automotive applications. Alloys C93200 and Some typical applications are worm gears for
C93500 are less costly than C93700 and are rolling mills (alloy C91700), worm gears for oil
• Phosphor bronzes (copper-tin) used chiefly for replacement bearings in well equipment (alloy C90700), and gearing of
• Copper-tin-lead (low-zinc) alloys machinery. Alloy C93800 (15% Pb) and the stripper crane that removes the ingot from
• Manganese, aluminum, and silicon bronzes C94300 (24% Pb) are used when high loads the ingot mold in the steel making industry
are encountered under conditions of poor or (alloy C91700). Aluminum bronze is also used
Some of these applications are described below. nonexistent lubrication; under corrosion con- in worm gear applications (Fig. 5).
Phosphor bronzes (Cu-Sn-P or Cu-Sn-Pb-P ditions, such as in mining equipment (pumps Marine Castings. The selection of materials
alloys) have residual phosphorus, ranging from and car bearings); or in dusty atmospheres, as for marine applications such as ship construc-
a few hundredths of 1% (for deoxidation and in stone-crushing operations and cement tion, desalination plants, and so forth, is gov-
slight hardening) to a maximum of 1%, which plants. These alloys replace the tin bronzes or erned by surrounding corrosive environments,
imparts great hardness. Often nickel is added to low-leaded tin bronzes when operating condi- which may include salt water, fresh water, or
refine grain size and disperse the lead. tions are unsuitable for alloys containing little various corrosive cargoes such as oils, chemi-
or no lead. cals, and so on. Copper alloys generally give the
Aluminum bronzes with 8 to 9% Al are used greatest service life per dollar because of their
widely for bushings and bearings in light-duty or excellent corrosion resistance in fresh water, salt
high-speed machinery. Aluminum bronzes con- water, alkaline solutions (except those contain-
taining 11% Al, either as cast or heat treated, are ing ammonia), and many organic chemicals. The
suitable for heavy-duty service (such as valve most commonly used alloys are the high-
guides, rolling mill bearings, nuts, and slippers) strength copper-nickels (both Cu-10Ni and Cu-
and precision machinery applications. 30Ni, that is, alloys C96200 and C96400), alu-
Gears. When gears are highly loaded and minum bronzes (especially the nickel-aluminum
well lubricated the tin bronzes and nickel-tin bronze, alloy C95800, and Mn-Ni-Al bronzes,
bronzes are used. Specification ASTM B 427 alloy C95700), and manganese bronzes (alloys
(gear bronze alloy castings) gives the chemical C86100, C86200, C86400, C86500, and
compositions and mechanical properties of the C86800). These are used in pump bodies,
five commonly used alloys—namely, C90700, valves, tees, elbows, propellers (Fig. 6), pro-
C90800, C91600, C91700, and C92900. These peller shafts, propeller hubs (Fig. 7), hull gear,
are particularly advantageous when operating impellers, turbines, and the like.
against hardened steel. It appears that the disper- The most important alloys to cast propellers
sion hardening of the phase in a solution-hard- are the nickel-aluminum bronzes (C95800),
Fig. 4 A 1.37 m (54 in.) diam aluminum bronze stop
valve for power-generation cooling loop appli-
cations using a centrifugally cast body and a sand cast disk
assembly. Seating surface is cold-rolled plate welded to
the valve body with aluminum bronze spooled wire.
Fig. 7 Vertical centrifugally cast ship propeller hub for

Fig. 6 Propeller for a 114,000 ton tanker measures 7.5 controllable-pitch propeller blades is made of
m (24.7 ft) in diameter and weighs 37.52 Mg nickel-aluminum bronze, weighs 8.44 Mg (18,600 lb),
Fig. 5 Centrifugally cast aluminum bronze worm gear (82,725 lb). Part was machined and polished from a single and measures 1575 mm (62 in.) in diameter and 1270 mm
blanks being inspected 53.75 Mg (118,500 lb) nickel-aluminum bronze casting. (50 in.) in length.
alloys containing beryllium, nickel, chromium, be obtained by adjusting the composition. The
and so on, in various combinations. artist can take advantage of these color combi-
Pure copper and beryllium-copper are used to nations to produce ornamental castings such as
cast complex shapes for current conductors, door handles in red and semired brasses
often with water-cooled passages. Conductivity (C83600 and C84400), yellow and leaded yel-
of the fittings is not important, the principal low brasses, and nickel silvers (alloys C97300,
requirements being corrosion resistance and C97400, C97600, and C97800).
strength. Such fittings can be produced in lead-
ed red brasses (alloys C83300 or C83600), heat
treated nickel-tin bronze (alloy C94700), or ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
manganese bronze (alloy C86500).
Beryllium-copper (alloy C82500) is also used This article was adapted from:
to cast carriers for plating work and a variety of
shapes and sizes for the welding industry. • R.F. Schmidt and D.G. Schmidt, Selection
and Application of Copper Alloy Castings,
Aluminum bronzes are the most important
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys
alloys for producing components for the hydro-
and Special-Purpose Materials, Vol 2, ASM
electric-power generation plants because of their
Handbook, ASM International, 1990, p
good corrosion resistance. Although parts have
346–355
been produced from alloys C95200 and C95400,
heat treated nickel-aluminum bronze (alloy • R.F. Schmidt, D.G. Schmidt, and M. Sahoo,
Copper and Copper Alloys, Casting, Vol 15,
C95800) and Mn-Ni-Al bronzes (alloy C95700)
ASM Handbook, ASM International, 1988, p
are the most useful because of their resistance to
Fig. 8 Twelve-foot-high bronze sand casting of the 771–785
dealuminification.
Great Seal of the United States located in lobby
of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation building in Architectural and Ornamental Applica- • D.T. Peters and K.J.A. Kundig, Selecting
Coppers and Copper Alloys, Part II: Cast
Washington, D.C. Weight, 1.8 Mg (4000 lb) tions. The aesthetic applications of copper-base
Products, Adv. Mater. Process., Vol 145 (No.
alloys in artistic, musical, and ornamental work
6), June 1994
Mn-Ni-Al bronzes (C95700), and manganese are due to their excellent corrosion resistance,
bronzes or high-strength yellow brasses remarkable castability, and variety of colors.
(C86500). Manganese bronze propellers dezin- Bronze statues are cast in silicon bronze alloy
cify in salt water, and the aluminum bronzes (UNS C87200) because it has good fluidity and SELECTED REFERENCES
should be preferred for such applications. is free from pitting and corrosion, and the devel-
Bearings for propellers and ship opment of an adherent patina reduces the corro- • “Alloy Data Sheet: Low-Lead Red Brass
rudders, however, are produced in tin sion rate. Figure 8, a bronze casting that domi- Casting Alloys C89510 and C89520,” Copper
and leaded-tin bronzes such as alloys C90500 nates the lobby of a federal building in Development Association, 1995
and C92200. Washington, D.C., shows the fine detail that can • Copper Brass Bronze Design Guide: Copper
Electrical Components. Copper and copper be produced using copper in ornamental appli- Alloys for Permanent Mold Casting, Copper
alloys are used extensively in the electrical cations. For this reason, yellow and leaded yel- Development Association, 1988
industry because of their current carrying capac- low brasses (alloys C85200, C85300, C85400, • Casting Copper-Base Alloys, American
ity. They are used for substation, transformer, C85500, and C85700) are also used for a variety Foundrymen’s Society, 1984
and pole hardware components for power trans- of internal and external hardware. Church bells • Copper and Copper Alloy Castings,
mission, plating and welding of electrical-equip- are usually cast in copper-tin alloys containing Publication 13, Canadian Copper & Brass
ment parts, and turbine runners for hydroelec- about 19% Sn. These alloys contain a network of Development Association, 1988
tric-power generation. the brittle phase in the matrix, which reduces • Copper Casting Alloys: Alloy Selection
Cast copper is soft and low in strength. the damping capacity and produces a better tone. Guide, Properties, Specification, and
Increased strength and hardness and good con- A complete range of colors, from red to Casting Design, Copper Development
ductivity can be obtained with heat treated bronze and gold to silvery yellow and silver can Association, 1994
Powder Metallurgy
COPPER AND COPPER-BASE POWDERS globally. Hydrometallurgical and electrolytic Brass and Nickel Silver. Air atomization is
follow only iron and steel in volume of powder copper powders have not been manufactured in generally used for making prealloyed powders
used in powder metallurgy (P/M) parts fabrica- the United States since the early 1980s, but they of brass and nickel silver for use in high-den-
tion. Of the 25,240 short tons of copper or cop- are produced in Europe and Japan. sity ( 7.0 g/cm3) components. The low sur-
per alloy powder shipped in North America, Table 2 shows a comparison of some of the typ- face tension of the molten alloys of these com-
approximately 45% is used in the manufacture ical fundamental powder characteristics of compositions renders the particle shape
of self-lubricating bearings. Other important mercial copper powders made by the four produc- sufficiently irregular to make the powders
applications for copper and copper-base P/M tion processes. Each process produces a unique compactible. Reduction of oxides is not neces-
materials include structural parts, electrical particle shape and surface area. More detailed sary for the standard P/M grades of brass and
parts, friction materials, brushes, filters, addi- information on the powder production methods nickel silver powders.
tives to iron powders (alloying as well as infil- listed previously as well as relevant powder prop- Commercial prealloyed brass and nickel sil-
tration), catalysts, paints, and pigments. Table 1 erty data can be found in the article “Powder ver powders are available in leaded and nonlead-
summarizes these and other applications for Metallurgy Processing” in this Handbook. ed compositions. Commercial brass alloys range
copper-base powder metals. from 90Cu-10Zn to 65Cu-35Zn. Leaded ver-
This article reviews the characteristics, prop- Production of Copper Alloy Powders sions of 80Cu-20Zn and 70Cu-30Zn are most
erties, and applications of copper and copper- commonly used for the manufacture of sintered
base P/M materials/parts. In general, physical Alloy powders are available in various com- structural parts that may require secondary
properties and mechanical properties of near-full positions, including brasses, nickel silvers, tin machining operations. The only commercially
(theoretical) density copper and copper alloy bronzes, aluminum bronzes, and beryllium available nickel silver powder has a nominal
P/M structural parts are comparable to cast and bronzes. Alloy powders are produced by either composition of 65Cu-18Ni-17Zn, which is mod-
wrought copper-base materials of similar com- (1) preblending copper powders with other ele- ified by addition of lead when improved machin-
position. However, P/M copper parts vary in mental powders such as tin, zinc, or nickel or (2) ability is required.
density from the low density typical of self- prealloying during powder production.
lubricating bearings or filters to the near-full Preblending. Preblended powders are mix-
density of electrical parts. The physical and tures of selected compositions, with or without
mechanical properties depend greatly on the lubricant, that form the desired alloy during sin-
density as a percentage of theoretical density. tering. The most common P/M copper alloy
made with preblended powders is tin bronze used
in self-lubricating bearings. Typical bronze com-
The Powder Processing Route position is 90Cu-10Sn, often containing up to
1.5% graphite. Some “dilute” bronze bearings
Powder processing of copper and copper contain various amounts of iron replacing some
alloys, like that of other P/M systems, involves of the copper and tin. Copper-lead and steel-
powder production, blending/mixing of addi- backed Cu-Pb-Sn materials, used to replace solid
tives such as die lubricants with the powder, and bronze bearings, also use preblended powders
powder consolidation, for example, convention- because lead is virtually insoluble in copper and
al (press and sinter) processing. As shown in cannot be prealloyed. Friction materials used in
Fig. 1, a number of secondary, or optional, oper- brakes and clutches contain disparate materials
ations can also be carried out. such as copper with several other components
including lead, tin, iron, graphite, molybdenum
Production of Copper Powders disulfide, oxides, and so forth. These can only be
made by using preblended powders.
Copper powders of 99% purity are com- Prealloying. Prealloyed powders are gener-
mercially available. The four major methods of ally produced by melting the constituents to
producing such copper powders are: form a homogeneous alloy and atomizing the
alloy melt by the methods similar to those used
• Atomization
for the production of copper powder. They can
• Oxide reduction
also be produced by sintering preblended pow-
• Hydrometallurgy
ders and grinding the materials to attain the
• Electrolysis
desired powder characteristics. Some typical
Of these methods, atomization and oxide commercial prealloyed powders are dis- Fig. 1 Conventional press-and-sinter processing se-
reduction are presently practiced on a large scale cussed subsequently. quence for fabricating copper-base P/M materials
Table 1 Applications of copper-base powders

Application Powder type Application Powder type
Automotive and machinery Electrical and electronic

Bearings and bushings Bronze, copper-lead, and copper-lead-tin Heatsinks Copper
Brake bands and linings Copper, brass, copper-lead, copper-lead-tin Printed circuits Copper
Bushings Bronze Semiconductor stud bases Copper, dispersion-strengthened copper
Control panels/instruments Nickel-silver Telephone components Brass, bronze
Counterweights Copper-tungsten Switch and contactor components Copper, brass
Incandescent lamps ODS Copper
Chemical and industrial
X-ray, microwave tube parts ODS Copper
Chemical catalyst Copper
Filters Bronze Lubricants
Flame arrestors Bronze Antigalling pipe joint compounds Copper
Fungicide additive Copper Copper lubricants Copper
Soil conditioning Copper Plastic-filled metal Copper, bronze
Valves and pumps Copper-nickel Self-lubricating (oil-filled) parts Bronze
Coatings and paints Manufacturing and machining
Antifouling paints Copper Abrasive wheel bonding Copper
Conductive paints and plastics Copper and brass Brazing compounds Copper, bronze, brass
Decorative paints Copper, brass, bronze Electrodischarge machining Copper
Lacquers Brass, bronze Eletrochemical machining Copper
Mechanical (peen) plating Copper, brass Resistance welding electrodes Copper, dispersion-strengthened copper
Spray coating Copper, brass
Ordnance
Vacuum metallizing Copper
Armor-piercing cores Copper
Construction hardware Fuse parts Brass
Conductive and nonsparking floors Copper Projectile rotating bands Copper, brass
Decorative plastics Copper, bronze, and brass
Other equipment or uses
Domestic water filters Brass
Locks and keys Brass, bronze Business machines Brass
Nuts Brass Coins, metals, medallions Copper-nickel
Pipe joint compounds Copper Cordless devices Copper
Fingernail polish Copper
Electrical and electronic Lawn and garden equipment Bronze
Brushes Copper Photographic equipment Bronze, brass, nickel-silver
Brush holders Nickel-silver
Contacts ODS Copper
Table 2 Characteristics of commercial copper powders Pure Copper P/M Parts

Composition, %
Type of powder Copper Oxygen Acid insolubles Particle shape Surface area Pure copper P/M parts are used mainly in
Electrolytic 99.1–99.8 0.1–0.8 0.03 max Dendritic Medium to high electrical and electronic applications because of
Oxide reduced 99.3–99.6 0.2–0.6 0.03–0.1 Irregular; porous Medium their high electrical conductivity. It is essential
Water atomized 99.3–99.7 0.1–0.3 0.01–0.03 Irregular to spherical; solid Low to use very pure copper powders ( 99.95%
Hydrometallurgical 97–99.5 0.2–0.8 0.03–0.8 Irregular agglomerates Very high
purity) or to bring about the precipitation of sol-
uble impurities during sintering. As little as
Bronze. Prealloyed bronze powders are not sures that are too high will prevent proper sin- 0.023% Fe in solid solution in copper lowers its
used widely for structural parts fabrication tering of the center of the compact and reduce conductivity to 86% of that of pure copper.
because their nodular particle form and high the electrical conductivity and the strength. Small amounts of iron mechanically mixed with
apparent density result in low green strength. Recommended pressures for various copper- the copper powder lower the conductivity much
However, blends of such powders with irregular base materials/parts are described subsequent- less, unless the iron dissolves in the copper dur-
copper powders and phosphorus-copper yield ly and in the article “Powder Metallurgy ing sintering. If high-purity copper is used, or if
sintered parts with good mechanical properties. Processing” in this Handbook. soluble impurities are precipitated during sinter-
Table 3 shows typical properties of commercial Sintering. The compacted parts are sintered ing, it is possible to obtain the strength and con-
grades of prealloyed brass, bronze, and nickel at elevated temperature and under protective ductivity values shown in Fig. 2.
silver powders. conditions to avoid oxidation. During this Conductivity is directly related to porosity;
process, the powder particles are metallurgi- the greater the void content (lower the density),
cally bonded to each other. Typical sintering the lower the conductivity. Electrical conductiv-
Powder Consolidation times and temperatures are also listed subse- ity of pure copper parts pressed at moderate
quently and described in the article “Powder pressures of 205 to 250 MPa (15 to 18 tsi) and
Compaction. The consolidation of copper Metallurgy Processing” in this Handbook. sintered at 800 to 900 °C (1500 to 1650 °F)
or copper alloy powder is usually performed in varies from 80 to 90% International Annealed
a closed die although other means such as roll Copper Standard (IACS) on a scale where con-
compaction, isostatic compaction, extrusion, Secondary Operations ductivity of solid annealed copper is 100%
or forging can be used. Different materials IACS. the conductivity of solid copper can be
require different compacting pressures. For A variety of secondary manufacturing and reached or approached in P/M copper parts by
example, pure copper P/M parts are produced finishing operations may be required to com- sintering the pressed parts at higher tempera-
with relatively low pressures, for example, 205 plete the part, to improve properties, or to cal- tures, such as 930 to 1030 °C (1700 to 1900 °F),
to 250 MPa (15 to 18 tsi). The objective is to ibrate dimensional tolerances. Examples followed by repressing, coining, or forging.
permit the escape of gases and water vapor include sizing, repressing, coining, oil Typical applications of pure copper parts in
formed by the internal reduction of oxides dur- impregnation, machining, plating, deburring, which high electrical conductivity is required
ing subsequent sintering. Compacting pres- and joining. include commutator rings, contacts, shading
Powder Metallurgy Copper and Copper Alloys / 107
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Table 3 Physical properties of typical brass, bronze, and nickel silver alloy powders
Property Brass(a) Bronze(a) Nickel silver(a)(b)
Sieve analysis, %
100 mesh 2.0 max 2.0 max 2.0 max
100 200 15–35 15–35 15–35
200 325 15–35 15–35 15–35
325 60 max 60 max 60 max
Physical properties
Apparent density 3.0–3.2 3.3–3.5 3.0–3.2
Flow rate, s/50 g 24–26 … …
Mechanical properties
Green density(c) at 415 MPa (30 tsi), g/cm3 7.6 7.4 7.6
Green strength(c) at 415 MPa (30 tsi), MPa (psi) 10–12 (1500–1700) 10–12 (1500–1700) 9.6–11 (1400–1600)
(a) Nominal mesh sizes, brass, 60 mesh; bronze, 60 mesh; nickel silver, 100 mesh. (b) Contains no lead. (c) Compressibility and green strength
data of powders lubricated with 0.5% lithium stearate.
Fig. 3 Pressing characteristics of premixed and preal-

loyed 90Cu-10Sn powders. Source: Ref 2
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 4 Effect of density on the strength of copper-tin and
copper-tin-graphite compacts. Source: Ref 3
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view that porosity in the bearing acts as an oil reser-
Fig. 2 Effect of density on electrical conductivity and tensile strength properties of P/M copper. Source: Ref 1 voir. The pores are filled with a lubricant that
comprises about 25% of the material. Design
coils, nose cones, and electrical twist-type plugs. presence of an optimal bronze grain struc- considerations for self-lubricating bearings are
Copper powders also are used in copper-graphite ture. Sintering atmospheres should be protec- outlined in Ref 4.
compositions that have low contact resistance, tive and reducing to facilitate sintering. Mechanism of Lubrication. The function of
high current-carrying capacity, and high thermal Reduction of the copper oxides that may sur- a bearing is to guide a moving part with as little
conductivity. Typical applications include brushes round each copper powder particle and of tin friction as possible. For sintered self-lubricating
for motors and generators and moving parts for oxide allow for increased diffusion rates. bearings this is accomplished by using the inter-
rheostats, switches, and current-carrying washers. Typical strength/density data for 90Cu-10Sn connected porosity of the bearing as an oil reser-
sintered bronzes with and without graphite voir. Figure 5 shows schematically the mecha-
Bronze P/M Parts additions are shown in Fig. 4. Control of sin- nism of this type of lubrication for rotating shaft.
tered dimensions in premix systems is As the shaft begins to rotate, metal-to-metal fric-
Powder metallurgy bronzes typically origi- achieved by manipulating sintering time tion between the shaft and the bearing causes the
nate as premixes consisting of elemental cop- and/or temperature. temperature of the bearing assembly to rise. As
per and tin powders plus 0.5 to 0.75% dry Generally, copper-tin blends composed of a result, the oil contained in the pores of the
organic lubricants such as stearic acid or zinc relatively coarser powders sinter to higher bearing expands, and the oil wedge (that is, the
stearate. Some structural parts, however, growth values than a blend composed of finer space between the shaft and the bearing) is par-
requiring densities 7.0 g/cm3 are fabricated powders. After powder blends have been tested tially filled with oil.
from prealloyed powders. Prealloyed powders and adjusted to provide an approximation of tar- Rotation of the shaft develops a so-called
have higher yield strengths and work-harden- get dimensions, final adjustments are made dur- hydrodynamic pressure, p, within the oil film
ing rates than premixed powders. Therefore, ing production sintering to obtain dimensional that with correct clearance, shaft velocity, and
pressing loads required to achieve given green precision. Factors affecting the ultimate dimen- pore structure of the bearing is able to lift the
densities in prealloyed powders are higher than sional values include physical characteristics of shaft so that it rides on a liquid film of oil. This
the pressures required for elemental powders. the constituents and compacted density. is known as hydrodynamic lubrication and is a
Differences in pressing characteristics of pre- condition of lowest friction. During operation,
mixed and prealloyed powders are compared the oil that passes into the pores of the bearing
in Fig. 3. Bronze Self-Lubricating Bearings is being recirculated to the unloaded region.
Typical sintering furnace temperatures for With low shaft velocities and during startup, the
bronze range from 815 to 870 °C (1500 to Self-lubricating bearings are one of the oldest hydrodynamic pressure is insufficient to sepa-
1600 °F); total sintering time within the hot industrial applications of porous P/M parts, dat- rate shaft and bearing. This leads to so-called
zone may range from 15 to 30 min, depending ing back to the mid-1920s. They remain the “mixed” or even to “boundary” lubrication with
on the furnace temperature selected, required highest volume part produced by the P/M indus- attendant friction increase, temperature rise, oil
dimensional change, and most importantly, the try. The major advantage of porous bearings is loss, wear, and reduced bearing life. When the
Fig. 5 Schematic of hydrodynamic pressure (p) and oil

circulation in an oil-impregnated porous bearing
shaft ceases to rotate, the temperature of the

assembly decreases and the oil within the oil
wedge is drawn back into the porous bearing by
capillary forces. Thus, the oil can be reused
many times.
Uses. Every component that requires rotary
motion relies on a bearing of some type. P/M
self-lubricating bearings can be found in almost
every part requiring rotary motion. Examples of
the wide usage of P/M bearings include:
• Automotive: Heater motors, window lift Fig. 6 Typical bronze self-lubricating bearings. The most common shapes are simple or flanged bushings, but some
motors, air conditioners, windshield wiper have spherical external surfaces. Sizes range from about 0.8 to 75 mm (132 to 3 in.).
motors, power antenna motors, trunk-closing
motors, seat adjuster motors, and tape deck ings are covered in ASTM Standard B 612, density, and dimensional control during sinter-
motors “Standard Specification for Iron Bronze Sintered ing. The idea is to obtain uniform melting and
• Portable power tools: Drills, reciprocating Bearings (Oil Impregnated)” and MPIF Standard diffusion of low melting constituents such as tin
saws, jigsaws, and sanders 35. Properties and compositions of sintered dilut- in bronzes or copper in iron-base alloys.
• Home appliances: Washers, dryers, refrigera- ed bronze bearings are listed in Table 5. Compacting. The mix or preblend of raw
tors, blenders, mixers, food processors, fans, Copper is also a constituent is some iron-base materials is then transferred to a hopper, which
and clocks bearing compositions. Copper contents range is attached to a mechanical or hydraulic press.
• Consumer electronics: Phonographs, high- from 1.5 to 22%. Iron-copper-carbon bearings Loose powder flows by gravity (some vibration
fidelity equipment, stereo equipment, tape are covered in ASTM B 439, “Standard may be required) to the die cavity, where it is
players, and video recorders Specification for Iron-Base Sintered Bearings compacted to the desired shape and density.
• Business machines: Typewriters, computers, (Oil Impregnated) and MPIF Standard 35. Compacting pressure for typical bearing com-
and copiers Mixing or blending of fine elemental pow- positions varies from 138 to 413 MPa (10 to 30
• Farm and lawn equipment: Tractors, com- ders normally is done in a double-cone blender. tsi). Depending on final dimensional accuracy,
bines, cotton pickers, lawn mowers, string For bronze bearings, mixtures of electrolytic, the green compact, or bearing, is molded 1 to
cutters, and chain saws reduced, or atomized copper powders, atomized 5% oversize to allow for material movement
• Marine equipment: Outboard motors tin powders, and natural graphite powders are during sizing.
The most common shapes of self-lubricating used. The particle size distribution of the copper Sintering transforms the green bearing into a
bearings are shown in Fig. 6. powder is 100% –100 mesh and between 40 to metallurgically bonded alloy. The green bearing,
Bearing Compositions. The most widely 70% –325 mesh. The tin powder is 95% –325 an elemental mixture of copper and tin, is trans-
used bearing material is 90Cu-10Sn with or mesh. Both reduced and atomized iron powders formed into a true bronze alloy at a tempera-
without the addition of graphite. Sintered bronze are used for iron-base bearings. The powders are ture that is below the melting point of copper but
bearings are covered in ASTM Standard B 438, combined with a fine lubricant such as stearic above the melting point of tin. Under these liq-
“Standard Specification for Sintered Bronze acid, zinc stearate, or Acrawax (Glyco, Inc., uid-phase conditions, sintering occurs without
Bearings (Oil Impregnated)” and in MPIF Norwalk, CT). The lubricant, which burns off an appreciable change in the size of the bearing.
Standard 35, “Materials Standards for Structural during sintering, acts as a die release. Sintering temperature for bronze may vary
Parts.” Properties and compositions of sintered Blending of elemental and/or prealloyed pow- from 830 to 900 °C (1525 to 1650 °F), depend-
bronze bearings are given in Table 4. ders is done for a predetermined time to produce ing on the time at temperature (normally 3 to 8
So-called “diluted bronze” bearings contain a homogeneous mixture of all components and min) and the desired sintered size. Suitable
various amounts of iron. Dilution with iron to supply a mix that has a specific density, which bronze bearings have microstructures that are
reduces the cost of the bearing at the expense of is necessary for fixed-fill die cavities. Thorough essentially bronze as shown in Fig. 7. Diluted
some loss in performance. Diluted bronze bear- mixing is required to achieve uniform strength, bronze bearings require sintering temperature of
870 to 980 °C (1600 to 1800 °F). The Table 4 MPIF specification for sintered bronze bearings
microstructure of a sintered diluted bronze P/M Minimum values(a)
alloy is shown in Fig. 8. Oil
Density (Owet) Chemical
Strength content
Sizing. Most precision bearings require a siz- Material constant (P0)(b), (c), g/cm3 composition, wt%
ing operation after sintering. Sizing is done in Material description code (K), ksi vol% min max Element min max
highly polished, dimensionally accurate tools. Bronze CT-1000-K19 19 24(d) 6.0 6.4 Copper 87.2 90.5
Sizing pressures range from 206 to 551 MPa (15 (low graphite) Tin 9.5 10.5
to 40 tsi), depending on the amount of sizing Graphite 0 0.3
Other(e) … 2.0
required and the composition of the sintered CT-1000-K26 26 19 6.4 6.8 Copper 87.2 90.5
part. Sizing is done primarily to improve dimen- Tin 9.5 10.5
sions; however, it cannot be done effectively Graphite 0 0.3
without increasing density. Other(e) … 2.0
CT-1000-K37 37 12 6.8 7.2 Copper 87.2 90.5
Typical-sized inside diameter tolerances Tin 9.5 10.5
range from 0.0076 mm (0.0003 in.) for spherical Graphite 0 0.3
bearings up o 16 mm (0.63 in.), with an overall Other(e) … 2.0
length of up to 19 mm (0.8 in.). Straight-wall CT-1000-K40 40 9 7.2 7.6 Copper 87.2 90.5
Tin 9.5 10.5
bearing inside diameter tolerances normally are Graphite 0 0.3
0.03 mm (0.001 in.) per 25 mm (1 in.) of diam- Other(e) 0 2.0
eter for lengths up to 38 mm (1.5 in.). Bronze CTG-1001-K17 17 22(f) 6.0 6.4 Copper 85.7 90.0
Impregnation. Powder metal bearings appear (medium graphite) Tin 9.5 10.5
Graphite 0.5 1.8
solid, but are actually 20 to 25% porous. This Other(e) … 2.0
characteristic—porosity—makes parts made by CTG-1001-K23 23 17 6.4 6.8 Copper 85.7 90.0
P/M processing ideal bearing materials. Porosity Tin 9.5 10.5
consists of thousands of small capillaries that are Graphite 0.5 1.8
Other(e) … 2.0
interconnected throughout the structure of the CTG-1001-K33 33 9 6.8 7.2 Copper 85.7 90.0
bearing and act as a built-in reservoir for the Tin 9.5 10.5
lubricant. These pores can be filled with a lubri- Graphite 0.5 1.8
cant that is sufficient for the life of the unit for Other(e) … 2.0
CTG-1001-K34 34 7 7.2 7.6 Copper 85.7 90.0
most applications. However, for longer bearing Tin 9.5 10.5
life, oil-saturated felt or wicking can surround Graphite 0.5 1.8
the bearing. Other(e) 0 2.0
The pores are impregnated with oil normal- Bronze CTG-1004-K10 10 11 5.8 6.2 Copper 82.5 87.5
(high graphite) Tin 9.5 10.5
ly under vacuum. Bearings are placed in the Graphite 3.0 5.0
tank or autoclave, the lid is closed, and the Other(e) … 2.0
vacuum pump is turned on. Pressure is reduced CTG-1004-K15 15 (g) 6.2 6.6 Copper 82.5 87.5
to at least 709 torr (28 in. Hg) before oil is Tin 9.5 10.5
Graphite 3.0 5.0
permitted to flow over the bearings. Oil is Other(e) … 2.0
introduced into the tank without shutting off
the vacuum pump, and the tank, now filled MPIF, Metal Powder Industries Federation. (a) These data are based on material in the finished condition. (b) Minimum oil content will decrease with
increasing density. Those shown are valid at the upper limit of the density given. (c) Oil-impregnated. Assumes an oil density of 0.875 g/cm3. (d) For
with bearings and oil, is evacuated for another oil content of 27% min, density range will be 5.8–6.2 g/cm3, and K constant will be 105 MPa (15 ksi). (e) Iron 1 wt% max. (f) For oil content of 25%
few minutes or until the pressure is again min, density range will be 5.8–6.2 g/cm3 and K constant will be 90 MPa (13 ksi). (g) At maximum graphite (5%) and density (6.6 g/cm3), this mate-
reduced to 709 torr (28 in. Hg). rial will contain only a trace of oil. At 3% graphite and 6.2–6.6 g/cm3 density, it may contain 3-10 vol% oil. Source: MPIF Standard 35
After obtaining the desired vacuum, the vacu-

um pump is shut off, a valve is opened, and the desired pore range. The effective pore size of fil- materials have sintered densities ranging from
oil is forced out of the impregnating tank to the ters generally ranges from 5 to 125 m. 4.6 to 5.0 g/cm3.
storage reservoir. A properly impregnated bear- Tin bronze is the most widely used P/M filter During sintering the filters shrink slightly—as
ing contains sufficient oil to fill 90% of the material, but nickel silver, stainless steel, cop- much as 8%. To avoid excessive shrinkage, fil-
available interconnecting porosity or approxi- per-tin-nickel alloys, and nickel-base alloys also ters from powders with fine particle size require
mately 20 vol% oil (standard density 6.4 to 6.8 are used. The major advantage of P/M bronze lower sintering temperatures in the neighbor-
g/cm3 bearing) and 212 to 3 wt% oil. materials over other porous metals is cost. hood of 815 °C (1500 °F). Because of the
Figure 9 shows assorted product forms of bronze shrinkage during sintering. Filters must be
Porous Bronze Filters P/M filters. designed with a slight draft, so they can be
Fabrication. Bronze filters usually are made removed from the mold.
Porous P/M parts are made from various types by gravity sintering of spherical bronze powders, Properties. Mechanical properties such as
of metal powders depending on the particular which are generally made from the atomization ductility, tensile strength, shear strength, col-
application. The most commonly used powders of molten prealloyed bronze (Fig. 10). These lapse strength, burst strength, and fatigue life
include bronze, stainless steel, nickel and nickel- powders typically contain 90 to 92% Cu and 8 to of porous materials are highly dependent on
base alloys, titanium, and aluminum. Materials 10% Sn. Filters made from atomized bronze have the porosity and the processing method (Ref
used less frequently include the refractory met- sintered densities ranging from 5.0 to 5.2 g/cm3. 5). Table 6 illustrates typical values for tensile
als (tungsten, molybdenum, and tantalum) and To produce filters with the highest permeability strength, elongation, and shear strength of
the noble metals (silver, gold, and platinum). for a given maximum pore size, powder particles 90% Cu/10% tin bronze discs as a function of
Filters constitute one of the major applications of a uniform particle size must be used. density and filter grade as rated by the bubble-
of porous metals. The ability to achieve close con- Although not widely used, coarser powders point method (Ref 6–8). Mechanical prop-
trol of porosity and pore size is the main reason for bronze filters can be obtained by chopping erties increase significantly as the pore size
metal powders are used in filter applications. Most copper wire and tumbling the choppings. Filters and the percentage of porosity decreases.
producers of nonferrous filters prefer atomized made from tin-coated cut copper wire with tin Alternatively, permeability decreases as the
spherical powder of closely controlled particle contents ranging from 2.5 to 8% are also used to pore size and the percentage of porosity
size to allow production of filters within the a lesser extent (Fig. 11). Filters made from these decreases. Therefore, an optimal balance of
Table 5 MPIF specifications for diluted bronze sintered bearings tanks containing flammable liquids. In these
applications, heat is conducted away rapidly so
Minimum values(a)
that the ignition temperature is not reached.
Strength constant Density (Dwet) Chemical
(K), ksi (b), g/cm3 composition, wt%
Additional information on the manufacture,
Material Oil content properties, performance characteristics, and
Material description code min max (P0), vol% min max Element min max
applications of P/M bronze filters can be found
Iron/bronze 60/40, FCTG-3604-K16 16 … 36 22 6.0 Iron 54.2 62.0 in Ref 5.
diluted bronze Copper 34.0 38.0
Tin 3.5 4.5
Total carbon(c) 0.5 1.3
Other … 2.0 Bronze Structural Parts
FCTG-3604-K22 22 50 17 6.0 6.4 Iron 54.2 62.0
Copper 34.0 38.0
Tin 3.5 4.5 Powder metallurgy bronze parts for structural
Total carbon(c) 0.5 1.3 applications frequently are selected because of
Other … 2.0
Iron/bronze 40/60, CFTG-3806-K14 14 35 22 5.6 6.0 Iron 50.2 58.0 corrosion and wear resistance of bronze. They
diluted bronze Copper 36.0 40.0 are generally produced by methods similar to
Tin 5.5 6.5 those used for self-lubricating bearings. Typical
Total carbon(c) 0.5 1.3 compositions of bronze structural parts (CT-
Other … 2.0
CFTG-3806-K22 22 50 17 6.0 6.4 Iron 50.2 58.0 1000) are included in Table 7, and the typical
Copper 36.0 40.0 properties are shown in Table 8.
Tin 5.5 6.5 Figure 12 shows an assortment of P/M bronze
Total carbon(c) 0.5 1.3 structural parts. These parts are generally used in
Other … 2.0
automobile clutches, copiers, outboard motors,
MPIF, Metal Powder Industries Federation. (a) These data are based on material in the finished condition. (b) Oil-impregnated. Assumes an oil den- and paint-spraying equipment.
sity of 0.875 g/cm3. (c) Metallurgical combined carbon, 0.5 wt% max. Source: MPIF Standard 35
Brass and Nickel Silver P/M Parts
In contrast to bronze structural parts, parts

made from brass, leaded brass, and nickel silver
are produced from prealloyed atomized powder.
Compositions of some common brass and nick-
el silver alloys used in structural parts are
shown in Table 7. The leaded compositions are
used whenever secondary machining operations
are required.
The alloy powders are usually blended with
lubricants in amounts from 0.5 to 1.0 wt%.
Lithium stearate is the preferred lubricant because
of its cleansing and scavenging action during
sintering. However, bilubricant systems are
common, such as lithium stearate and zinc
stearate, which minimize the surface staining
attributed to excessive lithium stearate.
Lubricated powders are typically compacted to
Fig. 7 Alpha bronze microstructure in 90%Cu-10%Sn P/M bearing alloy. (a) 150 (b) 300
mechanical properties and permeability must are also highly dependent on porosity and gen-
be achieved to meet the application. erally decrease as porosity increases (Ref 5).
Processing methods and materials can usually Applications. Powder metallurgy bronze
be selected to create a porous P/M material filters are used to filter gases, oils, refriger-
that meets the minimum mechanical properties ants, and chemical solutions. They have been
and provides the maximum permeability. In used in fluid systems of space vehicles to
some more severe applications involving high- remove particles as small as 1 m. Bronze
pressure differentials, corrosive environments, diaphragms can be used to separate air from
and/or high-temperature service, mechanical liquids or mixtures of liquids that are not
properties are maximized at the expense of emulsified. Only liquids capable of wetting
permeability in order to maximize service life. the pore surface can pass through the porous
Enhanced mechanical properties also extend metal part.
the number of cleaning and reuse cycles in Bronze filter materials can be used as flame
some applications. arrestors on electrical equipment operating in
Other material properties such as thermal flammable atmospheres, where the high ther- Fig. 8 Microstructure of diluted bronze P/M bearing
material. This bearing grade has the unique fea-
conductivity, thermal expansion, fatigue, elec- mal conductivity of the bronze prevents igni- ture of being bronze in appearance but lower in material
trical conductivity, and magnetic properties tion. They can also be used as vent pipes on cost. 150
75% of theoretical density at 207 MPa (30 ksi) 14%, and apparent hardness is 20 HRB. Re- 10Ni alloy has a final density of 99.4% under
and to 85% of theoretical density at 415 MPa pressing at 772 MPa (112 ksi) increases density similar pressing-and-sintering conditions. It has
(60 ksi). to 95%. This alloy has the color of stainless steel a bright bronze color and also can be burnished
Sintering of brass and nickel silver compacts and can be burnished to a high luster. The 90Cu- to a high luster.
is normally performed in protective atmos-
pheres. Dissociated ammonia, endothermic Table 6 Typical mechanical properties of bronze filters
gas, and nitrogen-base atmospheres are most Minimum ultimate
common. Temperatures range from 815 to 925 tensile strength Shear strength(c)
°C (1500 to 1700 °F) depending on alloy com- Material(a) Filter grade(b), m Density, % MPa ksi Elongation, % MPa ksi
position. To avoid distortion and/or blistering Bronze 10 75 48 7 8 130 18.8
of the compacts, sintering temperatures should 20 68 41 6 6 110 15.9
not exceed the solidus temperature of the alloy. 40 62 35 5 4 100 14.5
90 57 28 4 3 75 10.9
Through multiple pressing and sintering oper- 150 54 21 3 2 40 5.8
ations, yield strength and hardness approach- 250 52 14 2 2 30 4.3
ing those of the wrought alloy counterparts can
(a) For comparison purposes, wrought bronze (90% Cu/10% Sn) has a theoretical mean density of 8.8 g/cm3 with a minimum UTS of 300 MPa (43
be achieved. To minimize zinc losses during ksi) and 20% elongation. Data are for commercial bronze filter disks. (b) Filter grades in micrometers as estimated by bubble-point test method. See
sintering, yet allow for adequate lubricant Ref 6–8. (c) Shear strength is the punching force divided by the sheared edge area per DIN standard V 30910 "Sintered Metal Materials, Part 2:
removal, protective-sintering-tray arrange- Materials for Filters."
ments are used. Table 8 shows the typical

properties of common brass and nickel silver
P/M parts.
Next to bronze bearings, brasses and nickel sil-
vers are the most widely used materials for struc-
tural P/M parts. Typical applications include hard-
ware for latch bolts and cylinders for locks; shutter
components for cameras; gears, cams, and actua-
tor bars in timing assemblies and in small genera-
tor drive assemblies; and decorative trim and
medallions. In many of these applications, corro-
sion resistance, wear resistance, and aesthetic
appearance play important roles. Figure 13 shows
some typical P/M brass components.
Copper-Nickel P/M Parts

Copper-nickel P/M alloys containing 75 Cu-
25Ni and 90Cu-10Ni have been developed for
coinage and corrosion-resistance applications.
The 75Cu-25Ni alloy powder pressed at 772
MPa (112 ksi) has a green density 89% of its
theoretical density. After sintering at 1090 °C
(2000 °F) in dissociated ammonia, elongation is Fig. 9 Assorted filters made from P/M bronze
Fig. 10 Atomized 90/10 prealloyed bronze powder particles with a size range of 45 Fig. 11 95/5 bronze particles made from tin-coated, cut copper wire with a size
to 100 m that are gravity sintered to 64% density in order to yield a 10 m range of 250 to 425 m that are gravity sintered to 55% density in order to
filter grade disk. 100 yield a 40 m filter grade disk. 100
In one method of producing coins, medals, After pressing, the blanks are annealed to Copper-Base Friction Materials
and medallions, a mixture containing 75% Cu improve ductility and coinability.
and 25% Ni powders is blended with zinc
Sintered-metal-base friction materials are
stearate lubricant and compressed, sintered,
Copper-Lead P/M Parts used in applications involving the transmission
coined, and resintered to produce blanks suit-
of motion through fiction (clutches) and for
able for striking. These blanks are softer than
deceleration and stopping (brakes). In these
rolled blanks because they are produced from Copper and lead, which have limited solu-
applications, mechanical energy is converted
high-purity materials. Therefore, they can be bilities in each other, are difficult to alloy by
into frictional heat, which is absorbed and dissi-
coined at relatively low pressures, and it is conventional ingot metallurgy. Copper-lead
pated by the friction material. Copper-base
possible to achieve greater relief depth with powder mixtures have excellent cold pressing
materials are preferred because of their high
reduced die wear. properties; they can be compacted at pressures
thermal conductivity; however, lower cost iron-
In another procedure, an organic binder is as low as 76 MPa (11 ksi) to densities as high
base materials have been developed for moder-
mixed with copper or copper-nickel powders as 80% of theoretical density. After sintering,
ate to severe duty dry applications.
and rolled into “green” sheets. Individual copper they can be re-pressed at pressures as low as
Compositions. Most friction materials con-
and copper-nickel sheets are pressed together to 152 MPa (22 ksi) to produce essentially non-
tain copper powders blended with other metal
form a laminate, and blanks are punched from it. porous bearings.
powders, solid lubricants, oxides, and other
Blanks are heated in hydrogen to remove the Steel-backed copper or Cu-Pb-Sn P/M
compounds. These constituents are immiscible
organic binder and sinter the material. The den- materials are sometimes used to replace solid
in each other and therefore can only be made
sity of the “green” blanks is low (45% of theo- bronze bearings. They are produced by
by powder metallurgy. Compositions of some
retical), but coining increases density to 97%. spreading the powder in a predetermined
common copper-base friction materials are
thickness on a steel strip, sintering, rolling to
shown in Table 9.
Table 7 Compositions of copper-base P/M theoretical density, resintering, and annealing.
Manufacturing. Mixtures of the appropriate
structural materials (brass, bronze, and The end product has a residual porosity of
powders are carefully blended to minimize seg-
nickel silver) about 0.25%. Blanks of suitable size are cut
regation of the constituents. Fine metal powders
from the bimetallic strip, formed, and drilled
Material Chemical composition, % with high surface area are necessary to provide a
with oil holes or machined to form suitable
designation Cu Zn Pb Sn Ni Element strong and thermally conductive matrix. The
grooves. These materials include Cu-25Pb-
blended powders are compacted at pressures
Brass 0.5Sn, Cu-25Pb-3.5Sn, Cu-10Pb-10Sn, and
CZ-1000 88.0 bal … … … min ranging from 165 to 275 MPa (24 to 40 ksi).
Cu-50Pb-1.5Sn alloys.
91.0 bal … … … max Bell-type sintering furnaces are used where
CAP-1002 88.0 bal 1.0 … … min the friction facing is bonded to a supporting steel
91.0 bal 2.0 … … max backing plate such as in clutch disks. The green
CAP-2002 77.0 bal 1.0 … … min
80.0 bal 2.0 … … max disks are placed on the copper-plated steel plates
CZ-3000 68.5 bal … … … min and stacked. Pressure is applied on the vertical
71.5 bal … … … max stack of disks. Sintering temperatures range
CZP-3002 68.5 bal 1.0 … … min from 550 to 950 °C (1020 to 1740 °F) in a pro-
71.5 bal 2.0 … … max
tective atmosphere. Typical sintering times are
Nickel silver 30 to 60 min. The sintered parts are typically
CNZ-1818 62.5 bal … … 16.5 min machined for dimensional accuracy and surface
65.5 bal … … 19.5 max
CNZP-1816 62.5 bal 1.0 … 16.5 min parallelism. Figure 14 shows the structure of a
65.5 bal 2.0 … 19.5 max copper-base friction material, copper-plated
Bronze layer, and steel backing plate after sintering at
CT-1000 87.5 bal … 9.5 … min 650 °C (1200 °F) for 2 h.
90.5 bal … 10.5 … max The friction elements are usually brazed,
welded, riveted, or mechanically fastened to the
Note: Total by difference equals 2.0% max, which may include other
minor elements added for specific purposes. Source: MPIF Standard 35
supporting steel members. They may also be
Fig. 12 Assorted P/M bronze parts pressure bonded directly to the assembly.
Table 8 Properties of copper-base P/M structural materials (brass, bronze, and nickel silver)
Mechanical property data derived from laboratory-prepared test specimens sintered under commercial manufacturing conditions
Typical values
Minimum Ultimate tensile 0.2% yield Transverse rupture Unnotched Charpy Compressive
Material Elongation Apparent
yield strength strength strength Young's modulus strength impact strength yield strength
designation in 25 mm Density hardness,
code(a) MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi (1 in.), % GPa 106 psi MPa ksi J ft · lbf g/cm3 MPa ksi HRH
CZ-1000-9 62 9 124 18.0 65 9.5 9.0 52 7.5 270 39 (b) (b) 7.60 (b) (b) 65
CA-1000-10 70 10 138 20.0 76 11.0 10.5 69 10.0 315 46 (b) (b) 7.90 (b) (b) 72
CZ-1000-11 75 11 159 23.0 83 12.0 12.0 (b) (b) 360 52 (b) (b) 8.10 (b) (b) 80
CZP-1002 (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b)
CZP-2002-11 75 11 159 23.0 93 13.5 12.0 69 10.0 345 50 38 28.0 7.60 103 15.0 75
CZP-2002-12 83 12 207 30.0 110 16.0 14.5 83 12.0 480 70 76 56.0 8.00 110 16.0 84
CZ-3000-14 97 14 193 28.0 110 16.0 14.0 62 9.0 425 62 31 23.0 7.60 83 12.0 84
CZ-3000-16 110 16 234 34.0 131 19.0 17.0 69 10.0 590 86 51.5 38.0 8.00 90 13.0 92
CZP-3002-13 90 13 186 27.0 103 15.0 14.0 62 9.0 395 57 (b) (b) 7.60 (b) (b) 80
CZP-3002-14 97 14 217 31.5 115 16.5 16.0 69 10.0 490 71 (b) (b) 8.00 (b) (b) 88
CNZ-1818-17 117 17 234 34.0 140 20.0 11.0 75 11.0 500 73 32.5 24.0 7.90 172 25.0 90
CNZP-1816 (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b)
CT-1000-13 90 13 152 22.0 110 16.0 4.0 38 5.5 310 45 5.4 4.0 7.20 186 27.0 82
(re-pressed)
(a) Suffix numbers represent minimum yield strength values in ksi. (b) Additional data in preparation will appear in subsequent editions of MPIF standard 35.
The operating conditions encountered by or its carbide are manufactured by the conven-
metal-base friction materials can be classified as tional pressing, sintering (generally below the
dry/wet and mild/moderate/severe. Figure 15 melting point of copper), and re-pressing (PSR)
shows some typical applications and the corre- technique. Materials containing more than 40%
sponding operating conditions. Some examples W are generally made by infiltrating (INF) the
of copper-base friction elements are shown in copper into either loose tungsten powder or
Fig. 16. pressed-and-sintered tungsten compacts. Their
counterparts using tungsten carbide are made
by infiltrating the copper into loose powder
Copper-Base Contact Materials because the tungsten carbide power cannot be
pressed into compacts.
Electrical contacts are metal devices that make
and break electrical circuits. Arcing, except in
applications with low potential or current levels, Copper-Base Brush Materials
is a major problem, particularly during opening of
the contacts in a live circuit. The arc causes ero- Brushes are components that transfer electri-
sion of the contacts by blowing away the molten cal current between the stationary and rotating
metal or by vaporizing the material. Welding can elements in electric motors and generators. Most
occur during closing of the contacts when small common brushes are made from composites of
areas on the contact surfaces that are molten dur- graphite and a conductive metal. The graphite
ing arcing fuse together during closure (Ref 10). provides the required lubrication, and the metal
Applications involving severe arcing and provides the current-carrying capability; copper
welding employ contacts made from refractory and silver are preferred metals because of their
metals, such as tungsten and molybdenum, high electrical conductivity.
which have high melting and boiling points, and Compositions. Table 11 shows the composi-
excellent resistance to arc erosion. Oxides are tions of some typical copper-graphite brush
often used to prevent welding of the contacts. In materials. The copper content varies from about
both cases, a high conductivity metal such as 20 to 75%, the balance being graphite. Powder
silver or copper is used in conjunction with the metallurgy is the only way to produce these
refractory metal or oxide to provide the neces- materials because of the immiscibility of the two
sary current-carrying capability. Composites components. Copper powder used in the brushes
such as these are made by P/M techniques could be made by oxide reduction, electrodepo-
because the individual constituents are immisci- sition, atomization, or flaking.
ble and cannot be made by conventional melt- The manufacture of brushes involves
cast process. Applications where arcing and blending the copper and graphite powders.
welding are not severe utilize contacts made of These are molded into brushes or large
pure metals or alloys. These are generally made blocks, typically at pressures ranging from
by melting and casting followed by suitable met- 100 to 200 MPa (15 to 30 ksi), providing
alworking processes. green densities of 2 to 4 g/cm3. The molded
Copper-base materials are used in electrical parts are sintered at 500 to 800 °C (950 to
contacts because of their high electrical and ther- 1500 °F) in a protective atmosphere.
mal conductivities, low cost, and ease of fabrica- Machining is performed if necessary to
tion. Their main drawbacks are poor resistance to achieve the final dimensional tolerances.
oxidation and corrosion. Therefore, copper-base Operating Conditions and Applications.
contacts are used in applications where the volt- All metal-graphite brush applications must
age drop resulting from the oxide film is accept- operate at lower voltages than nonmetallic
able or where it is possible to protect the contact, brush materials. Typical voltages range from
such as by immersion in oil or by enclosing the near 0 to 30 V and can be emanating from a
contact in a protective gas or vacuum. direct current power source such as a bat-
Common copper alloys used in contacts tery, a rectifier, or a sensing device such as
include yellow brass (C27000), phosphor bronze a thermocouple.
(C51000), and copper beryllium alloys (C17200 Copper-graphite brushes are widely used in
and C71500). These are made by the melt-cast battery-powdered tools that require high power Fig. 13 P/M brass components. (a) Rack guide for
rack-and-pinion steering column. (b) Leaded
process and are limited to lower current applica- outputs in small, lightweight packages. brass guide for stereomicroscope. (c) Leaded brass guide
tions where arcing and welding are not severe. Typically, input voltage influences the metal for microscope
Composites of copper with refractory metals
of their carbides are used in applications in
which limited oxidation of the copper is Table 9 Compositions of copper-base friction materials for wet and dry applications
acceptable or where oxidation is prevented by
Composition, wt%
one of the methods mentioned above. Table 10
Cu Sn Fe Pb Graphite MoS2 Other Use(a)
presents the compositions, properties, and typ-
ical applications for some P/M composite con- 60–75 4–10 5–10 … 3–10 3–12 2-7 SiO2 D
52.5 … … 7.5 … … 5 SiO2; 15 Bi W
tact materials. The properties of the contacts 72 4.7 3.3 3.5 8.7 1.4 1.9 SiO2; 0.2 Al2O3 W, D
depend on the manufacturing method used, and 72 7 3 6 6 … 3 SiO2; 4 MoO3 D
therefore the common methods used are also 62 7 8 12 7 … 4 sand D
shown in the table. The specific method used 74 3.5 … … 16 … 2 Sb; 4.5 SiO2 D
depends on the composition of the composite. (a) W, wet; D, dry
Generally, materials with 40% or less tungsten
content required. High voltages require a low ing starter motors, blower motors, doorlocks, sand hours. The doorlocks and windshield-
metal content, whereas low voltages require a and windshield-wiper motors. The starter wiper motors use grades that are between the
high metal content. Below 9 V, the metal content motors generally use high copper content blower and starter motor grades.
is usually higher than 80% while above 18 V, the grades to enable them to handle extremely
metal content is generally below 50%. high-current densities for short periods of
Copper-graphite brushes are also used time. Blower motors use lower copper content Copper-Infiltrated Steels
extensively in automotive applications includ- grades to extend service life to several thou-
Iron-base P/M parts can be infiltrated with
copper or a copper alloy by placing a slug of
the infiltrant on the part and then sintering
above the melting point of the infiltrant. The
molten infiltrant is completely absorbed in the
pores by capillary action and a composite
structure is created. The amount of infiltrant
used is limited by the pore volume in the start-
ing iron part and typically ranges between 15
and 25%. Table 12 lists the composition ranges
of infiltrated steels.
Fig. 14 Structure of a sintered copper-base friction material
Fig. 16 Copper-base P/M friction elements. (a)

Grooved P/M friction elements for wet appli-
cations. (b) Copper-base P/M clutch plates (280 to 400
mm OD) used in power-shift transmissions for tractors. (c)
Fig. 15 Applications of sintered metal friction materials. Source: Ref 9 Copper-base P/M friction pad
Table 10 Compositions, properties, and applications of copper–containing electrical contacts

Tensile Modulus of
Electrical
Density, g/cm3 strength rupture
Manufacturing conductivity, % Data Application
Nominal composition, % method(a) Calculated Typical IACS Hardness MPa ksi MPa ksi source(b) examples
Tungsten carbide-copper
50Cu INF 11.39 11.00–11.27 42–47 90–100 HRF … … 1103 160 C, A (c)
44Cu INF 11.77 11.64 43 99 HRF … … 1241 180 C (c)
30Cu INF 12.78 12.65 30 38 HRC … … … … … (c)
Tungsten-copper
75Cu-25W PSR 10.37 9.45–10.00 50–79 35–60 HRB … … 414 60 C, A (d)
70Cu-30W … 10.70 10.45 76 59–66 HRB … … … … A (c)
65Cu-35W … 11.06 11.40 72 63–69 HRB … … … … A (e)
60Cu-40W … 11.45 11.76 68 69–75 HRB … … … … A (f)
50Cu-50W INF 12.30 11.90–11.96 45–63 60–81 HRB … … … … A (f)
44Cu-56W INF 12.87 12.76 55 79 HRB 434 63 827 120 C (f)
40Cu-60W INF 13.29 12.80–12.95 42–57 75–86 HRB … … … … A (g)
35Cu-65W INF 13.85 13.35 54 83–93 HRB … … … … A (g)
32Cu-68W INF 14.20 13.95 50 90 HRB … … 896 130 C (g)
30Cu-70W INF 14.45 13.85–14.18 36–51 86–96 HRB … … 1000 145 C, A (h)
26Cu-74W INF 14.97 14.70 46 98 HRB 621 90 1034 150 … (h)
25Cu-75W INF 15.11 14.50 33–48 90–100 HRB … … … … A (i)
20Cu-80W INF 15.84 15.20 30–40 95–105 HRB 758 110 … … C (i)
15Cu-85W PSR 16.45 16.0 20 190 HV(j), 260 HV(k) … … … … M (i)
13.4Cu-86.6W INF 16.71 16.71 33 20 HRC 621 90 1034 150 C (i)
10.4Cu-89.6W INF 17.22 17.22 30 30 HRC 765 111 1138 165 C (i)
(a) PSR, press-sinter-re-press; INF, press-sinter-infiltrate. (b) A: Advance Metallurgy, Inc., McKeesport, PA. C: Contacts, Materials, Welds, Inc., Indianapolis, IN. M: Metz Degussa, South Plainville, NJ. (c) Arcing contacts in
oil switches, wiping shoes in power transformers. (d) Current-carrying contacts. (e) Vacuum interrupter. (f) Oil-cuircuit breakers, arcing tips. (g) Oil-circuit breakers, reclosing devices, arcing tips, tap change arcing tips, con-
tractors. (h) Circuit breaker runners, arcing tips, tap change arcing tips. (i) Vacuum switches, arcing tips, oil-circuit breakers. (j) Annealed. (k) Cold worked. Source: Ref 10
Table 11 Characteristics of typical graphite-copper brush materials Table 12 Composition ranges of copper-
Specific resistance Maximum current density
infiltrated steels
Density, Typical Scleroscope
Nominal composition g/cm3 ·m · in. A/m2 A/in.2 voltage, V hardness Chemical composition, %
21Cu-79C 2.2 0.024 0.0006 125,000 80 72 28 Material designation Fe Cu C(a) Element
35Cu-65C 2.5 0.016 0.0004 125,000 80 72 28 FX-1000 82.8 8.0 0.0 Minimum
50Cu-50C 2.75 0.006 0.00015 130,000 85 36 28 92.0 14.9 0.3 Maximum
65Cu-35C 3.5 0.0016 0.00004 190,000 125 18 20 FX-1005 82.5 8.0 0.3 Minimum
75Cu-25C 4.0 0.0008 0.0002 235,000 150 15 18 91.7 14.9 0.6 Maximum
94metal-6C 6.0 0.0003 0.0000065 235,000 150 6 6 FX-1008 82.2 8.0 0.6 Minimum
97metal-3C 6.5 0.0001 0.0000025 235,000 150 6 5 91.4 14.9 0.9 Maximum
FX-2000 72.7 15.0 0.0 Minimum
Source: Ref 11
85.0 25.0 0.3 Maximum
FX-2005 72.4 15.0 0.3 Minimum
84.7 25.0 0.6 Maximum
FX-2008 72.1 15.0 0.6 Minimum
Infiltration increases the density of the part, ble in liquid copper, dispersion-strengthened 84.4 25.0 0.9 Maximum
resulting in improved mechanical properties copper cannot be made by conventional ingot
(Fig. 17), corrosion resistance, electrical and metallurgy; P/M techniques must be used. (a) Carbon on the basis of iron only, may be a metallographic estimate
thermal conductivities, machinability, and
brazeability. Tensile strengths ranging from 480 Manufacture
to 620 MPa (70 to 90 ksi) can be achieved in plete the reaction. To hold reaction times within
iron-base parts infiltrated with 15 to 25% Cu. An Oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) copper practical limits, diffusion distance must be
overview of typical mechanical properties of can be made by simple mechanical mixing of the small. In wrought form, internal oxidation can
these materials is given in Table 13. copper and oxide powders (Ref 13), by copre- only be practical in thin wire or strip, which
Infiltration is used for iron-base structural cipitation from salt solutions (Ref 14), by would severely limit the use of ODS materials.
parts that must have densities greater than 7.4 mechanical alloying (Ref 15), or by selective or Powder metallurgy offers a unique solution to
g/cm3. Typical examples include gears, automat- internal oxidation (Ref 16). Dispersion quality this problem because powder particles can be
ic transmission components, valve seat inserts, and cost vary substantially among these meth- internally oxidized rapidly and then consolidat-
automobile door hinges, and so forth. More ods; internal oxidation produces the finest and ed into almost any shape.
detailed information on copper-infiltrated steels most uniform dispersion. Aluminum oxide is a The process involves melting a dilute solid-
can be found in Ref 12. common dispersoid used in the manufacture of solution alloy of the aluminum in copper and
ODS copper. atomizing the melt by use of a high-pressure
In internal oxidation, a copper-aluminum gas such as nitrogen. The resulting powder is
Copper-Base Dispersion- solid-solution alloy is internally oxidized at ele- blended with an oxidant that consists primari-
Strengthened Materials vated temperature. This process converts the alu- ly of fine copper oxide powder. The blend is
minum into aluminum oxide. For effective inter- heated to a high temperature; the copper oxide
Copper is widely used in industry because of nal oxidation, oxygen must diffuse into the dissociates, and the oxygen produced diffuses
its high electrical and thermal conductivities, but matrix (copper) several orders of magnitude into the particles of solid-solution copper-alu-
it has low strength, particularly when heated to faster than the solute element (aluminum). minum alloy. Because aluminum forms oxide
high temperatures. It can be strengthened by Because internal oxidation depends on diffusion more readily than copper, the aluminum in the
using finely dispersed particles of stable oxides of oxygen into the matrix, the reaction time is alloy is preferentially oxidized to aluminum
such as alumina, titania, beryllia, thoria, or yttria proportional to the square of the distance oxide. After complete oxidation of all the alu-
in the matrix. Because these oxides are immisci- through which the oxygen must diffuse to com- minum, excess oxygen in the powder is
reduced by heating the powder in hydrogen or Secondary Operations. Finished parts can wt%, is present in the form of dissolved oxygen
a dissociated ammonia atmosphere. be made from consolidated shapes by machin- and cuprous oxide. Alloys in this state are prone
Consolidation. Full theoretical density is ing, brazing, and soldering. Fusion welding is to hydrogen embrittlement at high temperatures.
essential to realize the best potential properties not recommended because it causes the alu- Low-oxygen (LOX) compositions are available
of ODS copper. The powder is fabricated into minum oxide to segregate from the liquid cop- in all of these grades, in which the reducible
fully dense shapes by various techniques. Mill per matrix, resulting in loss of dispersion oxygen is converted to nonreducible oxide by
forms, such as rod and bar, are made by canning strengthening. However, flash welding, in adding up to 0.020 wt% B as the oxygen getter.
the powder in a suitable metal container (gener- which the liquid metal is squeezed out of the These grades are then immune to hydrogen
ally copper) and hot extruding it to the desired weld joint, and electron beam welding, in embrittlement and must be specified for applica-
size. Wire is made by cold drawing coils of rod. which a small heat-affected zone is created, tions in which the components are likely to be
Strip is made either by rolling coils of extruded have been used successfully. Solid-state weld- subjected to reducing atmospheres during man-
rectangular bar or by directly rolling powder ing (with multiple cold upsets in a closed die) ufacture or use.
with or without a metal container. Large shapes has also been used with success to join small- Physical Properties. Because ODS copper
that cannot be made by hot extrusion are made er coils into a large coil for wire drawing. contains small amounts of aluminum oxide as
by hot isostatic pressing (HIP) of canned pow- discrete particles in an essentially pure copper
der; alternatively, such shapes can be made by Properties matrix, its physical properties closely resemble
hot forging canned powder or partially dense those of pure copper. Table 14 shows physical
compacted preforms. Oxide dispersion strengthened copper offers a properties of the three commercial ODS cop-
Properties of the consolidated material unique combination of high strength and high pers comparing them with oxygen-free (OF)
depend on the amount of deformation intro- electrical and thermal conductivities. More copper. The melting point is essentially the
duced into the powder particles. Consequently, importantly, it retains a larger portion of these same as for copper because the matrix melts and
low-deformation processes such as HIP and, to a properties during and after exposure to elevated the aluminum oxide separates from the melt.
lesser extent, hot forging develop materials with temperatures than any other copper alloy. Density, modulus of elasticity, and coefficient
lower strengths and ductilities than those pro- The properties of ODS copper can be modi- of thermal expansion are similar to those of
duced by extrusion. fied to meet a wide range of design requirements pure copper.
by varying its aluminum oxide content and/or High electrical and thermal conductivities are
the amount of cold work. Figure 18 shows the particularly interesting to design engineers in the
ranges in tensile strength, elongation, hardness, electrical and electronics industries. At room
and electrical conductivity obtained as a func- temperature, these range from 78 to 92% of
tion of aluminum/aluminum oxide contents. those for pure copper. Coupled with the high
These properties are typical for rod stock in the strengths of these materials, they enhance the
hot extruded condition. Cold work can be used current-carrying or heat-dissipating capabilities
to broaden the ranges in tensile strength, elonga- for a given section size and structural strength.
tion, and hardness; its effect on electrical con- Alternatively, they enable reduction of section
ductivity is minimal. sizes for component miniaturization without
Three grades of ODS copper are commercial- sacrificing structural strength or current and
ly available. They are designated as C15715, heat-carrying capabilities. At elevated tempera-
C15725, and C15760 by the Copper tures, the decrease in electrical and thermal con-
Development Association. The nominal compo- ductivities of ODS coppers closely parallel those
sitions of these three grades are: of pure copper.
Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties.
Copper Aluminum oxide Table 15 shows the room-temperature mechani-
Grade wt% vol% wt% vol% cal properties of the three ODS coppers in avail-
C15715 99.7 99.3 0.3 0.7 able mill forms. These cover a wide range of
C15725 99.5 98.8 0.5 1.2 sizes, typified by various amounts of cold work
LIVE GRAPH C15760 98.9 97.3 1.1 2.7 by drawing and rolling, for example. Oxide dis-
Click here to view
persion strengthened copper has strength com-
Fig. 17 Increase in transverse rupture strength of sin-
The free or reducible oxygen content of the parable to many steels and conductivity compa-
tered steel due to infiltration as a function of
amount of graphite added three ODS coppers, generally about 0.02 to 0.05 rable to copper.
Table 13 Mechanical properties of copper-infiltrated iron and steel

Typical properties(b)
Minimum strength Tensile properties Elastic constant
Unnotched
Charpy Transverse 0.1%
Minimum strength Ultimate 0.2% yield Young’s impact rupture compressive Rockwell hardness Fatigue limit
Yield Ultimate strength strength Elongation, modulus Poisson’s energy strength yield strength 90% survival
Material designation Macro Micro Density,
code(a) MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi % GPa 106 psi ratio J ft · lbf MPa ksi MPa ksi (apparent) (converted) MPa ksi g/m3
FX-1000-25 170 25 … … 350 51 220 32 7.0 160 23.5 0.28 34 25.0 910 132 225 33 65 HRB N/A 130 19 7.3
FX-1005-40 280 40 … … 530 77 340 50 4.0 160 23.5 0.28 18 13.0 1090 158 365 53 82 HRB N/A 200 29 7.3
FX-1005-110HT(c) … … 760 110 830 120 (d) (d) <0.5 160 23.5 0.28 9 7.0 1445 210 760 110 38 HRC 55 HRC 230 33 7.3
FX-1008-50 340 50 … … 600 87 415 60 3.0 160 23.5 0.28 14 10.0 1140 166 490 71 89 HRB N/A 230 33 7.3
FX-1008-110HT(c) … … 760 110 830 120 (d) (d) <0.5 160 23.5 0.28 9 6.5 1300 189 790 115 43 HRC 58 HRC 280 41 7.3
FX-2000-25 170 25 … … 320 46 260 37 3.0 145 21.0 0.24 20 15.0 990 144 280 41 66 HRB N/A 120 17 7.3
FX-2005-45 310 45 … … 520 75 410 60 1.5 145 21.0 0.24 11 8.0 1020 148 415 60 85 HRB N/A 140 20 7.3
FX-2005-90HT(c) … … 620 90 690 100 (d) (d) <0.5 145 21.0 0.24 9 7.0 1180 171 490 71 36 HRC 55 HRC 160 23 7.3
FX-2008-60 410 60 … … 550 80 480 70 1.0 145 21.0 0.24 9 7.0 1080 156 480 70 90 HRB N/A 160 23 7.3
FX-2008-90HT(c) … … 620 90 690 100 (d) (d) <0.5 145 21.0 0.24 7 5.0 1100 159 510 74 36 HRC 58 HRC 190 27 7.3
Note: All data based on single-pass infiltration. (a) Suffix numbers represent minimum strength values in ksi; yield in the as-sintered condition and ultimate in the heat treated condition. (b) Mechanical property data derived from
laboratory prepared test specimens sintered under commercial manufacturing conditions. (c) Tempering temperature for heat treated (HT) materials: 177 °C (350 °F). (d) Yield and ultimate tensile strength are approximately the
same for heat treated materials. Source: MPIF Standard 35
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Table 14 Physical properties of three ODS coppers and OF copper
Material
Property C15715 C15725 C15760 OF Copper
Melting point, °C (°F) 1083 (1981) 1083 (1981) 1083 (1981) 1083 (1981)
Density, g/cm3 (lb/in.3) 8.90 (0.321) 8.86 (0.320) 8.81 (0.318) 8.94 (0.323)
Electrical resistivity at 20 °C 0.0186 (11.19) 0.0198 (11.91) 0.0221 (13.29) 0.017 (10.20)
(68 °F), · mm2/m
( · circular mil/ft)
Electrical conductivity at 20 °C 54 (92) 50 (87) 45 (78) 58 (101)
(68 °F), 106 S/m (%IACS)
Thermal conductivity at 20 ˚C 365 (211) 344 (199) 322 (186) 391 (226)
(68 °F), W/m · K (Btu/ft · h · °F)
Linear coefficient of thermal 16.6 (9.2) 16.6 (9.2) 16.6 (9.2) 17.7 (9.8)
expansion for 20 to 1000 °C
(68 to 1830 °F), ppm/˚C (ppm/°F)
Modulus of elasticity, GPa (106 psi) 130 (19) 130 (19) 130 (19) 115 (17)
ODS, oxide dispersion strengthened. OF, oxygen free. Source Ref 18
Table 15 Typical room-temperature mechanical properties of three ODS coppers

Thickness or diameter Tensile strength Yield strength
Temper or Elongation,
Shapes mm in. conditions(a) MPa ksi MPa ksi % Hardness, HRB
C15715
Flat products 10 0.400 AC 413 60 331 48 20 62
1.3 0.050 CW 88% 579 84 537 78 7 …
0.6 0.025 CW 94% 620 90 579 84 7 …
0.15 0.006 CW 98% 661 96 613 89 6 … Fig. 18 Properties of three ODS coppers. Source: Ref 17
Plate Up to 130 Up to 5.0 AC 365 53 255 37 26 62
25 1.0 CW 60% 476 69 427 62 10 …
16 0.625 CW 75% 483 70 455 66 10 … shown for comparison. Ranging from pure cop-
Rod 29 1.125 AC 393 57 324 47 27 62 per on the low end to precipitation-hardened
19 0.75 CW 55% 427 62 407 59 18 68
7 0.275 CW 94% 496 72 469 68 9 72 alloys on the high end, there is a sharp drop in
Wire 1.3 0.050 CW 99% 524 76 496 72 2 … stress rupture strength in the 200 to 450 °C
1.3 0.050 HT 650 °C 400 58 351 51 10 … (400 to 850 °F) temperature range. Above 400
0.4 0.015 CW 99.9% 606 88 579 84 1 … °C (750 °F), the ODS coppers are superior to
Rounds Up to 760 Up to 30 AC 365 53 255 37 26 …
any of the other alloys. Above 600 °C (1100
C15725 °F), the ODS coppers have rupture strengths
Flat products 10 0.400 AC 434 63 345 50 21 72 comparable or superior to some stainless steels.
2.3 0.090 CW 78% 586 85 544 79 8 83
0.15 0.006 CW 98% 675 98 613 89 6 … Oxide dispersion strengthened copper has
Plate Up to 130 Up to 5.0 AC 413 60 296 43 19 68 excellent thermal stability at high temperatures
25 1.0 CW 60% 496 72 441 64 9 … because the aluminum oxide particles retain
16 0.625 CW 75% 524 76 467 68 9 … their original particle size and spacing even
Rod 38 1.5 AC 441 64 358 52 24 73
64 2.5 As drawn 551 80 531 77 14 76 after prolonged heating and do not allow
Rounds Up to 760 Up to 30 AC 413 60 296 43 19 68 recrystallization of the matrix. Cold work sig-
C15760 nificantly enhances the stress rupture proper-
Flat products 1.0 0.400 AC 517 75 413 60 13 81 ties of ODS copper; the higher the temperature,
2.5 0.100 CW 75% 627 91 572 83 8 85 the more noticeable the enhancement.
0.15 0.006 CW 98% 737 107 655 95 6 …
Rod 14 0.54 AC 551 80 517 75 22 80
13 0.5 CW 14% 572 83 544 79 16 83 Applications
7 0.275 CW 74% 620 90 599 87 14 86
7 0.275 HT 650 °C 579 84 544 79 18 80 Oxide dispersion strengthened copper has
64 2.5 AC 496 72 475 69 4 80 gained wide market acceptance in several appli-
Rounds Up to 760 Up to 30 AC 469 68 331 48 4 76 cations, and design engineers are continually
(a) AC, as consolidated; CW, cold work % reduction in area; HT, heat treatment for 1 h. Source: Ref 19 developing new applications. The major applica-
tions are described in the following sections.
Resistance Welding Electrodes. Oxide dis-
persion strengthened copper electrodes are
Oxide dispersion strengthened copper has °F) encountered in practice, ODS coppers retain widely used for resistance welding in automo-
excellent resistance to softening even after expo- much of their strength while OF copper and cop- tive, appliance, and other sheet metal industries.
sure to temperatures close to the melting point of per-zirconium lose most of their strength. Sticking of the electrodes to the workpiece is a
copper because the aluminum oxide particles are Therefore, ODS copper is used in applications in major problem when welding galvanized and
stable at these temperatures and retain their orig- which the component manufacture involves high- other coated steels. This usually results in elec-
inal size and spacing. These particles block dislo- temperature operations such as brazing, glass-to- trodes pulling off their holders and having to
cation and grain-boundary motion and thus pre- metal sealing, HIP diffusion bonding, and so forth. stop the assembly line to change the electrodes.
vent recrystallization, which is normally Elevated-Temperature Mechanical Prop- Such interruptions are extremely costly. Oxide
associated with softening. Figure 19 compares the erties. ODS copper has excellent strength at ele- dispersion strengthened copper electrodes do not
softening behavior of C15715 and C15760 strip vated temperatures. Figure 20 shows the 100 h stick to galvanized and other coated steels and
with OF copper (C10200) and copper-zirconium stress rupture strengths of C15760 and C15715 thus eliminate the costly downtime. Increasing
(C15000) alloy. At common brazing and glass-to- at temperatures up to 870 °C (1600 °F). Other use of coated steels in the automotive industry
metal sealing temperatures (above 600 °C, 1100 high-conductivity copper-base materials are has prompted wide usage of ODS copper elec-
trodes throughout the world. When used under tube are used in x-ray and microwave tube com- research, medical diagnostics, and so forth. The
optimal conditions, including heavy duty weld- ponents. An example is the stems for the rotat- high-energy particle beams are shaped and
ing, these electrodes consistently outperform the ing anodes in x-ray tubes where high strength focused by using mirrors, lenses, and prisms in
conventional copper-chromium electrodes in retention after brazing and glass-to-metal seal- large doughnut-shaped hollow rings. The stray
weld life. Table 16 lists some typical applica- ing are important. The high thermal conductivi- beams are absorbed by special x-ray absorbers.
tions of ODS copper C15760 electrodes and also ty of ODS copper also allows more efficient Oxide dispersion strengthened copper plates and
compares typical life multiples obtained over heat removal, this lowering the operating tem- bars are used in mirrors and x-ray absorbers
copper-chromium electrodes. perature and providing longer tube life and qui- because of their high thermal conductivity, high
Metal-Inert-Gas Welding Contact Tips. eter tube operation. strength, creep resistance, and vacuum integrity.
Oxide dispersion strengthened copper is used in Relay Blades and Contact Supports. These Hybrid Circuit Package Components.
metal-inert-gas (MIG) welding contact tips. Its are current-carrying arms that move between the Oxide dispersion strengthened copper strip is
resistance to abrasive wear from the steel wire fixed contact points to “make” or “break” an used as the base plate for hybrid circuit package
allows the tips to maintain the bore diameter electrical circuit. In a limit switch, the force that cases. Manufacture of these cases involves braz-
and minimizes the wandering of the arc. This is moves the contact arm (or contact support) to the ing of the base plates to stainless steel and/or
very important in automated welding lines. The “make” position is provided by mechanical kovar components. The ability of ODS copper to
non-sticking property of ODS copper also min- means, such as a moving object. In a relay, the retain its strength after such brazing operation
imizes the material buildup on the tip from the contact arm (relay blade) is moved by electro- makes it the material of choice when the package
weld splatter. magnetic action. In most cases, the spring force is used in high-stress environments. Oxide dis-
Lead Wires. Oxide dispersion strengthened of the arm itself moves the contact back to the persion strengthened copper wire is also used in
copper wire is used in leads for incandescent “break” position. the leads for such packages because of its ability
lamps. Its high-temperature strength retention Generally, the relay blades and contact sup- to retain its stiffness after the high-temperature
capability enables glass-to-metal seals to be ports have silver contacts brazed or riveted to ceramic sealing of the leads into the case.
made without undue softening of the leads. This them at the point where they touch the fixed con- Other Applications. Some other diverse
in turn eliminates the need for expensive molyb- tacts. The strength retention capability of ODS applications of ODS copper include high field
denum support wires without sacrificing lead copper after exposure to elevated temperatures magnet coils, anode stems in chlorine cells, elec-
stiffness. Superior strength of the leads allows allows brazing of contacts to the blade without trodischarge machining electrodes, high-speed
reduction in lead diameter to conserve materials. appreciable strength loss. Because of its higher motor and generator components, commutators,
Thinner lead wires also minimize heat loss from electrical conductivity, ODS copper has replaced and so forth.
the filament, which enables the lamp to provide conventional copper alloys, such as phosphor
higher light output at lower wattage and results bronze and beryllium copper, in some relays.
in a more energy efficient lamp. Such relays can carry a higher current than was Nonstructural Applications of
Oxide dispersion strengthened copper wire possible with the prior relays. Copper and Copper Alloy Powders
also can be used in leads for discrete electronic Sliding Electrical Contacts. Oxide disper-
components such as diodes. Advantages of ODS sion strengthened copper bars are used in over- Although the major applications of copper
copper wire include its high-temperature head sliding electrical contacts for high-speed and copper alloy powders are in structural com-
strength retention during brazing as well as her- electric trains. Its excellent resistance to abrasive ponents, significant quantities of the powders
metic sealing. The lead stiffness also enables wear against the electrical cable provides up to are employed in nonstructural applications.
multiple insertions in circuit boards. 10 times longer contact life and reduces the These range from the strictly utilitarian to the
X-Ray and Microwave Tube Components. maintenance costs significantly. The higher the purely ornamental. Several important nonstruc-
Oxide dispersion strengthened copper rod and train speed, the greater the advantage ODS cop- tural end uses are discussed in the following
per has over other copper-base materials. section. Table 1 lists both structural and non-
Particle Accelerator Components. Particle structural applications for copper and copper
accelerators are used for physics and materials alloy powders.
LIVE GRAPH
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LIVE GRAPH
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Fig. 19 Softening behavior of ODS copper compared
to OF copper and copper-zirconium alloy. Fig. 20 Elevated-temperature stress-rupture properties of ODS copper compared to several high-conductivity copper
Source: Ref 20 alloys. Source: Ref 21
Table 16 Typical applications of dispersion-strengthened copper electrodes

Force
Welding rate, Life comparison with
Application Thickness welded, mm (in.) Material N lb Current, A Weld time, cycles welds/h copper-chromium electrodes
Rocker panel 0.79–0.79 Galvanized steel 2,670 600 15,000 15 3,024 10 to 1

(0.031–0.031)
1.37–1.73 Galvanized steel 4,805 1,080 15,500 2,600 5 to 1
(0.054–0.068)
Pillar assembly 1.09–0.37 Galvanized steel 3,115 700 14,000 13 228 6 to 1
(0.043–0.054)
Light truck box 1.09–1.37 Galvanized steel-cold 3,560 800 16,000 18 160 65 to 1
(0.043–0.054) rolled steel
Cowl side to rocker 1.35–1.27 Galvanized steel 4,360 980 15,500 13 1,750 5 to 1
(0.53–0.050)
Rocker panel to body 1.73–1.37 Galvanized steel-cold 4,360 980 15,000 13 1,720 6 to 1
Floor panel extension 0.79–0.79 Galvanized steel-cold 2,450 550 13,500 12 645 4.5 to 1
Windshield header 0.91–1.73 Cold rolled steel 3,785 850 14,000 13 645 6 to 1
(0.036–0.068)
Dash extensions 0.79–0.79 Cold rolled steel 2,450 550 13,500 12 1,144 5.5 to 1
(0.031–0.031)
Station wagon assembly 1.37–0.79 Cold rolled steel 2,940 660 12,000 9 3,120 4 to 1
(0.054–0.031)
Van assembly 1.09–1.42–0.91 Cold rolled steel 3,450 775 13,500 18 180 6 to 1
(0.043–0.056-0.036)
Wheelhouse assembly 0.79–0.84 Zincrometal 3,425 770 12,500 11 3,300 4 to 1
(0.031–0.033)
0.79–0.79 Zincrometal-cold 2,805 630 12,265 10 546 8 to 1
Dash panel 0.79–1.73 Zincrometal-galvanized 2,450 550 13,500 12 1,806 6 to 1
(0.031–0.068) steel
Metallic Flake Pigments. The so-called copper powder to solutions containing 4. Materials Standards for Powder-Metallurgy
“gold bronze” pigments are brass alloy flake cyanides and tartrates causes the precipitation Self-Lubricating Bearings, Metal Powder
powders ranging in composition from 70Cu- of lead, bismuth, tin, cadmium, and silver but Industries Federation, 1998 ed.
30Zn to 90Cu-10Zn. Copper and gold-bronze zinc, cobalt, nickel, copper, and aluminum 5. M. Eisenmann, Porous Powder-
flake pigments are made by ball milling atom- remain in solution. Metallurgy Technology, Powder Metal
ized powders. They are used for decorative Powder Coatings. Copper powder coatings Technologies and Applications, Vol 7,
applications (e.g., cigarette packages, cigar are deposited by thermal spraying, weld surfac- ASM Handbook, ASM International,
boxes, wrapping paper, greeting cards, and pic- ing, or mechanical (peen) plating. These are 1998, p 1031–1042
ture frames), in paints, and in printing inks. described in the article “Copper and Copper 6. Porous Metal Products for OEM Appli-
Antifouling Paints. Copper powder and Alloy Coatings” in this Handbook. cations, Mott Technical Handbook, Mott
cuprous oxide (Cu2O) are used in the formula- Corporation, 1996, Sections 1000–9000
tion of organic-base paints for use in marine ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 7. “Bronze Filter Powders,” ACu Powder
applications to prevent or delay fouling of the International Technical Brochure, ACu
submerged portions of ships and structures by This article was adapted from: Powder International, 1997
marine organisms. These coatings are applied by 8. “High Porosity Sintered Materials,”
brush, roller, spray, or dipping. In North • A. Nadkarni, Copper Powder Metallurgy Krebsoge Technical Brochure, Pressmetall
America, copper-containing paints have been Alloys and Composites, Powder Metal Krebsoge, 1989, p 1–25
replaced by organo-tin compounds due to envi- Technologies and Applications Vol 7, ASM 9. B.T. Collins, The U.S. Friction Materials
ronmental regulations. Handbook, ASM International, 1998, p Industry, Perspectives in Powder Metallurgy,
Plastic-Metal Combinations. Copper or cop- 859–873 Vol 4, Plenum Press, 1970, p 3–7
per alloy powders are used as filler in various poly- • M. Eisenmann, Porous Powder Metallurgy 10. Y.S. Shen, P. Lattari, J. Gardner, and H.
meric materials. For example, prealloyed bronze Technology, Powder Metal Technologies and Wiegard, Properties and Selection:
powder is added to Teflon (Dupont, Wilmington, Applications, Vol 7, ASM Handbook, ASM Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose
DE) and other plastics to provide strength and wear International, 1998, p 1031–1042 Materials, Vol 2, ASM Handbook, ASM
resistance. Copper powder is also added in other • N.A. Arnold, V.C. Straub, and M. Schloder, International, 1990, p 841–868
applications where the physical properties, for Powder-Metallurgy Bearings, Powder Metal 11. C.P. Ferago, Metal-Graphite Brushes,
example, electrical and/or thermal conductivity, are Technologies and Applications, Vol 7, ASM Powder Metallurgy, Vol 7, Metals Hand-
modified for a specific end use. Handbook, ASM International, 1998, p book, 9th ed., 1984, p 635
Brazing Pastes. Copper and copper alloy 1051–1057 12. P.K. Samal and E. Klar, Copper-Infiltrated
powders in paste form are used as filler metals Steels, Powder Metal Technologies and
for brazing steel and copper alloy parts. A braz- REFERENCES Applications, Vol 7, ASM Handbook, ASM
ing alloy paste consists of copper or copper alloy International, 1998, p 769–773
powder (55 to 90%) and a neutral binder (10 to 1. R.W. Stevenson, P/M Copper-Based Alloys, 13. K.M. Zwilsky and N.J. Grant, Trans. AIME,
35%). It may or may not contain a flux (up to Powder Metallurgy, Vol 7, Metals Hand- Vol 221, April 1961, p 371–377
10%). The most common use for copper brazing book, 9th ed., 1984, p 733–740 14. R.L. Crosby and D.H. Desy, U.S. Bureau of
pastes is for the furnace brazing of carbon and 2. A. Price and J. Oakley, Powder Metall., Vol Mines Report 7266, June 1969, p 1–17
alloy steel parts. 8, 1965, p 201 15. J.S. Benjamin, The International Nickel
Chemical Applications. Copper powder is 3. A.K.S. Rowley, E.C.C. Wasser, and M.J. Company Inc., U.S. Patent 3,785, 801, 1974
used as a catalyst in various chemical opera- Nash, Powder Metall. Int., Vol 4 (No. 2), 16. A.V. Nadkarni and E. Klar, SCM
tions. In one process, the addition of activated 1971 p 71 Corporation, U.S. Patent 3,779,714, 1973
17. A.V. Nadkarni, Mechanical Properties of 19. Product literature, OAG Americas 21. A.V. Nadkarni, High Conductivity of Cop-
Metallic Components, 1993, p 299 20. A.V. Nadkarni Mechanical Properties of per and Aluminum Alloys, American Insti-
18. A.V. Nadkarni, Mechanical Properties of Metallic Components, 1993, p 302 tute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petro-
Metallic Components, 1993, p 297 leum Engineers, 1984, p 95
Shape Memory Alloys and
Composite Materials
COPPER ALLOYS exhibiting shape memory which are seen as a herringbone structure when Compositions and Properties. Commercial
characteristics and copper-containing composites viewed metallographically (Fig. 1b). The trans- copper-base shape memory alloys are available
specially processed to enhance physical and/or formation, although a first-order phase change, in ternary Cu-Zn-Al and Cu-Al-Ni alloys or in
mechanical properties are discussed in this arti- does not occur at a single temperature but over a their quaternary modifications containing man-
cle. Shape memory alloys are based on the Cu- range of temperatures that varies with each alloy ganese. Manganese depresses transformation
Zn-Al and Cu-Al-Ni ternary systems. system. The typical method of characterizing the temperatures of both Cu-Zn-Al and Cu-Al-Ni
Composites include copper reinforced with tung- transformation and naming each point in the alloys and shifts the eutectoid to higher alu-
sten or graphite fibers, tungsten-copper and cycle is shown in Fig. 1(a). Most of the transfor- minum content. It often replaces aluminum for
molybdenum-copper composites made by pow- mation occurs over a relatively narrow tempera- better ductility. Elements such as boron, cerium,
der metallurgy (P/M) processing, multifilament ture range, although the beginning and end of cobalt, iron, titanium, vanadium, and zirconium
composite wires used for superconducting appli- the transformation during heating or cooling are also added for grain refinement. Composi-
cations, and copper-clad brazing sheet laminates. actually extends over a much larger temperature tions of the Cu-Zn-Al alloys usually fall in the
range. The transformation also exhibits hystere- range of 10 to 30 wt% Zn and 5 to 10 wt% Al;
sis in that the transformation on heating and on Cu-Al-Ni alloys contain 11 to 14.5 wt% Al and
Shape Memory Alloys cooling does not overlap (Fig. 1a). This transfor- 3 to 5 wt% Ni. The martensitic transformation
mation hysteresis (shown as T in Fig. 1a) varies temperatures can be adjusted by varying chemi-
The term shape memory alloys (SMA) is with the alloy system. cal composition. Table 1 lists the major proper-
applied to that group of metallic materials that ties of copper-base SMAs.
demonstrate the ability to return to some previ- Processing. The melting of copper-base
ously defined shape or size when subjected to shape memory alloys is similar to that of alu-
the appropriate thermal procedure. Generally,
these materials can be plastically deformed at Table 1 Properties of copper-base shape
some relatively low temperature, and upon expo- memory alloys
sure to some higher temperature will return to Property value
their shape prior to the deformation. Materials Property Cu-Zn-Al Cu-Al-Ni
that exhibit shape memory only upon heating are Thermal properties
referred to as having a one-way shape memory. Melting temperature, 950–1020 1000–1050
Some materials also undergo a change in shape °C (°F) (1740–1870) (1830–1920)
upon recooling. These materials have a two-way Density, g/cm3 (lb/in.3) 7.64 (0.276) 7.12 (0.257)
shape memory. Resistivity, · cm 8.5–9.7 11–13
Thermal conductivity, 120 (69) 30–43 (17–25)
Although a relatively wide variety of alloys W/m · °C (Btu/ft ·
are known to exhibit the shape memory effect, h · °F)
only those that can recover substantial amounts Heat capacity, J/kg · 400 (0.96) 373–574
of strain or that generate significant force upon °C (Btu/lb · °F) (0.089–0.138)
changing shape are of commercial interest. To Mechanical properties
date this has been the copper-base alloys such as Young’s modulus(a),
Cu-Zn-Al and Cu-A1-Ni, and the equiatomic GPa (106 psi)
phase 72 (10.4)(a) 85 (12.3)(a)
NiTi alloys. Martensite 70 (10.2)(a) 80 (11.6)(a)
A shape memory alloy is further defined as an Yield strength, MPa
alloy that yields a thermoelastic martensite. In (ksi)
this case, the alloy undergoes a martensitic phase 350 (51) 400 (58)
Martensite 80 (11.5) 130 (19)
transformation of a type that allows the alloy to Ultimate tensile 600 (87) 500–800
be deformed by a twinning mechanism below strength, MPa (ksi) (73–116)
the transformation temperature. The deforma- Shape memory properties
tion is then reversed when the twinned structure Transformation temp- <120 (250) <200 (390)
reverts upon heating to the parent phase. eratures, °C (°F)
General Characteristics. The martensitic Fig. 1 Characteristics of shape memory alloys. (a)
Recoverable strain, % 4 4
Typical transformation versus temperature
transformation that occurs in the shape memory curve for a specimen under constant load (stress) as it is Hysteresis, °C (°F) 15–25 (30–45) 15–20 (30–35)
alloys yields a thermoelastic martensite and cooled and heated. T, transformation hysteresis. Ms,
(a) The Young’s modulus of shape memory alloys becomes difficult to
martensite start; Mf, martensite finish; As, austenite start;
develops from a high-temperature austenite Af, austenite finish, Source: Ref 1 (b) Martensitic structure
define between the Ms and the As transformation temperatures. At these
temperatures, the alloys exhibit nonlinear elasticity, and the modulus is
phase with long-range order. The martensite typ- typical of those in copper-aluminum, copper-tin, and both temperature and strain dependent.
ically occurs as alternately sheared platelets, copper-zinc alloys.
minum bronzes. Most commercial alloys are growth and should be avoided. Water quench is ics. For this reason, prolonged exposure of Cu-
induction melted. Protective flux on the melt and widely used as a quenching process, but air cool- Zn-Al and Cu-Al-Ni alloys at temperatures
the use of nitrogen or inert-gas shielding during ing can be sufficient for some high-cooling alu- above 150 °C (300 °F) and 200 °C (390 °F),
pouring are necessary to prevent zinc evapora- minum content Cu-Zn-Al alloys and Cu-Al-Ni respectively, should be avoided. For high-tem-
tion and aluminum oxidation. Powder metallur- alloys. The as-quenched transformation temper- peratures stability, Cu-Al-Ni is generally a better
gy and rapid solidification processing are also ature is usually unstable. Postquench aging at alloy system than Cu-Zn-Al. However, even for
used to produce fine-grain alloys without grain- temperatures above nominal Af temperature is moderate temperature applications, which
refining additives. generally needed to establish stable transforma- demand tight control of transformation tempera-
Copper-base alloys can be readily hot worked tion temperatures. tures, these effects need to be evaluated.
in air. With low aluminum content (6 wt%), Cu-Zn-Al alloys, when quenched rapidly and Applications. A Cu-Zn-Al coupling for cop-
Cu-Zn-Al alloys can be cold finished with inter- directly into the martensitic phase, are suscepti- per and aluminum tubing has been developed. In
pass annealing. Alloys with higher aluminum ble to the martensite stabilization effect (Ref 2). this application, the Cu-Zn-Al shape memory
content are not as easily cold workable. Cu-Al- This effect causes the reverse transformation to cylinder shrinks on heating and acts as a driver
Ni alloys, conversely, are quite brittle at low shift toward higher temperatures. It therefore to squeeze a tubular liner onto the tubes being
temperatures and can only be hot finished. delays and can completely inhibit the shape joined. The joint strength is enhanced by a
Because copper-base shape memory alloys are recovery. For alloys with Ms temperatures above sealant coating on the liner.
metastable in nature, solution heat treatment in the ambient, slow cooling or step quenching The Cu-Zn-Al shape memory alloys have also
the parent -phase region and subsequent con- with intermediate aging in the parent -phase found several applications in the force actuation
trolled cooling are necessary to retain -phase state should be adopted. device area. One such example is a fire safety
for shape memory effects. Prolonged solution The thermal stability of copper-base alloys valve that incorporates a Cu-Zn-Al actuator
heat treatment causes zinc evaporation and grain is ultimately limited by the decomposition kinet- designed to shut off toxic or flammable gas flow
when fire occurs.
Copper-Matrix Composites
Copper-matrix composites have been pro-

duced with continuous tungsten, silicon carbide,
and graphite fiber reinforcements. Of these three
metal-matrix composites (MMCs), continuous
graphite-copper composites have been studied
the most. Discontinuous MMCs based on niobi-
um-copper have also been developed.
Continuous tungsten fiber reinforced
copper composites were first fabricated in the
late 1950s as research models for studying
stress-strain behavior, stress-rupture and creep
phenomena, and impact strength and conductiv-
ity in MMCs (Ref 3). The composites were
made by liquid-phase infiltration. On the basis
of their high strength at temperatures up to
925 °C (1700 °F), copper-tungsten MMCs have
been considered for use as liner materials for
the combustion chamber walls of advanced
rocket engines (Ref 4). Tungsten fiber rein-
forcement of the copper increases the liner wall
strength, while retaining sufficiently high ther-
mal conductivity. Figure 2 shows the effect of
tungsten fiber reinforcement on the stress-rup-
ture strength of copper-tungsten composites.
Continuous Graphite Fiber-Reinforced
Copper Composites. Interest in continuous
copper-graphite MMCs gained impetus from the
development of advanced graphite fibers.
Copper has good thermal conductivity, but it is
heavy and has poor elevated-temperature
mechanical properties. Pitch-base graphite
fibers have been developed that have room-tem-
Fig. 2 Comparison of 100 h rupture stress of several copper-based materials at 815 °C (1500 °F). Source: Ref 5 perature axial thermal conductivity properties
better than those of copper (Ref 6). The addition
Table 2 Thermal properties of unreinforced and reinforced copper and aluminum of these fibers to copper reduces density,
Density Axial thermal conductivity Axial coefficient of thermal expansion increases stiffness, raises the service tempera-
Reinforcement
Material content, vol % g/cm3 lb/ft3 W/m · °C Btu/ft · h · °F 10–6/°C 10–6/°F ture, and provides a mechanism for tailoring the
coefficient of thermal expansion. One approach
Aluminum 0 2.71 169 221 128 23.6 13.1
Copper 0 8.94 558 391 226 17.6 9.7 to the fabrication of copper-graphite MMCs uses
SiCp/Al 40 2.91 182 128 74 12.6 7 a plating process to envelop each graphite fiber
P120 Gr/Al 60 2.41 150 419 242 –0.32 –0.17 with a pure copper coating, yielding MMC
P120 Gr/Cu 60 4.90 306 522 302 –0.07 –0.04 fibers flexible enough to be woven into fabric
Shape Memory Alloys and Composite Materials / 123
(Ref 7). The copper-coated fibers must be hot metal (tungsten) skeleton with liquid copper or a low thermal expansion of these composites
pressed to produce a consolidated component. copper alloy (e.g., a precipitation-hardenable make them suitable for:
Table 2 compares the thermal properties of alu- copper alloy). A typical microstructure of a
minum and copper MMCs with those of unrein- tungsten-copper composite is shown in Fig. 3. • Chip mounting
forced aluminum and copper. Copper-graphite Refractory metal resistance welding elec- • Heat sinks
MMCs have the potential to be used for thermal trodes are divided into classes 10 through 14 by • Circuit board cores
management of electronic components (Ref 7), the Resistance Welder Manufacturers • Lids or covers
satellite radiator panels (Ref 8), and advanced Association (RWMA). Classes 10, 11, and 12 • Thermal spreaders
airplane structures (Ref 9). represent composites of tungsten and copper. Molybdenum-copper composite materials
In Situ Composites. Discontinuous MMCs Class 13 is tungsten rod or bar, and class 14 is are available as finished parts with the follow-
formed by the working of mixtures of individ- molybdenum rod or bar. Properties for the five ing maximum dimensions depending on over-
ual metal phases exhibit strengths as much as RWMA standard classes or refractory metal all size:
50% higher than those predicted in theory from group B electrode materials are compared in
the strength of the individual constituents (Ref Table 3. Figures 4 and 5 compare the hardness-
• Width: 150 mm (6 in.)
10). These materials are called in situ compos- es of various tungsten-copper composites used
• Thickness: 6.4 mm (0.250 in.)
ites because the elongated ribbon morphology for resistance welding electrodes. Refractory
• Length: 610 mm (24 in.)
of the reinforcing phase is developed in place metal compositions, including the tungsten-cop- These materials can also be machined into
by heavy mechanical working, which can con- per composites, are used in specialty applica- shapes readily plated if required.
sist of extrusion, drawing, or rolling. This tions, in which the high heat, long weld time,
approach has been applied to the fabrication of inadequate cooling, and high pressure involved
discontinuous copper-refractory metal compos- may cause rapid deterioration of dispersion-
Multifilament Composite Wires
ites, with copper-niobium serving as the proto- strengthened copper-base alloys (Group A
type. Copper-niobium maintains high strength RWMA electrode materials). The RWMA Niobium-titanium superconductors are
at temperatures up to 400 °C (750 °F), and it Bulletins 16, “Resistance Welding Equipment actually composite wires that consist of niobi-
remains stronger than high-temperature copper Standards,” and 34, “Manufacturer’s Cross um-titanium filaments (10 m in diameter)
alloys and dispersion-hardened copper up to Reference of Standard Resistance Welding embedded in a ductile matrix (stabilizer) that
600 °C (1100 °F) (Ref 11). These composites Electrode Numbers and Alloys,” list suppliers must provide:
are candidates for applications such as electrical and trade names for all classes of resistance • High electrical and thermal conductivity
contacts that require good strength plus conduc- welding electrodes. • High heat capacity
tivity at moderate temperatures. • Good mechanical strength at cryogenic
temperature
Molybdenum-Copper
Tungsten-Copper P/M Composites P/M Composites LIVE GRAPH
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Tungsten-copper composites containing Molybdenum-copper composites containing
between 25 and 65% Cu are used for resistance between 15 and 40% Cu are used for electronic
welding electrodes and electrical contacts (elec- thermal management applications. These com-
trical contacts are discussed in the article posites are produced by roll compaction of
“Powder Metallurgy Copper and Copper molybdenum and copper powders. Physical
Alloys” in this Handbook). These composites properties of various compositions are given in
are produced by infiltrating a sintered refractory Table 4. The excellent thermal conductivity and
Table 3 Properties of RWMA group B

refractory metal electrodes
Ultimate
compression
strength
Electrode Hardness
Conductivity,
%IACS MPa ksi
Fig. 4 Effect of infiltration with a precipitation-hard-
ened copper alloy on the hardness of tungsten-
Class 10 72 HRB 35 930 135 copper electrodes
Class 11 94 HRB 28 1100 160
Class 12 98 HRB 27 1170 170
Class 13 69 HRA 30 1380 200
Class 14 85 HRB 30 … …
Fig. 3 Micrograph of a tungsten-copper composite

electrode material. Magnification: 700
Table 4 Compositions and properties of molybdenum-copper P/M composites

Density Thermal conductivity Thermal expansion in./in. 10–6/˚C
Composition,
wt% g/cm3 lb/in.3 W/m · K Btu/h · ft · ˚F 30–150 ˚C 30–400 ˚C 30–800 ˚C
60Mo-40Cu 9.68 0.349 215 125 9.5 10.2 10.5

65Mo-35Cu 9.74 0.352 205 119 9.0 9.4 9.8
75Mo-25Cu 9.87 0.356 185 108 7.8 8.0 8.4
80Mo-20Cu 9.94 0.359 175 102 7.2 7.5 7.9
85Mo-15Cu 10.01 0.361 165 96 6.8 7.0 7.4
Source: Ametek Specialty Metal Products, Wallingford, CT Fig. 5 Hardness at elevated temperatures for RWMA
group B refractory metal electrode materials
LIVE GRAPH
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• Good adherence to the superconductor Copper-Clad Brazing Sheet sent 5 to 20% of the total strip thickness. This
• Good ductility for forming and winding range of strip thickness covers the majority of
This section focuses on clad brazing material, applications in the heat-exchanger industry.
High-purity oxygen-free copper (C10100) sat- which is defined as any base material or alloy Figure 9 shows a typical clad brazing strip of
isfies all of these requirements to a high degree that is clad with an appropriate lower-melting- copper-clad stainless steel.
and is, therefore, the most frequently used sta- point brazing filler metal. A common example of Figure 10 depicts an automotive transmission
bilizing matrix material. Commercially pure such a laminated composite structure is copper- fluid cooler that was assembled using clad braz-
aluminum (alloy 1100, 99.0% Al) and copper- clad stainless steel sheet, which is used in the ing materials. A turbulator is brazed to a copper-
nickel alloy (typically in concentrations of 90 fabrication of heat exchangers. The copper layer clad stainless steel base and cover. The base and
to 10 or 70 to 30) matrices have also been acts as the brazing filler metal. Table 5 lists the cover are formed from a stainless steel strip con-
used. The filament alloy most widely used is typical brazing strip products that are used in the taining copper braze on one side. After brazing,
Nb-46.5Ti. Composite conductors containing fabrication of compact heat exchangers for the the dimensional changes in this part are mini-
as few as one to as many as 25,000 filaments automotive, truck, and aircraft industries. mal, which is important when making a hermet-
have been processed by advanced extrusion General Characteristics. Clad brazing mate- ically sealed heat exchanger.
and wire-drawing techniques (Fig. 6 and 7). rials are produced as strips, using the roll bond- Stamping, Cleaning, and Assembly. Clad
Important applications for niobium-titanium ing technique. The strips comprise a base metal metals should be considered to have the same
superconductors include magnets for use in that is clad with a brazing filler metal on either forming characteristics as the core material.
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) devices one or both sides. These products are used pri- For example, a copper-clad 304L stainless
used in hospitals, high-energy physics pulsed marily in high-volume manufacturing opera- steel system will have approximately the
accelerator magnet applications (particle tions, such as the production of heat exchangers, same ductility as the unclad 304L stainless
accelerators), and devices for magnetically brazed bellows, and honeycomb structures. The steel. In some instances, the formability of
confining high-energy plasma for thermonu- use of a self-brazing sheet reduces the total part the clad is better than that of the monolithic
clear fusion. count, simplifies the assembly operation metal core because the copper on the surface
Niobium-Tin Intermetallic Superconduc- (because the brazing filler metal is always pres- of the stainless steel acts as a lubricant in the
tors. Like niobium-titanium superconductors, ent on the core material), and reduces assembly forming tool.
the intermetallic compound Nb3Sn is also time and, therefore, cost. In addition, there is no The tooling that is used for stamping parts
assembled into multifilamentary wires embed- need for the application of flux, nor for its sub- from clad metals can be the same as that used
ded by various techniques into a copper stabi- sequent removal. This saves not only the initial to make the monolithic metal core. Because
lizing matrix (Fig. 8). Diffusion barriers (nio- purchase cost of the flux, but also the waste- the brazing filler metal is an integral part of the
bium, tantalum, or vanadium) are also used to management cost that is associated with the dis- core material, additional stamping and forming
prevent reaction between the matrix and fila- posal of the spent material. operations associated with the production of
ments during elevated-temperature processing. The thickness of the brazing filler metal used the shim material are eliminated.
Applications for Nb3Sn-based superconduc- in a clad brazing material can range from 0.050 The parts must be cleaned after stamping, prior
tors include large commercial solenoid mag- to 2.54 mm (0.002 to 0.100 in.) and will repre- to assembly. The procedure for the clad metal
nets, alternating current (ac) motors, and gen-
erators for power generation, power
transmission cables, and high-energy physics
and fusion technology applications.
Fig. 8 Cross section of a multifilamentary Nb3Sn super-

conductor wire (20 mm, or 0.78 in. diam). The
Fig. 7 Partial cross section of a multifilamentary NbTi 18 filaments in the wire each have individual bimetal dif-
Fig. 6 Cross section of a composite superconducting composite with a niobium diffusion barrier (in fusion barriers composed of concentric rings of niobium
wire containing 2070 niobium-titanium fila- high relief) around each filament. The copper interfilamen- around vanadium. The matrix surrounding the filaments is
ments surrounded by a copper matrix. tary matrix is deeply etched. Courtesy of Supercon, Inc. copper. 75
Table 5 Typical clad brazing strip products

Thickness Tensile strength 0.2% yield strength
Clad layer
Material ratios mm in. Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, %
C12200 copper clad to 409 stainless steel 10/80/10 0.51–0.76 0.020–0.030 Annealed 400 58 230 33 37
5/80/15
C12200 copper clad to 304L stainless steel 13.5/86.5 0.51–0.30 0.020–0.012 Annealed 635 92 290 42 56
10/80/10 0.51–0.30 0.020–0.012 Annealed 620 90 275 40 55
C12200 copper clad to 1008 steel 10/80/10 0.38 0.015 No. 4 temper 380 55 290 42 35
C52400 phosphor bronze clad to C10200 copper 10/80/10 0.51 0.020 Annealed 275 40 97 14 48
Shape Memory Alloys and Composite Materials / 125
parts should be similar to that used for cleaning ing thickness, which typically ranges from 0.025 Materials, Welding, Brazing, and Soldering,
the brazing filler metal shims or preforms. to 0.075 mm (0.001 to 0.003 in.), results in less Vol 6, ASM Handbook, ASM International,
Copper-clad materials should be cleaned by a pro- shrinkage during brazing and is less likely to 1993, p 961–963
cedure that is appropriate for copper parts. cause large brazing fillets. Consequently, the • Shape Memory Alloys, Metals Handbook
Because the copper cladding is metallurgically possibility that excess brazing filler metal will Desk Edition, 2nd ed., J.R. Davis, Ed., ASM
bonded to the stainless steel core, wetting by the clog small passageways is greatly reduced. The International, 1998, p 668–669
copper is ensured, as shown in Fig. 11, and the typical joint shown in Fig. 14 illustrates the • Superconducting Materials, Metals Hand-
cleaning of any stainless steel parts is eliminated. small-geometry passages that can be achieved book Desk Edition, 2nd ed., J.R. Davis, Ed.,
As with any copper part, care must be taken to and the capillary action of the brazing filler ASM International, 1998, p 650–651
prevent oxidation during assembly prior to braz- metal as it forms the fillets at the joints.
ing. Because the copper brazing filler metal is Yet another benefit of using clad metals is
bonded to the stainless steel, the number of parts that once the parts are assembled and fixtured, REFERENCES
to be assembled is significantly reduced, and any the brazing filler metal will not shift, move, or
handling of the thin, delicate brazing shim stock fall out as a result of the movement of fixtured 1. L.C. Chang and T.A. Read, Trans. AIME,
is eliminated. Unlike preform shims, which are assemblies prior to or during the brazing cycle. Vol 191, 1951, p 47
usually used as flat, two-dimensional inserts, the 2. M. Ahlers, Proceedings of International
brazing filler metal on the clad brazing material Conference on Martensitic Transformations,
follows the complex surface topography that ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Nara, Japan, 1986, p 786
was stamped into the base material. Two exam- 3. D.L McDanels, “Tungsten Fiber Reinforced
Portions of this article were adapted from:
ples are shown in Fig. 12 and 13. The former Copper Matrix Composites. A Review,” NASA
depicts a typical plate-type heat exchanger made • J.V. Foltz and C.M. Blackmon, Metal-Matrix Technical Paper 2924, National Aeronautics
from a clad brazing material, whereas the latter Composites, Properties and Selection: and Space Administration, Sept 1989
shows typical contoured joints that can be made Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose 4. L.J. Westfall and D.W. Petrasek,
easily with clad brazing materials. Materials, Vol 2, ASM Handbook, ASM “Fabrication and Preliminary Evaluation of
One design benefit of using clad brazing mate- International, 1990, p 903–912 Tungsten Fiber Reinforced Copper
rials is a reduction of the clearance between the • S. Jha, M. Karavolis, K. Dunn, and J. Forster, Composite Combustion Chamber Liners,”
parts, because no allowance needs to be made for Brazing with Clad Brazing Materials, NASA Technical Memorandum 100845,
the insertion of thick shims, wires, or preforms. Welding, Brazing, and Soldering, Vol 6, National Aeronautics and Space
Another benefit is that less copper brazing ASM Handbook, ASM International, 1993, Administration, May 1988
filler metal can be used, because the concerns p 347–348 5. D.L McDanels, R.A. Signorelli, and J.W.
associated with the handling of shim material • M. Karavolis, S. Jha, J. Forster, and K. Weeton, “Analysis of Stress Rupture and
have been eliminated. The thinner copper coat- Meekins, Application of Clad Brazing Creep Properties of Tungsten Fiber
Fig. 9 Micrograph of typical clad brazing material: Fig. 10 Heat exchanger fabricated using clad brazing Fig. 11 Micrograph of a typical brazed joint that was
C12200 copper clad to type 304L stainless steel (“self-brazing”) materials formed using a clad brazing material
Fig. 14 Micrograph of a passageway in a heat

Fig. 12 Cutaway view of a typical plate-type heat Fig. 13 Contoured joints that can be made easily with exchanger fabricated using copper-clad stain-
exchanger clad brazing materials less steel clad brazing material
Reinforced Copper Composites,” STP 427, 8. D.L. McDanels and J.O. Diaz, “Exploratory 10. D.L Erich, Metal-Matrix Composites:
American Society for Testing and Materials, Feasibility Studies of Graphite Fiber Problems, Applications, and Potential in the
1967, p 124–148 Reinforced Copper Matrix Composites for P/M Industry, Int. J. Powder Metall., Vol 23
6. L.M. Sheppard, Challenges Facing the Space Power Radiator Panels,” NASA TM- (No. 1), 1987, p 45
Carbon Industry, Ceram. Bull., Vol 67 (No. 102328, National Aeronautics and Space 11. J.D. Verhoeven, W.A. Spitzig, F.A.
12), 1988, p 1897 Administration, Sept 1989 Schmidt, and C.L. Trybus, Deformation
7. D.A. Foster, Electronic Thermal 9. T.M.F. Ronald, Advanced Materials to Fly Processed Cu-Refractory Metal
Management Using Copper Coated High in NASP, Adv. Mater. Proc. inc. Met. Composites, Mater. Manuf. Proc., Vol 4
Graphite Fibers, SAMPE Q., Oct 1989, p 58 Prog., May 1989, p 29 (No. 2), 1989, p 197
Copper and Copper Alloy Coatings
COPPER AND COPPER ALLOY COATINGS by an overcoating of clear lacquer or another bath can be used for still-tank plating, with
for both decorative and engineering applications suitable type of corrosion-resistant finish. mechanical agitation, or more efficiently with
are most commonly deposited by electroplating Copper can be deposited from both electrolytic air agitation. These baths can also be used with
or electroless plating. Wear- and corrosion- and autocatalytic (electroless) electrolytes that pulsed-current or periodic-reverse plating.
resistant copper alloy coatings can also be are alkaline or acid. Cyanide and noncyanide The cyanide copper plating baths listed in
applied by thermal spraying, weld surfacing, and pyrophosphate alkalines plus sulfate and fluobo- Table 1 are characterized by low-copper metal
solid-state cladding techniques (e.g., roll bond- rate acid baths are the electrolytes used in the and high free-cyanide contents. This type of
ing). Each of these processes is discussed in this electrolytic deposition of copper deposits. Bath chemistry helps to clean the surface of parts dur-
article with emphasis on electro- and electroless chemistries for autocatalytic deposition are ing the plating operation. This results because of
plating, which are the most commercially described in the section “Electroless Copper the tendency to produce gassing at the work due
important processes. Plating” in this article. to the low cathode efficiencies. Although plating
For specialized applications, copper and cop- baths should not be used intentionally for clean-
per alloys can be deposited by selective plating ing purposes, the cleaning action of these
and chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Selective Alkaline Plating Baths cyanide baths can be an advantage, because dif-
plating, also known as brush plating, is a varia- ficult-to-clean parts can be given a copper strike
tion of the conventional tank or bath electroplat- Alkaline cyanide copper solutions are used to in one of these baths with a high degree of suc-
ing process. Chemical vapor deposition, which plate the initial deposits (as a strike) on a variety cess. Plating in other baths without the use of an
is used in semiconductor manufacture, involves of substrates. These baths can be easily con- alkaline cyanide copper strike could result in
the deposition of thin copper films from a gas- trolled to produce thin deposits of relatively uni- poor adhesion and incomplete coverage.
phase precursor. More detailed information on form thicknesses on all surfaces. They have the High-Efficiency Sodium and Potassium
these alternative copper coating processes can best macro throwing power, which describes the Cyanide Baths. With proprietary additives, the
be found in Surface Engineering, Volume 5 of relative plating thickness distribution over all high-concentration baths are used to produce
ASM Handbook. current densities. They also have traditionally deposits of various degrees of brightness and
been the most widely used strike and plating leveling, in thicknesses ranging from 8 to 50 m
baths. However, with a greater emphasis on haz- (0.3 to 2.0 mils). Thick deposits that are ductile
ards and waste management, more recently and bright can be produced in routine opera-
developed alkaline, noncyanide systems are tions. Under most plating conditions, the high
Copper Plating being examined and used as replacements for throwing power of the electrolyte produces ade-
the copper cyanide systems in many applica- quate coverage of sufficient thickness in
Copper plating deposits are used for both tions. The deposits from the noncyanide copper recessed areas. Antipitting additives are general-
functional and decorative applications. They are processes compare favorably with those from ly used in these baths to promote pore-free (non-
used widely as underplates in multiplate sys- the cyanide processes. These noncyanide pitted) deposits.
tems, as barrier coatings, as stopoffs in heat processes require more precise control and more Before being plated in the high-efficiency
treatment, and for heat transfer (e.g., as heat thorough cleaning and surface preparation com- baths, parts must first receive a strike coating of
sinks). They also find use in electroforming, in pared to cyanide systems; however, their use copper approximately 1.3 m (0.05 mil) thick
electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, does allow the elimination of cyanide in many from a dilute cyanide copper electrolyte.
and in plating of electronic circuitry. The plating facilities. Pyrophosphate alkaline copper The high-efficiency baths are characterized by
smoothness and brightness of copper deposits solutions are seldom used because they are diffi- relatively high operating temperature, high cop-
can be improved through buffing techniques cult to control and have limited operating per content, and rapid operation. Deposition
because copper is a relatively soft metal. Copper ranges. They are used primarily to produce thick rates are three to five times faster than the rates
deposits also act as thermal expansion barriers, deposits because they exhibit good plating rates. for the dilute cyanide and Rochelle cyanide
especially in multiplate systems, due to their They also find some use in through-hole printed baths. Parts to be plated in the high-efficiency
ability to absorb the stress produced when met- wiring board applications. electrolytes must be cleaned thoroughly, or the
als with different thermal expansion properties Dilute cyanide and Rochelle cyanide baths plate will be of inferior quality and the bath will
undergo temperature changes or if the deposit is are primarily used to deposit a strike coating of require frequent purification for the removal of
thermally shocked. Similarly, corrosion failures 1.0 to 3.0 m (0.05 to 0.1 mil) of copper prior to organic contaminants.
from cracking caused by physical deformation further copper plating or electrodeposition of The potassium complexes formed by the com-
of a part can be reduced by incorporation of a other metals. Often the coverage during this step bination of potassium cyanide and copper
soft metal such as copper in the composite plate. is the most important in the overall performance cyanide are more soluble than those formed
Copper plating is also used as a final finish in and appearance of the final plated part. The when sodium cyanide is used; therefore, a high-
some decorative applications and is sometimes high-concentration Rochelle cyanide bath can be er metal content and higher rates of deposition
used alone in applications where a durable and used efficiently for plating up to approximately are possible than with the sodium cyanide high-
attractive surface is required. However, copper 8 m (0.3 mil) thickness. With a modification in concentration bath. The potassium bath has
tarnishes and stains rapidly when exposed to the composition, the Rochelle electrolyte may be more operating flexibility than the sodium bath
atmosphere and must be protected against this used for barrel plating. The Rochelle cyanide and is favored because it raises the resistance to
Table 1 Compositions and operating conditions of cyanide copper plating baths Table 2 Concentration limits and
Rochelle cyanide High-efficiency
operating conditions of alkaline
Dilute Low High Sodium Potassium
noncyanide copper plating baths
Constituent or condition cyanide (strike) Standard barrel concentration(a) concentration(a) cyanide(b) cyanide(b) Constituent or condition Typical
Bath composition, g/L (oz/gal) Copper metal (from copper sulfate) 6–13.5 (0.8–1.8)
Copper cyanide 22 (3) 45 (6) 26 (4) 60 (8) 80 (11) 80 (11) concentration limit, g/L (oz/gal)
Sodium cyanide 33 (4) 68 (9) 35 (5) 80 (11) 105 (14) 105 (14) pH, electrometric 9.0–10.5
Sodium carbonate 15 (2) … 30 (4) 30 (4) … … Temperature, °C (°F) 38–65 (100–150)
Sodium hydroxide To pH … To pH To pH 30 (4) … Cathode current density, 0.5–3.0 (5–30)
Rochelle salt 15 (2)(c) 45–75 (6–10) 45 (6) 90 (12) … … A/dm2 (A/ft2)
Potassium hydroxide … 8–15 (1–2) … … … 35 (5) Tank voltage 2–12
Anode:cathode ratio 1.5:1
Bath analysis, g/L (oz/gal) Copper anodes OFHC or EPT
C11000 copper
Copper 16 (2) 32 (4) 18 (2) 43 (6) 56 (7) 56 (7)
Free cyanide 9 (1) 27 (3.6) 7 (0.8) 15 (2) 18 (2) 18 (2) Note: The systems currently commercially available are proprietary but
typically contain an organic complexing agent, buffer salts, anode depo-
Operating conditions larizer, and proprietary addition agents.
Temperature, ˚C (˚F) 30–50 (86–120) 55–70 55–70 60–75 60–75 60–75

(130–160) (130–160)(d) (140–170) (140–170) (140–170) rel, and continuous operations. These systems
Cathode current density, 1.0–1.5 (10–15) … 1.0–4.0 2.0–5.0 2.0–6.0 2.0–6.0 have also found use as strikes prior to the
A/dm2 (A/ft2) (10–40) (20–50) (20–60) (20–60)
Cathode efficiency, % 30–50 … 40–60 60–90 70–100 70–100
additional plating of metals and in EMI
Voltage, V 6 6(e) 6 6 6 6 shielding applications. Their proprietary for-
pH 12.0–12.6 … 12.0–12.6(d) 13 >13 >13 mulations are based on a variety of chelating
Anodes Copper, steel Copper Copper Copper Copper Copper ligands, most commonly carboxylic acids,
(a) Low concentration typical for strike; high concentration typical for plating. (b) Used with addition agents, as proprietary or patented processes.
amines, and phosphonates (Ref 2).
(c) Optional. (d) For zinc-base die castings, maintain temperature at 60–71 ˚C (140–160 ˚F) and a pH between 11.6 and 12.3. (e) At 6 V, the bath Metallurgical analysis of these deposits shows
draws approximately 0.3 A/L (2 A/gal) through the solution. At 12 V, the bath draws 0.4 A/L (3 A/gal) a crystalline structure and surface morphology
comparable to that produced by copper
cyanide plating baths, except that the cyanide-
Table 3 Concentration limits and operating conditions of copper pyrophosphate free deposit is more compact (Ref 3).
plating baths Concentration limits and operating conditions
Constituent or condition Strike Typical of these baths are given in Table 2.
Concentration limits, g/L (oz/gal)
Alkaline copper pyrophosphate baths are
Copper metal 9–11 (1.2–1.5) 19–30 (2.5–4.0)
used for decorative multiplate applications
Potassium pyrophosphate 112–205 (15–27) 235–405 (31–54) including plating on plastic, plating through-
Copper pyrophosphate 25–30 (3.3–4.0) 52–84 (7.0–11.0) holes of printed circuit boards, and as a
Ammonium hydroxide (conc. mL/L) 0.5–1.0 3.75–11.0 stopoff in selective case hardening of steels.
Potassium nitrate 1.5–3.0 (0.2–0.4) 3.0–12.0 (0.4–1.6)
Weight ratio (pyrophosphate:copper) 7.0–8.0:1 7.0–7.5:1
Concentration limits and operating conditions
are given in Table 3.
Operating conditions
Copper pyrophosphate bath characteristics
Temperature, ˚C (˚F) 22–30 (72–86) 43–60 (110–140)
Current density, A/dm2 (A/ft2) 1.0–3.0 (10–30) 1.0–7.0 (10–70)
are intermediate between those of cyanide and
Cathode efficiency … 95–100% acid baths and are very similar to those of the
Voltage at tank, V 2–5 2–6 high-efficiency cyanide bath. Electrode effi-
pH, electrometric(a) 8.0–8.5 8.0–8.7 ciencies are 100%; throwing power and plating
Anodes(b) Copper Copper
Anode:cathode ratio 2:1 2:1
rates are good. The bath also operates at an
almost neutral pH. Deposits from pyrophos-
(a) May be maintained with pyrophosphoric acid and potassium hydroxide. (b) OFHC anodes phate baths are fine-grain and semibright. For
pyrophosphate plating on steel, zinc die cast-
ings, magnesium, or aluminum, a preliminary
deposit burning and accordingly permits the use bath efficiency and anode corrosion. These
strike should be used. For striking, a dilute
of higher current densities (faster plating rates). additives produce matte to full-bright, fine-
cyanide or pyrophosphate copper, nickel, or
Pulsed-current techniques are used frequent- grain deposits. Proprietary additives are also
other solution may be used.
ly for operating high-efficiency electrolytes to used to control the effects of organic and inor-
produce greater leveling and uniform distribu- ganic contaminants.
tion of copper on complex shapes and to Alkaline noncyanide copper plating is the
reduce plating time and the amount of metal subject of recent interest due primarily to envi- Acid Plating Baths
required for plating complex shapes to a spec- ronmental pressures on the use and disposal of
ified minimum thickness. Periodic reversal cyanide-containing processes. These systems Electrodeposition of copper from acid baths is
may be used to provide even higher leveling are being used in many of the same applica- used extensively for electroforming, electrorefin-
and better metal distribution that can be tions where cyanide systems have traditional- ing, and decorative electroplating. Acid copper
obtained with current interruption. Periodic ly found success. In applications where cop- plating baths contain copper in the bivalent form
reversal also improves the pore-filling charac- per is plated as a heat-treat masking barrier and are more tolerant of ionic impurities than
teristics of the high-efficiency electrolytes. prior to carburizing, nitriding, or through alkaline baths. They also have less macro throw-
Compositions and operating conditions of hardening, the noncyanide processes have ing power and poorer metal distribution. Acid
high-efficiency cyanide copper plating baths been shown to perform equally well or better baths have excellent micro throwing power,
are given in Table 1. than cyanide systems (Ref 1). These systems resulting in the ability to fill or level scratches,
The operation of high-efficiency electrolytes produce fine-grain, smooth, dense deposits grooves, or other substrate conditions, and addi-
can be improved by the use of proprietary that are nonporous and exhibit good bonding tionally they are effective in sealing porous sub-
additives, which improve anodic and cathodic properties that can be deposited in rack, bar- strates. In most instances the smooth deposits
Copper and Copper Alloy Coatings / 129
produced by these solutions reduce or eliminate per sulfate solutions are used to plate over elec- Surface Preparation Considerations
the need for mechanical smoothing for various troless deposited copper or nickel. With
substrates. A cyanide, noncyanide copper, or |additives, the bath produces a bright deposit Careful cleaning and preparation of the sub-
nickel strike must be applied to steel or zinc-alloy with good leveling characteristics or a semi- strate material being plated is required for the
die castings before they are plated in acid copper bright deposit that is easily buffed. Where copper effective electrodeposition of copper. Surface oils
solutions. Acid copper solutions cannot be used is used as an undercoating, deposit thicknesses and greases, buffing compounds, rust, scale, and
directly over substrates that are attacked by the will generally range up to about 50 m (2 mils). oxides, especially around weld or solder areas,
high acidity or those where the copper forms an Typical mechanical properties of electro- must be thoroughly removed before copper plat-
immersion deposit. Immersion deposits usually formed deposits from copper sulfate acid elec- ing to ensure adhesion and to minimize contami-
have poor adhesion to the substrate. Concen- trolytes are as follows: nation of the plating bath. However, before con-
tration limits and operating conditions of acid sidering any preparation, it is important to know
copper plating baths are given in Table 4. Tensile strength, MPa (ksi) 205–380 (30–55) the type of substrate being used as well as any
The copper sulfate bath is the most fre- Elongation, % 15–25
substrate surface conditions that may be present.
quently used of the acid copper electrolytes and Hardness, HV 45–70
Internal tensile stress, MPa (ksi) 0–10 (0–1.45) This information is important because the prepa-
has its primary use in electroforming. In this ration cycles used prior to copper plating can vary
application, the advantages of acid copper lie in considerably, depending on the alloy or type of
its strength and ductility. Acid copper sulfate is Table 5 shows how changes in operating vari- substrate. Also, substrate heat treatment variations
used to plate thick deposits over 150 m (6 mils) ables and electrolyte composition can affect can contribute to complications in surface prepa-
on large nickel-plated rolls; it is then engraved to these properties. ration. Because there are also variations in organ-
electroform textile printing screens. It is also The copper fluoborate bath produces high- ic and inorganic soil conditions on the work to be
used extensively for the application of copper as speed plating and dense deposits up to any plated, preparation cycles should include adequate
an undercoating for bright nickel-chromium required thickness, usually 500 m (20 mils). cleaning, rinsing, and activation steps to ensure
plating, especially for automotive components. This bath is simple to prepare, stable, and easy quality deposits. Some of the cleaning methods
Plates and rolls have been plated with acid cop- to control. Operating efficiency approaches used to prepare substrate surfaces prior to copper
per sulfate for graphic arts and rotogravure 100%. Deposits are smooth and attractive. plating include soak or electrolytic alkaline clean-
printing where thicknesses of 500 m (20 mils) Deposits from the low-copper bath operated at ing, alkaline derusting, vapor degreasing, and sol-
or more are not uncommon. Bright acid copper 49 °C (120 °F) are soft and are easily buffed to vent cleaning.
sulfate baths are used extensively as an under- a high luster. The addition of molasses to either Good rinsing between preparation steps is a
layer in decorative plating of the plastic trim the high copper or the low copper bath operated very important and often-overlooked step in the
found on automobiles, appliances, and various at 49 °C (120 °F) results in deposits that are preparation cycle. Time, temperature, and con-
housewares. By altering the composition of the harder and stronger. Good smoothness of coat- centration considerations should be applied to
copper sulfate bath, it can be used in through- ings up to 500 m (20 mils) thick can be rinsing techniques as well as to the cleaning pro-
hole plating of printed circuit boards where a obtained without addition agents. For greater cessing solutions. Often, rinse times are too
deposit ratio of 1 to 1 in the hole-to-board sur- thicknesses, addition agents must be used to short, immersion temperatures are too cold, and
face is desired. In some applications, acid cop- avoid excessive porosity. the water flow rate is too low to adequately rinse
cleaner films from the surfaces.
Table 4 Compositions and operating conditions of acid copper plating baths
The activation step is usually carried out with
Copper sulfate bath the use of an acid to remove inorganic soils,
Copper fluoborate bath
Constituent or condition General
Printed circuit
through-hole Low copper High copper
oxides, or cleaner films from the surfaces. The
acid used depends on the type of substrate to be
Bath composition, g/L (oz/gal)
plated. The most commonly used acids in pre-
Copper sulfate, CuSO4·5H2O 200–240 (27–32) 60–110 (8–15) … …
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 45–75 (6–10) 180–260 (24–35) … …
plate processes are hydrochloric acid and sulfu-
Copper fluoborate, Cu(BF4)2 … … 225 (30) 450 (60) ric acid. More information about the techniques
Fluoboric acid, HBF4 … … To pH 40 (5) used in these surface preparation processes can
Bath analysis, g/L (oz/gal) be found in Surface Engineering, Volume 5 of
Copper 50–60 (7–8) 15–28 (2–4) 8 (1) 16 (2) ASM Handbook. Specifications and practices for
Sulfuric acid 45–75 (6–10) 180–260 (24–35) … … surface preparation and copper electroplating
Specific gravity at 25 °C (77 °F) … … 1.17–1.18 1.35–1.37 are given in Table 6.
Operating conditions Cyanide Baths. Although the dilute
Temperature, °C (°F) 20–50 (68–120) 20–40 (68–105) 20–70 (68–160) 20–70 (68–160) cyanide and Rochelle cyanide baths exert a
Current density, A/dm2 (A/ft2) 2.0–10.0 (20–100) 0.1–6.0 (1–6) 7.0–13.0 (70–130) 12–35 (120–350) significant cleaning action on the surface of
Cathode efficiency, % 95–100 95–100 95–100 95–100
Voltage, V 6 6 6 6–12
the parts during the plating operation, thor-
pH … … 0.8–1.7 <0.6 ough cleaning of parts to be plated in these
Anodes Copper(a) Copper(a) Copper(b) Copper(b) baths is still necessary.
(a) Phosphorized copper (0.02–0.08% P) is recommended. (b) High-purity, oxygen-free, nonphosphorized copper is recommended.
The high-efficiency sodium cyanide and
potassium cyanide electrolytes have virtually no
Table 5 Variables affecting mechanical properties of electroformed deposits from acid copper sulfate electrolytes
Property Operational effects Solution composition effects
Tensile strength Decreases slightly with increasing solution temperature. Increases significantly Relatively independent of changes in copper sulfate concentration within the range
with increase in cathode current density suggested. Relatively independent of changes in sulfuric acid concentration within
the range suggested
Elongation Decreases with increasing solution temperature. Increases slightly with High acid concentrations, particularly with low copper sulfate concentration, tend to
increasing cathode current density reduce elongation slightly
Hardness Decreases slightly with increasing solution temperature. Relatively independent Relatively independent of copper sulfate concentration. Increases slightly with
of change in cathode current density increasing acid concentration
Internal stress Increases with increasing solution temperature. Increases with increasing Relatively independent of copper sulfate concentration. Decreases very slightly with
cathode current density increasing acid concentration
surface-cleaning ability during plating because base die castings (Ref 4, 5). One advantage of the Acid Baths. When sulfate or fluoborate copper
of the absence of hydrogen evolution. Parts to be noncyanide electrolyte is the fact that accidental is to be deposited, steel or zinc must first receive
plated in these electrolytes must be thoroughly drag-in of acids poses no hazard of the evolution a cyanide or noncyanide alkaline copper or nick-
cleaned. Parts also must receive first a dilute of poisonous cyanide gas, which could occur with el strike. With complete coverage, the strike may
cyanide copper strike approximately 1.3 m cyanide copper electrolytes. be as thin as 2 m (0.08 mil). After the strike, the
(0.05 mil) thick. Pyrophosphate Baths. If pyrophosphate parts should be dipped in a dilute solution of sul-
Noncyanide Alkaline Baths. Unlike cyanide electrolytes are to be used, conventional clean- furic acid to neutralize solution retained from the
baths, noncyanide alkaline baths do not offer any ing cycles are generally satisfactory. A prelimi- alkaline strike bath. The parts should be rinsed
cleaning, and parts plated in these electrolytes nary strike should be applied to steel, zinc-base thoroughly before acid copper plating. Nickel or
must first be thoroughly cleaned, rinsed, and acti- die castings, magnesium, and aluminum. The nickel alloy parts, when surface activated by
vated. If being used as a strike prior to acid cop- strike solution may be a dilute cyanide copper, reverse-current etching in sulfuric acid, can be
per or other similar deposit, a minimum thickness dilute pyrophosphate copper, or nickel. If a plated directly, provided contact is made to the
of 5.2 m (0.2 mil) is desired. These systems can cyanide copper strike is used, adequate rinsing work with the current or power on before immer-
be plated directly on properly prepared steel, or, preferably, a mild acid dip following the sion into the acid copper solution.
brass, stainless steel, zincated aluminum, lead-tin, strike is recommended before final pyrophos-
and most high-quality, properly prepared zinc- phate copper plating.
Bath Composition and
Table 6 Specifications and standards for copper electroplating Operating Variables
Specification Uses
The compositions and analyses given in
Copper plating Tables 1 to 4 for cyanide, noncyanide alkaline,
AMS 2418 Copper plating pyrophosphate, and acid copper plating baths
MIL-C-14550 (Ord) Copper plating may be varied within the control limits to satis-
ASTM B 503 Recommended practice for use of copper and nickel
electroplating solution for electroforming fy requirements for specific applications.
Current density can be altered to effect more
Copper plating in multiplate systems
efficient control and to increase the deposition
ASTM B 456 Specification for electrodeposited coatings of copper plus
nickel plus chromium and nickel plus chromium rate of copper. The data in Table 7 can be used
ASTM B 200 Specification for electrodeposited coatings of lead and lead-tin as a guide to the selection of current density.
alloys on steel and ferrous alloys Impurities. The degree of control required to
AMS 2412 Plating silver, copper strike, low bake protect copper plating baths from impurities
AMS 2413 Silver and rhodium plating
AMS 2420 Plating, aluminum for solderability, zincate process varies with the type of bath and the method of
AMS 2421 Plating, magnesium for solderability, zincate process processing used. Known causes of roughness in
QQ-N-290 Nickel plating (electrodeposited) copper deposits are:
Surface preparation
ASTM A 380 Practice for cleaning and descaling stainless steel parts,
• Dragover from cleaners, which results in the
equipment, and systems
formation of insoluble silicates in the elec-
ASTM B 183 Practice for preparation of low-carbon steel for electroplating trolyte
ASTM B 242 Practice for preparation of high-carbon steel for electroplating • Poor anode corrosion
ASTM B 252 Recommended practice for preparation of zinc alloy die
castings for electroplating
• Insoluble metallic sulfides because of sulfide
ASTM B 253 Practice for preparation of aluminum alloys for electroplating
impurities
ASTM B 254 Practice for preparation of and electroplating on stainless steel • Organic matter in the water used for compo-
ASTM B 281 Practice for preparation of copper and copper-base alloys for sition, especially in rinse tanks
electroplating and conversion coatings
ASTM B 319 Guide for preparation of lead and lead alloys for electroplating
• Insoluble carbonates because of calcium and
ASTM B 322 Practice for cleaning metals prior to electroplating
magnesium in hard water
ASTM B 480 Practice for preparation of magnesium and magnesium alloys • Oil from overhead conveyors
for electroplating • Airborne dust or particles
ASTM B 481 Practice for preparation of titanium and titanium alloys for
electroplating If the level of impurities reaches a critical point,
MIL-HDBK-132 (Ord) Military handbook, protective finishes causing poor results, a batch carbon treatment or
circulation through a carbon-packed filter may
Table 7 Estimated time required for plating copper (valence 1) to a given thickness at be required. For the noncyanide processes, a sul-
100% cathode efficiency fur-free carbon pack must be maintained on the
bath and changed weekly. Lead and cyanide are
Cyanide baths contain copper with a valence of 1. For baths containing copper with a valence of 2, such as non-
cyanide alkaline, sulfate, pyrophosphate, and fluoborate baths, double the time values given in this table. Values must
contaminants to these systems and tend to cause
be corrected for losses in cathode efficiency by adding the difference between the actual cathode efficiency and a black smutted deposit. When converting a plat-
100%; for example, for 70% cathode efficiency, add 30% to values in table to determine estimated time. ing line from a cyanide system to a noncyanide
Thickness of plate Plating time, min(a) at current density, A/dm2 (A/ft2)
electrolyte, all associated equipment must be
m mils 1.0 (10) 1.5 (15) 2.0 (20) 2.5 (25) 3.0 (30) 3.5 (35) 4.0 (40) 4.5 (45)
cleaned and thoroughly washed to ensure no
cyanide contamination. Caution: Cyanide
2 0.08 4 3 2 2 2 1 1 1
5 0.2 11 8 6 5 4 3 3 2 remains in the system. Acids can be used only
10 0.4 23 15 11 9 8 6 6 5 after all traces of cyanide have been eliminated.
20 0.8 45 30 23 18 15 13 11 9 Purity of Water Used in Composition.
30 1.2 68 45 34 27 23 19 17 14 The purity of the water used in the composi-
40 1.6 90 60 45 36 30 26 23 18
50 2.0 113 75 57 45 38 32 28 23 tion of the baths is important for all plating
60 2.4 136 90 68 54 45 39 34 27 operations. Iron in the water causes roughness
70 2.8 158 106 79 63 53 45 40 32 in the deposit if the pH of the electrolyte is
80 3.1 181 120 90 72 60 52 45 36 above 3.5, where iron can be precipitated.
(a) To nearest whole value
Chlorides in concentrations greater than about
0.44 g/L (0.05 oz/gal) promote the formation
of nodular deposits. Calcium, magnesium, and the desired pH range (e.g., 10.0 to 10.5 for plating with a Rochelle bath requires a variation in
iron precipitate in the bath. Organic matter ing on aluminum alloys). the chemistry. When plating parts that tend to
may cause pitting of deposits. The dilute copper cyanide bath can be operat- nest or stick together during the barrel rotation,
When plating in sodium or potassium, high- ed at room temperature, but the general practice increasing the free cyanide to 25 to 30 g/L (3 to
efficiency electrolytes and distilled, deionized, is to operate the bath between 32 and 49 °C (90 4 oz/gal) or slightly higher to obtain adequate
softened, or good quality tap water may be used and 120 °F) to increase the rate of deposition coverage on the nested parts is necessary.
for solution composition and for replenishment. and to improve anode dissolution. This elec- Rochelle baths usually are operated at a cur-
Tap water with high contents of calcium and/or trolyte is usually operated with a cathode current rent density between 2 and 5 A/dm2 (20 and 50
iron should not be used because it may cause density of 1 to 1.5 A/dm2 (10 to 15 A/ft2). The A/ft2). Substituting potassium salts for sodium
roughness of the deposit. Softened water should tank voltage is normally between 4 and 6 V. salts in the baths with higher metal concentra-
be used with care, especially in plating baths Agitation of the bath produces more uniform tion, up to 38 g/L (5 oz/gal) copper, can increase
where chloride contents are critical such as composition throughout the electrolyte, more the allowable current density to 6 A/dm2 (60
bright copper sulfate baths. uniform anode corrosion, and an increase in cur- A/ft2), with the penalty of lowering the cathode
Agitation during plating permits the use of rent densities where the brightest deposits are efficiency. The Rochelle baths are usually oper-
higher current densities, which create rapid dep- obtained. Current densities in excess of 5 A/dm2 ated at between 54 and 71 °C (130 and 160 °F)
osition of copper. The amount of increase per- (50 A/ft2) have been applied successfully by for best efficiency. The rate of deposition is
missible in current density varies for different using air agitation of the solution and agitating higher at the higher temperatures. A high-effi-
baths. Preferred methods of agitation for the the work. ciency electrolyte having a higher metal concen-
types of baths are: Continuous filtration is preferred for dilute tration can be operated at up to 77 °C (170 °F).
cyanide baths. Organic contamination or sus- For copper plating zinc-base die castings, the
pended matter in the strike is frequently respon- electrolyte is best operated at 60 to 71 °C (140 to
Cyanide baths Cathode movement, air agitation, or both sible for roughness of copper plate subsequently 160 °F), provided the pH of the bath is main-
Pyrophosphate baths Air agitation
Acid baths Cathode movement, air agitation, or both deposited in the cyanide copper plating bath. tained between 11.6 and 12.3. An increase in the
Noncyanide baths Vigorous air agitation Hexavalent chromium in the strike causes blis- operating temperature of Rochelle cyanide baths
tering of the deposit. Proprietary additives can increases the efficiency of the anode and cath-
be used to improve the bath operation, as well as ode; however, free cyanide decomposes more
When air agitation is used, all airline pipes aid in the control of organic and inorganic con- rapidly, which increases carbonate formation.
should be made of inert material or coated with taminants. These proprietary additives consist of An increase in agitation causes an increase in
an inert material to prevent attack by the elec- organic complexing agents, such as tartrate salts. anode efficiency, but this also increases carbon-
trolytes. The air used for agitation must be clean Organic reducing agents are used to control ate formation. Carbonates are always present in
to avoid bath contamination. Filtered air from a impurities such as hexavalent chromium. cyanide copper solutions from oxidation of the
low-pressure blower is required. Wetting agents (surfactants) are used to control cyanide and, also, from adsorption of carbon
Ultrasonic vibration also has been used for organic contaminants and to lower the surface dioxide from the air that reacts with the alkali in
the agitation of copper plating baths. This tension of the plating solution, to allow better solution. Carbonates from a sodium copper
method does not largely improve the properties throwing power of copper over substrate irregu- cyanide plating solution can be removed by
or appearance of electroplates, but it can larities, and to aid drainage and rinsing. cooling the solution, which precipitates the less
improve plating speed by permitting an soluble sodium carbonate. High carbonate con-
increase in the current density without the haz- centrations lower the anode efficiency, which
ard of burning the parts. Increased plating Plating in Rochelle Cyanide Baths accelerates additional carbonate formation in
speed does not necessarily justify the increased addition to producing rough or porous plated
cost and complexity of ultrasonic operation, Rochelle electrolytes with lower metal con- deposits (Ref 6).
because the high-speed baths can usually be centrations can be used both for striking appli- Rochelle copper baths should be maintained
operated with a fairly high current density at cations and, with higher metal concentrations, at a pH between 12.2 and 13.0. Anode effi-
nearly 100% efficiency. for plating applications. Rochelle salts produce ciency may be prohibitively low if the pH is
some grain refinement, reduce the effects of too high. Raising the pH also decreases the
some metallic contaminants, and aid in anode voltage drop across the anode film. Figure 1
Plating in Dilute Cyanide Baths corrosion by increasing the anode current densi- shows a buffer curve for adjusting the pH of
ty range before anode polarization occurs. The Rochelle electrolytes.
In the dilute cyanide bath, corrosion of the Rochelle electrolyte can also be used for period- Conductivity of the bath is improved by raising
anodes increases with increasing concentration ic-reverse plating with good results. Barrel plat- the free alkali cyanide and the concentration of
of free cyanide. Low free-cyanide content may
cause rough deposits due to anode polarization;
however, excessive free cyanide lowers cathode
efficiency, resulting in thinner deposits per unit
of time. Modifications of the pH, or alkalinity, of
the strike compositions are used for striking var-
ious substrates. For use on steel, additional sodi-
um hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide
(KOH) improves the conductivity of the solution
and aids in protecting steel anode baskets, tanks,
and other steel fixtures from corrosion. For use
on zinc-base die castings, the hydroxide concen-
tration is kept in the range of 1.3 to 3.8 g/L (0.2
to 0.5 oz/gal). For use on zincated aluminum
alloys, the pH should be reduced to approxi-
mately 9.7 to 10.0 with sodium bicarbonate. The
operator should keep adding tartaric acid or
sodium bicarbonate to the solution to maintain Fig. 1 Buffer curve for adjusting the pH of Rochelle electrolytes. sp gr, specific gravity. Source: Ref 7
LIVE GRAPH
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densities. Cyanide plating baths typically ates also affect the smoothness of the deposits.
decrease in cathode efficiency, or speed of dep- Carbonate contents of 120 to 150 g/L (16 to 20
osition, with increasing current, which accounts oz/gal) or more may result in lower plating effi-
for the good plate distribution (throwing power). ciency and plating speed. Excessive carbonates
The cathode efficiency approaches 100% only at can also lower and reduce the acceptable plating
low current densities, often 10 A/dm2 or less. range. These effects are more pronounced in a
With more practical current densities of 2.0 to sodium cyanide bath than in a potassium
3.0 A/dm2, the cathode efficiency may drop cyanide bath.
20%, especially with lower agitation rates. The The primary source of carbonate formation
sodium or potassium constituent improves the is the breakdown of cyanide as a result of poor
conductivity of the bath. anode efficiency. Operating cyanide elec-
Operation of the sodium cyanide and potassi- trolytes at temperatures above the recommend-
um cyanide electrolytes at 66 to 74 °C (150 to ed levels can also result in carbonate formation.
Fig. 2 Stress in thin copper plate deposited on stainless 165 °F) produces quality deposits. Temperatures Operating temperatures above approximately
steel spirals. Stainless steel spirals are 0.127 mm in excess of 74 °C (165 °F) allow the use of 74 °C (165 °F) cause decomposition of the
(0.005 in.) thick. Source: Ref 8
higher current densities, but breakdown of the cyanide ion. Air containing high levels of car-
cyanide becomes excessive at elevated tempera- bon dioxide should not be used in air-agitated
the copper complexes. When depositing copper tures. The anode current densities are limited by systems, because the carbon dioxide is dis-
directly on steel, brass, or copper, conductivity polarization, resulting in poor anode efficiency solved by the alkaline plating solution, also
can be improved by the addition of 2 to 15 g/L and higher voltage requirements. The cathode forming carbonate. The air source for air-agi-
( 14 to 2 oz/gal) of sodium hydroxide. Sodium current densities are limited by burning of the tated systems should be placed where it pro-
hydroxide concentrations should be reduced if deposit, resulting in reduced efficiency, loss of vides a clean, fresh supply.
the electrolyte is used to deposit copper onto brightness, and roughness. These limits are Excessive carbonates can be removed by
zinc-base die castings, aluminum, or magnesium. higher in the potassium cyanide electrolyte. freezing or precipitation with lime or proprietary
Rochelle baths can become contaminated dur- Agitation of sodium cyanide and potassium additives. Sodium cyanide baths can be treated
ing plating of zinc-base die castings. Zinc con- cyanide high-efficiency baths is important for either by precipitation or freezing. Potassium
tamination can be removed by electrolysis of the achieving maximum plating speed. Agitation cyanide baths can only be treated by precipita-
bath at room temperature, at the current density can be accomplished by solution movement, tion. Freezing is not effective for potassium
that produces the most brassy or off-color cathode-rod movement, or use of air. Each cyanide baths because of the high solubility of
deposit, usually 0.2 to 0.3 A/dm2 (2 to 3 A/ft2). type of agitation improves the maximum the carbonate salts.
Iron, which forms complexes with cyanide, can- allowable current densities, with air agitation Current interruption cycles frequently
not be removed readily from the bath and caus- providing the greatest improvement. However, improve the operating range of high-efficiency
es a reduction in current efficiency. Drag-in of it should be noted that carbonate levels in air- sodium or potassium copper cyanide plating
chloride ion from acid dips must be kept very agitated baths tend to increase at a greater rate solutions. Current interruption cycles general-
low to prevent iron buildup due to dissolution of than in baths using mechanical agitation. All ly allow the use of higher current densities
steel equipment. Bipolarity of steel tanks or heat three types of agitation may be used within a while maintaining bath efficiency. Current
exchangers should be avoided. single bath. Solution movement can be accom- interruption cycles also improve the brightness
The Rochelle bath is susceptible to organic plished by mixing or by the flow of solution of the copper deposits, and in some cases they
contamination, which can be controlled by the through filtration equipment. Cathode-rod give excellent deposit brightness from bright
use of wetting agents. Organic contaminants movement of about 1 to 2 m/min (3 to 7 ft/min) plating baths that are so contaminated that
should be removed by periodic batch treatment allows increased plating rates. Gentle air agita- acceptable deposits cannot be produced when
of the electrolyte with activated carbon, followed tion should be supplied by the use of a low- using continuous direct current.
by filtration. Organic contamination is especially pressure blower that has a clean, filtered air Current interruption cycles in the range of 8 to
high in barrel plating. A low-foaming, free-rins- source. Care must be taken to use clean, oil- 15 s plating time followed by 1 to 3 s current
ing surfactant or a dispersion agent must be used free air for agitation to avoid contamination of interruption are generally used. Plating times of
in barrel plating baths to prevent organic con- the plating solution. less than 8 s and current interruptions of more
tamination from adversely affecting the quality Filtration is also essential when operating than 3 s lower the net plating rate. Plating times
of the plated deposit. Organic contamination can high-efficiency cyanide copper electrolytes, of more than 15 s and current interruption of less
be controlled with carbon treatment methods. especially for plating deposits thicker than 13 than 1 s reduce the benefits obtained by using a
Continuous filtration of cyanide electrolytes is m (0.5 mil). Filtration equipment should have current interruption cycle.
recommended to eliminate particulate matter or the capability of one to two complete turnovers The use of periodic current reversal can also
salts, which can result in rough deposits. of the solution each hour while removing partic- be used to great advantage in high-efficiency
Increase in the current density or the presence ulate matter from the electrolyte. Roughness of copper cyanide plating solutions. This technique
of lead in the Rochelle cyanide bath causes an the copper deposits from particulate matter is involves plating parts in the conventional manner
increase in the stresses of copper plate. These often caused by faulty cleaning or by the forma- for a selected time and then deplating for a short-
stresses can be reduced by increasing the con- tion of metallic copper or cuprous oxide parti- er period by reversing the current. Shorter peri-
centration of copper in Rochelle baths. The addi- cles at the anodes. Suspended dirt or solid mat- odic reversal cycles, such as 2 to 40 s of plating
tion of 15 g/L (2 oz/gal) of potassium thio- ter in the cyanide copper electrolyte also causes followed by 1 to 10 s of deplating (reversal),
cyanate produces an expansion stress instead of surface roughness. Anode bags of proper size, result in improved deposit brightness similar to
the usual contraction stress. Figure 2 shows material, weight, and weave are beneficial in that obtained with current interruption. A major
stress in thin copper electrodeposits plated from retaining particulate matter formed at the anode. advantage in using periodic reversal is the degree
a cyanide solution onto stainless steel. Other foreign particles introduced into the of leveling that can be achieved, particularly
cyanide copper electrolyte are removed by the when relatively long reversal cycles are used.
Plating in High-Efficiency Sodium filtration equipment. These longer cycles, in excess of 45 s direct with
and Potassium Cyanide Baths Carbonate buildup in high-efficiency copper reverse cycles in excess of 10 s, can provide lev-
cyanide baths can adversely affect the bath oper- eling characteristics in excess of 50%. The use of
High-efficiency sodium and potassium ation. High concentrations of carbonate reduce periodic reversal permits the use of higher plat-
cyanide baths allow the use of higher current plating efficiency and speed. Excessive carbon- ing and deplating current densities.
LIVE GRAPH
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Plating time, s
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
20
40
Deplating time, s
60
80
100
120
140
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cycle efficiency, %
Fig. 3 Cycle efficiency during copper plating with periodic current reversal. Source: Fig. 4 Thickness of copper deposits as a function of cycle efficiency and current densi-
Ref 9 ty during plating with periodic current reversal. Source: Ref 9
The leveling characteristics of the deposit are very stable compared to those of cyanide copper sulfur-free carbon can be used to control organ-
improved by increasing the reversal current, processes, because there is no decomposition of ic contamination. Noncyanide systems have
whereas cycle efficiency is increased by lower- cyanide resulting in carbonate buildup. very little tolerance to cyanide contamination.
ing the reversal current. Figure 3 shows cycle Over the typical current density range of 0.5 When converting cyanide plating lines to non-
efficiency for periodic-reverse plating. Figure 4 to 3.5 A/dm2 (5 to 35 A/ft2), the cathode effi- cyanide processes, it is essential to clean and
indicates thickness of deposit as a function of ciency of noncyanide systems approaches 100%. leach out all the cyanide from the tank linings,
cycle efficiency. The good efficiency tends to offset the lower racks, filters, heaters, plating barrels, and any
Another current-interrupting scheme being deposition rate of divalent copper electrolysis associated equipment.
used for this and other copper plating systems is compared to that of monovalent copper systems.
pulse plating. This normally involves a pulse Agitation has a dramatic effect on deposit Plating in Pyrophosphate Baths
power source (rectifier) that produces square- appearance and cathode efficiency. To obtain a
wave current pulses. Square wave conventional- uniform, fine-grain deposit over a wide current Copper pyrophosphate plating baths offer a
ly suggests a pulse with a rise-and-fall time of density range, air agitation is required for these number of desirable features. Copper
approximately 10 to 85 s and a standard fre- systems. Lack of agitation produces dull, burned pyrophosphate forms a highly soluble and
quency of 150 and 10,000 cycles. The periodic deposits at average current densities of 1.5 to 2.0 conductive complex when dissolved in potas-
interruption of the current with proper time A/dm2 (15 to 20 A/ft2). sium pyrophosphate solution. Potassium salts
sequences allows much faster plating without Of the commercially available systems, one are preferred because of their higher solubili-
surface burning, produces finer grain deposits, process is affected by the buildup of cuprous ties. Copper pyrophosphate plating baths
and increases throwing power and distribution. ions in the cupric phosphonate system, which operate at nearly 100% cathode efficiency and
Proprietary additives are used in high-effi- results in rough, nonadherent copper deposits provide good throwing power. They are non-
ciency copper cyanide baths to improve anode (Ref 10). To overcome this effect, the process corrosive because the operating pH is near
corrosion, increase both anode and cathode effi- uses continuous electrolysis carried out in an neutral. Concentration limits and operating
ciencies, and control contamination. Organic auxiliary tank with special ceramic or platinized conditions for copper pyrophosphate baths are
and metallic additives are also used to improve anodes to oxidize the cuprous to cupric. given in Table 3.
deposit characteristics and brightness. These Because the operating pH of these systems is Pyrophosphate forms a highly soluble complex
additives produce deposits ranging from matte in the range of 9 to 10, these baths can be used with copper. Excess pyrophosphate is necessary
to full-bright. as both strikes and plates. There are no special to increase the conductivity of the bath and to
adjustments required for processing zinc diecast effect proper corrosion of the anodes. Ammonia
and zincated aluminum, as there are in cyanide assists anode corrosion, helps enhance the luster
Plating in Noncyanide Copper Baths copper plating. At pH values below 9, the of the deposit, and aids pH control. Nitrate allows
deposits are brighter but adhesion is adversely the use of higher operating current densities by
The development and refinement of propri- affected. Values greater than 10 cause high-cur- inhibiting the reduction of hydrogen at the upper
etary noncyanide copper baths continues today. rent-density dullness and can reduce the limiting end of the current density range. The pH of the
The copper deposit from these systems is a fine- current density. pyrophosphate bath is maintained between 8.0
grain, dense deposit (Ref 3). The noncyanide These systems, unlike the cyanide systems, and 8.8. A high pH reduces anode efficiency, and
copper systems exhibit excellent throwing and are more susceptible to metallic and organic a low pH reduces the throwing power of the solu-
covering power, even in deeply recessed areas. contaminants. Iron, lead, and silver are critical tion and the stability of the complex compound in
In addition to eliminating the cyanide, these impurities that should be removed by low-cur- solution with the formation of orthophosphate.
processes operate at much lower copper metal rent-density electrolytic treatments. Organic The pH of the bath can be lowered with pyrophos-
concentrations of 7.5 to 13.5 g/L (1 to 2 oz/gal). impurities are treated using hydrogen peroxide phoric acid and raised with potassium hydroxide.
As a result, they offer additional savings in low- and carbon treatments on a regular basis. Good agitation is also essential for consistent
ering waste treatment costs. Copper sulfate is the Continuous filtration through a 10 m retention- operation. Air agitation provides for good per-
source of copper ions for these systems. The size cartridge is beneficial for the noncyanide formance of the anodes and cathodes and is pre-
plating electrolytes producing these deposits are systems. Occasional carbon filtration using a ferred to cathode agitation.
Pyrophosphate electrolytes can be operated at deposit, and deposit hardness can be increased er, they precipitate in the electrolyte. Soluble sil-
current densities up to 7.0 A/dm2 (70 A/ft2) or where necessary. icates may precipitate onto the work. Organic
higher. The operating current density can be In copper sulfate systems that produce bright contamination from decomposition products of
increased by agitation the solution or by increas- deposits, a catalyst must be added in addition to addition agents, tank linings, and anode bags can
ing the temperature of the bath. The anode cur- the primary constituents to avoid streaky cause brittle or discolored deposits. These
rent density should be maintained between 2 and deposits. This catalyst is chloride, which is organics can be removed from the electrolyte by
4 A/dm2 (20 and 40 A/ft2). maintained between 0.02 to 0.1 g/L (0.003 to treating it with activated carbon.
High bath temperatures should be avoided, 0.01 oz/gal), or 20 to 100 ppm. The chloride,
because excessive formation of orthophosphate usually added as hydrochloric acid, inhibits
occurs. Orthophosphate formed by the hydrolysis rough nodular plate from forming. Low chloride Plating in Fluoborate Baths
of pyrophosphate is beneficial up to about 90 g/L can cause dark deposits on the edges and high-
(12 oz/gal), because it promotes anode corrosion current-density areas of the work, loss of level- Copper fluoborate and fluoboric acid are the
and acts as a buffer. Above this concentration, con- ing, loss of brightness, pitting, and poor anode primary constituents of the copper fluoborate
ductivity and bright plating range are decreased corrosion. High chloride causes streaks, electrolyte. The metal ions are furnished by the
and banded deposits are obtained. Orthophosphate increased brightener usage, and loss of leveling copper fluoborate, which is more soluble than
cannot be removed chemically from the solution. and brightness in the bright bath formulations. copper sulfate used in the sulfate bath, and the
The concentration can be reduced only by dis- High chloride can be reduced with zinc dust anode current density is not critical. Therefore,
carding the bath or diluting and rebuilding the treatments or precipitation with silver. the metal-ion concentration in the fluoborate
pyrophosphate plating solution. If solution agitation or work movement is bath can be more than twice that in the copper
Copper pyrophosphate plating baths are sus- minimal, current densities should not exceed sulfate solution, and this permits higher cathode
ceptible to organic contamination, including oil about 4.5 A/dm2 (45 A/ft2), because excessive current densities. The cupric salts in the fluobo-
and excess or decomposed addition agents. anode polarization may occur and the deposits rate bath are highly ionized, except for small
These are removed by treatment with activated can be spongy. Where higher current densities amounts of less ionized complex salts formed
carbon and filtration. Cyanide and lead also con- are desired, such as electrotypes or wire plating, with certain addition agents.
taminate the bath. Cyanide is removed by treat- air agitation is used. Air agitation is necessary to In the copper fluoborate bath, the anode current
ment with hydrogen peroxide and lead by elec- accelerate ionic diffusion and produce high- density can be as high as 40 A/dm2 (400 A/ft2)
trolysis. Precautionary methods such as proper quality, fine-grain deposits where current densi- without excessive anode polarization. The effect
cleaning, adequate rinsing, and good solution ties are in excess of 10 A/dm2 (100 A/ft2). of temperature changes on the grain structure and
control and maintenance prevent these contami- The effect of temperature changes on the surface smoothness of deposits plated from the
nants from entering or building up in the bath, grain structure and surface smoothness of copper fluoborate bath is less significant than the
avoiding the need for frequent purification. deposits plated from the copper sulfate bath is effect of changes in cathode current density.
Copper pyrophosphate solutions are tolerant of less significant than the effect of changes in Agitation is preferred for the fluoborate bath,
other metallic contamination. cathode current densities. An increase in tem- although acceptable deposits 25 m (1 mil)
Proprietary brighteners are available that refine perature results in higher conductivity and thick have been produced in a high-concentra-
the grain structure, impart leveling characteristics, reduced anode and cathode polarization. tion bath without agitation and with current den-
and act as brighteners. However, decomposition Increased temperature also reduces the tensile sity maintained at 35 A/dm2 (350 A/ft2). When
products from an excessive additive concentration strength of deposits and increases grain size. agitation is used, a low-concentration bath oper-
cause stress and brittle deposits. Thus, for quality Excessive temperatures should be avoided in ated at a current density of 4 to 5 A/dm2 (40 to
deposits, additives should be added to the bath on copper sulfate baths where proprietary brighten- 50 A/ft2) is preferred.
an as-consumed basis. er formulations are used, because reduced plat- Although fluoborate baths containing no
ing ranges, excessive additive use, and solution additives can produce dense and smooth
contamination from additive breakdown result. deposits up to 500 m (20 mils) thick, additives
Plating in Acid Sulfate Baths Care must be taken to avoid accelerated may be used to aid in the deposition of brighter
buildup of copper metal, as in cases where or more uniform coatings or to assist in control
The chemical composition of acid sulfate dragout rates are low or improper anode-to-cath- of plating conditions. Although deposits from
baths is simple. Copper sulfate pentahydrate ode ratios are maintained. An increase in the fluoborate baths are easily buffed to a high lus-
and sulfuric acid are the primary constituents concentration of the copper sulfate increases the ter, brighteners of acetyl thiourea can be added
of the copper sulfate electrolyte. The metal ions solution resistivity and slightly reduces the to the electrolyte to produce bright coatings. The
are furnished by the copper sulfate. Sulfuric anode and cathode polarization. Copper sulfate addition of free acid to the bath increases solu-
acid increases solution conductivity and helps concentrations in excess of 248 g/L (33 oz/gal) tion conductivity, reduces anode and cathode
prevent the formation of basic cuprous or may result in salt crystallization in the plating polarization, and prevents the precipitation of
cupric crystals on the anodes and the tank, solution. Normal bath composition is restored basic salts. Hard deposits and minimum edge
which causes poor anode corrosion and rough- by discarding a portion of the bath and adding effects result when molasses (1 mL/L, or 0.1
ness. Low sulfuric acid contents produce more water and sulfuric acid. fluid oz/gal) is added to the electrolyte. If the pH
high-current-density burn, poorer leveling, To improve the throwing power of some of these baths exceeds 1.7, deposits become dull,
more low-current-density dullness, and more bright copper sulfate baths used for plating dark, and brittle.
nodular deposits. High sulfuric acid has less printed circuit boards, a low copper sulfate and The resistivity of fluoborate electrolytes is
effect on the deposit but increases the anode high sulfuric acid electrolyte is used. The use of reduced if the concentration of fluoboric acid
dissolution. With cathode efficiencies of 95 to this electrolyte allows a nearly equal deposit dis- exceeds 15 g/L (2 oz/gal) or if the concentration
100%, the copper sulfate bath is easy to operate tribution when plating the through-holes of the of copper fluoborate exceeds 220 g/L (29
and control. printed circuit board. oz/gal). In the fluoborate bath, the metal-ion
Many copper sulfate plating solutions require In sulfate electrolytes, impurities such as sil- concentration can be more than double that in a
the use of additives to produce smooth, fine- ver, gold, arsenic, and antimony can co-deposit copper sulfate solution containing 50 to 75 g/L
grain, bright, leveled, and ductile deposits. Most with copper. Arsenic and antimony cause copper (6.7 to 10 oz/gal) of sulfuric acid.
of the addition agents used in copper sulfate deposits to be brittle and rough, and silver may In the fluoborate electrolytes, silver, gold,
plating solutions are proprietary formulations. cause roughness. Nickel and iron impurities arsenic, and antimony may co-deposit with cop-
These proprietary additives are capable of pro- reduce the conductivity of the plating bath. Lead per, but the effects of such impurities in this
ducing the desired characteristics in the copper impurities do not codeposit with copper; howev- electrolyte have not been reported. Lead is the
only metallic impurity known to interfere with as chlorine or hypochlorite, followed by pre- Barrels. High-speed copper plating solutions
the deposition of ductile copper deposits. cipitation of the heavy metals. for barrel plating are being used in product oper-
Additions of sulfuric acid precipitate the lead. • Noncyanide alkaline solutions are pH-adjust- ations. Polypropylene barrels have been used
As with the sulfate electrolytes, organic impuri- ed and have calcium chloride added to pre- successfully for prolonged periods.
ties sometimes causes deposits to be brittle or cipitate the copper. Anodes. The types of copper anodes used in
discolored. They can be removed by treating the • Pyrophosphate wastes require low pH each of the copper plating solutions are indicat-
bath with activated carbon. hydrolysis to orthophosphate, followed by ed in Table 9. High-purity copper anodes are
precipitation of the heavy metals. recommended. Anodes with a lesser purity may
• Acid sulfate and fluoborate wastes are pH- form heavy sludges during electrolysis and con-
Wastewater Control and Treatment adjusted to precipitate the copper. tribute appreciably to roughness of the deposit.
Anodes used for acid copper plating solutions
Increasing regulations governing discharge should be phosphorized. These contain a small
water have led to improved techniques for Copper Plating Equipment percentage of phosphorus, which helps to con-
reducing the quantities of wastes that must be trol chemical dissolution and limits the buildup
treated. These techniques have not only reduced rate of copper in the acid solution. These types
the quantity of wastewater to be treated but have Construction materials for equipment are should not be used in alkaline cyanide or non-
also reduced the quantity of chemicals used and indicated in Table 8. Construction materials for cyanide electrolytes, because anode polariza-
lowered water consumption. These methods can racks and anodes are given in Table 9. tion will develop and cause deposit roughness
be applied to any plating operation. Many refer- Tanks. For cyanide copper solutions, low-car- and more difficult copper metal control.
ences are available, including Ref 11, that cover bon steel tanks are suitable. Polypropylene tanks Copper anodes are available in many forms,
waste treatment technologies. with adequate reinforcing may also be used, pro- such as bars, balls, or chips. Bars are suspended
The use of counterflow rinses has reduced vided that the operating temperature is not from the anode bar. Balls or chips are placed in
water consumption and wastewaters while main- excessive. Low-carbon steel tanks should be titanium baskets.
taining adequate rinsing between plating opera- lined with rubber, polyvinylchloride, or another The anode area in a copper plating solution
tions. Reduced dragout of plating electrolytes synthetic material that is not susceptible to should be controlled and maintained. If the
can be accomplished by allowing processed attack by the cyanide plating solution. This will anode area is not maintained, it decreases as the
parts leaving the plating solution to drain into prevent bipolar effects, which may rob current copper is dissolved and the anode current densi-
the plating solution. Drip pans also reduce the from significant areas of the work. Tanks for ty rises, resulting in increased polarization and
amount of electrolyte dragout. alkaline noncyanide copper, copper pyrophos- formation of undesirable films. These films can
Closed-loop systems have dramatically phate, acid copper sulfate, and copper fluoborate restrict current flow or sluff from the anode and
reduced wastewater, lowered water consump- solutions should be of similar construction. cause roughness in the plating solution.
tion, and diminished chemical usage. Closed- Low-carbon steel tanks used for these solutions Anode Bags. Bags made of cotton, Dynel, or
loop systems allow recovery of rinse waters and must be lined with the above materials to pre- polypropylene are used in copper plating solutions.
chemicals by evaporative, reverse osmosis, or vent the solutions from attacking the low-carbon Cotton bags are preferred for cyanide copper solu-
ion exchange recovery methods. Care must be steel, resulting in short tank life and immersion tions, and Dynel or polypropylene is used in the
exercised when using closed-loop systems, espe- deposits. New tanks, as well as all other equip- acid copper solutions. Bags are used to keep the
cially with copper plating, to keep impurities ment coming in contact with the plating solu- fine particles formed at the anode from migrating
and contaminants from preplate operations out tion, should be leached before use to remove any to the cathode, resulting in roughness. The weave
of the copper plating bath where they will be materials that may leach into the plating solution and weight of the anode bag are most important.
trapped by the closed-loop operation. and cause poor quality deposits. Leaching solu- The bag material must be capable of retaining the
In any plating operation, wastewaters must tions should be similar to the plating solution to particles formed at the anode and at the same time
be treated to reduce the hazardous materials be used, such as a 15 to 30 g/L (2 to 4 oz/gal) allow the plating solution to flow freely around the
to meet regulations. The general procedures caustic solution for copper cyanide or non- anode. Anode bags are not generally used in
for treating copper plating electrolytes and cyanide copper equipment, or a 5 to 10% sulfu- pyrophosphate baths, because they interfere with
rinse waters resulting from copper plating ric acid solution for acid copper sulfate. When dissolution of the anode by decreasing the circula-
systems are: converting a tank or line that contained cyanide tion of the solution around the anode.
to a noncyanide electrolyte, it is essential to
• Cyanide-bearing solutions require oxidation leach out all residual cyanide from the tank lin-
of the cyanide with an oxidizing agent such ing and any associated equipment. Characteristics of Copper Plate
Table 8 Materials of construction for equipment basic to copper plating Variations in processing during surface prepa-
Tank linings are of rubber or plastic(a), or Koroseal. ration or during plating have significant effects
Plating bath Heating coils Filters Filter aids
Dilute cyanide Low-carbon steel Low-carbon or stainless steel; cast iron Diatomite Table 9 Materials for anodes and racks
Teflon(b) Low-carbon or stainless steel; cast iron Cellulose for use in copper plating
Rochelle cyanide Low-carbon steel Low-carbon or stainless steel; cast iron Diatomite
Teflon(b) Low-carbon or stainless steel; cast iron Cellulose Racks are made of copper(a).
High-efficiency cyanide Low-carbon steel Low-carbon or stainless steel; cast iron Diatomite
Plating bath Anodes
Teflon(b) Low-carbon or stainless steel; cast iron Cellulose
Pyrophosphate Stainless steel Stainless steel Diatomite Dilute cyanide Copper; steel
Teflon(b) Rubber- or vinyl-lined steel Cellulose Rochelle cyanide Copper(b)(c)(d)
Noncyanide alkaline(c) Stainless steel Stainless steel Diatomite High-efficiency cyanide Copper(b)(c)(d)
Titanium Rubber- or vinyl-lined steel Cellulose Noncyanide alkaline Copper(d)
Acid copper sulfate Titanium(d) Rubber- or vinyl-lined steel Diatomite Pyrophosphate Copper(b)(c)(d)
Teflon (b) Rubber- or vinyl-lined steel Cellulose Acid copper sulfate Copper(e)
Fluoborate Carbon(b) Rubber- or vinyl-lined steel Diatomite Fluoborate Copper(d)
Teflon (b) Rubber- or vinyl-lined steel Cellulose
(a) Racks are generally coated with an enert plastic coating to prevent
(a) Of approved compositions; in the absence of data on bath contamination and effects on deposites, compatibility tests are required. (b) Dupont plating. (b) Cast copper, high purity. (c) Rolled copper, high purity. (d)
trademark. (c) Polypropylene filter cartridges may be used. (d) Also for cooling coils, if bath is used below 32 ˚C (90 ˚F) Oxygen-free high-purity copper. (e) Phosphorized copper
on the quality of the copper electrodeposit. may result in the release of poisonous hydrogen rent or periodic reversal is used during plating.
Certain variations can adversely affect the adhe- cyanide gas. It is imperative that the plating bath Although somewhat less effective, high-concen-
sion of copper to the substrate metal. Variations be thoroughly vented. tration sodium cyanide baths, mixed sodium and
also can affect brightness, porosity, blistering, Blistering of copper-plated magnesium and alu- potassium electrolytes, and Rochelle cyanide
roughness, hardness, solderability, and leveling. minum, especially during subsequent soldering or electrolytes also have good leveling characteris-
Brightness. Bright copper coatings are gener- heating in service, is caused by poor adhesion at tics with interrupted or periodically reversed
ally obtained by the addition of brighteners to the the zincate-copper interface. Unfortunately, blis- current. Acid copper sulfate electrolytes also
electrolyte, although buffing of the electrode- tering often does not become evident until subse- provide very good leveling characteristics.
posited coating provides a higher luster. Plating quent electrodeposits have been applied and the
from high-concentration cyanide baths with cur- coating has been subjected to heat. Exposing all
rent interruption or periodic reversal of current copper-plated magnesium and aluminum parts to Copper in Multiplate Systems
also improves the luster of the copper coating. controlled heat representative of that to be subse-
Buffing or electropolishing the work before quently encountered is good practice. This causes Electrodeposited copper is widely used as a
plating it in an electrolyte not containing a blistering before deposition of subsequent metal basis for subsequent plated coatings in multi-
brightener results in deposition of a smooth and coatings if there is poor adhesion at the interface. plate systems. The use of copper plate in copper-
sometimes semibright coating. If an electrolyte Roughness in copper deposits is often caused nickel-chromium systems is discussed in the
containing a brightener is used, the luster of the by foreign particles present in the bath as the article “Decorative Chromium Plating” in
coating is enhanced. The high cost of labor is a result of faulty cleaning or by the migration to Surface Engineering, Volume 5 of ASM
primary concern when buffing is considered as the cathode of metallic copper or cuprous oxide Handbook.
the method of brightening the coatings. Plating particles that form at the anode. Such roughness
from high-efficiency cyanide baths with current is especially likely to occur with the sodium
interruption or periodic reversal of current also cyanide high-concentration electrolytes and can Cost
improves the luster of the deposits. Improved be prevented by using anode bags.
casting techniques and mechanical finishing Solderability of the coating is good when the The cost of copper plating is influenced large-
before plating can improve the quality of the copper surface is free of oxide, the coating is thick ly by the type of installation. In a modern, auto-
copper deposit. enough, and the adhesion of the copper plate is mated, multiple-phase shop, brighteners and wet-
Adhesion. Careful selection of substrate sur- superior. Direct soldering of electrodeposited cop- ting agents probably are the greatest cost factor.
face and proper preparation of the surface before per is not unusual for parts that are subsequently In a still-tank operation, the cost of labor is of
plating are important for good adhesion. In gen- contained in hermetically sealed units. major importance. An increase in current density
eral, cast and other porous surfaces are less Soldering is a routine operation for aluminum reduces cost because of the reduction in time
receptive to good-quality electrodeposited coat- and magnesium electronic parts used in aerospace required to deposit a given thickness of coating.
ings than wrought surfaces. applications. A copper strike and copper plate fre- For a routine plating operation, the cost of the
The kind of material to be electroplated with quently comprise the initial metal coating over copper deposited can be estimated with the aid
copper is another important consideration. For the zincated surfaces of these parts, after which of Fig. 5. For example, Fig. 5 shows that 120 g
magnesium-base or aluminum-base die castings, electrodeposits of other metals are applied before (4 oz) of copper is required for plating an area of
the zincate layer between the substrate and the soldering. A top coat of tin, or of cadmium plate 0.7 m2 (7 ft2) with a coating 20 m (0.8 mil)
copper deposit is a critical control factor. For a that has been chromate conversion coated, is a thick. The cost of the copper coating is obtained
properly activated stainless steel surface, a con- particularly effective means of producing a good by multiplying the weight of copper required by
trolling factor for ensured adhesion of copper is combination of solderability and corrosion resist- the cost of copper anodes. For areas larger than
the speed with which the workpiece is immersed ance for parts exposed to the atmosphere. 2.4 m2 (10 ft2), multiply by the proper factor.
in the bath. Some brighteners, especially organ- Hardness. Without the use of addition agents,
ic brighteners, may adversely affect adhesion of cyanide electrolytes produce harder coatings
subsequent electrodeposited coatings. Adhesion than acid baths. With the use of addition agents,
of copper electrodeposits from acid baths can be the hardness of copper deposits from any elec-
ensured only if a strike from a cyanide copper trolyte can be increased. Hardness of the elec- Copper Alloy Plating
bath precedes copper plating. trodeposit is generally associated with fine
Porosity. The degree of porosity in a copper grain, but hardness can be increased by intro-
coating can be controlled by the kind of copper ducing preferred crystal orientation in the Copper alloys are widely used as electroplat-
plating bath selected, the composition and con- absence of grain refinement. Changes in the cop- ed coatings, and they can be used with practical-
trol of the electrolyte, the basis material to be per sulfate or sulfuric acid concentration of acid ly any substrate material that is suitable for elec-
plated, and the condition of the surface to be plat- baths have little effect on the hardness of copper troplating. While alloys such as copper-gold and
ed. The degree of porosity on the surface of the plate. copper-gold-nickel are commonly electroplated,
metal to be plated also dictates the techniques Leveling has a significant effect on the these are usually considered as part of gold plat-
needed to minimize porosity in the coating. A appearance of the copper coating, as well as on ing technology. The most frequently electroplat-
porous surface has high surface area and requires the appearance of the final product when other ed copper alloys are brass (principally alloys of
high current density for efficient plating. metals are subsequently plated over the copper. copper and zinc) and bronze (principally alloys
Blistering of copper plate, particularly when Often, the substrate metal does not have the of copper and tin).
the plated work is subjected to heat, occurs degree of smoothness that is desired of the plat- The history of brass and bronze plating dates
mostly on zinc-base die castings. Blistering can ed surface. Metal substrate surfaces can be back at least as far as the 1840s. Early work that
also occur on parts made of magnesium or alu- mechanically or chemically worked to reduce was commercially exploited occurred in Russia,
minum in any form, as a result of poor quality of surface roughness before electroplating; howev- France, and England. All of the early copper
castings, poor surface preparation, or both. er, some copper electrolytes can produce sub- alloy plating solutions were cyanide based and
Blistering of copper plate on zinc-base die cast- stantial leveling in the deposited coating, thus used batteries for power. Progress was slow,
ings plated in a cyanide strike electrolyte and reducing cost related to elaborate prepolishing with much of the work being of an academic
then subjected to heat can be reduced by lower- or other means of smoothing the surface. The nature. A major advance was made in 1938
ing the pH of the cyanide strike bath from the high-concentration potassium cyanide elec- when patents on a high-speed copper plating
range of 12.0 to 12.6 to about 10. Caution must trolytes produce excellent leveling when certain process by DuPont were extended to a high-
be used because operation at a pH value this low addition agents are added and interrupted cur- speed process for plating of both yellow and
Table 10 Low-pH brass plating conditions

Constituent Standard brass High-copper
or condition solution brass solution
Makeup
Sodium cyanide, 50 (6.7) 75 (10.0)
g/L (oz/gal)
Copper cyanide, 35 (4.7) 45 (6.0)
g/L (oz/gal)
Zinc cyanide, 10 (1.3) 7.5 (1.0)
g/L (oz/gal)
Sodium carbonate, 10 (1.3) 10 (1.3)
g/L (oz/gal)
Sodium bicarbonate, 7.5 (1.0) 7.5 (1.0)
g/L (oz/gal)
Ammonia (aqua), % 0.5 0.1
Analysis
“Total” sodium cyanide, 22 (2.9) 33 (4.4)
g/L (oz/gal)
Copper (as metal), 23 (3.1) 22 (2.9)
g/L (oz/gal)
Zinc (as metal), 6 (0.8) 4.2 (0.6)
Fig. 5 Copper required for covering an area with a specific thickness g/L (oz/gal)
pH 9.8–10.2 9.8–10.5
white brass (alloys containing about 70 to 80% ish; dark finished can be relieved (selectively Operating conditions
Cu). The solution was cyanide based with a rel- buffed) for an antique appearance. Brass plated Temperature, °C (°F) 24–35 (75–95) 27–45 (80–113)
atively high hydroxide content. items can also be burnished in tumbling barrels Current density,
3 (
28)
2.5 (
23)
(A/ft2) A/dm2
to give a uniform bright finish. Cosmetic cases Sodium cyanide to zinc
are frequently plated with an 85Cu-15Zn alloy Ratio 3.5:1 7.0:1
Brass Plating to impart a golden appearance; the alloy can be Range 3-5:1 6-9:1
applied as a flash plate or as a heavier plate that
The brass plating alloys considered in this sec- is subsequently burnished. Builders hardware prevent diffusion of the brass into the zinc and
tion are binary copper-zinc alloys with zinc con- plated with a 90Cu-10Zn alloy called architec- a resulting loss of color; an intermediate layer
tents ranging from 10 to 40 wt%. As described in tural bronze uses these same techniques. of plate is often used for this purpose. One
the section “Decorative Applications,” the color of Engineering applications for brass plating method of brass plating uses this diffusion
brass alloys varies according to their respective are also important. Brass plate on sheet steel and interaction to produce brass by plating sepa-
copper and zinc contents. wire performs a lubricating function in deep rate layers of copper and zinc of appropriate
drawing and wire drawing operations. Brass thickness and then heating the plate to create
plating is used to promote adhesion of rubber the alloy by diffusion.
Applications
bonded to steel. For example, the wire in steel-
belted radial tires is plated with a brass alloy
Decorative Applications. The largest use Plate Thickness
containing between 63 and 70% Cu (to secure
of brass plating is for decorative applications.
the best adhesion, it is important that composi-
Copper-zinc alloys that contain more than Plate thickness can be varied as required
tion limits of the alloy be kept within 1%). After
60% Cu have distinct colors, depending on the from very thin flash deposits for decorative
plating, the wire is drawn from 1.2 mm (0.049
composition. The 60Cu-40Zn alloys are pale purposes to deposits over 0.02 mm (0.001 in.)
in.) to approximately 0.15 mm (0.006 in.) with-
yellow, sometimes with a brown cast. Alloys thick. The heavier plates are needed to with-
out a break in the coating. The wire bonds to
with compositions from 70Cu-30Zn to 80Cu- stand buffing, bright dipping, antiquing, and
rubber so that blistering of the tires does not
20Zn are yellow, with only slight color varia- other post-treatments that require heavier plate
occur. Brass is also plated on sheet steel from
tions over this range. The 85Cu-15Zn alloys to maintain coverage.
which parts are stamped.
are darker and resemble gold. The 90Cu-10Zn
alloys are darker still, with a reddish, bronze-
like cast. With proper control of plating Equipment Solution Composition and
parameters, the variation of the alloy compo- Operating Conditions
sition of brass plate can be kept within 1%, Brass plating can be done in all the stan-
and consistency in color can be achieved. dard plating equipment, including barrel, The majority of currently used brass plating
Plated alloys have the same color as wrought rack, and continuous wire and strip machines. solutions are based on cyanide complexes. No
alloys of the same composition and surface Steel is a suitable material for tanks, coils, other material brings the deposition potential of
treatment. Brass darkens with age due to the and filters. However, rubber- or plastic-lined copper and zinc so close together. Solutions
formation of copper oxide on the surface, so tanks with stainless or titanium coils are pre- using a pyrophosphate base have been used
the appearance of old samples will not match ferred because the iron in the steel can form commercially with limited success. Brass solu-
that of newly plated items. ferrocyanides that precipitate as zinc ferro- tions using polyhydroxy aliphatic chemicals
Yellow brass plate (nominally a 75Cu-25Zn cyanide, resulting in the formation of a gray- have also been used commercially with limited
alloy) is frequently flash plated over bright nick- colored sludge. success. Formulas for low-pH brass plating solu-
el plating to maintain its bright appearance; the tions are given in Table 10.
surface is subsequently lacquered to preserve the Surface Preparation The formulas for standard brass plating solu-
finish. (Flash plating is the electrodeposition of tion can be varied to suit various uses while
a thin layer of material; plating times are usual- Brass can be plated on most metallic sur- maintaining the ratios of components. The solu-
ly under 1 min.) This type of flash plating is faces (e.g., zinc castings, steel, nickel, and alu- tion listed in Table 10 is well suited for barrel
accomplished in both rack plating and barrel minum) after only standard preplating proce- plating, where high efficiency is needed and
plating operations. Heavy brass plate can be dures. Direct brass plating of zinc castings good conductivity enables the use of maximum
buffed to a bright finish or oxidized to a dark fin- requires the use of relatively heavy coatings to current. (Barrel plating is carried out at a voltage
Table 11 High-alkalinity brass plating to buffer the solution. Without carbonate, the rent densities because high-current densities
solutions solution is unstable and will give inconsistent cause polarization. The anodes should be of
plating. Hydroxide acts as a stabilizer in the high purity and contain less than 0.02% Pb and
Constituent Original High-speed
or condition (potassium) strip plating Modern solutions in which it is present, and thus carbon- less than 0.1% Fe or other metals. The opti-
Makeup, g/L (oz/gal)
ate is not essential in these solutions. The car- mum composition of yellow brass anodes is
Sodium cyanide … 120 (16.1) 125 (16.8)
bonate in the low-pH solutions exists as an equi- 70% Cu and 30% Zn. Use of anodes with high-
Potassium cyanide 125 (16.8) … … librium between carbonate and bicarbonate, er copper contents will necessitate frequent
Copper cyanide 44 (5.9) 100 (13.4) 75 (10.1) making the use of both necessary to secure the additions of zinc to the solution. Deposition of
Zinc cyanide 17.3 (2.3) … 5 (0.7) proper pH. Carbonates in sodium baths can be brass with higher copper content requires the
Sodium hydroxide … 11 (1.5) 45 (6.0)
Potassium hydroxide 30 (4.0) … …
frozen out; potassium baths can be treated with use of 85Cu-15Zn or 90Cu-10Zn anodes; the
barium cyanide or barium hydroxide to precipi- composition of the anodes should approximate
Analysis, g/L (oz/gal)
tate the carbonate. It should be noted, however, that of the alloy being plated. Anodes of the
Copper (as metal) 31 (4.2) 70 (9.4) 50 (6.7)
Zinc (as metal) 9.6 (1.3) 7 (0.9) 3 (0.4)
that the use of barium cyanide or barium composition types mentioned previously are
“Total” cyanide 80 (10.7) 50 (6.7) 53 (7.1) hydroxide creates insoluble sludges that are poi- readily available. Steel anodes can be used in
Sodium hydroxide … 11 (1.5) 45 (6.0) sonous and cannot be destroyed, so that a haz- place of some of the brass anodes in order to
Potassium hydroxide 30 (4.0) … … ardous waste is created. The use of calcium salts lower the metal concentration in the solution.
Operating conditions is recommended.
Temperature, ˚C (˚F) 45 (113) 80 (176) 70 (158) Hydroxide is used in the high-speed solu- Solution Analysis
Current density, 1–4 (9–37) 3–16 1–8 (9–74) tions to complex the zinc and increase efficien-
A/dm2 (A/ft2) (28–149)
cy. Increasing the hydroxide content increases Analysis and close control of the plating solu-
the zinc content in the plated alloy. tion are essential for maintaining control of the
of 6 to 14 V.) Where flash plating is used, the Ammonia is a very important constituent in alloy composition and color of the plated
solution should be operated with the cyanide the low-pH brass plating solutions. Ammonia deposit. Analysis of copper and zinc content can
constituents at approximately half the amounts serves as a brightener and improves the appear- be done by several methods, ranging from sim-
shown in Table 10. This reduced cyanide con- ance of plating accomplished at both high- and ple titrations to x-ray fluorescence. The results
centration allows the use of a wider range of cur- low-current densities. Ammonia is formed dur- of these methods are generally accurate and
rent densities and results in excellent covering ing plating by the decomposition of cyanide and reproducible.
power. The plating efficiency at the reduced is usually stable at temperatures up to 30 °C Analysis of cyanide content is not so sim-
cyanide concentration is lower, but this is not a (86 °F). Higher temperatures (and the high ple. Many methods analyze the “free” cyanide
significant factor in flash plating. For rack plat- hydroxide content of high-speed solutions) drive content, which is applicable to copper cyanide
ing, the optimum cyanide concentration is about off ammonia faster than it is formed, making solutions but of dubious value when zinc is pres-
two-thirds of that shown in Table 10; this level regular additions necessary to maintain color. ent, as in brass plating solutions. A simple and
provides improved efficiency (compared to flash Amines may be used to secure the benefit of reproducible method is that used to determine
plating) while still allowing use of a wide range ammonia at higher temperatures. An excess of the total cyanide content in zinc cyanide plating
of current densities. ammonia causes the alloy to become richer in solutions: the cyanide is titrated with silver
Formulas for high-alkalinity brass plating zinc; large excesses may result in white plate. nitrate using a small amount of hydroxide in the
solutions are given in Table 11. The solutions Additions of ammonia do not change the pH sample being analyzed. This makes all of the
listed in Table 11 may be varied to meet specif- level of the solution. cyanide in the brass solution available except
ic applications. The functions of the solution The temperature of the plating solution that which is combined with the copper. A mean-
constituents are somewhat different than in the should be controlled to give constant alloy com- ingful number is the ratio of this “total” cyanide
low-pH solutions. In the high-alkalinity solu- position. A rise in temperature increases the cop- to the zinc content of the solution. Another
tions, the hydroxide and cyanide can work per content of the plate and also increases the method for analyzing cyanide content involves
together so that a higher hydroxide content plating efficiency. distilling the cyanide from an acidified sample.
increases the zinc content of the deposit; thus, Impurities in the solution affect the quality This method is used to determine the cyanide
the ratio of cyanide to zinc is not applicable. The of the plating. Soluble oils and soaps will cause content of waste solutions. Its results include
high-alkalinity solutions have high efficiencies a brown smutty plate; they can be removed by cyanide present in the solution as ferrocyanide,
and can be used at high current densities; the use carbon filtration. Tin is not usually troublesome so this method may indicate relatively high
of additives is needed to secure uniform color at but can cause dullness and white plate in cyanide contents.
low current densities. Thus they are difficult to recesses. Treatment is by dummy plating. Iron The pH level can be determined by meters, pH
use in barrel plating operations. is not troublesome because it forms ferro- papers, or colorimetric comparison with suitable
The copper cyanide content of the plating cyanides, which precipitate out of the solution indicators. Hydroxide content can be determined
solution serves as a source of copper for the plat- (but, as noted previously, may result in the for- by titration with acid using a high pH indicator.
ing deposit but also is a major factor in plating mation of sludge). Lead is by far the most trou- Carbonate content is easily determined by stan-
efficiency. Cyanide is necessary to form the blesome impurity. As little as 10 ppm Pb will dard methods involving precipitation of the car-
complexes that enable the copper and zinc to result in red recesses in the plate, especially in bonate, separation, and titration.
plate together to form brass. The ratio of cyanide barrel-plated parts. Higher amounts of lead will Ammonia content can be determined by
to zinc in a conventional brass solution is the cause dullness, black areas, and blistering. The using a specific ion electrode but is more com-
major determinant of the resulting composition source of lead is usually the anodes, although monly determined by using a plating cell and
of the plated alloy. The zinc can form a complex lead pipe and other lead-containing objects in checking the effects of ammonia additions. For
with either cyanide or hydroxide, depending on the solution can cause contamination. the standard Hull cell, a total current of 1 A for 10
the hydroxide content of the solution. Cyanide is Anodes for brass plating may be forged, min can be used. The plating cell panel will also
also necessary for solubility of the anodes. cast, extruded, or rolled, and differences in per- indicate the effect of impurities and additions
While zinc is usually added as cyanide, a very formance are minimal. Balls or nuggets determined by analysis. For high-speed solutions,
pure grade of zinc oxide can also be used. (chopped rod) are frequently used with steel or a current of 2 A for 10 min is recommended.
The carbonate content of a brass solution is titanium baskets; these furnish a uniform high- Effects at various current densities can also be
usually regarded as an impurity. It is formed by current area, which is especially good for bar- determined by reading the panels. For flash plat-
breakdown of the cyanide. Small amounts rel plating where a relatively high current is ing, a Hull cell preplated with bright nickel and a
(15–20 g/L) are necessary in low-pH solutions used. Brass anodes should be used at low-cur- total current of 1 A for 1 min is preferred.
Bronze Plating The tin in bronze plating solutions is present as Table 12 Composition and operating con-
stannate, and when bronze alloy anodes are ditions for a typical bronze plating solution
The bronze plating alloys considered in this used, the tin dissolves as stannite. Bronze
anodes, thus, are not suitable for use. Dual Composition of plated deposit, 88Cu-12Sn
section are binary copper-tin alloys with tin con-
tents ranging from 10 to 45 wt%. Ternary alloys anodes of copper and tin, where each type of Constituent or condition Amount
of copper and tin with other metals can be plated, anode has a separate current source, have been Makeup, g/L (oz/gal)
but control of the plating process is so difficult used. To eliminate the need for separate current Potassium cyanide 64 (8.6)
that the ternary alloys have found limited use. sources, it is customary to use oxygen-free cop- Copper cyanide 29 (3.9)
per anodes and to add stannate tin as stannic Potassium stannate 35 (4.7)
Potassium hydroxide 10 (1.3)
oxide, potassium stannate, or a slurry of stannite Rochelle salt 4.5 (6.0)
Applications oxide to replace the tin being plated. The pres-
Analysis, g/L (oz/gal)
ence of stannite is indicated by a dark color in
Applications of bronze plating are varied. “Free cyanide” 22 (2.9)
the solution. The stannite is oxidized to stannite
Alloys containing from 10 to 15% Sn are Copper (as metal) 20 (2.7)
by the use of hydrogen peroxide, which must be Tin (as metal) 14 (1.9)
attractive and are used for decorative wares.
added slowly and with constant stirring to pre- Hydroxide 10 (1.3)
These alloys have a gold color that is browner
vent reaction with cyanide. Other impurities are
than true gold; equivalent copper-zinc alloys are Operating conditions
not of major concern in bronze plating solutions. Temperature, °C (°F) 65 (149)
pinker in color.
Bronze plating is used on builders hardware,
locks, and hinges to provide an attractive Waste Water Treatment electroless copper was reported in the mid-
appearance and excellent corrosion resistance. 1950s with the development of plating solutions
Bronze-plated steel or cast iron bushings replace for plated-through-hole (PTH) printed wiring
solid bronze bushings for many uses. Bronze The treatment of waste water from brass and
bronze plating operations is relatively simple. boards. Electroless copper solutions resembling
plating is used where improved lubricity and today’s technology were first reported in 1957
wear resistance against steel are desired. Its Normal procedures for eliminating cyanide (i.e.,
treating the waste water with chlorine and by Cahill (Ref 14) with the report of alkaline
good corrosion resistance makes it desirable as copper tartrate baths using formaldehyde as the
an undercoat on steel for bright nickel and adjusting pH to precipitate the metals) are all
that is required. The metallic limits and reducing agent. Copper baths of the 1950s were
chromium plate. Speculum alloys (45Sn-65Cu) difficult to control and very susceptible to spon-
are similar in appearance to silver and are used allowance for chemicals in the final discharge
are fixed by federal, state, and local regulations. taneous decomposition. Over the years, continu-
almost entirely for decorative purposes. al advances in control and capabilities have
Waste water treatment systems are usually
designed by engineers who are conversant with taken place and continue to be recorded in a
Equipment local regulations and can make sure the equip- variety of reviews (Ref 15, 16). At present, not
ment meets the necessary requirements. only are formulations extremely stable and pre-
Equipment requirements for bronze plating dictable in behavior over long periods and under
are similar to those for brass plating; however, a wide variety of operating conditions, but they
the tanks should be built to withstand the high- also provide copper deposits having excellent
er temperatures that are generally used for physical and metallurgical properties compara-
bronze plating. ble with those of electrolytic deposits.
Electroless Electroless copper plates much more slowly
Solution Composition and and is a much more expensive process than elec-
Operating Conditions
Copper Plating trolytic copper plating. However, electroless
copper plating offers advantages over electrolyt-
Copper-tin alloys are plated from a simple Electroless, or autocatalytic, metal plating is a ic plating that make it the method of choice in
system containing copper as a cyanide complex nonelectrolytic method of deposition from solu- certain cases. Electroless copper plates uniform-
and tin as a stannate complex. A typical formula tion. The minimum necessary components of an ly over all surfaces, regardless of size and shape,
is given in Table 12. Because there are no inter- electroless plating solution are a metal salt and demonstrating 100% throwing power. It may be
related complexes in the bronze plating solution, an appropriate reducing agent. An additional plated onto nonconductors or onto conductive
the alloy composition is controlled by the rela- requirement is that the solution, although ther- surfaces that do not share electrical continuity.
tive amounts of copper and tin in the solution modynamically unstable, is stable in practice The ability to plate large racks of substrates
(i.e., raising the tin content of the solution pro- until a suitable catalyzed surface is introduced. simultaneously is also an advantage in certain
duces a higher tin content in the bronze plate). Plating is then initiated on the catalyzed surface, instances. These advantages have contributed to
Alloys with very high tin contents, such as and the plating reaction is sustained by the cat- the choice of electroless copper in the applica-
speculum, can be produced by simply increasing alytic nature of the plated metal surface itself. tions to be discussed herein.
the tin content of the solution. Additives can be This definition of electroless plating thus elimi-
used to produce a bright plate. These additives nates both those solutions that spontaneously
usually contain lead, which acts as a brightener plate on all surfaces (homogeneous chemical Bath Chemistry and Reactions
in bronze plating solutions. reduction), such as silver mirroring solutions,
The temperature of the solution is an impor- and immersion plating solutions, which deposit The theoretical basis of the electroless copper
tant plating variable. Temperatures below 40 °C by displacement a very thin film of a relatively deposition process has been studied on numer-
(105 °F) generally produce poor deposits that noble metal onto the surface of a sacrificial, less ous occasions and has recently been reviewed
are almost always higher in copper content. noble metal. (Ref 17). As stated above, the minimum neces-
Higher temperatures create higher efficiencies The history of electroless plating began with sary components of an electroless plating solu-
and allow the use of a wide range of current den- the serendipitous discovery by Brenner and tion are the metalzeen suggested (Ref 18) for use
sities. Normal temperatures are from 60 to 80 °C Riddell of electroless nickel-phosphorus during in electroless copper baths: formaldehyde,
(140 to 175 °F). Barrel plating solutions usually a series of nickel electroplating experiments in dimethylamine borane, borohydride, hypophos-
use lower temperatures. 1946 (Ref 12). Electroless copper chemistry was phite (Ref 19), hydrazine, sugars (sucrose, glu-
Anodes. The choice of anodes for bronze first reported in the following year by Narcus cose, etc.), and dithionite. In practice, however,
plating is complicated by a number of factors. (Ref 13). The first commercial applicability of virtually all commercial electroless copper solu-
tions have used formaldehyde (HCHO) as the ed (precipitated) from waste solutions by pH be present in the electroless formulation at con-
reducing agent despite health concerns regard- adjustment. Starting in the late 1970s, bath centrations of 0.1 M or higher.
ing formaldehyde exposure. This is due to the additives for EDTA systems (see subsequent Other additives may also be incorporated in
combination of cost, effectiveness, and ease of paragraphs) were developed that allowed excel- certain cases. For example, surfactants may be
control of formaldehyde systems. Because of its lent control of plating rate, grain structure, and used to improve deposit characteristics (Ref 22),
overwhelming commercial importance, the dis- other important factors. Because of the very and incorporation of excess halide ion into the
cussion in this section is confined to formalde- high affinity of EDTA for any metal ions, even formulation permits elimination of the normal
hyde-based systems. small residual amounts of dissolved EDTA can accelerator step (Ref 23).
For Cu(II), the relevant half-cell reaction for draw potentially toxic metals into the waste Typical examples of freshly made-up electro-
electroless deposition is: streams. This has led to increased legislative less copper baths are given in Table 13.
efforts (notably in Germany and Japan) against Plating Bath Reactions. The overall electro-
Cu2 2e ↔ Cu0 E 0 0.340 V use of this chelate and its derivatives. However, less copper plating reaction is theoretically
at present, the most commonly used plating given as:
For formaldehyde, the standard electrode poten- baths are based on EDTA.
tial, E 0, depends on the pH of the solution: Additives. Besides the copper salt, the reduc- Cu2 2HCHO 4OH– ↔ Cu0 H2 2 H2O
ing agent, the source of alkalinity (i.e., NaOH), 2 HCO2
HCOOH 2H 2e– ↔ HCHO H2O and the chelate, other important components are
pH 0 E 0 0.056 present in commercial electroless copper solu- This equation calls for the consumption of four
tions. These components are generally consid- hydroxide ions and two molecules of formalde-
ered the proprietary portion of the formulation. hyde for each atom of copper deposited.
HCOO– 2H2 2e– ↔ HCHO 3OH– They control such parameters as initiation and However, certain side reactions may also take
pH 14 E –1.070 plating rate, stability (versus dragged-in cata- place, the most common being the Cannizzaro
lyst; versus excessively high bath activity; ver- reaction, which consumes additional caustic and
Therefore, electroless copper solutions using sus long shutdown periods; versus Cu(I) oxide), formaldehyde:
formaldehyde as reducing agent employ high deposit stress, color, ductility, and so on. Prior to
pH, above pH 12 (typical sodium hydroxide, development of well-characterized and con- 2HCHO OH– ↔ CH3OH HCOO–
NaOH, concentration is 0.1 N; theoretically trolled trace additives, electroless copper baths
0.1 N pH 13). were prone to “triggering” (spontaneous decom- In addition, other side reactions also occur, con-
Complexing Agents. Because simple copper position of the bath), “plateout” (decomposition suming formaldehyde and producing unwanted
salts are insoluble at pH above approximately 4, over a prolonged standing period), “second day byproducts such as cuprous oxide, which can
the use of alkaline plating media necessitates use startup” (inability to induce a controlled plating lead to bath decomposition unless suitable stabi-
of a complexing, or chelating, component. reaction when first stored after makeup), dark lizers are present.
Historically, complexing agents for electroless deposit color, rough deposit, coarse grain struc- Once the bath begins to be used, copper, caus-
copper baths have almost always fallen into one ture, and so on. Literally hundreds of papers and tic, and formaldehyde are consumed and must
of the following groups of compounds: patents have been published relating to these be replenished. This is typically carried out by
additives. Useful summaries of this data are routine analysis, either manually or electronical-
• Tartrate salts available (Ref 20, 21). ly, with back addition of appropriate replenish-
• Alkanol amines, such as quadrol (N,N,N, N Additives that stabilize the bath against vari- ment chemistries. Ordinarily, some bailout of
tetrakis(2-hydroxypropyl)ethylenediamine)
ous manifestations of undesired plateout are the plating solution must be done at this point, to
or related compounds
referred to as stabilizers. Understanding their allow for the volume of new chemistry to be
• EDTA (ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid) or
composition, mechanism, and optimal replen- added. Because the anion of the copper salt (usu-
related compounds.
ishment rate is key to successful operation of a ally sulfate or chloride) and the cation of the
Glycolic acids and other amines have also been bath. They are usually employed at low concen- caustic component (usually sodium) are not con-
reported (Ref 18). trations, typically 1 to 100 ppm. Principal sumed, a buildup of sodium sulfate or chloride
Tartrates were used in the earliest baths and among the materials reported are compounds occurs. This can cause deleterious effects such
continue to be used, particularly for low-plating- such as mercaptobenzothiazole, thiourea, other as “voiding” or high deposit stress over pro-
rate (0.5 m/20 min), low-temperature (near sulfur compounds, cyanide or ferrocyanide salts, longed bath life, particularly when bailout vol-
ambient) applications. Tartrates are more easily mercury compounds, molybdenum and tung- umes are very low. In addition, formate ion
waste-treatable than the other two classes of sten, heterocyclic nitrogen compounds, methyl builds up as a byproduct of the plating reaction
chelates, but they have not readily lent them- butynol, propionitrile, and so on. Pressure from itself. The extent to which the Cannizzaro reac-
selves to formulation of faster plating systems. environmental and regulatory groups over the tion takes place also contributes to the quantity
Alkanol amines came into wide use in elec- years has led to near-elimination of cyanide- and of byproduct buildup. Byproduct buildup can
troless copper baths in the late 1960s, with the mercury-type additives. It is noteworthy that cause deterioration of bath and deposit proper-
advent of faster plating systems. This type of perhaps the most common stabilizer for electro- ties (Ref 24, 25), and it is now typically account-
chelate made it possible to achieve “high-build” less copper baths is a steady stream of air (i.e., ed for during the bath formulation. Steady-state
( 2 m/20 min) electroless copper solutions, oxygen) bubbled through the solution. performance is achieved after a specified num-
and it continues to have wide use even today. Additives that increase the plating rate of the ber of bath turnovers (or “cycles”), depending
Because quadrol and its analogs are liquids and solution are variously referred to as rate promot- on the recommended bailout volume, and is typ-
totally miscible with water, they are not easily ers, rate enhancers, exhaltants, or accelerators. ically controlled through specific gravity.
removed from the waste solution, and hence This last term is particularly unfortunate and
they are resistant to many conventional waste confusing in view of the use of the term acceler-
treatment procedures. ator to describe a key process step in electroless Deposit Properties
Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) copper processes (see the section “Pretreatment
salts are also widely used for complexing elec- and Post-Treatment Processes” in this article). Electroless coatings are characterized by their
troless copper solutions; EDTA has certain Materials that have been reported to function as thickness, purity, density, electrical properties,
desirable characteristics versus those of rate promoters include ammonium salts, grain structure, and tensile properties. Other
quadrol, based on waste treatability. nitrates, chlorides, chlorates, perchlorates, deposit properties, such as hydrogen inclusion,
Specifically, EDTA can be more easily separat- molybdates, and tungstates. Rate promoters may are also of interest.
Table 13 Examples of electroless copper formulations

Low build High build
(tartrate) (quadrol) High build (EDTA) Full build (EDTA)
Copper salt, as Cu(II) 1.8 g/L 2.2 g/L 2.0 g/L 3.0 g/L
0.028 M 0.035 M 0.031 M 0.047 M
Chelate Rochelle salt Quadrol Disodium EDTA dihydrate Disodium EDTA dihydrate
25 g/L 13 g/L 30 g/L 42 g/L
0.089 M 0.044 M 0.080 M 0.11 M
Formaldehyde, as HCHO 10 g/L 3 g/L 3 g/L 1.5 g/L
Alkalinity, as NaOH 5 g/L 8 g/L 7 g/L 3 g/L
Additives(a) <2 g/L <2 g/L <2 g/L <2 g/L
Temperature, ˚C (˚F) 20 (70) 43 (110) 45 (115) 70 (160)
Plating rate, m/20 min 0.2 2.5 2 1
Note: The terms low build, high build, and full build are defined in the section “Deposit Properties” in this article. (a) Examples of additives: 2-mer-
captobenzothiazole, diethyldithiocarbarmate, 2,2-dipyridyl, potassium ferrocyanide, vanadium pentoxide, nickel chloride, polyethylene glycol
Plating Rate and Deposit Thickness bath was first reported in 1964 (Ref 26) and has
been employed primarily for additive-type
Not strictly a deposit property, plating rate is printed wiring board applications. The main
a key characteristic of an electroless copper plat- chelate used has been EDTA. This deposit typ-
ing bath. Plating rate and useful range of deposit ically represents the full metal thickness
thickness dictate the specific applicability of a required for the applications and hence elimi-
formulation. As described subsequently, plating nates the need for electroplating altogether
baths are typically categorized as low build, high (Fig. 6). The very high expense of building a
(heavy) build, or full build. thick copper deposit using an electroless versus
Low build deposits about 0.5 m (or less) electroplating process is warranted (or
in about 20 min and typically operates at ambi- required) for certain applications, such as when
ent temperature. This was typical of the earli- absolutely uniform thickness is needed, when
est stable bath formulations developed in the electrically discontinuous surfaces are to be
1960s. These baths are traditionally tartrate- plated, or when very high aspect ratio holes are
based; in fact, it has proven difficult to formu- to be plated. For example, processes for fabri-
late stable, faster plating baths using a tartrate cating multichip modules require use of a full- Fig. 6 Through-hole plated using full-build electro-
chelate system. These deposits are typically build electroless copper. In this application the less copper
fine-grain and exhibit good deposit integrity. copper thickness requirement may be substan-
They are suitable for applications such as sub- tially less than 25 m. A number of advances in Grain Structure
tractive printed wiring boards, where an elec- the area of full-build copper plating have
occurred since 1990 (Ref 26–28). The most Because electroless copper deposition is initi-
trolytic plateup process follows immediately
critical deposit characteristics are ductility and ated on the randomly distributed catalyst parti-
after copper deposition.
tensile strength, particularly at the elevated cles on the substrate, initial grain structure is
High (heavy) build deposits 2 to 3 m in
temperatures (260 to 288 °C or 500 to 550 °F) largely determined by that surface morphology.
approximately 20 min and typically operates at
employed in the printed wiring board assembly Bath formulation is of course a strongly deter-
elevated temperature (35 to 55 °C, or 95 to
processes. Current development activities in mining factor as well, and it will control the
130 °F), but room-temperature formulations
this area are aimed toward achievement of subgrain structure as the deposit thickness increas-
are also available. These baths are usually
stantially higher plating rates without loss of es. It is thought that fine-grain deposits, initiat-
based on EDTA or quadrol chemistry.
deposit properties. ing at close proximity on the catalytic sites and
Acceptable formulations of this type were first
Intermediate thicknesses of copper are coalescing to form a film early in the deposition
developed in the early 1970s. Earlier baths
achievable by appropriate manipulation of the process, offer superior copper quality in the
tended to give coarse-grain deposits and pro-
bath operating parameters. Very slow and medi- early stages of film growth. Recently, full-build
duced somewhat highly stressed deposits, espe-
um build formulations are also applicable to electroless copper grain structure was studied,
cially at higher limits of deposit thickness.
some of the applications to be discussed. correlated with etching rate in a variety of com-
However, these formulations have been refined
mon copper foil etching solutions, and com-
to a high degree and are readily controlled to
pared with typical electrolytic copper grain
give excellent deposit properties. Major appli-
Purity, Density, and structure (Ref 28).
cations for this type of bath are those where
intervening process steps may occur prior to Electrical Properties
subsequent plateup, such as in pattern plate Tensile Strength and Ductility
printed wiring boards. Deposit purity of electroless copper films is
Full build deposits are typically 25 m or somewhat lower than that of electrolytic films, Advances in electroless copper formula-
more and are deposited over a more prolonged due to codeposition of traces of electroless bath tions, particularly for full-build applications in
plating cycle of up to 15 h. (By comparison, a components. This affects several physical prop- printed wiring board applications, have cen-
typical electroplating process would deposit 25 erties, including percent purity, density, and tered on achieving deposit mechanical proper-
m of copper in 35 to 50 min.) The typical resistivity. Typical acid-copper electrolytic baths ties, specifically tensile strength and ductility,
temperature of operation is 55 to 80 °C (130 to produce films of 99.9% purity, 8.92 g/cm3 den- that ensure the needed film reliability (Ref 31).
175 °F). A fundamental requirement in devel- sity, and 1.72 cm volume resistivity (at Tensile strength of up to 490 MPa (70 ksi) and
oping this type of bath has been the achieve- 20 °C) (Ref 29), whereas the printed wiring elongation of up to 15% can now be achieved
ment and maintenance of deposit characteris- board industry standard (Ref 30) for full-build (Ref 26), although these properties are not
tics such as high ductility and tensile strength, electroless copper is 99.2% purity (min), 8.8 achieved from the same formulation.
fine grain structure, low intrinsic stress, and so 0.1 g/cm3 density, and 1.90 cm (at 20 °C) Improvement in the as-plated elongation val-
on throughout the thick deposit. This type of resistivity (max). ues may be achieved with heat aging, at the
expense of tensile strength. It has also been Careful integration of the steps immediate- er (12 to 25 m) electrolytic bright acid cop-
reported that ductility at thermal shock tem- ly preceding catalyzation has also ensured that per deposit is applied. Finishing coats of elec-
perature (e.g., 260 to 288 °C, or 500 to 550 °F) the optimal uniform, yet minimal, catalyst trolytic nickel and/or chromium plating are
may be significantly higher than as measured film is deposited in preparation for plating. then applied.
at ambient temperature. References 26 and 32 This has provided the key to achieving inter- Substrate materials (Ref 39) for decorative
discuss the relative importance of these two connect bonds sufficiently strong (Ref 35) to plating-on-plastic include acrylonitrile-butadi-
properties in defining an ideal plated deposit. withstand multiple thermal shocks, thus assur- ene-styrene (ABS), ABS/polycarbonate,
ing very high end-product reliability (see the polyphenylene oxide, polycarbonate, polysul-
section “Performance Criteria”). At present, fone, polyester, nylon, and so on. There are
Applications the PWB market is under considerable envi- many grades for any given plastic, and these
ronmental and cost pressure to replace elec- may differ considerably in plateability. Certain
Printed Wiring Boards (PWBs) troless copper with a direct metallization grades of foamed plastics may also be used.
process. Recent quality improvements such as For decorative POP, ABS is by far the most
By far the most important commercial appli- those described present a formidable target for commonly used plastic. Acrylonitrile-butadi-
cation of electroless copper plating has been replacement technologies. ene-styrene is a thermoplastic alloy with an
the PTH process for fabricating printed wiring Additive processes for PWBs rely, as the acrylonitrile-styrene matrix that has butadiene
boards (PWBs). Prior to the mid-1950s, name implies, on the buildup of the circuit rubber dispersed throughout. The butadiene is
mounting components onto PWBs relied on copper over bare laminate. Variations on the selectively etched by the pretreatment chemistry,
mechanical interlocking using inserted eyelets. fully additive process include semiadditive and creating a uniformly roughened surface suitable
The through-holes could not be electroplated partly additive processes. Description of these for plating.
directly because the base material of the circuit is documented in many published reports, In all POP applications, control of the mold-
board (paper-phenolic, epoxy-glass, or other which have been recently reviewed (Ref 36). ing process is critical. Care must be taken to
dielectric) did not provide the needed electri- Fully additive processes have been in use since avoid introducing stresses or strains, to avoid
cal conductivity. Development of electroless 1964 and offer a number of advantages over troublesome mold-release agents, to limit use
copper plating solutions (Ref 33), made practi- conventional subtractive processing. Despite of “regrind” resin, to ensure a resin-rich sur-
cal by concurrent development of suitable this, growth in the additive market has been face (in cases where fillers are used), and so
selectively adsorbing catalytic materials, led to slow; worldwide production has been estimat- on. The use of complexly shaped parts neces-
a dramatic improvement in the reliability of ed at 2 to 5% of the world PWB production sitates close attention to such details as mold
printed circuit boards and prompted the rapid (Ref 37, 38). This slow growth is due partly to design and maintenance, melt and mold tem-
growth of the PWB market during the 1960s the more difficult adhesion and selectivity peratures, fill speed, and many other parame-
through 1980s. requirements and partly to the lack of adequate ters. In designing or troubleshooting a plating-
Subtractive Processing. The vast majority of physical properties in the full-build electroless on-plastic process, it is critical to use molded
PWBs are made by a subtractive process using copper that is an integral component of the parts of the exact grade and design to be used,
base material, typically epoxy-glass laminate, process. However, in recent years the quality as there is high interdependence between
clad with electrolytic copper foil. The substrate of full-build electroless has become satisfacto- molding and plating processes.
is drilled, after which electroless copper is plat- ry, and this, coupled with improved process
ed through the holes (and incidentally over the control and new automatic bath controller, pro-
foil surface). Then electrolytic copper buildup vides support for future growth of the additive Functional POP (Electromagnetic
and surface copper imaging (using dry film) take PWB market. Interference Shielding)
place; the order of these processes defines the
fabrication process as either panel plating or pat- Another commercially important application
tern plating. In pattern plating, the plated areas Decorative Plating-on-Plastic (POP) for electroless copper is electromagnetic inter-
are next overplated with a dissimilar metal (typ- (Ref 39) ference (EMI) shielding of electronic compo-
ically Sn/Pb), the dry film is removed, and all nents. The need to reduce (attenuate) electro-
exposed copper is etched. In panel plating, no Since the 1950s, plastics have been substi- magnetic signals (Ref 42) generated either
dissimilar metal plating is required; etching tuted for metals in a multitude of applications internally or externally to a packaged compo-
takes place immediately after imaging. The term and for a variety of reasons, including weight nent leads to the need to provide EMI shielding
“subtractive processing” arises from the fact that advantages, cost advantages, and the relative to the component. Electromagnetic interference
the circuitry is ultimately formed by removing ease of creating complexly shaped substrates shielding capability is directly related to the con-
base copper from the circuit board. through molding. These factors prompted the ductivity of the component; hence, metal cases
Although the basic overall process flow for development of suitable decorative finishing are highly effective in attenuating EMI.
fabricating a PWB has remained essentially con- processes, specifically plating processes, start- However, the same factors (cost and weight) that
stant for decades, the technology associated with ing in the early 1960s. Electroless metal depo- led to the use of plastics as base materials for
every subprocess has undergone great improve- sition as a base for a thicker, decorative elec- decorative applications have also led to their
ment over that time period, and the electroless trolytic deposit has proven extremely reliable implementation in electronic cabinetry. Because
copper process is no exception. Improvements in and commercially successful. For lower-per- plastic enclosures are poor at attenuating EMI
electroless copper formulations, as discussed formance applications, electroless nickel is a signals, a variety of coating methods have been
earlier, have greatly improved control of PWB suitable choice. However, ever since the developed to address this need. Methods that
processing and end product reliability. However, demonstration in the 1970s that electroless address the requirements of EMI shielding of
developments in PTH pretreatment have proba- copper provides better resistance to environ- plastic enclosures include electroless copper
bly contributed even more greatly to end board mental exposure (Ref 40, 41), it has become plating, as well as various types of metal-filled
reliability over that period. New hole prepara- the material of choice in the majority of high- paints, zinc arc/flame spray, sputtered or evapo-
tion methods for multilayer boards provided er-performance applications, especially auto- rated metals, and conductive foils/tapes. Table
such substantial benefits in terms of key criteria motive. The molded substrate is chemically 14 summarizes and updates published data (Ref
like copper coverage, adhesion (to laminate), treated to improve adhesion of the copper film; 43, 44) on the most common methods of shield-
and solderability (Ref 34) that two-sided boards then, about 0.5 to 0.75 m of electroless cop- ing. Key in choosing a method is the attenuation
are now also frequently processed through these per is applied. Typically an electrolytic copper (measured in decibels) over a desired frequency
additional steps. or Watts nickel strike follows, and then a thick- range (Ref 45). Note that decibels of shielding is
Table 14 Methods of electromagnetic interference shielding

Material/method Shielding capability(a) Process cost(b) Advantages Disadvantages
Zinc arc spray H H Good conductivity; hard, dense coat; very effective Special equipment needed; prone to flaking; may distort housing
Conductive paints
Silver VH VH Good conductivity; conventional equipment; Expensive
resists flaking; easy to apply
Nickel L M Conventional equipment Multiple coats needed; effectiveness not high;
thickness causes problems
Copper M-H M Conventional equipment Multiple coats needed; thickness causes problems
Evaporated metal M H Familiar technology Size limited by vacuum chamber; expensive equipment
Sputtered metal M M Good conductivity Expensive equipment; may distort housing
Conductive foils/tapes H VH Good conductivity; good for experimentation Complex parts are difficult; labor intensive
Conductive plastics L L No secondary process Material expensive; poor attenuation
Electroless plating
Copper (two-sided) VH M Uniform thickness; good for all shape parts; Limited to certain plastics; two-sided process usually
resists chipping; good conductivity requires paint finish; prone to oxidation
Nickel (two-sided) M H Same as above, except conductivity High thickness required for effective shielding
Copper/nickel (two-sided) VH M Same as copper only, plus corrosion resistant Same as copper only, except no oxidation
Copper/nickel (one-sided) H M Same as Cu/Ni two-sided; fewer chemical steps; Same as Cu/Ni two-sided, except no finish coat
allows molded-in color
(a) Attenuation: VH (very high), 90 to 120 dB ; H (high), 60 to 90 dB: M (moderate), 30 to 60 dB; L (low), 10 to 30 dB; VL (very low), 0 to 10 dB (b) Cost: VH (very high), $3.25/ft2; H (high), $2.50 to $3.25/ft2; M (mod-
erate), $1.50 to $2.50/ft2; L (low), $0.35 to $1.50/ft2; VL (very low), $0.35/ft2. Source: Updated from Ref 43, 44
a logarithmic term, so a difference of 20 dB represents the final surface finish. These two strike plate may employ either electrolytic
equals 100 times the shielding effectiveness. processes involve totally different pretreatments, copper or full-build additive copper (20 to 35
Clearly, electroless copper is a very effective as discussed in the section “Pretreatment and m). Imaging of three-dimensional substrates
method of EMI shielding over a wide range of Post-Treatment Processes.” has necessitated development of inventive
radio frequencies, having been first suggested in materials and processes (Ref 52).
1966 (Ref 46) and subsequently developed in the Electrodeposited photoresists, as well as novel
early 1980s (Ref 47). Considerable commercial Hybrid and Advanced Applications methods of exposure and related equipment,
activity has taken place, as several large com- have proven key in this effort.
puter manufacturers anticipated that higher Molded Interconnect Devices. Following The MID market has proven to be feasible
“clock speeds” of electronic devices would advances in control and capability of imaging and and has achieved commercial success in sever-
require rapid conversion to the most effective plating technologies, and commercialization of al dedicated facilities. Many ingenious and
methods of EMI shielding, such as electroless high-performance injection molded plastics, a cost-saving devices have been designed and are
copper. However commercial activity using natural development was the molded circuit in production (Ref 50, 53). Figure 7 demon-
electroless copper for EMI shielding applica- board, or molded interconnect device (MID). strates a number of commercially produced
tions has lagged versus the rate previously antic- Adhesion promotion principles developed for the MIDs. However, this market has not achieved
ipated. Sustained growth in the use of electroless decorative POP industry have been applied to the level of acceptance predicted in the late
copper for EMI shielding is probable in the devising adhesion promotion processes for a vari- 1980s, due to the need for high volumes of a
future, because the increased clock speeds of the ety of engineering thermoplastics (Ref 50), per- given design to amortize mold costs, the failure
devices emitting the signals accentuate the need mitting deposition of adherent electroless copper of materials costs to come down to required
for more effective shielding. deposits that could be built up in thickness and levels, and the tendency of electronic designers
When electroless copper is employed for EMI imaged similarly to conventional PWBs. to employ more familiar methods, such as con-
shielding, the conductive film used typically In certain cases, conventional plastics such as ventional PWBs, whenever possible.
consists of electroless copper plating to a thick- ABS have been used as MID substrates. Composite Connectors. The composite con-
ness of about 0.7 to 2 m, overplated with a thin However, in order to survive board assembly nector application is a hybrid of two-sided EMI
film (0.25 to 0.5 m) of electroless nickel. The temperatures, more advanced plastics are often shielding with molded interconnects. These
parameter used to specify copper thickness is required. These include polyetherimide, poly- parts are currently made of aluminum, and for
resistivity (Ref 48); normally less than 0.05 ethersulfone, polyarylsulfone, liquid crystal all the usual reasons, considerable interest lies in
/point-to-point over a set distance is readily polymers, and so on. Molding requirements are replacing the aluminum with a lighter material
achievable using electroless copper. The nickel even more critical than those for decorative such as plastic. The physical requirements of the
contributes virtually nil to the shielding effec- POP, due to the need for higher levels of adhe- connector are such that only advanced engineer-
tiveness (Ref 49), but it provides durability and sion (typically 1.1 kN/m, or 6 lb/in., peel ing plastics, such as those used in the MID mar-
corrosion resistance. strength, versus 0.7 kN/m, or 4 lb/in., for dec- ket, are suitable. The parts must be plated, not to
Specific substrate resins used in electronic orative POP) and due to the stresses induced by form circuitry but to provide EMI shielding.
enclosures include solid and/or foamed forms of plateup, imaging, and assembly processes. Fabrication of these devices employs the same
ABS, polycarbonate, ABS/polycarbonate alloys, Certain of the plastics mentioned have proven plastics and pretreatments for electroless plating
polyphenylene oxide, polystyrene, and polysul- more amenable than others to development of that are employed for molded interconnects.
fone. A newly emerging, and potentially very suitable adhesion promotion processes. Due to the durability, lubricity, and hardness
large, market involves electroless copper for Polyetherimide, in particular, has proven to be requirements of the finished parts, the electro-
shielding fabric used in cable, military, and wall compatible with surface chemistry-altering pre- less nickel overcoat is built up to a rather higher
covering applications. treatments that produce very strongly adherent thickness (5 m) than that for EMI shielding
Electroless copper plating for EMI shielding electroless copper (Ref 51), while not roughen- of electronic cabinetry. Examples of some plas-
may employ either a two-sided or single-sided ing the substrate surface excessively. The latter tic composite connectors, processed through
process. In the two-sided process the entire cab- characteristic is particularly important when electroless copper and nickel, are show in Fig. 8.
inet is treated and plated; this approach general- fine-line imaging processes are to be employed Multichip Modules. Progress in semicon-
ly requires a finish coat of paint. The single- later in the process. ductor technology continues to place increasing
sided process involves plating of the interior Depending on the MID design and process demands on interconnection and assembly tech-
surface only; thus the molded plastic surface chosen, plateup of the initial electroless copper nology. In the 1980s, the response to this
demand on the PWB side was increasing num- conductive path on chips, may not be sufficient- PTH, decorative POP, and EMI. Other applica-
bers of layers and finer circuitry. However, this ly conductive at the very high resolutions tions employ similar processes, some of which
trend cannot be sustained at the needed rate (Ref required in future devices. Very thin films of are shown in the overall process flow summary
54), leading to the requirement for an intermedi- electroless copper (~0.1 to 0.2 m), deposited given in Fig. 10. Note that rinse steps are not
ate level of interconnection onto which bare additively in channels between a photodefined shown; unless stated otherwise it should be
chips may be mounted (Ref 55). These devices, temporary film, have been used. assumed that one or more rinse steps intervene
known as multichip modules (MCMs), may be between every two process steps. This is not to
fabricated using several approaches (Ref 56-58). minimize the importance of adequate rinsing;
However, a common feature is the use of full- Pretreatment and the adage of “it’s the water” has been proven
build electroless copper (Ref 59) to build up the Post-Treatment Processes true in many troubleshooting situations. Specific
conductive traces. requirements of water quality for PWB plating
An example of a fabrication process for a Properties of the electroless copper bath and processes have been published (Ref 63).
multichip module (MCM) is given in Fig. 9. The deposit are highly dependent on the pretreatment Other than single-sided EMI, which is dis-
electroless copper process generally follows (and, to a lesser degree, the post-treatment) sys- cussed separately, electroless copper processes
along the lines of the PTH and POP processes. tem used. Although the plating bath is the most are similar in terms of functionality of pretreat-
Adhesion promotion for the metallization layer visible and complex-to-operate solution in the ment steps. As described subsequently, pretreat-
to the unique dielectric materials employed in process line, a mistake commonly made is to ment for PWBs and POP EMI shielding can be
MCMs can be a challenge in itself. Conventional blame any process problem on the plating chem- categorized as either gross surface preparation
“swell and etch” approaches are normally used; istry itself. In a majority of cases, this is not the or immediate preparation for plating.
other approaches are also in development. case. Lack of correct attention to the details of
Silicon Devices. Recently some interest has the preplate chemistry is more likely to have Pretreatment: Gross
arisen in employing electroless copper for inte- caused the problem.
grated circuit manufacture (Ref 60-62). It is felt This section concentrates on the main com-
Surface Preparation
that aluminum, which is used in providing the mercial processes for electroless copper, namely
The first steps of pretreatment for either mul-
tilayer PWBs or bare plastic employ fairly
aggressive chemicals to remove debris and for-
eign matter from the substrate and etch the sur-
face. These steps may change the topography
and/or surface chemistry of the substrate signif-
icantly. The main objectives of this sequence of
steps are to ensure good adhesion and eliminate
the visible (gross) voiding that can result from a
poorly prepared surface.
Printed Wiring Boards. This sequence of
steps encompasses the desmear process for
drilled holes in multilayer boards (MLBs).
Drilling of the through-holes causes the laminate
material (usually epoxy) to be smeared across
hole wall surfaces. Reliable fabrication of multi-
layer boards requires that this drill smear be
removed from the copper inner layers to ensure
an effective copper-copper bond. The most com-
mon type of desmear process is based on a per-
manganate (Ref 64–66) oxidizing solution and
involves three steps:
Fig. 7 Examples of commercially produced molded Fig. 8 Examples of plastic composite connectors plat- • The MLB conditioner or pre-etch: an aque-
interconnect devices ed with electroless copper and nickel ous-alkaline-oxygenated solvent solution
that is operated at elevated temperatures (60
to 70 °C, or 140 to 160 °F) and penetrates
slightly into the epoxy laminate so as to
prepare it for optimal effect in the subse-
quent permanganate solution. Although
analogous to the swell and etch system used
in POP, this PWB analog does not penetrate
deeply into the plastic; only surface layers
(5 m) are thought to be affected. (Note
that the term conditioner as used in this
context must be differentiated from the
PTH conditioner, or catalyst promoter, to be
discussed below.)
• The MLB etch or promoter: a strongly alka-
line permanganate solution that is operated
hot (75 to 85 °C, or 165 to 185 °F) and
actually dissolves a minute amount of
epoxy, in particular removing any epoxy
smeared on the copper inner layers. A
Fig. 9 A process flow chart for deposition of a multichip module on a conventional printed wiring board microporous surface structure is also nor-
Fig. 10 Comparison of electroless copper processes. Unless otherwise stated, it should be assumed that one or more rinse steps intervene between each two process steps.
mally imparted to the resin. This results in manganate in terms of safety, toxicity, reliabil- from the surface, as Cr(VI) is a poison for the
an excellent surface on which catalysis and ity, cost, and/or control. subsequent catalyst step. The neutralizer
plating can take place. Following the desmear process, depending on chemistry may be modified to include in one
• The neutralizer: an acidic, mildly reducing the configuration of the plating equipment, it step the catalyst promoter discussed below.
solution that removes manganese (MnO2) may be necessary to unrack the parts, and then
residues from all board surfaces. Typical rerack for treatment in the balance of the elec-
chemistries include dilute sulfuric-peroxide troless process. Pretreatment: Immediate
solutions or acid solutions of hydroxylamine Plating-on-Plastic (Decorative and Two- Preparation for Plating
salts. It is noteworthy that, in contrast with Sided EMI Shielding). The corresponding
the use of chromium-containing etchants, process steps for POP applications also typical- Immediate preparation for plating ensures the
ly include three steps: final cleanliness of the part (if necessary),
special care need not be taken to ensure total
ensures that the surface will be receptive to cat-
removal of all manganese residues, as man-
ganese does not have a harmful effect on sub- • The conditioner or pre-etch: an aqueous- alyst, deposits the catalytic film, and converts
organic solvent mixture. The specific solvent the catalyst to its active form, in preparation for
sequent processing.
used will differ qualitatively depending on electroless plating.
Figure 11 compares a typical multilayer which plastic is being treated. In the case of Cleaning (Optional). For substrates such as
board through-hole, after drilling, with a per- ABS, this step is not needed. two-sided PWBs that do not require the gross
manganate-desmeared through-hole that • The etch: typically based on aqueous chromic surface preparation sequence above, a conven-
exhibits a clean hole wall and microroughened acid (a sulfuric acid admixture is also com- tional cleaning step is needed. Also, in cases
resin surface. monly used). where equipment configuration forces a split
Chemistries alternative to permanganate that • The neutralizer: a reducing solution that may between the gross surface preparation steps and
have been used for desmearing PWBs include be either acid or alkaline and that removes all the balance of the process, a cleaning step may
chromic acid or concentrated sulfuric acid hexavalent chromium residues. In compari- be needed to remove any soils that were thereby
(each with appropriate pre- and/or post-treat- son with the permanganate neutralizer used introduced. It is common practice to incorporate
ment) or plasma treatment. These methods in PWB desmear, it is essential that every this cleaning step together with the subsequent
exhibit numerous shortcomings relative to per- trace of hexavalent chromium be removed catalyst promotion step. A hot solution is typi-
Fig. 11 Multilayer board through-holes. (a) After drilling. Note resin smear over copper inner layer surface and loosely adherent debris covering surface. (b) After permanganate
desmear. Note clean overall appearance and uniformly microroughened epoxy surface.
cally used, 55 to 70 °C (130 to 160 °F). The The purposes of the predip are to protect the effective in metallizing nonconductive mate-
main constraints on the chemistry are that it be expensive catalyst bath from contaminants and rials. However, a major disadvantage is the
easily rinsable and that it be compatible with the normalize the substrate surface chemistry prior marked lack of selectivity; all exposed sur-
rest of the process line. Waste treatment con- to exposure to the catalytic species. faces are heavily catalyzed. In the case of
cerns are shifting cleaning chemistries away Catalyzation (Sensitization). Good catalyza- PWBs, use of the two-step catalyst often pro-
from the use of amine chelates and strongly acid tion is the key to the entire electroless copper duces such a heavy catalyst film on the cop-
or alkaline solutions. process. All the preceding steps are employed so per substrate that the resultant electroless
Catalyst promotion (conditioning) imparts as to optimize this step and ensure the uniformity copper deposit exhibits poor adhesion.
a uniform surface film to the substrate, which and selectivity of the catalyst deposit. In theory, • Palladium-tin colloid: This type of catalyst
ensures uniform adsorption by the subsequent any of a wide range of metals, including copper, system (Ref 68, 69) is by far the most preva-
catalyst step and therefore promotes better plat- nickel, gold, silver, and all the other precious met- lent type in commercial use. It is a stable
ing. Because the most commonly used catalyst, als (Group VIIIB), may be used. In practice, reaction product of palladium and tin chlo-
the palladium-tin colloidal catalyst, is negative- because of a tradeoff between cost and selectivity rides in acidic solution. The colloid is about 1
ly charged, conditioning agents tend to bear a (preferential adsorption of the catalyst to certain to 5 nm (10 to 50 Å) in size, consisting of a
positive charge. The conditioning step may be surfaces rather than others), only a few metals and palladium-rich inner core and bearing
combined with either the preceding cleaning physical/chemical forms of these have found hydrous Sn(IV) chlorides in the outer sphere.
step (two-sided PWBs) or the neutralizer (POP). acceptance in the electroless copper industry. The overall colloid is negatively charged.
The main issue is compatibility with subsequent These are discussed roughly in chronological Excess Sn(II) plays a key role in the stabi-
steps. Specifically, in the case of PWBs, this order of their development: lization of the catalyst solution. A high salt
means the ability to effectively remove any content is also present in modern versions of
residual film from the copper during the inter-
• Binary precious metal salt: Acidic solutions the colloidal catalyst. This system offers a
of simple precious metal salts, including
vening rinse and microetch steps. In the case of PdCl2, PtCl2, and so on, may be used as cat- number of advantages over earlier catalysts:
decorative POP, the need to achieve selectivity alyst for electroless plating in some it is more stable, it is more active per unit of
in the plating (i.e., no rack plating) favors the use instances. Because these salts are not tightly palladium, and it allows good selectivity. The
of marginally effective catalyst promoters, bound to the substrate surface, they may be catalyst as-deposited bears a high-tin-con-
whereas for PWB applications, the general diffi- removed by excessive rinsing. These solu- taining “sheath” surrounding the active cat-
culty of plating glass fibers in the laminate mate- tions generally promote plating only on the alytic species, and it is not optimally activat-
rial leads to use of more effective conditioning most active surfaces, thus providing a good ed until the subsequent acceleration step.
chemistries, despite the resultant rack plating. method of selectivity in certain applications. • Copper catalyst: Because palladium is
Microetching is required for PWBs only. It more expensive than the less noble metals
etches a thin film (0.75 to 2 m) of the foil and • Sequential tin, then palladium (so-called (such as copper and nickel) that are known
inner-layer copper, thus ensuring cleanliness in “two-step”): An acidic Sn(II) solution, typi- to be autocatalytic, there have been numer-
preparation for plating. Any conditioning agent cally SnCl2, dissolved in dilute hydrochloric ous attempts to develop a viable catalyst
from the previous step is ideally removed from acid, is first used to provide a uniform film of based on one of these metals. A copper-tin
copper surfaces, as it could lead to a poor cop- Sn2 ions over the entire substrate surface. colloidal catalyst was first reported in 1976
per-copper bond if left in place. Normally either Because Sn(II) is inherently a strong adherent (Ref 70) and has proven commercially suc-
a mildly acidic sodium or potassium persulfate material, the resultant film is tenaciously cessful in a number of installations. A
solution or a sulfuric acid-peroxide solution is retained during rinsing. Then immersion in a major disadvantage is that because the cata-
used. If a persulfate solution is used, it may be dilute hydrochloric acid solution of PdCl2 lyst is much less active catalytically, the
followed by a dilute sulfuric acid dip. causes the more noble palladium ion to be accompanying electroless copper bath must
A catalyst predip is normally employed just reduced onto the substrate at the expense of be formulated as a much less stable solution
prior to the catalyst solution (no intervening the adsorbed Sn(II), which is oxidized to than copper baths employed with the more
rinses). This predip contains all components of Sn(IV). This catalyst system was reported in active palladium-tin catalysts. This can
the catalyst solution minus the catalyst itself. 1955 (Ref 67) and has proven reliable and result in process control problems.
• Ionic (alkaline) complexed palladium: In the Decorative Plating-on-Plastic. After elec- In general, baths providing higher film
mid-1970s, an alkaline, ionic palladium cata- troless copper deposition, the parts are usually thicknesses have tighter requirements in terms
lyst system was developed (Ref 71) that treated with an electrolytic copper or nickel of equipment parameters such as heaters, air
demonstrated improved selectivity versus strike about 2.5 m thick. The purpose of this agitation, circulation, filtration, replenishment
prior ionic palladium systems. This catalyst step is to build up the initial thin electroless film mode, and so on. Full-build baths in particular
requires a subsequent activation step, namely so as to facilitate the subsequent buildup. have stringent requirements for agitation, cir-
immersion in a solution of a strong reducing Following the strike, bright acid copper plating culation, and filtration, and they require close
agent such as dimethylamine borane, in order is usually carried out to a thickness of 12 to 25 control over plating rate consistency. The
to become catalytically active. This catalyst m. Next, depending on the final finish and needed controls are well characterized for all
system continues to have applicability (Ref physical characteristics desired, one to three dif- current electroless formulations, and most
72) and is currently second in popularity to ferent electrolytic nickel treatments may be plating facilities can readily maintain the
the colloidal palladium-tin catalyst system. employed, totaling up to 33 m thickness. The required controls on a regular basis.
final finish is usually electrolytic chromium, Other Process Solutions. General controls
Acceleration (Activation). Discussion of 0.12 to 0.25 m thick; however, the final finish for other process solutions include the temper-
this step will focus on the palladium-tin col- may also be brass, gold, silver, or other finishes. ature and concentration of critical compo-
loidal system, as it is the most commonly used nents, as specified by the supplier. Immersion
catalyst. The tin-containing sheath surrounding Single-Sided EMI Process time may also be critical in certain cases (e.g.,
the active palladium-rich catalytic core must be PTH microetch), but not so long as a specified
removed in order to initiate a strong plating In order to plate electroless copper on the minimum immersion is attained (e.g., catalyst
reaction. Accelerating solutions typically are inside (only) of a cabinet so that the molded plas- promoter). Supplier recommendations should
based on chemistries that dissolve and/or com- tic substrate needs no other finish, special pre- be followed. Due to interaction between
plex Sn(II) and Sn(IV) compounds. Commonly treatment methods have been developed and various pretreatment chemistries, as well as
used formulations include dilute fluoboric acid commercialized. These take the form of catalytic with the electroless chemistry, it is strongly
or hydrochloric acid (or mixtures thereof), or spray paints (Ref 74) that can be applied selec- recommended that a single supplier be used
other acidic or alkaline solutions. The catalyza- tively onto the plastic surface and, following a for the entire process. This practice also
tion/acceleration process has been characterized defined bake or cure step, allow direct deposition facilitates prompt resolution in troubleshoot-
in a number of studies (Ref 73). Proper control of electroless copper. In theory, any of the metals ing situations.
of accelerator parameters is needed to avoid an that catalyze electroless deposition may be used; In the gross pretreatment sequence, certain
“overacceleration” condition wherein catalyst in practice, the choice of metal is a tradeoff of general controls must be considered. For PWB
may actually be stripped, thus leading to voids catalytic activity versus cost. Typically, the sin- desmear, the permanganate (Mn7) to man-
in the electroless plating process. In recent gle-sided EMI process requires no chemical pre- ganate (Mn6) ratio must be maintained at a
years, particularly for PTH, the acceleration treatment other than the paint. Other mechanical specified level. Similarly, for POP adhesion pro-
step has been eliminated altogether by incorpo- steps required include masking of the surfaces motion, the (Cr3) level must be controlled as
rating excess chloride into the copper bath, thus not to be plated, drying/baking of the paint, and specified. In POP it is strongly recommended
causing it to be “self-accelerating” (Ref 23) racking for the plating process. that the temperature of the neutralizing solution
without loss of stability. be higher than that of the etch, to ensure that all
hexavalent chromium residues are leached from
Controls any porous surfaces.
Post-Treatment Adherence to specified chemistry controls is
Electroless Copper Solution. The electro- also necessary in the direct pretreatment
As Fig. 10 shows, post-treatments for elec- less copper solution requires a variety of consequence. In the PTH microetch, deviation from
troless copper vary considerably, depending on trols, all aimed toward maintaining steady-state the prescribed parameters can lead to over- or
the application. performance in terms of plating rate, deposit underetching. In the catalyst solution, important
Printed Wiring Boards. For conventional physical properties, and bath stability (both dur- parameters include specific gravity (to control
subtractive pattern plated boards, the panels may ing operation and on storage). First and fore- salt content, which helps maintain colloid stabil-
be treated in an antitarnish solution immediately most, the principal chemical parameters (copper, ity), Sn(II) level (which protects the colloid from
after electroless copper. Afterward they are formaldehyde, and caustic content) must be kept oxidation and sedimentation), and colloid con-
rinsed and dried, prior to unracking and going on within specification. Normally, by following tent (to control catalytic activity). In addition,
to the imaging process. Antitarnish solutions are replenishment and bailout instructions with certain metallic contaminants that can poison the
usually mildly acidic solutions, optionally con- respect to these primary components, all other catalytic activity (such as iron and chromium)
taining a weakly chelating acid salt such as cit- bath chemical components will remain within must be monitored and controlled. Attention
rate or tartrate. Alternatively, a dilute solution of the recommended ranges. However, occasional- must be paid to the temperature and immersion
a specific antitarnish component such as benzo- ly chelate and stabilizer levels will also need time of the accelerator solution, to avoid under-
triazole may be used. independent control. Other than the chemistry, or overacceleration. In addition, especially in
An optional pattern plate sequence, which operating temperature is the most critical operat- chloride-containing accelerators, the dissolved
employs very thin (
0.5 m) electroless ing parameter. Too low a temperature will shut copper content must be controlled to avoid for-
copper, uses a post-treatment step of thin the plating off; too high may cause excessive mation of a rough deposit (believed to be CuCl)
(flash) electrolytic copper, 5 m thick, plating rate and instability. Other key operating on the panel surface.
prior to unracking. parameters include specific gravity (a measure Miscellaneous. The importance of adequate
For subtractive panel plating processes, elec- of byproduct buildup), air agitation, filtration, rinsing using good-quality water can hardly be
trolytic copper plating is carried out immediate- circulation, panel loading, and others. Specific overemphasized. Heated rinses may be recom-
ly after the electroless copper process. The elec- methods for maintaining bath stability during mended after the catalyst promotion step to aid
troplating may be either in-line (thus periods of shutdown are also specified: plating in removal of excess surfactant film. Rinsing
necessitating use of a single flight-bar through- down to 70 to 80% copper content in the case of after catalyzation requires maintenance of
out the entire electroless process) or in separate room-temperature operating baths, or simply slightly acidic water containing no multiple
equipment (allowing more flexibility in electro- reducing the temperature for storage in the case charged cations, in order to prevent agglomera-
less equipment and racking, but involving addi- of heated baths. Air agitation is usually tion of the negative colloid and surface rough-
tional handling steps). employed to improve storage stability. ness on the panel. Thorough rinsing in clean
water is a general requirement in electroless strong catalyst promoters, be carefully con- pattern into the metallized film and then apply-
copper processes, to prevent both panel surface trolled so as not to introduce weak boundary ing a tape test under prescribed conditions
defects and shortened bath life due to contami- layers in the plated composite. (Ref 78). This test is often used following a
nated solutions. Adhesion of the copper deposit to the sub- variety of environmental storage conditions.
strate is typically controlled by proper surface Deposit quality has become increasingly
Performance Criteria preparation. Typically the first two or three important over the past ten years. Controlled
steps in the plating process prepare the surface grain size, low intrinsic stress, and low electrical
The critical performance criteria for electro- in a gross manner. The subsequent steps of resistivity are some of the most important quali-
less copper processes vary somewhat, depending conditioning, microetch (for PWBs), catalyza- ties sought. A method of PWB reliability testing
on the application. Two primary criteria that tion, and acceleration ensure that a complete using elevated-temperature fluid bed media has
relate to all applications are coverage and adhe- yet minimal catalyst film is present so as to been employed to rapidly assess the long-term
sion. Other criteria have become increasingly maximize adhesion. Adhesion requirements reliability of the copper deposit in through-holes
important over the past decade or so, especially vary, depending on the application. For POP (Ref 27).
for PTH. the adhesion requirement is 0.7 kN/m (4 Control of the copper bath is now routinely
Coverage relates to the uniform and com- lb/in.) peel strength, as measured by the achieved, in contrast with the unstable and
plete deposition of copper over the substrate. Jacquet test (Ref 76), with good integrity to be unpredictable formulations of the 1960s and
Coverage defects may be referred to as voiding maintained under a variety of environmental 1970s. Plating rate, rate of depletion, deposit
(PWBs) or skip plating (POP). Gross coverage test conditions. The important factor is mainte- characteristics, and so on are all maintained con-
defects that are easily discerned by the naked nance of a durable, cosmetic film over the life- sistently throughout the lifetime of the bath,
eye are typically caused by an improperly pre- time of the part. The primary failure mode is allowing statistical control procedures to be
pared surface or major abnormality in the blistering of the deposit. For conventional readily implemented.
overall plating process parameters. Pinpoint PWBs, peel strength per se is not usually Solderability. The effect of the through-
defects, which may also be detectable to the measured. Adhesion is typically ascertained by hole copper plating bath and process on sol-
eye, have long been a recognized problem in cross-sectioning the board after electroplating, derability has been the subject of several stud-
the POP industry, due to the importance of the optionally subjecting the sample to high ther- ies (Ref 79), because outgassing or “blow
appearance of the final product. Since approx- mal stress that simulates or exceeds the expect- holes” (Fig. 14) occurring during the assem-
imately the late 1970s, microscopy has been ed stress to be induced during assembly, and bly process can significantly affect PWB end-
widely used to detect minute defects in PTH, then mounting and polishing prior to micro- product reliability. It has been shown that out-
due to increasing demands on circuit integrity. scopic examination for failure between the gassing is dramatically reduced by a
Typically a panel is sliced so that half the plat- electroless film and any of the other surfaces. permanganate-based surface preparation treat-
ed hole is visible for microscopic examination. Adhesion failure to the epoxy surface is comment used for desmearing multilayer boards in
Rather than incident light, backlighting is monly referred to as hole wall pullaway; adhe- combination with a fine-grain, low-stressed
often used (Ref 75), which provides a very sion failure to a copper inner layer is referred copper deposit (Ref 35).
sensitive measure of assessing coverage. to as an interconnect defect (ICD). Detection
Figure 12 demonstrates levels of coverage that and elimination of ICDs by improved electro-
can be discriminated. (Both these through- less copper plating processes has led to signif- Equipment
holes would appear totally covered when icant improvement in PWB reliability over the
viewed using incident light.) Some debate has past several years. Industry standard electro- Processing Equipment
taken place regarding whether “total” back- less copper processes stand up to significantly
light coverage is necessary or even advisable. more severe test conditions than those defined Printed Wiring Boards. Electroless copper
The critical importance of deposit adhesion, in the industry specification (Ref 77) as shown process equipment consists essentially of a
for instance, requires that any mechanism in Fig. 13. In EMI shielding, the standard juxtaposed series of tanks, typically 380 to
employed to promote coverage, such as use of adhesion test involves scratching a cross-hatch 1135 L (100 to 300 gal) in size (or as high as
Fig. 12 Backlight test coupons. (a) Showing pinpoints voids. (b) Showing total electroless copper coverage
3800 L, or 1000 gal), including process chem- cessfully operating in production using hori- Control Equipment
istry tanks, rinse tanks, and load/unload sta- zontal equipment for electroless copper itself
tions, with all associated heaters, chillers, air (Ref 80). Due to rapid changes in the chemistry of an
spargers, and so on. The panels are transported Plating-on-Plastic. Plating equipment for operating electroless plating bath, frequent
vertically through the system in a rack that POP typically involves tank volumes of about analysis and replenishment are required.
typically holds panels representing a surface 3800 L (1000 gal), but tanks of up to 26,500 L Hence, automatic control equipment has been
area of 25 to 735 cm2/L (0.1 to 3 ft2/gal) of (7000 gal) have been used. The plating process of interest (Ref 81) almost since the baths
copper bath. (Other process tanks may be sized in decorative POP is carried out in one of two were first commercially employed. A bench-
appropriately to most efficiently hold the modes: designated straight-through or semi- mark controller developed in about 1980
rack.) An automatic hoist system is used, bulk. Straight-through processing is carried measured and controlled copper, hydroxide,
except in the smallest installations. out in a continuous system where the preplate, and formaldehyde contents. Copper content
In the past, electroless lines were designed for electroless, and electroplating steps are carried was determined by an optical absorbance
two-sided boards only. The multilayer desmear out with no interruption for reracking. In semi- method, hydroxide and formaldehyde contents
process was entirely separate, thus requiring bulk processing, two separate fixtures are were determined by a titration method. Over
additional unracking and reracking between seg- used, one for the pretreatment/electroless steps the years, the simplicity and reliability of such
ments. Most electroless copper plating lines now and the other for electroplating. There are equipment have undergone great improve-
being built include tanks for the desmear process numerous advantages for each type of system ment, but the basic techniques of analysis have
as well. (Ref 39). Advantages of straight-through pro- remained essentially the same (Ref 82). Today
Considerable interest has developed in cessing are evident: only one piece of equip- these control systems are commonplace in all
applying conveyorized horizontal processing ment, fewer processing steps, less handling, but the very smallest installations and are used
to part or all of the electroless copper process, and so on. Semibulk processing, however, to automatically replenish all bath compo-
as there are a number of technical and opera- offers a number of advantages, including much nents, as well as for bailout. To address the
tional benefits to this approach. Horizontal higher capacity, more degrees of freedom in added control requirements of full-build elec-
desmear is being used in select facilities choosing racking systems and chemicals, and troless copper baths, a more accurate method
worldwide, and several facilities are also suc- flexibility in processing sequences. of copper analysis and control has been devel-
Fig. 13 Solder shock test coupons. (a) Showing interconnect defect. (b) Showing strong interconnect bond after multiple solder shock exposure
Fig. 14 (a) Solder blow hole induced during solder shock testing. (b) Through-hole showing good solder fill after solder shock testing
oped and commercialized. This method is as concerns about waste treatment of electro- include oxyfuel wire spray, electric arc spray,
based on vibration of a quartz crystal that acts less copper, have contributed to ongoing devel- oxyfuel powder spray, plasma arc powder
as a microbalance (Ref 83), thus measuring opment of direct electroplating (Ref 37, 80, 85, spray, and high-velocity oxyfuel powder
the mass of copper plated on its surface and 86), which could eliminate the need for elec- spray methods.
providing real-time measurement and control troless copper, particularly in portions of the
of thickness. PWB market.
Corrosion-Resistant Coatings
Environmental and Safety Issues
Copper-nickel alloys are frequently used to
The electroless copper plating industry has clad less noble metals such as carbon steels for
come under increasing legislative control in
Wear-Resistant and use in marine environments. They are deposited
recent years due to a variety of environmental Corrosion-Resistant onto the steel surface by weld cladding, solid-
and safety concerns relative to the chemistry and state bonding techniques, or by sheathing.
processes. The main issues are quality of waste Copper Alloy Coatings Weld Cladding. The term weld cladding usu-
ally denotes application of a relatively thick layer
water discharged, volatile components dis-
charged, and health and safety concerns about ( 3 mm, or 18 in.) of weld metal for the purpose
Thicker, more durable copper alloy coatings of providing a corrosion-resistant surface.
handling of the various chemicals. are used for engineering applications that
Waste Water. Regulations regarding efflu- Hardfacing produces a thinner surface coating
require wear and/or corrosion resistance in than a weld cladding and is applied for dimen-
ent vary dramatically, both globally and within aggressive environments. Important examples
single countries. This factor has probably con- sional restoration or wear resistance. For weld
include aluminum bronze and copper-nickel cladding, covered electrodes are designed as
tributed significantly to the relocation of alloy coatings.
numerous plating facilities to areas having less ECuNi, and bare electrode wire and rods are des-
stringent regulations. Copper itself is probably ignated as ERCuNi. The nominal compositions
the main concern; waste treatment equipment are 70% Cu and 30% Ni. These filler metals are
designed to plate residual copper from discard-
Wear-Resistant Coatings sometimes deposited over a first layer of nickel.
ed plating solutions will normally reduce Cu2 Shielded-metal arc and gas-metal arc welding are
below the legal limit (typically 1 ppm). Strong Copper-base alloy coatings used for wear- commonly employed. In addition, the automatic
chelates have become a concern recently due to resistant applications are referred to as hardfac- gas-tungsten arc welding process with hot wire
their tendency to dissolve any metallic surfaces ing alloys. They are deposited by either arc addition of filler metal is also used.
encountered, either before or after discharge. welding processes (e.g., shielded-metal arc or Solid-state cladding methods include hot-
Certain plating bath additives used in the past, gas-metal arc welding) or thermal spray meth- roll bonding, explosive bonding, and extrusion
including mercury and cyanide compounds, ods. More detailed information on welding and bonding. These processes differ from welding in
have been virtually eliminated from use due to thermal spray processes can be found in that none of the metals to be joined is molten
waste water restrictions. Adjustment of waste Welding, Brazing, and Soldering, Volume 6 of when a metal-to-metal bond is achieved. Steel
water pH to a neutral range is also usually ASM Handbook. plate or tube are frequently roll-clad with 90Cu-
required. Chromium, used in POP pretreat- Weld Surfacing. The two bronze composi- 10Ni (C70600) or 70Cu-30Ni (C71500) alloys.
ment, is particularly toxic to the environment, tions given in Table 15 fall in the aluminum The resistance of these alloys to marine environ-
but virtually all current users recycle their bronze category. Silicon and phosphor bronzes ments is discussed in the article “Corrosion
chromic acid etchants internally, thus avoiding are also available in welding consumable form Behavior” in this Handbook.
any discharge. Discharge of strong oxidizing or for hardfacing. Sheathing refers to the attachment of rela-
reducing agents is also typically regulated Aluminum-bronze hardfacing alloys are used tively thin copper-nickel sheet to ship hulls by
closely. The issue of waste water treatment is for applications where resistance to corrosion, peripheral welding and/or the use of adhesives.
so key to operating a successful plating opera- cavitation, and metal-to-metal wear is desired. Sheathing, with or without an insulating layer
tion that considerable literature on designing Components typically protected using the alu- between the copper-nickel and the steel, is also
and implementing waste treatment systems is minum bronzes include bearings, gears, cams, and applicable to offshore oil and gas structures as
available (Ref 84). cold-drawing/forming dies. Copper-base hardfac- well as a wide variety of bridge, dock struc-
Handling of individual chemicals in the ing alloys have poor resistance to corrosion by sul- tures, and power or chemical plant seawater
plating process presents a number of concerns. fur compounds and very low resistance to abrasive intake systems for corrosion protection and
A significant concern is the use of formalde- wear. In addition, they are not recommended for prevention of biofouling. The sheathing alloy
hyde, which has been shown to be a carcino- elevated-temperature use because their mechani- most commonly used is 90Cu-10Ni (C70600),
gen for certain laboratory animals, although no cal properties decrease considerably at tempera- but copper-nickel-chromium alloy C72200 has
direct link with cancer in humans has been tures greater than 200 °C (400 °F). also been used.
demonstrated at this time. Limits by the Thermal Spraying. Hardfacing alloys
Occupational Health and Safety deposited by thermal spraying include
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Administration on airborne formaldehyde have aluminum bronzes and copper-zinc-tin alloys
recently been reduced from 1 to 0.075 ppm (8 (e.g., Tobin bronze). They are used to prevent
This article was adapted from:
h time-weighed average permissible exposure adhesive wear, fretting wear, and cavitation
in air). Concerns about formaldehyde, as well wear. Applicable thermal spray processes • L.M. Weisenberger and B.J. Durkin, Copper
Plating, Surface Engineering, Vol 5, ASM
Table 15 Compositions of aluminum bronze hardfacing alloys Handbook, ASM International, 1994, p
167–176
Composition, wt%
• H. Strow, Copper Alloy Plating, Surface
AWS designation UNS No. Al Fe Pb Si Zn Cu Engineering, Vol 5, ASM Handbook, ASM
ECuAl-B W60619 8.0–10.0 2.5–5.0 0.02 max 1.0 max … bal International, 1994, p 255–257
ERCuAl-A2 C61800 8.5–11.0 0.5–1.5 0.02 max 0.10 max 0.02 max bal(a)
• C.A. Deckert, Electroless Copper Plating,
(a) Cu Ag; Cu sum of named elements 99.5 min
Surface Engineering, Vol 5, ASM Handbook,
ASM International, 1994, p 311–322
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1988, and references therein VI (San Francisco), 1993
Applications
MAJOR MARKET CATEGORIES for cop- extensive review of applications for copper and waste, and ventilation) is used for drainage
per and copper alloys, as identified by the copper alloys. application. All four types are available in 20 ft
Copper Development Association Inc., include (6.1 m) lengths in the drawn (hard) temper.
the following: Annealed (soft) temper tube in available in 60
Building Construction ft (18.3 m) and 100 ft (30.5 m) coils, and
Market Total,% straight lengths of types K and L are also avail-
Building construction 43 The two most prominent building construc- able. Coils are frequently used as the under-
Electrical and electronic products 24 tion applications are plumbing goods (tubing, ground service line between the water main in
Industrial machinery and equipment 12 taps, valves, tanks, connectors, and fittings) and the street and the water meter in the home for
Transportation 12 building wire. Both of these application areas
Consumer and general products 9 the purpose of avoiding an intermediate joint.
are discussed subsequently. Other important While straight lengths are generally used in the
uses of copper and copper alloys in building home in the United States, coils are frequently
Selected applications from each of these market construction include: used in the United Kingdom and Europe. All
categories are described in this article.
copper tube produced to commodity or com-
About 90% of the total tonnage of wrought • Heating and ventilation systems (Ref 2) mercial tube classifications has a minimum
products sold by U.S. manufacturers is repre- • Air conditioning and refrigeration systems chemical composition of 99.9% copper
sented by the 16 applications listed in Table 1. (Ref 3)
(including silver). Fittings for copper tube
End-use markets for cast copper alloys are show • Solar energy systems (Ref 1)
(water and drainage) are made to the American
in Fig. 1. Typical applications for castings are • Gas distribution systems (Ref 1, 4)
National Standards Institute (ANSI)/ASME
plumbing hardware, pump parts, valves, and fit- • Fire sprinklers (Ref 1, 5, 6)
standards. Wrought and cast copper and cop-
tings; bearings and bushings; marine castings, • Roofing, guttering, and flashing (Ref 1, 7)
per-alloy pressure fittings are available in all
such as propellers, propeller shafts, propeller • Architectural and builders’ hardware (door
standard tube sizes and in a wide variety of
hubs, hull gear, impellers, and turbines; electri- and cabinet hardware, such as entrance han-
dles, doorknobs, and locks) (Ref 7) types to meet needs for plumbing, heating, air
cal components, such as substation, transformer,
conditioning, and fire sprinkler systems. Table
and pole hardware for power transmission; and
3 shows the allowable pressure ratings for cop-
architectural and ornamental applications, such Plumbing Goods per tube as a function of temperature. These
as door handles, church bells, and statuary.
ratings are only a small fraction of the ultimate
Additional information pertaining to applica- Copper tube is the standard plumbing mate-
tensile, or burst, strength of copper. However,
tions for copper and copper alloy products can rial for potable water and heating systems in
in practical systems, allowance must be made
be found throughout this Handbook (see, in par- North America and parts of Europe. As listed in
for joint strength.
ticular, the articles “Wrought Copper and Table 2, plumbing tube is sold in several wall
Copper Alloys,” “Cast Copper and Copper thicknesses: Types K (heaviest), L (standard), Transportation
Alloys,” and “Powder Metallurgy Copper and and M (lightest) represent wall thickness gages equipment 5%
Copper Alloys”). Reference 1 also provides an used in plumbing systems. Type DWV (drain, 24 million lb
Consumer and
general products 6% Other 2%
Table 1 Major end-use applications for copper and copper alloys in the United States
28 million lb
Application Mill products Principal reason(s) for using copper(a)
Telecommunications Copper wire Electrical properties

Automotive: automobiles, Brass and copper strip, Corrosion resistance, heat transfer,
trucks, and buses copper wire electrical properties
Plumbing and heating Copper tube, brass rod, castings Corrosion resistance, machinability
Building wiring Copper wire Electrical properties
Heavy industrial equipment All Corrosion resistance, wear resistance, electrical Electrical and
properties, heat transfer, machinability electronic 10%
Air conditioning and Copper tube Heat transfer, formability 40 million lb Industrial machinery and
commercial refrigeration equipment 42%
Industrial valves and fittings Brass rod, castings Corrosion resistance, machinability 171 million lb
Power utilities Copper wire and bar Electrical properties
Appliances Copper wire and tube Electrical properties, heat transfer
Lighting and wiring devices Alloy strip, copper wire Electrical properties
Electronics Alloy strip, copper wire Electrical properties Building construction 35%
Fasteners Brass wire Machinability, corrosion resistance 140 million lb
Military and commercial ordnance Brass strip and tube Ease of fabrication
Coinage Alloy and copper strip Ease of fabrications, corrosion resistance,
electrical properties, aesthetics
Builders’ hardware Brass rod and strip Corrosion resistance, formability, aesthetics
Heat exchangers Alloy tube and plate Heat transfer, corrosion resistance
(a) Although not specifically listed as a principal reason in all applications, ease of fabrication is a factor in all application categories. Fig. 1 End-use markets for copper casting alloys.
Applicable Grades. In the United States, the Corrosion. Certain water conditions, includ- • Hard well waters: Cause pitting. Aggressive,
most commonly used copper grade for plumbing ing those listed in Table 5, can lead to corrosive hard well waters characteristically contain high
tube is alloy C12200 (phosphorus-deoxidized attack of copper water tube. In most cases, total dissolved solids (tds), including sulfates
high-residual phosphorus, DHP). Deoxidation is waters that are aggressive to metals are treatable, and chlorides. They typically have a pH
required because the tube is commonly joined and water utilities are encouraged to provide between 7.3 and 7.8, a carbon dioxide content
by soldering. Table 4 lists specifications, grades, such treatment. Five particularly aggressive con- (CO2) greater than 10 ppm, and some dissolved
and uses for copper plumbing tube products. ditions include (Ref 1, 9–12): oxygen. They can be identified by chemical
analysis and can be treated to raise the pH
Table 2 Dimensions of copper tube types K, L, M, and DWV and combine or eliminate dissolved CO2.
Nominal dimensions, in. Calculated values, based on nominal dimensions
Sometimes simple aeration by spraying or
Outside Inside Wall Cross sectional External surface, Internal surface, Weight,
sparging is sufficient to render them harmless.
Size diam diam thickness area of bore, in.2 ft2/linear ft ft2/linear ft lb/linear ft • Soft, acidic waters: Inhibit formation of the
Type K protective film that normally forms inside
1/4 0.375 0.305 0.035 0.073 0.098 0.080 0.145 the copper tube. Soft, acidic waters cause
3/8 0.500 0.402 0.049 0.127 0.131 0.105 0.269 staining of fixtures, a form of so-called
1/2 0.625 0.527 0.049 0.218 0.164 0.138 0.344 “blue water.” Raising the pH to 7 or higher
5/8 0.750 0.652 0.049 0.334 0.196 0.171 0.418
3/4 0.875 0.745 0.065 0.436 0.229 0.195 0.641
usually solves the problem. Simple treat-
1 1.125 0.995 0.065 0.778 0.294 0.261 0.839 ments include flowing the water through a
11/4 1.375 1.245 0.065 1.22 0.360 0.326 1.04 bed of marble chips or injecting sodium
11/2 1.625 1.481 0.072 1.72 0.425 0.388 1.36 carbonate (Na2CO3).
2 2.125 1.959 0.083 3.01 0.556 0.513 2.06
21/2 2.625 2.435 0.095 4.66 0.687 0.638 2.93 • Excessive water flow velocity or turbulence:
3 3.125 2.907 0.109 6.64 0.818 0.761 4.00 Produces erosion-corrosion or impingement
31/2 3.625 3.385 0.120 9.00 0.949 0.886 5.12 attack in the tube. Velocity effects can be
4 4.125 3.857 0.134 11.7 1.08 1.01 6.51 aggravated if the water is also chemically
5 5.125 4.805 0.160 18.1 1.34 1.26 9.67
6 6.125 5.741 0.192 25.9 1.60 1.50 13.9
aggressive or if it contains entrained solids
8 8.125 7.583 0.271 45.2 2.13 1.98 25.9 (silt). To avoid this problem, flow rate should
10 10.125 9.449 0.338 70.2 2.65 2.47 40.3 not exceed 1.5 m/s (4.9 ft/s).
12 12.125 11.315 0.405 101.0 3.17 2.96 57.8 • Shoddy workmanship: For example, solder and
Type L flux residue left inside the tube. Dribbles of
1/4 0.375 0.315 0.030 0.078 0.098 0.082 0.126 solidified flux left in the tube lead to pitting due
3/8 0.500 0.430 0.035 0.145 0.131 0.113 0.198 to the continuing corrosive action of the flux,
1/2 0.625 0.545 0.040 0.233 0.164 0.143 0.285
5/8 0.750 0.666 0.042 0.348 0.196 0.174 0.362
and erosion-corrosion, caused by disturbance of
3/4 0.875 0.785 0.045 0.484 0.229 0.206 0.455 the smooth water flow around the obstruction.
1 1.125 1.025 0.050 0.825 0.294 0.268 0.655 • An aggressive soil composition: Deteriorates
11/4 1.375 1.265 0.055 1.26 0.360 0.331 0.884 buried tube. Most natural soils do not attack
11/2 1.625 1.505 0.060 1.78 0.425 0.394 1.14
2 2.125 1.985 0.070 3.09 0.556 0.520 1.75
copper, but any buried metal pipe laid in cin-
21/2 2.625 2.465 0.080 4.77 0.687 0.645 2.48 ders is subject to attack by the acid generated
3 3.125 2.945 0.090 6.81 0.818 0.771 3.33 when sulfur compounds in the cinders com-
31/2 3.625 3.425 0.100 9.21 0.949 0.897 4.29 bine with water. The presence of chlorides
4 4.125 3.905 0.110 12.0 1.08 1.02 5.38
5 5.125 4.875 0.125 18.7 1.34 1.28 7.61
and an acidic pH aggravates the situation.
6 6.125 5.845 0.140 26.8 1.60 1.53 10.2 Under such circumstances, the tube should be
8 8.125 7.725 0.200 46.9 2.13 2.02 19.3 isolated from the environment with a wrap-
10 10.125 9.625 0.250 72.8 2.65 2.53 30.1 ping of insulating tape, a plastic coating, or
12 12.125 11.565 0.280 105.0 3.17 3.03 40.4
an asphaltic paint.
Type M
3/8 0.500 0.450 0.025 0.159 0.131 0.118 0.145 Copper drainage tube rarely corrodes, except
1/2 0.625 0.569 0.028 0.254 0.164 0.149 0.204 when misused or improperly installed.
3/4 0.875 0.811 0.032 0.517 0.229 0.212 0.328 Insufficient slope can permit corrosive solutions
1 1.125 1.055 0.035 0.874 0.294 0.276 0.465 to lie in the tube and attack it. Hydrogen sulfide
11/4 1.375 1.291 0.042 1.31 0.360 0.338 0.682
11/2 1.625 1.527 0.049 1.83 0.425 0.400 0.940 gas that vents back into the drainage system can
2 2.125 2.009 0.058 3.17 0.556 0.526 1.46 also attack the tube.
21/2 2.625 2.495 0.065 4.89 0.687 0.653 2.03 Additional information regarding corrosion of
3 3.125 2.981 0.072 6.98 0.818 0.780 2.68 copper in water can be found in the article
31/2 3.625 3.459 0.083 9.40 0.949 0.906 3.58
4 4.125 3.935 0.095 12.2 1.08 1.03 4.66 “Corrosion Behavior” in this Handbook.
5 5.125 4.907 0.109 18.9 1.34 1.28 6.66
6 6.125 5.881 0.122 27.2 1.60 1.54 8.94
8 8.125 7.785 0.170 47.6 2.13 2.04 16.5
Building Wire
10 10.125 9.701 0.212 73.9 2.65 2.54 25.6
12 12.125 11.617 0.254 106.0 3.17 3.04 36.7 Building wire is used to distribute electric
Type DWV power inside residential, commercial, or industri-
11/4 1.375 1.295 0.040 1.32 0.360 0.339 0.65 al buildings; mobile homes; recreational vehicles;
11/2 1.625 1.541 0.042 1.87 0.425 0.403 0.81 boats; and substations at potentials of 600 V or
2 2.125 2.041 0.042 3.27 0.556 0.534 1.07 less. Building wire is the largest market for cop-
3 3.125 3.030 0.045 7.21 0.818 0.793 1.69
4 4.125 4.009 0.058 12.6 1.08 1.05 2.87 per in the United States, and continued growth is
5 5.125 4.981 0.072 19.5 1.34 1.30 4.43 expected due to the increased use of computers
6 6.125 5.959 0.083 27.9 1.60 1.56 6.10 and other electronic equipment (Ref 13).
8 8.125 7.907 0.109 49.1 2.13 2.07 10.6 For distribution mains inside buildings, the
Source: Ref 8
National Electric Code (NEC) requires conduc-
tors to contain insulated wires for neutral and
Applications / 155
Table 3 Pressure ratings for copper tube hot phases, plus a bare wire for grounding (Fig.
joints 2). Wires frequently incorporate color coding
Maximum
systems for ready identification: Grounding con-
service ductors are normally green or natural gray (or
temperature Tube size Pressure rating bare); “hot” phases are red and black; and neu-
°F °C in. mm psi kPa tral conductors may be white or gray. A general
Joints made with 50Sn-50Pb solder(a) description of specific types of building wire can
100 38 11/4–2 32–51 95 655 be found in Ref 1.
3–4 76–102 80 552 Copper versus Aluminum. Copper has
5–8 127–203 70 482
150 66 11/4–2 32–51 70 482
almost always been the material of choice for
3–4 76–102 55 379 building wire. Attempts to replace copper with
5–8 127–203 45 310 aluminum were curtailed in most countries when
200 93 11/4–2 32–51 50 345 it was found that aluminum connections gradu-
3–4 76–102 40 276
5–8 127–203 35 241
ally loosened due to a slow relaxation process
known as creep. Insulating aluminum oxide,
Joints made with 95Sn-5Sb solder(a)
formed on loose connections, produced enough
100 38 11/4–2 32–51 220 1,517
3–4 76–102 165 1,138
resistive heat to initiate electrical fires. Because
5–8 127–203 120 827 copper oxides are semiconductors, this problem
150 66 11/4–2 32–51 195 1,344 does not occur even in the presence of a loose
3–4 76–102 150 10,348 connection. While improved spring-loaded con-
5–8 127–203 100 690
200 93 11/4–2 32–51 140 965
tacts have largely alleviated this problem, alu-
3–4 76–102 110 758 minum building wire has never regained the
5–8 127–203 80 552 market share it once enjoyed. While in 1974 alu-
minum had 31% of the building wire market, by
(a) Solder alloys are described in ASTM B 32. Note: Metric numbers Fig. 2 Insulated conductor configurations. Source:
1991 it had only 8%. The present market for
are conversions of U.S. customary units and are not necessarily stan- Ref 1
dards expressed in SI units. Source: Ref 5 aluminum building wire is essentially confined
to the larger gage sizes used in supply circuits.
Table 4 Overview of standard copper plumbing tube

UNS alloy
ASTM Standard
specification Designation Application mill sizes, in. C10100 C10200 C10300 C10800 C12000 C12200 C21000 C23000
Seamless tube
B 42 Copper pipe Plumbing and feed lines 1/8–12 X X X X X
B 43 Red brass pipe Plumbing and feed lines 1/8–12 X
B 88 K, L, M General plumbing water tube 1/4–12 X X X X X
B 302 TP Threadless pipe for plumbing feed lines 1/4–12 X X X X
B 306 DWV Drainage, waste, vent 1/4–8 X X X X
B 641 D Distribution 1/4–3 X X X X X X
Welded tube
B 641 D Distribution 1/4–3 X X X X X X
B 642 Welded alloy water tube General plumbing 1/4–3 X
Table 5 Effect of water conditions on copper corrosion

Water conditions Corrosive effect
pH
When pH is raised to give the water a slightly General attack on copper as a function of pH
positive calcium carbonate saturation index,
corrosion problems with copper are unlikely.
CO2 content and water mineral hardness
Soft water, for example, water with less than Green staining and metallic taste due to dissolution
25 ppm mineral content, with 15 ppm or more, of copper. Treatments include aeration to reduce
under stagnant conditions CO2 concentration, elevation of pH to neutralize
CO2 and blending in hard water to lay down a
protective film.
Bicarbonate:sulfate ratio 1 Pitting attack
Well water at pH 7.5 plus 5 ppm CO2 O2 and intermittent use Pitting attack
pH 7.8 plus 25 ppm free CO2 17 ppm sulfate and Pitting attack
sulfate:chloride ratio 3:1
pH between 7.1 and 7.8 plus 100 ppm magnesium sulfate Pitting attack
4.2 ppm potassium Pitting attack
25 ppm silicate Pitting attack
25 ppm nitrate Pitting attack
Soft water at pH 6.5 with 10 to 50 ppm CO2, low in chloride, Pitting attack
sulfate and nitrate ions, in hot water systems
Hard water No dezincification of duplex brass fittings
Source: Ref 1 Fig. 3 Typical copper cables as used in building

construction applications
For branch-circuit sizes, virtually no aluminum (Ref 13). This large area of application ment. Such applications are discussed in Ref 1
is used today (Ref 1). includes conductors for power generation, and 14 and in various publications available
Building wire sizes generally range from No. transmission, and distribution (i.e., power from the NEC, the American National
14 AWG (American Wire Gage) through 750 cables as shown in Fig. 4 to 6), and for Standards Institute (ANSI), the National
kcmil (kcmil is 1000 circular mils; 750 kcmil telecommunications, electronic circuitry, data Electrical Manufacturers’ Association
denotes wire having a cross-sectional area of processing, instrumentation, appliances, gen- (NEMA), the Underwriters Laboratory (UL),
approximately 0.59 in.2, or 380 mm2). Table 6 erators, motors, transformer windings, weld- and the Insulated Cable Engineers’
lists cross-sectional areas corresponding to some ing equipment, and other electrical equip- Association (ICEA).
commonly encountered AWG round wire sizes. Other important electrical applications for
Wire sizes as small as No. 22 AWG are current- copper and copper alloys include electrical
ly used for signal and communications functions contacts and resistors. Both of these are
(although there is a trend toward smaller gage described subsequently.
numbers); larger gages are used for power trans-
mission. Solid wire is used from No. 14 AWG
Table 6 American wire gage (AWG) sizes
through No. 10 AWG; larger sizes are stranded
to provide flexibility. AWG No. Area, mm2 Area, in.2
Cable, whether standard or of proprietary 16 1.31 0.00203
design, denotes wire used for special and/or 14 2.08 0.00322
12 3.31 0.00513
multiple purposes. For example, a single multi- 10 5.26 0.00815
functional cable for a residential system may 8 8.37 0.00130
carry power, telephone, video, and control/com- 6 13.3 0.0206
munications signals. Like electrical wire, cable 4 21.2 0.0328
3 26.7 0.0413
is normally insulated with a rubber or polymer- 2 33.6 0.0520
ic compound, as shown in Fig. 3. 1 42.4 0.0657
1/0 53.5 0.0829
2/0 67.4 0.104
Electrical Applications 3/0 85.0 0.132
4/0 107.2 0.166
Roughly one-half of all copper mined is Size, kcmil Area, mm2 Area, in.2
used in the form of electrical wire and cable 250 126.7 0.196
300 152.0 0.235
350 177.3 0.275
400 202.7 0.314
500 253.0 0.392
600 304.0 0.471
7500 380.0 0.589
1000 506.7 0.785
Fig. 4 Power conductor with insulation and exterior
coating. PVC, polyvinyl chloride; XLPE, Source: Ref 1
cross-linked polyethylene. Source: Ref 14
Fig. 5 Armored power cable as used in mines and

industrial applications. EPR, ethylene propylene
rubber. Source: Ref 14 Fig. 6 Typical shielded conductor and shielded power cable. PE, polyethylene. Source: Ref 14
Applications / 157
Electrical Contacts found in the article “Powder Metallurgy Copper commonly referred to as resistance alloys, are
and Copper Alloys” in this Handbook. uniform resistivity, stable resistance (no time-
Applications. Copper-base metals are com- dependent aging effects), reproducible tempera-
Electrical contacts are metal devices that monly used in plugs, jacks, sockets, connec- ture coefficient of resistance, and low thermo-
make and break electrical circuits. If an ideal tors, and sliding contacts. Because of tarnish electric potential versus pure copper. Properties
electrical contact material could be found, it films, the contact force and amount of slide of secondary importance are coefficient of
would have high electrical conductivity to mini- must be kept high to avoid excessive contact expansion, mechanical strength, ductility, corro-
mize the heat generated during passage of cur- resistance and high levels of electrical noise. sion resistance, and ability to be joined to other
rent; high thermal conductivity to dissipate both Yellow brass (C27000) is preferred for plugs metals by soldering, brazing, or welding.
the resistive and arc heat developed; high reac- and terminals because of its machinability. Availability and cost are also factors.
tion resistance to all environments in which it Phosphor bronze (C50500 or C51000) is pre- Resistance alloys must be ductile enough that
was to be used to avoid formation of insulating ferred for thin socket and connector springs they can be drawn into wire as fine as 0.01 mm
oxides, sulfides, and other compounds; and and for wiper-switch blades because of its (0.0004 in.) in diameter or rolled into narrow
immunity to arcing damage on the making and strength and wear resistance. Nickel silver is ribbon from 0.4 to 50 mm (164 to 2 in.) wide and
breaking of electrical contact. sometimes preferred over yellow brass for from 0.025 to 3.8 mm (0.001 to 0.15 in.) thick.
Because no metal has all the desired proper- relay and jack springs because of its high mod- Alloys must be strong enough to withstand
ties, a wide variety of contact materials is ulus of elasticity and strength, resistance to fabrication operations, and it must be easy to
required to accomplish the objectives of differ- tarnishing, and better appearance. Sometimes, procure an alloy that has consistently repro-
ent contact applications. The economic choice of copper alloy parts are nickel plated to improve ducible properties. For instance, successive
materials is usually a compromise between the surface hardness, reduce corrosion, and batches of wire must have closely similar elec-
various processing variables and the application improve appearance. However, nickel carries a trical characteristics: If properties vary from lot
requirements. Load conditions, service require- thin but hard oxide film that has high contact to lot, resistors made of wire from different
ments, and ambient conditions present during resistance; very high contact force and long batches may cause a given model of instrument
the life of the unit must be considered in the slide are necessary to rupture the film. To to exhibit widely varying performance under
selection of contact materials. maintain low levels of resistance and noise, identically reproduced conditions, or they may
Copper Contact Alloys. High electrical and copper metals should be plated or clad with a cause large errors in a given instrument when a
thermal conductivities, low cost, and ease of fab- precious metal, most commonly, silver. resistor from one batch is used as a replacement
rication account for the wide use of copper alloys part for a resistor from another batch.
in electrical contacts. The main disadvantage of Resistors for Electrical and Coefficients of expansion of both the resistor
copper contacts is low resistance to oxidation and Electronic Devices and the insulator on which it is wound must be
corrosion. In many applications, the voltage drop considered because stressed can be established
resulting from the film developed by normal oxi- Copper alloys are used widely for wirewound that will cause changes in both resistance and
dation and corrosion is acceptable. In some cir- precision resistors used in instruments and con- temperature coefficient of resistance. It is equal-
cuit breaker applications, the contacts are trol equipment to regulate electrical characteris- ly important that consideration be given to the
immersed in oil to prevent oxidation. In other tics. The primary requirements for such alloys, choice between single-layer and multiple-layer
applications, such as in drum controllers, suffi-
cient wiping occurs to maintain fairly clean sur- Table 7 Properties of copper metals used for electrical contacts
faces, thus providing a circuit of low resistance.
Tensile strength
In some applications, such as knife switches, Solidus
Electrical
plugs, and bolted connectors, contact surfaces temperature conductivity, Hardness OS035 temper H02 temper
are protected with grease or coatings of silver, UNS No. °C °F %IACS OS035 temper H02 temper MPa ksi MPa ksi
nickel, or tin. In power circuits, where oxidation C11000 1065 1950 100 40 HRF 40 HRB 220 32 290 42
C16200 1030 1886 90 54 HRF 64 HRB(a) 240 35 415(a) 60(a)
of copper is troublesome, contacts frequently are C17200 865 1590 15–33(b) 60 HRB(c) 93 HRB(d) 495(c) 72(c) 655(d) 95(d)
coated with silver. Vacuum-sealed circuit break- C23000 990 1810 37 63 HRF 65 HRB 285 41 395 57
ers use oxygen-free copper contacts (wrought or C24000 965 1770 32 66 HRF 70 HRB 315 46 420 61
powder metal) for optimal electrical properties. C27000 905 1660 27 68 HRF 70 HRB 340 49 420 61
C50500 1035 1900 48 60 HRF 59 HRB 276 40 365 53
Pure copper is relatively soft, anneals at low C51000 975 1785 20 28 HRB 78 HRB 340 49 470 68
temperatures, and lacks the spring properties C52100 880 1620 13 80 HRF 84 HRB 400 58 525 76
sometimes desired. Some copper alloys, harder
than pure copper and having much better spring (a) H04 temper. (b) Depends ons heat treatment. (c) TB00 temper. (d) TD02 temper
properties, are listed in Table 7. The annealing tem-
perature and the elevated-temperature properties of
copper can be increased by additions of 0.25% Zr, Table 8 Properties of copper-graphite electrical contact materials
0.5% Cr, 0.03 to 0.06% Ag (10 to 20 oz per ton), Composition, % Electrical
Approximate conductivity,
or small amounts of finely dispersed metal oxides, Copper Graphite density, g/cm3 %IACS Applications
such as Al2O3, with little loss of conductivity. On
30 70 2.60 0.11 Alternators; small auxiliary motors; low-metal, long-life brushes
the other hand, improved mechanical properties 30 70 2.50 2 Automotive auxiliary and appliance motors
are obtained only at the expense of electrical con- 36 64 2.75 3 Automotive heaters and blower motors
ductivity. Precipitation-hardened alloys, disper- 40 60 2.75 4 Automotive and other small auxiliary starting motors
sion-hardened alloys, and powder metal mixtures 40 60 2.75 2.5 Automotive heaters and ac motors
50 50 3.05 0.73 Automotive alternators
can provide a wide range of mechanical and elec- 50 50 2.97 6 Automotive auxiliary and appliance motors
trical properties. For example, powder metallurgy 50 50 3.18 0.83 Industrial truck motors
(P/M) copper-tungsten or copper-graphite mix- 62 38 3.65 3 Automotive starters. Excellent grade for low-humidity applications;
tures are used when resistance to arcing, welding, excellent filming properties
65 35 3.15 3 Starters
and sticking is required. Table 8 lists properties and 75 25 3.25 0.51 ac wound motors and rotary converters
applications of copper-graphite brush contact 95 5 6.30 34 Collector roll brushes
materials. Additional information on copper- 92 8 7.30 41 High-current-carrying brush material for grounding applications
graphite and copper-tungsten P/M products can be 96 4 7.75 42 Automotive starters
wound resistors, because of the difference in rate are restricted to applications involving low Manganins are susceptible to selective oxida-
of heat dissipation between the two styles. operation temperatures. They are used chiefly tion or preferential corrosive attack. This may
In design of primary electrical standards of for resistors that carry relatively high currents, occur during heat treatment, wire manufacture,
very high accuracy, cost of resistance material is and for this reason rapid dissipation of heat or coil fabrication. Selective oxidation results
not a consideration. For ordinary production from the surface of the resistor is desirable. In in formation of a copper-rich (manganese-
components, however, cost may be the deciding this application, resistor temperature may vary depleted) zone on the wire. This copper-rich
factor in material selection. over a wide range, but temperature changes are sheath has the effect of greatly increasing the
relatively unimportant. temperature coefficient of resistance and rais-
Copper-nickel resistance alloys, generally Copper-manganese-nickel resistance alloys, ing the peak temperature well beyond the range
referred to as radio alloys, have very low resis- generally referred to as manganins, have been at which any precision resistor would ordinari-
tivities and moderate temperature coefficients adopted almost universally for precision resis- ly be used.
of resistance (TCR), as shown in the first four tors, slide wires, and other resistive components The resistivity of manganin—roughly 500
listings in Table 9. Resistivity of radio alloys with values of 1 k or less, and also are used n m (300 circ mil/ft) at 25 °C (77 °F)—
increases, and TCR decreases, as nickel content for components with values up to 100 k. is adequate for most instrumentation purposes.
increases. Thermal electromotive force (emf) is Originally, manganin was the name of a spe- The thermoelectric potential versus copper is
negative with respect to copper, the magnitude cific alloy, but the term is now generic and cov- very low, usually less than –2 V/°C from 0 to
being directly proportional to nickel content. ers several different compositions (see Table 9). 100 °C (32 to 212 °F).
All radio alloys can be readily soldered or All manganins are moderate in resistivity (from Constantan, like manganin, has become a
brazed. Those with 12 and 22% nickel have 380 to 480 n m, or 230 to 290 circ mil/ft) generic term for a series of alloys that have
high enough resistance to permit welding. and low in TCR (less than 15 ppm/°C). moderate resistivities and low temperature
Because of their high copper contents, radio Manganins are stable solid-solution alloys. coefficients of resistance (see Table 9).
alloys have low resistance to oxidation and thus The electrical stability of these alloys, verified Nominally, constantans are 55 Cu-45Ni alloys,
by several decades of experience, is such that but specific compositions vary from approxi-
LIVE GRAPH their resistance values change no more than mately 50 Cu-50Ni to approximately 65Cu-
Click here to view about 1 ppm per year when the material is prop- 35Ni. The temperature coefficient of conven-
erly heat treated and protected. Manganin-type tional constantan can be held within 20
alloys are characterized by rather steep, parabol- ppm/°C of ambient temperature. However, the
ic relations between resistance and temperature. difference in TCR between the low (–55 to 25
This severely restricts the range of temperature °C, or –67 to 77 °F) and high-temperature
over which resistance is stable, thus limiting the ranges (25 to 105 °C or 77 to 220 °F) is about
use of manganins to devices for which operating 20 ppm. Thus, the specification is 20 ppm/°C
temperatures are both stable and predictable. For over one temperature range or 40 ppm/°C
some applications, the maximum of the parabo- over both ranges. A variation of constantan with
la (peak, or peak temperature) is kept near room 3% Mn improves the flatness of the resistance
temperature by controlling composition, mini- temperature curve and provides a TCR of 20
mizing the effects of small changes in ambient ppm/°C from –55 to 105 °C (–67 to 220 °F). All
temperature. The temperature coefficient of constantans contain iron and cobalt in addition
commercial manganin is usually less than 10 to manganese.
ppm/°C for an interval of 10 °C (18 °F) on either The temperature coefficient of resistance of
side of the peak. constantan is very low and parabolic, like that
When instruments are designed for operation of manganin, but remains flat over a much
above ambient temperature, the chemical com- wider range (Fig. 7). Other properties
position of the manganin is chosen so that the are given in Table 9; specific property values
peak will occur in the operating temperature vary somewhat with composition. Constantans
range. So-called “shunt manganin,” which car- are considerably more resistant to corrosion
Fig. 7 Variation of resistance with temperature for four
ries high currents and consequently get hot in than manganins.
precision resistor alloys. To calculate
resistance at temperature, multiply resistance at room use, usually has a peak temperature from 45 to Use of constantans as electrical resistance
temperature by the temperature factor. 65 °C (115 to 150 °F). alloys is restricted largely to ac circuits,
Table 9 Typical properties of copper-base electrical resistance alloys

Tensile strength(a) Density(a)
Thermoelectric potential Coefficient of thermal
Basic composition, % Resistivity(a), n · m(b) TCR(c), ppm/°C versus Cu, V/°C expansion(d), m/m · °C MPa ksi g/cm3 lb/in.3
Radio alloys
98Cu-2Ni 50 1400 (25–105 °C) –13 (25–105 °C) 16.5 205–410 30–60 8.9 0.32
94Cu-6Ni 100 700 (25–105 °C) –13 (25–105 °C) 16.3 240–585 35–85 8.9 0.32
89Cu-11Ni 150 450 (25–105 °C) –25 (25–105 °C) 16.1 340–515 35–75 8.9 0.32
78Cu-22Ni 300 180 (25–105 °C) –36 (0–75 °C) 15.9 345–690 50–100 8.9 0.32
Manganins
87Cu-13Mn 480 15 (15–35 °C) 1 (0–50 °C) 18.7 275–620 40–90 8.2 0.30
83Cu-13Mn-4Ni 480 15 (15–35 °C) –1 (0–50 °C) 18.7 275–620 40–90 8.4 0.31
85Cu-10Mn-4Ni(e) 380 10 (40–60 °C) –1.5 (0–50 °C 18.7 345–690 50–100 8.4 0.31
Constantans
57Cu-43Ni 500 20 (25–105 °C) –43 (25–105 °C) 14.9 410–930 60–135 8.9 0.32
55Cu-45Ni 500 40 (–55–105 °C) –42 (0–75 °C) 14.9 455–860 66–125 8.9 0.32
53Cu-44Ni-3Mn 525 70 (–55–105 °C) –38 (0–100 °C) 14.9 410–930 60–135 8.09 0.32
(a) At 20 °C (68 °F). (b) To convert to · circ mil/ft, multiply by 0.6015. (c) Temperature coefficient of resistance is (R – R0)/R0 (t – t0), where R is resistance at t °C and R0 is resistance at the reference temperature t0 °C. (d)
At 25 to 105 °C. (e) Shunt manganin
Applications / 159
Fig. 8 Assortment of connectors using copper alloys as contacts. Source: Copper

Development Association Inc.
Fig. 9 Assortment of copper alloy lead frames and electrical contacts. Source: Copper
Development Association Inc.
because thermoelectric potential versus copper One surface of both types of copper is usually Table 10 Properties of electrodeposited
is quite high for these materials (about 40 treated by chemical oxidation to increase adhe- and rolled-annealed copper foil
V/°C at room temperature). However, if the sion, to reduce resist undercutting by etchants, Electrodeposited Rolled-annealed
circuit voltage is high enough to overshadow and to reduce bond degradation by plating chem- Property copper (high ductility) copper
thermoelectric effects, constantans may be used icals. Electrolytically deposited copper is easily Purity, % 99.8 99.9
in dc circuits as well. treated, but treating RA copper is difficult and Resistivity 1.7 10–6 1.69 10–6
expensive. A thin layer of zinc can be applied to (at 20 °C, or
68 °F), cm
Electronic Equipment the surface of the copper foil to increase bond Break elongation, % 10 10
strength and reduce corrosion. In addition, pro- Fatigue ductility, % 10–25 150
Electronic equipment constitutes a relatively prietary stain-proofing treatments are also used. Surface quality 0.50 (20) 0.50 (20)
small (in terms of tonnage consumed) but com- Copper foils are available in a variety of qual- (roughness), rms
mercially and technically important application max,m (in.)
ity and property grades. If ED copper foil is Standard weights, 0.004–0.70 0.018–0.18
for copper. The stringent demands placed on used, it must be of the highest quality to avoid g (oz) (1/8–20) (1/2–5)
modern electronic devices have increased the excessive foil defects. Both annealed and nonan- 2000 (80) 650 (25.5)
role of copper in this market. Examples of com- nealed ED copper foils are available. A special
ponents used in electrical and electronic applica- high-ductility grade of ED copper is available Maximum width, mm (in.)
tions are shown in Fig. 8 and 9. with increased elongation. Rolled copper is
available as-rolled, annealed, or in a special low-
Printed Circuit Boards temperature annealed (LTA) grade, which is eas- ly with foil thickness for ultrathin gages. These
ier to handle and harder than ordinary soft rolled added costs and the costs of the additional carri-
Copper foil is the basic conductor in printed copper. LTA foil is annealed after lamination to er sheets must be traded off against savings
circuit boards (PCBs). Copper foil is available as a dielectric substrate. through increased circuit density and reduced
either electrolytically deposited (ED) copper or Copper foil is typically sold by weight, and etching time. All copper foils are treated with an
rolled-annealed (RA) copper. Electrolytically flexible laminate manufacturers usually refer oxidation inhibitor treatment. Although this
deposited copper has a columnar grain structure, to the copper weight per unit of area. For treatment prevents premature oxidation, it can
that is, the grain axes are perpendicular to the example, 1 oz copper refers to foil that weighs affect the adhesion of photoresist or imaging
plane of the foil. This foil is formed by plating 1 oz per square foot. This may also be referred inks. Data on thickness requirements, mechani-
the copper from a solution so that the grains to as 35 m (1.36 mils) copper. Standard cal properties, and applications for copper foil
grow perpendicular to the plane of the foil. weights of copper used in flexible printed classes are available in Ref 15.
Rolled copper is formed by a mechanical wiring (FPW) are 0.5, 0.75, 1, and 2 oz/ft2. PCB Fabrication. Printed circuit boards are
process, taking ingots of pure copper and apply- Foils less than 0.5 oz/ft2 are being increasing- made by the so-called print and etch process. A
ing heat and rolling pressure to reduce the thick- ly used in FPW to reduce copper usage in copper-clad resin laminate is coated with the cir-
ness and form a thin continuous web. This gives order to improve flexibility and to improve cuit pattern in a protective “resist” material. The
the foil a platelike grain structure that is parallel yields in narrow (125 m, or 5 mils) circuit- unprotected copper areas are then chemically
with the foil plane. This is why rolled foils tend ry. Thinner foils reduce etching time and con- etched to remove the unwanted copper from the
to have better flex life endurance. ductor undercutting. Ultrathin electrodeposit- laminate. The resist is then removed, leaving a
The main differences between copper foils are ed foils are available in weights of 0.375, 0.25, copper replica of the desired pattern on the lam-
their mechanical properties. Rolled-annealed and 0.125 oz/ft2. The last two gages are sup- inate. For reverse prints, the uncovered copper
copper foil has lower tensile strength and greater plied on a disposable aluminum or copper car- areas are electroplated with a protective metal,
elongation properties, is softer, and has greater rier sheet, which is peeled or etched away after usually tin, tin-lead solder, gold, or tin-nickel
ductility (Table 10). Electrodeposited foils have the foil is laminated to a substrate. alloy. After plating, the organic resist is removed
higher tensile strength, lower elongation, and The costs of mechanical processes such as and the plated metal serves as the resist in the
tend to be stiffer and less ductile than RA copper. laminating, drilling, and deburring vary inverse- subsequent copper-etching operation. Copper
foils can also be incorporated into the resin lam- cation because of its high conductivity, low-con- have become the predominant IC lead frame
inate to improve heat dissipation in boards with tact resistance, good spring properties, high- material in plastic dual-in-line packages
high-component densities. The foils add stress relaxation resistance, adequate strength, (PDIPs), replacing iron-nickel alloys. ASTM
mechanical and thermal stability, thereby reduc- and excellent formability and plateability. The F 30 alloys remains dominant in hermetic, glass-
ing the incidence of thermally or vibration- dominant electronic connector alloys are sealed ceramic packages because the CTE close-
induced fatigue failures. C26000, C50500, C51000, and C72500. Other ly matches that of alumina and because it is
connector materials include C11000, C15500, compatible with the elevated-temperature manu-
Connectors C17200, C17410, C17500, C19400, C19500, facturing operations used for such packages.
C68800, and C76200 (Ref 16). Compositions. Copper alloys available
About two-thirds of the copper-base products Alloys with high-stress relaxation resistance throughout the world can be compiled into gen-
used in electronic components are found in con- are favored for contacts subjected to elevated eral compositional groupings. The most widely
nectors (Fig. 8). Copper is favored for this appli- temperatures, including the thermal spikes used alloys are shown in Table 11, where they
applied during burn-in. Highly stress-relax- are separated according to their dominant alloy-
Table 11 Nominal compositions of lead ation-resistant alloys include C17200 and ing element. The selection of any particular
frame alloys other beryllium coppers, C70250, C51000, alloy will depend on the properties it can pro-
Alloy group Designation Nominal composition, net% C52100, C72500, C15100, and a Cu-Ni-Sn vide, the ability to be fabricated into high-quali-
Cu-Fe C19400 2.35Fe-0.03P-0.12Zn
spinodal alloy. ty strip having consistent properties, its avail-
C19500 1.5Fe-0.8Co-0.05P-0.6Sn Connectors are normally stamped from strip, ability, and its cost.
C19700 0.6Fe-0.2P-0.04Mg typically ranging from 0.25 to 0.6 mm (0.01 to Electrical Conductivity. Minimum electri-
C19210 0.10Fe-0.034P 0.025 in.) thick. Heavy-duty, high-reliability prod- cal conductivity for a selection of alloys is
Cu-Cr CCZ 0.55Cr-0.25Zr
ucts such as cylindrical military-type connectors shown in Table 12. Lead frame materials can be
EFTEC 64T 0.3Cr-0.25Sn-).2Zn
Cu-Ni-Si C70250 3.0Ni-65Si-0.15mg are machined from rod or wire. Again, contact ranked for electrical conductivity either as a
KLF-125 3.2Ni-0.7Si-1.25Sn-0.3Zn points are usually plated with oxidation-resistant percentage of pure copper conductivity as a
C19010 1.0Ni-0.2Si-0.03P metals. Tin and tin-lead contacts can be used in unit standard, or by resistivity.
Cu-Sn C50715 2Sn-0.1Fe-0.03P less-demanding applications, but noble metal con- Thermal conductivity, shown in Table 13, is
C50710 2Sn-0.2Ni-0.05P
Other C15100 0.1Zr tacts are more common. Gold-plated contacts obtained by conversion from electrical conduc-
C15500 0.11Mg-0.06P require an underlying nickel barrier to prevent tivity using the Wiedemann-Franz relationship.
Fe-Ni ASTM F 30 42Ni-58Fe diffusion of gold into the copper substrate. This relationship is convenient to use because of
(Alloy 42) Beryllium coppers are used almost exclu- the greater difficulty of measuring thermal con-
Fe-Ni-Co ASTM F 1 29Ni-17Co-54Fe
(Kovar) sively for the female sockets in cylindrical mil- ductivity. The conversion is more precise when
itary connectors; male pins are made from comparing alloys of the same family.
brasses. Phosphor bronzes, alloy C72500, or Strength versus Formability. Metals are
Table 12 Electrical conductivities at 20 °C other alloys are used in commercial products. strengthened through alloying and processing.
(68 °F) for lead frame materials Larger contacts can be stamped from strip, but Alloying elements that remain in solid solution
Alloy Conductivity(a), Resistivity, screw-machined or cold-headed rod and wire reduce conductivity, but processing can be
%IACS cm
dominate otherwise. adjusted with certain alloys to minimize conduc-
C15100 95 1.81 Insulation-displacement connectors were tivity loss through precipitation from solid solu-
C15500 86 1.99
C19210 85 2.03
developed in the 1970s to permit efficient termi- tion, while still adding to final strength. Also,
CCZ 85 2.03 nations in flat (ribbon) cable. Electrical contact some elements in solid solution are less deleteri-
C19700 80 2.16 is made by piercing the cable insulation with ous to conductivity than others. Alloy develop-
K75 75 2.28 prongs on the connector. In female insulation- ment involves maximizing the trade-off between
C19400 65 2.54
C19010 60 2.87
displacement connectors, springiness must be strength and conductivity. Yield strength (0.2%
C19500 50 3.44 maintained at the piercing end to hold the (typi- offset) is used as the measure of strength
C70250 40 4.31 cally four) points in contact with the wire and at because this property relates to the resistance of
C50715 35 4.89 the socket end. The preferred materials are phos- a lead to being plastically deformed or moved
KLF-125 35 4.89
C50710 30 5.75
phor bronzes, beryllium coppers, and UNS out of the specified position on a package.
ASTM F 15 4 49 alloys C68800 and C72500. The male halves are Leads are typically formed around a radius that
ASTM F 30 2.5 70 less critical and can be made from brasses or is about equal to the strip thickness as the lead
other copper alloys. exits the package. Therefore, any strength com-
(a) % International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) is 172.41/resis-
tivity in cm
parison among alloys must be normalized against
Lead Frames (Ref 17) this requirement, because generally, increasing
the strength or temper of a given alloy reduces its
Table 13 Thermal conductivities at 20 °C Lead frames are the mounting media for ability to make a bend over a small radius.
(68 °F) for lead frame materials integrated circuits (ICs) and similar devices The direction relative to the rolling direction
Thermal conductivity (Fig. 9). The ideal, all-purpose lead frame of the strip can also be important. The smallest
Alloy W/m K Btu in./h ft2 °F would have high electrical conductivity and radius over which a bend can be made without
C15100 380 2635 thermal conductivity, good corrosion resistance, fracture of the lead or strip, referred to as the
C15500 344 2385 good solderability, and would be low in cost, minimum bend radius (MBR), is usually small-
C19210 340 2360 like copper. It would also have the low coeffi- er when the axis of bending is normal to the
CCZ 340 2360 cient of thermal expansion (CTE), high strength, rolling direction (longitudinal bend) than when
C19700 320 2220
C19400 260 1805 good formability, and softening resistance of an the axis is parallel to the rolling direction (trans-
C19010 240 1665 Fe-42Ni alloy (alloy 42, or UNS K94100) cov- verse bend). This difference becomes more pro-
C19500 200 1390 ered in ASTM F 30 (for many years, lead frames nounced as the strength (temper) of a given
C70250 160 1110 were stamped from iron-nickel alloys). Because alloy is increased. The minimum bend radius
C50715 140 970
KLF-125 140 970 no such single alloy exists, there has been a for longitudinal bends controls formability of
C50710 120 830 conversion to copper alloys in nonhermetic lead frame used for PDIPs while transverse
ASTM F 15 40 275 packages, largely on the basis of thermal and bending limits will control formability of lead
ASTM F 30 12 85 cost considerations. Worldwide, copper alloys from for small-outline ICs (SOICs), four-
Applications / 161
Table 14 Copper alloy maximum yield Table 16 Coefficients of thermal expan- sheared to the 0.45 mm (0.017 in.) width of the
strengths for various plastic package sion at 20 to 300 °C (68 to 570 °F) for lead lower lead section in PDIP packages. The sam-
configurations frame materials ples used for this test comparison were cut par-
Coefficient of thermal
allel to the rolling direction of the strip
Transistor
PDIP PLCC/SOIC outline Alloy Alloy group expansion, 10–6/K (referred to as longitudinal), which is the same
Alloy MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi C15100 99.9% Cu 17.6 direction for leads in stamped, PDIP lead
C15100 380 55 345 50 … … C18200 Cu-Cr 17.5 frames. About one-half to one less cycle to
C19210 345 50 345 50 … … C19400 Cu-Fe 17.4 failure is typical for most alloys when tested in
C19400 480 70 415 60 345 50 C70250 Cu-Ni-Si 17.2 the transverse direction. For the strengths
C50710 480 70 415 60 … … C50710 Cu-Sn 17.8
ASTM F 30 Ni-Fe 4.0–4.7 shown in Table 17, all alloys would pass the
C19500 530 77 … … … …
C19700 480 70 415 60 345 50
three-cycle minimum specified by MIL-STD-
C70250 690 100 550 80 … … 883. These data are appropriate, therefore, for
Table 17 Lead bend fatigue comparison PDIPs with leads in the longitudinal strip
PDIP, plastic dual-in-line package; PLCC, plastic leaded chip carrier; (longitudinal orientation) direction and SOIC packages with transverse
SOIC, small-outline integrated circuit
0.2% offset yield strength
orientation leads. ASTM F 30 alloy provides
Alloy MPa ksi
much higher resistance to lead bend fatigue
Table 15 Solderabilities of lead frame than any of the available copper alloys.
C15100 380 55
alloys C19210 380 55 However, three to five cycles are adequate for
Solderability rating CCZ 430 62 all practical purposes.
Alloy group Alloy (type R flux)(a) C19700 450 65 Environmental Stability. Resistance to
C50710 450 65 fracture while under stress is tested under accel-
Cu-Fe C19400 1–2
C19400 475 69
C19500 1–2
C50715 550 80 erated conditions in Mattsson’s solutions
C19700 1–2 (ASTM G 30) with the pH adjusted for ranking
C19010 585 85
C19210 1–2
Cu-Cr CCZ 2
C70250 620 90 in industrial-type environments. Moist ammonia
ASTM F 30 620 90 ( 4–5 cycles) can be used to stimulate severe industrial envi-
EFTEC 64T 2
Cu-Ni-Si C70250 1 ronments and dissociation of phenolic plastic
KLF-125 1 a dip test procedure covered under MIL-STD- components. Susceptibility to stress-corrosion
C19010 1–2
Cu-Sn C50715 2 202, method 208, and MIL-STD-883, method cracking of new alloys can be referenced to
C50710 2 2003.5. Visual ratings after successive immer- commercial alloys whose resistance is known in
Other C15100 1 sions in flux (type R, inactivated, or type RMA, practical terms. For instance, C15100, C19400,
C15500 1 mildly activated), and 60Sn-40Pb solder are used C19500, and C19700 are equivalent to unal-
Fe-Ni ASTM F 30 3–4
to differentiate among alloys. The MIL-STD-883 loyed copper, C11000, which is considered
(a) Visual ratings: class 1, uniform smooth coating; class 2, 100% wet- requires 95% area coverage to pass this dip test. immune to such failure, whereas C70250,
ting, but not smooth; class 3, 50% dewetting, 10% pinholes; and It is also common to compare alloys by using the C50710, and C50715 are equivalent to the phos-
class 4, 50% dewetting, 10% pinholes
same dip test procedures, but using agreed-upon phor bronze, C51000, which is known to be very
standards for five classes of solder coverage. The highly resistant.
sided packages, and ceramic dual-in-line ratings from class I to V are determined by Softening Resistance. Thermal cycles, typ-
packages (CERDIPs). degree of wetting, dewetting, and pores. ically in plastic IC packaging, broadly include
Another factor affecting the MBR is the ratio Wetting balance measurements promise to temperatures in the vicinity of 175 to 300 °C
of lead width to thickness. The ability to make a provide more quantitative comparisons, but uni- (350 to 570 °F) and various times, such as up
sharper bend improves as the lead width versally accepted criteria have not been devel- to 1 min for wire bonding (200 to 300 °C, or
decreases at constant thickness. The cause for oped even though the procedure has been large- 390 to 570 °F), 1 h for polyimide die attach
this apparent “improvement” in bend formabili- ly defined (MIL-STD-883C, method 2022.2). (180 °C, or 355 °F), and up to 5 h at 175 °C
ty is the mode of deformation that operates when These specifications also include accelerated (350 °F) for curing die attach adhesives. Burn-
the ratio of width to thickness decreases below aging conditions. in testing is usually done at lower temperatures
about 8, and this deformation mode changes Solderability ratings for selected lead frame (150 °C, or 300 °F).
from one of plane strain to plane stress. More alloys are summarized in Table 15. All results Figure 10 summarizes hardness change versus
localized or necking strain is available to assist refer to type R flux immersion before soldering. temperature as an indication of the relative sta-
forming in the latter before fracture ensues. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion. All cop- bility of the various copper alloys. ASTM F 15
Thus, a given alloy temper may be capable of per alloys have very nearly the same coefficient and F 30 alloys do not soften until temperatures
being formed successfully with narrow-leaded of thermal expansion. Values for selected alloys in excess of 600 °C (1110 °F) are reached.
SOIC, plastic leaded chip carrier (PLCC), and are summarized in Table 16. Most notable is that Hence, they do not soften even during CERDIP
quad flatpack packages (width-to-thickness the CTE of copper alloys is much larger than glass sealing operations.
ratios near 3 to 4) than for a PDIP package (ratio that of Fe-Ni alloys. The low CTE of ASTM F
near 6). The preceding bend factors place a limit 30 is attributed to magnetic ordering. As the
on the maximum strength that can be used for a temperature increase beyond 400 °C (750 °F), Industrial Machinery and
given package configuration. Table 14 lists max- this alloy and ASTM F 15 alloy behave more Equipment
imum strengths for selected lead frame alloys at like their component elements.
which they can meet the formability require- Lead Bend Fatigue. The lead bend fatigue Copper and copper alloys are widely used in
ments for the indicated package configuration. test covered by MIL-STD-883 is applied to industrial equipment, generally because they
This table takes into account bend formability leads on packages, while SEMI G 10 refers to offer a particularly beneficial combination of
requirements for each. Accordingly, lower tem- test samples sheared from strip before it is electrical and/or thermal conductivity, corrosion
pers are recommended for PLCC, SOIC, and stamped into lead frame. The strengths of resistance, strength, and wear resistance.
transistor outline (TO)-type applications alloys capable of withstanding 4 to 5 cycles
because of different lead thickness, width, lead before failure in 0°-90°-0° cycles (which is Heat Exchangers and Condensers
orientation, and bending radius requirements. above the three-cycles-to-failure minimum in
Solderability. The inherent capability of a MIL-STD-883) are listed in Table 17 for 0.25 Copper alloys have traditionally been the
material to be soldered is usually determined by mm (0.010 in.) thick strip that has been preferred materials for marine and fresh water
condensers and heat exchangers. The most Salt Water Cooling. The three most important ter to specify SCC-resistant alloys such as cop-
commonly used alloys are the copper-nickels, copper alloys for salt water cooled condensers (in per-nickels.
aluminum bronzes, aluminum brasses, and tin order of increasing corrosion resistance) are Copper-nickel alloys (also called cupronickel)
brasses. Alloys are chosen on the basis of their arsenical aluminum brass, C68700, 90 Cu-10Ni, are single-phase binary alloys containing small
corrosion resistance (in the expected opera- C70600, and 70Cu-30Ni, C71500. Table 18 lists amounts of additional alloying elements to
tion environment) and their ability to with- the performance of three copper alloys in pollut- enhance particular properties (iron improves
stand high-velocity fluid flow (erosion-corro- ed seawater; ratings are based on the percent of erosion-corrosion resistance; niobium improves
sion resistance). Equally important is the tubes failed per 10,000 service hours. weldability). Uses for copper-nickels C70600,
ability of copper alloys to inhibit the growth Fresh Water Cooling. Thin-walled condensers C71500, and C72200 are described previously.
of marine organisms (biofouling), which, if cooled with recirculated fresh water are often Other important alloys in this family include
unchecked, reduce flow rates, promote corro- tubed with 90Cu-10Ni, C70600. This alloy with- C70610, (Cu-10Ni-1.5Fe-1.0Mn), C71900, (Cu-
sion, degrade heat transfer, and necessitate stands evaporatively concentrated corrosive 30NiMn, Cr, Zr, Ti), and C71640 (Cu-30Ni-
costly maintenance. species, aeration, low pH (required for scale 2Fe-2Mn). Like other copper-nickels, these
Condenser tubes are one of a power plant’s control), and high biomass contents (bacteria, alloys are not susceptible to SCC, and unlike
most critical elements, especially in plants that use mussels, and slime). C70600 tolerates such brasses, their corrosion behavior is not sensitive
saline or brackish water for cooling. Condenser waters at temperatures up to 90 °C (194° F) at to changes in pH. Especially good resistance to
tubes must not leak, because intrusion of oxygen velocities up to 3.9 m/s (12.8 ft/s). high-velocity impingement attack has been
and salt water to the boiler rapidly leads to corro- Alloy Selection. The aqueous corrosion demonstrated by alloy C71900 (Ref 1).
sion and hydrogen embrittlement of boiler tubes resistance of copper alloys is based on the for- Alloy C71640 is intended for use in seawater.
and other components. Even fresh-water cooled mation of adherent and protective layers of It has excellent corrosion resistance; however,
plants are sensitive to this problem because the insoluble corrosion products. Such layers can- high-flow velocities may induce pitting, even in
evaporative cooling towers often used in such not form on ordinary copper-zinc brasses in this 30% Ni alloy. Very low seawater velocities
installations can concentrate dilute salts by factors seawater; therefore, special brasses, copper- (less than 1.5 m/s) and interrupted flow condi-
of from 2 to 8. Condenser tube failures generally nickels, and aluminum bronzes are better suit- tions can also be troublesome because stagna-
result from stress-corrosion cracking (ammonia ed for such service. tion may give rise to the formation of deposits,
attack), pitting, parting corrosion, or erosion-cor- Special brasses include alloy C26130 modi- which invite crevice corrosion. The iron-bearing
rosion due to entrapped foreign matter or faulty fied with 0.05% As to inhibit dezincification. 10% copper-nickels are less affected by low-
tube rolling. An uninhibited 70-30 brass such as C26000 can flow velocities and, therefore, present the best
Hydraulic shear forces in rapidly flowing be used in river water with salt contents as high cost/benefits compromise for saline heat-
media can damage protective oxide films, a as 2 g/L unless the pH is acidic, but tin brasses exchanger applications.
process that eventually leads to erosion-corrosion. such as C44300 give better service. Better still is Alloy C70600 has performed successfully in
Condenser tube materials are rated by how well aluminum brass C68700, which was actually absorption-type air conditioning units charged
they withstand such hydraulic forces. Ratings are developed for seawater service. Handbook data with concentrated lithium-bromide solutions
expressed in terms of shear stress or by the maxi- indicate that this alloy should be limited to flow and in air, hydrogen, and oil coolers in which
mum or critical flow velocities the materials can velocities between 0.8 and 2 m/s (2.6 and 6.6 the cooling water was contaminated with
tolerate without damage. The critical shear stress ft/s), but the limit can be extended to 2.5 m/s ammonia. It also gives good service in dormi-
for aluminum brass is 19 Pa (2.8 ksi); for 90Cu- (8.2 ft/s) in very clean water. tory shell- and tube-type heating plants; dish-
10Ni it is 43 Pa (6.2ksi), and for 70 Cu-30Ni it is All brasses are susceptible to stress-corrosion washers and laundries; softened waters con-
48 Pa, (7.0 ksi). Alloy C72200, a chromium-iron- cracking (SCC) in the presence of ammonia, taining high concentrations of oxygen and
manganese-modified 80Cu-15Ni, exhibits a criti- amines, nitrites, and mercury and its compounds CO2; seawater-cooled compressor inter- and
cal sheer stress of 297 Pa (43 ksi), well above that when the alloys are under residual or applied aftercoolers, and air ejector sections of power
encountered in normal condenser service. The tensile stress. The organic amines morpholine plant condensers. In the latter case, the copper
critical coolant velocity for this alloy is 6 m/s and hydrazine used as oxygen scavengers in alloy successfully replaced stainless steel that
(19.7 ft/s), almost twice that of alloy C70600. modern power plants break down in service to had failed by chloride-induced SCC.
Alloy C71500 can be used at flow velocities yield ammonia and, therefore, constitute a
between 3.5 and 4 m/s (11.5 and 13 ft/s). potential threat to copper condenser tubing.
Experience suggests however, that the oxygen Bearings
LIVE GRAPH and ammonia contents in the main body of well-
Click here to view Temperature, °F, for 1 h
monitored condensers are quite low, and corro- Copper-base alloys offer a wide range of
250
RT 210 390 570 750 sion is not a serious problem. Corrosion can be properties for sleeve-type and other types of
more severe in the air removal section of the sliding bearings. The most commonly employed
ASTM F30 (620 MPa,
C70250 units, and in general, during shutdown and start- copper bearing alloys are commercial bronze,
Vickers hardness number
02% yield strength)

200
(690 MPa) up. If ammonia contamination is high, it is bet- copper-lead alloys, and leaded and unleaded tin
C19010 (585 MPa)
bronzes. They are used alone in single-metal
C50715 Table 18 Comparative reliability of alloys bearings, as bearing backs with Babbitt surface
C19400 (480 MPa) (550 MPa)
150 C70600, C71500, and C68700 in polluted layers, as bimetal layers bonded to steel backs,
C50710 (415 MPa) C15100
seawater and as intermediate layers in steel-backed
C19210 (415 MPa) (380 MPa) Probability of reaching X years life trimetal bearings (Ref 18). Table 19 lists charac-
100
C19700
with no more than Y% tube failures teristics and applications for copper-base sliding
(480 MPa) Median failure Y 30% X 20 bearings. Table 20 gives specification numbers
UNS No. rate X 30 Y 10%
and nominal compositions of copper-base bear-
50 C70600 0.05 85 85
RT 100 200 300 400 500 ing alloys, as well as the forms in which the
(Cu-10% Ni)
Temperature, °C, for 1 h C71500 0.06 81 81
alloys are used.
(Cu-30% Ni) The moderate strength and hardness of pure
Fig. 10 Plot of hardness change versus temperature C68700 0.33 52 57 copper are readily increased by alloying, most
as an indication of stability of lead frame (Al brass, arsenical)
materials during assembly processes. Yield strength of
commonly with tin (with which copper forms a
each alloy before thermal exposure is shown in Source: Ref 1
solid solution). Lead is present in cast copper-
parentheses. RT, room temperature base bearing alloys as a nearly pure, discrete
Applications / 163
phase, because its solid solubility in the matrix strength and wear resistance, both of which speeds and lower loads than alloy 793. The
is practically nil. The lead phase, which is improve with increasing tin content, but poor sur- bronze matrix of SAE 794 is much stronger than
exposed on the running surface of a bearing, face properties. They are used for bridge turnta- that of a plain 75-25 copper-lead alloy. Alloy
constitutes a site vulnerable to corrosive attack bles and trunnions in contact with high-strength 794 can be used as the intermediate layer with a
under certain operating conditions. steel, and in other slow-moving applications. plated overlay in heavy-duty trimetal bearing
The antifriction behavior of copper-base Low-Lead Tin Bronzes. The inherently poor applications such as main and connecting-rod
bearing alloys improves as lead content increas- machinability of tin bronzes can be improved by bearings in diesel truck engines. This construc-
es, although at the same time strength is degrad- adding small amounts of lead. Such additions do tion provides the highest load-carrying ability
ed because of increased interruption of the con- not significantly improve surface properties, how- available in copper alloy trimetal bearings.
tinuity of the copper alloy matrix by the soft, ever, and applications for these alloys are essen- Copper-lead alloys are used extensively in
weak lead. Thus, through judicious control of tially the same as those for unleaded tin bronzes. automotive, aircraft, and general engineering
tin content, lead content, and microstructure, a Medium-Lead Tin Bronzes. The only applications. These alloys are cast or sintered to
large family of bearing alloys has evolved to wrought strip material in this group of alloys is a steel backing strip from which parts are
suit a wide variety of bearing applications. SAE 791, which is press formed into solid bush- blanked and formed into full-round or half-
Some of the more common bearing alloy fami- ings and thrust washers. C83600 is used in cast round shapes, depending on final application.
lies are discussed below. Additional bearing form as bearing backs in bimetal bearings. SAE Copper-lead alloys continuously cast on steel
alloys are listed in Table 19. 793 is a low-tin, medium-lead alloy that is cast strip typically consist of copper dendrites per-
Commercial Bronze. Lead-free copper or sintered on a steel back and used as a surface pendicular and securely anchored to the steel
alloys are characterized by poor antifriction layer for medium-load bimetal bushings. SAE back, with an interdendritic lead phase. In con-
properties but fairly good load-carrying ability. 792 is higher in tin and slightly higher in lead; it trast, sintered copper-lead alloys of similar com-
Wrought commercial bronze strip (SAE 795) is cast or sintered on a steel back and used for position are composed of more equiaxed copper
with 10% Zn can be readily press formed into heavy-duty applications such as wrist pin bush- grains with an intergranular lead phase.
cylindrical bushings and thrust washers. ings and heavy-duty thrust surfaces. High-lead alloy SAE 48 can be used bare on
Strength can be increased by cold working this High-lead tin bronzes contain medium-to- steel or cast iron journals. Tin content in this
inexpensive material. high amounts of tin and relatively high lead alloy is restricted to a minimum value to main-
Unleaded Tin Bronze. The unleaded copper- contents to markedly improve antifriction char- tain a soft copper matrix, which together with
tin alloys are know as phosphor bronzes because acteristics. SAE 794, widely used in bushings the high lead content improves the antifric-
they are deoxidized with phosphorus. They are for rotation loads, has the same bronze matrix tion/antiseizure properties of the alloy. Bare
used principally in cast form as shapes for spe- composition as SAE 793 (4.5% Sn) but three bimetal copper-lead bearings are used infre-
cific applications, or as rods or tubes from which times as much free lead. It is cast or sintered on quently today because the lead phase, present
solid bearings are machined. They have excellent a steel back and used for somewhat higher as nearly pure lead, is susceptible to attack by
Table 19 Characteristics and applications of copper-base bearing alloys

Alloy Characteristics Applications
Tin bronzes (C90300, C90500, C90700) High strength for pounding resistance; high loads at slow-to- Piston pin bushings, valve guides, rolling mill bearings, and
moderate speeds. High thermal conductivity promotes cool rocker shaft bearings for internal combustion engines.
operation. Alloys have low frictional coefficients against steel,
high wear resistance, good corrosion resistance, especially
against seawater. Alloys work well with greases and can
function under boundary lubrication, but should be used with
adequate and reliable lubricant supply. Shafts should be
hardened to 300–400 HB.
Leaded tin bronzes (C92200, C92300, C92700) Similar to those of tin bronzes. The lead provides high machinability Similar to those of tin bronzes
High-leaded tin bronzes Slightly lower in strength and ductility than tin bronzes. Ideal for Most commonly used bearing alloys. Best all-around
(C93200, C93400-C93800, C94100, C94300) moderate loads and moderate-to-high speeds, but impact loads choices for grease-lubricated and hydrodynamic
should be avoided. High thermal conductivity, wear resistance, and bearings. Broadly used in automotive, off-highway,
corrosion resistance. High lead content provides antiseizing agricultural, railroad, mining, and industrial equipment.
protection in the event of lubricant failure. Lead also safely embeds C93200 is considered the workhorse alloy. C93600
dirt particles, tolerates dirty lubricants. Softer alloys accommodate has improved pounding resistance, better corrosion
some shaft misalignment; can be run against unhardened shafts. resistance and machinabililty; C93700 has similar
properties and resists acidic and mineral waters,
paper-mill sulfite liquors.
High-strength brasses or manganese bronzes Strength greater than 790 MPa (115 ksi), but fatigue resistance Used under high loads at moderately high speeds.
(C86300, C86400) rated as moderate. Require hardened shafts and reliable supply of clean Have largely been replaced by aluminum bronzes in
lubricant; do not tolerate shaft misalignment. C86400 contains lead bearing applications.
to improve machinability
Aluminum bronzes Higher strengths and fatigue strengths than all alloys except Bushings for power shovels, off-highway equipment,
(C95300-C95500, C95520, C95800) beryllium copper; compressive strength of C95400 at 260 °C (500 roll-neck bearings, hydroelectric turbine wear rings,
°F) equals that of tin bronze at room temperature. Alloys resist shock thrust bearings, machine tool slides, and boring-bar
and repeated pounding loads well; have very high corrosion guide bearings
resistance but can be difficult to machine. Some alloys ("HT" suffix)
can be heat treated. Require clean, reliable lubrication, fine shaft
finishes, and shaft hardness >500 HB
Silicon brass (C87500) Moderately high strength for medium loads and high speeds. Good Infrequently used, but can be economical in small
castability, relatively good machinability, but demands careful motors, appliances.
foundry practice. Requires hard shafts and clean, reliable lubrication.
Beryllium copper (C82500) Ultrahigh strength and fatigue resistance, exceptional thermal Seldom used in cast form, although wrought Cu-Be
conductivity. Requires hard, precisely aligned shafts and clean, alloys are commonly used in aircraft bearings and
reliable lubrication. Readily machined in the annealed condition, similar high-strength products.
then heat-treated for highest strength.
Leaded coppers (C98200-C98840) High conductivity, low to moderate strength, depending on Automotive main and connecting-rod bearings.
composition,but somewhat better fatigue resistance than Babbitts
(tin- or lead-base bearing alloys). Usually cast onto and supported by
steel backing rings; may require electroplated Pb-Sn overlay
for corrosion resistance.
Table 20 Designations and nominal composition of copper-base bearing alloys

Designation Composition, %
No. UNS SAE ISO Other Cu Sn Pb Zn Product form Applications
Commercial bronze
1 C83420 Alloy 795 … … 90 0.5 … 9.5 Wrought strip Solid bronze bushings and washers
Unleaded tin bronzes
2 C52100 … CnSn8P … 92(a) 8 … … Wrought strip Solid bronze bushings and washers
3 C90300 … … … 88 8 … 4 Cast tubes Solid bronze bearings
4 C90500 … … … 88 10 … 2 Cast tubes Solid bronze bearings
5 C91100 … … … 84 16 … … Cast tubes Solid bronze bearings
6 C91300 … … … 81 19 … … Cast tubes Solid bronze bearings
Low-lead tin bronzes
7 C92200 … … … 88.5 6 1.5 4 Cast tubes Solid bronze bearings
8 C92300 … … … 87 8.5 0.5 4 Cast tubes Solid bronze bearings
9 C92700 … … … 87.5 10 2 0.5 Cast tubes Solid bronze bearings
Medium-lead tin bronzes
10 C83520 Alloy 791 … … 88 4 4 4 Wrought strip Solid bronze bushings and washers
11 … … … F32/F62 88 4 4 4 Cast on steel back Bimetal bushings and washers
12 C83600 … CuPb5SnZn5 … 85 5 5 5 Cast tubes Solid bronze bearings, bronze
bearing backs
13 C93200 … CuSn7PbZn3 … 83 7 7 3 Cast tubes Solid bronze bearings
14 … Alloy 793 … … 88 4 8 … Cast on steel back Bimetal surface layer
15 … Alloy 793 … … 88 4 8 … Sintered on steel back Bimetal surface layer
16 C93700 … CuPb10Sn10 … 80 10 10 … Cast tubes Solid bronze bearings, bronze
bearing backs
17 … Alloy 792 CuPb10Sn10(G) … 80 10 10 … Cast on steel back Bimetal surface layer, trimetal
intermediate layer
18 … Alloy 792 CuPb10Sn10(P) … 80 10 10 … Sintered on steel back Bimetal surface layer
High-lead tin bronzes
19 C93800 … … … 78 7 15 … Cast tubes Solid bronze bearings, bronze
bearing backs
20 … … … AMS 4825 74 10 16 … Cast on steel back Bimetal surface layer
21 … Alloy 794 CuPb24Sn4(G) … 73.5 3.5 23 … Cast on steel back Bimetal surface layer, trimetal
intermediate layer
22 … Alloy 794 CuPb24Sn4(P) … 73.5 3.5 23 … Sintered on steel back Bimetal surface layer, trimetal
intermediate layer
23 … … … F112 72.5 2.5 25 … Cast on steel back Trimetal intermediate layer
24 C94300 … … … 70 5 25 … Cast tubes Solid bronze bearings
Copper-lead alloys
25 … Alloy 49 CuPb24Sn(G) … 75 1 24 … Cast on steel back Trimetal intermediate layer
26 … Alloy 49 CuPb24Sn(P) … 75 1 24 … Sintered on steel back Trimetal intermediate layer
27 … Alloy 48 CuPb30(P) … 70 … 30 … Sintered on steel back Bimetal surface layer, trimetal
intermediate layer
28 … Alloy 485 … … 48 1 51 … Sintered on steel back, Bimetal surface layer
infiltrated with lead
Table 21 Typical room-temperature mechanical properties of copper-base bearing alloys ited by copper-base bearing alloys, according
Compressive Ultimate tensile
to alloy families and forms as listed in Table
yield strength(a) strength 20. Indentation hardness tests provide the
Alloy family Product form MPa ksi MPa ksi Hardness, HB most generally useful indications of behavior
Commercial bronze Wrought strip … … 310–440 45–64 78–115 under compressive loads, and are the only
Unleaded tin bronzes Wrought strip … … 400–580 58–84 80–160 standard strength tests that are applicable to
Cast tubes 90–125 13–18 240–310 35–45 70–170 all of the alloy forms. Conventional tensile
Low-lead tin bronzes Cast tubes … … 275–290 40–42 65–77 and compression tests can be performed only
Medium-lead tin bronzes Wrought strip … … 310–440 45–64 78–115
Cast tubes 90–100 13–14 240–255 35–37 60–65 on solid alloy bodies, which represent a rela-
Steel backed … … … … 50–130 tively small fraction of total copper-base bear-
High-lead tin bronzes Cast tubes 75–85 11–12 185–210 27–30 48–55 ing alloy applications.
Steel backed … … … … 55–90 Test information of this kind is helpful in the
Copper-lead alloys Steel backed … … … … 30–80
material selection process as a supplement to
(a) 0.1% offset information generated in dynamic rig tests and
in actual service. Except in certain solid-alloy
bearings and bushing applications, alloy strength
corrosive products that can form in the strong continuous copper alloy matrix structure and hardness values are rarely stated as absolute
crankcase lubricant during extended oil- with a very high lead content, and to alloy the specification requirements.
change periods. Therefore, must copper-base lead-rich constituent with sufficient tin to make it
alloys with lead contents 20%, including resistant to corrosion. SAE 485 is used principally Plastic Injection Molds
both SAE alloy 48 and alloy 49, are now used for bushing and bearing applications that involve
with plated overlays in trimetal bearings for alignment, shaft surface finish, or unusual dir con- The primary function of an injection mold,
automotive and diesel engines. tamination problems. besides defining the shape of a plastic part, is to
SAE 485 is a special sintered and infiltrated Mechanical Properties of Copper-Base remove heat from the plastic as quickly as possi-
composite material, produced by P/M methods. Bearing Alloys. Table 21 shows the ranges of ble. The injection mold may be thought of as a
By these methods, it is possible to combine a very mechanical strength properties that are exhib- heat transfer device similar to a radiator. The faster
Applications / 165
the mold can transfer heat out of the molten plas- • Unlike steel, brass ordinarily does not require motors for various safety, comfort, and/or con-
tic and solidify it, the faster the mold can be run. protective electroplating to resist corrosion. venience features, many of which are now stan-
The higher thermal conductivity of copper alloys dard equipment. These motors, along with their
offers a maximum heat transfer effect and opti- Motor Vehicles wiring harnesses and connectors, add signifi-
mized productivity. cantly to the modern vehicle’s copper content.
Copper alloys provide the best combination The average 1990s-vintage North American- New Automotive Applications. The trend
of high thermal conductivity and hardness for made automobile contains approximately 23 kg toward so-called “smart” vehicles has increased
molds used in the plastics industry. As seen in (50 lb) of copper. About 14 kg (30 lb) of copper copper consumption by 40% for devices such as
Table 22, hardness and thermal conductivity can be found in the average foreign-made auto- antilock-brake systems (ABS), burglar alarms,
vary over a range with each alloy system used mobile sold in North America (Ref 1). gyroscopes, collision-avoidance systems, and
for injection molding, including tool steels, Traditionally, copper usage was distributed navigation computers. The most significant non-
aluminum alloys, and copper alloys. Copper about equally among electrical systems (motors, electrical development is the use of corrosion-
alloys also are resistant to the acids associat- generator/alternators, wiring harnesses), heat resistant alloy C70600 brake line tube as stan-
ed with the molding of vinyl plastics and the transfer systems (radiators, oil coolers, heater dard equipment on several European and British
chemical attack of acetals. Although oxida- cores, and air-conditioning heat exchangers), cars (Ref 22). This alloy, which contains 10%
tion of copper alloys can occur at tempera- and mechanical components such as bearings Ni, with iron and manganese additions of 1.4%
tures above 200 °C (390 °F), this temperature and shifter forks. Beginning in the late 1980s, and 0.8%, respectively, has replaced furnace-
is above the range used in the molding of electrical uses steadily increased, while heat brazed steels coated with zinc, terne metal, or
most thermoplastics. transfer applications were gradually taken over epoxy/plastic coatings. As shown in Table 23,
by aluminum. By 1990, 79% of the total copper the copper-nickel alloy has almost the same
Transportation usage in an average North American automobile resistance to burst pressure as steel. In corrosion
was in the electrical system, and less than 10% testing, however, when exposed to salt spray for
was in heat transfer systems. However, despite more than 180 days, steel’s burst strength
Automobiles and trucks account for the
downsizing and a general reduction in the decreases dramatically (Fig. 11). The copper
largest share of copper usage in the transporta-
weight of automotive components, the large alloy remains consistently resistant. For tubes
tion sector. Trains, ships, and aircraft, in that
increase in the number and complexity of elec- covered with a moist, salty mudpack for six
order, make up the balance. Copper is mostly
trical systems has actually led to an increase in months, brazed steel was severely corroded,
used for electrical products, followed by heat
copper usage per vehicle. resulting in perforation of the tubing wall,
transfer devices such as radiators and oil coolers,
Automotive Radiators and Heaters. For whereas only superficial general corrosion was
and bronze sleeve bearings.
most of the twentieth century, copper and brass found on the copper-nickel tubing.
Many fittings, fasteners, and other screw
were the materials of choice for radiators and
machine products make from leaded free-cutting
heaters. This trend began to change in 1978, the Marine Applications
brass, C36000, the most widely used of all cop-
year Volkswagen introduced a car equipped with
per alloys, are used in transport applications. In
an aluminum radiator. Today the vast majority of Copper alloys are widely used in marine heat
many cases, brass screw machine products can
automobile radiators for new cars are made from exchangers and condensers, and in seawater pip-
be made at lower finished cost than they can
lighter-weight, lower-cost aluminum alloys, ing, pumps, valves, fittings, waterboxes, pro-
when made from leaded free-cutting steels, the
although truck bus, heavy vehicle, and aftermar- pellers, and sleeve bearings. Table 24 lists the
principal competitor to brass in the screw
ket radiators continue to be made from copper alloys commonly used in marine and marine-
machine product sector. This is possible for
and brass (Ref 1). The copper industry remains related service.
three largely unappreciated reasons:
active in improving copper and brass radiator Industrial marine applications usually call for
• Production rates with brass are significantly design, manufacturability, and corrosion resist- copper-nickels or aluminum bronzes. Manganese
higher than those attainable with leaded steel. ance (Ref 19–21). bronzes and silicon bronzes are also widely used,
• Brass turnings, which are valuable, are recy- Automotive Wiring. Whereas cars once typ- mainly in pipes, fittings, pump, and valve com-
cled economically, whereas leaded steel turn- ically had only three electric motors (for the ponents and other high-strength mechanical
ings, which are virtually worthless, are diffi- starter, windshield wiper, and heater/ventilator products. Small pleasure and racing craft use
cult to dispose of. blower), modern vehicles contain up to 70 propellers cast from manganese bronzes C86100
Table 22 Property comparison of injection mold alloys

Nominal properties
Thermal conductivity
Tensile strength(a)
W/m · K Btu/ft2/ft/h/˚F
Alloy UNS No. Description at 293 K at 68 ˚F Rockwell hardness(a) MPa ksi
Steels
S42000 Type 420 stainless steel 24.9 14.4 27–52 HRC 863–1725 125–250
T20813 H-13 tool steel 24.9 14.4 38–54 HRC 1421 206
T51620 P-20 tool steel 38.1 22.0 28–50 HRC 1007 146
Aluminum alloys
A96061 Type 6061-T6 166.9 96.5 60 HRB 276 40
A97075 Type 7075-T6 129.8 75.0 88 HRB 462 67
Copper and copper alloys(b)
C62400 Aluminum bronze 62.3 36.0 92 HRB 725 105
C17200 Beryllium copper (high hardness) 104.8 60.6 41 HRC 1311 190
C17200 Beryllium copper (moderate hardness) 131.0 75.7 30 HRC 1173 170
C17510 Beryllium copper (high conductivity) 233.6 135.0 96 HRB 759 110
C18200/18400 Chromium-hardened copper 325.5 187.0 60–80 HRB 352–483 51–70
C64700 Nickel-containing silicon bronze 162.6 94.0 94 HRB 725 105
C18000 Nickel-silicon-chromium-hardened copper 216.3 125.0 94 HRB 690 100
(a) For 25 mm (1 in.) rod; properties vary with product form and size. (b) The copper alloys are also available in cast versions with similar properties. Source: Copper Development Association Inc.
Table 23 Comparison of mechanical properties of materials used for hydraulic brake tubing
Ultimate tensile Yield strength 0.5% Fatigue strength
Elongation
strength extension under load (107 cycles) Burst pressure(a)
in 50 mm
Material MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % MPa ksi MPa ksi
Copper-brazed steel 330–380 48–55 190–235 28–34 30–40 210 30 135 19.5
C12200-phosphorus deoxidized copper 220–265 32–38 70–100 10–14 45–60 70 10 83 12
C70600-copper-nickel 90-10 330–370 48–54 110–150 16–22 40–55 100 15 130 19
(a) For typical 4.7 mm (3/16 in.) outer diameter tubing and 0.7 mm (0.028 in.) wall thickness. Source: Ref 22
or C86800. The manganese bronzes combine

high-corrosion resistance with exceptional
mechanical properties; some reach tensile
Table 24 Principal copper alloys used in substantial tonnages in marine and
strengths greater than 690 MPa (100 ksi). Small
marine-related service
boat propellers are also available in cast silicon
Copper alloy Number Principal uses brass, C87500. Large propellers are cast in nick-
Wrought alloys el-aluminum bronze, C95800.
DHP copper C12200 Hull sheathing, piping Traditional antifouling paints are compound-
DPA copper C14200 Hull sheathing, piping ed with copper oxide, an effective biostatic
Beryllium copper C17000 Undersea telephone cable repeater housings
Cartridge or 70:30 brass C26000 Hardware components
agent. The insoluble paints are inhospitable to
Muntz metal C28000 Tubesheets marine organisms. Copper-base systems are
Admiralty, arsenical C44300 Heat exchanger tubing considered environmentally safer than, for
Naval brass, arsenical C46500 Tubesheets example, tributyl tin-base coatings, which con-
Phosphor bronze C51000 Bolting, boat shafting, marine wire rope, naval ordnance
Phosphor bronze C52400 Naval ordnance
tinuously release toxins into the surrounding
Aluminum bronze C61300, C61400 Power plant and offshore oil piping and waterboxes water. Small boats that are infrequently used are
NiAl bronze C63000, C63200 Pump shafts, valve stems (Navy) more vulnerable to marine fouling than com-
Silicon bronze C65500 Bolting mercial vessels. For light craft, adhesively bond-
Aluminum brass C68700 Condenser and heat exchanger tubing
Copper-nickel C70600 Condenser and heat exchanger tubing, piping and
ed copper-nickel foil and copper powder-filled
waterboxes–shipboard, power, industrial and desalination epoxy resins offer permanent remedies to bio-
plants, waterflood and offshore oil fouling. The relatively high initial costs are off-
Copper-nickel C71500 Condenser and heat exchanger tubing, piping and set by significantly reduced hull maintenance.
waterboxes–shipboard power, industrial and desalination
plants, waterflood and offshore oil
Castings for Ships and Offshore Platforms.
Copper-nickel C72200 Condenser and heat exchanger tubing The high corrosion resistance, strength, and low
Cast alloys
life-cycle cost of cast-copper alloys make them
Ounce metal C83600 Plumbing fittings
economical choices for pipes, flanges and fit-
Manganese bronze C86500 Ship propellers tings, pumps and valve components, bearings
G bronze C90300 Pumps, valves, naval ordnance, tailshaft sleeves and other mechanical devices. In piping, the
M bronze C92200 Pumps, valves antifouling characteristics of the alloys reduce
Al bronze C95200 Waterflood and seawater pumps
NiAl bronze C95500 Propellers
maintenance costs considerably compared with
NiAlMn bronze C95700 Propellers galvanized steel, fiberglass-reinforced plastic, or
NiAl bronze C95800 Pump, valves and fittings, ship propellers rubber-lined products, all of which may be
Copper-nickel (80:20) C96300 Tailshaft sleeves for ships cheaper initially. Also, because copper-alloy
Copper-nickel (70:30) C96400 Pumps, valves, fittings
pipes need not be oversized to allow for biofoul-
Source: Ref 23 ing, they can be smaller and lighter than those
made from other materials.
Aluminum Bronzes. With their favorable com-
bination of strength and corrosion resistance,
cast aluminum bronzes have earned a reputation
138 for reliable service in marine environments.
20 Aluminum bronzes offer a broad range of
90-10 copper-nickel
mechanical properties; some can be heat treated
16 110 to strengths higher than those of high-strength
hull-plate steels. Aluminum bronzes are com-
Burst pressure, MPa
monly used for shafts and mechanical compo-

Burst pressure, ksi
12 83 nents in pumps and valves for seawater cooling

systems. Their antifouling properties are partic-
ularly valuable in safety-related systems such as
8
55 fire-fighting equipment. Being non-sparking,
Steel aluminum-bronze hand tools can safely be used
on tankers and oil and gas platforms. Because
4 28 the aluminum bronzes are non-magnetic when
properly processed, the alloys are also used for
0 chains, slings, and other mechanical compo-
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 nents in mine sweepers. Alloy C95800, a cast
Salt-spray-exposure time, days nickel-aluminum bronze containing small
amounts of iron and manganese, has become the
Fig. 11 Burst-pressure test results under salt-spray-exposure conditions for 90-10 copper-nickel and steel brake tub- standard material for large propellers and the
ing. Source: Ref 22 hubs and gearboxes used with them.
Applications / 167
Overlays for Ships and Offshore Structures. cantly lower cost. The studies also demon- consisting of a core of pure copper (C11000)
The copper industry has sponsored extensive strated that hull sheathing is economically that is clad with the 75Cu-25Ni alloy (Fig. 12).
research and development directed at the use of viable for new vessels and as retrofits on ves- The U.S. dollar coin introduced in 2000 is also a
copper-nickel hull materials for commercial sels less than 10 years old. Ships older than 10 clad metal. The gold-colored outer layer is com-
vessels and for offshore structures. Copper- years may not have enough remaining service posed of an alloy of 77Cu-12Zn-7Mn-4Ni that is
nickel was chosen because it offers the best life to amortize the investment required to roll bonded onto a pure copper core, which com-
combination of erosion-corrosion resistance retrofit the sheathing. prises 50% of the coin’s thickness.
and antifouling properties. The idea of The recently introduced euro coins also
cladding boats with copper metals is hardly contain copper (Ref 25). Metals and alloys
new; copper plates were commonly used in the Consumer and General Products used for these coins, which are minted in
17th century to protect wooden hulls against denominations of 1 and 2 euros and 1, 2, 5, 10,
wood-boring ship worms. Because early cop- The application of copper and copper alloys 20, and 50 euro cents, are:
per-clad craft were also free from the fronds of in consumer and general products covers an
algae that formed on wooden hulls, they were enormous variety of uses. Copper-base metals • The 2 euro bimetallic coin consists of an
significantly faster than unclad vessels. In the are favored because of their corrosion resistance, outer ring of copper-nickel (75Cu-25Ni) sur-
case of offshore structures the presence of good formability, and bright colors. Highly mal- rounding an inner disk of pure nickel clad on
fouling necessitates the use of a heavy struc- leable alloys such as cartridge brass (C26000), both sides with nickel brass (Cu-20Zn-5Ni).
ture to resist the wave action on the increased yellow brass (C27000), forging brass (C37700), • The 1 euro bimetallic coin consists of an
cross section presented by the fouled surface. and architectural bronze (C38500) are widely outer ring of nickel brass (Cu-20Zn-5Ni) sur-
The use of copper-nickel cladding enables the used as stampings and forgings for mechanical rounding an inner disk of pure nickel clad on
reduction in the amount of steel required in the components and decorative products such as both sides with copper-nickel (75Cu-25Ni).
submerged portion of the structure (Ref 1). candlestick holders and lamps. The applications • The 10, 20, and 50 euro cent pieces are
Copper-Nickel Hulls. Ship hulls can be fab- described subsequently demonstrate the diversi- made from the Nordic Gold alloy (89Cu-
ricated from solid copper-nickel plates, from ty of this market category. 5Al-5Zn-1Sn).
metallurgically bonded copper-nickel clad • The 1, 2, and 5 cent pieces are made from
steel (cladded), or from steel hulls over which Coinage copper-plated steel.
have been welded sheets of copper-nickel alloy
(sheathed). Steel and light-gage copper-nickel It has been estimated that coinage accounts
plates can be metallurgically bonded by hot for about 1% of copper consumption in the Containers for Nuclear Wastes
rolling or explosive bonding to produce a com- United States. Despite growing use of electron-
posite structure. Solid copper-nickel plate is ic, credit card, and check transactions, coinage is Bimetallic, centrifugally cast burial contain-
slightly stronger than hot-rolled hull steel and becoming increasingly popular. Many countries ers for high-level nuclear waste have been fabri-
is economically competitive in thicknesses up have replaced low-denomination bank notes cated from copper-base materials (Ref 26). The
to 10 mm (0.4 in.); roll-bonded material, up to with coins, primarily because coins last longer double-wall container consists of an outer 50
35 mm (1.4 in.); and weld overlay at total hull (and therefore cost less) than paper notes. For mm (2 in.) thick layer of deoxidized copper
thicknesses greater than 100 mm (4 in.). example, Canada has withdrawn its one- and (C81100) surroundings an inner 25 mm (1 in.)
Cladding thickness is at least 1.5 mm (0.06 in.) two-dollar paper currency bills, and substituted thick shell of nickel-aluminum bronze
and normally between 2 and 3 mm (0.8 and 1.2 copper-base metal coins, commonly referred to (C95800). The deoxidized copper provides
in.). Clad plate is commercially available in as “Loonies” (so named for the symbol of the resistance to corrosion while the nickel-alu-
thicknesses of 5 mm (0.196 in.) and heavier in loon on the back of the one-dollar coin) and minum bronze was chosen for its strength,
lengths to 13 m (43 ft) and widths to 2.5 m (8.2 “Toonies” (two-dollar coin). In both the U.S. toughness, and good elevated-temperature prop-
ft). Plate is guaranteed to exhibit a minimum and Canada, 5-cent coins are composed of a erties. The burial cylinders are 825 mm (32.5
shear strength of 137 MPa (20 ksi) between 75Cu-25Ni (C71300) alloy. The U.S. 10-cent in.) in diameter and 457 mm (18 in.) long with a
cladding and substrate (Ref 1). piece and 25-cent piece are composite structures 75 mm (3 in.) total wall thickness.
Copper-Nickel-Clad Vessels. Among the
first commercial copper-hulled vessels to be
commissioned in recent years was the Copper
Mariner, a 20 m (67 ft) shrimp boat operating
in highly biofouling waters off Nicaragua (Ref
24). The ship’s hull was fabricated from plates
of alloy C70600. The boat did not require dry-
docking for hull maintenance during its first
10 years of service. The Copper Mariner was
followed by a small fleet of copper-clad
shrimp boats, all of which were still in service
in the mid-1990s. These vessels feature roll-
bonded C70600-clad steel hull plates, which
apparently perform as well as the earlier all-
copper-nickel design. Several copper-nickel
clad Italian fire boats, several Finnish ice
breakers, and one large commercial vessel
have been placed in service.
Copper-Nickel Sheathing. U.S. Maritime
Administration studies have shown that for
large cargo ships, tankers, and naval vessels,
thin plates of copper-nickel fitted over con-
ventional steel hulls offer the same advantages Fig. 12 The composite structure of the U.S. dime featuring a C71300 (copper-nickel, 25%) cladding on both sides
of a copper C11000 (electrolytic tough pitch) core. (a) 50 . (b) Higher magnification (250 ) showing the
as solid or clad copper-alloy plate at signifi- heavily cold-worked outer surface as a result of the coining operation. Both etched in K2Cr2O7 plus H2SO4 plus HCl
Copper as an Alloying Element A more detailed account of the uses of copper Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic
compounds can be found in Ref 1 and 27. Circuits
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Fabrication and Finishing
Melting and Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Stress Relieving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Casting Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Melting Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Heat-Treating Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Fluxing of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Protective Atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Degassing of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Heat Treating of Beryllium-Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Deoxidation of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Heat Treating of Chromium-Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Grain Refining of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Heat Treating of Zirconium-Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Filtration of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Heat Treating of Miscellaneous Precipitation-Hardening Alloys 259
Melt Treatments for Group I to III Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Heat Treating of Spinodal-Hardening Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Production of Copper Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Heat Treating of Aluminum Bronzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Casting Process Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Gating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Defining Machinability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Machinability of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Type I (Free-Cutting) Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Effects of Composition, Cold Work, and Heat Treatment on Type II (Short-Chip) Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Formability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Type III (Long-Chip) Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Formability of Copper Alloys versus Other Metals . . . . . . . . . 197 Additional Factors Affecting Machinability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Blanking and Piercing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Selecting Copper Alloys for Machinability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Recommended Machining Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Drawing and Stretch-Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Nontraditional Machining Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Coining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Contour Roll Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Rubber-Pad Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Alloy Metallurgy and Weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Specialized Forming Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Factors Affecting Weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Springback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Arc Welding Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Forming Limit Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Filler Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Bending of Rod, Bars, and Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Welding of Coppers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Bending and Forming of Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Welding of High-Strength Beryllium Coppers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Rotary Swaging of Rod, Bars, and Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Welding of High-Conductivity Beryllium Copper . . . . . . . . . . 287
Forming of Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Welding of Cadmium and Chromium Coppers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Welding of Copper-Zinc Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Forging and Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Welding of Copper-Zinc-Nicke l Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Hot Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Welding of Phosphor Bronzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Cold Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Welding of Aluminum Bronzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Cold Heading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Welding of Silicon Bronzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Coining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Welding of Copper-Nickel Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Hot Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Welding of Dissimilar Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Safe Welding Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Powder Metallurgy Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Other Non-Arc Fusion Welding Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Oxyfuel Gas Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Production of Copper Powder by the Reduction of Resistance Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Copper Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Electron Beam and Laser Beam Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Production of Copper Powder by Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Solid-State Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Production of Copper Powder by Atomization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Production of Copper Powder by Hydrometallurgical Brazing, Soldering, and Adhesive Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Production of Copper Alloy Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Powder Pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Sintering Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Adhesive Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Sintering Practices for Bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Sintering Practices for Brass and Nickel Silvers . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Surface Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Cleaning and Finishing Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Heat Treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Preparation for Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Homogenizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Plating, Coating, and Coloring Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Melting and Casting
SUCCESSFUL PRODUCTION of copper copper can be improved by the addition of adopted to encourage as small a grain size as
and copper alloy castings depends on three small amounts of elements including berylli- possible as well as to create a minimum of tur-
important factors: um, silicon, nickel, tin, zinc, chromium, and bulence of the metal during pouring.
silver. Alloy coppers, for example, constituted
• An understanding of casting and solidifica- to have improved strength properties over those
tion characteristics of copper and its various Solidification Ranges
of high-purity copper, while maintaining a min-
alloys
imum of 85% conductivity, are widely used for
• Adherence to proper foundry practices
cast electrical conducting members. The copper-base casting alloy family can be
including melting practices (e.g., selection of
In the liquid state, copper alloys behave subdivided into three groups according to solid-
melting furnace and molten metal treat-
much the same as ferrous alloys of similar den- ification (freezing) range. Unlike pure metals,
ments), pouring practices, and gating and ris-
sity. Molten copper alloys are susceptible to alloys solidify over a range of temperatures.
ering techniques
contamination from refractories as well as from Solidification begins when the temperature
• Proper selection of the casting process which,
the atmosphere. Copper casting alloys are sub- drops below the liquidus; it is completed when
in turn, depends on the size, shape, and tech-
ject to fuming from the vaporization of zinc, the temperature reaches the solidus. The liquidus
nical requirements of the product
which is a major alloying element in about is the temperature at which the metal begins to
This article addresses each of these factors. three-fourths of the copper casting alloys. With freeze, and solidus is the temperature at which
Additional information on the selection and a few exceptions, such as beryllium-coppers the metal is completely frozen. The three groups
application of copper castings can be found in and 1% Cr copper, the copper casting alloys are as follows.
the article “Cast Copper and Copper Alloys” in contain at least 10% alloying additions and Group I alloys are alloys that have a narrow
this Handbook. sometimes these additions exceed 40%. freezing range, that is, a range of 50 °C (90 °F)
Alloying additions have a marked effect on the between the liquidus and solidus. These are the
temperature at which melting is completed yellow brasses, manganese and aluminum
Casting Characteristics (solidus and liquidus). Temperatures at the bronzes, nickel bronzes, (nickel silvers), man-
beginning and at the end of melting are dis- ganese (white) brass alloys, chromium-copper,
Copper is alloyed with other elements cussed in this article in the section and copper. Nominal compositions and liq-
because pure copper is extremely difficult to “Solidification Ranges.” uidus/solidus temperatures for these alloys are
cast as well as being prone to surface cracking, When casting copper and its alloys, the low- shown in Table 1.
porosity problems, and to the formation of est possible pouring temperature needed to suit Group II alloys are those that have an inter-
internal cavities. The casting characteristics of the size and form of the solid metal should be mediate freezing range, that is, a freezing range
Table 1 Nominal chemical compositions and solidification ranges for group I alloys
Composition, % Liquidus temperature Solidus temperature
Alloy type UNS No. Cu Sn Pb Zn Ni Fe Al Mn Si Other °C °F °C °F
Copper C81100 100 … … … … … … … … … 1083 1981 1064 1948

Chrome copper C81500 99 … … … … … … … … 1.0 Cr 1085 1985 1075 1967
Yellow brass C85200 72 1 3 24 … … … … … … 941 1725 927 1700
C85400 67 1 3 29 … … … … … … 941 1725 927 1700
C85700 61 1 1 37 … … … … … … 941 1725 913 1675
C85800 62 1 1 36 … … … … … … 899 1650 871 1600
C87900 65 … … 34 … … … … 1 … 926 1700 900 1650
Manganese bronze C86200 63 … … 27 … 3 4 3 … … 941 1725 899 1650
C86300 61 … … 27 … 3 6 3 … … 923 1693 885 1625
C86400 58 1 1 38 … 1 5 5 … … 880 1616 862 1583
C86500 58 … … 39 … 1 1 1 … … 880 1616 862 1583
C86700 58 1 1 34 … 2 2 2 … … 880 1616 862 1583
C86800 55 … … 36 3 2 1 3 … … 900 1652 880 1616
Aluminum bronze C95200 88 … … … … 3 9 … … … 1045 1913 1042 1907
C95300 89 … … … … 1 10 … … … 1045 1913 1040 1904
C95400 86 … … … … 4 10 … … … 1038 1900 1027 1880
C95410 84 … … … 2 4 10 … … … 1038 1900 1027 1880
C95500 81 … … … 4 4 11 … … … 1054 1930 1038 1900
C95600 91 … … … … … 7 … 2 … 1004 1840 982 1800
C95700 75 … … … 2 3 8 12 … … 990 1814 950 1742
C95800 81 … … … 4.5 4 9 1.5 … … 1060 1940 1043 1910
Nickel bronze C97300 57 2 9 20 12 … … … … … 1040 1904 1010 1850
C97600 64 4 4 8 20 … … … … … 1143 2089 1108 2027
C97800 66 5 2 2 25 … … … … … 1180 2156 1140 2084
White brass C99700 58 … 2 22 5 … 1 12 … … 902 1655 879 1615
C99750 58 … 1 20 … … 1 20 … … 843 1550 818 1505
172 / Fabrication and Finishing
of 50 to 110 °C (90–200 °F) between the liq- • Open-flame (reverberatory) furnaces tilted to pour into a ladle. While the molten
uidus and solidus. These are the beryllium-cop- • Induction furnaces (core or coreless) metal is in the crucible or ladle, it is skimmed,
pers, silicon bronzes, silicon brass, and copper- fluxed, and transferred to the pouring area,
nickel alloys. Nominal compositions and Selection of a furnace depends on the quantity of where the molds are poured.
liquidus/solidus temperatures for these alloys metal to be melted, the degree of purity required,
are shown in Table 2. and the variety of alloys to be melted.
Group III alloys have a wide freezing range, Environmental restrictions also influence fur-
well over 110 °C (200 °F), even up to 170 °C nace selection.
(300 °F). These are the leaded red and semired Fuel-Fired Furnaces. Copper-base alloys are
brasses, tin and leaded tin bronzes, and high- melted in oil- and gas-fired crucible and open-
leaded tin bronzes. Nominal compositions and flame furnaces. Crucible furnaces, either tilting
liquidus/solidus temperatures for these alloys or stationary, incorporate a removable cover or
are shown in Table 3. lid for removal of the crucible, which is trans-
ported to the pouring area where the molds are
poured. The contents of the tilting furnace are
Melting Practice poured into a ladle, which is then used to pour
the molds (Fig. 1 and 2).
These furnaces melt the raw materials by
Melting Furnaces
burning oil or gas with sufficient air to achieve
complete combustion. The heat from the burn-
Furnaces for melting copper casting alloys are
er heats the crucible by conduction and con-
either fuel fired or electrically heated. They are Fig. 1 Typical lift-out type of fuel-fired crucible furnace,
vection; the charge melts and then is super-
broadly classified into three categories: especially well adapted to foundry melting of
heated to a particular temperature at which smaller quantities of copper alloys (usually less than
• Crucible furnaces (tilting or stationary) either the crucible is removed or the furnace is 140 kg, or 300 lb)
Table 2 Nominal chemical compositions and solidification ranges for group II alloys
Alloy type UNS No. Cu Zn Ni Fe Mn Si Nb Other ˚C ˚F ˚C ˚F
Beryllium-copper C81400 99.1 … … … … … … 0.6 Be 1093 2000 1066 1950

0.8 Cr
C82000 97 … … … … … … 0.5 Be 1088 1990 971 1780
2.5 Co
C82200 98 … 1.5 … … … … 0.5 Be 1116 2040 1038 1900
…
C82400 97.8 … … … … … … 1.7 Be 996 1825 899 1650
0.5 Co
C82500 97.2 … … … … 0.3 … 2.0 Be 982 1800 857 1575
0.5 Co
C82600 96.8 … … … … 0.3 … 2.4 Be 954 1750 857 1575
0.5 Co
C82800 96.6 … … … … 0.3 … 2.6 Be 932 1710 885 1625
0.5 Co
Silicon brass C87500 82 14 … … … 4 … … 916 1680 821 1510
Silicon bronze C87300 9.5 … … … 1 4 … … 916 1680 821 1510
C87600 91 5 … … … 4 … … 971 1780 860 1580
C87610 92 4 … … … 4 … … 971 1780 860 1580
C87800 82 14 … … … 4 … … 916 1680 821 1510
Copper-nickel C96200 87 … 10 1.5 1 … 1 … 1149 2100 1099 2010
C96400 66 … 30.5 0.5 1 … 1 … 1238 2260 1171 2140
Table 3 Nominal chemical compositions and solidification ranges for group III alloys
Alloy type UNS No. Cu Sn Pb Zn Ni ˚C ˚F ˚C ˚F
Leaded red brass C83450 88 2.5 2 6.5 1 1015 1860 860 1580
C83600 85 5 5 5 … 1010 1850 854 1570
C83800 83 4 6 7 … 1004 1840 843 1550
Leaded semired brass C84400 81 3 7 9 … 1004 1840 843 1550
C84800 76 2.5 6.5 15 … 954 1750 832 1530
Tin bronze C90300 88 8 … 4 … 1000 1832 854 1570
C90500 88 10 … 2 … 999 1830 854 1570
C90700 89 11 … … … 999 1830 831 1528
C91100 84 16 … … … 950 1742 818 1505
C91300 81 19 … … … 889 1632 818 1505
Leaded tin bronze C92200 86 6 1.5 4.5 … 988 1810 826 1518
C92300 87 8 1 4 … 999 1830 854 1570
C92600 87 10 1 2 … 982 1800 843 1550
C92700 88 10 2 … … 982 1800 843 1550
High-leaded tin bronze C92900 84 10 2.5 … 3.5 1031 1887 857 1575
C93200 83 7 7 3 … 977 1790 854 1570
C93400 84 8 8 … … … … … …
C93500 85 5 9 1 … 999 1830 854 1570
C93700 80 10 10 … … 929 1705 762 1403
C93800 78 7 15 … … 943 1730 854 1570
C94300 70 5 25 … … … … 900 1650
Melting and Casting / 173
The other type of fuel-fired furnace is the opening a burner at one end and a flue at the other. The in many foundries without the need for expensive
flame furnace, which is usually a large rotary-type furnace is rotated slowly around the horizontal air pollution control equipment.
furnace with a refractory-lined steel shell contain- axis, and the rotary movement helps to heat and The two types of electric induction furnaces
melt the furnace charge. Melting is accomplished are the core type, better known as the channel
both by the action of the flame directly on the furnace, and the coreless type.
metal and by heat transfer from the hot lining as Core Type. This furnace (Fig. 3) is a large fur-
this shell rotates. These furnaces usually tilt so nace used in foundries for pouring large quanti-
that they can be charged and poured from the flue ties of one alloy when a constant source of
opening. At the present time, these furnaces are molten metal is required. This furnace has a pri-
not used often because of the requirement that a mary coil, interfaced with a laminated iron core,
baghouse be installed to capture all the flue dust surrounded by a secondary channel, which is
emitted during melting and superheating. While embedded in a V- or U-shape refractory lining
these furnaces are able to melt large amounts of located at the bottom of a cylindrical hearth.
metal quickly, there is a need for operator skill to Here the channel forms the secondary of a trans-
control the melting atmosphere within the fur- former circuit. This furnace stirs and circulates
nace. Also, the refractory walls become impreg- molten metal through the channel at all times,
nated with the melting metal, causing a contami- except when the furnace is emptied and shut
nation problem when switching from one alloy down. When starting up, molten metal must be
family to another. poured into the furnace to fill up the “heel” on
Electric Induction Furnaces. In the past 30 the bottom of the bath. Because these furnaces
years, there has been a marked changeover from are very efficient and simple to operate with lin-
fuel-fired melting to electric induction melting in ing life in the millions of pounds poured, they
the copper-base foundry industry. While this type are best suited for continuous production runs in
of melting equipment has been available for more foundries making plumbing alloys of group III.
than 60 years, very few were actually used due to They are not recommended for the dross-form-
the large investment required for the capital equip- ing alloys of group I. The channel furnace is at
Fig. 2 Typical lip-axis tilting crucible furnace used for
ment. Because of higher prices and the question of its best when an inert, floating, cover flux is used
fuel-fired furnace melting of copper alloys.
Similar furnaces are available that tilt on a central axis availability of fossil fuels and because of new reg- and charges of ingot, clean remelt, and clean and
ulations on health and safety imposed by the dry turnings are added periodically.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration Coreless Type. This furnace has become the
(OSHA), many foundries have made the most popular melting unit in the copper alloy
changeover to electric induction furnaces. foundry industry. In earlier years, the coreless
When melting alloys in group III, fumes of furnace was powered by a motor generator unit,
lead and zinc are given off during melting and usually at 980 Hz. The present coreless induc-
superheating. The emission of these harmful tion furnaces draw 440V, 60 cycle power and, by
oxides is much lower when the charge is melted means of solid-state electronic devices, convert
in an induction furnace because the duration of the power to 440V and 1000 or 3000 Hz. These
the melting cycle is only about 25% as long when furnaces are either tilting furnaces (Fig. 4) or
melting the same amount of metal in a fuel-fired crucible lift-out units (Fig. 5, 6).
furnace. By the use of electric induction melting, A coreless induction furnace comprises a
compliance with OSHA regulations can be met water-cooled copper coil in a furnace box made
Fig. 3 Cutaway drawing of a twin-channel induction

melting furnace
Fig. 4 Cross section of a tilt furnace for high-frequency

induction melting of brass and bronze alloys. Fig. 5 Cross section of a double push-out furnace. Bilge crucibles are placed on refractory pedestals and raised and
Crucible is of clay graphite composition. lowered into position within the coils by hydraulic cylinders.
of steel or Transite. The metal is contained in a melt, while the other is melting. When the metal oxidation, deoxidation, or refining. The term
crucible or in a refractory lining rammed up to is ready to pour, the furnace box is lifted (by fluxing also includes the treatment of nonferrous
the coil. Crucibles used in these furnaces are hydraulic or air cylinder), pivoted to the side, melts by inert or reactive gases to remove solid
made of clay graphite; silicon carbide crucibles and lowered over the second crucible. The ready or gaseous impurities.
cannot be used because they become overheated crucible is then standing free and can be picked Fluxing practice in copper alloy melting and
when inserted in a magnetic field. Clay graphite up and poured, while melting is taking place in casting encompasses a variety of different flux-
crucibles do a good job of conducting the elec- the second furnace. ing materials and functions. Fluxes are specifi-
tromagnetic currents from the coil into the metal cally used to remove gas or prevent its absorp-
being melted. tion into the melt, to reduce metal loss, to
Induction furnaces are characterized by elec-
Melt Treatments remove specific impurities and nonmetallic
tromagnetic stirring of the metal bath. Because In the melting of copper alloys, various auxil- inclusions, to refine metallic constituents, or to
the amount of stirring is affected by both power iary molten metal processing steps are necessary lubricate and control surface structure in the
input and power frequency, the power unit size other than melting and alloying to improve melt semicontinuous casting of mill alloys. The last
and frequency should be coordinated with the quality through the control of impurities. Melt item is included because even these fluxes fall
furnace size in order to obtain the optimal-size treatments for copper castings include: under the definition of inorganic chemical com-
equipment for the specific operation. In general, pounds used to treat molten metal.
the smaller the unit, the higher the frequency and • Fluxing and metal refining
the lower the power input. • Degassing Types of Fluxes
Large tilting units are used in foundries • Deoxidation
requiring large amounts of metal at one time. • Grain refining Fluxes for copper alloys fall into five basic
These furnaces, if over 4.5 Mg (10,000 lb) • Filtration categories: oxidizing fluxes, neutral cover flux-
capacity, operate at line frequency (60 Hz). They es, reducing fluxes (usually graphite or char-
are very efficient and will melt large quantities Each of these is described in the sections that coal), refining fluxes, and semicontinuous cast-
of metal in a very short time if powered with the follow. It should be noted that some of these ing mold fluxes.
proper-size power unit. process methodologies pertain not only to Oxidizing fluxes are used in the oxidation-
Stationary lift-out furnaces are often designed foundry melting and casting, but also to deoxidation process; the principal function here
as shown in Fig. 5. Here the crucible sits on a smelting, refining, and in certain cases mill is control of hydrogen gas content. This tech-
refractory pedestal, which can be raised or low- product operations. nique is still practiced in melting copper alloys in
ered by a hydraulic cylinder. This unit, also fuel-fired crucible furnaces, where the products
called a push-out furnace, operates by lowering of combustion are usually incompletely reacted
the crucible into the coil for melting and then Fluxing of Copper Alloys and thus lead to hydrogen absorption and poten-
raising the crucible out of the coil for pickup and tial steam reaction (see the section “Degassing of
pouring. While one crucible is melting, the other The term fluxing is used in this article to rep- Copper Alloys” in this article). The oxidizing
crucible can be charged and ready to melt when resent all additives to, and treatments of, molten fluxes usually include cupric oxide or manganese
the knife switch is pulled as the completed heat metal in which chemical compounds or mixtures dioxide (MnO2), which decompose at copper
is being pushed up for skimming and pouring. of such compounds are employed. These com- alloy melting temperatures to generate the oxy-
The other common type of coreless induction pounds are usually inorganic. In some cases, gen required. Figure 7 illustrates the effective-
melting is the lift swing furnace (Fig. 6). Here metallic salts are used in powder, granulated, or ness of oxidizing fluxes in reducing porosity due
the coil (and box) is cantilevered from a center solid tablet form and may often melt to form a to hydrogen and in improving mechanical prop-
post to move up or down vertically and swing liquid when used. They can be added manually erties for a tin bronze alloy.
horizontally about the post in a 90° arc. Because or can be automatically injected, and they can Neutral cover fluxes are used to reduce
there are two crucible positions, one crucible can perform single or, in combination, various func- metal loss by providing a fluid cover. Fluxes of
be poured, recharged, and placed into position to tions, including degassing, cleaning, alloying, this type are usually based on borax, boric acid,
or glass, which melts at copper alloy melting
temperatures to provide a fluid slag cover. Borax
melts at approximately 740 °C (1365 °F). Such
glassy fluxes are especially effective when used
with zinc-containing alloys, preventing zinc flar-
ing and reducing subsequent zinc loss by 3 to
10%. The glassy fluid cover fluxes also agglom-
erate and absorb nonmetallic impurities from the
charge (oxides, molding sand, machining lubri-
cants, and so on). As with aluminum alloys,
fluxes containing reactive fluoride salts (CaF2
and NaF) can strip oxide films in copper-base
alloys, thus permitting entrained metallic
droplets to return to the melt phase. Table 4 indi-
cates the effectiveness of this type of flux in
reducing melt loss in yellow and high-tensile
brass. For red brasses, however, it may not be
proper to use a glassy flux cover, because such a
cover will prevent or limit beneficial oxidation
of the melt (see the section “Degassing of
Copper Alloys” in this article). Use of a glassy
cover flux can sometimes result in reduced alloy
properties (Ref 1).
Oxide films in aluminum and silicon bronzes
Fig. 6 Foundry installation of high-frequency induction lift swing furnaces also reduce fluidity and mechanical properties.
Fluxes containing fluorides, chlorides, silica, 2), and there is an order of preference for their lead. Nickel, a deliberate alloying element in
and borax provide both covering and cleaning, removal (Fig. 9). These metallic impurities are certain alloys but an impurity in others, is not
along with the ability to dissolve and collect thus rendered removable if the oxide product readily removed by fire refining, but nickel
these objectionable oxide skins. Chromium and formed can be adequately separated from the oxide can be reduced at such operating tempera-
beryllium-copper alloys oxidize readily when melt phase itself. A wet cover flux such as borax tures. Mechanical mixing or agitation during fire
molten; therefore, glassy cover fluxes and fluo- is useful with fire refining because it will agglom- refining improves the removal capability by
ride salt components are useful here in control- erate the impurity metal oxides formed and min- increasing the reaction kinetics. Removal is lim-
ling melt loss and achieving good separation of imize the metal content of the dross. ited, however, and in dilute amounts
oxides from the melt. The need to refine specific metallic impurities (0.05–0.10%) many impurities cannot be
Reducing fluxes containing carbonaceous is highly dependent on and variable with the spe- removed economically.
materials such as charcoal or graphite are used on cific alloy system being refined. An alloying ele- Oxygen-bearing fluxes can be effective in
higher-copper lower-zinc alloys. Their principal ment in one family of copper alloys may be an removing certain impurities, although they are
advantage lies in reducing oxygen absorption of impurity in another, and vice versa. In red brass less efficient than direct air or oxygen injection.
the copper and reducing melt loss. Low-sulfur, (Cu-5Zn-5Pb-5Sn; alloy C83600), the elements Figure 10 demonstrates the effect of increasing
dry, carbonaceous flux materials should always lead, tin, and zinc are used for alloying, while the copper oxide content of a flux in removing
be used with copper alloys to avoid gaseous reac- aluminum, iron, and silicon are impurities. In alu- iron and zinc from phosphor bronze.
tions with sulfur or with hydrogen from con- minum bronzes, on the other hand, lead, tin, and Lead has been removed from copper alloy
tained moisture. However, carbonaceous materi- zinc become contaminants, while aluminum and melts by the application of silicate fluxes or slags.
als will not agglomerate nonmetallic residues or iron are alloying elements. The addition of phosphor copper or the use of a
provide any cleaning action when melting fine or Foundries typically do little melt refining, phosphate or borate slag flux cover and thorough
dirty scrap. For this reason, a glassy cover must leaving this assignment to the secondary smelter stirring improves the rate of lead removal, as
also be used in the latter case. Table 4 indicates supplier of their foundry ingot. However, there shown in Fig. 11 (Ref 4).
the beneficial effects of a glassy cover when may be certain instances when additional refining Sulfur, arsenic, selenium, antimony, bismuth,
melting brass turnings. capability is necessary within the foundry or mill. and tellurium can occur as impurities in copper
Melt Refining Fluxes. It is possible to remove Table 5 gives the results of fire refining a melt of alloy scrap, foundry ingot, and prime metal
many metallic impurity constituents from copper C83600 with aluminum, silicon, and iron con- through incomplete refining of metal from the
alloys through the judicious use of fire refining taminants under a variety of flux covers. ore, electronic scrap, other scrap materials, or
(oxidation). According to standard free energy of Fire refining (oxidation) can be used to cutting lubricant. These impurities can largely be
reaction (Fig. 8), elements such as iron, tin, alu- remove impurities from copper-base melts controlled by application and thorough contact-
minum, silicon, zinc, and lead are preferentially roughly in the following order: aluminum, man- ing with fluxes containing sodium carbonate
oxidized before copper during fire refining (Ref ganese, silicon, phosphorus, iron, zinc, tin, and (Na2CO3) or other basic flux additives such as
potassium carbonate (K2CO3). Figure 12 demon-
strates the ability of Na2CO3 fluxes plus fire
refining in eliminating arsenic, bismuth, and anti-
mony from copper.
Sulfur is a harmful impurity in copper-nickel
or nickel-silver alloys. It can be removed from
these materials by an addition of manganese
metal or magnesium.
Aluminum is often a contaminant in copper
alloy systems, particularly the leaded tin bronzes
and red brasses. Porosity and lack of pressure
tightness result when the aluminum content is as
little as 0.01%. Aluminum can be removed by a
flux containing oxidizing agents to oxidize the
aluminum, and fluoride salts to divert the Al2O3
from the melt and render it removable. Silicon
can also be removed, but only after the alu-
minum has reacted. As much as 0.3% contami-
nant can be reduced to less than 0.01%, ensuring
pressure tightness, by using a flux consisting of
30% NaF, 20% CaF2, 20% Na3AlF6, 20%
LIVE GRAPH Na2SO4, and 10% Na2CO3 at an addition rate of
Click here to view 1 to 1.5% for 10 min at about 1100 °C (2010 °F)
Fig. 7 Effect of amount of flux used on the porosity and mechanical properties of cast tin bronze alloy. Source: Ref 1 (Ref 6). As usual, the flux must be intimately
mixed with the melt to ensure good reactivity.
Table 4 Effect of various slags and covers on losses in the melting of high-tensile and The melt should then be allowed to settle, and
yellow brass the flux residue or slag layer should be thor-
oughly skimmed.
Metal temperature
Borax is useful as a flux constituent for refin-
Alloy Melting conditions °C °F Melting time, min Gross loss, % Net loss, %
ing to provide adequate fluidity and to agglom-
Yellow brass No lid or cover 1085 1985 50 2.8 1.8 erate flux-reacted impurity oxides without
Charcoal 1087 1989 49 1.1 0.6
Glassy cover flux 1100 2012 62 0.9 0.4
excessive entrapment and loss of alloying ele-
High-tensile brass No lid or cover 1090 1994 65 2.5 1.2 ments. The borax mineral fluxes razorite and
Charcoal 1095 2003 60 1.9 0.7 colemanite are commonly used in secondary
Cleaning cover flux 1090 1994 54 0.6 0.3 smelting practice in converting copper alloy
Source: Ref 1
brass and bronze scrap to specified-composition
foundry ingot.
Chlorine fluxing also has potential for refin- serve to protect the metal from oxidation during melt surface feeding the mold to alleviate these
ing impurities from copper-base melts, particu- casting. They also act as lubricants so that the problems. Fluxes used to alleviate this problem
larly magnesium, aluminum, manganese, zinc, solidifying skin separates easily from the mold usually contain borax, fluoride salts, soda ash,
iron, lead, and silicon. However, very little wall as the solidifying billet or slab moves and eutectic salt mixtures to ensure that the flux
chlorine refining is practiced commercially; the downward from the mold during casting. is molten as the cast continues. In the direct
process may be cost effective only when Especially in brass alloys, zinc flaring and zinc chill casting of higher-copper alloys, graphite
removing aluminum. oxide (ZnO) formation on the melt surface may also be present in such fluxes. Because
Mold Fluxes. Certain mold-lubricating flux- reduce lubricity, causing tearing and other solid flux particles can cause inclusions in the
es have been used in the direct chill semicontin- undesirable skin defects during solidification solidifying skin, the flux must be free of coarse
uous casting of brass and copper alloys into that are detrimental to subsequent forming particles and must melt quickly.
semifinished wrought shapes. These fluxes operations. Fluxing compounds are used on the
Degassing of Copper Alloys
In the melting and casting of many copper

alloys, hydrogen gas absorption can occur
because of the generous solubility of hydrogen
in the liquid state of these alloys. The solid sol-
ubility of hydrogen is much lower; therefore,
the gas must be rejected appropriately before
or during the casting and solidification process
to avoid the formation of gas porosity and
related defects (excessive shrink, pinholing,
blowholes, and blistering). These defects are
almost always detrimental to mechanical and
physical properties, performance, and appear-
ance. Different copper alloys and alloy sys-
tems have varying tendencies toward gas
absorption and subsequent problems. Other
gases, particularly oxygen, can cause similar
problems (see the section “Deoxidation of
Copper Alloys” in this article).
Sources of Hydrogen
There are many potential sources of hydrogen

in copper, including the furnace atmosphere,
charge materials, fluxes, external components, and
reactions between the molten metal and the mold.
Furnace Atmosphere. The fuel-fired fur-
naces sometimes used in melting can generate
free hydrogen because of the incomplete com-
bustion of fuel oil or natural gas.
LIVE GRAPH Charge Materials. Ingot, scrap, and
Fig. 8 Free-energy changes for various metal oxidation reactions. Source: Ref 1
Click here to view foundry returns may contain oxides, corrosion
products, sand or other molding debris, and
metalworking lubricants. All these contami-
Table 5 Effect of fire refining under various fluxes on impurity levels in leaded red brass nants are potential sources of hydrogen
50 kg (110 lb) heats were melted under 1 kg (2.2 lb) of flux at 1150 ˚C (2100 ˚F).
through the reduction of organic compounds or
through the decomposition of water vapor
Oxygen used, Impurities in
refined metal, %
from contained moisture.
Melt
No. Flux
Refining
time, min
liters per
kilogram of metal
Amount of zinc in
refined metal, % Al Si Fe
Fluxes. Most salt fluxes used in copper melt
treatment are hygroscopic. Damp fluxes can
1 Borax 0 0 5.49 0.05 0.08 0.38
10 1.5 5.66 0.015 0.05 0.38
therefore result in hydrogen pickup in the melt
20 2.9 5.00 0.011 0.02 0.29 from the decomposition of water.
2 Borax-25% sand 0 0 6.30 0.14 0.13 0.37 External Components. Furnace tools such
10 1.5 6.24 0.017 0.12 0.42 as rakes, puddlers, skimmers, and shovels can
20 2.9 6.45 0.007 0.12 0.41
3 Borax-20MnO 0 0 7.40 0.21 0.26 0.47
deliver hydrogen to the melt if they are not
10 1.5 7.35 0.05 0.19 0.52 kept clean. Oxides and flux residues on such
20 3.1 7.33 0.017 0.12 0.51 tools are particularly insidious sources of con-
4 70CaF2-20Na2SO4- 0 0 7.47 0.10 0.08 0.62 tamination because they will absorb moisture
10Na2CO3 10 1.5 7.07 0.005 0.02 0.55
20 3.1 6.69 0.005 0.005 0.45
directly from the atmosphere. Furnace refrac-
5 30NaF-20CaF2-20KF- 0 0 7.35 0.23 0.38 0.70 tories, troughs and launders, mortars and
20Na2SO4-10Na2CO3 10 1.8 6.74 0.005 0.17 0.83 cements, sampling ladles, hand ladles, and
20 3.5 7.20 0.005 0.08 0.88 pouring ladles also are potential sources of
Source: Ref 3
hydrogen, especially if refractories are not
fully cured.
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Metal/Mold Reactions. If metal flow is
excessively turbulent during the pouring
process, air can be aspirated into the mold. If
the air cannot be expelled before the start of
solidification, hydrogen pickup can result.
Improper gating can also cause turbulence and
suctioning. Excessive moisture in green sand
molds can provide a source of hydrogen as
water turns to steam.
Gas Solubility
Hydrogen is the most obvious gas to be con-

sidered in copper alloys. Figure 13 shows the
solubility of hydrogen in molten copper. As in
aluminum and magnesium alloys, solubility is
reduced in the solid state; therefore, the hydro-
gen must be removed prior to casting or rejected
in a controlled manner during solidification.
Alloying elements have varying effects on
hydrogen solubility (Fig. 14).
Oxygen also presents a potential problem in
most copper alloys. In the absence of hydrogen,
oxygen alone may not cause problems, because
it has limited solubility in the melt. However, it
forms a completely miscible liquid phase with
the copper in the form of cuprous oxide (Fig.
15). During solidification, the combination of
cuprous oxide and hydrogen can give rise to
casting porosity resulting from the steam reac-
tion (discussed later).
Sulfur gases have significance in primary
copper through the smelting of sulfide ores and
in the remelting of mill product scrap containing
sulfur-bearing lubricants. Sulfur dioxide is the
most probable gaseous product. Foundry alloys
and foundry processing usually do not experi-
ence sulfur-related problems unless high-sulfur
fossil fuels are used for melting.
Carbon can be a problem, especially with
the nickel-bearing alloys. The nickel alloys
have extensive solubility for both carbon and
hydrogen. Carbon can be deliberately added
to the melt, along with an oxygen-bearing
material such as nickel oxide. The two com-
ponents will react to produce a carbon boil,
that is, the formation of CO bubbles, which
collect hydrogen as they rise through the melt
(Ref 9). If not fully removed, however, the
residual CO can create gas porosity during
solidification. Fig. 9 Effect of fire refining (oxygen blowing) on the impurity content of molten copper. Source: Ref 3
Nitrogen does not appear to be detrimental or

to have much solubility in most copper alloys. 6 lists the gases that can be found in a number minum alloys. In recent years, considerable
However, there is some evidence to suggest that of copper alloy systems. development and definition have been given to
nitrogen porosity can be a problem in cast cop- this test as adapted for copper alloys, because
per-nickel alloys (Ref 10). Testing for Gases the different classes of copper alloys have differ-
Water vapor can exist as a discrete gaseous ent solidification characteristics that affect the
entity in copper alloys (Ref 7, 11, 12). Water There are essentially three ways to deter- response to the test (Ref 7, 14–16). The objec-
vapor is evolved from solidifying copper alloys, mine the presence of gas in a copper alloy tive of the test is to use a reduced pressure only
which always have some residual dissolved oxy- melt. The easiest and simplest is a chill test slightly less than the dissolved gas pressure so
gen. When the oxygen becomes depleted, hydro- on a fracture specimen. In this method, a that the surface of the sample mushrooms but
gen is produced as a separate species. standard test bar is poured and allowed to does not fracture (Fig. 16). The test apparatus is
The type and amount of gas absorbed by a solidify. The appearance of the fractured test shown schematically in Fig. 17. The key to
copper alloy melt and retained in a casting bar is then related to metal quality standards establishing controllable results, that is, unfrac-
depend on a number of conditions, such as (Ref 13). tured but mushroomed test sample surfaces, is to
melt temperature, raw materials, atmosphere, The second method is a reduced-pressure test provide wave front freezing. This is accom-
pouring conditions, and mold materials. Table similar to the Straube-Pfeiffer test used for alu- plished by proper selection of vessel materials to
Fig. 10 Influence of oxygen content of flux in reducing iron (a) and zinc (b) impurities in phosphor bronze. Source: Ref 1
casting before the skin is completely solidified.

Fortunately, there is a mutual relationship
between hydrogen and oxygen solubility in
molten copper (Fig. 18). Steam is formed above
the line denoting equilibrium concentration, but
not below. Consequently, as the oxygen content
is raised, the capacity for hydrogen absorption
decreases. Therefore, it is useful to provide
excess oxygen during melting to preclude
hydrogen entry and then to remove the oxygen
by a deoxidation process to prevent further
steam reaction during solidification.
This relationship gave rise to the Pell-Walpole
oxidation-deoxidation practice for limiting
hydrogen, especially when fossil-fuel-fired fur-
naces were used for melting. The melt was
deliberately oxidized using oxygen-bearing
granular fluxes or briquetted tablets to preclude
hydrogen absorption during melting. The melt
was subsequently deoxidized to eliminate any
steam reaction with additional hydrogen
absorbed during pouring and casting.
Zinc Flaring. The term zinc flare applies to
those alloys containing at least 20% Zn. At this
level or above, the boiling or vaporization point
of copper-zinc alloys is close to the usual pour-
ing temperature, as shown in Fig. 19 (Ref 8).
Zinc has a very high vapor pressure, which pre-
cludes hydrogen entry into the melt. Zinc may
also act as a vapor purge, removing hydrogen
LIVE GRAPH already in solution. Furthermore, the oxide of
Click here to view zinc is less dense than that of copper, thus pro-
Fig. 11 Removal of lead from oxidized Cu-0.1 Pb melts at 1150 ˚C (2100 ˚F) by different slags (fluxes) 2% of charge
viding a more tenacious, cohesive, and protective
weight. Melt stirred with nitrogen at 2 L/min. Source: Ref 4
oxide skin on the melt surface and increasing
resistance to hydrogen diffusion. In zinc flaring,
achieve the correct solidification characteristics. of both hydrogen and cuprous oxide being pres- the melt temperature is deliberately raised to per-
Because the freezing ranges of copper alloys ent in the melt. These constituents react to form mit greater zinc vapor formation. Because some
vary from short to wide, different materials must steam, resulting in blowholes during solidifica- zinc loss may occur, zinc may have to be replen-
be used. The various material combinations that tion as the copper cools: ished to maintain the correct composition.
have proved successful are described in Ref 7. Inert Gas Fluxing. With gas fluxing, an inert
collector or sparger gas such as argon or nitro-
2H Cu2O → H2O (steam) 2Cu gen is injected into the melt with a graphite
Degassing Methods fluxing tube. The bubbling action collects the
The proper deoxidation of a copper alloy melt hydrogen gas that diffuses to the bubble surface,
will generally prevent this steam reaction, and the hydrogen is removed as the inert gas
Oxidation-Deoxidation Practice. The although excessive hydrogen alone can still bubbles rise to the melt surface. The reaction
steam reaction previously mentioned is a result cause gas porosity if it is not expelled from the efficiency depends on the gas volume, the depth
to which the fluxing tube or lance is plunged, amount of purge gas necessary to degas a 450 kg Solid Degassing Fluxes. Other materials can
and the size of the collector gas bubble generat- (1000 lb) copper melt. Figure 21 shows the be used to provide inert gas purging. A tabletted
ed. Again, finer bubble sizes have higher sur- response of an aluminum bronze alloy to nitro- granular flux such as calcium carbonate
face-area-to-volume ratios and therefore provide gen gas purging. The curve for oxygen purging is (CaCO3), which liberates CO2 as the collector
better reaction efficiencies. Figure 20 depicts the also shown. gas upon heating, has been successful in
Fig. 14 Effect of alloying elements on the solubility of

hydrogen in copper. Source: Ref 8
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 12 Effect of fire refining and use of Na2CO3 flux on removal of arsenic, bismuth, and antimony impurities from
copper. Source: Ref 5 Fig. 15 Copper-oxygen phase diagram. Source: Ref 8
Fig. 16 Effect of pressure on the appearance of copper alloy reduced-pressure test samples containing the same
amount of gas. (a) Pressure of 7 kPa (55 torr) results in surface shrinkage. (b) At 6.5 kPa (50 torr), a single bub-
Fig. 13 Solubility of hydrogen in copper. Source: Ref 7 ble forms. (c) Boiling and porosity occur at 6 kPa (45 torr).
Table 6 Summary of gases found in copper alloys degassing a wide variety of copper alloys. This
Alloy family Gases present Remarks
type of degassing is simpler than nitrogen, but
must be kept dry and plunged as deep as possi-
Pure copper Water vapor, hydrogen Approximate hydrogen/water vapor ratio of 1.
Higher purity increases the amount of water
ble into the melt with a clean, dry plunging rod,
vapor and lowers hydrogen. preferably made of graphite. This type of
Cu-Sn-Pb-Zn alloys Water vapor, hydrogen Lead does not affect the gases present. Higher degasser may also have the advantage of form-
tin lowers total gas content. Increased zinc ing the collector gas by chemical reaction in situ.
increases the amount of hydrogen, with a loss in
water vapor.
This results in an inherently smaller initial bub-
Aluminum bronzes Water vapor, hydrogen, CO The presence of 5 wt% Ni in alloy C95800 ble size than injected gas purging for better reac-
causes CO to occur rather than water vapor. tion efficiency. Such an advantage can be
Lower aluminum leads to higher total inferred from Fig. 22, although after 5 min of
gas contents. degassing the end results are the same.
Silicon brasses and bronzes Water vapor, hydrogen Approximate hydrogen/water vapor ratio of 0.5.
Increased zinc decreases hydrogen and increases Other solid degassers in the form of refractory
water vapor. metals or intermetallic compounds, such as
Copper-nickels Water vapor, hydrogen, CO All three gases are present up to 4 wt% Ni, after Ca-Mn-Si, nickel-titanium, titanium, and lithium,
which only CO and hydrogen are present.
Hydrogen increases with increasing nickel up to
are effective in eliminating porosity due to nitro-
10 wt% Ni, but is decreased at 30 wt% Ni. gen or hydrogen by their ability to form stable
nitrides and hydrides. Again, maintaining dry
Source: Ref 10 ingredients, deep plunging, and stirring or mix-
ing will enhance their effectiveness. For best
results and optimal reaction efficiency, such
degassers should be wrapped or encapsulated in
copper materials to provide controlled melting
when plunged. Alternatively, copper master
alloys containing these elements are available.
For both inert gas fluxing and solid degassing
additions, the sparging gas reaction should not
be so violent as to splash metal and create an
opportunity for gas reabsorption. Furthermore, a
melt can be overdegassed; an optimal amount of
residual gas remaining in the melt helps to
counter localized shrinkage in long freezing
range alloys such as leaded tin bronzes.
Vacuum degassing is not generally applied
to copper alloys, although it can be very effec-
tive. However, the cost of the equipment neces-
sary is relatively high, and there may be a sub-
stantial loss of more volatile elements having a
high vapor pressure such as zinc and lead.
Furthermore, significant superheat (up to
150 °C, or 300 °F) may be required to accom-
modate the temperature drop during the
degassing treatment, further aggravating the
vapor losses.
Auxiliary Degassing Methods. There are
other ways to degas a copper alloy melt than
using a specific treatment. The technique of low-
ering the melt superheat temperature, if possible,
and holding the melt (in a dry, minimal gas envi-
Fig. 17 Schematic of the reduced-pressure test apparatus used to assess amounts of dissolved gas in copper alloys ronment) provides outgassing simply by lower-
Fig. 18 Hydrogen/oxygen equilibrium in molten Fig. 19 Influence of zinc content on boiling point or Fig. 20 Amount of purge gas required to degas a 450
copper. Source: Ref 7 vapor pressure in copper alloys. Source: Ref 8 kg (1000 lb) copper melt. Source: Ref 16
LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH

Click here to view Click here to view Click here to view
ing the equilibrium liquid state solubility of the proper deoxidation of all melts enhances fluidi- scavenges the oxygen, delivering the product
gas. During casting, the use of chills to provide ty and therefore castability. to the surface dross phase, where it can be
directional solidification, particularly for the Of course, deliberate oxidation treatments easily skimmed.
long freezing range group III alloys such as the (the oxidation-deoxidation process previously Phosphorus is usually added at a rate of 57 g (2
red brasses and tin bronzes, results in less ten- described) are still employed. These are oz) of 15% master alloy per 45 kg (100 lb) of
dency for gas porosity. designed to preclude hydrogen pickup in cop- melt. In cases where oxidation of the melt is
In the mold-metal reaction, previously per alloy melts. deliberately employed to reduce hydrogen
degassed and deoxidized metal containing Phosphorus Deoxidation. Most copper absorption, double this amount can be required
excess phosphorus or lithium deoxidants can alloys are deoxidized by a phosphorus reduc- for full deoxidation. This is usually sufficient to
react with green sand containing moisture. tion of the cuprous oxide. Although several deoxidize completely a melt saturated with 0.39
Hydrogen is liberated and absorbed as the other oxygen scavengers are possible according wt% O. However, the recovery of phosphorus is
metal comes into contact with the sand. This to the free energy of oxide formation, phospho- less than 100% and may be as little as 30 to 60%
can be minimized by correct deoxidant addi- rus is usually the easiest, most economical, and (Ref 18). It is desirable to maintain a residual
tions (discussed in the following section in this least problematic deoxidant. The phosphorus is level of at least 0.01 to 0.015% P in the melt,
article). In addition, finer facing sands or mold usually added in the form of 15% phosphor especially during pouring, so that reoxidation and
coatings (inert or reactive such as sodium sili- copper master alloy, either in granular shot or potential steam reaction problems are alleviated.
cate or magnesia) can be used; these confine briquetted waffle form. Care must be taken to Each foundry must determine the proper addi-
any reaction to the mold/metal interface area ensure that the deoxidant is dry. The deoxidant tion rate for a given set of conditions.
and retard hydrogen penetration into the solid- is often added to the bottom of the ladle before Furthermore, with foundry returns, a certain
ifying skin of the cast metal. pouring so that during pouring the deoxidant residual amount of phosphorus is usually
reacts with the cuprous oxide contained in the already present. A routine addition of phosphor
melt. The turbulence created during pouring is copper for deoxidation could then actually result
Deoxidation of Copper Alloys sufficient to ensure adequate mixing. The phos- in excessive phosphorus. If the phosphorus con-
phorus copper deoxidant should not be simply tent is too high during melting or pouring, the
All copper alloys are subject to oxidation dur- thrown onto the surface of the ladle after pour- lack of oxygen may invite hydrogen entry and
ing most melting operations. Oxygen reacts with ing, because little mixing will result. When the result in the steam reaction during casting.
copper to form cuprous oxide, which is com- deoxidant is added directly to the furnace, how- Adding more phosphorus to control the steam
pletely miscible with the molten metal. A eutec- ever, it should be completely stirred into the reaction can therefore actually aggravate the
tic is formed at 1065 °C (1950 °F) and 3.5% melt using clean, dry tools, and pouring should condition. In addition, when the phosphorus
Cu2O, or 0.39% O, as shown in the copper-oxy- begin as soon as possible so that the effect is content is 0.03% and beyond, excessive metal
gen phase diagram in Fig. 15. not lost. fluidity can result in penetration of the molding
Therefore, cuprous oxide exists within the Use of phosphorus deoxidation results in the sand or burn-in during casting.
melt as a liquid phase and is not generally sepa- formation of a liquid slag of cuprous phosphate: Phosphorus copper is an effective deoxidant
rated by gravity alone. If not removed, this liq- for the red brasses, tin bronzes, and leaded
uid phase will cause discontinuous solidification 2P 4Cu 7O → 2Cu2O · P2O5 bronzes. However, phosphorus should not be
during casting, resulting in considerable porosi- used for deoxidizing high-conductivity copper
ty and low mechanical strength. Thus, some type This product easily separates from the rest of alloys, because of its deleterious effect on
of deoxidation process is required. In addition, the melt; therefore, the phosphorus effectively electrical conductivity (as is discussed in the
next section), and it should not be used for
copper-nickel alloys. In these materials, the
presence of phosphorus results in a low-melt-
ing constituent that embrittles the grain bound-
aries. A silicon addition of 0.3% and a magne-
sium addition of 0.10% serve to deoxidize and
desulfurize copper-nickel melts. For nickel sil-
ver alloys (Cu-Ni-Zn), the use of 142 g (5 oz)
Fig. 22 Comparison of the effectiveness of solid

Fig. 21 Effect of nitrogen flow rate during purging on the residual gas pressure remaining in an aluminum bronze degassing flux versus nitrogen purging.
melt. The curve for oxygen purging is also shown. Source: Ref 15, 17 Source: Ref 17

copper-manganese shot per 45 kg (100 lb) of therefore appears to be superefficient. 2Li Cu2O → 2Cu Li2O (deoxidation)
melt, and 57 g (2 oz) manganese coupled with However, practical experience has shown that
85 g (3 oz) of 15% P-Cu, is a recommended this theoretical efficiency is not always Li H → LiH (degassing)
deoxidation technique. achieved and that lithium is more effective, as
The yellow brasses, silicon bronzes, man- shown in Fig. 24 (Ref 18). Therefore, lithium LiH Cu2O → 2Cu LiOH (recombination)
ganese bronzes, and aluminum bronzes usually is often preferred, although there are greater
do not require deoxidation per se, because of the precautions attendant upon its use. 2Li H2O → Li2O H2 (reaction during pouring)
oxygen-scavenging effects of their respective Lithium Deoxidation (Ref 18, 19–22).
alloy constituents. Lithium has the advantage of serving as both a The lithium oxide (Li2O) and lithium hydrox-
High-Conductivity Copper (Ref 18–21). deoxidant and a degasser because it reacts ide (LiOH) products separate cleanly as a low-
Where the high-copper alloys (pure copper, sil- readily with both oxygen and hydrogen. density fluid slag suitable for skimming (Ref
ver-copper, cadmium-copper, tellurium-copper, Lithium is soluble in molten copper but insol- 19). The lithium hydride that forms initially if
beryllium-copper, chromium-copper) are uble in the solid state. There is very little resid- hydrogen is present is unstable at normal copper
employed and electrical conductivity is a desir- ual lithium contained in the casting or in scrap melting temperatures and recombines with
able property, phosphorus-copper cannot be for remelt. cuprous oxide (recombination).
used as a deoxidant. Moreover, the strong oxide Because lithium metal is very reactive in When lithium is added in excess of the
formers beryllium and chromium serve as their air, bulk lithium metal must be stored in oil. amount of cuprous oxide present, it will react
own deoxidants. For foundry applications, lithium is supplied with moisture in the air during pouring and
Figure 23 shows the effects of a variety of in sealed copper cartridges. These cartridges can therefore generate sufficient hydrogen to
elements on the electrical conductivity of cop- must be stored in a safe, dry environment and regas the melt. This can result in unanticipat-
per. Clearly, phosphorus even in small must be preheated (to above 105 °C, or 225 ed additional gas porosity and unsoundness
amounts significantly decreases conductivity; °F) before use to drive off any surface mois- during solidification.
therefore, alternative deoxidants must be used. ture. These preheated cartridges should then Because lithium is such an effective deoxi-
Fortunately, both boron and lithium are capa- be carefully yet firmly and quickly plunged to dant, it can also reduce residual impurity
ble of deoxidizing high-conductivity copper the bottom of the reacting vessel (furnace or oxides (FeO, P2O5, and so on) in high-conduc-
without appreciably affecting electrical con- ladle) to achieve full intimate contact and tivity copper melts. This allows these elements
ductivity. reactivity with the bulk of the melt. Only to redissolve in the molten metal to the extent
Boron Deoxidation. Boron is available clean, dry, preheated plunging tools should be of their solubility limit and thus reduce electri-
either as a copper-boron master alloy or as cal- used for this task. Graphite rods are usually cal conductivity according to Fig 23.
cium boride (CaB6). The boron probably forms preferred. Furthermore, lithium can form intermetallic
a copper-borate slag of the general form Lithium-copper cartridges are generally avail- compounds with silver, lead, tin, and zinc
2Cu2O·B2O3 in much the same fashion as able in various sizes ranging from 2.25 g (0.09 oz) when the residual lithium exceeds that
phosphorus produces a cuprous oxide phos- for 23 kg (50 lb) melts to 108 g (4 oz). Thus, lithi- required for deoxidation. These intermetallic
phate slag (Ref 18). Theoretically, the boron um additions can be made at maximum efficiency. compounds, while reducing solid solubility,
combines with 60% more oxygen than the sto- The specific chemical reactions that can occur may improve mechanical properties and elec-
ichiometric amount required to form B2O3 and with lithium include: trical conductivity.
Occasionally, it may be desirable to practice a
duplex deoxidation treatment using the less
expensive phosphorus, followed by a lithium
treatment (Ref 19, 21, 22). Care must be taken to
do this quickly and not allow phosphorus rever-
sion to occur by letting the copper phosphate
deoxidation slag remain on the melt for an
extended period of time.
Magnesium Deoxidation. Magnesium
behaves similarly to lithium, but may be stored
in air rather than oil. It is actually a stronger
deoxidant in terms of its free energy of oxide
formation (Ref 23), and it is used to deoxidize
(and desulfurize) copper-nickel alloys. The
Fig. 24 Deoxidant efficiency in copper alloy melts.

Fig. 23 Effect of alloying elements on the electrical conductivity of copper. Source: Ref 19 Source: Ref 18

deoxidation product (magnesia) is a stable vibration, or the addition of nucleating or ter material itself must have sufficient integri-
refractory, unlike lithium compounds, but it grain-growth-restricting agents. Further, many ty (strength, refractoriness, thermal shock
forms a tenacious oxide skin and can result in commercial copper alloys have sufficient resistance, and corrosion resistance) so that it
inclusions in copper casting alloys. solute (zinc, aluminum, iron, tin) to achieve is not destroyed by the molten metal before its
Testing for Proper Deoxidizer Addition. As constitutional supercooling during solidifica- task is accomplished. Consequently, most fil-
stated previously, each foundry should assess its tion. In this case, grain nucleation and growth ter media are ceramic materials in a variety of
own casting practice for a given alloy and set of are naturally retarded. Commercially pure cop- configurations. Although the bulk of filter
melting conditions and should determine the opti- per can be grain refined by small additions (as technology has been directed toward alu-
mal addition of deoxidizer. However, there are little as 0.10%) of lithium, bismuth, lead, or minum alloys, the use of filtration is increas-
two tests that can be used to determine whether a iron, which provide constitutional supercooling for copper alloy melts.
given amount of deoxidizer is adequate. ing effects (Ref 24, 25). Inclusions in Copper Alloys. In addition to
In the first test, a test plug or shrink bar of Copper-zinc single-phase alloys can be grain the usual inclusions arising from oxides, fluxing
metal approximately 75 mm (3 in.) in diameter refined by additions of iron or by zirconium and salts, and intermetallics, copper oxide inclusions
by 75 mm (3 in.) deep is poured. If a shrinkage boron (Ref 26). In the latter case, the probable and phosphorus pentoxide (from deoxidation)
cavity results, the metal is deoxidized and ready mechanism is the formation of zirconium boride may be present in copper alloys if the melt is not
for pouring, which should then be done immedi- particle nuclei for grain formation. In one case, allowed to settle or if it is inadequately skimmed
ately. Shrinkage will not occur until about the vibration of a Cu-32Zn-2Pb-1Sn alloy before pouring and casting.
0.01% residual phosphorus is present (Ref 23). improved yield and tensile strengths by about Filter Applications. The filtration of copper
A puffed-out or mushroomed cap on the test 15%, with a 10% reduction in grain size from casting alloys primarily involves the use of
plug indicates that deoxidation is incomplete the unvibrated state. In general, the copper- ceramic foam sections in the gating system.
and that more should be added. zinc alloys (35% Zn) exhibit grain size reduc- Oxide inclusions have been successfully
The second test involves a carbon or graphite tion and greater improvement in properties, removed from aluminum bronze alloys using
rod immersed in the melt. When the rod surface while the - alloys do not. such a filter deployment system (Ref 28).
reaches the molten metal temperature, if there is Copper-aluminum alloys have been effective- Investment castings can be successfully fil-
oxygen present, the rod will vibrate because of ly grain refined with additions of 0.02 to 0.05% tered using a filter section in the pouring cup
the reaction (2C O2 → 2CO) occurring on the B; the effective nucleating agent is boron car- or, in the case of larger castings, molded
bar surface. The intensity of the vibration is a bide (B4C). Figure 25 illustrates the improve- directly into the wax runner bars. Ceramic fil-
function of the oxygen content, and an experi- ment in mechanical properties achieved by grain ters for copper alloys are usually alumina,
enced foundryman can readily determine the refining a Cu-10Al alloy. mullite, or zirconia.
point at which the reaction becomes negligible, Tin bronze alloys have been successfully
that is, when the melt is sufficiently deoxidized. grain refined by the addition of zirconium
The vibration decreases near the level of 0.01% (0.02%) and boron master alloys (Ref 27). Melt Treatments for
residual phosphorus, as expected for a deoxi- However, pressure tightness is reduced Group I to III Alloys
dized melt (Ref 23). because in these long freezing range alloys,
Relative Effectiveness of Copper Deoxi- finer grain size concentrates porosity because For group I to III alloys, the melting proce-
dizers. Various elements capable of scavenging of gas entrapment. dure, flux treatment, and pouring temperature
oxygen from copper alloy melts have been (Table 7) vary considerably from one alloy fam-
described. The theoretical relative capabilities of ily to another. It should also be noted that for any
several deoxidizers are: Filtration of Copper Alloys copper alloy, the temperature at which the metal
is poured into the mold is higher than the liq-
Amount of deoxidizer The filtration process consists of passing uidus temperature. Compare the liquidus tem-
required to
remove 0.01% oxygen
the molten metal through a porous device (a peratures in Tables 1 to 3 with those of the pour-
Deoxidizer Reaction products g/100 kg oz/100 lb
filter) in which the inclusions contained in the ing temperatures in Table 7 for group I to III
flowing metal are trapped or captured. The fil- alloys. More detailed information on fluxing and
Carbon CO 7.5 0.12
CO2 3.8 0.06
Phosphorus P2O5 7.5 0.12
2Cu2P2O5 5.6 0.09
Cu-15P P2O5 49.3 0.79
2Cu2P2O5 36.8 0.59
Boron B2O3 4.4 0.07
Cu-2B B2O3 224.5 3.60
Lithium Li2O 8.7 0.14
Magnesium MgO 15.0 0.24
In practice, selection of the deoxidizer must be

based on actual efficiency, economics, ease of
use, and the specific metallurgical requirements
of the alloy in question.
Grain Refining of Copper Alloys

In general, the grain refinement of copper
alloys is not practiced as a specific molten
metal processing step per se, because a certain
degree of refinement can be achieved through
normal casting processes. As with aluminum
alloys, grain refinement in copper alloys can Fig. 25 Effect of boron-refined grain size on the mechanical properties of Cu-10Al alloy. Test specimens were
be achieved by rapid cooling, mechanical removed from the center or the top of the ingot as indicated. Source: Ref 27
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
other melt practices can be found in earlier sec- nickel increases the hydrogen solubility. Then, oxygen to prevent any possibility of steam-
tions of this article. too, the higher pouring temperatures shown in reaction porosity from occurring. Normally
Table 7 aggravate hydrogen pickup. These alloys there is little need to use cover fluxes if the
Group I Alloys must be melted under an oxidizing atmosphere gates and risers are cleaned by shot blasting
and quickly superheated to the proper furnace prior to melting.
Pure Copper and Chromium-Copper. temperature to allow for temperature losses dur-
Commercially pure copper and high copper ing fluxing and handling. Proprietary fluxes are
alloys are very difficult to melt and are very sus- available and should be stirred into the melt after Group III Alloys
ceptible to gassing. In the case of chromium- tapping the furnace. These fluxes contain man-
These alloys, namely leaded red and semi-
copper, oxidation loss of chromium during melt- ganese, calcium, silicon, magnesium, and phos-
red brasses, tin and leaded tin bronzes, and
ing is a problem. Copper and chromium-copper phorus and do an excellent job in removing
high-leaded tin bronzes, are treated the same in
should be melted under a floating flux cover to hydrogen and oxygen.
regard to melting and fluxing and thus can be
prevent both oxidation and the pickup of hydro- White Manganese Brass. There are two
discussed together. Because of the long freez-
gen from moisture in the atmosphere. In the case alloys in this family, both of which are cop-
ing ranges involved, it has been found that
of copper, crushed graphite should cover the per-zinc alloys containing a large amount of
chilling, or the creation of a steep thermal gra-
melt. With chromium copper, the cover should manganese and, in one case, nickel. They are
dient, is far better than using only feeders or
be a proprietary flux made for this alloy. When manganese bronze type alloys, are simple to
risers. Chills and risers should be used in con-
the molten metal reaches 1260 °C (2300 °F), melt, and can be poured at low temperatures
junction with each other for these alloys. For
either calcium boride or lithium should be because they are very fluid (Table 7). They
this reason, the best pouring temperature is the
plunged into the molten bath to deoxidize the should not be overheated, as this serves no
lowest one that will pour the molds without
melt. The metal should then be poured without purpose. If the alloys are unduly superheated,
having misruns or cold shuts. In a well-operat-
removing the floating cover. zinc is vaporized and the chemistry of the
ed foundry, each pattern should have a pouring
Yellow Brasses. These alloys flare, or lose alloy is changed. Normally, no fluxes are used
temperature that is maintained by use of an
zinc, due to vaporization at temperatures rela- with these alloys.
immersion pyrometer.
tively close to the melting point. For this reason,
Fluxing. In regard to fluxing, these alloys
aluminum is added to increase fluidity and keep Group II Alloys should be melted from charges comprising
zinc vaporization to a minimum. The proper
ingot and clean, sand-free gates and risers. The
amount of aluminum to be retained in the brass Beryllium-Coppers. These alloys are very
melting should be done quickly in a slightly
is 0.15 to 0.35%. Above this amount, shrinkage toxic and dangerous if beryllium fumes are not
oxidizing atmosphere. When at the proper fur-
takes place during freezing, and the use of risers captured and exhausted by proper ventilating
nace temperature to allow for handling and
becomes necessary. Other than the addition of equipment. They should be melted quickly under
cooling to the proper pouring temperature, the
aluminum, the melting of yellow brass is very a slightly oxidizing atmosphere to minimize beryl-
crucible is removed or the metal is tapped into
simple, and no fluxing is necessary. Zinc should lium losses. They can be melted and poured suc-
a ladle. At this point, a deoxidizer (15% phos-
be added before pouring to compensate for the cessfully at relatively low temperatures (Table 7).
phor copper) is added. The phosphorus is a
zinc lost in melting. They are very fluid and pour well.
reducing agent (deoxidizer). This product must
Manganese Bronzes. These alloys are careful- Silicon Bronzes and Brasses. The alloys
be carefully measured so that enough oxygen
ly compounded yellow brasses with measured known as silicon bronzes, UNS alloys
is removed, yet a small amount remains to
quantities of iron, manganese, and aluminum. The C87300, C87600, and C87610, are relatively
improve fluidity. This residual level of phos-
metal should be melted and heated to the flare easy to melt and should be poured at the prop-
phorus must be closely controlled by chemical
temperature or to the point at which zinc oxide er pouring temperatures (Table 7). If overheat-
analysis to a range between 0.010 and 0.020%
vapor can be detected. At this point, the metal ed, they can pick up hydrogen. While
P. If more is present, internal porosity may
should be removed from the furnace and poured. degassing is seldom required, if necessary,
occur and cause leakage if castings are
No fluxing is required with these alloys. The only one of the proprietary degasifiers used with
machined and pressure tested.
addition required with these alloys is zinc. The aluminum bronze can be successfully used.
In addition to phosphor copper, pure zinc
amount required is that which is needed to bring Normally no cover fluxes are used here. The
should be added at the point at which skimming
the zinc content back to the original analysis. This silicon brasses (UNS alloys C87500 and
and temperature testing take place prior to pour-
varies from very little, if any, when an all-ingot C87800) have excellent fluidity and can be
ing. This replaces the zinc lost by vaporization
heat is being poured, to several percent if the heat poured slightly above their freezing range.
during melting and superheating. With these
contains a high percentage of remelt. Nothing is gained by excessive heating, and in
alloys, cover fluxes are seldom used. In some
Aluminum Bronzes. These alloys must be some cases, heats can be gassed if this occurs.
foundries in which combustion cannot be prop-
melted carefully under an oxidizing atmosphere Here again, no cover fluxes are required.
erly controlled, oxidizing fluxes are added dur-
and heated to the proper furnace temperature. If Copper-Nickel Alloys. These alloys—
ing melting, followed by final deoxidation by
needed, degasifiers can be stirred into the melt 90Cu-10Ni (C96200) and 70Cu-30Ni
phosphor copper.
as the furnace is being tapped. By pouring a (C96400)—must be melted carefully because
blind sprue before tapping and examining the the presence of nickel in high percentages
metal after freezing, it is possible to tell whether raises not only the melting point but also the
it shrank or exuded gas. If the sample purged or susceptibility to hydrogen pickup. In virtually
Production of Copper
overflowed the blind sprue during solidification, all foundries, these alloys are melted in core- Alloy Castings
degassing is necessary. As discussed earlier in less electric induction furnaces, because the
this article, degasifiers remove hydrogen and melting rate is much faster than it is with a Copper alloy castings are produced by sand,
oxygen. Also available are fluxes that convert fuel-fired furnace. When ingot is melted in shell, plaster, investment, permanent mold,
the molten bath. These are in powder form and this manner, the metal should be quickly heat- die, centrifugal, and continuous casting. Each
are usually fluorides. They aid in the elimination ed to a temperature slightly above the pouring of these casting/molding methods is briefly
of oxides, which normally form on top of the temperature (Table 7) and deoxidized either reviewed below in the section “Casting
melt during melting and superheating. by the use of one of the proprietary degasifiers Process Selection.” Additional information
Nickel silvers, also known as nickel bronzes, used with nickel bronzes or, better yet, by can be found in Volume 15 of the ASM
are difficult alloys to melt. They gas readily if plunging 0.1% Mg stick to the bottom of the Handbook and the Metals Handbook Desk
not melted properly because the presence of ladle. The purpose of this is to remove all the Edition, second edition.
Pouring Temperature and Practice solidify in much the same way as does a pure Copper alloys in the second group (those
metal. The total shrinkage is concentrated in that form fluid slags) are generally less
Pouring Temperature. Temperature ranges the region of the casting that solidifies last. affected by turbulence in pouring than are
for pouring the principal copper casting alloys These alloys are thus prone to piping and those in the first group. Although turbulence
are given in Table 7. It should not be inferred gross shrinkage cavities. Risering is common- in pouring can cause casting defects in any
from the breadth of most of these ranges that ly used to prevent shrinkage from occurring alloy, the fact that the oxides that are formed
pouring temperature is not critical; as noted in in the casting. The metal is poured well above with this group of alloys separate readily
Table 7, the ranges are intended for pouring var- the liquidus so that the entire mold cavity is from the molten metal means less likelihood
ious section thicknesses. For castings with min- filled and so that solidification occurs of oxide entrapment in the casting and
imum section thickness, the metal should be from the bottom to the top, with feeding from greater likelihood of the escape of entrained
poured at a temperature near the high side of the a riser. air bubbles.
range. Conversely, for castings that have all
heavy sections, pouring temperatures should be
near the low side of the range. Under any condi- Table 7 Pouring temperatures of copper alloys
tions, identical castings should be poured at the Light castings Heavy castings
same temperature, insofar as possible. It is gen- Alloy type UNS No. °C °F °C °F
erally advisable to allow a variation of no more
Group I alloys
than 55 °C (100 °F) during the pouring of a spe-
Copper C81100 1230–1290 2250–2350 1150–1230 2100–2250
cific mold, or when pouring several molds from Chromium-copper C81500 1230–1260 2250–2300 1205–1230 2200–2250
the same ladle. The casting process used also Yellow brass C85200 1095–1150 2000–2100 1010–1095 1850–2000
influences the pouring temperature for a specif- C85400 1065–1150 1950–2100 1010–1065 1850–1950
ic alloy. In die casting, for instance, a tempera- C85800 1150–1175 1950–2150 1010–1095 1850–2000
C87900 1150–1175 1950–2150 1010–1095 1850–2000
ture near the low side of a given range is used, in Manganese bronze C86200 1150–1175 1950–2150 980–1065 1800–1950
the interest of longer die life. C86300 1150–1175 1950–2150 980–1065 1800–1950
Pouring Practice. On the basis of the C86400 1040–1120 1900–2050 950–1040 1750–1900
degree of care required when they are poured C86500 1040–1120 1900–2050 950–1040 1750–1900
C86700 1040–1095 1900–2000 950–1040 1750–1900
into molds, copper alloys can be classified C86800 1150–1175 1950–2150 980–1065 1800–1950
into two groups: Aluminum bronze C95200 1120–1205 2050–2200 1095–1150 2000–2100
C95300 1120–1205 2050–2200 1095–1150 2000–2100
• Alloys that form tight, adherent, nonfluid C95400 1150–1230 2100–2250 1095–1175 2000–2150
slags or oxides. Typical are group I aluminum C95410 1150–1230 2100–2250 1095–1175 2000–2150
bronze and manganese bronze alloys. C95500 1230–1290 2250–2350 1175–1230 2150–2250
C95600 1120–1205 2050–2200 1095–1205 2000–2200
• Alloys that form fluid slags or oxides. These C95700 1065–1150 1950–2100 1010–1205 1850–2200
include most of the alloys in general use— C95800 1230–1290 2250–2350 1175–1230 2150–2250
those containing various combinations of Nickel bronze C97300 1205–1225 2200–2240 1095–1205 2000–2200
copper, tin, lead, and zinc. C97600 1260–1425 2300–2600 1205–1315 2250–2400
C97800 1315–1425 2400–2600 1260–1315 2300–2400
Copper alloys in the first group (those that White brass C99700 1040–1095 1900–2000 980–1040 1800–1900
form tight, adherent, nonfluid slags) require C99750 1040–1095 1900–2000 980–1040 1800–1900
great care in pouring. Their general behavior Group II alloys
can be compared to that of aluminum casting Beryllium-copper C81400 1175–1220 2150–2225 1220–1260 2225–2300
alloys, and similar pouring techniques are rec- C82000 1175–1230 2150–2250 1120–1175 2050–2150
C82400 1080–1120 1975–2050 1040–1080 1900–1975
ommended. C82500 1065–1120 1950–2050 1010–1065 1850–1950
Good pouring practice for this first group of C82600 1050–1095 1925–2000 1010–1050 1850–1925
alloys includes attention to: C82800 995–1025 1825–1875 1025–1050 1875–1925
Silicon brass C87500 1040–1095 1900–2000 980–1040 1800–1900
• Molten alloys with tight oxide films should C87800 1040–1095 1900–2000 980–1040 1800–1900
never be stirred. After the ladle is filled or the Silicon bronze C87300 1095–1175 2000–2150 1010–1095 1850–2000
C87600 1095–1175 2000–2150 1010–1095 1850–2000
crucible is removed from the furnace, and C87610 1095–1175 2000–2150 1010–1095 1850–2000
before pouring, the metal should be carefully Copper nickel C96200 1315–1370 2400–2500 1230–1315 2250–2400
skimmed but not stirred or mixed—thus min- C96400 1370–1480 2500–2700 1290–1370 2350–2500
imizing oxide entrapment. Group III alloys
• In addition to avoiding stirring of molten alu- Leaded red brass C83450 1175–1290 2150–2350 1095–1175 2000–2150
minum bronze and manganese bronze, other C83600 1150–1290 2100–2350 1065–1175 1950–2150
forms of agitation should also be avoided. If C83800 1150–1260 2100–2300 1065–1175 1950–2150
Leaded semired brass C84400 1150–1260 2100–2300 1065–1175 1950–2150
the metal is melted in a tilting furnace and C84800 1150–1260 2100–2300 1065–1175 1950–2150
must be transferred to a ladle for pouring, the Tin bronze C90300 1150–1260 2100–2300 1040–1150 1900–2100
distance the metal must drop should be mini- C90500 1150–1260 2100–2300 1040–1150 1900–2100
mized by holding the ladle close to the fur- C90700 1040–1095 1900–2000 980–1040 1800–1900
C91100 1040–1095 1900–2000 980–1040 1800–1900
nace lip. C91300 1040–1095 1900–2000 980–1040 1800–1900
• Pouring should be smooth and even to avoid Leaded tin bronze C92200 1150–1260 2100–2300 1040–1175 1900–2150
splashing and separated metal streams. With C92300 1150–1260 2100–2300 1040–1150 1900–2100
careful pouring of aluminum bronze and C92600 1150–1260 2100–2300 1050–1150 1920–2100
C92700 1175–1260 2150–2300 1065–1175 1950–2150
manganese bronze, it is possible to form an High-leaded tin bronze C92900 1095–1205 2000–2200 1040–1095 1900–2000
aluminum oxide “glove” around the metal C93200 1095–1230 2000–2250 1040–1121 1900–2050
stream, which will protect the molten metal C93400 1095–1230 2000–2250 1010–1150 1850–2100
from further oxidation. C93500 1095–1205 2000–2200 1040–1150 1900–2100
C93700 1095–1230 2000–2250 1010–1150 1850–2100
Alloys in this first group have a very nar- C93800 1095–1230 2000–2250 1040–1150 1900–2100
C94300 1095–1205 2000–2200 1010–1095 1850–2000
row freezing range (see Table 1), so that they
Casting Process Selection plexity, and it can be used with all of the copper fine details and maintain dimensional consisten-
casting alloys. cy. Surface finish, at about 3.2 m (125 in.)
There are a number of variations of the sand rms, is considerably better than that from green
Among the more important factors that influ- casting process. In green sand casting—the most sand casting.
ence the selection of a casting method are (Ref 29): widely used process—molds are formed in Shell molding is best suited to small-to-inter-
• The number of castings to be processed unbaked (green) sand, which is most often silica mediate size castings. Relatively high pattern
• The size and/or weight of the casting bonded with water and a small amount of clay to costs (pattern halves must be made from metal)
• The shape and intricacy of the product develop the required strength. The clay minerals favor long production runs. On the other hand,
• The amount and quality of finish machining absorb water and form a natural bonding system. the fine surface finishes and good dimensional
needed Various sands and clays may be blended to suit reproducibility can, in many instances, reduce
• The required surface finish particular casting situations. Other variations of the need for costly machining. While still prac-
sand casting include dry sand, cement-bonded ticed extensively, shell molding has declined
• The prescribed level of internal soundness
sand, sodium silicate-bonded sand (the CO2 somewhat in popularity, mostly because of its
(pressure tightness) and/or the type and level
of inspection to be performed process), and resin-bonded sand molding. high energy costs compared with no-bake resin-
Sand casting imposes few restrictions on bonded sand methods; however, shell-molded
• The permissible variation in dimensional
cores are still very widely used.
accuracy for a single part and part-to-part product shape. The only significant exceptions
consistency through the production run are the draft angles that are always needed on Plaster Molding. Copper alloys can also be
flat surfaces oriented perpendicular to the part- cast in plaster molds to produce precision prod-
• The casting characteristics of the copper
ucts of near-net shape. Plaster-molded castings
alloy specified ing line. Dimensional control and consistency in
sand castings ranges from about 0.8 to 3.2 mm are characterized by surface finishes as smooth
Table 8 summarizes some of the technical fac- (0.030–0.125 in.). Within this range, the more as 0.8 m (32 in.) rms and dimensional toler-
tors that go into the choice of casting method for generous tolerances apply across the parting ances as close as 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) and
casting alloys. Additional information can be line. Surface finish ranges between approxi- typically require only minimal finish machining.
found in the descriptions of individual casting mately 7.7 and 12.9 m (300 and 500 in.) root Compared to other casting methods, plaster
processes that follow. mean square (rms). molding accounts for a very small fraction of the
Sand casting accounts for about 75% of U.S. Shell Molding. Resin-bonded sand systems copper castings market.
copper alloy foundry production (Ref 29). The are also used in the shell molding process, in Investment casting, also known as precision
process is relatively inexpensive, reasonably which prepared sand is contacted with a heated casting or the lost wax process, is capable of
precise, and highly versatile. It can be used for metal pattern to form a thin, rigid shell. The shell maintaining very high dimensional accuracy in
castings ranging in size from a few ounces to molding process is capable of producing quite small castings, although tolerances increase
many tons. Further, it can be applied to simple precise castings and nearly rivals metal-mold somewhat with casting size. Dimensional consis-
shapes as well as castings of considerable com- and investment casting in its ability to reproduce tency ranks about average among the casting
Table 8 Technical factors in the choice of casting method for copper alloys
Casting Minimum section Ordering Relative cost,
method Copper alloys Size range General tolerances Surface finish thickness quantities (1 low, 5 high)
Sand All All sizes, depends 1/32 in up to 3 in.; 3/64 in.; 150-500 in. rms 1/8 1/4 in. All 1–3
on foundry capability 3-6 in.; add 0.003 in./in.
above 6 in.; add 0.020 to
0.060 in. across parting line
No-bake All All sizes, but usually Same as sand casting Same as sand Same as sand All 1–3
10 lb casting casting
Shell All Typical maximum mold 0.005–0.010 in. up to 3 in.; 125–200 in. rms 3/32 in. 100 2–3
area 550 in.2, typical add 0.002 in./in. above 3 in.;
maximum thickness 6 in. add 0.005 – 0.010 in. across
parting line.
Permanent Coppers, high-copper Depends on foundry Usually 0.010 in.; 150–200 in. rms. 1/8 1/4 in. 100–1,000, 2–3
mold alloys, yellow brasses, capability; best, 50 lb optimum 0.005 in., best 70 in. rms depending
high-strength brasses, Best max thickness, 2 in. 0.002 in. part-to-part on size.
silicon bronze, high-zinc
silicon brass, most tin
bronzes, aluminum
bronzes, some nickel
silvers
Die Limited to C85800, Best for small, thin 0.002 in./in.; no less than 32–90 in. rms 0.05–0.125 in. 1,000 1
C86200, C86500, C87800, parts; max area
3 ft2 0.002 in. on any one
C87900, C99700, C99750, dimension; add 0.010 in. on
and some proprietary alloys dimensions affected by parting
line
Plaster Coppers, high-copper Up to 800 in.2, but can One side of parting line, 0.015 63–125 in. rms, 0.060 in. All 4
alloys, silicon bronze, be larger in. up to 3 in.; add 0.002 best 32 in. rms
manganese bronze, in./in. above 3 in.; add 0.010 in.
aluminum bronze, yellow across parting line, and allow
brass for parting line shift of 0.015 in.
Investment Almost all Fraction of an ounce to 0.003 in. less than 1/4 ; 63–125 in. rms 0.030 in. 100 5
150 lb, up to 48 in. 0.004 in. between 1/4 to
1/2 in.; 0.005 in./in. between
1/2 –3 in.; add 0.003 in./in.
above 3 in.
Centrifugal Almost all Ounce to 25,000 lb. Castings are usually rough Not applicable 1/4 in. All 1–3
Depends on foundry machined by foundry.
capacity
Source: Ref 29
methods; however, surface finishes can be as fine Extremely rapid cooling rates (dies are normal- Gating (Ref 30)
as 1.5 m (60 in.) rms, and the process is unsur- ly water cooled) results in very fine grain sizes
passed in its ability to reproduce intricate detail. and good mechanical properties. Leaded alloys The major function of a gating system is to
Investment casting is better suited to castings C85800 and C99750 can yield castings that are deliver clean metal from the ladle into the mold
under 45 kg (100 lb) in weight. Because of its pressure tight, although lead is incorporated in cavity without adversely affecting the quality of
relatively high tooling costs and higher-than- these alloys more for its favorable effect on the metal. Secondary considerations are the ease
average total costs, the process is normally machinability than for its ability to seal porosity. of molding, removal of gates, and high casting
reserved for relatively large production runs of Centrifugal castings are produced by pouring yield. However, these factors should not dictate
precision products and is not often applied to molten metal into a mold that is being rotated or a design that contributes to the production of
copper alloys. revolved. Both centrifugal and semicentrifugal castings of unacceptable quality.
Permanent Mold Casting. As the name castings can be described as castings that are spun The Pouring Basin. The production of high-
implies, permanent mold casting makes use of on their own axes during the castings operation. quality castings requires not only proper melting
reusable metal molds, or dies, in place of the The axis of rotation may be horizontal or and molding operations and properly designed
sand-base molds used in conventional foundries. inclined at any angle up to the vertical position. pattern equipment, but also an understanding of
The molds are “permanent” in the sense that Molten metal is poured into the spinning mold the principles of gating so that clean metal can
they can be used thousands of times. cavity, and the metal is held against the wall of be delivered to the mold cavity with a minimum
Permanent mold castings are characterized the mold by centrifugal force. The speed of rota- amount of turbulence. A pouring basin allows a
by good part-to-part dimensional consistency tion and metal pouring rate vary with the alloy sprue to be filled quickly and maintains a con-
and very good surface finishes (about 1.8 m, and size and shape being cast. stant head throughout the pour (Fig. 26).
or 70 in.). Any traces of metal flow lines on the The castings with larger diameter than the When the weight of poured metal in a mold
casting surface are cosmetic rather than function- axial length are cast vertically, while pieces with exceeds 14 kg (30 lb), use of a pouring basin
al defects. Permanent mold castings exhibit good smaller lengths are cast horizontally. A wide offers many advantages. The pourer can better
soundness. There may be some microshrinkage, range of castings such as bearings, bushings, and direct the flow of metal from the ladle into the
but mechanical properties are favorably influ- gears of all types for applications in general basin, with less chance of spillages; also, the
enced by the characteristically fine grain size of machine production, road building equipment, sprue need not be located near the edge of the
the casting. The ability to reproduce intricate farm machinery, and steel mill and marine appli- mold. The pouring ladle can be brought within 25
detail is only moderate, however, and for prod- cations are produced. to 50 mm (1–2 in.) of the basin, and a continued
ucts in which very high dimensional accuracy is Centrifugal castings are made in sizes ranging flow rate may be more easily maintained through
required, plaster mold or investment processes from approximately 50 mm to 3.7 m (2 in. to 12 a larger pouring head. If there are any brief inter-
should be considered instead. ft) in diameter and from a few inches to many ruptions in pouring the metal into the basin, the
Permanent mold casting is more suitable for yards in length. Size limitations, if any, are like- surplus metal will take up the slack until pouring
simple shapes in midsize castings than it is for ly as not based on the melt shop capacity of the has resumed. The major disadvantage of the pour-
very small or very large products. Die costs are foundry. Simply shaped centrifugal castings are ing basin is that the yield is lowered, thereby
relatively high, but the absence of molding costs used for items such as pipe flanges and valve requiring more metal to be recycled.
make the overall cost of the process quite favor- components, while complex shapes can be cast Sprue. The correct sprue size is the single most
able for medium to large production volumes. by using cores and shaped molds. Pressure- important part of the gating system. If a wrong
Die casting involves the injection of liquid retaining centrifugal castings have been found to size is selected, or an improper taper is used, the
metal into a multipart die under high pressure. be mechanically equivalent to more costly forg- damage done to the metal in the mold cavity is
Pneumatically actuated dies make the process ings and extrusions. extensive and cannot be corrected regardless of
almost completely automated. Die casting is best Continuous casting is a process whereby the quality of the runner and gating systems.
known for its ability to produce high-quality molten copper alloy is fed through an open- Because most molds under about 14 kg (30
products at very low unit costs. Very high pro- ended graphite mold yielding a bar, tube, or lb) of poured weight are made on a high produc-
duction rates offset the cost of the complex heat- shape of the required cross section. This process, tion scale in flasks of 102 to 152 mm (4–6 in.) in
resisting tooling required, and with low labor which is performed on a continuous basis, can cope height, a fairly standard sprue size may be
costs, overall casting costs are quite attractive. be accomplished either vertically or horizontal- used for all copper-base alloys. The top third of
The process can be used with several copper ly, with the molten metal drawn from the molten the sprue should be the pouring part, with about
alloys, including yellow brass, C85800, man- metal reservoir or “tundish” at a point below the a 50 mm (2 in.) diam opening. The remaining
ganese bronzes, C86200 and C86500, silicon surface of the bath. The solidified form is cooled portion of the sprue should taper down to 13 to
brass, C87800, the special die-casting alloys and withdrawn at a controlled rate from the 22 mm (12 to 78 in.) in final diameter depending
C99700 and C99750, plus a few proprietary water-cooled mold by rollers, and the material is on the pouring rate to be used.
compositions. These alloys can be die cast cut to length with a traveling saw. Figure 27 shows a sketch of a sprue that will
because they exhibit narrow freezing ranges and Continuous casting is used to produce bearing do an excellent job of conveying brass or bronze
high phase contents. Rapid freezing is needed blanks and other long castings with uniform into the gating system. There are many charts
to complement the fast cycle times of the cross sections. It is the principal method used for and formulas available to determine the entry
process. Rapid freezing also avoids the hot the large-tonnage production of semifinished diameter of a tapered sprue, but for the most part
shortness associated with prolonged mushy products such as cast rods, tube rounds, gear and this diameter should be just sufficient to provide
solidification. Beta phase contributes the hot bearing blanks, slabs, and custom shapes. about a 10 to 20° slope on the side of the sprue.
ductility needed to avoid hot cracking as the The extremely high cooling and solidification When the sprue height is over 305 mm (12 in.),
casting shrinks in the unyielding metal mold. rates attending continuous casting can, depend- the top diameter of the sprue is much more
Highly intricate copper alloy products can be ing on the alloy, produce columnar grains. The important and should be about 50% larger than
made by die casting (investment casting is even continuous supply of molten metal at the solidi- the diameter at the base of the sprue. When
better in this regard). Dimensional accuracy and fication interface effectively eliminates designing a pouring system for sprues of 102 to
part-to-part consistency are unsurpassed in both microshrinkage and produces high quality, 152 mm (4–6 in.) in height, it is best to select the
small (25 mm, or 1 in.) and large castings. The sound products with very good mechanical desired pouring rate first in order to determine
attainable surface finish, often as good as 0.76 properties. With its simple die construction, rel- the proper sprue base to be used.
mm (30 in.) rms, is better than with any other atively low equipment cost, high production The Sprue Base. Because the velocity of the
casting process. Die casting is ideally suited to rate, and low labor requirements, continuous stream is at its maximum at the bottom of the
the mass production of small parts. casting is a very economical production method. sprue and is proportional to the square root of
the height of the fall of the metal, it is mandato- parting line. Tinned steel strainers are the least mold. Sprue exit diameters required for specif-
ry that a sprue base or well be used as a cushion acceptable because the remelted runners can ic flow rates and various sprue heights are
for the stream flowing down the sprue. The base introduce iron and hard spots to the copper-base shown in Fig. 28. Table 9 shows flow rates
also helps change the vertical flow of metal into alloys if they are not properly skimmed during from the bottom of the sprue for a number of
a horizontal flow with the least amount of turbu- melting. The mica and glass fiber strainers are commonly used sprue heights and diameters.
lence. Recommended sprue basin sizes are about popular because they can be laid on the parting As an example, for a gross casting weight of
twice as deep as the drag runner and two to three line just above the sprue base before the mold is 14 kg (30 lb) or less and a sprue height of 102
times as wide as the base of the sprue. In most closed, thereby requiring no “prints” or recesses, to 152 mm (4–6 in.), a sprue diameter of 13 to
cases a well 25 to 38 mm (1–112in.) deep with a as do the thicker ceramic or sand strainer cores, 19 mm (12 – 34 in.) is adequate to obtain a flow
width of 38 to 50 mm (112–2 in.) on each side is which are usually about 3.2 mm (18 in.) thick. rate of 0.9 to 1.8 kg/s (2–4 lb/s). It should not
usually adequate for the majority of sprues being A choke in the runner pattern is often the only be necessary to use a 22 to 29 mm (78 – 118 in.)
used for most normal pouring rates. Little dam- consistent way to achieve a proper pouring rate. diam sprue base unless pouring plaque work or
age is done if the sprue base is larger than nec- In no instance should the choke be put in the gate using automatic pouring. A quite popular sprue
essary except that the overall casting yield will area. When necessary, it should be placed in the for most production work is the 16 to 19 mm
be lowered slightly. drag runner as close to the sprue as possible (Fig. (58 – 34 in.) diam size, which will deliver
Chokes should be used only when the proper 27). The chokes should have a smooth rediused enough hot metal to fill most molds up to 14
pouring rate cannot be controlled by the correct contour and be located at the bottom of the drag kg (30 lb) weight in 8 to 10 s. The total pour-
sprue size. If clean metal is delivered into the runner. Choke depth may vary from 14 to 34 of the ing time in seconds may be calculated by
sprue, a strainer core serves the sole function of total runner depth with a cross-sectional area not dividing the total weight of the mold poured
retarding the metal flow rate. Conventional exceeding 34 of the area of the sprue base. The (castings plus gates and risers) by the flow rate
strainer cores, whether of tinned steel, mica, chokes should be located within an inch of the at the base of the sprue, or:
glass fiber, or ceramic, usually reduce the flow of sprue base to ensure rapid filling of the sprue and
metal by about 70%, depending on the size and maintenance of full capacity throughout the pour. Total weight of castings including gates and risers (lb)
number of holes that are open to the sprue area. This also permits dissipation of the turbulence Flow rate at base of sprue (lb/s)
The best strainer is one that has only one hole before the stream reaches the gates. Calculated pouring time in seconds
with a diameter of the correct sprue size. This Pouring rate depends on many factors, such
avoids the turbulence caused by the metal being as weight of the casting, section size, height of Runners and Gates. For alloys in groups I
divided into many streams as it enters the runner. the sprue, and alloy system. Most alloys in and II, it is mandatory that all runners be
In no instance should a strainer be placed into the group III for small work weighing 14 kg (30 lb) placed in the drag and as much of the casting
top of the sprue; if one must be used, the only or less are poured with a hand ladle at about 1.8 as possible be placed in the cope. In this way,
suitable place is just above the sprue base at the kg/s (4 lb/s). Light memorial plaque castings all runners will be completely filled before any
are being successfully poured at 4.5 kg/s (10 metal enters the gates, and the metal will drop
lb/s), while many automatic pouring units the least amount or will rise to enter the mold
operate at mold pouring rates of 3.6 to 4.5 kg/s cavity from the gates. Although this practice is
(8–10 lb/s). Alloys in group I, if the poured also excellent for alloys in group III, experi-
weight is under 14 kg (30 lb), should be ence has shown that quality castings may be
poured at 0.9 to 1.8 kg/s (2–4 lb/s) in order to obtained by using more traditional casting
obtain a clean, nonturbulent metal flow in the techniques because the alloys in group III are
Fig. 26 Section of a typical sand mold with pouring

basin
Fig. 27 Funnel sprue, sprue basin, and chokes (in drag

runner) for reducing turbulence Fig. 28 Flow rates of copper-base alloys through tapered sprues of varying diameter and height
less sensitive to drossing and have a tendency tioned as close as is practical to the pouring runner overlapping the casting by 0.8 to 2.4
to self-heal when dross is formed in the gating basin or sprue, and if the sprue is not filled mm (132 – 332 in.). Actually there is no gate in
system. Runners should be as rectangular in quickly and kept at full capacity throughout this system because the metal goes directly
shape as possible, and their total maximum the pour. from the runner into the casting.
cross-sectional area should be two to four Knife and Kiss Gating Systems. Special Knife gating is used when the casting is in
times that of the tapered sprue or the choke, if applications of gating systems work in many both the cope and the drag and there is a con-
chokes are used in the runner system. Care cases for specific castings. Knife and kiss gat- tact at the parting line of 0.8 to 2.4 mm
must be taken to ensure that the cross section ing are popular when group III alloys are used (132 – 332 in.) thickness just at the casting sur-
of the runners is adequate in order to prevent but not recommended for groups I and II face. Knife gating systems work well when
premature chilling. Experience has shown that because these alloys form too much dross with the runner is in just the cope or just the drag or
a rectangular runner with the wide side laying this system and cannot be fed adequately to in both the cope and the drag.
horizontal works best. The next best is a square eliminate surface shrinkage. Advantages are a Maximizing Casting Quality. Excellent,
runner, and the least desirable is a rectangular high casting yield, easy removal of runner sys- clean, high-quality castings may be obtained for
runner with the wide side being vertical, tems, and minimum grinding of gates. The the copper-base alloy groups of narrow, interme-
although sometimes space limitations necessi- major disadvantage is that many small cast- diate, and wide freezing range alloys if the basic
tate use of this type of runner in order to obtain ings become detached during shakeout, neces- principles discussed for the pouring basin, sprue,
the proper ratios. The rectangular runner sitating their manual retrieval from mecha- sprue base, chokes, pouring rates, runners, and
should be about twice as wide as it is deep. nized systems. Figure 32 shows a graphic gates are applied. By following these recom-
The cross-sectional area of the runner must be representation of the arrangement of knife and mendations, the maximum ease in molding,
reduced by that of each gate as it is passed, so kiss gating. In kiss gating, the casting must be casting yield, and ease of removal of gates and
that metal enters the mold cavity simultaneously completely in the cope or the drag with the runners may be obtained.
from each gate (Fig. 29). Because back filling is
seldom desired from the runner system, a well at
the end of the runner can be used (Fig. 30), par-
ticularly if the runner does not have any taper. A
good example of multiple-cavity gating may be
seen in Fig. 30. X-ray movies of metal flow in
sand molds show that relatively uniform gate
discharge rates are achieved only when stepped
or tapered runners are used.
Multiple gates are shown in Fig. 29 to 31.
The preferred location is in the cope just above
the runner at the parting line. A rectangular flat
Fig. 31 Recommended multiple-cavity gating system
gate is more desirable than a square gate, and with stepped runner
a gate that has its wide dimension in the verti-
cal plane is the least desirable, just as is the
case for runners. In order to avoid a pressur-
ized gating system, it is important that the total
gate area be at least as large as the total runner
area. If a pattern has an excessive amount of
small castings, it might be necessary to have
the total gate area many times the runner area
in order to obtain a sufficient gate to each cast- Fig. 29 Typical single-cavity gating system with
tapered runner
ing. This deviation is acceptable because the
gating system remains unpressurized. Figure
29 shows a good gating system that produces
the minimum amount of turbulence. Gates
should enter the casting cavity at the lowest
possible level in order to avoid the erosion and
turbulence associated with a falling stream of
molten metal. To ensure nonturbulent filling of
the casting nearest to the sprue, its gate should
be at least 50 mm (2 in.) away from the base of
the sprue.
Regardless of the excellence of a gating
system design, castings of acceptable quality Fig. 30 Method of running a pump impeller with a
will not be produced if the ladle is not posi- well at the end of the runner
Fig. 32 Basic kiss and knife gates
Table 9 Flow rates of copper-base alloys through tapered sprues of varying diameter and height
Sprue Flow rate for sprue height, mm (in.)
Area Diameter 102 (4) 152 (6) 305 (12) 610 (24) 1220 (48)
mm2 in.2 mm in. kg/s lb/s kg/s lb/s kg/s lb/s kg/s lb/s kg/s lb/s
129 0.2 13 1/2 0.82 1.8 0.91 2.0 1.36 3.0 1.81 4.0 2.72 6.0
194 0.3 16 5/8 1.27 2.8 1.50 3.3 2.04 4.5 2.72 6.0 4.08 9.0
284 0.44 19 3/4 1.81 4.0 2.04 4.5 2.95 6.5 4.08 9.0 6.12 13.5
387 0.60 22 7/8 2.49 5.5 2.95 6.5 4.08 9.0 5.67 12.5 8.16 18.0
506 0.785 25 1 3.40 7.5 3.86 8.5 5.22 11.5 7.48 16.5 11.11 24.5
645 1.0 29 11/8 4.30 9.5 4.76 10.5 7.71 17.0 9.30 20.5 13.61 30.0
Feeding castings. Gates and risers are positioned such Feeding Ranges. The number and location
that directional solidification is ensured, with of the feeders to be used must be consistent
The objectives of feeding or risering are to due consideration being given to the feeding with the feeding range of the alloy. The feed-
eliminate surface sinks or draws and to reduce range of the alloy in question. To avoid hot ing range is the distance that can be fed by a
internal shrinkage porosity to acceptable levels spots, local chills may be applied to bosses, feeder on a bar or plate. It is generally desir-
(less than 1%). ribs, and to other sections having sudden able to divide the casting into a number of sec-
To minimize porosity, the feeding system changes in thickness. tions to determine the number of risers to be
must establish: Solidification Contours. The first step in used. Because all parts of a casting must be
determining riser placement is to draw the solid- within the feeding range of at least one of the
• Directional solidification, as shown in Fig. 33, ification contours. This is illustrated by the risers, it is important to have quantitative
in which the solidification front is substantially hypothetical casting shown in Fig. 34, which information regarding feeding ranges. The
V-shaped in a longitudinal cross section with consists essentially of a plate to which is feeding range values for group I and II copper-
the large end of the V directed toward the riser attached a thinner section, C, and a boss, B. The base alloys have not been well documented. In
• Steep temperature gradients along the casting thin end of the casting, C, would normally the absence of specific data for particular
toward the riser undergo rapid cooling after pouring as the result alloys, satisfactory results can often be
The feeding techniques for group I (short freez- of edge-cooling effects. Thus, it is possible to attained by applying values that have been
ing range) alloys and group II (medium freezing place the riser at the heavy section, A, and gate developed for carbon steels. The following
range) alloys can be discussed together. The basic through the riser to provide favorable tempera- approximate values for feeding ranges have
principles of risering of group III (long freezing ture gradients. The dotted lines in Fig. 35 show been quoted in the literature, but should be
range) alloys will be described separately. successive positions of the solidification front. used with caution:
As shown, porosity will develop in the boss
Group I and II Alloys unless a chill is placed on the boss or the riser is Alloy Shape Feeding distance, T
relocated there. A chill is a block of metal or
Manganese Square bars 4 T to 10 T ,
The feeding technique for these alloys is other material with a higher heat conductivity bronze depending on
similar to that used in the manufacture of steel and heat capacity than sand. thickness
Plates 5.5 to 8 T,
depending on
thickness
Aluminum Square bars 8 T
bronze
Nickel-aluminum Square bars
8 T
bronze
Copper-nickel Square bars 5.5 T

Use of chills can further increase feeding

range. Consequently, the spacing between risers
may be increased to about ten times the section
thickness if chills are located midway between
each pair of risers (Fig. 36).
Riser Size. From time to time, various methods
have been proposed for the calculation of the opti-
mal riser size to be used to feed a particular cast-
Fig. 33 Features of progressive and directional solidification. Source: Ref 31 ing or casting section. One of the earlier methods
was developed for steel castings at the Naval
Research Laboratories (NRL). In this technique,
an empirical “shape factor” defined as the length
(L) plus the width (W) of the casting divided by the
thickness (T), that is, (L + W)/T, is first deter-
mined. The correct riser size is obtained from a
plot of VR/VC versus (L + W)/T, where VR and VC
are the riser and casting volume, respectively.
Work sponsored by the American Foundry
men’s Society has lead to the development of a
series of curves for aluminum bronzes, copper-
nickel, and manganese bronzes (Fig. 37–40).
Fig. 34 Hypothetical casting used to illustrate the principles of feeding technique. Source: Ref 32 Figures 37 to 40 indicate that the riser volumes
necessary for sound castings can be reduced and
the effectiveness of feeding improved by the use
of exothermic sleeves. Insulating sleeves also can
be used to increase the effectiveness of the risers.
Exothermic sleeves, which were once popular,
have now largely been discontinued in favor of
insulating sleeves, which are more economical to
use and cause fewer problems.
In recent years, greater attention has been
given to what has become known as the modu-
lus method for calculating riser size, which
includes the development of pertinent data and
Fig. 35 Mode of freezing the casting in Fig. 34 without special precaution to avoid shrinkage. Source: Ref 32 computer programs to check that riser volume
is adequate. This method is now, and no doubt volume (as percentages) to ensure that the The shape with the highest possible V/A
will continue to be, the most widely used tech- riser can, indeed, supply the necessary amount ratio is the sphere. However, spherical risers
nique in the industry. of feed metal to the casting. Five general are rarely used in industry because of mold-
Chvorinov’s rule states that the freezing time, classes of castings are shown, ranging from ing considerations.
t, of a cast shape is given by the relationship: “very chunky” to “rangy.” Notice that risers The next best shape for a riser is the cylinder.
having a height-to-diameter ratio (H/D) of 1 to The H/D for cylindrical risers is in the range of
t k · (V/A)2 (Eq 1) 1 are more efficient than when the H/D is 2 to 0.5 to 1.0.
1. More important, it can be seen that insulat- Riser Neck Dimensions. The ideal riser neck
where V and A are the volume and surface ed risers are far more efficient than those should be dimensioned such that it solidifies
area, respectively, of the cast shape, and k is a formed directly in the sand mold. after the casting but slightly before the riser.
constant proportionality whose value is Feeder Shape. One of the requirements of the With this arrangement, the shrinkage cavity is
dependent on the thermal properties of the riser is to remain liquid longer than the casting; entirely within the riser, this being the last part
metal and the mold. that is, from Chvorinov’s rule: of the casting-riser combination to solidify.
For convenience, the term (V/A) in Specific recommendations for the dimensions
Chvorinov’s equation is generally replaced by (V/A)R (V/A)C (Eq 6) of riser necks are contained in the literature for
the symbol M, a value referred to as the modulus
of the shape. Equation 1, above, can be rewritten
more simply to read:
t k · M2 (Eq 2)
Because Chvorinov’s equation can be

applied to any cast shape, it applies equally to
that which is intended to be the casting itself
and to the attached riser. With connected
shapes, such as a riser and a casting, the sur-
face area of each shape to be considered
includes only those portions that contribute to
the loss of heat during freezing.
For the riser to be effective in feeding, its
solidification time, tR, must be greater than the
solidifiation time tC, for the casting. This can
be written:
tR k M R2
F 2, or M R2 F 2 MC2 (Eq 3)
tC k MC2
Further simplified, this becomes:
MR F · MC (Eq 4)
Fig. 36 Effect of chills in increasing feeding range of risers. Source: Ref 31
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
This means that the modulus for the riser,
MR, must be greater than the modulus for the
casting, MC, by some factor, F. Experience has
shown that the proper value of F depends on
the metal being cast. A value of about 1.3 is
preferred for the short freezing range copper-
base alloys.
As a practical working equation, therefore,
one may say that with these alloys the modulus
of the riser should be about 1.3 times that of
casting (or casting section) to be fed, or:
MR 1.3 MC (Eq 5)
Equation 5 merely shows an empirical way

of proportioning a riser so that it freezes more
slowly than the casting. The other basic
requirement of any riser is that it must have
sufficient volume to provide the necessary
amount of feed metal to the casting or casting
section to which it is attached. These values
can be calculated if necessary; however, it is
much easier (though less precise) to use data
of the type shown in Table 10. The numbers
listed in the table indicate the minimum values
for the ratio between riser volume and casting Fig. 37 Naval Research Laboratories (NRL)-type riser size curve for manganese bronze (alloy C86500). Source: Ref 33
ferrous alloys. These should apply to short freez- Though expensive, metal chills are particularly Padding is the added section thickness (usual-
ing range copper alloys and are given in Table 11. effective because they reduce the solidification ly tapered) to promote directional solidifica-
Hot Topping. About 25 to 50% of the total heat time by a factor of more than 55. As mentioned tion, and the bulk of it should be as close to the
from a copper-base alloy riser is lost from the earlier, chills can be used to increase feeding riser as possible.
exposed surface by radiation. In order to minimize distances and thereby reduce the number of Interaction of Gates and Risers. The effec-
this radiation loss and thereby increase the effi- feeders required. When it is impractical to attach tiveness of side risers can be increased consider-
ciency of the riser, some sort of cover should be feeders at certain locations, chills are particular- ably by using a gating system that enters the
used on the top surface. Any cover, even dry sand, ly useful for initiating directional solidification, mold cavity through the riser. The advantages of
is better than nothing at all. A reliable exothermic for example, at junctions, and so on, which this arrangement are:
hot topping is one form of usable cover. would otherwise be porous.
Chills. The heat abstraction of the mold walls Padding. The process of solidification can • Cleaner molten metal enters the mold cavity.
can be increased locally by the use of chills. also be controlled by means of padding. • Because the metal in the riser remains liquid for
a longer time, steep thermal gradients are estab-
lished to improve the soundness of the casting.
LIVE GRAPH Group III Wide Freezing Range Alloys

Click here to view
The “workhorse” alloys of the copper-base

group are the leaded red brasses and tin
bronzes, virtually all of which have wide
freezing ranges. These alloys have practically
no feeding range, and it is extremely difficult
to get fully sound castings. The average run of
castings in these alloys contains 1 to 2%
porosity. Only small castings may exhibit
porosity below 1%. Attempts to reduce it more
by increasing the size of the risers are often
disastrous and actually decrease the soundness
of the casting rather than increase it.
Experience has shown that success in
achieving internal soundness depends on
avoiding slow cooling rates. The foundryman
has three possible means for doing this, within
the limitations of casting design and available
molding processes:
• Minimize casting section thickness.
• Reduce and/or evenly distribute the heat of
the metal entering the mold cavity.
Fig. 38 NRL-type riser curve for manganese bronze (alloy C86500) using different types of exothermic hot topping
• Use chills and mold materials of high chilling
and top risers. Source: Ref 34
power.
In order to produce relatively sound castings,
the following points should be considered.
Directional solidification, best used for rel-
atively large, thick castings, can be promoted in
various ways:
• Gate into hot spot.
LIVE GRAPH
• Riser into hot spot.
Click here to view • Ensure that riser freezes last (consider riser
size, insulation, and chills).
• Promote high thermal gradients by the use
of chills, preferably tapered chills unless
casting section is light (less than 12.5 mm,
or 12 in. thick).
• Make sure risers are not so large that they
unduly extend the solidification time of the
casting, which would generate porosity
beneath or behind the riser.
Uniform solidification, best used for small-
er, thin-wall castings, can be promoted in vari-
ous ways:
• Gate into cold spots, using several gates for
uniform temperature distribution.
• Use no risers, except perhaps on gate areas.
Fig. 39 NRL-type riser curve for aluminum bronze (alloy C95300) using different types of exothermic hot topping • Use chills on hot spots to ensure that they
and top risers. Source: Ref 34 cool at the same rate as the rest of the casting.
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
REFERENCES
1. J.F. Wallace and R.J. Kissling, Fluxing of

Copper Alloy Castings, Foundry, 1963
2. J.F. Wallace and R.J. Kissling, Gases in
Copper Base Alloys, Foundry, Dec 1962, p
36–39; Jan 1963, p 64–68
3. L.V. Whiting and D.A. Brown, “Air/Oxygen
Injection Refining of Secondary Copper
Alloys,” Report MRP/PMRL 79-SO(J),
Physical Metallurgy Research Laboratories,
CANMET, 1979
4. J.E. Stalarcyzk, A. Cibula, P. Gregory, and
R.W. Ruddle, The Removal of Lead from
Copper in Fire Refining, J. Inst. Met., Vol
85, 1957, p 49
5. J.G. Peacey, G.P. Kubanek, and P. Tarasoff,
“Arsenic and Antimony Removal from
Copper by Blowing and fluxing,” paper pre-
sented at the Annual Meeting of AIME (Las
Vegas, NV), Nov 1980
6. A.V. Larsson, Influence of Aluminum on
Properties of Cast Gun Metal and
Removal of Aluminum by Slag, Trans.
AFS, 1952, p 75
7. P.K. Trojan, T.R. Ostrom, and R.A. Flinn,
Melt Control Variables in Copper Base
Alloys, Trans. AFS, 1982, p 729; “High
Fig. 40 NRL-type riser curve for Cu-30Ni (alloy C96400) using exothermic sleeves and hot topping versus hot top- Conductivity Copper Alloys,” Bulletin 43,
ping alone. Source: Ref 34 Foseco, Inc., 1972
8. R.J. Kissling and J.F. Wallace, Gases in
Table 10 Minimum volume requirements of risers Copper Base Alloys, Foundry, 1962, 1963
9. M.P. Renatv, C.M. Andres, G.P. Douglas,
Minimum VR/VC , %
and R.A. Flinn, Solubility Relations in
Insulated risers Sand risers
Liquid Copper-Nickel-Carbon-Oxygen
H/D 1:1 H/D 2:1 H/D 1.1 H/D 2.1
Type of casting
Alloys, Trans. AFS, 1976, p 641
Very chunky; cubes, and so on; 32 40 140 198 10. B.N. Ames and N.A. Kahn, Gas Absorption
dimensions in ratio 1:1.33:2(a) and Degasification of Cast Monel, Trans.
Chunky; dimensions in ratio 1:2:4(a) 26 32 106 140
Average; dimensions in ratio 1:3:9(a) 19 22 58 75 AFS, 1947, p 558
Fairly rangy; dimensions in ratio 1:10:10(a) 13 15 30 38 11. T.R. Ostrom, P.K. Trojan, and R.A. Flinn,
Rangy; dimensions in ratio 1:15:30 or larger(a) 8 9 12 14 Gas Evolution from Copper Alloys—A
Summary, Trans. AFS, 1981, p 731
(a) Ratio of thickness:width:length. Source: Ref 31
12. T.R. Ostrom, P.K. Trojan, and R.A. Flinn,
The Effects of Tin, Aluminum, Nickel, and
Iron on Dissolved Gases in Molten Copper
Table 11 Riser neck dimensions Alloys, Trans. AFS, 1980, p 437
Type of riser Length, LN Cross section 13. Casting Copper Base Alloys, American
General side Short as feasible, not over D/2 Round, DN 1.2 LN 0.1D Foundrymen’s Society, 1984
Plate side Short as feasible, not over D/3 Rectangular, HN 0.6 to 0.8T as neck length increases. 14. T.R. Ostrom, R.A. Flinn, and P.K. Trojan,
WN 2.5 LN 0.18D Gas Content of Copper Alloy Melts—Test
Top Short as feasible, not over D/2 Round, DN LN 0.2D
Equipment and Field Test Results, Trans.
LN, DN, HN, WN: length, diameter, height, and width of riser neck, respectively. D, diameter of riser. T, thickness of plate casting. Source: Ref 35 AFS, 1977, p 357
15. T.R. Ostrom, P.K. Trojan, and R.A. Flinn,
Dissolved Gases in Commercial Copper
• Use chills on areas that must be machined, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Base Alloys, Trans. AFS, 1975, p 485.
thereby moving porosity to areas where the 16. R.J. Cooksey and R.W. Ruddle, New
cat skin will be left unmachined; that is, Techniques in Degassing Copper Alloys,
maintain pressure tightness. This article was adapted from: Trans. AFS, Vol 68, 1960
• Gate into areas away from machined sections 17. P.K. Trojan, S. Suga, and R.A. Flinn,
to maintain pressure tightness. • R.F. Schmidt, D.G. Schmidt, and M. Influence of Gas Porosity on Mechanical
• Use low pouring temperature (care should be Sahoo, Copper and Copper Alloys, Properties of Aluminum Bronze, Trans.
taken to avoid misruns). Casting, Vol 15, ASM Handbook, ASM AFS, 1973, p 552
• See whether increased gas content (no de International, 1988, p 771–785 18. R.J. Kissling and J.F. Wallace, Fluxing of
gassing, reduced deoxidation) or induced metal • D.V. Neff, Nonferrous Molten Metal Copper Alloy Castings, Foundry, 1964
mold reaction increases pressure tightness. Processes, Casting, Vol 15, ASM 19. M.G. Neu and J.E. Gotheridge, Fluxing and
• Make castings as thin as possible to increase Handbook, ASM International, 1988, p Deoxidation Treatments for Copper, Trans.
cooling rate and reduce machining. 445–496 AFS, 1956, p 616
20. Y.T. Hsu and B.O. Reilly, Impurity Effects 25. G.C. Gould, G.W. Form, and J.F. Wallace, 30. D.G. Schmidt, Gating of Copper Base
in High Conductivity Copper, J. Met., Dec Grain Refinement of Copper, Trans. AFS, Alloys, Trans. AFS, Vol 88, 1980, p
1977, p 21 1960, p 258 805–816
21. “Lithium Cartridges for Treatment of 26. R.J. Kissling and J.F. Wallace, Grain 31. Casting Copper-Base Alloys, American
Copper and Copper Alloys,” Product Refinement of Copper Alloy Castings, Foundrymen’s Society, 1964
Bulletin 304, Lithium Corporation of Foundry, June–July, 1963 32. R.W. Ruddle, Risering Copper Alloy
America, 1986 27. A. Couture and J.O. Edwards, Grain Castings, Foundry, Vol 88, Jan 1960, p 78–83
22. R.C. Harris, Deoxidation Practice for Refinement of Sand Cast Bronzes and Its 33. R.A. Flinn, Copper, Brass and Bronze
Copper, Shell-Molded Castings, Trans. Influence on Their Properties, Trans. AFS, Castings—Their Structures, Properties
AFS, 1958, p 69 1973, p 453 and Applications, Non-Ferrous Founders’
23. J.L. Dion, A. Couture, and J.O. Edwards, 28. M. Sahoo, J.R. Barry, and K. Klein- Society, 1963
“Deoxidation of Copper for High schmidt, Use of Ceramic Foam Filters in 34. R.A. Flinn, R.E. Rote, and P.J. Guichelaar,
Conductivity Castings,” Report MRP/PMRL- the Brass and Bronze Foundry, Trans. Risering Design for Copper Alloys of
78-7(J), Physical Metallurgy Research AFS, 1981, p 611 Narrow and Extended Freezing Range,
Laboratories, CANMET, April 1978 29. “Copper Casting Alloys,” Publication 7014- Trans. AFS, Vol 74, 1966, p 380–388
24. A. Cibula, Grain Refining Additions for Cast 0009, Copper Development Association, 35. J.W. Wallace, Risering of Castings,
Copper Alloys, J. Inst. Met., Vol 82, 1953, p 513 1994 Foundry, Vol 87, Nov 1959, p 74–81
Forming
COPPER AND MOST COPPER ALLOYS and temper. Strain-rate sensitivity (m value) is tions. Wrought copper alloys are divided in the
are readily formed at all sheet gages. The cop- also a factor in some forming operations. UNS system into the following groups:
per alloys commonly formed are characterized However, m is of practical significance only at
by strength and work-hardening rates between elevated temperature. Copper and high-copper alloys C1xxxx
those of steel and aluminum alloys. This arti- Other metallurgical parameters used to rank Zinc brasses C2xxxx
Zinc-lead brasses C3xxxx
cle will review the general characteristics of copper alloy sheet forming characteristics are: Zinc-tin brasses C4xxxx
copper and copper alloys and how these char- Tin bronzes C5xxxx
acteristics affect the behavior of sheet and strip • The plastic-strain ratio (r value), which is a Aluminum, manganese, and silicon C6xxxx
measure of sheet anisotropy Copper-nickel and copper-nickel-zinc alloys C7xxxx
in different types of forming operations.
Although emphasis is placed on the forming of • The limiting draw ratio (LDR)
flat products, the final sections of this article • Bulge height Copper alloys are supplied in annealed (soft)
also address the forming of rod, bar, tube, • Minimum bend radius and cold-worked (hard) tempers, as defined in
shapes, and wire. Additional information on These measurements are primarily used to
each of the forming processes discussed subse- assess drawing and stretching capacity specif- Table 1 ASTM B 601 temper designations
quently can be found in Forming and Forging, ic to a given alloy composition, cold-work for copper and copper alloys
Volume 14 of the ASM Handbook. level, and texture development. A more com- Temper designation Temper name or material condition
prehensive treatment of the relationships Annealed tempers
between these materials characteristics and O25 Hot rolled and annealed
General Considerations formability is available in the article “Form- O50 Light annealed
ability Testing of Sheet Metal” in Volume 14 O60 Soft annealed
of ASM Handbook and in various texts dealing O61 Annealed
The combination of moderate-to-high O65 Drawing annealed
strength, high electrical and thermal conduc- with mechanical metallurgy (see, for example, O68 Deep-drawing annealed
tivity, modest cost, good corrosion and stress- the selected references listed at the conclusion O70 Dead soft annealed
corrosion resistance, and ease of joining, cou- of this article). O80 Annealed to temper 1/8 hard
O81 Annealed to temper 1/4 hard
pled with good formability, accounts for the O82 Annealed to temper 1/2 hard
use of copper and copper alloys in a wide OS005 Average grain size 0.005 mm
range of applications. The list of typical appli- Effects of Composition, Cold Work, OS010 Average grain size 0.010 mm
and Heat Treatment on Formability OS015 Average grain size 0.015 mm
cations given subsequently reveals the diversi- OS025 Average grain size 0.025 mm
ty of forming operations used: OS035 Average grain size 0.035 mm
Copper alloys are primarily strengthened by OS050 Average grain size 0.050 mm
Application Forming operations cold work or by alloying additions that solid solu- OS070 Average grain size 0.070 mm
OS100 Average grain size 0.100 mm
Electrical terminals Bending stretch forming, tion strengthen and enhance strain hardening. A OS120 Average grain size 0.120 mm
and connectors blanking, coining, drawing finely dispersed second phase is sometimes used OS150 Average grain size 0.150 mm
Electronic leadframes Bending, coining, blanking as a grain refiner to maximize strength/ductility OS200 Average grain size 0.200 mm
Hollow ware, flatware Roll forming, blanking
Builder’s hardware Shallow and deep drawing, and combinations and/or as a means of ensuring good Cold-worked tempers
stretch forming operations surface finish after forming. H00 1/8 hard
Heat exchangers Roll forming, bending, Precipitation hardening is important to a H01 1/4 hard
sinking, blanking H02 1/2 hard
small but important class of alloys, most H03 3/4 hard
Coinage Blanking, coining, embossing
Bellows, flexible hose Cupping, deep drawing, notably, the beryllium-copper alloys. Copper- H04 Hard
bending nickel-aluminum and copper-nickel-silicon H06 Extra hard
Musical instruments Blanking, drawing, coining, alloys are also commercially important precip- H08 Spring
bending, spinning H10 Extra spring
itation-hardenable alloys. Spinodal and/or pre- H12 Special spring
Ammunition Blanking, deep drawing
cipitation hardening is available in the copper- H13 Ultra spring
nickel-tin and copper-nickel-chromium H14 Super spring
These applications are illustrated in Fig. 1 to 8. systems. Hardening by martensitic transforma- Cold-worked and stress-relieved tempers
Metallurgical Parameters Affecting tion is available in the copper-aluminum sys- HR01 H01 and stress relieved
Formability. All of the various major forming tem, but is rarely used commercially. A more HR02 H02 and stress relieved
operations—blanking, bending, stretch form- detailed discussion of strengthening mecha- HR04 H04 and stress relieved
HR06 H06 and stress relieved
ing, drawing, and coining—depend on some nisms for copper alloys can be found in the HR08 H08 and stress relieved
optimal combination of strength, ductility, and article “Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys” HR10 H10 and stress relieved
work-hardening behavior of the sheet metal to in this Handbook. HR50 Drawn and stress relieved
provide the most cost-effective part. Therefore, Copper alloys are classified using the Unified Cold-worked and order-strengthened tempers
much of this article is devoted to understand- Numbering System (UNS). The designations of HT04 H04 and order heat treated
ing the trade-offs in strength, work hardening, the Copper Development Association are also HT06 H06 and order heat treated
HT08 H08 and order heat treated
and ductility available by selection of material used and correspond closely to UNS designa-
Fig. 1 Electrical and electronic applications for formed copper alloy parts. (a) Connectors used in home appliances and automotive electrical systems. (b) Copper alloy leadframe
for a semiconductor device
Table 2 Mechanical properties of selected solid-solution copper alloys

Grain sizes of all materials listed ranged from 0.010 to 0.025 mm (0.0004 to 0.001 in.)
0.2% offset yield strength Tensile strength
Alloy designation Nominal
and common name composition, % MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, %
C11000 (Electrolytic tough-pitch) 99.90 min Cu 83 12 241 35 48

C21000 (Gilding, 95%) Cu-5Zn 97 14 262 38 45
C23000 (Red brass, 85%) Cu-15Zn 110 16 290 42 45
C26000 (Cartridge brass, 70%) Cu-30Zn 179 26 379 55 48
C50500 (Phosphor bronze, 1.25% E) Cu-1.4Sn 124 18 290 42 47
C51000 (Phosphor bronze, 5% A) Cu-5Sn 165 24 345 50 50
C61000 (…) Cu-8Al 207 30 483 70 65
C70600 (Copper nickel, 10%) Cu-10Ni 124 18 317 46 38
C71500 (Copper nickel, 30%) Cu-30Ni 172 25 400 58 32
C75200 (Nickel silver, 65–18) Cu-18Ni-18Zn 179 26 414 60 37
(a) Available only as tube, but properties are illustrative of copper-aluminum alloy strip properties.
be used to correlate formability; they can, how- ature aging produce material with tensile
ever, offer some insight into formability. It is strength above 1380 MPa (200 ksi). Lower
clear from Table 2 that strength higher than that beryllium contents are used to sacrifice some
of pure copper (Alloy C11000) can be acquired strength for better thermal and electrical con-
with limited or no loss of ductility by solid-solu- ductivities. Forming can precede aging or follow
tion alloying. it; the choice is based on property and formabil-
Figure 9 shows the work-hardening behavior ity requirements, as well as practicality.
of copper (C11000) and several copper alloys in In many cases, volume changes that accompa-
terms of strength and ductility versus cold ny aging, or other fabricating constraints, pre-
reduction. The relative work-hardening effects clude aging treatment of the formed part, and the
of various alloying elements are evident; the precipitation-hardened alloys are therefore pro-
Fig. 2 Typical household flatware utensils formed from strong effect of aluminum is contrasted with the vided in mill-hardened tempers. Mill-hardened
copper alloys weak effect of nickel, with zinc and tin being alloys are either solution annealed or cold rolled
intermediate. Ductility, as indicated by tensile before being given an aging treatment at the mill
Table 1. These designations are only guidelines; elongation, decreases with cold reduction. to produce a specific set of final properties.
the supplier should be consulted for specific Again, however the combinations of strength Mill-hardened tempers are designed to balance
property/temper characteristics. Temper desig- and ductility is enhanced by solid-solution addi- the requirements of strength and formability.
nations for precipitation-hardened alloys are tives even after cold working. They are of particular importance for intricate
covered in the section “Precipitation Hardening Precipitation Hardening and Cold Working. parts such as electronic connectors, where elimi-
and Cold Working” in this article. Precipitation-hardenable alloys offer the oppor- nation of customer heat treatment and cleaning
Solid-Solution Strengthening and Cold tunity to form parts in the maximum-ductility steps are important to the economics and/or fab-
Working. Solute elements provide a major (solution-annealed) condition and then harden rication of the part. Parts that require sharp bends
means of strengthening copper, and the magni- the formed part to maximum strength with a or maximum formability should be formed from
tude of strengthening depends on the type and precipitation heat treatment. However, fabrica- the annealed or rolled tempers before final aging
level of addition. Table 2 lists mechanical prop- tion requirements may preclude this option. to reach the desired peak strength.
erties resulting from various alloying additions Alloys containing 0.15 to 2.0% Be can be Mill-hardened tempers are much stronger
to copper in the annealed condition. Neither ten- strengthened by solid-state precipitation. For than unaged rolled tempers, but compromise
sile elongation (Table 2) nor reduction in area alloys with high beryllium content (1.8 to 2.0%), some formability compared to the rolled tem-
fully defines usable formability and should not combinations of cold work and elevated-temper- pers in favor of avoiding customer aging and
Forming / 197
Fig. 3 Builder’s hardware formed from copper alloys. (a) Doorknob fabricated by deep drawing. (b) Recessed fixture for kitchen and bathroom accessories
Fig. 5 Copper alloy U.S. currency with heavy coining

and embossing
Fig. 4 Automotive radiator fabricated from several formed copper alloy components, including a deep-drawn water
tank, roll-formed cooling tubes, and formed cooling fins
cleaning. The grain size of these alloys is less Postforming Heat Treatment. Heat treat-
than 0.03 mm (0.001 in.) for gages from 0.1 ments, aside from those employed to precipi-
to 1.27 mm (0.004 to 0.050 in.) thick. tation harden, are used after forming to
Temper designations for precipitation-hard- reduce susceptibility to stress corrosion (pri-
ening systems are given in Table 3; mill- marily the brasses) or to increase the stiffness
hardened temper designations correspond to or stress relaxation resistance of electrical or
supplier designations. electronic springs (mainly the brasses, alu-
The mechanical properties of four precipi- minum bronzes, and copper-silicon alloys).
tation-hardenable alloys in the solution- These postforming treatments are performed
annealed condition are given in Table 4. The at low temperatures. See the article “Heat
work-hardening behavior of several precipi- Treating” in this Handbook for details.
tation-hardening systems in the solution-
annealed condition is shown in Fig. 10. The Fig. 6 Deep-drawn and corrugated copper alloy bellows
strong effect of beryllium content on solid- Formability of Copper
solution strengthening and work hardening is Alloys versus Other Metals previously noted, formability can best be
evident in Fig. 10 for alloy C17200. Table 5 rationalized in terms of the strength, work
lists the mechanical properties of selected In forming a given part, no single materials hardening, and ductility of a copper alloy, but
tempers of mill-hardened alloys. property completely defines formability. As these parameters do not allow direct correla-
LIVE GRAPH
Fig. 7 French horn fabricated from copper alloys using Click here to view
complex bending and spinning operations
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 8 Ammunition using a deep-drawn copper alloy

cartridge case
Table 3 ASTM B 601 temper designations

for precipitation-hardened copper alloys
Temper designation Temper name or material condition
Solution-treated temper
TB00 Solution heat treated
Solution-treated and cold-worked tempers
Fig. 10 Work-hardening behavior of four precipitation-
TD00 TB00 cold worked to 1/8 hard hardening copper alloys in the solution-
TD01 TB00 cold worked to 1/4 hard annealed condition. (a) Effect of cold work by rolling reduc-
TD02 TB00 cold worked to 1/2 hard tion on ultimate tensile strength. (b) Effect of cold work on
TD03 TB00 cold worked to 3/4 hard yield strength. (c) Effect of cold work on elongation
TD04 TB00 cold worked to full hard Fig. 9 Work-hardening behavior of copper and some
solid-solution copper alloys. (a) Effect of cold
Precipitation-hardened temper work by rolling reduction on ultimate tensile strength. (b) other alloy systems. The choice of material
TF00 TB00 and precipitation hardened Effect of cold work on yield strength. (c) Effect of cold
work on elongation
system is usually based on economics, includ-
Cold-worked and precipitation-hardened tempers
ing material and other fabrication costs as well
TH01 TD01 and precipitation hardened
TH02 TD02 and precipitation hardened as properties.
TH03 TD03 and precipitation hardened
Figure 11 shows the annealed ultimate tensile
TH04 TD04 and precipitation hardened and yield strengths and response to cold rolling
Precipitation-hardened and cold-worked tempers for American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) type Blanking and Piercing
TL00 TF00 cold worked to 1/8 hard 304 stainless steel, 1045 steel, aluminum alloy
TL01 TF00 cold worked to 1/4 hard 1100, copper alloy C11000, and some selected Nature of the Operation. Blanking,
TL02 TF00 cold worked to 1/2 hard copper alloys. The high work-hardening rate and piercing, and related cutting operations (trim-
TL04 TF00 cold worked to full hard
TL08 TF00 cold worked to spring
strength of the austenitic stainless steel are evi- ming, notching, parting, and so on) are often
TL10 TF00 cold worked to extra spring dent. The copper alloys range from above alu- used to provide parts that are subsequently
TR01 TL01 and stress relieved minum to above low-carbon steel in strength and formed to final shape by such operations as
TR02 TL02 and stress relieved work-hardening rate. A comparison of limiting bending, drawing, coining, and spinning.
TR04 TL04 and stress relieved
draw ratio with the plastic-strain ratio r for fer- Cutting operations are frequently conducted
Mill-hardened tempers rous and nonferrous alloys is shown in Fig. 12. in the same press tooling used to form and
TM00 AM Increasing values of r and LDR reflect increas- shape the final part geometry. The principal
TM01 1/4 HM
tion
TM02 with formability. The problem becomes
1/2 HM ing drawability (see the section “Drawing and objective of any cutting operation is to pro-
even
TM04 more difficult HM when comparing dif- Stretch Forming” in this article). duce a workpiece that has the correct geomet-
ferent
TM06 alloy systems, XHM for example, ferrous In general, copper alloys offer better ric shape, is free of distortion, and possesses
TM08nonferrous.
and XHMS strength/formability combinations than most sheared edges that are of sufficient quality to
Forming / 199
allow subsequent forming, finishing, and/or material characteristics. Burr-free and distor- which a specimen can be bend without cracks
handling operations. tion-free parts can be cut from annealed copper being observed on the outer fiber (tension) sur-
Materials Considerations. Copper and cop- alloy strip at die clearances to about 5% of strip face. Bend deformation is highly localized and is
per alloys can be readily blanked and pierced. thickness. Unalloyed coppers, such as C10100 confined to the region of the workpiece in con-
The strip characteristics that directly affect the and C10200, require smaller clearances (usually tact with the bending die. Workpiece thickness is
quality of the workpiece and/or final part pro- 5%) and less latitude in actual values to pro- not substantially reduced unless the bend radius
duced by cutting operations are flatness, dimen- duce burr-free edges, even in rolled tempers. is less than 1.0t or the part is coined during
sional tolerances, (width, thickness, and so on), Copper alloys that contain second-phase parti- bending. More detailed information on bending
and shear-to-break ratio. The flatness and cles (for example, C19400), that have high ductility tests can be found in the article “Bend
dimensional tolerances of copper alloy strip solute additions (such as C26000 or C51000), Testing” in Mechanical Testing and Evaluation,
depend on the equipment and manufacturing and/or that are cold rolled more than 50% gen- Volume 8 of ASM Handbook.
expertise. The shear-to-break characteristics of erally exhibit high-quality of 3 to 12%. Low- Materials Characteristics. Ductility is the
strip depend on strip composition and temper. lead additions to brass and other copper alloys principal materials factor that determines bend
Effects of Alloy Composition and Temper. will decrease burrs and the shear-to-break ratio formability. The ductility factor of first order
The quality of blanked edges—shear-to-break, in blanking operations, but at some cost to importance is the ability of a material to distrib-
rollover, breakout angle, burr height, and so formability in almost all types of forming. ute strain in a highly localized region, that is,
on—is determined by both die clearance and necking strain. The necking strain available
depends on alloy composition and temper. As
Bending strength is increased by cold work, the ability of
Table 4 Mechanical properties of precipi- an alloy to distribute necking strain decreases.
tation-hardenable copper alloys in the Nature of the Operation. Many connectors, The extent to which bend formability is
annealed condition terminals, and spring-like components are fabri- decreased with increasing strength is dependent
0.2% offset Tensile cated by simple bending operations. Bending is on the alloy composition and the strengthening
UNS
yield strength strength
Elongation,
an operation in which a blanked coupon is mechanism. Conventional tensile elongation
designation MPa ksi MPa ksi % wrapped, wiped, or formed over a die to speci- cannot be used to predict bend formability
C17200 290 42 476 69 40 fied radius and bend angle. Bend formability is because it does not adequately account for the
C17500 207 30 310 45 27 usually expressed as minimum bend radius R in contribution of necking strain. However, if the
C70250 138 20 338 49 37 terms of strip thickness t (R/t). Minimum bend tensile specimen gage length were decreased to
C72400 276 40 483 70 27 radius is defined as the smallest radius around define an area of deformation equal to that
deformed during bending, comparable ductility
Table 5 Mechanical properties of mill-hardened copper alloys values would be obtained.
0.2% offset yield strength Tensile strength
Effect of Alloy Composition, Temper, and
UNS
designation Temper(a) MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, %
Orientation. Bend data for a wide range of
copper alloys are summarized in Table 6.
C17410 TM04 655–862 95–125 758–896 110–130 4–15
C17500 HTR 758–965 110–140 827–1034 120–150 1–4
Strength-to-bend formability characteristics are
C70250 TM00 552 min 80 min 620 min 88 min 6 min dependent on alloy composition, temper, and
TR04 690 min 100 min 731 min 106 min 2 min orientation. The principal strengthening mecha-
C17200 TM02 690–862 100–125 827–931 120–135 12–18 nism is through solute additions to increase the
TM04 793–931 115–135 931–1034 135–150 9–15
C72400 TM02 690–827 100–120 876–1000 127–145 10–17
work-hardening rate. For example, additions of
TM04 827–965 120–140 938–1062 136–154 9–14 15 and 30% Zn to copper increase the tensile-
strength-to-bend properties by 220 and 290
(a) See Table 3. MPa (32 and 42 ksi), respectively, for 0.25 mm
(0.010 in.) thick goodway bends at a bend
radius of 0.4 mm (164 in.). Precipitation
strengthening is also an important mechanism
employed to improve the strength-to-bend per-
formance of copper alloy strip, particularly if
the part is bent in a softer temper and subse-
quently aged to a higher strength.
The practice of cold rolling to increase strip
temper degrades bend formability. However, it is
often used because most alloys still exhibit use-
ful bend formability at modest cold-rolling
reductions. Product applications that require
both high strength and good bend performance
are usually satisfied by selecting copper alloys
that are precipitation and/or solute strengthened
with additions that greatly increase the work-
hardening rate and thus minimize cold-rolling
requirements to achieve the desired strength.
Table 7 shows the relationship between tem-
per and bend formability for precipitation-
strengthened beryllium-copper alloys. As indi-
cated by the data given in Table 7, formability is
LIVE
LIVE GRAPH
GRAPH LIVE GRAPH highest and most isotropic in the annealed
Click
Click here
here to
to view
view Click here to view
(TB00) and 14 hard (TD01) tempers. Slightly
Fig. 11 Work-hardening behavior of copper alloys versus that of low-carbon steel, austenitic stainless steel, and alu-
anisotropic but good formability is retained as
minum. (a) Effect of cold work by rolling reduction on ultimate tensile strength. (b) Effect of cold work on
yield strength cold work increases to the hard (TD04) temper;
these formability characteristics are also exhibit- reduction. Bend directionality results from the cold rolled and/or solute strengthened. Bend
ed by the low-to-intermediate strength mill- development of strong textures during rolling. anisotropy in precipitation-hardening systems is
hardened tempers (TM00 through TM04). Copper alloys with low stacking fault energy, strongly process dependent.
Moderate-to-limited, more anisotropic formabil- such as alloy C26000 (cartridge brass), develop Figure 14 shows the effects of bend direc-
ity is displayed by the high-strength mill-hard- strong {110} 112 textures during rolling and tionality on part layout. This part includes both
ened tempers through TM08 and in mill-hard- can exhibit bend directionality even at approxi- goodway and badway bends. If the part were
ened C17410 TH04 strip. mately 30% cold-rolling reduction. Dilute cop- fabricated from an alloy with strong bend
Bend formability is typically dependent on per alloys and copper-nickel alloys do not directionality, for example, phosphor bronze
bend direction with respect to strip-rolling develop well-defined rolling textures, and they (alloy C51000) in spring temper, the part lay-
direction (Fig. 13 and Table 6). All cold-rolled show less bend directionality even at high out would be restricted to avoid failure at bad-
materials exhibit directionality. The extent of (70%) cold-rolling reductions. In general, way bends. With alloys such as C68800 or
bend directionality varies from alloy to alloy, sharper bends can be made in the goodway than C72500, which exhibit significantly less bend
but always increases with increasing cold in the badway orientations for alloys that are directionality, the part layout is not as restrict-
ed. It is not always possible to orient parts to
minimize web scrap, regardless of the alloy
selected, because tool design and part-han-
dling and transfer costs may override the cost
penalty of poor strip utilization.
Fig. 13 Bend formability of copper alloys as a function

of rolling direction. Bends with the axis trans-
verse to the rolling direction are termed goodway bends;
Fig. 12 Plastic-strain ratio r versus limiting draw ratio for different metals. Source: Ref 1
LIVE GRAPH bends with the axis parallel to the rolling direction are
Click here to view badway bends. See also Table 6. Source: Ref 3
Table 6 Maximum strengths required to make the indicated bends in various copper alloys
Maximum strength required to make bend of indicated radius, r, in material of indicated thickness, t, MPa (ksi)
Good-way bends Bad-way bend
UNS 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) t 0.50 mm (0.020 in.) t 0.76 mm (0.030 in.) t 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) t 0.50 mm (0.020 in.) t 0.76 mm (0.030 in.) t
designation 0.4 mm ( 1/64 in.) r 0.8 mm (1/32 in.) r 1.2 mm ( 3/64 in.) r 0.4 mm ( 1/64 in.) r 0.8 mm ( 1/32 in.) r 1.2 mm ( 3/64 in.) r
C11000 372 (54) 352 (51) 352 (51) 365 (53) 331 (48) 345 (50)
C17200(a) 896 (130) 896 (130) 896 (130) 896 (130) 896 (130) 896 (130)
C17500(a) … … 724 (105) … … 724 (105)
C15100 428 (62) 400 (58) 400 (58) 407 (59) 400 (58) 400 (58)
C19400 538 (78) 510 (74) 496 (72) 517 (75) 496 (72) 490 (71)
C19500 614 (89) 572 (83) 572 (83) 592 (86) 572 (83) 558 (81)
C19700 538 (78) 510 (74) 496 (72) 517 (75) 496 (72) 490 (71)
C23000 593 (86) 593 (86) 593 (86) 572 (83) 552 (80) 538 (78)
C26000 662 (96) 662 (96) 662 (96) 627 (91) 524 (76) 524 (76)
C35300 641 (93) 572 (83) 572 (83) 496 (72) 483 (70) 469 (68)
C41100 517 (75) 496 (72) 496 (72) 468 (68) 448 (65) 434 (63)
C42500 621 (90) 621 (90) 621 (90) 552 (80) 475 (69) 462 (67)
C50500 490 (71) 469 (68) 469 (68) 490 (71) 468 (68) 469 (68)
C51000 710 (103) 662 (96) 648 (94) 621 (90) 572 (83) 538 (78)
C52100 765 (111) 745 (108) 731 (106) 614 (89) 558 (81) 552 (80)
C63800 827 (120) 807 (117) 793 (115) 724 (105) 696 (101) 696 (101)
C65400 745 (108) 731 (106 731 (106) 627 (91) 627 (91) 627 (91)
C66600 669 (97) 655 (95) 641 (93) 613 (89) 586 (85) 579 (84)
C68800 786 (114) 744 (108) 745 (108) 786 (114) 745 (108) 731 (106)
C70250(a) 690 (100) 655 (95) … 552 (80) 517 (75) …
C70600 524 (76) 496 (72) 496 (72) 489 (71) 483 (70) 483 (70)
C72400(a) 793 (115) 690 (100) 621 (90) 793 (115) 690 (100) 621 (90)
C72500 572 (83) 517 (75) 517 (75) 531 (77) 504 (73) 503 (73)
C73500 579 (84) 579 (84) 579 (84) 525 (76) 518 (75) 517 (75)
C74000 648 (94) 600 (87) 586 (85) 593 (86) 565 (82) 552 (80)
C75200 579 (84) 579 (84) 579 (84) 558 (81) 558 (81) 558 (81)
C77000 807 (117) 751 (109) 717 (104) 758 (110) 696 (101) 676 (98)
“Good-way” and “Bad-way” refer to the orientation of the bend with respect to the sheet or strip rolling direction (see Fig. 13). (a) Mill hardened to strength shown, then formed. Note: Tensile strengths of 965 and 1103 MPa
(140 and 160 ksi) are available in 0.25 and 0.5 mm (0.010 and 0.020 in.) thicknesses with specially supplied mill tempers. Source: Ref 2
Forming / 201
Special Considerations. The values listed in drawing step or in multiple steps by redrawing
Tables 6 and 7 for the minimum bend radii of preforms developed by deep-draw, shallow-
various alloys as a function of temper are draw, and/or stretch-forming methods. Ironing
approximate; actual results can deviate because can be used during redrawing to control the wall
of tool condition and shop practice. The bend thickness of the final part. Additional anneals
performance required also depends on the part may be required between redrawing steps.
application. For example, “orange peel” (surface A shallow-drawn part has a depth less than the
roughening) is unacceptable if the part is to be minimum part width and is usually formed in
plated or subjected to other finishing operations one process step. It can be a final part or the pre-
and if appearance is important. Often, more than form for deep drawing.
one alloy is available that will meet product A stretch-formed part is fabricated by press-
requirements. In the absence of other limita- ing a punch into a blank that is fully or partially
tions, bend formability may be the deciding fac- restrained at its periphery to develop positive
tor in alloy selection. biaxial strain on the part surface. A stretch-
The bend performance of copper alloy strip formed part can be a final part or the preform for
degrades as bend angle increases; that is, a 180° drawing operations.
bend is more severe than a 90° bend angle. The
effect of bend angle on bend formability is more
severe as gage increases and/or bend radius Materials Characteristics and Effects of
decreases. Bend performance improves as the Alloy Composition and Temper
width-to-thickness ratio of the bend region is
reduced to values of less than 8 to 1. Reducing Single-Step Drawing. Copper alloys that
the width-to-thickness ratio can enhance bend have high r values will provide the largest lim-
performance by as much as three times. iting draw ratio in a single deep-draw step. The
r value is defined as the ratio of true width
strain to true thickness strain in the region of
Drawing and Stretch-Forming uniform uniaxial elongation during a tensile
test. It measures the resistance of material to
In drawing and stretch-forming, a suitably thinning. The r value correlates with deep-
shaped blank of sheet metal is drawn or formed drawing performance because it reflects the
into a die cavity to produce a part. A clamping difference between the load-carrying capabili- Fig. 14 Impact of bend anisotropy on part layout.
ring, draw beads, and/or other restraints are usual- ty of the cup sidewall and the compression (a) Hypothetical part, which has equal-radius
ly applied at the periphery of the blank to prevent load required to draw in the flange of the cup bends at 90° orientations in the plane of the strip.
Selection of the appropriate copper strip alloy for this
wrinkling and/or tearing of the blank as it is drawn or blank during a deep-drawing operation. application depends on the material strength and the
or formed into the die cavity. The complexity of The deepest single-step draws (highest bend properties in the relevant orientations. (b) Potential
the edge restraint required is usually directly pro- LDR) can be made with alloy C52100, fol- nesting of blanks for the part shown in (a). Layout A is
portional to the complexity of the final part. lowed by the brasses (in order of decreasing required for directional alloys such as C51000 and
results in 38% scrap; a nondirectional alloy such as
A deep-drawn part is characterized by having zinc level) and by copper. The LDR of car- C68800 would allow the more efficient layout B, with
a depth greater than the minimum part width. A tridge brass (alloy C26000) increases as its 23% scrap. Dimensions given in millimeters (1 in.
deep-drawn part can be fabricated in a single grain size increases. 25.4 mm). Source: Ref 3
Table 7 Relative formability of beryllium-copper strip

Suitable alloy condition for specified formability rating and approximate formability ratio (R/t) for a 90° bend(a)
Alloy C17000 Alloy C17200 Alloys C17500 and C17510
Formability Alloy Transverse(c) Longitudinal(d) Alloy Transverse(c) Longitudinal(d) Alloy Transverse(c) Longitudinal(d)
rating Specific formability condition(b) (R/t ) ratio (R/t) ratio condition(b) (R/t) ratio (R/t) ratio condition(b) (R/t) ratio (R/t) ratio
Excellent Used for deep-drawn TB00 0.0 0.0 TB00 0.0 0.0 TB00 0.0 0.0
and severely cupped
or formed parts
As formable as the TD01 0.0 0.0 TD01 0.0 0.0 … … …
annealed (TB00) TM00(e) 0.0 0.0
temper but easier TM02(e) 0.0 0.0
to blank
Very good Used for moderately TD02 1.0 0.5 TD02 1.0 0.5 TD04 0.6 0.5
drawn or cupped parts TM00 1.0 1.0 TM00 0.8 0.8 TF00 1.0 1.0
TM01 1.0 1.0 HTC 1.0 1.0
TM04(e) 1.0 1.0
Good Formable to a 90° bend TD04 2.9 1.0 TD04 2.9 1.0 TH04 2.0 2.0
around a radius TM01 1.7 1.5 TM02 1.3 1.3
3 stock thickness TM02 2.2 1.9 TM04 2.5 2.5
TM06(e) 2.0 2.5
Moderate(f) Suitable for light drawing; … … … TM05 3.2 2.8 HTR 3.5 2.8
used for springs TM06 3.8 3.0
TM08(e) 3.0 3.5
Limited For essentially flat parts; TM04 5.1 3.8 TM08 6.0 4.1 … … …
forming requires very TM05 7.7 5.0
generous punch radii TM06 10.4 6.1
(a) Formability ratios of punch radius (R) to stock thickness (t) are valid for strip up to 1.3 mm (0.050 in.) thick. Strip less than 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) thick will form somewhat better than shown. Values reflect the smallest punch
radius that forms a strip sample into a 90° vee-shaped die without failure. (b) See Table 3 for descriptions of the alloy condition designations. (c) Transverse bend direction has a bend axis parallel to the rolling direction. (d)
Longitudinal bend direction has a bend axis perpendicular to the rolling direction. (e) Special mill processing for high formability. (f) Moderately formable strip includes alloy C17410 in the TH04 condition with a longitudinal
R/t ratio of 1.0 and a transverse R/t ratio of 6.0.
Multiple-Step Deep Drawing. The num- geometry closely matches that of the final give the highest LDR, copper alloys with lower
ber of redrawing steps and the frequency of part. The trade-offs involved in selecting a work-hardening rates can be redrawn and ironed
intermediate annealing treatments required fabrication procedure for the initial preform more times without intermediate annealing. The
depend on the initial preform geometry, the (for example, deep drawing, shallow drawing, curves shown in Fig. 15 suggest that alloy
extent of ironing required, and the work-hard- or stretch forming) are complex. C11000 (electrolytic tough-pitch, ETP, copper)
ening rate of the particular alloy. Fewer In contrast to single-step deep drawing, in will possess better redrawing and ironing char-
redrawing steps are required if the preform which alloys with high work-hardening rates acteristics and will require lower press forces
than copper alloys with solute additions of zinc,
LIVE GRAPH tin, and/or silicon.
Click here to view In general, successively smaller reductions are
selected at each redrawing step to ensure that the
punch forces required to decrease the flange cir-
cumference do not exceed the load-carrying
capability of the part sidewall. The magnitude of
the incremental steps of redrawing is decreased if
the part sidewall is to be ironed. Ironing increas-
es the strength of the sidewall and flange propor-
tionally to the distance from the cup bottom. In
some applications, redrawing capacity can be
improved by increasing the temper of the initial
strip to enhance the load-carrying capability at
the junction of the part sidewall and the cup bot-
tom. The alternative is to use a stronger alloy.
Stretch Forming. The stretch formability of
copper alloys correlates with the total elongation
measured in a tension test. Annealed alloys that
show high work-hardening rates offer the best
stretch-forming characteristics. Improved com-
binations of strength and stretch formability are
achieved by solute elements that greatly increase
the work-hardening rate. Cold rolling to increase
strip temper (strength) significantly reduces
stretch formability.
The variation of tensile elongation with cold-
rolling reduction for copper alloys is shown in
Fig. 16. These data indicate that high-tin and
high-zinc alloys offer the best combinations of
strength and stretch formability.
Fig. 15 Redrawing characteristics of 1.0 mm (0.040 in.) thick sheets of several copper alloys. Curves of lower slope
Specific Characteristics of Copper Alloys.
indicate a lower rate of work hardening and therefore a higher capacity for redrawing. Source: Ref 3
The higher-zinc brasses, such as alloy C24000
(low brass), alloy C26000 (cartridge brass), and
alloy C26200 (high brass), have strengths com-
parable to those of low-carbon steels and high
ductilities. They are outstanding materials for
deep drawing and stretch forming.
Many other families of copper alloys also
have good deep-drawing and stretch-forming
properties. Phosphor bronze A (alloy C51000)
has an excellent combination of high strength
and high ductility and is used to form deep-
drawn thin-wall shells that are then annealed
and corrugated to produce bellows with high
fatigue strength, corrosion resistance, and
excellent flexibility.
The nickel silvers (copper-nickel-zinc) are
white copper alloys that also have excellent
deep-drawing characteristics similar to those of
the high-zinc brasses. However, they have some-
what higher work-hardening rates and require
more intermediate annealing for redrawing than
cartridge brass. In the fully annealed condition,
alloy C63800 (Cu-3Al-2Si-0.4Co) also exhibits
good deep drawability (similar to that of the
nickel silvers). Annealed high-zinc leaded brass-
es are suitable for shallow-drawn parts, such as
LIVE GRAPH garden-hose coupling nuts.
Click here to view
Fig. 16 Stretch-forming characteristics of 1.0 mm (0.040 in.) thick copper alloys. Elongation values for a given percent- Copper-zinc-tin alloys such as C40500,
age of cold reduction indicate the remaining capacity for stretch forming in a single operation. Source: Ref 3 C41100, C42200, and C42500 respond well to
Forming / 203
drawing and redrawing operations. With regard provide maximum drawability. For 0.81 mm to 50%, with a 50% reduction corresponding to
to deep-drawing properties, C40500 and (0.032 in.) thick material, a range of 0.060 to ideal conditions. Drawing procedures vary wide-
C41100 are similar to the high-copper brasses, 0.090 mm (0.0024 to 0.0035 in.) average grain ly in commercial practice. Reductions for suc-
and C42200 and C42500 are similar to C24000. size would give optimal performance. cessive draws of the commonly formed brasses,
Beryllium-coppers can be drawn in the solu- The surface finish required on the final part is under favorable operating conditions and with-
tion-annealed temper and then age hardened. an important consideration when selecting the out intermediate annealing, are usually 45% for
For example, annealed alloy C17200 has been grain size to be used. When metal with a coarse cupping; 25% for the first redraw; and 20, 16,
deep drawn to 80% reduction before annealing. grain size is drawn or stretch formed, the surface 13, and 10% for subsequent redraws. Greater
Parts drawn from beryllium-copper alloys can roughens and develops an appearance resem- reductions are usually obtained with blank thick-
subsequently be heat treated to produce tensile bling orange peel. Such a surface is more diffi- nesses larger than about 1.62 mm (0.064 in.); for
strengths to 1275 to 1380 MPa (185 to 200 ksi). cult and costly to polish and buff. Therefore, blank thicknesses less than about 0.38 mm
There are many other special-purpose coppers when a part requiring a buffed surface is to be (0.015 in.), reductions are usually about 80% of
and copper alloys. By examining their composi- produced, much effort is expended in designing the percentages given previously. With an
tions and mechanical properties carefully and by the tools and process to use brass with a fine annealing operation before each redraw, a reduc-
comparing them with standard alloys, the user grain size. tion of 35 to 45% in each successive redraw can
can estimate how they will respond in deep- A classic example of this situation is the one- be obtained under favorable operating condi-
drawing applications. piece brass or bronze doorknob (Fig. 3a). Such tions, assuming that the accompanying reduc-
Grain Size Effects. For the coppers and sin- useful and decorative articles are made by the tion in wall thickness is acceptable.
gle-phase alloys, grain size is the basic criterion millions, and these types of shapes are difficult Die radius usually varies from about twenty
by which deep drawability and stretch forming to produce on draw presses. These parts are usu- times the metal thickness for material 0.127 mm
are measured. In general, for a given alloy and ally produced in transfer presses, and the (0.005 in.) thick to about five times the metal
sheet thickness, ductility increases with grain process can include 15 to 20 operations with thickness for material 3.18 mm (0.125 in.) thick.
size, and strength decreases. However, when one intermediate anneal or partial anneal. The Radii of this size prevent high stress concentra-
grain size is so large that there are only a few alloy C26000 or C22000 strip from which these tions at the die opening, which can lead to tear-
grains through the thickness of the sheet or strip, parts are made is usually about 0.76 mm (0.030 ing in subsequent draws. Sharper radii are need-
both ductility and strength, as measured by ten- in.) thick, and the grain size is usually 0.020 to ed for flanged shells and for meeting special
sile testing, decrease. Figure 17 illustrates how 0.035 mm (0.008 to 0.0014 in.) or 0.015 to design requirements.
elongation changes with grain size for three dif- 0.030 mm (0.0006 to 0.0012 in.) to provide suf- The punch radius, except for the final stages
ferent thicknesses of alloy C26000 (cartridge ficient ductility for the part to be drawn without of drawing, is usually less than one-third of the
brass). General recommendations for the grain surface roughening. punch diameter, or four to ten times the metal
size of annealed strip for drawing and stretch- Special Considerations (Ref 4). A common thickness. Clearance between punch and die is
forming operations are provided in Table 8, concern in all drawing operations is the formation maintained at values that produce at least a
along with the expected surface characteristics. of ears at the top of the cup sidewall (Fig. 18). slight amount of ironing of the sidewalls.
For optimal deep-drawing and stretch-form- Ears occur in preferred directions (usually 45 or 0
ing properties, the grain size chosen should pro- to 90°) relative to the strip-rolling direction.
vide maximum elongation. With reference to Earing reflects the crystallographic texture of the Coining
Fig. 17, peak elongation for 0.15 mm (0.006 in.) strip. In part manufacture, ears must be trimmed;
thick strip occurs at an average grain size of therefore, nonearing grades of copper and copper Nature of the Operation. Coining is a cold-
0.020 mm (0.008 in.). For 0.40 mm (0.0157 in.) alloy strip are preferred for drawn parts. forming process in which the work metal is
thick brass, a range of 0.038 to 0.061 mm For copper alloys, the reduction in diameter in compressed between two dies so as to fill the
(0.0015 to 0.0024 in.) average grain size would a single draw (cupping) usually ranges from 35 depression of both dies in relief or to reduce the
strip thickness. The most familiar coining oper-
Table 8 Available grain size ranges and recommended applications ation is the minting of coins. However, one of
the most common uses of coining is in reducing
Average grain size
mm in. Type of operation and surface characteristics
0.005–0.015 0.0002–0.0006 Shallow forming or stamping. Parts will have good strength
and very smooth surface. Also used for very thin metal
0.010–0.025 0.0004–0.001 Stampings and shallow-drawn parts. Parts will have high strength
and smooth surface. General use for metal thinner
than 0.25 mm (0.010 in.)
0.015–0.030 0.0006–0.0012 Shallow-drawn parts, stampings, and deep-drawn parts
that require buffable surfaces. General use for
thicknesses under 0.3 mm (0.012 in.)
0.020-0.035 0.0008–0.0014 This grain size range includes the largest average grain
that will produce parts essentially free of orange peel.
Therefore, it is used for all types of drawn parts produced
from brass up to 0.8 mm (0.032 in.) thick.
0.010–0.040 0.0004–0.0016 Begins to show some roughening of the surface when
severely stretched. Good deep-drawing quality in
0.4–0.5 mm (0.015–0.020 in.) thickness range
0.030–0.050 0.0012–0.002 Drawn parts from 0.4–0.64 mm (0.015–0.025 in.) thick brass
requiring relatively good surface, or stamped parts
requiring no polishing or buffing
0.040–0.060 0.0016–0.0024 Commonly used for general applications for the deep
and shallow drawing of parts from brass in 0.5–1.0 mm
(0.020–0.040 in.) thicknesses. Moderate orange peel
may develop on drawn surfaces.
0.050–0.119 0.002–0.0047 Large average grain sizes are used for the deep-drawing
of difficult shapes or deep-drawing parts for gages
1.0 mm (0.040 in.) and thicker. Drawn parts will have
rough surfaces with orange peel except where
smoothed by ironing. Fig. 17 Elongation versus grain size for alloy C26000
sheets of various thicknesses. Source: Ref 3
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Although stock as thin as 0.1 mm (0.004 in.)

can be manually spun under special conditions,
manual spinning is usually restricted to thick-
nesses of 0.51 to 6.35 mm (0.020 to 0.250 in.).
Powered equipment is used in the upper part of
this range, and stock thicknesses in excess of
25.4 mm (1 in.) can be shaped by hot power
spinning.
Applications. Typical products that are spun
from copper alloys include bell-mouth shapes
for musical instruments, lighting fixture compo-
nents, vases, tumblers, decorative articles, pres-
sure vessel parts, and other circular parts with
bulged or recessed contours.
Contour Roll Forming
Nature of the Operation. Contour roll

forming is an automated high-speed production
process that is capable of producing tubular,
box, angular, and folded parts of varied and
complex shapes. Auxiliary operations such as
notching, slotting, punching, and embossing can
be combined with contour roll forming.
The materials characteristics that determine
the roll-forming capability of copper alloy strip
are the same as those that govern bend and stretch
formability (see the sections “Bending” and
“Drawing and Stretch Forming” in this article).
Alloy and Temper Effects. The bend proper-
ties given in Table 6 provide an indication of the
relative suitability of copper alloys for contour
roll forming. Annealed tempers are needed for
Fig. 18 Ear formation. (a) Drawn copper cups showing earing. The rolling direction is indicated by the arrow. Source: complicated shapes and parts with extremely
Ref 5. (b) The relation of ear formation to the direction of rolling. Source: Ref 6 sharp bends or for severe stretch forming.
Applications. Contour roll forming is used
the thickness or width of electrical and electron- are readily spun, although the higher-zinc brasses less extensively with copper alloys than with steel
ic connectors and leadframe leads. sometimes require intermediate annealing. Tin and aluminum alloys because there are fewer cop-
Materials Characteristics. The ability of a brasses containing at least 87% Cu require higher per alloy parts that are made in sufficient volume
material to be coined is determined by its spinning pressure and more frequent annealing to be produced economically by this type of form-
strength and work-hardening rate. In general, than brasses. Nickel silvers that contain at least ing operation. Applications are primarily in the
copper, the lower-zinc brasses, the lower-alloy 65% Cu, as well as the copper nickels, are also automotive and architectural industries.
nickel silvers, and the copper nickels, which all well suited for spinning. Phosphor bronzes, alu-
exhibit low work-hardening rates, exhibit good minum bronzes, and silicon bronzes are difficult
coinability (Fig. 15). to spin, but can be spun into shallow shapes under Rubber-Pad Forming
favorable conditions. Copper alloys that are diffi-
cult to spin include Muntz metal, nickel silvers Nature of the Operation. In this process,
Spinning containing 55% Cu or less, beryllium-coppers, the rubber pad usually serves as the female die,
alloys containing more than about 0.5% Pb, naval in conjunction with an inexpensive male punch.
Nature of the Operation. Spinning is a brass (C46400), and other multiphase alloys. The pad is practically incompressible, and it
method of forming sheet metal or tubing into The single-phase high-strength copper alloys transmits pressure in all directions in the same
seamless hollow cylinders, cones, hemispheres, can be heated for spinning to reduce the force manner as hydraulic fluid. Rubber-diaphragm
or other circular shapes by a combination of required to permit the spinning of thicker mate- forming uses hydraulic fluid behind the rubber
rotation and force. Manual and power-automat- rial or to permit more severe deformation, pro- pad. The most important reasons for using rub-
ed equipment is used for spinning copper alloys. vided the increased cost for heating is justified. ber-pad forming in preference to conventional
Materials Characteristics. The principal The forming characteristics of Muntz metal, press techniques or other production methods
materials factors that determine the spinnability extra-high-leaded brass, and naval brass are also are improved formability, low tooling costs, and
of copper alloys are plastic-strain ratio r, total improved at elevated temperature, but special freedom from marking of workpiece surfaces.
available elongation, and work-hardening rate. precautions must be taken to avoid even the This is the most cost-effective method of fabri-
In general, alloys with high r values, high tensile unintentional heating of the workpiece in spin- cating one-piece doorknobs.
elongation, and low work-hardening rates exhib- ning brasses that contain 0.5% Pb or more and Deep drawing by rubber-diaphragm or
it the highest spinnability. more than 64% Cu. Marforming techniques often permits a 65%
Effects of Alloy Composition and Temper. Annealed tempers are almost always used in reduction of diameter in a single draw, without
Tough-pitch copper (alloy C11000) is the easiest spinning copper alloys. Larger grain sizes producing wrinkles or surface defects that could
copper material to spin and usually does not (lower hardnesses) are easier to spin; finer require expensive finishing operations.
require intermediate annealing. Brasses, except grain sizes may be needed to meet surface fin- Materials Characteristics. The materials
for the multiphase alloy Muntz metal (C28000), ish requirements. properties of greatest importance in rubber-pad
Forming / 205
Fig. 19 Change in formability as a function of the coining of alloy C17200 in longitudinal (a) and transverse (b) directions. The effect of coining is simulated by cold reduction.
Original strip thickness in both cases was 0.41 mm (0.016 in.). Bend formability is measured as the ratio of bend radius R to strip thickness t.
forming are the same as those that control strip metal by the direct application of an intense, alloys and reduces their formability. Die pro-
performance in metal dies; that is, deep drawing transient magnetic field. The workpiece is gressions that include the forming of contacts
is dependent on plastic-strain ratio r, stretch form- formed without mechanical contact by the pas- after a coining operation must incorporate more
ing is dependent on tensile elongation, bending is sage of a pulse of electric current through a generous minimum bend radii than those sug-
determined by strip ductility, and so on. forming coil. gested in the product literature of the supplier.
Effects of Alloy Composition and Temper. Electromagnetic forming can be used on cop- Figure 19 shows this change in formablility
The same principles can be used to select the per and some brasses because of their high elec- for a mill-hardened temper of alloy C17200 that
appropriate alloy composition and temper for trical conductivity and excellent formability. was subjected to coining up to 50% reduction in
rubber-pad die forming that are used for parts Metals with a resistivity greater than about area and simulated by cold rolling after mill
formed with conventional metal dies. 16 cm are formed by the use of a copper or hardening. To avoid this formability problem,
aluminum electromagnetic driver that is one to strip can be purchased with variable gage across
three times the thickness of the work metal. the slit width, which is produced by profile
Specialized Forming Operations Thermally or electrically conductive joints and milling or skiving or by the longitudinal electron
structural joints are produced in a single forming beam welding of dissimilar thicknesses of strip.
Hydraulic Forming. Copper alloys are operation. Field shapers are frequently used to The need for localized high formability can also
sometimes formed by applying direct concentrate the forming force. be met by the longitudinal electron beam weld-
hydraulic pressure to the surface of the work- Electrical connections are made by electro- ing of dissimilar metals, combining, for exam-
piece in order to shape the workpiece against a magnetically swaging a copper band onto the ple, ductile C19500 with high-strength mill-
rigid die. This procedure can be used to form end of stranded electrical conductor wire before hardened C17200.
grooves on large, thin, flat sheets and to shape insertion into a brass terminal. Optimal conduc- An emerging electron beam application is the
small parts to irregular contours. Tool cost is tivity with 100% mechanical strength and long localized thermal softening of mill-hardened
low, but the method is ordinarily applicable life under severe service conditions are obtained copper alloy strip to provide increased formabil-
only to small-lot production because of com- by using swaging forces great enough to com- ity with no sacrifice in strength in the remainder
paratively low production rates. pact the strands of the conductor so that a cross of a contact. Examples of these unique copper
Embossing and swaging, which are closely section of the joint appears to be essentially alloy strip forms are shown in Fig. 20.
related to coining (being compressive or defor- solid copper.
mation operations), are also frequently used in Special Forming Considerations for
the cold forming of copper alloys. The principles Conductive Spring Materials. Increasingly, Springback
of alloy selection described for coining apply contact designers are developing parts that rely
equally to embossing and swaging. However, on stepped or tapered beam thickness for opti- Springback is the elastic recovery that occurs
embossing (impressing letters, numerals, or mal deflection or normal force characteristics. in a plastically deformed part when it is released
designs into a surface by displacing metal to Some designs involve complex geometries from tooling. It causes the final part to have a
either side) can be done on any copper alloy, requiring high formability in some regions (as geometry different from that of the press tooling.
with special attention to tooling and selection of for crimp connections) coupled with high The springback that occurs in a bending opera-
temper on the less formable alloys. Swaging is strength in other regions (to resist permanent set tion is shown schematically in Fig. 21.
often used for the production of complicated in spring connections). Stepped or tapered con- Springback must be taken into account in design
electrical contacts from copper or brass. tact beam thicknesses can be achieved by coin- and materials selection.
Electromagnetic forming, also known as ing heavier-gage strip in progressive dies. This Springback depends on alloy, temper, thick-
magnetic pulse forming, is a process for forming practice, however, rapidly work hardens copper ness, bend radius, and the angle of bend. For
fixed tooling and press conditions, springback reduces springback in much the same manner tions, the metal is pinched slightly at the bend
increases as the strength of the copper alloy strip as overbending, that is, by the introduction of region. When special dies are used, careful
increases. Therefore, springback is increased by additional plastic deformation. Special dies control must be exercised because excessive
cold rolling to increase strip temper and/or by often use coining action at bend radii to thinning can cause part failure during bending
alloy additions that increase strength. The deform the metal plastically in the bend area or can make the part susceptible to early fail-
springback behavior of three copper alloys beyond the elastic limit. In other die modifica- ure in service.
(C21000, C26000, and C35300) is shown in Fig.
22. These data indicate that springback increas-
es with increasing bend radius and decreasing
strip gage. Springback values for tempers or
bend radii not shown can be interpolated from
Fig. 22. Some strip suppliers provide springback
data upon request.
Three techniques are commonly used to
compensate for springback: overbending,
restriking, and the use of special dies.
Overbending simply deforms the part to a larg-
er bend angle so that it is at the desired value
after springback. Restriking in original dies
Fig. 20 Special treatment of copper alloy strip for opti-

mized combinations of formability and spring
characteristics. (a) Profile milled strip. (b) Dissimilar thick-
nesses longitudinally welded; this method can also be
used to join dissimilar alloys. (c) Localized heat treatment
(electron beam softening)
Fig. 21 Schematic of springback in a bending opera-

tion. t is sheet thickness, R0 and 0 are the die
radius and bend angle, and Rf and f are the part radius Fig. 22 Springback behavior of copper alloys as a function of temper, sheet thickness, and bend radius (90˚ bends).
and bend angle after springback. (a) Alloy C21000. (b) Alloy C26000. (c) Alloy C35300
Forming / 207
Forming Limit Analysis • A limiting dome height (LDH) curve, which C19400, C75200, and C70600. Increasing the
indicates the overall ductility for forming of temper by cold rolling decreases forming capa-
Forming limit analysis provides the means to the material bility, as shown in Fig. 23. the LDH data essen-
assess sheet metal formability over a wide range tially follow the trend shown in FLC behavior.
of forming conditions, including drawing, bend- These empirically determined curves show the Solving Forming Problems. In addition to
ing, and stretching. The amount of deformation biaxial strain or deformation limits beyond displaying the relative formability of one mate-
that occurs during sheet forming, that is, the which failure may occur in sheet metal forming. rial versus that of another, forming limit and lim-
strain state, is given in terms of, or related to, Forming limit and limiting dome height curves iting dome height curves are valuable for identi-
major and minor strains (e1 and e2, respectively) for 13 copper alloys are shown in Fig. 23 and 24. fying the cause of a sudden production problem
measured from fiducial markings printed or Table 9 lists UNS designations, common names, that might arise from changes in tooling, lubri-
etched onto strip surfaces prior to fabrication. alloy compositions, and tempers for the alloys cation, or material suppliers. This permits the
The analysis requires two curves: tested. These data indicate that, in annealed tem- forming process to be modified to maximize
pers, high-copper and copper-zinc alloys exhibit formability and productivity.
• A forming limit curve (FLC), which indi- the highest FLC values, followed closely by The most direct approach for determining if a
cates the ability of the material to distribute alloys C72500, C51000, and C74300; these sudden forming problem is materials related is
localized strain materials in turn are slightly better than alloys to compare the LDH curve for the material with
LIVE GRAPH that of the control lot of known good material. If
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view Click here to view only one region of the part is subject to critical
strains, it may be necessary only to test the blank
width that will produce that critical value of
minor strain. If the LDH curve of the new mate-
rial is the same as that of the control lot, then
tooling or lubrication are suspect. If the LDH
curve of the new material is below that of the
control lot, the material is the problem.
The best way to determine whether tooling or
lubrication conditions have changed is to form a
gridded sample under current tool conditions
LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH from a control lot held in inventory. Strain dis-
Click here to view Click here to view tribution and critical grid strains measured on
this sample can be placed on the established
forming limit curve and compared with those
before the problem arose in order to establish
their relationship to known, safe strain levels. If
changes are detected, they can often be remedied
by adjusting press conditions to change the mag-
nitude of stretch or draw components.
This is illustrated in Fig. 25. Point A on this
forming limit curve represents the strains in
the critical region of a part when the part was
being formed satisfactorily. Point B represents
the critical strains when forming became a
problem because the major and minor strains
were too high. Draw bends, blank hold-down
Fig. 23 Forming limit curves for selected copper alloys. FLCs reveal local ductility during forming. See Table 9 for pressure, blank size, and/or lubrication can be
material designations, thicknesses, and tempers. Source: Ref 7, 8 modified to change the amount of major and
Table 9 Coppers and copper alloys evaluated using forming limit analysis
See Fig. 23 and 24 for results of analysis.
UNS designation Common name Material conditions applicable to FLCs and LDH curves
C10200 Oxygen-free copper Annealed, 0.66 mm (0.026 in.) thick, 0.014 mm (0.0006 in.) grain, 234 MPa (34 ksi) UTS(a)
C11000, lot 1 ETP copper Annealed, 0.74 mm (0.029 in.) thick, 0.016 mm (0.00063 in.) grain, 224 MPa (32.5 ksi) UTS(b)
C11000, lot 2 ETP copper Half hard, 0.69 mm (0.027 in.) thick, 268 MPa (38.8 ksi) UTS, 20% tensile elongation(c)
C15500 Silver copper Annealed, 0.71 mm (0.028 in.) thick, 0.009 mm (0.00035 in.) grain, 288 MPa (41.8 ksi) UTS
C17200 Beryllium-copper Annealed, 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) thick, 0.019 mm (0.00075 in.) grain, 491 MPa (71.2 ksi) UTS
C19400 HSM copper Annealed, 0.69 mm (0.027 in.) thick, 319 MPa (46.3 ksi) UTS, 29% tensile elongation(d)
C22000 Commercial bronze Annealed, 0.69 mm (0.027 in.) thick, 0.017 mm (0.00067 in.) grain, 234 MPa (34 ksi) UTS(d)
C23000 Red brass Annealed, 0.69 mm (0.027 in.) thick, 0.024 mm (0.00094 in.) grain, 293 MPa (42.5 ksi) UTS(e)
C26000, lot 1 Cartridge brass Annealed, 0.64 mm (0.025 in.) thick, 0.025 mm (0.00098 in.) grain, 345 MPa (50 ksi) UTS(f)
C26000, lot 2 Cartridge brass Half hard, 0.69 mm (0.027 in.) thick, 407 MPa (59 ksi) UTS, 28% tensile elongation(e)
C26000, lot 3 Cartridge brass Full hard, 0.51 mm (0.020 in.) thick, 531 MPa (77 ksi) tensile strength
C51000 Phosphor bronze A Annealed, 0.69 mm (0.027 in.) thick, 0.014 mm (0.0006 in.) grain, 374 MPa (54.3 ksi) UTS
C70600 Copper nickel, 10% Annealed, 0.81 mm (0.032 in.) thick, 0.016 mm (0.00063 in.) grain, 361 MPa (52.4 ksi) UTS
C72500 Copper-nickel-tin alloy Annealed, 0.69 mm (0.027 in.) thick, 0.023 mm (0.0009 in.) grain, 356 MPa (51.6 ksi) UTS
C74300 Nickel silver Annealed, 0.69 mm (0.027 in.) thick, 0.035 mm (0.0014 in.) grain, 387 MPa (56.1 ksi) UTS
C75200 Nickel silver Annealed, 0.69 mm (0.027 in.) thick, 0.020 mm (0.0008 in.) grain, 405 MPa (58.7 ksi) UTS
(a) UTS, ultimate tensile strength. (b) LDH curves are medians based on 0.69, 0.74, and 0.79 mm (0.027, 0.029, and 0.031 in.) thickness data. (c) LDH curves are medians based on 0.64, 0.69, and 0.79 mm (0.025, 0.027, and
0.031 in.) data. (d) LDH curves are medians based on 0.69 and 0.74 mm (0.027 and 0.029 in.) thickness data. (e) LDH curves are medians based on 0.69, 0.79, and 0.81 mm (0.027, 0.031, and 0.032 in.) data. (f) LDH curves
are medians based on 0.66 and 0.69 mm (0.026 and 0.027 in.) data.
minor strains. The effects on critical strain can al can be formed. Figure 26, for example, point X relative to the forming limit curve of
be compared on the forming limit curve to shows a forming limit curves for two materials each material.
ensure that the adjustments will indeed enable (A and B) and the critical strain combination Because of the shape of the forming limit
the part to be formed. (point X) measured on a formed part. Material curves, it is possible to maintain approximately
A similar approach can be used to adjust the A forms successfully, but Material B fractures the same e1 value for point X but to fall in the
forming operation so that a less ductile materi- during forming, as indicated by the location of safe region by changing e2, as indicated by
points X and X. In this case, moving toward X
requires that the draw component be increased
during forming; moving toward X requires that
the stretch component be increased. Either can
be accomplished by altering lubrication, tooling,
and/or blank hold-down pressure, thus enabling
the part to be formed in Material B.
Bending of Rod, Bars, and Shapes
Among copper alloys, rod means round,

hexagonal, or octagonal products supplied in
Fig. 25 Effect of tooling or lubrication on critical

strain. Inadvertent changes in tooling or lubri-
cation can shift strain from Point A to Point B, causing
parts that previously were readily formed to fail during
forming. Source: Ref 7, 8
Fig. 26 Effect of changes in forming operation on crit-

ical strain. Shifting to strain from X to X by
Fig. 24 Limiting dome height curves for copper and copper alloys. LDH curves illustrate the overall ductility of the increasing draw or from X to X by increasing stretch per-
coppers and copper alloys evaluated. See Table 9 for material designations, thicknesses, and tempers. Source: mits Material B to be used in place of Material A despite
Ref 7, 8 its lower ductility. Source: Ref 7, 8
Forming / 209
straight lengths, that is, not coiled (for steels, all Roll bending uses three or more parallel stretch bending is a slow process. The tools,
such straight lengths would be called bars). rolls. In one arrangement using three rolls, the form blocks, or dies for stretch bending are sim-
Copper alloy bar products are square or rectan- axes of the two bottom rolls are fixed in a hori- pler in design and less costly than conventional
gular cross sections when sold in straight zontal plane. The top roll (bending roll) is low- press tooling.
lengths. Shapes are also supplied in straight ered toward the plane of the bottom rolls to
lengths and can have oval, half-round, geomet- make the bend (Fig. 28). The three rolls are Bending Machines
ric, or custom ordered cross sections. power driven; the top roll is moved up or down
by a hydraulic cylinder. The machines used for the bending of rods,
A roll arrangement for four-roll bending is bars, and shapes include the following: devices
Bending Methods shown in Fig. 29. The workpiece enters between and fixtures for manual bending, press brakes,
the two powered rolls on the left. The lower conventional mechanical and hydraulic presses,
Rod, bars, and shapes are bent by four basic bending roll is then adjusted in two directions horizontal bending machines, rotary benders,
methods: draw bending, compression bending, according to the thickness of the workpiece and and bending presses.
roll bending, and stretch bending. the desired angle of bend. Manual Bending. Hand-powered machines or
In draw bending, the workpiece is clamped Rings, arcs of any length, and helical coils are fixtures are used in many shops for making bends
to a rotating form and drawn by the form against easily fabricated in a roll bender. The bend that do not require much energy to form. This
a pressure die (Fig. 27). The pressure die can be radius usually must be at least six times the bar equipment is supplied with ratchets, levers, or
either fixed or movable along its longitudinal diameter or the section thickness in the direction gears to give the operator mechanical advantage.
axis. A fixed pressure die must be able to with- of the bend. Different types of fixtures are used for manual
stand abrasion caused by the sliding of the work Roll bending is impractical for making more draw bending, stretch bending, or compression
metal over its surface. A movable pressure die, than one bend in a rod or bar. It is difficult to bending. Roll bending is seldom done by hand.
because it moves forward with the workpiece as control springback in a roll bender, and it may The tools used in manual bending are the same as
it is bent, is less subject to such abrasion. It pro- take several passes through the rolls to make the those used on some power bending machines.
vides better guidance and more uniform restraint needed bend. Therefore, this method of making Press brakes are used for all types of bend-
of the work material. On power bending bends is slower than other methods. Another dis- ing, especially in small-lot production (25 to 500
machines, draw bending is used more than any advantage of roll binding is that a short section pieces), when standard tooling or low-cost spe-
other bending method. of each end of the workpiece is left straight. For cial tooling can be used. Often, the punch is not
In compression bending, the workpiece is three-roll bending, the ends can be preformed in bottomed in the die; but the stroke is controlled,
clamped to a fixed form, and a wiper shoe a press before bending, or the straight parts can and the workpiece is bent “in air” (Fig. 30). With
revolves around the form to bend the work- be trimmed off. this technique, various bend angles can be made
piece (Fig. 27). Compression bending is most Stretch bending is used for bending large with the same die.
useful in bending rolled and extruded shapes. irregular curves. The workpiece is gripped at the Mechanical presses are generally used only
A bend can be made close to another bend in end, stretched, and bent as it is stretched around for mass production because only large produc-
the workpiece without the need for the com- a form. Usually, less springback occurs when the tion lots can justify the cost of tooling, which is
pound dies required in draw bending. work is bent while it is stretched. The gripped more than that for most standard bending tools.
Although compression bending does not con- ends are customarily trimmed off. This method Figure 31 shows a rod being bent into a U-bolt
trol the flow of metal as well as draw bending, can accomplish in one operation what would in a press. The rod is first cut to length and point-
it is widely used in bending presses and in otherwise take several operations. The result is a ed at both ends (preliminary to a later threading
rotary bending machines. possible savings in time and labor, even though operation). The rod is then loaded into the press
and held in a grooved die that bends the rod into
a U in one stroke. In the setup shown in Fig. 31,
more than one workpiece can be bent at a time.
Hydraulic presses are often used to bend rod,
bars, and shapes in much the same manner as
mechanical presses. Although hydraulic presses
Fig. 29 Operating essentials in four-roll bending
Fig. 27 Essential components and mechanics of draw

bending and compression bending of bars and
bar sections
Fig. 28 Operating essentials in one method of three- Fig. 31 Use of a grooved die in a mechanical press for
roll bending Fig. 30 Air bending of a bar in a press brake bending a rod into a U-bolt in one stroke
are usually slower than mechanical presses, they all bends are in the same plane. Different the construction site. For larger diameters, ratch-
have the advantage of exerting full force over a angles and bend radii can also be made in the et action or geared machines should be used.
long stroke. Therefore, deep bends can often be same workpiece, and the angles and spacing of Copper tubes can usually be machine-bent
made on a hydraulic press much smaller than the bends can be adjusted. One disadvantage of without the need for internal support. Power
mechanical press that would be required. the bending press is that it causes a slight benders equipped with mandrels support the
Horizontal bending machines for bending reduction in the thickness of the workpiece at sides of the tube to prevent it from distorting to
rod, bars, and shapes consist of a horizontal bed the bend. an oval cross section. Light-gage tubes are easi-
with a powered crosshead that is driven along ly bent, although some skills are needed. Hand
the bed through connecting rods, crankshaft, bending of light-gage tubes is accomplished
clutch, and gear train. Dies are mounted on the Bending and Forming of Tubing with the use of mandrels, usually in the form of
bed, and forward motion of the crosshead push- flexible spiral springs.
es the bar through the die. The long stroke and Tube Bending Low-melting-point alloys can be used in place
generous die space make this machine useful for of bending mandrels. Tubes are simply warmed
a variety of cold- and hot-bending operations, The principles for bending tubing are much and filled with liquid metal, which is then
although speeds are lower than those for the same as those for bending rod, bars, and allowed to freeze. After the tube is bent, the
mechanical presses of similar capacity. shapes. Two important additional features in the assembly is dipped into a tank of boiling water
Rotary benders, either vertical or horizontal, bending of tubes are that internal support is to remove the fusible alloy.
are used for the draw, compression, or stretch often needed and that support is sometimes Metallurgical Considerations. Copper alloy
bending of rod, bars, and shapes. Such machines needed on the inner side of the tube bend. tubing is usually extruded. It is easily bent in the
consist of a rotary table in either a horizontal or The wall thickness of the tubing affects the annealed condition, and it has little springback.
vertical position on which the form block or die distribution of tensile and compressive stresses Copper and some brasses may not need to be
is mounted (Fig. 27). Suitable hydraulic or in bending. A thick-wall tube will usually bend annealed. Copper-nickel and beryllium-copper
mechanical clamping, tensioning, or compress- more readily to a small radius than a thin-wall alloys, however, are more difficult to bend and
ing devices are provided to hold the workpiece tube. Table 10 lists the minimum practical inside have greater springback.
while the die rotates to the required position, or radii for the cold draw bending of copper tubing, When copper alloys are annealed, as most of
while the workpiece is bent about the central with and without various supports against flat- them are, oxides should be removed by pickling
forming die. Some machines can make bends by tening and wrinkling. before the tube is bent to protect the tooling.
two, or all three, methods. Selection of Bending Method. The four Oxides increase friction and wear in bending.
Bending presses are hydraulic machines most common methods of bending tubing are
that are made especially for bending rod, bars, basically the same as those used in the bending
and tubes, but most often for tubes. The ram of of rod, bars, and shapes: compression bending, Tube Forming
a bending press can be stopped at any point in stretch bending, draw bending, and roll bending.
the stroke. Wing dies and a cushioning device The method selected for a particular application Tubular sections are converted into a vari-
help to wrap the work around the ram die, as depends on the equipment available, the number ety of products. One or more forming process-
shown in Fig. 32. When the ram moves down, of parts required, the size and wall thickness of es can be used, including press forming, con-
it causes the wing dies to pivot by a camming the tubing, the work metal, the bend radius, the tour roll forming, tube spinning,
action and to wrap the workpiece around the number of bends in the workpiece, the accuracy electromagnetic forming, explosive forming,
ram die. The wing dies wipe the work to con- required, and the amount of flattening that can and electrohydraulic forming. Copper and
trol the flow of metal; a compression bend is be tolerated. copper alloy tubing can also be formed by
made on each side of the ram die, without wrin- Bending Machines and Mandrels. Hand- bulk forming operations such as rotary swag-
kles or distortion. powered machines used to bend copper tubes ing (see the section “Rotary Swaging of Rod,
A bending press can usually make bends range up to 42 mm (1.65 in.) in capacity. They Bars, and Tubes” which immediately follows
much faster than machines that are not made are small and light enough to be transported to in this article).
especially for bending. The open design of the
press makes it possible the bending of complex Table 10 Minimum practical inside radii for the cold draw bending of annealed copper
shapes in one setup. Single bends can be made round tubing to 180°
sequentially, or the press can make several bends Radii can be slightly less for a 90° bend, but must be slightly larger for 360°.
simultaneously. Bends can be made to various
angles and in various planes. The tube or rod/bar Minimum practical inside radius
is usually passed through the press in one direc- Grooved bending tools
Cylindrical bending block
tion, and the press makes a sequence of bends With mandrel; ratio, With mandrel or filler; ratio, without mandrel; ratio,
Tubing outside diameter 15(a) (best conditions) 50(a) (normal conditions) 30(a) (poor conditions)
automatically. The work is held against stops to
mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in.
locate each bend.
When several bends are made in one or 3.2 1/8 1.6 1/16 6.4 1/4 13 1/2
6.4 1/4 3.2 1/8 7.9 5/16 25 1
more workpieces at each stroke of the press, 9.5 3/8 4.8 3/16 9.5 3/8 50 2
12 1/2 6.4 1/4 11 7/16 75 3
16 5/8 7.9 5/16 14 9/16 102 4
19 3/4 11 7/16 17 11/16 152 6
22 7/8 13 1/2 19 3/4 203 8
25 1 14 9/16 22 7/8 254 10
32 11/4 17 11/16 25 1 381 15
38 11/2 21 13/16 29 11/8 508 20
44 13/4 24 15/16 32 11/4 686 27
50 2 27 11/16 35 13/8 889 35
64 21/2 35 13/8 41 15/8 … …
75 3 41 15/8 48 17/8 … …
89 31/2 48 17/8 54 21/8 … …
102 4 54 21/8 60 23/8 … …
Fig. 32 Essential components and mechanics of a (a) Ratio of outside diameter to wall thickness of tubing
bending press
Forming / 211
Rotary Swaging of Rod, ovality were used. The production rate was and the blank was swaged to increase its length
Bars, and Tubes increased to 750 pieces per hour. 102 mm (4 in.) to reduce its outside diameter to
Example 2: Swaging Versus Spinning. 15.8 mm (58 in.) and to reduce the holes to 0.09
Blades for high-voltage switches were swaged mm (0.036 in.) in diameter. The mandrels were
Rotary swaging is a process for reducing the from annealed copper tubes (Fig. 34) in three withdrawn after swaging.
cross-sectional area or otherwise changing the operations using a two-die rotary machine. Each The blank was drilled in a specially built hor-
shape of copper and copper alloy rods, bars, die was 197 mm (734 in.) long, 180 mm (718 in.) izontal machine and was swaged in a rotary swa-
tubes, or wires by repeated radial blows with wide, and 127 mm (5 in.) high. The tapered sec- ger using manual feed. The dies had 0.25 mm
two or more dies. The work is elongated as the tion in each die had a 15° included angle, and (0.010 in.) ovality and an included entrance
cross-sectional area is reduced. The workpiece side clearance was used instead of ovality. Tubes angle of 8°. Overall length of the die was 75 mm
(starting blank) is usually round, square, or were fed into the swager by a hydraulically actu- (3 in.); blade length was 32 mm (114 in.).
otherwise symmetrical in cross section, ated carriage on a long track. An intermediate
although other forms, such as rectangles, can steady rest moved along the track to help main-
be swaged. Forming of Wire
tain tube alignment.
Most swaged workpieces are round, the sim- In the first operation, the tube was swaged
plest being formed by reduction in diameter. through a 124.5 mm (4.900 in.) die up to the first In the copper industry, wire can have any
However, swaging can also produce straight and step. In the second operation, a tube length of cross section; the term simply means that the
compound tapers, can produce contours on the 1140 mm (45 in.) was swaged to a 99 mm (3.900 product is sold in coils or on spools.
inside diameter of tubing, and can change round in.) outside diameter, and in the third operation, Bending. When production quantities are
to square or other shapes. the end portion was swaged to a 73 mm (2.875 small or the size of the finished article is large,
in.) outside diameter. In a final operation, the the wire may be straightened and cut to length as
large end was trimmed to obtain an overall a preliminary operation before the individual
Swaging Versus Alternative Processes
workpiece length of 4.2 m (167 in.). pieces are fed into hand benders, kick presses,
There are numerous applications for which Formerly, these blades had been produced by power presses equipped with appropriate dies, or
swaging is the best method of producing a spinning 4.27 m (168 in.) lengths of annealed coiling devices. For large quantities, the wire is
given shape and is therefore selected regard- copper tubing 73.025 mm (2.875 in.) in outside straightened as it comes from the coil and is fed
less of the quantity to be produced. diameter by 63.5 mm (2.5 in.) in inside diame- directly and continuously into power presses,
Conversely, there are many workpiece shapes ter. By changing to swaging, production cost automatic forming or spring-coiling machines,
that can be successfully produced by swaging, was reduced 10%. Swaging provided two addi- multiple-slide machines, or special machines
but can be produced equally well by other tional benefits. First, the center of rotation was actuated by cams, air, or hydraulic cylinders.
processes, such as press forming, spinning, shifted toward the large diameter of the work- Other Fabrication Methods. Operations
and machining. Applications comparing swag- piece, thus reducing the number of counter- other than bending that are performed on copper
ing with alternative processes are described in weights required to balance the switch blade wire include:
the following examples. when operation, and second, the small end • Threading with single-head or multiple-head
Example 1: Swaging Versus Press Forming. received the most cold work, thus strengthening chasers, or with flat-die or rotary-die roll
The ferrule illustrated in Fig. 33 was originally this portion to the desired condition. threaders. Roll dies can also be used for
produced in a press by drawing disks into cups, Example 3: Combining Drilling and knurling, pointing, and chamfering
redrawing to form the taper, and trimming the Mandrel Swaging to Produce 0.9 mm (0.036 • Heading in open-die rod headers, to make a
ends. With this procedure, 500 ferrules per hour in.) Diameter Holes. The copper blank shown variety of heads such as flat, round, slotted,
were produced. in Fig. 35 was produced by drilling six 3.2 mm indented hexagon, tee, and ball
The improved method consisted of cutting the (0.125 in.) diameter holes in bar sections 17.5 • Swaging or extruding of long points or
blanks from tubing, then swaging them in a 5 hp mm (1116 in.) in outside diameter by 89 mm (312 reduced-diameter sections on rotary-die swa-
two-die rotary machine. Dies with an included in.) long. After drilling six 0.9 mm (0.036 in.) gers or long-stroke headers
taper angle of 9° 56' and 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) diameter mandrels were inserted into the holes, • Welding with resistance, arc, or gas
Fig. 33 Swaging a ferrule from tube stock (alloy

C26000, cartridge brass, quarter hard, 0.032 Fig. 34 High-voltage switch blade (bottom) that was Fig. 35 Blank with drilled holes (top) that was swaged
in.) in preference to press forming. The change from press swaged from tube stock (top) in three opera- over music wire mandrels (center) to increase
forming to swaging lowered tooling costs and resulted in a tions. Previously, the part was produced by spinning. length and to reduce outside diameter and hole diameter
50% increase in production. Dimensions given in inches Dimensions given in inches (bottom). Dimensions given in inches
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES SELECTED REFERENCES
The primary source for this article was: 1. Sheet Metal Industries—Yearbook, Fuel and • T. Altan, S.I. Oh, and H.C. Gegel, Metal
Metallurgical Journals Ltd., 1972/1973 Forming—Fundamentals and Applications,
• F. Mandigo and J. Crane, Forming of Copper 2. T.E. Bersett, Back to Basics: Properties of ASM International 1983
and Copper Alloys, Forming and Forging, Copper Alloy Strip for Contacts and Terminals,
Vol 14, ASM Handbook, ASM International, Proc. of the 14th Annual Connector Symposium,
• G.E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, 3rd ed.,
1988, p 809–824 McGraw-Hill, 1986
Electronic Connector Study Group, 1981
3. J.H. Mendenhall, Ed., Understanding Copper • Forming, Vol 2, Tool and Manufacturing
Supplemental information originated from: Alloys, Olin Corporation, 1977 Engineers Handbook, 4th ed., Society of
4. “Advanced Sheet Metal Forming Course,” Metals Manufacturing Engineers, 1984
• Bending of Bars and Bar Sections, Forming Engineering Institute Home Study and Extension • Forming and Forging, Vol 14, ASM
and Forging, Vol 14, ASM Handbook, ASM Course, American Society for Metals, 1979 Handbook, ASM International, 1988
International, 1988, p 661–664 5. D.V. Wilson and R.D. Butler, J. Inst. Metals, • H.F. Hosford and R.M. Caddell, Metal
• Bending and Forming of Tubing, Forming 1961–1962, p 473–483 Forming: Mechanics and Metallurgy, 2nd
and Forging, Vol 14, ASM Handbook, ASM 6. W.F. Hosford and R.M. Caddell, Metal
International, 1988, p 665–674 ed., Prentice-Hall, 1993
Forming: Mechanics and Metallurgy, 2nd ed.,
• Rotary Swaging of Bars and Tubes, Forming Prentice-Hall, 1993, p 268 • S.Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for
and Forging, Vol 14, ASM Handbook, ASM Engineering Materials, 3rd ed., Addison-
7. Forming Limits Set for Copper Metals, Am.
International, 1988, p 128–144 Mach., April 1983, p 99 Wesley, 1997, p 44, 45, 50, 398, 399, 409,
• Forming of Wire, Forming and Forging, Vol 8. “Forming Limit Analysis for Enhanced 416, 438
14, ASM Handbook, ASM International, Fabrication,” Report 310A, International • K. Lange, Ed., Handbook of Metal Forming,
1988, p 694–697 Copper Research Association, Dec 1981 McGraw-Hill, 1985
Forging and Extrusion
COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS undergo stroke forging (also referred to as sub-press forg- precisely machined dies that, when squeezed
hot forging, cold forging, and hot extrusion oper- ing), and ring rolling (also referred to as ring together, form a cavity in the shape of the fin-
ations. In hot forging, both the billet (workpiece) forging). The process chosen is determined by ished forging (Fig. 2). Metal is supplied in the
and forging dies are heated prior to deformation. the size, shape, and complexity of the product form of a billet sheared or sawed from rod or
In cold forging processes, which include cold and by number of forgings produced. It should bar stock. The size and shape of the billet is
extrusion, cold heading, and coining, deformation be noted that the metal flow that accompanies carefully calculated to provide slightly more
of the workpiece is carried out at room tempera- the forging process orients the grain structure of metal than is required to fill the die cavity. The
ture. Hot extrusion involves pushing a heated bil- the metal. It is often possible to utilize this ori- extra metal appears as flash at the plane where
let of metal through a die. The extruded product ented structure to take maximum advantage of the die halves meet. Forging frequently takes
may be hollow or solid, and the cross section may the mechanical properties of the metal in direc- place in several stages: an initial blocking oper-
vary from a simple round to a complicated shape. tions that match stresses the forging may be sub- ation deforms the billet to the rough general
All of the deformation processes listed previous- jected to in service. More detailed information shape of the product, after which the blocked
ly are considered bulk, or massive, forming on forging processes can be found in Forming billet is compressed between finishing dies to
processes. In bulk forming, the input material is in and Forging, Volume 14 of ASM Handbook. complete the forming process. The flash, which
billet, rod, or slab form, and the surface-to-vol- Open-die forging is the simplest forging is trimmed by separate dies, is recycled to make
ume ratio in the formed part increases consider- method. It involves compressing forging stock new alloys or sold as scrap.
ably under the action of largely compressive load- (called blanks or “slugs”) between die halves Die costs for closed-die forging are relatively
ing. Bulk forming operations differ from sheet that are flat or have simple contours (Fig. 1). The high, and these costs must be amortized over
forming, in which a piece of sheet metal is plasti- process is primarily used for simple shapes large production quantities. Die-life depends on
cally deformed by tensile loads into a three- and/or large forgings such as shafts, where the the alloy and the severity of the forging opera-
dimensional shape, often without significant principal object is to impart deformation in order tion. With readily forged alloys such as C37700,
changes in sheet thickness or surface characteris- to improve mechanical properties. Open-die forging dies can produce as many as 50,000
tics. Sheet forming operations are described in the forging is also used as a means to upset or oth- parts. Figure 3 illustrates copper alloy closed-die
article “Forming” in this Handbook. erwise preform blanks into shapes suitable for forgings in a variety of configurations.
subsequent closed-die forging operations.
Die costs are quite low and are often inconse-
Hot Forging quential. The open-die process can therefore be
applied to single parts and small production
Copper and copper alloy forgings offer a quantities. The open-die process can, for exam-
number of advantages over parts produced by ple, be used to produce rough shapes from which
other processes, including high strength as a prototypes can later be machined. This can pro-
result of working, closer tolerances than com- vide an indication of the mechanical behavior of
peting processes such as sand casting, and mod- the forged product without incurring the expense
est overall cost. The most forgeable copper of complex dies.
alloy, forging brass (alloy C37700), can be Closed-die forging, which is the most com-
forged into a given shape with substantially less monly used hot forging process, makes use of
force than that required to forge the same shape
from low-carbon steel. A less forgeable copper
alloy, such as aluminum bronze, can be forged
with approximately the same force as that
required for low-carbon steel.
Copper and copper alloy forgings, particular-
ly brass forgings, are used in valves, fittings,
refrigeration components, and other high-pres-
sure liquid and gas handling applications. High-
strength bronze forgings find application as
mechanical parts such as gears, bearings, and
hydraulic pumps.
Selecting the Forging Process

Fig. 2 Schematic of the closed-die forging process,
The four most common types of hot forging Fig. 1 Schematic of the open-die forging process, which may be described as shaping of metal
which involves compressing a billet between die completely within the cavities of the dies that enclose the
processes for producing copper and copper alloy halves that are flat or have simple contours. The process is metal when they are brought together. The impression can
forged parts are open-die forging (also referred primarily used for preforming a billet to achieve optimal be produced entirely in either the bottom die or upper die,
to as upset forging), closed-die forging, multi- metal distribution in a final forging operation. or may be divided between the two dies.
Multistroke and Cored Forgings. Products hand) is placed in a closed die set as described through openings in or between the dies. The
with complex intersecting bores can be forged previously. The dies may or may not deform the metal flows around the intruding cores, filling the
using multistroke or cored dies (Fig. 4). In this billet, but most of the metal flow occurs when cavity to the desired shape. The cores are with-
process, the billet (which may be blocked before- cores are introduced into the closed-die cavity drawn before the die halves are retracted.
The multistroke process can produce hollow,
highly complex forgings containing multiple
bores at any x-, y-, or z-axis orientation. Because
the bores reduce the need for subsequent drilling
operations, metal usage is very efficient and pro-
duction rates are quite high. Dies are relatively
expensive, however, and the process is most
cost-effective when large quantities of forgings
are to be produced.
Ring rolling is a hot forging process for pro-
ducing seamless annular rings that are accurate-
ly dimensioned and exhibit circumferential grain
flow. Ring rolling produces less waste of materi-
al than alternative forging methods, and is appli-
cable to production in any quantity.
Annular components can be ring rolled from
any forgeable alloy. The configuration can range
from very flat washer-shaped rings to long sleeve-
type rings. Final product sizes typically range
from 250 mm to 1 m (10 in. to 40 in.) in diameter
to as large as about 7.5 m (25 ft) in diameter.
Forging Alloys
The choice of alloy to be used is dependent
on the end use of the component. The selection
is influenced by such factors as the required
strength, corrosion resistance, and the need for
machining. Different alloys will offer differing
degrees of hot ductility, which in turn will
Fig. 3 Copper alloy parts made by closed-die forging affect the complexity of the component that
can be produced and the die life of the hot
forging tooling.
Brasses are by far the most popular alloys for
hot forging because of their excellent hot work-
ing properties and good machinability, combined
with high strength and corrosion resistance.
A number of different brasses are readily
available for forging, covering a variety of prop-
erties suitable for particular applications.
Forgings can also be successfully made in cop-
per and other copper alloys including beryllium
coppers, nickel silvers, aluminum bronzes, and
copper-nickel alloys.
Table 1 lists the compositions and properties
of copper and copper alloy forging alloys. The
16 alloys with forgeability ratings are the most
commonly used in North America. Forging brass
(alloy C37700), the least difficult alloy to forge,
has been assigned an arbitrary forgeability rating
of 100 (see footnote (b) in Table 1).
Some copper alloys cannot be forged to any
significant degree because they will crack.
Leaded copper-zinc alloys, such as architectural
bronze, which may contain more than 2.5% Pb,
are seldom recommended for hot forging.
Although lead content improves metal flow, it
promotes cracking in those areas of a forging,
particularly deep-extruded areas, that are not
completely supported by, or enclosed in, the
dies. This does not mean that the lead-containing
Fig. 4 Schematic of multistroke forging, which is a closed-die forging process in which horizontal punch action is
alloys cannot be forged, but rather that the
introduced in combination with vertical action of the forging press. This makes possible the forming of cavities
not possible with simple forging procedures. Multistroke forging is used in the manufacture of such items as complex design of the forging may have to be modified to
valve bodies. avoid cracking.
Forging and Extrusion / 215
The solubility of lead in -brass at forging of thumb is 0.5 kN of capacity per square mil- • The die cavity is usually polished to a bet-
temperatures is about 2% maximum, but lead is limeter of projected area (40 tonf/in.2). ter surface finish for forging copper and
insoluble in -brass at all temperatures. Therefore, a forging with a projected area of copper alloys.
Consequently, although a lead content of up to 32.2 cm2 (5 in.2) will require a minimum of
2.5% is permissible in Cu-40Zn - brasses, 1780 kN (200 tonf) capacity for forgings up to Die materials and hardnesses selected for
lead in excess of 0.10% in a Cu30Zn -brass medium severity. If the part is complicated (for forging copper alloys depend on part configura-
will contribute to catastrophic cracking. example, with deep, thin ribs), the capacity must tion (forging severity) and number of parts to be
Other copper alloys, such as the copper- be increased. produced. Figure 5 illustrates the forging severi-
nickels, can be forged only with greater diffi- Speed of the press is not critical in forging ties of parts listed in Table 2.
culty and at higher cost. The copper-nickels, copper alloys, but minimum duration of con- Whether the dies are made entirely from a
primarily because of their higher forging tem- tact between the hot forging and the die is hot-work steel such as H11 or H12 or whether or
peratures, are sometimes heated in a controlled desirable to increase die life. Detailed infor- not inserts are used depends largely on the size
atmosphere, thus complicating the process. mation on hammers and presses is available in of the die. Common practice is to make the
The silicon bronzes, because of their high the article “Hammers and Presses for inserts from a hot-work steel and to press them
forging temperatures and their compositions, Forging”, in Forming and Forging, Volume 14 into rings or holders made from a low-alloy die
cause more rapid die deterioration than the of ASM Handbook. block steel (Table 2) or L6 tool steel. Hardness
common forging alloys. of the ring or holder is seldom critical; a range of
341 to 375 HB is typical.
Dies
Forging Machines
Dies designed for forging copper or copper Preparation of Stock
Most copper alloy forgings are produced in alloys usually differ from those designed for
crank-type mechanical presses. With these forging the same shapes from steel, as follows: The two methods most often used for cut-
presses, the production rate is high, and less • The draft angle can be decreased for forging ting stock into slugs for forging are shearing
operator skill is needed and less draft is required copper (3° max and often less than 3°). and sawing.
than in forging copper alloys in hammers. • The die cavity is usually machined to dimen- Shearing is faster than other methods of cut-
Press size is normally based on the projected sions that are 0.005 in./in. less than those for ting stock. In addition, no material is wasted in
(plan) area of the part, including flash. The rule forging steels. kerf. However, the ends of the sheared stock are
Table 1 Compositions, mechanical properties, and forging/cold heading characteristics of copper and copper alloys
Yield strength (a)
Relative
Tensile strength(a) (0.5% extension under load)
UNS Description or previous Nominal Elongation in forgeability
number trade name composition, wt% MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness rating(b) Cold heading(c)
C10200 Oxygen free 100 Cu 222 32 76 11 40 37 HRF 65 E

C10400 Oxygen free with Ag 99.95 Cu, 0.05 Ag 222 32 76 11 40 37 HRF 65 E
C11000 Electrolytic tough pitch 99.9 Cu min 221 32 76 11 40 37 HRF 65 E
C11300 Tough pitch with Ag 99.9 Cu min 221 32 76 11 40 37 HRF 65 E
C12200 Phosphorus deoxidized, 99.97 Cu, 0.03 P 221 32 76 11 40 37 HRF 65 E
high residual
phosphorus
C14500 Tellurium bearing 99.5 Cu, 0.5 Te 221 32 83 12 35 40 HRF … E
C14700 Sulfur bearing 99.6 Cu, 0.4 S 221 32 83 12 35 40 HRF … G
C15000 Zirconium copper 99.8 Cu, 0.15 Zr 200–483(d) 29–70(d) 41–448(d) 6–65(d) 11 72 HRB … G
C17000 Beryllium-copper 98.3 Cu, 1.7 Be 482–1138(d) 70–165(d) 221–1000(d) 32–145(d) 45–7(d) 60 HRB-35 HRC(d) … E
C18200 Chromium copper 99.1 Cu, 0.9 Cr 482(e) 70(e) 448(e) 65(e) 18 … 80 E
C36500 Leaded Muntz metal, 60 Cu, 0.6 Pb, 400 58 159 23 40 45 HRB … F
uninhibited 39.4 Zn
C37700 Forging brass 60 Cu, 2 Pb, 38 Zn 359 52 138 20 40 45 HRB 100 P
C38500 Architectural bronze 57 Cu, 3 Pb, 40 Zn 414 60 138 20 30 65 HRB … P
C46400 Naval brass uninhibited 60 Cu, 0.8 Pb, 39.2 Zn 386 56 172 25 40 56 HRB 90 F
C48200 Naval brass, medium 60.5 Cu, 0.7 Pb, 441 64 179 26 40 55 HRB 90 P
leaded 0.8 Sn, 38 Zn
C48500 Naval brass high leaded 60 Cu, 1.8 Pb, 0.7 Sn, 427 62 165 24 40 55 HRB 90 P
37.5 Zn
C62300 Aluminum bronze 87 Cu, 3 Fe, 10 Al 517 75 241 35 32 82 HRB … G
C62400 Aluminum bronze 86 Cu, 10.7 Al, 3.3 Fe 621 90 276 40 40 87 HRB 75 …
C63000 Aluminum bronze 82 Cu, 3 Fe, 10 Al, 5 Ni 345 50 … … 15 90 HRB 75 P
C63200 Aluminum bronze 82 Cu, 9 Al, 4 Fe, 5 Ni 352 51 … … 18 88 HRB 70 F
C64200 Aluminum bronze 91.2 Cu, 7 Al, 1.8 Si 241 35 … … 35 77 HRB 80 P
C65500 High silicon bronze A 97 Cu, 3 Si 358 52 124 18 70 62 HRB 40 E
C67000 Manganese bronze B 65.5 Cu, 4.5 Al, 3.8 Mn, … … … … … … … …
3 Fe, 23.2 Zn
C67300 … 60.5 Cu, 1.7 Pb, 2.8 Mn, 517 75 379 55 15 81 HRB … …
35 Zn
C67400 … 58.5 Cu, 2.8 Mn, 1.3 Al, 538 78 262 38 24 83 HRB … …
2.7 Mn, 34.7 Zn
C67500 Manganese bronze A 58.5 Cu, 1.4 Fe, 1 Sn, 448 65 207 30 33 69 HRB 80 P
39 Zn, 0.1 Mn
C70600 Copper nickel, 10% 88.6 Cu, 1.4 Fe, 10 Ni 324 47 234 34 42 65 HRF or 15 HRB … G
C71500 Copper nickel, 30% 69.5 Cu, 0.5 Fe, 30 Ni 517 75 483 70 45 80 HRF or 45 HRB … G
(a) As-forged product.(b) Relative forgeability rating takes into consideration such variable factors as pressure, die wear, and plasticity (hot). Since it is impracticable to reduce these variables to common units, calibration in
terms of a percentage of the most generally used alloy, C37700 forging brass (100), is considered the most practical basis for such ratings. The values shown represent the general opinion and are intended for information to
enable the designer to better understand the forging characteristics of these various alloys.(c) Cold heading ratings: E, excellent (most easily cold headed); G, good; F, fair; P, poor (not recommended).(d) Value ranges from solu-
tionized condition to the aged condition.(e) Value for aged condition. Source: Copper Development Association
rougher than those of sawed sections. Rough or the least costly, and is satisfactory for heating applications, blocking is often done separately,
torn ends usually cannot be permitted because copper alloys at temperatures above 705 °C followed by trimming before the forging is com-
forging defects are likely to nucleate from the (1300 °F). pleted. The operations are likely to be performed
rough ends. If shearing is used, best practice is Gas-fired furnaces are almost always used, in different presses; therefore the partially com-
to condition the sheared ends—for example, and furnace design is seldom critical. Open-fired pleted forging is reheated to the temperature
with a radiusing machine. conveyor chain or belt types are those most com- originally used.
Sawing with circular saws having carbide- monly used.
tipped blades is widely used as a method of Any type of pryometric control that can main- Heating of Dies
preparing stock because sawed ends are usually tain temperature within 5 °C (10 °F) is suit-
in much better condition than sheared ends. The able. As billets are discharged, a periodic check Dies are always heated for forging copper and
principal disadvantage of sawing is the loss of with a prod-type pyrometer should be made. copper alloys, although because of the good
metal because of the kerf. In addition, if the This permits a quick comparison of billet tem- forgeability of copper alloys, die temperature is
burrs left by sawing are not removed, defects are perature with furnace temperature. generally less critical than for forging alu-
likely to develop in the forging. Deburring of the Heating Time. The time at temperature is minum. Dies are seldom preheated in ovens.
saw sections by grinding, radiusing, or barrel critical for all copper alloys, although to vary- Heating is usually accomplished by ring burners.
tumbling is always recommended. ing degrees among the different alloys. For Optimal die temperatures vary from 150 to
forging brass (alloy C37700), the time is least 315 °C (300 to 600 °F), depending on the forg-
Heating of Billets or Slugs critical, but for aluminum bronze, naval brass, ing temperature of the specific alloy. For alloys
and copper, it is most critical. Time in excess of having low forging temperatures, a die tempera-
Optimal forging temperature ranges for ten that required to bring the billet uniformly to ture of 150 °C (300 °F) is sufficient. Die tem-
alloys are given in Table 3. Atmosphere protec- forging temperature is detrimental because it perature is increased to as much as 315 °C
tion during billet heating is not required for most causes grain growth and increases the amount (600 °F) for the alloys having the highest forg-
alloys, especially when forging temperatures are of scale. ing temperatures shown in Table 3.
below 705 °C (1300 °F). For temperatures Reheating Practice. When forging in ham-
toward the top of the range in Table 3, a protec- mers, all of the impressions are usually made in
tive atmosphere is desirable and is sometimes one pair of dies, and reheating is rarely required. Lubricants
required. An exothermic atmosphere is usually In press forging, particularly in high-production
Dies should be lubricated before each forging
operation. A spray of colloidal graphite and
water is usually adequate. Many installations
include a spray that operates automatically,
timed with the press stroke. However, the spray
is often inadequate for deep cavities and is sup-
plemented by swabbing with a conventional
forging oil.
Trimming
Brass forgings are nearly always trimmed at
room temperature. Because the forces imposed
on the trimming tools are less than those for trim-
ming steel forgings, the trimming of brass forg-
ings seldom poses problems. Large forgings,
especially in small quantities, are commonly
Fig. 5 Forged copper alloy parts of varying severity. Dimensions in inches. See Table 2 for recommended die materials. trimmed by sawing off the flash and punching or
machining the web sections. Trimming tools usu-
Table 2 Recommended die materials for the forging of copper alloys ally are used for trimming large quantities, espe-
cially of small forgings that are relatively intri-
Part configurations of varying severity are shown in Fig. 5.
cate and require several punchouts.
Total quantity to be forged Materials for trimming dies vary consider-
100–10,000 10,000 ably among different plants. In some plants, it is
Maximum severity Die material Hardness, HB Die material Hardness, HB common practice for normal trimming to make
Hammer forging the punch from low-alloy die steel at a hardness
Part 1 H11 405–433 H12 405–448 of 46 to 50 HRC. One reason for using this steel
6G, 6F2 341–375
Part 2 6G, 6F2 341–375 6G, 6F2 341–375 Table 3 Recommended forging
H12(a) 405–448
Part 3 6G, 6F2 269–293 6G, 6F2 302–331 temperature ranges for copper alloys
Part 4 H11 405–433 H11 405–433 Temperature range
Part 5 6G, 6F2 302–331 6G, 6F2(b) 302–331
Alloy °C °F
Press forging
C12200 730–845 1350–1550
Part 1 H12 477–514 H12 477–514 C18200 650–760 1200–1400
6G, 6F2 341–375 C37700 650–760 1200–1400
Part 2 6G, 6F2 341–375 H12 477–514 C46400 595–705 1100–1300
Part 3 Part normally is not press forged from copper alloys C62400 705–815 1300–1500
Part 4 H11 405–433 6G, 6F2(c) 341–375 C64200 730–900 1350–1650
Part 5 6G, 6F2 341–375 H12 477–514 C67000 595–705 1100–1300
C67300 595–730 1100–1350
(a) Recommended for long runs—for example, 50,000 pieces. (b) With either steel, use H12 insert at 405–448 HB. (c) With either steel, use H12 insert C67400 595–730 1100–1350
at 429–448 HB. C67500 595–705 1100–1300
is economy; the punches are often made from only by hydrofluoric acid or a proprietary fluo- sion protection and to minimize changes in con-
pieces of worn or broken dies. Blades for normal rine-bearing compound. Alloys containing tact resistance at elevated temperatures.
trimming are sometimes made by hardfacing appreciable quantities of nickel are difficult to
low-carbon steels such as 1020. pickle in solutions used for brasses because Minimum-Draft Forgings
In other plants both punches and blades are nickel oxide has a limited solubility in these
made from L6 steel and are heat treated to 52 to solutions. For these alloys, billets should be Zero-draft forgings can be produced from cop-
56 HRC. Worn tools of this material can be heated in a controlled atmosphere, so that scale per alloys, but are usually impractical. However,
repaired by welding with an L6 rod, remachining, is kept to a minimum and can be removed by the minimum-draft concept is a practical
and heat treating; O1 tool steel heat treated to 58 using the practice outlined previously and in approach for producing locating and clamping
to 60 HRC has also been used for punches and Table 4 for brass. surfaces for machining operations, mating sur-
blades for cold trimming. When close trimming is Other methods of chemical cleaning can be faces in assemblies, or other functional shapes
required, blades and punches fabricated from a used, depending largely on the desired finish. where dimensional tolerances on such surfaces
high-alloy tool steel such as D2, hardened to 58 to Additional information is available in the article are broad enough to include normal forging tol-
60 HRC, will give better results and longer life. “Surface Engineering” in this Handbook. erances but too close for normal draft angles.
Hot trimming is often used for one or both of Appearance. When a bright, lustrous finish is Forging Design. The most obvious consider-
the following reasons: desired, the metal can be pickled in the sulfuric ation is that any shape that has a negative draft
or hydrochloric acid pickles listed in Table 4 and angle would be impossible to eject without
• For alloys such as aluminum bronzes that are then given two additional dips. Pickling removes damage to the die or workpiece. With zero draft,
brittle at room temperature
surface oxides, and the second dip, a “scale” dip, the smallest error of form or dimension can
• When flash is heavy and sufficient power is prepares the metal for the “bright” dip that fol- damage the die and the workpiece. Therefore, a
not available for cold trimming
lows. “Scale” dips and “bright” dips are mix- draft angle of 18° should be considered the
Hot trimming is usually done at 425 °C tures of sulfuric and nitric acids in proportions absolute minimum for production forging. This
(800 °F). that vary widely from plant to plant. Generally, very small amount of positive draft is sufficient
Because of lower forces involved, tools for hot nitric acid accelerates the action of the dip, while to eliminate the possibility of negative draft
trimming are simpler than those for cold trim- sulfuric acid slows it down. The solutions are while producing forgings that have essentially
ming. Although the tool materials discussed used at room temperature. Parts are first dipped zero draft.
above can also be used for hot trimming, unhard- in the “scale” dip, rinsed in water, dipped in the Tolerances on closed-die forgings are nor-
ened low-carbon steel will usually suffice as a “bright” solution, rinsed in cold running water, mally 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) or better for
punch material. The same grade of steel with a and then rinsed in hot water and dried. small-to-medium forgings. It can be seen from
hardfacing is commonly used as blade material. Compositions of “scale” and “bright” dips are Table 5 that a small draft angle can easily be
listed in Table 4. accommodated within these tolerance limits.
Cleaning and Finishing Surface Finish. In normal practice, the sur- For example, a draft of 14° would produce a
face finish of cleaned forgings is expected to be taper of only 0.083 mm (0.00327 in.) on each
Scale and excess lubricants are easily 5 m (200 min.) or better. By more precise con- side of a cavity 19 mm (34 in.) deep. Because the
removed from copper and copper alloy forgings trol, a finish of 2.5 m (100 in.) or better can total taper of 0.166 mm (0.00654 in.) (both
by chemical cleaning. Pickling in dilute sulfuric be obtained. Die finish is the major factor affect- sides of the cavity) would be less than the usual
acid is the most common method for cleaning ing the surface finish of forgings. The type of 0.51 mm (0.020 in.) total tolerance on the cavi-
brass and most other copper alloy forgings, alloy forged and the amount of draft have a ty diameter, the part would be within tolerance
although hydrochloric acid can also be used. The minor influence on surface finish. for a specification of parallel sides.
compositions of sulfuric and hydrochloric acid Lacquer Coatings. The matte and mirror fin- Die Design. Conventional forging practice
solutions, the pickling procedures, and the typi- ishes preferred for decorative forged door hard- calls for draft angles of 2° or more on press
cal uses are given in Table 4. ware and architectural trim are readily main- forgings and up to 5 to 7° for hammer forg-
Aluminum bronzes form a tough, adherent tained with protective lacquers. Simple lacquers ings. Draft angles of 1° or less increase cost.
aluminum oxide film during forging. An effec- suffice for indoor use, while grades containing In general, as the draft angle is decreased,
tive method of cleaning aluminum bronze forg- benzotriazole or other inhibitors provide years more force is required to eject the forging
ings is first to immerse them in a 10% solution of protection in outdoor use. Dark, nonreflective from the die cavity or to withdraw the punch
(by weight) of sodium hydroxide in water at lacquers are used for optical instruments. from a hole. Conventional forging can usually
75 °C (170 °F) for 2 to 6 min. After rinsing in Electroplating. Copper forging alloys readily be ejected by a simple knockout pin. This
water, the forgings are pickled in acid solutions accept most electroplated coatings. Common method is not practical for minimum-draft
in the same way as brasses. plated coatings include chromium, which is ordi- forgings because pin pressure would be suffi-
Alloys containing substantial amounts of sil- narily used for decoration, and copper, which is cient to damage the part.
icon may form oxides of silicon removable applied to brass electrical products to add corro- Ejection of minimum-draft forgings is nearly
always accomplished through the use of insert-
Table 4 Cleaning solutions and conditions for copper and copper alloy forgings ed dies built on die cushions to provide a sec-
Solution Composition Use temperature, °C (°F) Uses ondary action within the die. This provides a
stripper action to the die so that ejection pres-
Sulfuric acid 4–15 vol% H2SO4 Room–60 (140) Removal of black copper oxide scale
(1.83 specific gravity); from brass forgings; removal of oxide sure is distributed over an entire surface rather
bal H2O from copper forgings than concentrated on a pin. Such double-action
Hydrochloric acid 40–90 vol% HCl Room Removal of scale and tarnish from brass dies are more expensive to build and to maintain
(35% conc); bal H2O forgings; removal of oxide from copper
forgings
“Scale” dip A 40% conc HNO3; Room Used with pickle and "bright" dip to give a Table 5 Relation of draft angle to draft for
30% conc H2SO4; 0.5% bright, lustrous finish to copper and minimum-draft forgings
conc HCl; bal H2O copper alloy forgings
“Scale” dip B 50% conc HNO3; Room Used with pickle and "bright" dip to give Total taper on
Draft angle, degrees Draft, in./in. diameter, in./in.
bal H2O bright, lustrous finish to copper and
copper alloy forgings 1/8 0.00219 0.00438
“Bright” dip 25 vol% conc HNO3; Room Used with pickle and "scale" dip to give 1/4 0.00436 0.00872
60 vol% conc H2SO4; bright,lustrous finish to copper and 1/2 0.00873 0.01746
0.2% conc HCl; bal H2O copper alloy forgings 1 0.01745 0.03490
Fig. 6 Displacement of metal during cold or hot extrusion
shown in Fig. 6(a). Workpieces are often cup- taining more than 1.25% Pb are likely to fracture
shaped and have wall thicknesses equal to the when cold extruded.
clearance between the punch and the die. In for- The pressure required for extruding a given area
ward extrusion, the work metal is forced in the for one of the more extrudable coppers or copper
direction of the punch travel, as shown in Fig. alloys (such as C10200 or C26000) is less than that
6(b). These two basic methods of extrusion are required for extruding low-carbon steel. However,
sometimes combined so that some of the work the pressure required for extruding copper alloys is
metal flows backward and some forward, as generally two to three times that required for
shown at the bottom of Fig. 6. extruding aluminum alloys (depending on the cop-
In cold extrusion, a punch applies pressure to per or aluminum alloy being compared).
the slug or preform, causing the work metal to The length of a backward-extruded section is limit-
flow in the required direction. The relative ed by the length-to-diameter ratio of the punch and
motion between punch and die is obtained by varies with unit pressure. This ratio should be a maxi-
attaching either one (almost always the die) to mum of 5 to 1 for copper. A ratio of 10 to 1 is common
Fig. 7 Nomenclature of tools comprising a typical the stationary bed and the other to the recipro- for the extrusion of aluminum, and ratios as high as 17
setup for backward extrusion cating ram. The axis of the machine can be ver- to 1 have been used. The total reduction of area for cop-
tical or horizontal. The pressure can be applied per or copper alloys, under the best conditions, should
than solid dies, and their use slows the produc- rapidly by a sharp blow, as in a crank press or not exceed 93%.
tion rate. header (impact extrusion), or more slowly by a
Alloy Selection. Draft angles have no effect squeezing action, as in a hydraulic press. Equipment and Tooling
on the relative forgeability of copper-base
alloys. Any alloy that can be forged by con- Equipment. Copper and copper alloys can be
ventional means can be forged to minimum Alloy Extrudability extruded in hydraulic or mechanical presses or
draft angles. in cold-heading machines. Of the three, mechan-
Oxygen-free copper (alloy C10200) is the ical presses are used most often because of their
most extrudable of the coppers and copper-base adaptability to other types of operations.
Cold Extrusion alloys. Other grades of copper and most of the Tooling and Tool Materials. The components
copper-base alloys can be cold extruded, of a typical tool assembly used for backward
Cold extrusion is so called because the slug or although there are wide differences in extrud- extrusion of metal parts are identified in Fig. 7.
preform enters the extrusion die at room temper- ability among the different compositions. For Recommended materials for extrusion punches
ature. Any subsequent increase in temperature, example, the harder copper alloys, such as alu- include M2 and M4 high-speed tool steels and
which may amount to several hundred degrees, minum-silicon bronze and nickel silver, are far tungsten carbide. Tool steel punches should be
is caused by the conversion of deformation work more difficult to extrude than the softer, more heat treated to a hardness of 62 to 66 HRC, and
into heat. Cold extrusion involves backward ductile alloys, such as cartridge brass (alloy they must have a high compressive yield strength.
(indirect), forward (direct), or combined back- C26000), which can satisfactorily withstand Die inserts are usually fabricated from such alloy
ward and forward (indirect-direct) displacement cold reduction of up to 90% between anneals. tool steels as D2, M2, and M4, and are heat treat-
of metal by plastic flow under steady, though not Alloys containing as much as 1.25% Pb can ed to 58 to 64 HRC, depending on the steel.
uniform, pressure. be successfully extruded if the amount of upset Tungsten carbide is extensively used
Backward displacement from a closed die is is mild and the workpiece is in compression at because it provides good die life, high produc-
in the direction opposite to punch travel, as all times during metal flow. Copper alloys con- tion rates, and good dimensional control.
Tungsten carbide often finds application as a trimming on each end and tapping were required can also be successfully and economically
punch material in backward extrusion. for completion. The extrusion equipment con- formed by the process. Figure 11 illustrates the
Retainer rings or housings used for tungsten sisted of a five-die cold-heading machine. cold heading process.
carbide dies should have sufficient strength The final cross-sectional area of the thin end Materials for Cold Heading. As listed in
and toughness to prevent splitting and failure after extrusion was 16.4% of the 30.7 mm (1.21 Table 1, a number of coppers and copper alloys
of the working tools. Shrink rings should be in.) diameter headed preform from which the fit- exhibit good to excellent cold headability. It
fabricated from hot-work die steels such as ting was made. A reduction of this magnitude should be noted that hot forgeability and cold
H11 or H13 heat treated to 46 to 48 HRC. could have been made in one operation if a headability are not related. For example, forging
Outer housings are often made from H13 die cylindrical rod were being extruded from the brass alloy C37700, which exhibits the highest
steel or from 4340 alloy steel. preform. The shape, however, was not suitable forgeability rating, has a poor cold heading rating.
for production in one operation. Therefore, the
Preparation of Slugs fitting was made by backward and forward
extrusion and mild upsetting. Production rate at
Sawing, shearing, and machining are the 100% efficiency was 3600 pieces per hour, and
methods used to prepare copper and copper- minimum life of the D2 tool steel dies was
alloy slugs. Each method has advantages and 200,000 pieces.
limitations. Sawing or shearing is generally used Difficult Extrusions. The part described in
to produce solid slugs. Machining (as in a lathe) the following example represents a difficult
or cold forming in auxiliary equipment is sel- extrusion for two reasons. First, the metal (tel-
dom used unless a hole in the slug, or some other lurium copper, alloy C14500) is one of the more
modification, is required. difficult-to-extrude copper alloys, and second,
Surface Preparation. In applications involv- the configuration (12 internal flutes and 12
ing minimum-to-moderate severity, copper slugs external ribs) is difficult to extrude regardless of
are often extruded with no special surface prepa- the metal used.
ration before the lubricant is applied. However, Example 2: Extrusion Versus Brazed
for the extrusion of harder alloys (aluminum Assembly for Lower Cost. The rotor shown in
bronze, for example) or for maximum severity Fig. 9 was originally produced by brazing a
or both, best practice includes the following sur- machined section into a drawn ribbed and fluted
face preparation before lubricant is applied: tubular section. By an improved method, this
• Cleaning in an alkaline cleaner to remove oil, rotor was extruded from a sawed, annealed slug
grease, and soil in one hit in a 1.7 MN (190 tonf) mechanical
• Rinsing in water press. A lanolin-zinc stearate-trichloroethylene
• Pickling in 10 vol% sulfuric acid at 20 to lubricant was used to produce 1800 pieces per
65 °C (70 to 150 °F) to remove metal oxides hour. The extruded rotor was produced at less
• Rinsing in cold water cost and has better dimensional accuracy than
• Rinsing in a well-buffered solution, such as the brazed assembly, and there were fewer
carbonate or borate, to neutralize residual rejects. Minimum tool life was 50,000 pieces.
acid or acid salts
Lubrication. Zinc stearate is an excellent lubri- Cold Heading Fig. 8 Copper alloy C11000 plumbing fitting produced
cant for extruding copper alloys. Common prac- by the operation shown, including cold forward
tice is to etch the slugs as described previously and extrusion. Dimensions given in inches
then to coat them by dry tumbling in zinc stearate. Cold heading is a cold-forged process in
which the force developed by one or more
Examples of Practice strokes (blows) of a heading tool is used to upset
(displace) the metal in a portion of a wire or rod
The following examples describe typical pro- blank in order to form a section of different con-
duction practice for extruding parts from copper tour or, more commonly, of larger cross section
and brass. The part described in Example 2 than the original. The process is widely used to
could have been made by forging, casting, or produce a variety of small- and medium-sized
machining; however, cold extrusion produced hardware items, such as bolts and rivets. Cold
more accurate dimensions than forging or cast- heading, however, is not limited to the cold
ing, consumed less material than machining, and deformation of the ends of a workpiece nor to
was the lowest-cost method. conventional upsetting; metal displacement may
Example 1: Shearing, Heading, Piercing, be imposed at any point, or at several points,
Extruding, and Upsetting in a Header. The along the length of the workpiece and may Fig. 9 Copper alloy C14500 rotor produced by com-
plumbing fitting shown in Fig. 8 was made of incorporate extrusion in addition to upsetting. In bined backward and forward extrusion.
Dimensions given in inches
electrolytic tough pitch copper (alloy C11000) cold heading, the cross-sectional area of the ini-
rod cold drawn (about 15% reduction of area) to tial material is increased as the height of the
a diameter of 26.9 mm (1.06 in.). The pipe-taper workpiece is decreased. Advantages of the
diameter and the 22.2 mm (0.875 in.) diameter process over machining of the same parts from
of the tube socket were critical, being specified suitable bar stock include:
within 0.064 mm (0.0025 in.).
Manufacture of the fitting consisted of feed- • Almost no waste material (Fig. 10)
ing the rod stock into the cold-heading machine, • Increased tensile strength from cold working Fig. 10 Copper alloy C10200 nozzle component blank
which cut the stock into slugs 20.3 mm (0.80 in.) • Controlled grain flow that was originally machined but was switched
to cold heading to save the work metal indicated by the
long and transferred the slugs progressively to Although cold heading is principally used for shaded regions. A materials savings of more than 50% was
dies for heading, backward extruding, piercing, the production of heads on rivets or on blanks effected producing the component by cold heading rather
forward extruding, and upsetting (Fig. 8). Only for threaded fasteners, a variety of other shapes than machining. Dimensions given in inches
Coining although blanking or trimming, or both, fre- makes possible the reproduction of ornate detail
quently follow coining. in tableware (Example 3) and allows close size
Coining is a closed-die forging operation, • Development of Detail in the Workpiece: In control with a prescribed surface finish in small
usually preformed cold, in which all surfaces of coining dies, the prepared blank is loaded parts (Examples 4 and 5).
the workpiece are confined or restrained, result- above the compressive yield strength and is Example 3: Production of a Nickel Silver
ing in a well-defined imprint of the die on the held in this condition during coining. Dwell Knife Handle by Forming and Coining in a
workpiece. It is also a restriking operation time under load is important for the develop- Drop Hammer. Figure 12 shows the sequence
(called, depending on the purpose, sizing or bot- ment of dimensions in sizing and embossing; of shapes in the production of a hollow handle
tom or corner setting) used to sharpen or change it is also necessary for the reproduction of for a table knife formed and coined in a 410 kg
a radius or profile. fine detail, as in engraving. (900 lb) pneumatic drop hammer. The work
The Coining Operation Sequence. • Trimming: Flash that develops during coining metal was 0.81 mm (0.032 in.) thick copper
Ordinarily, coining entails the following steps: and any hangers used to carry the blank alloy C75700 (nickel silver, 65-12) annealed to a
through coining, especially in progressive-die hardness of 35 to 45 HRB; blank size was 25 by
• Preliminary Workpiece Preparation: Full coining, must be trimmed from the piece. 230 mm (1 by 9 in.).
contact between the blank and die surfaces,
which is necessary for coining, usually Materials for Coining. Ease of coining is Two workpieces were formed and coined
requires some preliminary metal redistribu- determined by the strength and work-hardening simultaneously from one blank, in two blows of
tion by other processes, such as forging or rate of the material. Copper, low-zinc brass, low- the drop hammer. The two-cavity die permitted
extrusion, because only a small amount of alloy nickel silvers, and copper-nickels, all of easy loading and unloading of parts and also
metal redistribution can take place in the which exhibit low work-hardening rates, have provided symmetry to prevent shifting of the
coining dies in single-station coining. In pro- good coinability. punch. A volatile, fatty oil-base lubricant was
gressive-die operations, coining is done as in Applications. The most familiar application applied to the blank by rollers.
single-station dies, but it is preceded by other of the coining process is the minting of coins, The formed and coined halves were separated
operations such as blanking, drawing, pierc- many of which are made from copper alloys. by slitting with a rotating cutter made of T1 tool
ing, and bending. Coining is often the final Electrical and electronic connectors and lead- steel, and the flange was removed in a pinch-trim
operation in a progressive-die sequence, frame leads are also often coined. Coining also operation. After belt grinding to deburr and pro-
vide a smooth, flat surface, the half handles were
fluxed along the edges and soldered together. The
soldered handles were then pickled, washed, and
finished by a light emery on the soldered seams,
and then were silver plated. The handle and blade
were assembled and finish buffed.
Example 4: Coining Interlocking-
Fastener Elements in a Progressive Die. The
interlocking-fastener element shown in Fig. 13
was manufactured from a precision-rolled,
lubricated, flat strip of copper alloy C22600
(jewelry bronze; Cu-12.5Zn) 4.57 mm (0.180
in.) wide.
A special high-speed eccentric-shaft
mechanical press with a 4.8 mm (316 in.)
stroke was used. Tooling consisted of a D2
Fig. 11 Schematic of the cold heading process. 1,
steel progressive die (59 to 61 HRC) that had
punch; 2, die; 3, forging
edge-notching and coining stations. A ratch-
et-type roll feed was used. The coining por-
tion of the die consisted of an upper die and a
Fig. 13 Copper alloy C22600 interlocking-fastener
lower punch, with a spring-loaded stock
element produced by coining and notching in
a progressive die. Dimensions given in inches lifter. The element was made at a production
rate of 120,000 pieces per hour by notching,
coining, and blanking, and then was attached
to a tape.
Example 5: Roll Coining of Small
Interlocking-Fastener Elements From
Round Wire. Copper alloy C22600 (jewelry
bronze; Cu-12.5Zn) wire was fed into coining
rolls to form elements of an interlocking-fas-
tener strip (Fig. 14).
The rolls illustrated in Fig. 14 were geared
together so that the male and female forms hubbed
into the roll peripheries were accurately matched.
Roll peripheries were a whole-number multiple of
the lengths of the article coined. Diameters were
kept as small as possible to minimize the expense
of replacement of the rolls if premature failure
occurred. The rolls enclosed a coining space nom-
inally equal in cross section to that of the wire fed
into them. This wire was forged and coined to fill
Fig. 12 Production of a hollow copper alloy C75700 Fig. 14 Copper alloy C22600 interlocking-fastener
the section presented in the roll space, to give the
knife handle by forming and coining. element produced on coining rolls.
Dimensions given in inches Dimensions given in inches configuration shown in Fig. 14.
Hot Extrusion Table 6 Typical materials and hardnesses

for tools used in hot extrusion of copper
and brass
Hot extrusion involves pushing a heated billet
of metal through a die. The extruded product Tooling application Tool material Hardness, HRC
may be hollow or solid, and the cross section Dies, for both H11, H12, H13, 42–44
may vary from a simple round to a complicated shapes and tubing H14, H19, H21
Dummy blocks, H11, H12, H13, 34–36
shape (Fig. 15). Direct (forward) extrusion, backers, bolsters, H14, H19
wherein the metal is forced under pressure and die rings Inconel 718
through a die opening of the desired cross-sec- Mandrels H11, H13 40–44
tional area and shape, is most widely employed. Mandrel tips Inconel 718 40–42
and inserts
The die is located in the end of the cylinder Liners A-286, V-57 46–50
opposite the ram. In the less-used indirect (back- Rams H11, H12, H13 40–44
ward) extrusion process, the die is mounted on a Containers 4140, 4150, 4340 35–40
hollow ram and is pushed through the metal
instead of the metal being pushed through the
die. The principal differences between direct and
indirect extrusion are illustrated in Fig. 6.
Hot extrusion is widely used in the production
of wire, pipe, and tube, in which it is an inter-
mediate process, and rod, bar, and shapes, for
which it can be used to produce finished prod- Fig. 15 Hollow copper sections produced by hot
extrusion
ucts. An example of the latter are architectural
shapes such as banister rails, which are extruded
from brass. Billet temperatures vary from about
595 to 995 °C (1100 to 1825 °F). Copper and
brasses extrude readily, with ram speeds ranging
from 50 to 400 mm/s (2 to 16 ft/s). Stiffer alloys
require high pressures (690 MPa, or 100 ksi).
Alloy Extrudability. Pure copper and beta
brasses are the most easily extruded. Other cop-
per alloys of this group comprise cadmium cop-
per, silver-bearing copper, chromium copper,
zirconium copper, aluminum bronzes up to 5%
Al, tin bronzes with 2% Sn, and duplex ( )
brasses. High alloy aluminum bronzes (over 8%
Al or complex bronzes) are considered very dif- Fig. 16 Schematic of a horizontal extrusion press showing a hydraulically powered ram forcing the heated billet
ficult to extrude because they require relatively through the die
high specific pressures. High tin bronzes and
CuNiFe alloys belong in this group, as well. basic types of hydraulic drives are available: direct • Cold Heading, Forming and Forging, Vol 14,
Alloys considered moderately difficult to and accumulator. In the past, accumulator presses ASM Handbook, 1988, ASM International, p
extrude include leaded nickel silvers, which tend were the most widely used type, but today direct- 291–298
to show hot shortness; alpha brasses; spe- drive presses are used more extensively. • Coining, Forming and Forging, Vol 14, ASM
cial brasses; aluminum bronzes containing from Table 6 lists typical materials and hardness- Handbook, 1988, ASM International, p
5 to 8% Al; tin bronzes ranging from 4 to 8% Sn, es for tools used in hot extrusion of copper 180–187
and copper-nickels with 1 to 2% Si. Other diffi- and brass. • Conventional Hot Extrusion, Forming and
cult-to-extrude alloys are those that display hot Forging, Vol 14, ASM Handbook, 1988, ASM
shortness, such as silicon bronzes and leaded ACKNOWLEDGMENTS International p 315–326
nickel silver. Unlike its action in forging, lead
does not limit extrudability appreciably. Highly This article was adapted from:
SELECTED REFERENCES
leaded alloys, such as free-cutting brass, are rou- • R.A. Cambell, Forging Copper and Copper
tinely extruded in large quantities. Alloys, Forming and Forging, Vol 14, ASM • Copper and Copper Alloy Forgings,
Presses and Tooling. Horizontal and vertical Handbook, 1988, ASM International, p Publication No. 32, Canadian Copper &
presses are used for hot extrusion. Horizontal 255–258 Brass Development Association, 1997
presses are the most common (Fig. 16). Most • P.S. Raghupathi, W.C. Setzer, and M. Baxi, • Forging Alloys for High Quality, Cost-
modern extrusion presses are driven hydraulically, Cold Extrusion, Forming and Forging, Vol Competitive Products, Publication No.
but mechanical drives are used in some applica- 14, ASM Handbook, 1988, ASM A7004-85/96, Copper Development
tions, such as the production of small tubes. Two International, p 299–312 Association, 1996
Powder Metallurgy Processing
POWDER METALLURGY (P/M) is a still commercially produced in Europe and copper powder exceeded supply and higher
branch of metallurgy related to the manufac- Asia, where water atomization is the main purity was required, particulate copper of high
ture of metal powders and articles fabricated competitive commercial process. purity (chopped scrap or atomized copper) was
from powders by the application of forming This article describes the four processes used oxidized to form cuprous or cupric oxide or a
and sintering processes. Powder metallurgy for the production of copper and copper alloy mixture of both.
processing offers the engineer a means of con- powders, the physical and mechanical proper-
serving materials, reducing machining, and ties of the powders produced, and copper pow- Melting of Copper
securing a uniform product at a reasonable der consolidation techniques, including com-
cost. It also permits the production of parts paction and production sintering practices. In recent years, the increasing emphasis on
with close tolerances and a minimum of scrap Additional information on the characteristics, purity has supplanted both copper mill scale and
and the development of products that cannot properties, and applications of copper and cop- cement copper as the starting materials for mak-
be produced by any other method. By proper per alloy P/M materials can be found in the arti- ing oxide-reduced copper powders.
selection of powders, the P/M specialist can cle “Powder Metallurgy Copper and Copper Copper melting is performed in both fuel-
control the density of the products over a wide Alloys” in this Handbook. fired and induction-heated furnaces. Strong
range and secure a wide range of mechanical oxide formers, such as aluminum and silicon,
and physical properties. are kept low; thus, the molten metal remains
Density can be controlled to produce parts Production of Copper Powder by fluid and can be poured without difficulty.
with porosities as high as 60% or, conversely, the Reduction of Copper Oxide Aluminum and silicon oxides also make the
those that are practically pore-free and have powder less compressible and very abrasive. In
densities approaching the theoretical density Reduction of copper oxide is the oldest and addition, lead and tin cause problems in pouring
of the material. It is even possible to vary the (in the United States) still one of the main the melt due to buildups and clogging in the fur-
density in a single part. By producing parts commercial processes for making copper pow- naces and nozzles.
with interconnected pores, the metallurgist der, along with water atomization. In this In some applications of copper powder (for
can obtain a skeleton that can be impregnated process, particulate copper oxide is converted example, metal-graphite brushes and friction
with oils, plastics, or a metal having a lower to copper at elevated temperature by reducing parts), good electrical or thermal conductivity is
melting point. gases. The product, a sintered porous cake, is important. For this reason, impurity levels must
Copper and copper alloy powders have been then milled to a powder. The starting material be kept low. The detrimental effect on electrical
used in industrial applications for many years. for reduction was originally copper millscale conductivity caused by some impurities that are
The self-lubricating bronze bearing, invented and cement copper. However, as demand for present in solid solution is shown in Fig. 1.
in the 1920s, and its subsequent development
brought about the commercial production of
copper powders. The first large-scale produc-
tion powder processes were oxide reduction
and electrolytic deposition. Electrolytic cop-
per powders enabled the development of cop-
per-graphite electrical brushes and copper-
base friction materials in the 1930s. Copper
powder made by the cementation process was
also used in copper-base friction materials for
a period of time, but ceased in the 1970s.
Other hydrometallurgical processes for copper
powder production were developed in the
1950s and 1960s. Some powders were com-
mercially used for a number of years. Further
growth of copper powder production took
place with the development, during World War
II, of the ferrous structural parts industry
which uses copper additions for alloy
strengthening. In the 1950s, production of
copper and copper alloy powders by water
atomization became commercially significant.
By the early 1980s, competition from oxide-
reduction and atomization processes caused LIVE GRAPH
commercial production of electrolytic copper Click here to view
powder to cease in the United States, but it is Fig. 1 Effect of impurities in solid solution on electrical conductivity of oxygen-free copper
Powder Metallurgy Processing / 223
Thermal conductivity is similarly dependent on however, particle shape is not very important. called thick film range, oxidation follows the
the impurity content. The coarse shot-type powder that is produced by parabolic rate law, in which film thickness (y)
low-pressure air or water atomization (Fig. 3) is increases with the square root of time
Atomization and Shotting of Copper the typical starting material for the pure copper (y kt p
).
c At low temperatures, linear,
oxide process. logarithmic, and cubic oxidation rates have been
Large-scale atomization of copper usually is observed, depending on the history of the oxide.
conducted in air as a continuous process. Oxidation of Copper Powder Free energies, heats of reaction, and rates of
Liquid copper may be atomized directly from copper oxide formation are shown in Table 1.
a tube in the side of the furnace wall or through Oxidation of air-atomized, water-atomized, In commercial practice, oxidation or roast-
a tundish. Both air and water may be used as or shotted copper is performed to radically ing of copper powder normally is done in air at
atomizing media, and horizontal atomization change the shape of the powder and thus temperatures above 650 °C (1200 °F).
with high-pressure air into a rotating drum enhance control over the various engineering Oxidation in rotary kilns or fluidized beds pro-
eliminates the need for drying of the powder. properties of parts made from the powder. vides faster oxidation rates by increasing the
For details of atomization, including nozzle Completely oxidized and reduced powders contact area between powder and oxidizing
configurations and pressure relationships, see with a wholly spongy (porous) structure and gas. However, due to the strongly exothermic
the article “Atomization” in Powder Metal entirely solid powders, as typified by a gas- nature of the oxidation reactions, these opera-
Technologies and Applications, Volume 7 of atomized powder, constitute the extremes of tions are more difficult to control than roasting
the ASM Handbook. available copper powders. Partial oxidation in a belt conveyor furnace.
Scanning electron micrographs of air-atom- results in intermediate structures. Grinding of Copper Oxide. Both oxides of
ized and water-atomized copper powders are The oxidation of copper is a well-known copper are brittle and easy to grind to –100 mesh
shown in Fig. 2. The water-atomized powder has process. There are two copper oxides, the red powder. The oxide particles themselves are
a more irregular particle shape, and its oxide cuprous oxide, Cu2O, and the black cupric porous. Figure 4 shows oxidized shot before and
content is somewhat lower. At this process stage, oxide, CuO. At high temperatures and for the so- after grinding.
Fig. 2 Scanning electron micrographs of copper powder. (a) Air atomized. (b) Water atomized
Table 1 Free energies, heats, and rates of copper oxide formation

2(Cu) 1/2(O2) Cu2O exothermic
G –41,166 1.27 10–3 T lnT 3.7 10–3T 2 1.80 10–7T 3 27.881 T
k 957 e–37,700/RT g2cm–4h–1
Cu 1/2(O2) CuO exothermic

G –37,353 0.16 T lnT 1.69 10–3T 2 9 10–8T 3 25.082 T
H –38,170 1.30 T 0.99 10–3T 2 0.57 105 T –1
Cu2O 1/2(O2) 2CuO exothermic

G –33,550 0.95 T lnT – 3.75 10–3T 2 22.340 T
H –35,710 3.28 T 0.40 10–3T 2 0.20 –105 T –1
k 0.0268 e–20,140/RT g2cm–4h–1
G is free energy; H is heat; values of G and H are given in calories per gram mole; k is a rate constant mathematically derived; T is the absolute
temperature in kelvin; R is the absolute gas constant; ln is the natural logarithm (base e, where e 2.7182).
Fig. 3 Air-shotted copper
Reduction of Copper Oxide per powders, particularly when exposed to der changes from orange to purple to black.
moist air, generally tarnish, with attendant Simultaneously, oxygen content increases
Reduction of particulate copper oxide is losses in green strength and other side effects. from a typical 0.1 or 0.2% to several tenths of
generally accomplished on a stainless steel With increasing tarnish, the color of the pow- a percent, and as much as approximately 1%.
belt in a continuous belt furnace. The depth of
the oxide bed is approximately 25 mm (1 in.).
The typical reduction temperature ranges from
425 to 650 °C (800 to 1200 °F). Reduction
occurs gradually from top to bottom of the
bed. The reducing atmosphere in the furnace
generally flows countercurrent to the motion
of the conveyor belt.
Reducing atmospheres may include hydrogen,
dissociated ammonia, water-reformed natural
gas, or other endothermic or exothermic gas
mixtures. Because reduction of copper oxides
with hydrogen or carbon monoxide is exother-
mic, a careful balancing of oxide particle size,
reducing gas species, and reduction tempera-
ture is necessary to optimize the reduction rate
and to control the pore structure. Hydrogen
diffuses readily through solid copper and is a
more effective reducing agent than carbon
monoxide, particularly at low temperatures. At
higher temperatures, however, all reduction
reactions involving either hydrogen or carbon
monoxide proceed almost to completion. Free
energies and heats of reaction for copper oxide
reduction with hydrogen and carbon monoxide
are shown in Table 2.
Control of Powder Properties. By manip-
ulating the reduction process, the particle
porosity, pore size, and particle size distribu-
tion of the finished powder can be controlled
over a wide range. As with other metal oxides,
low reduction temperatures generally produce
particles having fine internal porosity and cor-
respondingly high specific surface. High
reduction temperatures produce particles con-
taining large pores and low specific surface.
High reduction temperatures generally result
in more interparticle sintering and more com-
plete reduction.
Post-Reduction Procedure. The reduced Fig. 4 Micrographs of copper oxide. (a) As-oxidized copper shot. (b) Scanning electron micrograph of copper shot
after grinding
copper oxide emerges from the reduction fur-
nace as a porous cake. It is broken into small-
er pieces in a jaw crusher or similar equip- Table 2 Free energies, heats, and partial gas pressures for copper oxide reduction with
ment, followed by fine grinding in hammer hydrogen and carbon monoxide
mills. The amount of work hardening is mod- Cu2O (H2) ↔ 2Cu (H2O) exothermic
erate, and the resulting powders have good G –16,260 2.21 T ln T 1.28 10–3T 2 3.8 10–7T 3 24.768 T
compressibility and green strength. A scanning H298.1 K –17,023
Temperature, °C (°F): 450 (840), 900 (1650), 950 (1740), 1000 (1830), 1050 (1920)
electron micrograph of a typical copper pow- PH2, torr(a): 0.0104, 0.0150, 0.0207, 0.0283
der is shown in Fig. 5.
Various combinations of the controlling Cu2O (CO) ↔ 2Cu (CO2) exothermic
parameters during melting, atomization, G –27,380 1.47 T ln T 1.4 10–3T 2 0.5 10–6T 3 7.01 T
H –27,380 1.47 T 1.4 10–3T 2 1.1 –10–6T 3
oxidation, reduction, and grinding permit the Temperature, °C (°F): 25 (77), 900 (1650), 1050 (1920), 1083 (1980)
manufacture of powders with characteris- PCO, torr(a): 0.021, 0.068 0.085
tics tailored to the requirements of all
major applications. 2CuO (H2) ↔ Cu2O (H2O) exothermic
G –24,000 0.01 T ln T 5.4 10–3T 2 3.7 10–7T 3 22.896T
The reduced and milled powder is screened H298.1 K –23,543
and/or classified and, if necessary, blended
and lubricated. These processing steps are CuO (H2) (H2O) Cu exothermic
carefully controlled to avoid losses or uncon- H290 K –31,766
trolled changes in characteristics such as 2CuO (CO) ↔ (Cu2O) (CO2) exothermic
apparent density, amount of fines, and powder H –33,300
flow. Some powder grades are treated with
G is free energy; H is heat; values of G and H are given in calories per gram mole; P is pressure; T is the absolute temperature in kelvin; and
proprietary antioxidants to stabilize them ln is the natural logarithm (base e, where e 2.7182). (a) Total pressure is 1 atm
against oxidation. Without this treatment, cop-
Copper powders with large specific surface

areas are more sensitive to tarnishing.
Finished Powders
Finished lots of powder are subjected to a
series of tests designed to ensure performance
in the various applications. The single most
important application for copper powder is for
self-lubricating bronze bearings. In the United
States, these bearings are made predominantly
from elemental blends of copper and tin. Since
approximately 1960, preblended and lubricated
mixtures of 90% Cu and 10% Sn that have grad-
ed dimensional change characteristics during
sintering have increased in use.
Table 3 lists various grades of copper pow-
ders produced by the oxide reduction process;
apart from bronze bearings, applications
include copper-base friction materials, elec-
trical contacts and brushes, diamond abrasive
wheels, and copper additions to iron mixes
for structural parts (Ref 1). Noncompacting
applications include copper fillers in plastics,
catalysts, and many chemical applications.
The product brochures and data sheets of the
powder producers generally provide details
on the characteristics and performance prop-
erties of their powders (including sintered
properties), as well as recommendations for Fig. 5 Scanning electron micrograph of copper oxide reduced copper powder
specific uses.
Production of Copper
Powder by Electrolysis
Production of electrolytic copper powder, as

shown in Fig. 6, follows the same electrochemical
principles that apply to the electrorefining of cop-
per. The conditions of deposition, however, are
changed to yield a powdery or spongy deposit,
instead of the strongly adherent product desired in
electrorefining. The formation of powdery
deposits is favored by low copper ion concentra-
tion and high acid content in the electrolyte, as
well as by high cathode current density.
Although these conditions yield spongy
deposits, control of additional variables is neces-
sary to produce powders that meet commercial
requirements. Other factors are quantity and Fig. 6 Flowchart for production of electrolytic copper powder
Table 3 Typical properties of commercial grades of copper powders produced by oxide reduction
Compacting properties at 165 MPa
Chemical properties Physical properties (12 tsi)(a)
Sieve analysis, % Tyler Strength(b)
Hydrogen Acid Apparent density, Hall flow,
Copper, % loss, % insoluble, % g/cm3 s/50 g 60 100 150 200 325 325 Density, g/cm3 MPa psi
99.8 0.13 0.06 2.91 26 0.4 39.7 46.6 13.3 … … … … …

99.8(c) 0.13 0.03 3.00 22 … 0.1 0.6 15.5 42.8 41.1 6.15 8.6 1240
99.8(c) 0.13 0.04 2.83 23 … … 0.1 9.5 33.4 57.0 6.12 9.7 1400
99.8(c) 0.16 0.04 2.75 24 … … 0.1 7.3 29.0 63.6 6.03 10.4 1500
99.7 0.18 0.06 2.51 … … … … 0.5 7.0 92.6 6.04 … …
99.7 0.21 0.06 2.31 … … … … … 1.2 98.5 … … …
99.6(d) 0.28 0.10 1.61 … … … 0.1 2.8 10.3 86.7 6.0 20.0 2900
99.6(d) 0.26 0.10 1.36 … … … 0.1 1.5 7.9 90.5 5.97 22.8 3300
99.5(d) 0.26 0.10 0.94 … … … 0.1 0.2 1.4 98.6 5.90 29.0 4200
(a) Measured with die wall lubricant only. (b) Transverse rupture strength. (c) For bronze self-lubricating bearings. (d) For friction materials and electrical brushes
type of addition agent, temperature and circula- range, current efficiency rises with increasing mum at the concentration of 120 g/L (16 oz/gal)
tion rate of the electrolyte, size and type of copper ion concentration, as shown in Fig. 7, with of sulfuric acid, then gradually falls as the acid
anode and cathode, electrode spacing, and a maximum of 92% in the range of 23 to 33 g/L concentration increases. Continued rise in acid
brush-down interval. (3 to 4.4 oz/gal) copper. Above approximately concentration leads to passivity. Apparent densi-
3 g/L (4.4 oz/gal), current efficiency decreases, ty decreases with increasing acid concentration.
Effects of Electrolyte Composition and a hard deposit is produced instead of powder. Addition Agents. The copper sulfate/sulfuric
Apparent density and particle size also increase acid electrolyte occasionally is modified to alter
The composition of the electrolyte is a major with a rise in copper ion concentration. powder characteristics. The addition of colloidal
factor in the production of powder. Copper con- Acid Concentration. A high acid concentra- materials, such as glue or glucose, leads to the
centration in the electrolyte must be sufficiently tion favors the formation of powder. As shown in formation of fine powder deposits, possible
low to prevent adherent deposits. In the desired Fig. 8, current efficiency increases to a maxi- because the colloid retards the evolution of hydro-
gen at the cathode. Table 4 indicates the effects of
Table 4 Effect of addition agents on current efficiency and particle size a number of additions to the electrolyte.
The addition of surfactants is reported to yield
Sieve analysis, %
a powder with controllable particle size at a cur-
Test No. Addition agent Solution strength, % Voltage, V Current efficiency, % 200 mesh 300 mesh
rent density of 215 A/m2 (20 A/ft2), in contrast
1 … … 1.0 95.9 74.6 55.0 with the 700 to 1100 A/m2 (64 to 100 A/ft2) nor-
2 Boric acid 0.5 1.0 95.2 … 100
3 Glucose 0.5 1.2 85.4 … 100 mally used, which results in considerable reduc-
4 Glycerine 0.5 1.9 94.7 … 100 tion in power cost (Ref 2). Small quantities of
5 Glue 0.5 1.5 94.5 … 100 copper chloride have been added to the elec-
trolyte to increase the dendritic character of the
Source: Ref 1
powder particles and to increase the yield of fine
powder due to the polarizing effect of the chlo-
ride ions (Ref 3). The addition of sodium sulfate
reportedly reduces the cathode current density,
and as the sulfate content is increased, the pow-
der becomes finer (Ref 4). By contrast, replace-
ment of the normal sulfuric acid electrolyte by a
sulfamate electrolyte favors the formation of a
coarse copper powder (Ref 5).
Effects of Operating Conditions

Alteration of operating conditions can affect
process variables such as current efficiency and
the formation and size of particles.
Current Density. High current density favors
the formation of powder, but has only a minor
effect on current efficiency. A marked decrease
in particle size occurs with rising current densi-
LIVE GRAPH ty. For example, in an electrolyte containing 25
Click here to view
Fig. 7 Effect of copper concentration on current efficiency and apparent density. Source: Ref 1 g/L (3.3 oz/gal) copper and 120 g/L (16 oz/gal)
free sulfuric acid, increasing the current density
from 600 to 1000 A/m2 (55 to 90 A/ft2) raised
the quantity of powder passing through a 300
mesh sieve from 20 to 96%.
Temperature. Raising the operating tempera-
ture of the cell increases the current efficiency
and reduces the cell voltage. However, cell oper-
ation is difficult at temperatures higher than
60 °C (140 °F), and powders obtained at high
temperatures are coarser than those produced at
lower temperatures. Generally, electrolytic cells
are operated at temperatures between 25 and
60 °C (77 and 140 °F).
Powder Removal. The method used to
remove the powder from the cathode has a sig-
nificant effect on powder characteristics.
Usually the powder is removed mechanically by
brushing. The brush-down interval aids in con-
trol of the particle size of the deposit and, as
shown in Fig. 9, the powder becomes coarser as
the interval is increased from 15 to 60 min.
Figure 10 indicates that the apparent density
increases as the brush-down interval is extended.
LIVE GRAPH Frequent brush-down also limits variations in
Click here to view cathode current density. In another approach to
Fig. 8 Effect of acid concentration on current efficiency and apparent density. Source: Ref 1 powder removal, an organic extract is used in
combination with sodium lauryl sulfate to dis- trodes are inspected frequently for prevention of a slurry that is pumped into a filter. In the filter,
charge the powder automatically from the cath- excessive nodule buildup. the powder is dewatered, washed several times,
ode without brush-down (Ref 6). Typically, the electrolyte is pumped to an ele- and again dewatered. Because the wet powder
vated storage tank, from which it flows by gravi- oxidizes readily due to its finely divided state
Powder Production ty into the tops of the cells and out through the and active surface, addition of a stabilizer is
bottoms. Thus, circulation is from top to bottom desirable. Treatment with an aqueous solution of
The major producers of electrolytic copper of the tanks, a type of circulation that yields a gelatin protects the powder from oxidation in the
powder generally follow the procedures used in more homogeneous powder than that obtained by intervals between successive operations (Ref 8).
electrolytic refining. However, as has been men- bottom-to-top circulation. The overflow returns The addition of surface-active agents during
tioned, changes in operating conditions are to basement storage tanks to be recirculated. washing or subsequent powder treatment also
required to obtain a deposit of powder. Typical The copper deposits on the cathode in the form protects the powder from oxidation. Next, the
conditions for the production of copper powder of dendritic particles. To prevent short circuits powder must be subjected to a furnace operation
are illustrated in Fig. 6 and can be summarized as: between anode and cathode and heavy accumu- to obtain an acceptable grade.
lation of powder on the cathode, both of which
Condition Quantity
would decrease the cathode current density, the Furnace Operation
deposit is removed periodically by brushing.
Copper 5–15 g/L (0.6–2 oz/gal)
Sulfuric acid 150–175 g/L (20–23 oz/gal)
After operating the cell for several days, the After thorough washing and filtering, the
Temperature 25–60 °C (77–140 °F) power is turned off. Most of the electrolyte is wet powder is ready for furnace processing.
Anode current density 430–550 A/m2 (39–50 A/ft2) drained from the cell, leaving enough solution to The furnace operation also alters certain prop-
Cathode current density 700–1100 A/m2 (64–100 A/ft2) cover the powder. The anodes and cathodes are
Cell potential 1.0–1.5 V erties, particularly particle size and shape,
washed down and removed, the remaining elec- apparent density, and green strength. In a typi-
trolyte is drained from the cell, and the powder cal operation, the powder is transferred into
Generally, the anodes are electrolytically is removed. the charge box of a mesh belt electric furnace
refined copper, and the cathodes are lead alloy Thorough washing of the powder is essential. (Ref 7). To prevent the powder from falling
sheet. In a typical installation, the cathodes are All traces of the electrolyte must be removed to through the belt, a continuous sheet of high
61 by 86 by 0.95 cm (24 by 34 by 0.37 in.) in prevent the powder from becoming oxidized. In wet-strength paper is fed to the belt, and then
dimension (Ref 7). Both anodes and cathodes addition, any remaining sulfate damages the the powder is transferred to the paper. A roller
are short to allow enough space at the bottom of heating elements if an electric furnace is used compresses the powder to improve heat trans-
the tank for the collection of the powder. The for subsequent drying and treatment of the pow- fer. As it enters the furnace, water is driven off
electrodes are arranged parallel to one another in der. Various methods are employed to wash the and the paper burns, but not before the powder
lead-lined, rubber-lined, or plastic tanks, typi- powder. Although centrifuging to remove the has sintered sufficiently to prevent it from
cally 3.4 m long by 1.1 m wide by 1.2 m high electrolyte and wash the powder yields a clean falling through the belt.
(11 ft long by 3.6 ft wide by 3.9 ft high). Each product, the particles are compacted, and pro- The furnace atmosphere is produced in
cell contains 18 cathodes spaced at 16 cm (6.4 duction of a low-density powder by this proce- exothermic gas units in which natural gas and
in.) intervals and 19 anodes that are hung alter- dure is difficult. air are blended to yield an atmosphere contain-
nately. To ensure uniform current density and to In another method, the powder is transferred ing 17% H2, 12% CO, 4% CO2, and the bal-
eliminate short circuits in the cells, the elec- into a large tank, and water is added to produce ance of nitrogen. The gas is refrigerated to
lower the dew point to the range of –22 to
–40 °C (–8 to –40 °F). The gas enters the fur-
nace from the discharge end and, because it is
refrigerated, aids in cooling the powder cake.
The furnace operation dries the powder, alters
the particle shape, reduces the oxides, and sin-
ters the fines. The discharge temperature is
sufficiently low to prevent reoxidation of the
powder cake.
By varying the furnace temperature between
480 and 760 °C (900 and 1400 °F) and altering
the time of exposure, considerable change can
be made in the content of fines, apparent densi-
ty, and dimensional characteristics. Upon com-
pletion of the furnace operation, the cake is bro-
ken and is ready for grinding.
Fig. 10 Effect of brush-down interval on apparent den-

Fig. 9 Effect of brush-down interval on particle size. Source: Ref 1 sity. Source: Ref 1

Table 5 Properties of typical commercial grades of electrolytic copper powders the powder is collected continuously above the
Chemical properties Physical properties
liquid level by scraping the cathode, followed by
Sieve analysis, % Tyler
continuous dewatering, washing, and drying steps.
Copper, Hydrogen Acid insoluble, Apparent
min, % loss, max, % max, % density, g/cm3 60 100 150 200 325 325
99.8 0.15 0.06 2.5–2.7 … 5 max 1–13 11–24 20–30 40–55

Properties of
99.8 0.15 0.06 2.3–2.5 … 1 max 6 max … 50–60 40–50 Electrolytic Copper Powder
99.7 0.20 0.06 2.0–2.3 … … … 0.8 5–15 85–95
99.7 0.20 0.06 1.75–1.95 … … … trace 5–15 85–95 The properties of electrolytic copper powder
99.7 0.20 0.06 1.25–1.45 … … … trace 10 max 90 min are dependent on various characteristics of the
99.7 0.20 0.06 0.9–1.1 … … … trace 10 max 90 min
99.7 0.20 0.06 0.65–0.75 … … … trace 10 max 90 min
operation and, therefore, can often be controlled
by altering certain process variables.
Purity of powder prepared by the elec-
Grinding and Finishing trolytic process is high, with a copper content
that usually exceeds 99.5% (Table 5). A meas-
Fine grinding is performed in high-speed, ure of the oxygen content is obtained by
water-cooled hammer mills in which feed rate, exposing a sample of powder to hydrogen at
mill speed, and screen openings under the mill an elevated temperature as specified in ASTM
can be varied to obtain the powder characteris- Standard E 159 or Metal Powder Industries
tics desired; thus, grinding is another operation Federation Standard (MPIF) 02, and
in which powder properties can be changed. The International Organization for Standardization
powder leaving the hammer mills is fed to (ISO) 4491/2. Generally, the hydrogen loss
screens, where the oversize is separated and ranges from 0.1 to 0.5%, depending on the
returned for additional grinding. The –100 mesh apparent density and particle size distribution
powder is classified in an air classifier, and the of the powder. Nitric acid insolubles are deter-
fines are transferred to the blending operation. mined by ASTM E 194 or MPIF 08 standard
Oversize material is returned for regrinding or is procedures and generally are less than 0.05%.
used as melting stock. Particle size distribution for copper powder
The products of the grinding and classifying is selected to meet the requirements of the appli-
operations range in apparent density from cation and can be varied over a wide range. As
approximately 1 to 4 g/cm3. They are stored in noted in Table 5, several combinations are pro-
Fig. 11 Relationship between apparent density and
drums to which a drying agent such as silica gel
flow rate. Source: Ref 11 duced, and these are only representative. For
or camphor is added to prevent further oxida- example, the –325 mesh fraction can be varied
LIVE GRAPH tion. To produce high volume finished powder from 5 to 90%.
Click here to view that meets customer specifications, powder is Apparent densities of powders are available
selected from various batches in the proper pro- from 1.0 to 4.0 g/cm3. Densities that are some-
portions and mixed in a blender. The lot is sam- what lower and higher can be produced depend-
pled before being removed from the blender, and ing on process and electrolyte conditions.
if required, adjustments of the particle size dis- Flow rate is shown in relationship to apparent
tribution are made before the powder is packed density in Fig. 11. Generally, powders with densi-
in shipping drums. Table 5 lists the physical ties of less than about 1.3 g/cm3 do not flow, pow-
characteristics of several representative blends. ders with apparent densities of 1.3 to 2.3 g/cm3
have poor flow rates, and powders with higher
Process Modifications apparent densities flow freely. At approximately
2.2 g/cm3, which is the transition range, flow
Although most electrolytic powder is pro- depends on the content of fine particles of the
duced as previously described, other methods powder, because relatively fine powders have poor
have been used. To obtain a very low density flowability and relatively coarse powders flow
Fig. 12 Effect of compacting pressure on green
product, one producer employs small-size cells
strength and green density. Source: Ref 9 freely. The flow rates of the usual blends of elec-
and handles the powder lightly in both the cell trolytic copper powder range from 25 to 40 s/50 g.
LIVE GRAPH and the finishing operations. The resulting pow- Green density is a function of the compact-
Click here to view der shape is fern-like and has an apparent densi- ing pressure. As shown is Fig. 12, the green den-
ty of 0.9 to 1.3 g/cm3. sity for the blend used rises from 7.2 to 8.0
Another process for the production of copper g/cm3 as the compacting pressure is increased
powder uses a vertical rotating titanium cathode from 275 to 550 MPa (920 to 40 tsi).
that is partially immersed in a copper sulfate/sul- Green strength increases with the compact-
furic acid electrolyte (Ref 10). In the operation, ing pressure, as indicated in Fig. 12. In this
example, the green strength rises from less than
15 to 24 MPa (2200 to 3500 psi) as the com-
pacting pressure is increased from 275 to 550
MPa (20 to 40 tsi).
Particle shape of electrolytic copper general-
ly is dendritic when deposited on the cathode
(Fig. 13). During subsequent operations, howev-
er, the dendrites are rounded somewhat.
Compacting pressure is an important vari-
able to consider, because the pressing and sin-
Fig. 13 Electrolytic copper powder showing dendritic Fig. 14 Effect of sintering time on dimensional tering conditions have a marked influence on the
structure. 85 . Source: Ref 9 change. Source: Ref 9 properties of sintered compacts. If sound com-
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
pacts are to be obtained, gases from the atmos- Although recently-developed oxide-reduced are employed in various automotive applica-
phere, from the products of reduction, or from grades with higher purity, lower apparent densi- tions—cams, sprockets, gears, piston rings for
the lubricant must escape during sintering. ty, higher green strength (see Table 3) and high- small-bore engines—and similar service.
When the compacting pressure is too high, the er surface area (up to 0.8 m2/g) have found
flow through interconnected pores may be increased usage in the manufacture of electrical
obstructed, and the gases cannot escape. brushes, electrolytic copper is still the preferred Production of Copper
Compacting pressures no higher than 275 MPa powder, having a combination of purity, high Powder by Atomization
(20 tsi) should be used in the production of electrical conductivity, high surface area and
large, thick parts from electrolytic copper pow- particle morphology (dendritic shape) which Water atomization of copper—that is, the
der, although higher pressures can be used for allow a large volume of graphite to be accom- disintegration of a molten stream of high-qual-
thin-walled parts (Ref 12). modated while maintaining a copper matrix with ity copper with high-pressure water jets—pro-
Dimensional changes in a typical powder high conductivity and high strength. duces copper powders of compacting-grade
blend lubricated with lithium stearate are shown Electrolytic copper powder is used with vari- quality. The resulting dried powder then may
in relationship to sintering time in Fig. 14. The ous nonmetallic materials to produce friction be subjected to an elevated-temperature treat-
lubricated powder blend was pressed as indicat- parts, such as brake bands or clutch disks. ment that further modifies its characteristics
ed and sintered at 1000 °C (1830 °F) in an Premixes of iron-copper or iron-copper-carbon and engineering properties.
atmosphere of dissociated ammonia atmosphere.
Relatively stable dimensional changes are
achieved at normal sintering times.
Tensile strength and elongation of a typical
powder blend are shown in Fig. 15 in relation-
ship to compacting pressure and sintering time.
The powder was lubricated with lithium stearate,
pressed as indicated, and sintered at 1000 °C
(1830 °F) in an atmosphere of dissociated
ammonia. The graph demonstrates that good
tensile properties can be obtained with short sin-
tering times.
Electrical conductivity that is high can be
achieved. However, a high-purity powder, a
characteristic of powder produced by the elec-
trolytic process, must be used. Figure 16 shows
the relationship between electrical conductivity
and sintered density; high conductivity can be
achieved only in high-density compacts.
Electrical conductivity can be increased by coin-
ing and resintering (Fig. 17).
Applications
Presently, electrolytic copper powder is pro-
duced in Germany, Italy, Russia, Japan, India,
and Brazil where it is used in most copper pow-
der applications. However, in the United States, LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
since the early 1980s when electrolytic copper
powder production ceased, applications such as Fig. 15 Effect of compacting and sintering conditions on tensile properties. Source: Ref 9
bronze bearings, copper-base friction materials
and copper additions to iron mixes have, with a
few exceptions, been converted to powders
made by oxide reduction or water atomization.
But electrolytic copper is still the powder of
choice in many electrical and electronic applica-
tions, where high electrical and thermal conduc-
tivity is required. Using suitable fabricating pro-
cedures, parts can be produced with
conductivities of 90% International Annealed
Copper Standard (IACS) and higher. Complex
parts such as armature bearing blocks, contacts
for circuit breakers, shading coils for contactors,
heavy-duty contacts for circuit breakers, switch
gear components for use in switch boxes with
capacities up to 600 A, and components for 150
and 250 A fuse blowouts are in regular produc-
tion. Heat sinks for diodes used in silicon recti-
fiers for the alternating current system in auto-
mobiles and electrode tools for electrical
discharge machining also are produced from Fig. 16 Effect of sintered density on electrical conduc- Fig. 17 Effect of coining and resintering on electrical
electrolytic copper powder. tivity. Source: Ref 9 conductivity. Source: Ref 9

Fig. 18 Scanning electron micrographs of gas- and water-atomized copper powders. (a) Nitrogen atomized. (b) Water atomized, apparent density of 3.04 g/cm3. (c) Water atomized,
apparent density of 4.60 g/cm3
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 20 Hydrogen-embrittled, air-atomized copper

after reduction in hydrogen
as copper oxide throughout the bulk of a copper

particle. Removal of oxygen requires reduction
temperatures of approximately 700 °C (1290 °F)
or higher. At these temperatures, considerable
sintering occurs, which in turn requires substan-
tial milling of the sinter cake.
During reduction, hydrogen readily diffuses
Fig. 19 Effect of partial pressures of hydrogen and steam on oxygen content of liquid copper at 1150 °C (2100 °F). through solid copper to react with oxygen and
Cu H2 ↔ 2Cu H2O reaction at various water vapor pressures form steam. The large steam molecules, unable
to diffuse through solid copper, force their way
Nearly spherical powders result from the psi) are used. Atomization may be conducted in outward through grain boundaries—phenome-
atomization of liquid copper with inert gas or air. an air or inert (nitrogen gas) atmosphere. non known as hydrogen embrittlement of copper
These powders are used in copper flake produc- During melting of the copper, impurity con- that manifests itself in the formation of blisters
tion and other specialty applications. Spherically tent must be controlled to achieve good fluidity or cracks. Figure 20 illustrates the grain bound-
shaped copper powders have insufficient green and high conductivity (Fig. 1). The need for oxy- ary widening of air-atomized copper particles
strength for use in conventional P/M. To render gen control at this stage of the process depends due to this phenomenon. These defects improve
them compactible, their particle shape and mor- on subsequent processing and end use of the both compactibility and sintering rate during liq-
phology may be changed by deformation and/or powder. In conventional refining of copper, pol- uid phase sintering of copper mixed with tin.
oxidation and reduction, as described in the sec- ing and steam-generated hydrogen keep copper
tion “Production of Copper Powder by the oxidation under control in accordance with the Alloying Additions
Reduction of Copper Oxide” in this article. equilibrium curves shown in Fig. 19. High oxy-
Particle shapes of gas- and water-atomized cop- gen content tends to produce a more irregular Some applications of copper powders require
per powder are shown in Fig. 18. Details specif- powder, and subsequent reduction of the atom- apparent densities lower than those attainable
ic to the water atomization of copper and subse- ized powder further improves compactibility with water atomization of pure copper. These
quent processing are discussed subsequently in through agglomeration and pore generation. If powders can be produced by addition of small
this article. the powder is used in the as-atomized condition, amounts, up to 0.2%, of certain elements (for
lower oxygen contents are generally preferred, example, magnesium, calcium, titanium, and
Commercial Practice because of the detrimental effects of oxygen in lithium) to the liquid copper prior to atomization
many applications. (Fig. 21 and 22). These metals are believed to
Liquid copper is superheated to approximately The apparent densities of –100 mesh gas- decrease the surface tension of copper and/or to
1150 to 1200 °C (2100 to 2200 °F), utilizing flow atomized copper powders, as a consequence of form thin oxide films on the particle surface dur-
rates of 27 kg/min (60 lb/min) or more. Generally, their spherical particle shape, range between 4 ing atomization. Magnesium additions are most
to produce a predominantly –100 mesh powder, and 5 g/cm3. Oxygen picked up during atomiza- frequently used to produce compaction-grade
water pressures of 10 to 14 MPa (1500 to 2000 tion is present partly as surface oxide and partly copper powders for applications such as bronze
bearings, filters, structural parts, and additives hydrometallurgically produced copper powders, higher green strength characteristics than most
for iron powders. These powders may have commercialization attempts in the United States other copper powders, its sintering activity,
apparent densities as low as 2 g/cm3. have failed. Causes for this failure include the when used alone or in 90/10 bronze, is inferior
The addition of small amounts (0.1 to 0.3%) increasing cost of energy, coupled with the high because of the presence of finely divided, unre-
of phosphorus to the liquid copper, prior to energy requirements of some hydrometallurgical ducible aluminum and silicon oxides. The pri-
atomization, allows the production of a powder methods and the difficulty in economically pro- mary use of cement copper is in composite fric-
that is very spherical and very low in oxygen. ducing powders with a wide range of properties tion material applications.
During atomization, even with air, the phospho- suitable for various uses.
rus oxidizes preferentially and forms protective Cement copper, like other hydrometallurgi-
gaseous phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5). Such cally produced copper powders, has low appar- Leaching
powders have apparent densities up to approxi- ent density and high specific surface area
mately 5.5 g/cm3. Spherical copper powders (1 m2/g). The particles are spongy because they The leaching of copper oxide and copper sul-
with closely controlled particle size ranges are are agglomerates of very small primary particles fide ores entails partial dissolution to cupric sul-
used in applications such as thermal spray coat- (Fig. 23). Although cement copper often has fate (CuSO4) with sulfuric acid (H2SO4) plus
ings, metal impregnated plastics, and heat
exchangers. Irregular copper powders are used
in compacting applications such as bronze mixes
for self-lubricating bearings, additions to iron
mixes, friction materials, electrical brushes, dia-
mond cutting wheels, and electrical parts requir-
ing high strength and electrical/thermal conduc-
tivity. Irregular copper powders are also used in
copper brazing pastes and various chemical
applications such as catalysts and in the produc-
tion of copper compounds. Table 6 lists the
properties of typical commercial atomized cop-
per powders. The specific surface areas of these
powders are from 0.02 m2/g for coarse spherical
gas-atomized powder, to 0.2 m2/g for fine water-
atomized powder.
Production of Copper Powder by

Hydrometallurgical Processing
Hydrometallurgical methods may be used to
produce a number of metal powders, including
copper, cobalt, and nickel. The basic processing
steps consist of preparing pregnant liquor by
leaching ore or another suitable raw material, fol-
lowed by the precipitation of the metal from this
solution. For copper, the most important precipita-
tion methods are cementation, reduction with
hydrogen or sulfur dioxide, and electrolysis. Use
of several leach-precipitation steps or the inclu-
sion of flotation, solvent extraction, or ion
exchange improves the purity of the final material.
Despite several process development efforts LIVE GRAPH
in the 1950s and 1960s that led to radical Click here to view
improvements in purity and properties of Fig. 21 Effect of additions to the molten copper on apparent density of atomized copper powder
Table 6 Properties of typical commercial grades of water- and gas-atomized

copper powders
Chemical properties Physical properties
Hydrogen Acid Apparent
Sieve analysis, % Tyler
Copper, loss, insoluble, density,
min, % max % max, % g/cm3 60 80 100 150 200 325 325
99.0(a) NA NA 4.5–5.5 5 max 30–60 30–60 15 max … … …

99.0(a) NA NA 4.5–5.5 … 2 max 20–50 50–75 10 max trace …
98.5(a) 0.7 NA 4.5–5.5 … trace 0.2 max 5 max 2 max bal 60–90
98.5(a) 0.7 NA 4.5–5.5 … … … … 0.5 max bal 95 min
99.3(b) 0.3 0.1 2.5–2.7 … … 0.8 max 35 max 70 max bal 5 max
99.3(b) 0.3 0.1 2.5–2.8 … … 1 max 20 max 25 max 40 max 30–45
99.3(b) 0.3 0.1 2.5–2.8 … … 0.5 max 10 max 20 max bal 42–55
99.3(b) 0.3 0.1 2.8–3.0 … … trace 1 max 15 max bal 55–65
99(c) 0.35 NA 2.1–2.4 … … 5 max 15–25 10–20 15–35 20–40
99(c) 0.35 NA 2.3–2.6 … … 1 max 10 max 5–20 15–30 60–70
99(b) 0.5 0.1 2.1–2.5 … … … 1 max 3 max 14 max 85 min
NA, not applicable. (a) Air atomized. (b) Water atomized/annealed. (c) Water atomized Mg Fig. 22 Scanning electron micrograph of water-atom-
ized copper containing 0.5% Li
iron sulfate (FeSO4). The presence of pyrite ica. Contamination with gangue varies and hydroxylamine-based compounds have been
(FeS2) in many ore deposits, and its reaction depends on the nature of the pregnant liquor. found to be selective solvents of low water solu-
with water and oxygen to form iron sulfate and Significant reduction in iron and alumina lev- bility, to have good stability, and to be compatible
sulfuric acid, represents an important source of els is possible through the use of V-trough or with inexpensive diluents. Direct powder precipi-
acid. In dump leaching, the pH of the leach solu- inverted precipitators that allow faster precipita- tation with hydrogen or ammonia is an alternative
tion is maintained between 1.5 and 3.0, partly to tion rates and more efficient iron utilization. to stripping the metal from the organic solvent
protect bacteria that promote and accelerate the Table 7 shows chemical analyses of cement cop- into an aqueous solution.
oxidation of pyrite and sulfidic copper minerals per from different sources. Copper and iron are Metals can be precipitated from their acid or
and also to avoid hydrolysis of iron salts. present, partly as oxides. basic solutions by reduction with hydrogen.
The copper content of the pregnant solutions Sulfuric acid, ammoniacal ammonium carbon-
varies from less than 1 g/L (0.15 oz/gal) to sev- ate, and ammoniacal ammonium sulfate solu-
Additional Reduction Processes
eral grams per liter (ounces per gallon); for vat tions have been used to produce copper powder
leaching, it can be much higher. Other leaching Electrowinning may be used to recover cop- by this method. Sulfuric acid leaching of a
methods include ammonia leaching, which is per from leaching solutions containing more cement copper and hydrogen reduction of the
used for certain copper oxide ores, and the so- than approximately 25 g/L (3.4 oz/gal) of copper filtered solution in an autoclave at 120 to 140 °C
called leach-precipitation-flotation method, (Harlan process). The electrolytic cells are (250 to 280 °F) and 3 MPa (425 psi) is reported
which is applied to mixed oxide sulfide ores. equipped with insoluble lead-antimony anodes to produce a precipitate with a purity of about
and 99% Ni cathodes. The copper powder does 100% Cu. Drying and furnace processing in a
Cementation not adhere, but falls to the bottom of the cells. reducing atmosphere at 540 to 790 °C (1000 to
Temperature of the electrolyte is 60 °C (140 °F); 1450 °F) increases particle size due to agglom-
The precipitation of a metal from its solution cathode current density varies from 1350 to eration of the very fine powder.
by the addition of another less noble metal is 2700 A/m2 (125 to 250 A/ft2). When the copper
known as cementation. The fundamental equa- concentration falls below 15 g/L (2 oz/gal), the
tion for copper recovery from copper-bearing electrolyte is drained and used for ore leaching. Production of
pregnant liquors on iron is: Particle size of the powder prior to furnace pro- Copper Alloy Powders
cessing is 1 to 25 m, with excellent purity
Fe CuSO4 Cu FeSO4 (99.9%). The power requirements for elec- Commercial copper alloy powders, including
trowinning of copper are approximately ten brasses, bronzes, and nickel silvers, are manu-
In practice, the copper-bearing solution is times as large as those for electrorefining of cop- factured in a similar manner. Usually, the same
passed over scrap iron, such as detinned and per with soluble anodes. integrated manufacturing facilities are used to
shredded cans. Subsequent separation, washing, Copper may be concentrated from low-content complete the melting process, atomization, final
reduction, and pulverizing produces a copper leach solutions by solvent extraction, followed by screening, and blending of a lot or batch.
powder that contains considerable amounts of stripping with dilute sulfuric acid into an aqueous The powder-producing process is similar to
iron and acid insolubles, such as alumina and sil- solution and electrowinning. Carboxylic acid and a foundry operation in which high-purity vir-
gin metals are charged to a melting furnace in
preweighed batches to be processed at prede-
termined heating rates and times. High-purity
raw materials are required because melting
produces minimal refinement (only a partial
transfer of contaminants from the melt to the
formed slag occurs). To ensure continuity,
homogeneity, and uninterrupted atomization,
the molten batch of alloy is transferred to a
second furnace with a greater holding capacity
than the primary furnace melting rate.
Induction heating is preferred for at least one
furnace to ensure the constant induced metal
movement required for alloy homogeneity and
to ensure uniform lead dispersion in lead-bear-
ing alloys.
Atomization is achieved by particulation of a
controlled, constant-flowing, molten stream emit-
ted from the secondary furnace by medium-pres-
Table 7 Chemical analyses of cement

copper from various locations (dry basis)
Composition, wt%, for location
Component A B C D
Total copper 75 83.0 87.4 85.0

Iron 6 2.4 0.7 10.0
Sulfur 1 0.5 … 1.1
Nitric acid insolubles 2 … 0.7 1.9
Hydrogen loss 16 … … …
Calcium oxide … 0.08 … …
Aluminum oxide (alumina) … 1.2 0.5 …
Silicon dioxide … 0.4 … …
Lead … … 0.2 …
Fig. 23 Scanning electron micrograph of cement copper Oxygen … … 9.5 …
sure dry air. A typical melting and atomizing Brass Powder Production base powders for compacted parts fabrication
sequence is show in Fig. 24. Subsequent reduction because of their nodular particle form and high
of oxides is not required for standard P/M grades. Brasses comprise the major portion of copper- apparent density, both of which contribute to
Air-cooled, atomized powder is collected and base alloy powders used for parts fabrication, in poor compacted green strength. Common preal-
passed over a primary control screen (sieve) to comparison with prealloyed bronze and nickel sil- loyed compositions are 90%Cu-10%Sn and
remove oversize particles. Usually, these are ver materials. Typical copper-zinc brass powders 85%Cu-15%Sn, prepared in the same manner as
remelted concurrently during the processing of contain zinc contents ranging from 10 to 30%. brass powder except that high-purity elemental
each alloy. Finally, the screened alloy powder Lead may be added in small amounts (1 to 2%) to copper and tin are used. A scanning electron
may be blended with dry organic lubricants, improve machinability of the sintered compact. A micrograph of an 89%Cu-9%Sn-2%Zn alloy
such as lithium and zinc stearate, for use in the photomicrograph of an 80%Cu-18%Zn-2%Pb powder is shown in Fig. 26. Typical physical
manufacture of P/M structural components. alloy powder is shown in Fig. 25. The melting properties of a bronze alloy composition are
Adjustment of powder properties (particle temperatures of these alloys range from 1045 °C given in Table 8.
size distribution, apparent density, green (1910 °F) for 90%Cu-10%Zn to 960 °C (1760 °F) Water-Atomized Bronzes. Prealloyed
strength, etc.) of each alloy is accomplished by for 70%Cu-30%Zn. As zinc content increases, bronze powders are also made commercially
controlled manipulation of the atomizing melting temperature is lowered. by water atomizing. Application is more exten-
process conditions (e.g., atomizing air flow Additional superheat, or the temperature in sive in Europe, where 90/10 prealloyed bronze
rate, molten metal temperature, nozzle config- excess of the alloy melting temperature, powders are incorporated in bronze premixes
uration, etc.). Powder properties are main- depends on heat losses within the manufactur- for bearing manufacture. Low green strength
tained by periodically recording the atomizing ing system and the physical property require- due to high apparent density (3.2 to 3.6 g/cm3)
parameters and by evaluating the properties of ments of the atomized powders. Typical phys- is overcome by incorporating lower apparent
representative samples from the in-process ical properties of brass alloy compositions are density copper powders (see section on copper
atomized product. given in Table 8.
A variety of copper-base alloys can be manu-
factured by the atomizing process; however, Bronze Powder Production
commercial P/M applications normally are con-
fined to a rather narrow range of specific, single- Air-Atomized Bronzes. Prealloyed atomized
phase () compositions. bronze compositions are not used extensively as
Fig. 26 Scanning electron micrograph of prealloyed,

air-atomized bronze (89%Cu-9%Sn-2%Zn).
165
Fig. 24 Flowchart for copper alloy powder air atom- Fig. 25 Scanning electron micrograph of prealloyed,
ization. SQC, statistical quality control; SPC, air-atomized brass (80%Cu-18%Zn-2%Pb).
statistical process control 165
Table 8 Physical properties of typical brass, bronze, and nickel silver alloy
powder compositions
Property Brass(a) Bronze(a) Nickel silver(a)(b)
Sieve analysis, %
100 mesh 2.0 max 2.0 max 2.0 max
100 200 15–35 15–35 15–35
200 325 15–35 15–35 15–35
325 60 max 60 max 60 max
Physical properties
Apparent density 3.0–3.2 3.3–3.5 3.0–3.2
Flow rate, s/50 g 24–26 … …
Mechanical properties
Compressibility(c) at 414 7.6 7.4 7.6
MPa (30 tsi), g/cm3
Green strength(c) at 414 10–12 10–12 9.6–11
100 μm
MPa (30 tsi), MPa (psi) (1500–1700) (1500–1700) (1400–1600)
(a) Nominal mesh sizes; brass, 60 mesh; bronze, 60 mesh; nickel silver, 100 mesh. (b) Contains no lead. (c) Compressibility and green strength Fig. 27 Scanning electron micrograph of a typical pre-
data of powders with 0.5% lithium stearate alloyed water-atomized bronze powder
(90%Cu-10%Sn); apparent density 3.4 g/cm3. 200
powder manufacture) and choice of lubricants produce a number of grades, each with a nar- Nickel Silver Powder Production
that have a less deleterious effect on green row particle size range.
strength. Physical properties are similar to air- Microbearings. A more recent development Only one nickel-silver-base alloy composi-
atomized powders, but particle morphology is has been prealloyed bronze powders for tion, 65%Cu-18%Ni-17%Zn, is commonly used
different (Fig. 27). Powders contain 0.1 to microbearings. These are very small bearings, in the P/M industry. This alloy can be modified
0.2% P to aid sintering. often weighing less than 1 g, used in electron- by the addition of lead to improve machinabili-
Spherical 89/11 bronze powders are used ic equipment such as computers, audiocassette ty. Foundry practices are similar to those
to make filters. These are made by horizontal players, and videocassette recorders. Most employed for brasses, except the melting tem-
air atomizing and dry collection. The spherical powders used in this application are made by perature is in excess of 1093 °C (2000 °F). A
shape is achieved by addition of small amounts diffusion alloying tin into copper powder to micrograph of a 63%Cu-18%Ni-17%Zn-2%Pb
of phosphorus, 0.2 to 0.45% (in the form of a produce a substantially alloyed powder with alloy powder is shown in Fig. 29. Typical phys-
Cu/15% P alloy), to the molten bronze prior to particles of uniform composition and a particle ical properties of a nickel silver alloy composi-
atomizing. During air atomizing, surface oxi- shape that gives high green strength (apparent tion are given in Table 8.
dation of atomized molten particles of bronze density of 2.3 to 2.7 g/cm3). As previously
and brass, which case them to solidify in an stated, water-atomized bronze powders have
irregular shape (see Fig. 26), is prevented. The relatively high apparent density (3.2 to 3.6 Powder Pressing
oxygen in the air preferentially reacts with g/cm3) and are usually limited to application in
phosphorus to form phosphorus pentoxide high-density structural parts. Figure 28 shows Copper and copper alloy powders are gener-
(P2O5), which is volatile at atomizing temper- the particle morphology of a typical diffusion- ally cold compacted in closed dies with top
atures. The spherical powders are screened to alloyed bronze powder. and bottom punches used to apply the desired
pressure. During cold compaction the powder
Table 9 Properties of pressed-and-sintered particles mechanically interlock with each
compacts of various copper powder sizes other. Typical compacted densities are 80 to
Compacting Green Sintered
90% of the theoretical density of the material.
pressure density, Density, Hardness,
When higher densities are required, consolida-
Particle size MPa tsi g/cm3 g/cm3 HRH tion methods such as hot pressing, extrusion,
Copper, 2 mm 69 5 4.95 7.72 29 roll compaction, hot isostatic pressing (HIP),
138 10 5.54 7.80 38 and hot forging are used. The amount of densi-
275 20 6.29 7.95 51 fication depends on several processing vari-
414 30 6.94 8.18 61 ables such as compaction pressure, powder
Copper, 44–74 mm 69 5 5.38 6.58 1
138 10 6.07 7.04 12 characteristics, types and amounts of lubri-
275 20 6.88 7.67 31 cants, and so forth.
414 30 7.65 7.98 42 Compressibility is a measure of the extent to
Copper, 2 mm, tin, 68 5 5.06 6.24 26 which a mass of powder can be densified by the
44–74 mm 138 10 5.75 6.24 …
275 20 6.52 6.34 … application of pressure. The pressure required to
414 30 7.01 6.40 33 achieve a given green density depends on the
Copper and tin, 69 5 5.90 6.12 14 powder particle size distribution, inherent hard-
44–74 mm 138 10 6.45 6.18 … ness of the material, lubricants, and compaction
275 20 7.25 6.13 …
414 30 7.65 6.04 17 method (e.g., isostatic or uniaxial). At a given
compacting pressure, the density of a green
Source: Ref 15 compact generally is:
• Lower for fine particles than for coarse parti-
100 μm cle (Table 9)
Fig. 28 Scanning electron micrograph of a typical dif-

fusion-alloyed bronze powder (90%Cu-
10%Sn); apparent density 2.6 g/cm3. 200
Fig. 31 Density of compact as a function of amount of

lubricant (zinc stearate) in a copper-tin powder
Fig. 29 Scanning electron micrograph of prealloyed, mix for various compacting pressures with 13 mm (1/2 in.)
air-atomized nickel silver (63%Cu-18%Ni- Fig. 30 Density as a function of pressure for isostatic steel die (1.7 mm finish) and 6.4 mm (1/4 in.) compacts
17%Zn-2%Pb). 165 and unidirectional pressing. Source: Ref 13 (double-end compression). Source: Ref 14

LIVE GRAPH
Table 10 Typical compacting pressure and Click here to view
compression ratios of various copper P/M
parts
Compacting pressure
Compression
P/M parts MPa tsi ratio
Brass parts 414–689 30–50 2.4–2.6 to 1

Bronze bearings 193–275 14–20 2.5–2.7 to 1
Copper-graphite brushes 345–414 25–30 2.0–3.0 to 1
Pure copper parts 206–248 15–18 2.4–2.8 to 1
Source: Ref 16
• Lower for hard powders than for soft pow-

ders (Fig. 30)
• Higher with lubricants, but there is an opti-
mal lubricant level (Fig. 31)
• Higher for isostatic pressing than for uniaxi-
al pressing (Fig. 30)
Copper powder is relatively soft compared to
iron, nickel, and molybdenum powders and thus
reaches a higher green density for a given com-
paction pressure (Fig. 30). Typical compacting
pressures and compression ratios (green density
of compact/apparent density of powder) for cop-
per and copper alloy powders are summarized in
Table 10. The ranges in Table 10 are only typi-
cal, as actual pressing requirements depend on
the variables noted previously. Additional infor-
mation pertaining to compaction pressures for
specific copper and copper alloy P/M products
can be found in the article “Powder Metallurgy
Copper and Copper Alloys” in this Handbook.
Sintering Principles
The compacted parts are sintered at elevated

temperatures under protective conditions to avoid
oxidation. During this process the powder parti-
cles are metallurgically bonded to each other. Fig. 32 Volume and surface diffusion coefficients of copper. Source: Ref 18
Sintering is generally understood as a three-phase
process. Initially, neck growth between particles Table 11 Diffusion constants in copper
proceeds rapidly, but powder particles retain their Volume diffusion Surface diffusion
identity. In the second phase, when most of the Diffusing element Dv0, cm2/s Qv, kcal/mole Ds0, cm2/s Qs, kcal/mole
densification takes place, the pores become Copper (self-diffusion) 0.6–0.78 50.5–50.9 1000 39
rounded and grain growth occurs, whereupon Nickel in copper 6.5 10–5 30 … …
powder particles lose their separate identities and Tin in copper 4.1 10–3 31 … …
diffuse into each other. In the third phase, isolat- Zinc in copper 2.4 10–3 30 … …
Bronze 6 10–6 25 800 49
ed round pores shrink, and densification proceeds
at a slower rate.
The principal driving force for these changes sion are governed by Fick’s law, which is Fig. 32. Values for jump frequencies and activa-
is the decrease in free surface area (decrease in expressed as: tion energies for self-diffusion in copper and for
solid/gas interface) when particles grow together the common alloying elements in copper are given
and voids shrink under the influence of surface D D0 exp (–Q/RT) in Table 11. Coefficients for grain-boundary diffu-
tension or capillary forces. Material transport sion lie between those for volume and surface dif-
occurs during sintering by one or more mecha- where D is the diffusion coefficient, D0 is a fusion. Generally, diffusion in metals proceeds
nisms from among the following (Ref 17): material constant known as the jump frequency, more rapidly along grain boundaries (i.e., planar
Q is the activation energy for the type of diffu- defects that are structurally only several atoms
• Diffusional flow
sion (volume, surface, or grain boundary), R is thick), and the jump frequency of atoms diffusing
• Evaporation/condensation
the gas constant, and T is the absolute tempera- along the grain boundaries can be a million times
• Viscous flow
ture. The activation energy for volume diffusion greater than the jump frequency of regular lattice
• Plastic flow
is the highest, the one for grain-boundary diffu- atoms at 2Tm/3 (where Tm is the melting tempera-
In most types of sintering, the most important sion is lower, and the one for surface diffusion is ture). Because of the very high atomic mobility at
mechanism is diffusion, which may occur still lower. grain boundaries relative to that in the bulk, grain-
through a lattice volume, along a free surface, or Volume and surface diffusion coefficients for boundary diffusion plays a crucial role in the
along a grain boundary. All three types of diffu- copper, as a function of temperature, are shown in kinetics of microstructural changes during metal-
lurgical processing such as sintering and solid- In the copper-tin system, the tin melts and coefficients of the single elements in a powder
state reactions. alloys with copper to form a bronze, with mixture. In a nickel-cobalt system (DCo DNi),
Activated Sintering. This process involves accompanying expansion of the compact. In the for example, the interdiffusion exerts only a
techniques aimed at accelerating the sintering iron-copper system, the copper melts, becoming minor influence on densification. The shrinkage
rate by decreasing the activation energy for dif- saturated with iron, and the copper-iron alloy behavior of nickel-cobalt compacts lies between
fusion. It allows lower sintering temperatures, diffuses into the iron skeleton, causing expan- those of nickel and cobalt compacts. There is
shorter sintering times, or better properties such sion of the skeleton. Pores remain at the sites nearly linear correlation between shrinkage and
as strength, electrical conductivity, and so forth. vacated by the copper. concentration. Therefore, the densification
The rate of sintering can be modified by either In both the copper-tin and iron-copper sys- process of the mixtures is dominated by the
physical or chemical treatments of the powder or tems, growth or shrinkage of compacts can be same defect-activated material transport mecha-
compact or by adding reactive gases in the sin- altered by the addition of carbon in the form of nisms as in single-component systems.
tering atmosphere. graphite. Thus, graphite can be used to control However, in a copper-nickel system (DCu >
Activated sintering has been observed in cop- dimensional changes in these systems. In the DNi), the effect of interdiffusion is much
per powders having thin films of copper oxide Cu-Sn-C system, sintering is inhibited by stronger and depends on whether the component
on the particle surfaces (Ref 19). Oxide layers mechanical separation of the constituents; as a with the higher diffusivity (copper) is the minor
of 40 to 60 nm show improved properties in sin- result, expansion increases. In the Fe-Cu-C sys- or the major component. The faster diffusing
tered compacts as shown in Table 12. The cop- tem, the amount of the liquid phase is increased species leaves porosity behind (Kirkendall
per oxide is partly soluble in the copper matrix, by the formation of a ternary Fe-Cu-C eutectic porosity), causing expansion of the compact. An
and the oxygen from the oxide film diffuses into that restricts expansion. Sintering practices for 80%Ni-20%Cu system shows more interdiffu-
the copper, leaving behind highly active copper various copper-base P/M materials are described sion-induced porosity, while diffusion porosity
surfaces that sinter more efficiently. Thicker later in this article. is less pronounced in a 20%Ni-80%Cu system.
layers inhibit sintering as the inferior oxide-to- Homogenization (Interdiffusion). When Densification. When compacts from a single
oxide contacts overcompensate for the activa- alloying involves blending of elemental powders, metal powder are sintered, they undergo dimen-
tion effects. Small additions of copper oxide to then the sintering step serves not only to increase sional change as sintering proceeds. Figure 33
the copper powders also show a similar activa- the contact area between powder particles and shows the dimensional changes that occur dur-
tion effect. promote densification, but also to partially or ing sintering of copper powder compacts. In the
Liquid-Phase Sintering. In this process, a completely homogenize the alloy ingredients by initial stage, as the temperature increases, the
compact made from a mixture of two or more interdiffusion between powder particles of the compacts expand much like solid copper. The
powders is sintered at a temperature below the constituent elements. As in densification, homog- entrapped gases in the isolated pores and vapor-
melting point of the high-melting-point con- enization is influenced by sintering time, sinter- ized lubricant also contribute to this expansion,
stituent, but above that of the low-melting- ing temperature, and particle size. Finer particles particularly in compacts pressed to high densi-
point constituent. The sequence of events in can greatly accelerate homogenization by reduc- ties. When sintering begins, the compacts begin
heating a mixed phase begins with a mixture of ing the diffusion distance. to shrink and reach a maximum at the peak sin-
elemental powders, such as copper-tin or cop- Whether it is economical to produce an alloy tering temperature. During cooling, the com-
per-iron premixes. When the liquid forms, it by sintering compacts from elemental powders pacts contract like solid copper would. The total
flows to wet the solid particles and begins act- or from homogeneous alloy powders depends result of the three stages is generally a shrinkage
ing on the solid phase. Melt penetration primarily on the coefficient for interdiffusion of and higher density.
between the solid particles can cause swelling the alloy ingredients. The difference in diffusion Densification of P/M compacts during sinter-
of the compact. Along with melt penetration, coefficients is a deciding parameter whether ing depends on several variables, but principal
there is rearrangement of particles. The combi- solid phase or transient liquid phase sintering factors are:
nation of wetting, liquid flow, and rearrange- can be used successfully. This influence of inter-
ment contributes to a rapid change in the vol- diffusion (homogenization) on densification • Sintering temperature
ume of the compact. depends on the difference between the diffusion • Sintering time
• Powder particle size
• Green density of the compact, which is pri-
marily a function of compacting pressure
Table 12 Effect of copper powder oxide Typical sintering temperatures and times for
thickness on strength of press-and-sintered various alloys are given in Table 13; copper
compacts alloys are generally sintered at much lower
Tensile strength of temperatures than iron- and nickel-base alloys.
Thickness of oxide
sintered compact(a) Typical shrinkage of a copper compact is
film on powder, nm MPa ksi shown in Fig. 34 for various sintering temper-
Coarse copper powder atures and times. The rate of shrinkage is ini-
0 29 4.2 tially high, but then decreases with increasing
40 51 7.4 sintering time. Higher sintering temperatures
80 38 5.5 promote a more rapid shrinkage than do longer
120 21.5 3.1
160 15.7 2.2 sintering times.
200 7.8 1.1
Fine copper powder Table 13 Typical sintering temperature
0 120 17.4 and time of copper alloys and steels
20 130 18.8
Temperature
60 143 20.7
100 137 19.8 Material °C °F Time, min
140 129 18.7 Bronze 760–870 1400–1600 10–20
180 122 17.7 Copper 840–900 1550–1650 12–45
220 114 16.5 Fig. 33 Dimensional change during sintering of com-
Brass 840–900 1550–1650 10–45
pacts from –7443 m copper powder.
Pressed at 138 MPa (20 ksi) and heated at a rate of Iron, iron-graphite, etc. 1010–1150 1850–2100 30–45
(a) Pressed at 414 MPa (30 tsi), sintered at 600 °C (1110 °F) for 1/2 h in Nickel 1010–1150 1850–2100 30–45
H2. Source: Ref 13 3.9 °C/min (7 °F/min) to 925 °C (1700 °F) and then cooled
at the same rate. MPa 6.8947 ksi Stainless steel 1095–1285 2000–2350 30–60
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Another factor affecting densification is the mented with other constituents such as dry mizes the risk of segregation and still maintains
particle size of the powder. In Fig. 35, the sintered organic lubricants, graphite, lead, and iron, acceptable sintered strength.
density of copper powder compacts pressed at depending on the specified grade. Partially diffused bronze is possible when
276 MPa (40 ksi) from the two particle size frac- premix bronze is presintered at a temperature
tions, –10575 and –44 m, and sintered at Premix/Diffusion Alloyed Bronzes range from 400 to 750 °C (750 to 1380 °F), such
865 °C (1590 °F) is plotted as a function of sin- that a metallurgical bond between tin and copper
tering time. Densification of compacts from the Premix or partially diffused bronzes are used powder is created. The sintered cake is then
finer powder is faster than that of compacts from extensively in the manufacture of porous, self- crushed, ground, and screened. This treatment
the coarser powder and, for sintering times above lubricating bushings and bearings and for more minimizes segregation and gives similar sintered
1
2 h, the final density is considerably higher for complex structures requiring superior bearing properties to premix bronzes.
the compacts from the finer powder. and mechanical strength. Self-lubricating bush- To include all dimensional patterns with
A final factor affecting the densification of ings and bearings are produced at nominal den- related absolute dimensional change values
compacts from a single metal powder is the sities (oil impregnated) of 5.8 to 7.2 g/cm3, with for each commercially available premix sys-
green density of the compact or the pressure at oil contents ranging from 24 to 11 vol%, respec- tem is prohibitive. A variety of premixed pow-
which the compact is pressed, which determines tively. Corresponding radial crush values (K ders are available with specific sintered
green density. In Fig. 36, dimensional change is strength constant) are approximately 69 MPa dimensional patterns to satisfy customer
plotted versus sintering temperature for various (10 ksi) of the lower density, increasing to 228 design and tooling needs. Despite the dimen-
compacting pressures. Higher compacting pres- MPa (33 ksi) at the highest nominal density. sional magnitude of the particular premix
sures result in higher green and sintered densi- The basic manufacturing procedure consists of being sintered, compositions of this type
ties, but the sintering shrinkage, or the change compacting the powder shapes to the appropriate exhibit a common sintered dimensional pat-
from green to sintered density, is smaller. As green density and sintering to achieve a homoge- tern. Absolute sintered dimensional character-
previously noted, expansion may also occur neous metallurgical alpha bronze structure, fol- istics typically are unique to a specific source
when soft metal powders are compacted at high- lowed by oil impregnation. A sizing operation of copper and tin powders. For example, sin-
er pressures as shown in Fig. 36 for compaction completes the process to ensure dimensional pre- tered dimensional consistency can be obtained
pressures of 550 and 620 MPa (80 and 90 ksi). cision and general surface integrity. by blending two or more copper-base powders
This effect is associated with expansion of the Dimensional Change. Several methods are that exhibit different growth characteristics
entrapped gases in the isolated pores. used in the industry to produce bearings and and/or by use of tin powders that also exhibit
structural parts from sintered 90Cu-10Sn different growth characteristics.
bronze. For practical purposes, either pure cop- Generally, copper-tin blends composed of rel-
Sintering Practices for Bronze per and pure tin or prealloyed bronze and tin atively coarse powder sinter to higher growth
powder can be mixed. There are advantages and values than a blend composed of finer powders.
Sintered bronze can be produced either from disadvantages to both methods. Mixed powders After powder blends have been tested and
mixtures of copper powder and tin powder or possess relatively good pressing properties, but adjusted to provide an approximation of target
from a prealloyed tin bronze powder. The nomi- there is always a risk of segregation. Premix dimensions, final adjustments are made during
nal composition of 90Cu-10Sn can be comple- powder containing prealloyed bronze (e.g., production sintering to obtain dimensional pre-
94Cu/6Sn 4Sn) have less liquid phase during cision. For discussion purposes, Fig. 37 shows
sintering, which accounts for a comparatively the relationship between dimensional change,
lower sintered strength at similar green density. sintering time, and green density of a premix
However, “partially prealloyed” bronze mini- bronze and a partially diffused bronze, using the
Fig. 34 Linear shrinkage of copper powder compacts

from –7544 m sieve fraction. Source: Ref 20
Fig. 35 Density of compacts from electrolytic copper

powder. Source: Ref 21 Fig. 36 Sintering curves for copper powder compacts at various compacting pressures. Source: Ref 22
LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH

Click here to view Click here to view Click here to view Click here to view
same source of powders and a similar particle the copper oxides that may surround each cop- in the attainment of high sintered densities (85 to
size distribution (see Ref 23). per powder particle and reduction of tin oxide 90% of theoretical) that provide corresponding-
Factors affecting the ultimate, or peak, formation allow for increased diffusion rates. ly high strengths and hardnesses.
dimensional values include physical character- Consequently, faster sintering rates and more Sintered Properties. Prealloyed bronze pow-
istics of the constituents and compacted density. homogeneous structures can be obtained. ders are relatively easy to work due to the excel-
Control of sintered dimensions in premix sys- lent ductility obtained on sintering. For example,
tems is achieved by manipulating sintering time Prealloyed Bronzes an 89Cu-9Sn-2Zn bronze pressed at 414 MPa
and/or temperature. (30 tsi) to 85% of theoretical density exhibits
Sintering Time and Temperature. Typical Sintered bronze alloys are rather uncommon in 30% elongation, thus allowing for a substan-
sintering furnace temperatures for bronze powdered metal usage. This is primarily due to tial degree of cold working. Compared with sin-
range from 815 to 860 °C (1500 to 1580 °F); their relatively high cost compared to low-alloy tered brass, bronze powders reach higher yield
total sintering time within the hot zone ranges steels. However, sintered bronze properties can strength and hardness levels when compacted
from 15 to 30 min, depending on the furnace be advantageous for non-magnetic applications under similar conditions. For example, pressing
temperature selected, required dimensional that require very good corrosion resistance, good at 550 MPa (40 tsi) results in hardness of 45
change, and most importantly, the presence of mechanical strength, and excellent ductility. HRB for an 89Cu-9Sn-2Zn-2Fe bronze and of
an optimal alpha grain structure. Figure 38 Prealloyed 80Cu-9Sn-2Zn bronze powders 90 HR for a 70Cu-30Zn brass, respectively
shows the typical microstructure of a sintered with a select lubricant are intended for the fabri- (after 30 min sintering at 840 °C (1550 °F) under
premix bronze part. cation of high-density P/M structural compo- dissociated ammonia).
Sintering atmospheres should be protective nents. Unlike many elemental copper-tin pre- The addition of 2% of a select-grade iron in
and reducing to facilitate sintering. Reduction of mixes, the sintering of prealloyed bronze results the composition improves the sintered structure,
which has a more uniform grain size and results
in comparatively higher yield strength and hard-
LIVE GRAPH ness. Figure 39 shows the microstructure of a
Click here to view
prealloyed bronze. Sintering temperature and
atmospheres of prealloyed bronzes are similar to
those of bronze premix. Figure 40 shows the
dimensional change and transverse rupture
strength of prealloyed bronzes as a function of
green density.
Sintering Practices for

Brass and Nickel Silvers
Powders of brasses and nickel silvers are pre-

alloyed, single-phase (alpha) powders that, on
sintering, yield moderate mechanical strength,
excellent ductility, and good corrosion resist-
ance. Parts can be subsequently burnished to
improve surface finish. The various alloy com-
positions produced also provide suitable color,
or shade, selection for applications that require a
Fig. 37 Effect of sintering time and green density on dimensional change of bronze. Sintered at 820 °C (1500 °F), under
high degree of surface finish and appearance.
dissociated ammonia atmosphere
During alloy preparation, lead can be added to
improve machinability of the sintered forms.
Typical machining operations include drilling,
tapping, turning, threading, and grinding.
Excellent sintered ductility also facilitates second-
ary operations, such as sizing, cold densification,
swaging, and staking. By using multiple pressing
and sintering operations, the yield strength and
hardness of the P/M structure may approach those
of its wrought alloy counterpart (Ref 24).
Standard prealloyed brass and nickel silver
powder compositions are controlled to conform
to existing materials standards. This confor-
mance precludes the additions of foreign metal-
lic constituents, such as tin and iron, that affect
sintered mechanical and dimensional character-
istics. In spite of the various compositions com-
prising these standard alloy powders, most
exhibit similar characteristics. After blending
with lubricant, powders densify approximately
10% more than their as-atomized apparent den-
sity. For example, an as-atomized powder with
an apparent density of 3.0 g/cm3 usually blends
Fig. 38 Typical microstructure of sintered premix bronze. 90-10 bronze, etched in K2Cr2O7 solution. 175 to a density of 3.3 g/cm3 minimum with the
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 40 Properties of prealloyed bronzes. Sintered 30

min at 840 °C (1550 °F), under dissociated
ammonia (DA)
Fig. 39 Typical microstructure of sintered prealloyed 89Cu-9Sn-2Zn-2Fe bronze, etched in K2Cr2O7 solution. 350
LIVE GRAPH Fig. 41 shows data for three frequently used

Click here to view lubricants in the P/M industry—lithium stearate,
zinc stearate, and stearic acid. The beneficial
effect of 1 wt% lithium stearate and the deleteri-
ous effect of 1 wt% stearic acid on mechanical
properties are shown.
Compacting of lubricated powders is per-
formed with standard types of compacting press-
es employing steel or carbide dies and punches.
Excellent compressibility and good green
strength permit compacting to 75% of theoretical
density at pressures as low as 207 MPa (30 ksi).
Although powders are normally free of
gangue and other inclusive, abrasive material
that may cause tool wear, their relative softness
does cause tooling difficulties. If powders are
not adequately lubricated, fines within tool
clearances gall the die wall and adjacent punch
areas, thereby requiring tool removal and clean-
ing. The amount of lubricant added to the pow-
der should be proportional to the total surface
area of the die assembly requiring lubrication
during forming and ejection. Low-profile, mini-
mum die wall contact parts may only require 0.5
wt% added lubricant, whereas a high die wall
contact part having core rods for holes or inter-
nal cavities may require 1.0 wt% lubricant.
Fig. 41 Effects of lubricants and sintering time at temperature on tensile properties, sintered density, and dimensional Generally, there are no restrictions on the com-
change of brass compacts pacted configuration of these powders. In tool
design, particularly with regard to die fill, con-
addition of dry lubricant. Compressibilities are Lithium stearate provides an apparent scaveng- sideration must be given to the relatively higher
excellent, as lubricated powders compact to 85% ing or cleansing effect that enhances the sinter- apparent densities of lubricated brass and nickel
of wrought counterpart densities at 414 MPa (60 ability of these powders. It may also result in spot- silver powder. Typical apparent densities for
ksi). Compression ratios of lubricated powders ty or speckled superficial stains on sintered lubricated powders range from 3.3 to 3.6 g/cm3.
range from 2.0-to-1 to 2.2-to-1. surfaces. These phenomena affect the appearance Sintering of brasses and nickel silvers typically
Effect of Lubricant. Blending of powders of the components, but are not detrimental to is not difficult; however, basic sintering practices
with dry organic lubricants is normally accom- mechanical properties. To minimize staining, lithi- do differ from those employed with other com-
plished in a double cone-type blending unit. To um stearate additions of less than 0.5 wt% are rec- mon alloy systems, such as elemental copper-tin
minimize the inclusion of large lubricant ommended, and zinc stearate can be added to pro- blends and iron powder blends. These differences
agglomerates and other undesirable particles, vide the additional required lubricity. include sintering temperature, time at sintering
the material is passed through a 40 mesh sieve, Different types of lubricant have a marked temperature, and atmosphere protection.
or screening is recommended prior to blending. effect on the physical and mechanical properties Sintering temperatures for standard brasses
The primary lubricant employed with brasses of nonferrous prealloyed powder (Ref 24). To range from 760 to 925 °C (1400 to 1700 °F).
and nickel silvers is lithium stearate. illustrate the effects on mechanical properties, Temperature selection depends on the brass
alloy being sintered and the mechanical proper- 15 min at temperature. Ductility is increased for of brasses on open belts is not common practice
ties desired after sintering. Lower brasses with subsequent forming operations, such as sizing, for several reasons; for example, overheating
higher zinc contents and lower melting points cold repressing for densification, or coining, by can melt brass parts that can fuse to the mesh
are sintered at the lower temperature. Generally, increasing sintering time. belt. Also, excessive heat and direct impinge-
a starting temperature of 100 °C (180 °F) below Non-leaded machinable brasses have been ment of flame curtain gas through the mesh can
the solidus temperature (as determined from any recently introduced on the market to reduce or impair effective sintering due to oxidation and
copper-zinc binary alloy constitutional diagram) eliminate lead. It has been shown (Ref 25) that premature partial lubricant removal. Direct
is suitable. by replacing lead with select alloy additions, exposure to the sintering atmosphere can also
Nickel silver can be sintered at 870 to 980 °C brass parts still maintain similar mechanical and cause objectionable surface dezincing.
(1600 to 1800 °F). Currently, only one base physical properties, while having improved Conversely, extremely gastight protective sin-
alloy is used for the manufacture of P/M struc- machinability. Figure 42 illustrates the proper- tering setups should be avoided because lubri-
tural parts; it has nominal composition of 64Cu- ties of non-leaded brass, leaded brass, and a non- cant decomposition products may not be com-
18Ni-18Zn. The leaded alloy composition con- leaded brass containing select alloy additions. pletely volatilized. Excessive residual lubricant
tains 1.5% Pb. Sintering characteristics are Figure 44 also shows the machinability for those within the compact inhibits sintering; conse-
similar to those of the brasses; therefore, different types of 80Cu-20Zn brasses. quently, mechanical properties are adversely
responses to sintering parameters that affect Atmosphere protection is required for sin- affected. Typically, compacts with excessive
dimensional and mechanical properties of brass tering brasses and nickel silvers to prevent oxi- internal lubricant residuals cannot be salvaged
are equally applicable to nickel silver. dation and to ensure effective sintering. Use of by additional passes through a full sintering
Sintered Properties. Dimensional and lithium stearate as the base lubricant allows cycle. To avoid or minimize the deleterious
mechanical properties of brasses and nickel sil- the use of most common sintering atmospheres effect of residual lubricants, covered tray setups
vers are primarily affected by compact density over a wide range of dew points. Although dry should facilitate free venting of lubricant gases
and the amount of time at temperature, as well as hydrogen or dissociated ammonia (DA) pro- to the flowing furnace atmosphere.
the sintering temperature itself. As mentioned vides the best sintering atmosphere, compara-
previously, other elements that affect dimension- ble properties can be obtained with nitrogen-
al and mechanical properties usually are not base or partially combusted hydrocarbon gas ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
added to powders. However, sintered properties, atmospheres.
This article was adapted from:
especially dimensional change, can be effective- When sintering, compacts should be protected
ly controlled by manipulation of sintering time from direct impingement of furnace flame cur- • D.F. Berry and E. Klar, Production of Copper
at the appropriate temperature. Each alloy tains and atmosphere gases by partially or fully Powders, Powder Metal Technologies and
exhibits unique dimensional characteristics—a covering loaded trays to minimize zinc loss. Applications, Vol 7, ASM Handbook, ASM
90Cu-10Zn brass compacted at 414 MPa (30 tsi) Because it has a high vapor pressure at standard International, 1998, p 132–142
and sintered for 30 min at 870 °C (1600 °F) may sintering temperature (boiling point of pure zinc • T.W. Pelletiers II and D.F. Berry, Production
shrink 0.5%, while a 70Cu-30Zn brass similarly 906 °C, or 1663 °F), zinc may be lost to the of Copper Alloy Powders, Powder Metal
treated may shrink 2.5%. atmosphere as it diffuses through to the particle Technologies and Applications, Vol 7, ASM
Figures 42 and 43 show typical property rela- surfaces. Loss of excessive surface zinc results Handbook, ASM International, 1998,
tionships that can be controlled through manip- in a change in surface composition. In the case p 143–145
ulation of time at temperature. The leaded 80Cu- of brasses, pink copper or zinc-depleted areas • A. Marcotte, Sintering of Copper-Base
20Zn brass shown in Fig. 42 and 43 is are apparent. Although superficial zinc losses do Alloys, Powder Metal Technologies and
commonly used for structural parts fabrication. not adversely affect sintered properties, surface Applications, Vol 7, ASM Handbook, ASM
The density of 7.6 g/cm3 is “average” for com- finish is diminished; finished parts may be International, 1998, p 487–490
pacting lubricated prealloyed powders contain- rejected because of color differences. • A. Nadkarni, Copper Powder Metallurgy
ing 0.375% lithium stearate and 0.375% zinc Furnace Design. A variety of protective sin- Alloys and Composites, Powder Metal
stearate at 414 MPa (30 tsi). As shown, close tering tray arrangements can be used, including Technologies and Applications, Vol 7, ASM
dimensional control can be obtained with a min- graphite trays with full covers and graphite-base Handbook, ASM International, 1998,
imum reduction in mechanical properties after plates with steel covers, for example. Sintering p 859–873
Fig. 42 Transverse strength of 80Cu-20Zn brasses. Fig. 43 Dimensional change of 80Cu-20Zn brasses. Fig. 44 Machinability of 80Cu-20Zn brasses. Sintered
Sintered in hot zone at 870 °C (1600 °F) in dis- Sintered in hot zone at 870 °C (1600 °F) in dis- in hot zone at 870 °C (1600 °F) in dissociated
sociated ammonia (DA) sociated ammonia (DA) ammonia (DA)

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Electrolytic Copper Powder, J. Electro- 16. J.L. Everhart, Copper and Copper Alloy
1. E. Klar and D. Berry, Copper P/M Products, chem. Soc., Vol 106, 1959, p 362–366 Powder Metallurgy Properties and
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys 8. A.V. Pomosov, M.I. Numberg, and E.G. Applications, Copper Development
and Pure Metals, Vol 2, ASM Handbook, Krymakove, Protection of Copper Powder Association
9th ed., ASM International, 1979, p 392 Against Corrosion during Manufacture and 17. F.V. Lenel, Powder Metallurgy Principles
2. S. Harper and A.A. Marks, Electrodeposition Storage, Sov. Powder Metall. Met. Ceram., and Applications, Metal Powder Industries
of Copper Powder with the Aid of March 1976, p 175–177 Federation, 1980, p 247
Surfactants, Copper Development Asso- 9. Technical data from AMAX Metal Powders, 18. Diffusion, American Society for Metals,
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Copper, Vol 3, Conference Paper No. 059/2, 10. D.L. Adamson and W.M. Toddenham, 19. F. Thummler and R. Oberacker, Intro-
Copper Development Association, 1972 Production of High Quality Electrolytic duction to Powder Metallurgy, The Institute
3. L.I. Gurevich and A.V. Pomosov, The Effect Copper Powder, American Institute of of Materials, 1993, p 208
of Chloride on Electrodeposition of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum 20. F.V. Lenel, Powder Metallurgy, Metal
Powdered Copper Precipitates, Sov. Powder Engineers Annual Meeting (New York), 1–4 Powder Industries Federation, 1980, p 214
Metall. Met. Ceram., Jan 1969, p 10–15 March 1971 21. F.V. Lenel, Powder Metallurgy, Metal
4. V.P. Artamonov and A.V. Pomosov, Effect 11. E. Peissker, Metal Powders, Norddeutsche Powder Industries Federation, 1980, p 219
of Foreign Electrolytes on the Production of Affinerie, Aug 1974 22. H.H. Hausner, Handbook of Powder
Copper Powder by Contact Deposition, Izv. 12. P.W. Taubenblat, W.E. Smith, and C.E. Metallurgy, Chemical Publishing Co., 1973,
V.U.Z. Tsvetn. Metall., No. 2, 1976, p 30–34 Evans, Production of P/M Parts from p 173
(in Russian); Metall. Abstracts, No. Copper Powders, Precis. Met., April 23. E. Peissker, Modern Developments in P/M,
54–0503, Nov 1976 1972, p 41 Vol 7, Metal Powder Industries Federation,
5. S.L. Kotovskaya et al., Manufacture of 13. A. Nadkarni, Copper Powder Metallurgy 1974, p 597–613
Coarse Copper Powder from Sulfamate Alloys and Composites, Powder Metal 24. P.E. Matthews, Brass and Nickel Silver
Electrolytes, Sov. Powder Metall. Met. Technologies and Applications, Vol 7, ASM Powders, Copper Base Powder Metallurgy,
Ceram., Feb 1973, p 93–96 Handbook, ASM International, 1998, p Vol 7, Metal Powder Industries Federa-
6. S.K. Singh and D.D. Akerkar, A Continuous 859–873 tion, 1980
Self-Regulating Method of Making Copper 14. H.H. Hausner, Handbook of Powder 25. T.W. Pelletiers, Advances in P/M, Vol 3,
Powder by Electrolysis, NML Tech. J., Vol 17, Metallurgy, Chemical Publishing Co., Inc., Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1991,
1975 p 23–26 1973, p 142 p 147–158
Heat Treating
HEAT TREATING PROCESSES that are The time and temperature required for the Sn, a small amount of phosphorus, and trace
applied to copper and copper alloys include: homogenization process vary with the alloy, the amounts of several other elements.
cast grain size, and the desired degree of homog- The normal precautions that apply to anneal-
• Homogenizing enization. Typical soak times vary from 3 to over ing should be used for the homogenization of
• Annealing 10 h. Temperatures normally are above the upper any particular alloy. The furnace atmosphere
• Stress relieving
annealing range, to within 50 °C (90 °F) of the should be selected for the control of both surface
• Solution treating
solidus temperature. and internal oxidation. Where there is apprecia-
• Precipitation (age) hardening
Homogenization changes the mechanical ble danger of liquefying segregated phases, the
• Quench hardening and tempering
properties: ultimate tensile strength, hardness, materials, particularly castings, should be well
Each of these will be described below along and yield (proof) strength all slowly decrease, supported and heated slowly through the final
with heat treating equipment and protective whereas elongation at fracture and necking 100 °C (180 °F).
atmospheres and heat treating practices for spe- increase by as much as twice the initial value. Typical applications of homogenization are:
cific copper alloys including beryllium coppers, Figure 1 shows a typical example of these • Alloy C71900 (copper-nickel-chromium)
copper-chromium alloys, copper-zirconium changes taking place at a homogenizing time of billets: 1040 to 1065 °C (1900 to 1950 °F)
alloys, miscellaneous precipitation-hardening 4 h for alloy C52100, a wrought phosphor for 4 to 9 h, to prevent cracks, seams, and
alloys, spinodal-hardening alloys, and aluminum bronze alloy containing nominally 92% Cu, 8% excessive wood fiber structure in extrusions
bronzes. Additional information on heat treating
principles can be found in the article “Physical
Metallurgy: Heat Treatment, Structure, and
Properties” in this Handbook.
Homogenizing
Homogenizing is a process in which pro-

longed high-temperature soaking is used to
reduce chemical or metallurgical segregation
commonly known as coring, which occurs as a
natural result of solidification in some alloys.
Homogenizing is applied to copper alloys to
improve the hot and cold ductility of cast billets
for mill processing, and occasionally is applied
to castings to meet specified hardness, ductility,
or toughness requirements.
Homogenization is required most frequently
for alloys having wide freezing ranges, such as
tin (phosphor) bronzes, copper nickels, and sil-
icon bronzes. Although coring occurs to some
extent in brasses, -aluminum bronzes, and
copper-beryllium alloys, these alloys survive
primary mill processing and become homoge-
nized during normal process working and
annealing. Rarely is it necessary to apply
homogenization to finished or semifinished
mill products.
A characteristic of high cooling rates is the
uneven distribution of the alloy elements in the
interior of the dendritic microstructure. These
differences increase with higher cooling rates
and greater differences in composition
between melt and solid phase at the onset of
crystallization. This difference may be equal-
ized in some alloys by long-time homogeniza-
tion as a result of diffusion processes taking
place in the solid phase. Fig. 1 Effect of annealing temperature on the mechanical properties of an alloy C52100 slab. Annealing time 4 h
LIVE GRAPH
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Heat Treating / 243
• Alloy C52100 and C52400 (phosphor manifests itself in a high density of deformation upon the material, the processing history, and
bronzes, 8 and 10% Sn): 775 °C (1425 °F) for bands, bent annealing twins, and elongated the annealing procedure.
5 h, to reduce embrittlement in billets and grains (Fig. 2 and 3). Annealing behavior is usually presented by
slabs that are to be cold rolled If the deformed alloy is held at 400 °C plotting property against annealing temperature,
• Alloy C96400 (cast 70Cu-30Ni): 1000 °C (750 °F), and the hardness periodically meas- for a fixed annealing time (Fig. 7). The same
(1830 °F) for 2 h under a protective atmos- ured, the data give a curve such as that shown in type of curve results, with the stages of recovery,
phere and then cooled to 400 °C (750 °F), Fig. 4. The annealing curve is divided into three recrystallization, and grain growth present. This
followed by air cooling regions, labeled recovery, recrystallization, and type of curve is used to determine the recrystal-
grain growth. In the recovery stage the hardness lization temperature, a term that can be defined
For the precipitation-hardenable alloys, remains constant, or may increase slightly. This several ways. It can be defined as the approxi-
homogenization may involve a prolonged solu- is followed by a drastic decrease in hardness mate minimum temperature at which complete
tion treatment. during recrystallization. The hardness continues recrystallization of a cold-worked metal occurs
to decrease, but much more gradually, during within a specified time. It can be defined also as
grain growth. the temperature at which recrystallization just
Annealing Although hardness is not affected greatly begins, as the temperature at which recrystal-
during recovery, other properties (e.g., electri- lization is half completed, or as the inflection
Annealing is a heat treatment intended to soft- cal resistivity) are, showing that significant point of the hardness-annealing temperature
en and to increase the ductility and/or toughness structural changes occur during this stage, but curve. This last definition gives the approximate
of metals and alloys. Annealing is applied to they are changes to which the hardness is not recrystallization temperatures listed in Fig. 7.
wrought products, during and after mill process- very sensitive. The term recovery is used The recrystallization temperature depends, of
ing, and to castings. The process includes heat- because recovery of some of the original prop- course, upon several variables. The time at the
ing, holding, and cooling, and a proper process erties occurs during this short time. During annealing temperature (Fig. 8), the chemical
description should include heating rate, temper- recrystallization, it is observed that relatively composition of the alloy (Fig. 7), and the
ature, time at temperature, atmosphere, and soft, strain-free (low dislocation density) crys- amount and type of plastic deformation (Fig. 9)
cooling rate where each may affect results. tals form (nucleate) and grow in the plastically all must be specified. Any variable that increas-
deformed matrix (Fig. 5). (This is shown more es the energy of the cold-worked material will
Understanding the Annealing Process clearly in Fig. 6, which shows small, isolated make it more unstable relative to the annealed
crystals having just formed in the deformed condition. This energy difference is the “driving
Work-hardened metal can be returned to a soft matrix.) Once the deformed matrix is con- force” for the return to the soft, strain-free con-
state by heating or annealing. During the anneal- sumed by these new crystals, further annealing dition, and usually the larger this energy differ-
ing of simple single-phase alloys, deformed and only causes grain growth. ence is, the more rapidly the process occurs.
highly stressed crystals are transformed into It is emphasized that more than one mecha- Thus, even such variables as the original grain
unstressed crystals by recovery, recrystalliza- nism bringing about the structural changes may size and the temperature of deformation affect
tion, and grain growth (see subsequent discus- be operating simultaneously. For example, once the recrystallization temperature. Table 1 sum-
sion). In severely deformed metal, recrystalliza- a small strain-free crystal forms (the beginning marizes these effects.
tion occurs at lower temperatures than in lightly of recrystallization), it then grows into the
deformed metal. Also, the grains are smaller and deformed matrix, which at the same time is con- Annealing of Wrought Products
more uniform in size when severely deformed tinuing to undergo recovery. The particular
metal is recrystallized. annealing process is a consequence of all of the The annealing of cold-worked metal is
Grain size can be controlled by proper mechanisms operating, and this is dependent accomplished by heating to a temperature that
selection of cold-working and annealing prac-
tices. Large amounts of prior cold work, fast
heating to annealing temperature, and short
annealing times favor fine grain sizes. Larger
grain sizes are normally produced by a combi-
nation of limited deformation and long
annealing times. In normal commercial prac-
tice, annealed grain sizes are controlled to
about a median value in the range of 0.01 to
0.10 mm (0.0004 to 0.004 in.).
Variations in annealed grain size produce
variations in hardness and other mechanical
properties that are smaller than those that occur
in cold-worked material, but these variations are
by no means negligible. Fine grain sizes often
are required to enhance end-product characteris-
tics such as load-carrying capacity, fatigue
resistance, resistance to stress-corrosion crack-
ing (SCC), and surface quality for polishing and
buffing of either annealed or cold-formed parts.
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain
Growth. To illustrate the annealing process,
consider an alloy of copper with 5% zinc (a sin-
gle-phase solid solution) that has been rolled at
25 °C (75 °F). As the reduction in thickness
increases, the hardness increases, and the
microstructure develops a complex array of dis- Fig. 2 Microstructure of a Cu-5Zn alloy cold rolled at 25 °C (75 °F) to a 40% reduction in thickness, showing defor-
locations. In the optical (light) microscope, this mation bands and bent annealing twins revealed by etching the polished surface.
produces recrystallization and, if desirable, by Annealing is primarily a function of metal relatively unimportant. On the other hand, the
heating beyond the recrystallization temperature temperature and time at temperature. Except for source and application of heat, furnace design,
to initiate grain growth. Temperatures common- multiphase alloys, including certain precipita- furnace atmosphere, and shape of the workpiece
ly used for annealing cold-worked coppers and tion-hardening alloys, and alloys susceptible to are important because they affect finish, cost of
copper alloys are given in Table 2. fire cracking, rates of heating and cooling are annealing, and uniformity of results obtained.
0% cold work; 78 HRB
Rolling direction (RD)
100 μm
20% cold work; 108 HRB 40% cold work; 122 HRB
Bent
annealing
twins
Deformation
bands
Rolling direction (RD) Rolling direction (RD)

100 μm 100 μm
60% cold work; 131 HRB 80% cold work; 135 HRB
Edge of sample
Edge of sample
100 μm 100 μm
Fig. 3 Optical micrographs (all at same magnification) of a cold-worked Cu-5Zn solid solution alloy, showing Rockwell B hardness (HRB) at each stage. Percentages for cold work
are based on reduction in thickness. Rolling direction is from left to right.
Heat Treating / 245
The multiplicity of influential variables (such During subsequent anneals, the grain size ished by polishing and buffing, the grain size
as temperature, time, and furnace load) make it should be decreased gradually to approximate should be as fine as practicable to keep the sur-
difficult to tabulate a definite annealing schedule the final grain size required. This point is usual- face texture smooth and thus to avoid the need
that will result in completely recrystallized ly reached one or two anneals before the final for excessive buffing and the attendant costs. The
metal of a specific grain size. The effects of anneal. With such a sequence and with suffi- anneal must be governed by definite specifica-
annealing temperature on the tensile strength, ciently severe intermediate reductions, it is pos- tions and coordinated with cold-working opera-
elongation, and grain size of hard-drawn (63%) sible to produce a uniform final grain size with- tions to yield the desired finished properties.
C27000 (yellow brass) wire annealed for 1 h and in a lot and from lot to lot. Because the annealing of closed strip in
the effect of annealing time on the grain size of The grain size and mechanical properties tightly wound coils of large weight causes
C27000 strip are shown in Fig. 10. required for further cold working vary consider- uneven heating in the individual layers corre-
The annealing response of alloy C26000 (car- ably with the alloy and with the amount and kind sponding to the direction of heat flow, uneven
tridge brass) strip after a reduction of 40.6% by of further cold work to be done. The goal of deep-drawing properties and variations in size
cold rolling is shown in Fig. 11. Time at temper- annealing for cold working is to obtain the opti- may result.
ature was 1 h. The actual increases in hardness mal combination of ductility and strength. These difficulties led to the development of
and tensile properties shown at temperatures However, when press-drawn parts are to be fin- the continuous-strip furnace through which the
below the recrystallization range are typical of
alloys such as brasses, nickel silvers, phosphor 127 HRB
128 HRB
bronzes, and -aluminum bronzes. Depending No recrystallization yet; still in recovery
Recrystallization just beginning
on the individual alloy, these increases are attrib-
utable to phenomena of the strain-aging and/or
lattice-ordering type.
Methods of rapid recrystallization have
gained importance in heat treatment technolo-
gy. Softening time can be significantly
reduced, compared to conventional annealing
processes, by increased heating rates using
higher temperatures. However, these heat treat
parameters may affect the mechanical proper-
ties of the materials.
An increased amount of cold work prior to
annealing lowers the recrystallization tempera-
ture. The lower the degree of prior deformation, 100 μm 100 μm
the larger the grain size after annealing. For a
fixed temperature and duration of annealing, the 63 HRB
larger the original grain size before working, the Recrystallization essentially complete;
larger the grain size after recrystallization. grain growth beginning 60 HRB
In commercial mill practice, copper alloys are
usually annealed at successively lower tempera-
tures as the material approaches the final anneal,
with intermediate cold reductions of at least 35%
and as high as 50 to 60% in single or multiple
passes wherever practicable. The higher initial
temperatures accelerate homogenization, and the
resulting large grains permit a more economical
reduction during the early working operation.
100 μm 200 μm
58 HRB
200 μm
Fig. 4 Effect of annealing time at fixed temperature
(400 °C, or 750 °F) on hardness of a Cu-5Zn Fig. 5 Microstructure of a Cu-5Zn alloy, cold rolled to 60%, then annealed for different times at 400 °C (750 °F). The
solid-solution alloy cold worked 60% numbers refer to the different annealing times shown in Fig. 4.
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material to be annealed passes in a single strip. tensile properties to levels between those of the General Precautions for Annealing
The annealing temperature for the entire length hard and fully annealed tempers, with reasonably
is dependent only on the furnace temperature predictable results. For most copper alloys, the
and the speed of travel of the strip through the rapid drops in tensile properties and hardness For best results in annealing copper and cop-
furnace. that occur with an increase in temperature in the per alloys, the precautions discussed subse-
The very large surface area with respect to annealing range necessitate the very close con- quently should be observed.
weight permits extremely rapid heating of the trol of the annealing process to produce the Sampling and Testing. Test specimens must
metal strip in comparison to previous annealing desired results. Temperatures used are those in represent the extreme conditions of the furnace
methods. The annealing time can be measured the lower annealing range, with special precau- load. For copper alloys that do not contain grain-
accurately in seconds by controlling the speed tions taken to avoid any overheating. The result- growth inhibitors, the best and most accurate test
of travel. ant microstructures may indicate incomplete for the extent of annealing is the size of the aver-
recrystallization for the harder tempers and grain age grain. Grain size is usually the basis for
Annealing to Specific Properties sizes generally up to 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) for acceptance or rejection of the material. This
softer tempers. Tensile strengths and hardness determination requires special equipment not
Although specific properties are most fre- levels similar to those of 18, 14, and 12 hard cold- always available in the plants of consumers or
quently produced by the controlled cold working worked tempers can be produced by annealing fabricators. For convenience in testing,
of annealed material, there are occasions in hard-worked brasses, nickel silvers, and phos- Rockwell-type hardness testers are used to
which annealing to temper is necessary or advan- phor bronzes. While the yield strength for a given approximate the grain size; ASTM specifica-
tageous. In the hot rolling of copper alloy plate— final hardness tends to be lower for alloys tions correlate Rockwell hardness with grain
particularly plate of large pattern—the finishing annealed to temper than for those cold worked to size values for many copper alloys.
temperature may not be consistent or control- temper, the fatigue resistance of some phosphor Effect of Pretreatment. Because the amount
lable, and varying degrees of work hardening bronze spring materials in annealed 12 hard tem- of cold working and the anneal prior to cold
may occur. Also, small quantities and/or odd pers appears to be superior to that of cold-worked working greatly affect the results of annealing
sizes of required drawn or roll-tempered materi- material. Table 3 gives typical properties of after cold working, any schedule that is set up
als may not be readily available, while appropri- annealed-to-temper mill materials. The success- must take this pretreatment into account. Once a
ate stocks of harder material may be. Thin-gage ful use of annealing to provide specific tempers schedule has been established, both the anneal
strip (0.25 mm, or 0.010 in., thick) for radiator in mill products requires well-regulated working and the pretreatment must be adhered to for con-
fabrication produced by annealing to temper is and annealing schedules designed to produce sistent results.
more closely controlled and more suitable for homogeneous material with controlled grain Effect of Time. In most furnaces, there is an
fabrication than strip in cold-worked tempers. In size, such that the final anneal can produce a uni- appreciable difference between the temperature
each case, an anneal is used to alter hardness and form result throughout a given lot. of the metal and that of the furnace.
Consequently, time in the furnace greatly affects
the final temperature of the metal. For a fixed
Deformation bands Recrystallization grain
anneal and furnace temperature, time must vary
with the type of work load.
Oxidation should be held to a minimum to
reduce the loss of metal and the cost of pickling
and to improve surface finish. In some instances,
specially prepared atmospheres are used to pro-
duce a bright annealed material. Usually the
control of furnace atmosphere also results in bet-
ter furnace economy.
Effect of Lubricants. Lubricants on metal to
be annealed may cause staining that is difficult
to remove. Regardless of the type of furnace or
the article to be annealed, it is advisable to elim-
inate as much of the lubricant as possible before
Annealing the metal is heated by degreasing or washing.
twins
Hydrogen Embrittlement. When copper that
contains oxygen (tough-pitch copper) is to be
annealed, the hydrogen in the furnace atmos-
phere must be kept to a minimum. This reduces
the embrittlement caused by the combination of
the hydrogen in the atmosphere with the oxygen
in the copper, forming water vapor under pres-
sure and resulting in minute porosity in the
metal. For temperatures lower than about 480 °C
(900 °F), the hydrogen content of the atmos-
phere preferably should not exceed 1%, and as
the temperature is increased, the hydrogen con-
tent should approach 0.
Impurities. Occasionally, it is difficult to
obtain proper grain growth by annealing under
5 μm
standard conditions that previously have result-
ed in the desired grain size. This difficulty may
sometimes be traced to impurities in the alloy.
Fig. 6 High-magnification scanning electron micrograph (SEM) showing the beginning of recystallization in a Cu-5Zn
Loading. It usually is inadvisable to anneal a
alloy, cold worked by rolling 20 °C (68 °F) to reduction in thickness of 60%; annealed 60 min at 350 °C (660 °F).
Note the annealing twins in the small isolated crystal newly formed in the deformed matrix. variety of different sizes or kinds of material in
Heat Treating / 247
the same charge because of the different rates of deformation, such as springing (flexing or reel- influenced by thermal expansion, thermal con-
heating and the resulting final metal temperatures. ing through a straightener), aid considerably in ductivity, strength, toughness, the rate of tem-
Fire cracking occurs when some alloys that preventing fire cracking by inducing counter- perature change, and the condition of the mate-
contain residual stresses are heated too rapidly. vailing mechanical stresses. rial. Brasses containing lead, lead and tin, or
Leaded alloys are particularly susceptible to fire Thermal shock or fatigue takes place when lead and certain impurities including bismuth or
cracking. The remedy is to heat slowly until the rapid and extreme changes in temperatures tellurium may be hot short. If they are repeated-
stresses are relieved. Special types of cold occur. Stresses that result in thermal shock are ly subjected to extreme temperature changes,
they may be subject to thermal shock, especially
LIVE GRAPH if highly stressed in tension on the surface.
Click here to view Cooling. Alpha brasses containing less than
70% copper may contain some phase that is
formed during casting or during heat treatment
above 600 °C (1110 °F), especially if the metal
section is massive. Quenching rapidly will
entrap the phase in the brass. Slow cooling
will permit the time and temperature to convert
the to the phase.
Sulfur Stains. Excessive sulfur in the fuel or
lubricant will cause discoloration of the metal;
red stains appear on yellow brass, and black or
reddish-brown stains on copper-rich alloys.
Annealing of Castings
Annealing is applied to castings of some
duplex alloys, such as manganese bronzes and
aluminum bronzes, in order to correct the effects
of mold cooling. The extremely slow cooling of
sand and plaster castings, or the rapid cooling of
permanent mold or die castings, can produce
microstructures resulting in hard hardness
and/or low ductility and occasionally inferior
corrosion resistance. Typical annealing treat-
ments for castings are in the range of 580 to
700 °C (1075 to 1300 °F) for 1 h at temperature.
For aluminum bronzes, rapid cooling by water
quenching or high-velocity air is advisable.
Fig. 7 Hardness as a function of annealing temperature for a 15 min annealing time. The alloys were originally cold Stress Relieving
rolled at 25 °C (77 °F) to 60% reduction in thickness. The recrystallization temperatures listed are based on the
inflection point of each curve.
Stress relieving is a process intended to
relieve internal stress in materials or parts with-
out appreciably affecting their properties. Stress-
relieving heat treatments are applied to wrought
or cast copper and copper alloys as one means of
accomplishing this objective.
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Fig. 9 Curves for copper showing the effect of the
Fig. 8 Hardness as a function of annealing time and temperature for pure copper and a Cu-5Zn alloy. Both materials amount of the initial deformation on the anneal-
were originally cold rolled at 25 °C (77 °F) to 60% reduction in thickness. ing response.
LIVE GRAPH
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During the processing or fabrication of copper tested with mercurous nitrate solutions, as perature (natural) aging, as in the case of some
or copper alloys by cold working, strength and described in ASTM B 154. This test method is aluminum alloys. As dissolved atoms proceed
hardness increase as a result of plastic strain. an accelerated test for detecting the presence of through the coagulation, coherency, and precipi-
Because plastic strain is accompanied by elastic residual (internal) stresses, which might result in tation cycle in the quenched alloy lattice, hard-
strain, residual stresses remain in the resultant failure of individual parts in storage or in service ness increases, reaches a peak, and then decreas-
product. If allowed to remain in sufficient mag- due to SCC. It is not intended for testing assem- es with time. Electrical conductivity increases
nitude, residual surface tensile stresses can blies of fabricated parts from mill products. continuously with time until some maximum is
result in stress-corrosion cracking of material in Because of the hazards of mercurous salts, tests reached, normally in the fully precipitated condi-
storage or service, unpredictable distortion of in high concentrations of moist ammonia have tion. The optimal condition generally preferred
material during cutting or machining, and hot also been used. Warping of rod or tube during results from a precipitation treatment of temper-
cracking of materials during processing, braz- longitudinal saw slitting has also been used as a ature and duration just beyond those that corre-
ing, or welding. In brasses that contain more crude field test for residual stress. spond to the hardness aging peak. Cold working
than 15% Zn, SCC can occur if sufficient prior to precipitation aging tends to improve
amounts of residual tensile stress and trace heat-treated hardness. In the case of lower-
amounts of atmospheric ammonia are present. Hardening strength wrought alloys such as C18200 (copper-
Other copper alloys, such as cold-worked alu- chromium) and C15000 (copper-zirconium),
minum bronzes and silicon bronzes, may also Copper alloys that are hardened by heat treat- some heat-treated hardness may be sacrified to
suffer SCC under more severe environments. ment are of two general types: those that are attain increased conductivity, with final hardness
Although mill practice for stress relief fre- softened by high-temperature quenching and and strength being enhanced by cold working.
quently involves mechanical means such as flex- hardened by lower-temperature precipitation Two precipitation treatments are necessary in
ing, cross-roll straightening, or shot peening, heat treatments, and those that are hardened by order to develop maximum electrical conductivi-
stress-relief heat treatments are employed for quenching from high temperatures through ty and hardness in alloy C18000 (copper-nickel-
some tubular products and odd shapes. Thermal martensitic-type reactions. Alloys that harden silicon-chromium) because of two distinct pre-
stress relief is also used for formed parts and during low-to-intermediate-temperature treat- cipitation mechanisms.
fabrications made by material users. It is impor- ments following solution quenching include pre- Certain guidelines can be used to diagnose
tant to recognize that thermal stress relief cipitation-hardening, spinodal-hardening, and problems encountered in producing desired
reduces residual stress by eliminating part of the order-hardening types. Quench-hardening alloys properties in precipitation-hardening alloys:
residual elastic strain, whereas mechanical stress comprise aluminum bronzes, nickel-aluminum
relief merely redistributes residual stress into a bronzes, and a few special copper-zinc alloys. Problem Diagnosis
less detrimental pattern. Usually quench-hardened alloys are tempered to Low hardness Solution temperature too low;
Stress-relief heat treatments are carried out at solution quench delayed or
improve toughness and ductility and reduce cooling rate too low; aging
temperatures below those normally used for hardness in a manner similar to that used for temperature too low and/or
annealing. Typical process stress-relieving tem- alloy steels. time too short (underaging) or
peratures for selected coppers and copper alloys temperature too high and/or
are given in Table 4 (wrought products) and time too long (overaging)
Low-Temperature-Hardening Alloys Low hardness; Inadequate solution treatment
Table 5 (cast products). Temperatures for the low conductivity and/or underaging
treatment of cold-formed or welded structures Low hardness; Inadequate solution treatment
are generally 50 to 110 °C (90 to 200 °F) higher For purposes of comparison, Table 6 lists high conductivity and/or overaging
than the temperatures in Table 4. In the case of examples of the various types of low-tempera- High hardness; Underaging; contaminated
the weld repair of ship propellers, for example, ture-hardening alloys, as well as typical heat low conductivity material
care must be exercised to prevent the buildup of treatments and attainable property levels for
excessive residual stresses in the weld zone these alloys. Additional details are given in the When precipitation hardening is performed at
because such stresses may lead to accelerated three subsections below. the mill, further treatment following the fabrica-
corrosion attack. Current propeller repair speci- Precipitation-Hardening Alloys. Most cop- tion of parts is not required. However, it may be
fications require postweld treatment for the alu- per alloys of the precipitation-hardening type desirable to stress relieve parts in order to
minum and manganese bronze weldments. Heat find use in electrical and heat conduction appli- remove stresses induced during fabrication, par-
treatment of the aluminum bronze at 565 or cations. Therefore the heat treatment must be ticularly for highly formed cantilever-type
650 °C (1050 to 1200 °F) imparts the best over- designed to develop the necessary mechanical springs and intricate, machined shapes that
all corrosion resistance to the heat-affected zone. strength and electrical conductivity. The result- require maximum resistance to relaxation at
Manganese bronze weldments are not suscepti- ing hardness and strength depend on the effec- moderately elevated temperatures.
ble to SCC when subjected to yield stress load- tiveness of the solution quench and the control of Spinodal-Hardening Alloys. Alloys that
ing in flowing seawater. Heat treatment in the the precipitation (aging) treatment. It should be harden by spinodal decomposition are hardened
range of 200 to 540 °C (400 to 1000 °F) does not noted that the terms age hardening and aging are by a treatment similar to that used for precipita-
significantly change the tensile, corrosion- used in heat-treating practice as substitutes for tion-hardening alloys. The soft, ductile spinodal
fatigue, or general corrosion properties of man- the term precipitation hardening or a spinodal structure is generated by a high-temperature
ganese bronze. hardening. Copper alloys harden by elevated- solution treatment followed by quenching. The
From a practical standpoint, higher-tempera- temperature treatment rather than ambient-tem- material can be cold worked or formed in this
ture/shorter-time treatments are preferable.
However, to guarantee the preservation of Table 1 Variables that affect the recrystallization temperature
mechanical properties, lower temperatures and Variable Effect on recrystallization temperature
longer times are sometimes necessary. The opti- Time at annealing temperature Increasing time decreases temperature
mal cycle produces adequate stress relief without Amount of plastic deformation by cold Increasing amount of cold work decreases temperature
adversely affecting properties. As shown in Fig. working
10, some alloys may undergo slight increases in Solute concentration in solid solution Generally increases temperature; depends upon effect on melting temperature
Presence of second phases Second-phase particles decrease temperature
property values during stress-relief heat treatment. Original grain size before cold working Decreasing grain size decreases temperature
To detect the presence of significant residual Rate of plastic deformation Increasing rate decreases temperature
stress and to evaluate the effectiveness of stress- Temperature of cold working Decreasing temperature of cold working decreases recrystallization
relieving treatments, samples of material may be temperature
Heat Treating / 249
condition. A lower-temperature spinodal- harden are usually annealed at temperatures up to 1040 °C (1900 °F) and require rapid
decomposition treatment, commonly referred to below 760 °C (1400 °F) and may be cooled at any quenching to ambient temperatures.
as aging, is then used to increase the hardness convenient rate. Precipitation- or spinodal-hard- Batch-type atmosphere furnaces may be
and strength of the alloy. Spinodal-hardening enable alloys are solution treated at temperatures heated electrically or by oil or gas. When non-
alloys are basically copper-nickel alloys with
chromium or tin additions. The hardening mech- Table 2 Annealing temperatures for widely used cold-worked copper and copper alloys
anism is related to a miscibility gap in the solid Annealing temperature
solution and does not result in precipitation. The Alloy Common name °C °F
spinodal-hardening mechanism does result in Wrought coppers
the chemical segregation of the crystal matrix C10100–C10300 Oxygen-free copper 375–650 700–1200
on a very fine (Ångström) scale and requires the C10400–C10700 Oxygen-free silver-bearing copper 475–750 900–1400
use of the electron microscope to discern the C10800 Oxygen-free low-phosphorus copper 375–650 700–1200
metallographic effects (Fig. 12). Because no C11000 Electrolytic tough-pitch copper 250–650 500–1200
C11100 Electrolytic tough-pitch, anneal-resistant copper 475–750 900–1400
crystallographic changes take place, spinodal- C11300, C11400, C11500, C11600 Silver-bearing tough pitch copper 400–475 750–900
hardening alloys retain excellent dimensional C12000 Phosphorus-deoxidized copper, low residual phosphorus 375–650 700–1200
stability during hardening. C12200 Phosphorus-deoxidized copper, high residual phosphorus 375–650 700–1200
Order-Hardening Alloys. Certain alloys, C12500, C12700, C13000 Fire-refined, tough-pitch copper with silver 400–650 750–1200
C14500 Phosphorus-deoxidized, tellurium-bearing copper 425–650 800–1200
generally those that are nearly saturated with an C14700 Sulfur copper 425–650 800–1200
alloying element dissolved in the phase, C15500 … 475–525 900–1000
undergo an ordering reaction when highly cold- Wrought copper alloys
worked material is annealed at a relatively low C16200 Cadmium copper 425–750 800–1400
temperature. Alloys C61500, C63800, C68800, C17000, C17200, C17500 Beryllium copper 775–925(a) 1425–1700(a)
and C69000 are examples of copper alloys that C19200 … 700–800 1300–1500
exhibit this behavior. Strengthening is attributed C19400 … 375–650 700–1200
C19500 … 375–600 750–1100
to the short-range ordering of the dissolved C21000 Gilding metal 425–800 800–1450
atoms within the copper matrix, an ordering C22000 Commercial bronze 425–800 800–1450
which greatly impedes the motion of disloca- C22600 Jewelry bronze 425–750 800–1400
tions through the crystals. C23000 Red brass 425–725 800–1350
C24000 Low brass 425–700 800–1300
The low-temperature order-annealing treatment C26000 Cartridge brass 425–750 800–1400
also acts as a stress-relieving treatment, which C26800, C27000, C27400 Yellow brass 425–700 800–1300
raises yield strength by reducing stress concentra- C28000 Muntz metal 425–600 800–1100
tions in the lattice at the focuses of dislocation C31400, C31600 Leaded commercial bronzes 425–650 800–1200
C33000, C33500 Low-leaded brass 425–650 800–1200
pileups. As a result, order-annealed alloys exhibit C33200, C34200, C35300 High-leaded brass 425–650 800–1200
improved stress-relaxation characteristics. C34000, C35000 Medium-leaded brass 425–650 800–1200
Order annealing is done for relatively short C35600 Extra-high-leaded brass 425–650 800–1200
times at relatively low temperatures, generally in C36000 Free-cutting brass 425–600 800–1100
C36500, C36600, C36700, C36800 Leaded Muntz metal 425–600 800–1100
the range from 150 to 400 °C (300 to 750 °F). C37000 Free-cutting Muntz metal 425–650 800–1200
Because of the low temperature, no special pro- C37700 Forging brass 425–600 800–1100
tective atmosphere is required. Order hardening C38500 Architectural bronze 425–600 800–1100
is frequently done after the final fabrication step C41100 … 425–600 800–1100
C41300 … 425–750 800–1400
to take full advantage of the stress-relieving C42500 … 475–750 900–1400
aspect of the treatment, especially where resist- C44300, C44400, C44500 Inhibited admiralty brasses 425–600 800–1100
ance to stress relaxation is desired. C46200, C46400–C46700 Naval brass 425–600 800–1100
C48200, C48500 Leaded naval brass 425–600 800–1100
C50500 Phosphor bronze 475–650 900–1200
Quench Hardening and Tempering C51000, C52100, C52400 Phosphor bronze 475–675 900–1250
C53200, C53400, C54400 Free-cutting phosphor bronze 475–675 900–1250
Quench hardening and tempering (also C60600, C60800 Aluminum bronze 550–650 1000–1200
C61000 Aluminum bronze 615–900 1125–1650
referred to as quench and temper hardening) is C61300, C61400 Aluminum bronze 750–875 1400–1600
used primarily for aluminum bronze and nickel- C61800, C62300–C62500 Aluminum bronze 600–650(b) 1100–1200(b)
aluminum bronze alloys, and occasionally for C61900 … 550–800 1000–1450
some cast manganese bronze alloys with zinc C63000 Aluminum bronze 600–700(c) 1100–1300(c)
C63200 Aluminum bronze 625–700(c) 1150–1300(c)
equivalents of 37 to 41%. Aluminum bronzes C64200 Aluminum bronze 600–700 1100–1300
with 9 to 11.5% Al, as well as nickel-aluminum C63800 … 400–600 750–1100
bronzes with 8.5 to 11.5% Al, respond in a prac- C65100 Low-silicon bronze 475–675 900–1250
tical way to quench hardening by a martensitic- C65500 High-silicon bronze 475–700 900–1300
C66700 Manganese brass 500–700 930–1300
type reaction. Generally alloys higher in alu- C67000, C67400, C67500 Manganese bronze 425–600 800–1100
minum content are too susceptible to quench C68700 Aluminum brass 425–600 800–1100
cracking, whereas those with lower aluminum C68800 … 400–600 750–1100
contents do not contain enough high-tempera- C70600 Copper nickel, 10% 600–825 1100–1500
C71000, C71500 Copper nickel, 20%, Copper nickel, 30% 650–825 1200–1500
ture phase to respond to quench treatments. C72500 … 675–800 1250–1475
C74500, C75200 Nickel silver 600–750 1100–1400
C75400, C75700, C77000 Nickel silver 600–815 1100–1500
Heat-Treating Equipment C78200 Leaded nickel silver 500–620 930–1150
Cast copper alloys
Although basic furnace design is similar for all C95300–C95800 Aluminum bronze castings 620–670 1150–1225
copper alloys, consideration must be given to the
(a) Solution-treating temperature; see Table 7 for temperatures for specific alloys. (b) Cool rapidly (cooling method important in determining result
annealing temperature range and method of cool- of annealing). (c) Air cool (cooling method important in determining result of annealing)
ing. Solid-solution alloys that do not precipitation
explosive atmospheres are used, electrically variety of products. Usually, the furnace consists ment at the exit end; thus, there are no moving
heated furnaces permit the atmosphere to be of a vestibule that provides a seal for the atmos- parts within the furnace. For wire products,
introduced directly into the work chamber. phere and in some instances preheats the work, a either annealing is carried out in bell furnaces,
Furnaces that are heated by gas or oil and that heating chamber of sufficient length to ensure with the wire reel wound, or in-line resistance
employ protective atmospheres sometimes have complete solution treating, and a cooling or annealing is performed upon exit of the product
a muffle to contain the atmosphere and protect quenching chamber that also serves as an atmos- from the drawing machine prior to reel winding.
the work from the direct fire of the burners. phere seal. Salt Baths. Molten neutral salts may be used
A properly constructed and safely operated Because the work is usually conveyed at a for the annealing, stress relieving, solution heat
muffle that prevents the infiltration of air by fixed rate through the furnace, moderate temper- treating, or aging of copper alloys. The composi-
maintaining positive pressure is always required ature gradients are less harmful than in batch tion of the salt mixture depends on the tempera-
when explosive atmospheres, such as hydrogen, furnaces. When long heating chambers are ture range required. For heating between 705 and
are used. required, the furnace may be divided into more 870 °C (1300 and 1600 °F), mixtures of sodium
When protective atmospheres are used during than one temperature-controlled heating zone. It chloride and potassium chloride are commonly
annealing, the work must be cooled in the is practical to develop a high temperature in the used. Various mixtures of barium chloride with
atmosphere almost to room temperature to pre- entrance zone to facilitate the heating of the sodium and potassium chlorides are used for a
vent surface scale or discoloration. Metal tem- work to the desired temperature. The cooling wider temperature range (595 to 1095 °C, or
peratures above 65 °C (150 °F) in air may result chamber may be either a long tunnel through 1100 to 2000 °F). The latter mixtures are com-
in light tarnishing. If some degree of surface oxi- which cool, protective atmosphere is circulated patible with each other and are commonly used in
dation and discoloration can be tolerated, direct- or a water-quench zone supplied with a protec- multiple-furnace operations when it is advanta-
natural-gas-fired furnaces may be used. The tive atmosphere. geous to preheat the work in one mixture at a low
products of combustion from the gas-air burners Products such as stampings, machined shapes, temperature and then transfer the work to a high-
are controlled to yield reducing combustion castings, and small assemblies are conveyed temperature bath. The least common neutral salts
products similar in composition to manufactured through the furnace on an endless belt or con- are mixtures of calcium chloride, sodium chlo-
protective atmospheres. Parts annealed in reduc- veyor chain. Long sections such as tubing, bar, ride, and barium chloride. They have an operating
ing atmospheres developed by the control of the and flat products, or heavy sections that permit temperature range of 540 to 870 °C (1000 to
furnace air-to-gas ratio require cleaning to stacking on trays, may be conveyed on a roller 1600 °F) but usually are operated between 540
restore luster. hearth. In rolling-mill operations, the product is and 650 °C (1100 and 1200 °F).
Continuous atmosphere furnaces (Fig. 13) uncoiled at the entrance of the furnace and The sodium chloride-carbonate mixtures (not
offer versatility for solution heat treating a wide pulled through the furnace by terminal equip- true neutral salts) are used between 595 and
925 °C (1100 and 1700 °F), primarily for
annealing. For operating temperatures below
540 °C (1000 °F), the only practical mixtures are
the nitrate-nitrite salts. Cyanide-base salts have
limited application for heating copper alloys.
Although copper is soluble in cyanide, these
salts can be used, with caution, when a very
bright finish is required.
None of the above salt mixtures can be used
for the solution treating of standard beryllium-
copper alloys because of intergranular attack,
pitting, or discoloration.
Aging and stress-relieving operations
require furnace equipment that can be controlled
to within 3 °C (5 °F) throughout the work zone.
Unless cleaning after heating is permissible, it
may be necessary to use controlled-atmosphere
or vacuum equipment.
LIVE GRAPH Because of the necessity for close temperature
Click here to view control, forced-convection (recirculating-air)
and salt bath furnaces are commonly used for
aging and stress relieving. Forced-convection
LIVE GRAPH furnaces may be of the box, bell, or pit type.
Click here to view
Each is equipped with a fan that recirculates the
constant-temperature atmosphere over the work.
When forced-convection furnaces are fired by
gas or oil and protective atmosphere or vacuum
is used, the work must be contained in a proper-
ly operating muffle chamber or retort to seal off
all products of combustion and to prevent air
infiltration. Temperature variations and heating
and cooling times are compared in the subse-
quent example.
Example 1: Comparison of Atmosphere
Furnaces and Salt Bath Treatment. A compari-
LIVE GRAPH son was made of temperature variations in a bell
Click here to view
furnace and in a pit retort furnace during the heat
Fig. 10 Effects of annealing temperature and time on characteristics of C27000 wire and strip. Effects of annealing tem-
treating of small, flat springs made of beryllium
perature (annealing time, 1 h) on (a) tensile strength, (b) grain size, and (c) elongation of C27000 wire hard
drawn 63%. (d) Effect of annealing time on grain size of C27000 strip 1.3 mm (0.050 in.) thick copper (Fig. 14). Both furnaces were rated at
Heat Treating / 251


Fig. 11 Annealing data for alloy C26000. Finish rolling reduction 40.6%
Table 3 Typical properties of copper alloys annealed to temper use in muffle furnaces operating at 705 to 995 °C
Annealed temper (1300 to 1825 °F). The atmosphere is used suc-
Standard Former
Tensile strength
Approximate cessfully for solution treating alloys such as
Alloy Common name designation designation MPa ksi hardness, HR30T beryllium coppers, chromium coppers, zirconium
C26000 Cartridge brass O81 1/4 hard 340–405 49–59 43–51 coppers, and copper-nickel-silicon alloys.
O82 1/2 hard 395–460 57–67 56–66 Usually, combusted gases are dried with a sur-
C51100, C53200, Phosphor bronze O82 1/2 hard 380–485 55–70 57–73 face cooler, using tap water to keep the water-to-
C53400, C54400
C75200 Nickel silver O81 1/4 hard 400–495 58–72 49–67 hydrogen ratio reducing throughout the heating
O82 1/2 hard 455–550 66–80 62–72 and cooling cycle. It may be necessary to lower
the dew point further by refrigerating the gas. If
the furnace atmosphere is not sufficiently reduc-
30 kW. The load in each furnace weighed 90 kg (290 °F) are used for aging and stress relieving. ing, or if the muffle leaks air, a subscale, or
(200 lb) and contained 55,000 to 60,000 springs. All material to be heated in salt should be prop- internal oxidation of the hardening elements
An exothermic gas, produced by a generator using erly cleaned and dried before being immersed in below the surface of the metal, results. Subscale
an air-to-gas ratio of 6.75:1 (capacity, 10 m3/h, or the molten salt; any organic substance (such as formation can occur rapidly above 845 °C
350 ft3/h), was used as the protective atmosphere. oil or grease) will react violently with the (1550 °F) if the atmosphere becomes oxidizing.
The composition of the atmosphere was 6.5% CO, nitrate-nitrite salt. Dissociated ammonia is used primarily for
6% CO2, 10% H2, bal N2, dew point was 2 °C annealing and brazing operations. The gas is
(35 °F) after refrigeration (18 to 21 °C, or 65 to very flammable and can explode if air enters the
70 °F, as generated). Protective Atmospheres furnace while at an elevated temperature or if the
Salt baths can reduce total furnace time by up furnace is improperly purged before reaching
to 30%, compared to that required with atmos- The selection of protective atmospheres for heat the elevated temperature.
phere furnaces (Fig. 15). Salt baths are particu- treating copper and copper alloys is influenced by Dissociated ammonia can be partly or com-
larly valuable when the age-hardening time is of the temperature used in the heat-treating process. pletely burned with air to reduce cost and flam-
short duration and when the precise control of Heating above 705 °C (1300 °F). An mability. The hydrogen content can be con-
time at the aging temperature is required. exothermic atmosphere is the least expensive pro- trolled within a range of 1 to 24%, the
Commercially available nitrate-nitrite salt tective atmosphere for the heat treatment of cop- remainder being nitrogen saturated with water
mixtures (40 to 50% sodium nitrate, remainder per alloys. The air-to-gas ratio is adjusted to pro- vapor. Water must be removed to maintain a
sodium or potassium nitrite) that melt at 143 °C duce a combusted gas that contains 2 to 7% H for reducing atmosphere.
Table 4 Typical stress-relieving temperatures for wrought coppers and copper alloys
Stress-relief temperature for
Sheet and strip Rod and wire Tube(d)
Copper or copper alloy number Name Flat products(a), °C (°F) Parts, °C (°F) Rod(b), °C (°F) Wire(c), °C (°F) Parts, °C (°F) Tube(e), °C (°F) Parts, °C (°F)
Coppers
C11000 Electrolytic tough-pitch 180 (355) 180 (355) 180 (355) 180 (355) 180 (355) … …
C12000 DLP … … … … … 220 (430) 200 (390)
C12200 DHP … … … … … 240 (465) 220 (430)
C14200 DPA … … … … … 260 (500) 240 (465)
Copper alloys
C21000 Gilding, 95% 275 (525) 275 (525) … … … … …
C22000, C22600 Commercial bronze 275 (525) 275 (525) 300 (570) 260 (500) 275 (525) … …
and jewelry bronze
C23000 Red brass, low brass 275 (525) 275 (525) 300 (570) 260 (500) 275 (525) 330 (625) 275 (525)
C26000 Cartridge brass 260 (500) 260 (500) 290 (555) 250 (480) 260 (500) 320 (610) 260 (500)
C27000 Yellow brass, 65% 260 (500) 260 (500) 290 (555) 250 (480) 260 (500) 290 (555) 260 (500)
C31400 Leaded commercial bronze … … 300 (570) 260 (500) 275 (525) … …
C33000, C33200 High- and low-leaded brasses … … … … … 320 (610) 260 (500)
C33500 Low-leaded brasses … … 290 (555) 250 (480) 260 (500) … …
C34000, C35000 Medium-leaded brasses 260 (500) 260 (500) … … … … …
C35300, C35600, C36000, C37700 Leaded, free-cutting … … 290 (555) 250 (480) 260 (500) … …
and forging brasses
C43000 … 275 (525) 275 (525) 300 (570) 260 (500) 275 (525) … …
C43400 … 275 (525) 275 (525) … … … … …
C44300–C44500 Admiralty brasses … … … … … 320 (610) 260 (500)
C46200, C46400–C46700 Naval brasses … … 290 (555) 250 (480) 260 (500) … …
C51000 Phosphor bronze A 275 (525) 275 (525) 300 (570) 260 (500) 275 (525) … …
C52100 Phosphor bronze C … … 300 (570) 260 (500) 275 (525) … …
C54400 Phosphor bronze B-2 … … 300 (570) … 275 (525) … …
C65100, C65500 Silicon bronzes … … 300 (570) 275 (525) 275 (525) … …
C68700 Aluminum brass, arsenical … … … … … 330 (625) 290 (555)
C69700 … … … 360 (680) 360 (680) 360 (680) … …
C70600 Copper nickel, 10% 420 (790) 420 (790) … … … 480 (895) 420 (790)
C71500 Copper nickel, 30% 460 (860) 460 (860) … … … 520 (970) 460 (860)
C73500 … 380 (715) 380 (715) 400 (750) 350 (660) 380 (715) … …
C74500 Nickel silver, 65–10 … … 340 (645) 290 (555) 320 (610) … …
C75200 Nickel silver, 65–18 380 (715) 380 (715) … … … … …
C75400 Nickel silver, 65–15 … … 400 (750) 350 (660) 380 (715) … …
C75700 Nickel-silver, 65–12 … … 350 (660) 300 (570) 340 (645) … …
C77000 Nickel silver, 55–18 340 (645) 340 (645) … … … … …
DLP, phosphorus deoxidized, low-residual phosphorus. DHP, phosphorus deoxidized, high-residual phosphorus. DPA, phosphorus deoxidized, arsenical. Note: Annealing time is 1 h with the exception of tube. (a) Extra hard.
(b) 1/2 hard. (c) Spring. (d) Annelaing time for tube is now min. (e) Hard drawn
Table 5 Typical stress-relieving Table 6 Typical heat treatments and resulting properties for several low-temperature-
temperatures for cast copper alloys hardening alloys
Temperature Aging treatment
Solution-treating
Electrical
Copper alloy number °C °F temperature(a) Temperature conductivity(b),
C81300–C82200 260 500 Alloy °C °F °C °F Time, h Hardness %IACS
C82400–C82800 200 390 Precipitation hardening
C83300–C84800 260 500
C95200–C95800 315 600 C15000 980 1795 500–550 930–1025 3 30 HRB 87–95
C96600–C97800 260 500 C17000, C17200, C17300 760–800 1400–1475 300–350 575–660 1–3 35–44 HRC 22
C99300 510 950 C17500, C17600 900–950 1650–1740 455–490 850–915 1–4 95–98 HRB 48
C18000(c), C81540 900–930 1650–1705 425–540 800–1000 2–3 92–96 HRB 42–48
Note: Time is 1 h per 25 mm (1 in.) of section thickness except for cop-
C18200, C18400, 980–1000 1795–1830 425–500 800–930 2–4 68 HRB 80
per alloy C99300, for which it is 4 h per 25 mm (1 in.). C18500, C81500
C94700 775–800 1425–1475 305–325 580–620 5 180 HB 15
C99400 885 1625 482 900 1 170 HB 17
Spinodal hardening
Hydrogen is highly reducing to copper
C71900 900–950 1650–1740 425–760 800–1400 1–2 86 HRC 4–4
oxide at elevated temperatures and is recom- C72800 815–845 1500–1550 350–360 660–680 4 32 HRC …
mended for elevated-temperature bright
annealing and brazing. (a) Solution treating is followed by water quenching. (b) International Annealed Copper Standard. (c) Alloy C18000 (81540) must be double aged,
typically 3 h at 540 °C (1000 °F) followed by 3 h at 425 °C (800 °F) (U.S. Patent 4,191,601) in order to develop the higher levels of electrical con-
Commercial hydrogen contains about 0.2% ductivity and hardness.
O, which, if not removed, may cause internal
oxidation of the reactive alloying elements in
the copper. of its low sulfur content, natural gas is the pre- Although the annealed metal is not as bright as
When mixed with air, hydrogen is explosive ferred fuel for the production of combusted gas. when heated in a combusted-fuel-gas atmos-
at elevated temperature. Therefore, the furnace The air-to-gas ratio is adjusted to produce a phere, it is satisfactory for some applications.
must be purged before being heated to high tem- hydrogen content of 0.5 to 1%. Combusted gas For products such as tightly wound coils of strip,
perature, and air must not enter the furnace. is dried before entering the furnace to prevent steam can be used during the heating cycle, and
Heating below 705 °C (1300 °F). discoloration and staining of the metal by water combusted fuel gas can be used during cooling.
Combusted gas (lean exothermic atmosphere) is vapor during the cooling cycle. Inert gases, dissociated ammonia burned with
the most widely used protective atmosphere for Steam is the most economical atmosphere for air, and vacuum are more expensive and are not
the anneal of copper and copper alloys. Because protecting copper alloys during annealing. in common use for the annealing of copper
Heat Treating / 253
Fig. 13 Continuous conveyor furnace for heat treating copper alloys in a controlled atmosphere
ation for parts that have been incorrectly heated Therefore, to minimize grain growth, excessive
for precipitation hardening. time at temperature must be avoided. It is rec-
Fig. 12 Transmission electron micrograph of spinodal In the quenched condition, beryllium-copper ommended that wrought alloys be held at tem-
microstructure developed in a 66.3 Cu-30Ni-
2.8Cr (wt%) alloy during slow cooling from 950 °C alloys are easily fabricated by standard produc- perature 1 h for each inch or fraction of an inch
(1740 °F). The microstructure is homogenous up to the tion methods. Strip can be readily blanked, of section thickness. The optimal amount of time
grain boundary indicated by the arrow. 35,000 formed, deep drawn, or spun. Rod and bar for a specific application must be determined by
respond to hot or cold forming, including forg- mechanical testing and microscopic examination
alloys. A major disadvantage of vacuum is that ing, machining, and swaging. However, even of the alloy.
heating and cooling are slow because heat is though fully solution-annealed material is the Effect of Oxidation. When beryllium-copper
transferred by radiation only. softest form available, better age-hardening alloys are solution treated in air or in an oxidizing
properties can be obtained if the material is cold atmosphere, two types of oxidation are encoun-
worked after the final solution anneal. Therefore tered. A continuous and tenacious oxide surface
Heat Treating of the alloy is often used in one of the cold-worked layer forms on alloys with high beryllium con-
Beryllium-Copper Alloys tempers shown in Table 8. The selection of a tents. Low-beryllium alloys form a loosely adher-
proper temper for a particular application is ing scale and are subject to internal oxidation.
Because the solid solubility of beryllium in an based on the severity of cold forming and the The oxide layer on high-beryllium alloys
-copper matrix decreases as the temperature is mechanical property requirements. does not significantly affect the mechanical
lowered, beryllium-copper alloys are precipita- Solution-treating temperature limits must be properties of the precipitation-hardened materi-
tion hardenable. Heat treatment typically con- adhered to if optimal properties are to be al, but it is abrasive and causes severe wear of
sists of solution annealing, followed by precipi- obtained from the precipitation-hardening treat- tools and dies if not removed. The oxidation of
tation hardening. Table 7 gives recommended ment. Solution treating below the specified min- low-beryllium alloys not only has an abrasive
schedules for the solution treating and precipita- imum temperature results in insufficient solution effect, it decreases mechanical properties. This
tion hardening of the five major beryllium-cop- of the beryllium-rich phase. This results in lower is caused by the surface layer of internal oxida-
per alloys that are produced in wrought form. hardness after precipitation hardening (Fig. 16). tion, which reduces the effective section thick-
Optimal mechanical and physical properties for Also, solution treating must be carefully con- ness of the material. For both types of alloys,
specific applications can be attained by varying trolled to produce the desired grain size, dimen- oxides may be removed by chemical or abrasive
these schedules, but the temperatures and times sional tolerances, and mechanical properties and cleaning methods.
given in this table constitute the most conven- to prevent oxidation. Exceeding the upper tem- Quenching is a critical phase of the solution-
tional practice and typically provide maximum perature limit causes grain coarsening in wrought treating process. Successful treatment requires
tensile strength. In addition, better age harden- material and overheating in wrought and cast that the material be quenched immediately, and
ing characteristics can be obtained if the materi- materials. A coarse grain size impairs formabili- at the highest possible rate, after being removed
al is cold worked after the solution anneal. ty; overheating results in a brittle material that from the furnace. Any time lapse during transfer
There is a wide variety of copper-base casting does not fully respond to precipitation hardening. from the furnace to the quenching medium per-
alloys (C81300 through C82800), in addition to Effect of Solution-Treating Time. The time mits some cooling and causes precipitation.
the wrought beryllium-copper alloys, that con- at the solution-treating temperature depends on Precipitation is rapid at elevated temperatures
tain beryllium. Appropriate solution-treating and the amount of beryllium-rich phase that must be and its occurrence significantly affects the prop-
aging schedules for these alloys are dictated by dissolved. Solution of this phase must be com- erties obtained during subsequent precipitation
the levels of beryllium and other additives. plete to produce maximum strength after precip- hardening. The maximum allowable delay before
itation hardening. quenching depends on the mass of the load, the
In cast products, the as-cast structure usually size of the parts, and the transfer equipment.
Solution Treating contains a large amount of microsegregation Mechanical testing and microscopic examination
within the dendritic pattern. Therefore, castings of the structure should be used to evaluate the
Wrought beryllium-copper alloy mill prod- must be heated for a length of time sufficient to effectiveness of the quenching operation.
ucts are generally supplied solution treated or homogenize the structure. A minimum of 3 h at Water quenching is the most common method
solution treated and cold worked (Table 8). temperature is recommended for this purpose. of retaining the solid-solution condition in both
Material in these conditions can be fabricated The solution treating of wrought material also wrought and cast products; however, because of
without further heat treatment. Thus, solution removes the effects of cold working and permits their shape, some castings may crack as the
treating is not typically a part of the fabricating additional forming. Some grain growth will result of the rapid cooling. Such castings may be
process unless it is necessitated by a special occur during softening for additional forming quenched in oil or forced air; however, the slow-
requirement such as softening of the material for because the solution-treating temperature is er cooling rates may cause some precipitation.
additional forming or is used as a salvage oper- above the recrystallization temperature. Thin-gage strip is typically cooled in forced air.
Precipitation Hardening work hardening offers no advantage beyond Table 9 lists the properties typically specified
the hard temper because formability is poor for mill products of the common beryllium-cop-
The cold working of solution-treated beryl- and control of the precipitation-hardening per alloys, and Fig. 17 shows the time required
lium-copper alloys influences the strength treatment for maximum strength is critical. to develop maximum tensile strength in one of
attainable through subsequent aging; the For some applications, however, wire is drawn these alloys aged at various temperatures. The
greatest response to aging occurs in material to higher levels of cold work prior to precipi- aging times in Fig. 17 vary slightly from those
in the cold-rolled hard temper. In general, tation hardening. given in Table 9 for the same alloy; the latter are
LIVE GRAPH primarily for acceptance-test purposes.
Click here to view
Special combinations of properties can be
obtained by varying either the aging time or the
aging temperature. Table 10 shows the age-hard-
ening response from underaging to overaging
for cold-rolled material in various tempers. As
tensile strength increases, elongation decreases
and does not recover substantially with overag-
ing, but electrical conductivity continues to
increase. The response of alloy C17200 (1.9Be-
0.2Co Ni) at other aging temperatures within
the hardening range (290 to 400 °C, or 550 to
750 °F) are similar to the response at 370 °C
(700 °F), but the corresponding time cycles vary.
Recommended precipitation-hardening cycles
for solution-treated beryllium-copper castings
are given in Table 11.
Effect of Temperature. The close control of
temperature is critical in the conventional aging
of beryllium-copper alloys. As indicated by the
data in Tables 9 and 10, a change in temperature
affects the time required for the development of
maximum properties. Also, the higher tempera-
tures can result in lower property values. Normal
commercial control of 6 °C (10 °F) is ade-
quate for temperatures in the range from 315 to
370 °C (600 to 700 °F).
Problems involving temperature usually arise
when test data are translated into production
control data. A strip specimen of the material
LIVE GRAPH tested at the mill may just meet the minimum
Click here to view
specification requirements; however, when the
fabricator heat treats a large mass of parts made
of the same material, tests may indicate proper-
ties below the minimum requirements. The low
properties may result from heat treating too
large a mass of parts relative to the capacity of
the furnace, inadequate time at the proper tem-
perature, or the use of a higher temperature to
gain production speed or to obtain fixture con-
formity when the parts are in fixtures.
Fig. 15 Effect of metal thickness and heating medium

on aging time required to develop maximum
Fig. 14 Temperature variations in two types of furnaces (Example 1). (a) Bell furnace. (b) Retort furnace strength in C17200 strip
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Heat Treating / 255
Table 7 Solution treating and precipitation hardening of wrought beryllium–copper

alloys
Solution treatment(a) Aging treatment
Temperature Temperature
Alloy °C °F Time(b), h °C °F Time, h
C17000 775–800 1425–1475–3 1/2 –3 300–330 575–625 1–3

C17200 775–800 1425–1475 1/2 –3 300–330 575–625 1–3
C17300 775–800 1425–1475 1/2 –3
C17500 900–925 1650–1700 1/2 –3 455–480 850–900 1–3
C17510 900–925 1650–1700 1/2 –3 455–480 850–900 1–3
(a) All alloys are cooled immediately and rapidly from the solution-treating temperature. Thin sections such as strip can be cooled in circulating atmos- LIVE GRAPH
phere; heavier sections require water quenching. (b) Shorter times may be desirable to minimize grain growth, particularly for thin sections. Click here to view
Effect of Grain Size. The effect of grain Table 8 Typical conditions of beryllium-
size on the properties of heat-treated material copper mill products
is less significant for beryllium-copper alloys
Tensile strength
than for solid-solution alloys such as brass and before aging
phosphor bronze. The relatively high tempera- Temper Description MPa ksi
tures required for solution treating beryllium- TB00 Solution treated 480 70
copper alloys usually override the effects of TD01 Solution treated and 550 80
cold work and time at temperature. Low solu- cold worked to 1/4 hard
tion-treating temperatures will result in a fine TD02 Solution treated 625 91
and cold worked to 1/2 hard
grain size, but, if the temperature is too low to TD04 Solution treated and 760 110
dissolve the beryllium-rich phase, the response cold worked to hard
to aging will be affected adversely and the
benefits obtained from the fine grain size will
be nullified. For this reason, grain sizes below Example 2: Reduction in Dimensional
about 0.015 mm (0.0006 in.) are not practical Variation with Fixturing. A comparison was
for most beryllium-copper products, regard- made of the dimensional variations that occurred
less of dimensions. With normal commercial during the aging of solenoid guides heated as
practice, and depending on the product, the
LIVE GRAPH
loose pieces and as fixtured pieces. The fixture Click here to view
grain size of solution-treated material will that was used supported, with adequate pressure,
range from about 0.015 to 0.060 mm (0.6 to all inside and outside surfaces of the part.
2.4 mils). Although the total cost of aging the guides as
Fixturing for Close Tolerances. Excellent fixtured pieces was nearly two and a half times
dimensional accuracy can be achieved by prop- the cost of aging them as loose pieces (total cost Fig. 16 Effect of solution-treating temperature on hard-
ness of C17200 and C17500 after aging
erly supporting beryllium-copper parts during per piece, based on the aging of 100,000 pieces
aging. Usually, overaging is necessary to hold per year), a significant improvement (reduction)
close tolerances. Fixture design should be based in dimensional variation was achieved by the use rupted aging sequence (Example 3, mentioned
on certain principles: of fixtures (Table 12). previously) is important but not critical. If the
Example 3: Fixturing and Aging Procedure time is inadequate, the direction of movement
• Fixtures should be of minimum weight for Dimensional Control of a Beryllium- will not be established; if excessive, there will be
• Excessive clamping pressure should be Copper Spring Clip. Spring clips like the one insufficient time for heating the parts on the fix-
avoided, to prevent stripping of clamping-
shown in Fig. 19 were press formed to a slightly ture to allow enough stress relief for close con-
screw threads and warping of fixtures
undersized inside diameter (24.9 to 25.2 mm, or formity. Usually the duration of the preliminary
• Parts should be held only at critical locations
0.980 to 0.990 in.) so that they would fit snugly treatment should be about 15% of the total aging
• A maximum number of parts should be held
on a mandrel 25.4 0.03 mm (1 0.001 in.) in time. Allowance must be made for the mass
by a minimum number of clamping screws
diameter. However, during aging for 12 h at effect of the load on the time required for it to
• Design should minimize warping of the fix-
350 °C (660 °F), the metal moved in the direc- reach furnace temperature. Also, interrupted
ture, maximizing its service life
tion of elastic deflection, which caused the clips aging procedures can be used to restrict increas-
• When the configuration of the part permits,
to be loose on the mandrel. Because precipita- es in the outside diameters of various parts.
the fixture should be designed so that parts
tion hardening of beryllium-copper is a cumula- Inspection and Quality Control. In most
can be stacked. Often parts having no more
tive time-temperature reaction, the hardening instances, the completeness of aging can be ver-
than two planes can be stacked (see Fig. 18),
treatment can be interrupted. Therefore, the clips ified by hardness testing. Exceptions are the ten-
provided that no burrs are present.
(without being placed on the mandrel) were par- sion testing of specimens taken from large parts
An understanding of the behavior of berylli- tially aged for 5 min at 350 °C (660 °F) and simulated service testing to determine elas-
um-copper alloys during the hardening treat- (decreasing the original dimension to 24.8 to tic performance. Figure 20 is an example of vari-
ment is helpful in the design and use of fixtures 25.0 mm, or 0.975 to 0.985 in.) and then were ations observed from tensile testing.
for parts with a controlled gap or opening. These placed on the mandrel and aged at the same tem- Hardness measurements should always be
may be U-shaped parts, circular parts, or clips of perature for the remaining 25 min. made using the method and load most suitable
various designs. During heating for hardening, Following this aging treatment, none of the for the thickness of the material and the nor-
the material will move in the direction in which clips was larger than the diameter of the man- mal level of hardness expected. Table 13 indi-
it was plastically formed or elastically deflected. drel; the actual final dimension was governed by cates suggested methods for testing various
If both conditions occur before hardening, the time and temperature of aging, that is, by the thicknesses of a hardened beryllium-copper
movement due to the elastic effect will prevail. amount of stress relief that occurred. alloy. Variations obtained with heat-treated
These phenomena may be illustrated by the sub- Interrupted Aging. The selection of the time parts and with strip are presented in the subse-
sequent examples. and temperature for the first step of the inter- quent examples.
Example 4: Hardness Variations in tion annealed and then aged for 5 h at 343 al representative of the parts. Specifications
Beryllium-Copper Springs. Terminal 6 °C (650 10 °F) in a batch-type recircu- required a hardness of 70 to 75 HR15N.
springs made of a beryllium-copper alloy of lating-air furnace (Fig. 21). The furnace load Results of hardness tests on 41 production
the composition 0.8 to 1% Be, 0.85% (max) consisted of 280,000 pieces. Hardness tests lots within a three-month period are present-
Ni Co Fe, 3% (max) Zn Sn were solu- were conducted on specimens of strip materi- ed in Fig. 21.
Table 9 Properties and precipitation treatments usually specified for beryllium-copper alloys
Standard aging treatment
Electrical
Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength(a) conductivity,
Initial condition Time, h °C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation(b), % Hardness(c) %IACS
C17200
Flat products
Annealed None … … 415–540 60–78 195–380 28–55 35–60 45–78 HRB 17–19
1/4 hard None … … 515–605 75–88 415–550 60–80 10–40 68–90 HRB 16–18
1/2 hard None … … 585–690 85–100 515–655 75–95 10–25 88–96 HRB 15–17
Hard None … … 690–825 100–120 620–770 90–112 2–8 96–102 HRB 15–17
Annealed(d) 3 315 600 1140–1345 165–195 965–1205 140–175 4–10 35–40 HRC 22–25
Annealed 1/2 370 700 1105–1310 160–190 895–1205 130–175 3–10 34–40 HRC 22–25
1/4 hard(d) 2 315 600 1205–1415 175–205 1035–1275 150–185 3–6 37–42 HRC 22–25
1/4 hard 1/3 370 700 1170–1380 170–200 965–1275 140–185 2–6 36–42 HRC 22–25
1/2 hard(d) 2 315 600 1275–1485 185–215 1105–1345 160–195 2–5 39–44 HRC 22–25
1/2 hard 1/4 370 700 1240–1450 180–210 1070–1345 155–195 2–5 38–44 HRC 22–25
Hard(d) 2 315 600 1310–1575 190–220 1140–1415 165–205 1–4 40–45 HRC 22–25
Hard 1/4 370 700 1275–1480 185–215 1105–1415 160–205 1–4 39–45 HRC 22–25
Rod, bar, plate
Hard None … … 585–895 85–130 515–725 75–105 10–20 88–103 HRB 15–17
Annealed(d) 3 315 600 1140–1345 165–200 1000–1205 145–175 3–10 36–41 HRC 22–25
Hard(d) 2 315 600 1205–1550 175–225 1035–1380 150–200 2–5 39–45 HRC 22–25
Wire(e)
Annealed None … … 450–590 65–85 185–240 20–35 35–55 … 17–19
1/4 hard None … … 620–795 90–115 485–655 70–95 10–35 … 15–17
1/2 hard None … … 760–930 110–135 620–760 90–110 4–10 … 15–17
3/4 hard None … … 895–1070 130–155 760–930 110–135 2–8 … 15–17
Annealed(d) 3 315 600 1140–1310 165–190 1000–1205 145–175 3–8 … 22–25
Annealed 1/2 370 700 1105–1310 160–190 930–1205 135–175 3–8 … 22–25
1/4 hard(d) 2 315 600 1205–1415 175–205 1105–1310 160–190 2–5 … 22–25
1/4 hard 1/4 370 700 1170–1415 170–205 1035–1310 150–190 2–5 … 22–25
1/2 hard(d) 11/2 315 600 1310–1480 190–215 1205–1380 175–200 1–3 … 22–25
1/2 hard 1/4 370 700 1275–1480 185–215 1170–1380 170–200 1–3 … 22–25
3/4 hard(d) 1 315 600 1345–1585 195–230 1245–1415 180–205 1–3 … 22–25
3/4 hard 1/4 370 700 1310–1585 190–230 1205–1415 175–205 1–3 … 22–25
C17000
Flat products
1/4 hard None … … 515–605 75–88 310–515 45–75 10–40 68–90 HRB 16–18
1/2 hard None … … 585–690 85–100 450–620 65–90 10–25 88–96 HRB 15–17
Hard None … … 690–825 100–120 550–760 80–110 2–8 96–102 HRB 15–17
Annealed 3 315 600 1035–1240 150–180 895–1105 130–165 4–10 33–39 HRC 22–25
Annealed(d) 3 345 650 1105–1275 160–185 860–1140 125–165 4–10 34–40 HRC 22–25
1/4 hard 2 315 600 1105–1310 160–190 860–1140 135–170 3–6 34–40 HRC 22–25
1/4 hard(d) 3 330 625 1170–1345 170–195 895–1170 130–170 3–6 36–41 HRC 22–25
1/2 hard 2 315 600 1170–1380 170–200 895–1170 145–175 2–5 36–41 HRC 22–25
1/2 hard(d) 2 330 625 1240–1380 180–200 965–1240 140–180 2–5 38–42 HRC 22–25
Hard 2 315 600 1240–1450 180–210 965–1240 155–180 2–5 38–42 HRC 22–25
Hard(d) 2 330 625 1275–1415 185–205 1070–1345 155–195 2–5 39–43 HRC 22–25
Rod, bar
Hard None … … 585–895 85–130 515–725 75–105 10–20 88–103 HRB 15–17
Annealed 3 315 600 1035–1240 150–180 860–1070 125–155 4–10 32–39 HRC 22–25
Annealed(d) 3 345 650 1105–1275 160–185 930–1140 135–165 4–10 34–40 HRC 22–25
Hard 2 315 600 1140–1380 165–200 930–1140 135–165 2–5 36–41 HRC 22–25
Hard(d) 2 345 650 1205–1415 175–205 965–1170 140–170 2–5 38–42 HRC 22–25
C17500, C17510
Rod, bar, plate, flat products

Hard None … … 515–585 75–85 380–550 55–80 3–10 78–88 HRB 20–30
Annealed 3 480 900 690–760 100–120 550–690 80–100 10–20 92–100 HRB 45–60
Annealed(d) 3 455 850 725–825 105–120 550–725 80–105 8–12 93–100 HRB 45–52
Hard 2 480 900 760–860 110–130 690–825 100–120 8–15 95–103 HRB 45–60
Hard(d) 2 455 850 795–930 115–135 725–860 105–125 5–8 97–104 HRB 45–52
(a) At 0.2% offset. (b) In 50 mm (2 in.). (c) Rockwell B and C hardness values are accurate only if metal is at least 1 mm (0.040 in.) thick. (d) Heat treatment that provides optimal strength. (e) For wire diameters greater than
1.3 mm (0.050 in.)
Heat Treating / 257
Example 5: Hardness Variations in lium-copper strip (alloy C17200) were aged in a contained 1090 kg (2400 lb) of nitrate-nitrite
Beryllium-Copper Spring Receptacle. Spring salt bath at 300 °C (575 °F) for 30 min. The salt salt (see Fig. 22).
contact receptacles stamped from 14 hard beryl- pot, 915 840 760 mm (36 33 30 in.), A strip of about 1000 of these parts was wound
onto a birdcage reel 265 mm (1012 in.) in diameter
and 305 mm (12 in.) wide. Each receptacle
weighed about 0.6 g (0.02 oz); therefore, the total
weight of the receptacles on each reel was about
565 g (20 oz). Each reel weighed about 0.9 kg (2
lb), and one furnace load consisted of eight reels.
Specified hardness for these parts was 75 to
79 HR15N. Figure 22 shows the variation in
hardness for 50 batches.
Heat Treating of
Chromium-Copper Alloys
Chromium-copper alloys of 0.5 to 1.0% Cr are
solution treated, in molten salt or in controlled-
atmosphere furnaces to avoid scaling, at 980 to
1010 °C (1800 to 1850 °F) and rapidly quenched.
Solution-treated chromium-copper is soft and
LIVE GRAPH ductile; therefore, it can be cold worked in a man-
Click here to view
Fig. 17 Time-temperature relationships in aging of C17200 strip, showing aging time required for the development ner similar to that used for unalloyed copper.
of maximum strength in annealed, 14 hard, 12 hard, and hard C17200 strip aged at various temperatures in After being solution treated, the material may
a recirculating-air furnace be aged for several hours at 400 to 500 °C (750
Table 10 Effects of special precipitation-hardening treatments on mechanical properties and electrical conductivity of Cu-1.9Be strip
Aging treatment
Electrical
Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength(a) Fatigue strength(c) Modulus of elasticity
Initial Time, conductivity,
condition min °C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation(b), % %IACS MPa ksi GPa 106 psi
Alloy C17200
Annealed None … … 465 67.5 250 36 49 18.0 205 30 115 16.5
5 370 700 855 124 695 101 18 19.5 … … 120 17.5
15 370 700 1195 173 1055 153 10 22.0 … … 125 18.0
30 370 700 1260 182.5 1060 153.5 6 23.0 … … 125 18.0
60 370 700 1240 180 1055 153 5 25.5 255 37 130 18.5
120 370 700 1195 173.5 1040 151 6 26.0 … … 130 18.5
240 370 700 1150 167 980 142 6 26.5 … … 130 19.0
1/4 hard None … … 570 82.5 485 70.5 21 17.0 220 32 115 17.0
5 370 700 1115 162 945 137 9 18.5 … … 125 18.0
15 370 700 1250 181 1115 162 6 20.5 … … 130 18.5
30 370 700 1290 187 1125 163.5 4 23.5 290 42 130 18.5
60 370 700 1230 178.5 1060 154 3 25.5 … … 130 18.5
120 370 700 1185 172 1000 145 4 26.5 … … 130 19.0
240 370 700 1155 167.5 970 141 6 27.0 … … 130 19.0
1/2 hard None … … 605 87.5 555 80.5 17 16.0 230 33 115 17.0
3 370 700 1010 146.5 885 128 11 18.0 230 33 125 18.0
5 370 700 1280 186 1110 161 3 21.0 295 43 125 18.0
15 370 700 1310 190 1175 170.5 2 23.0 305 44 130 18.5
30 370 700 1325 192.5 1180 171 2 24.5 305 44 130 18.5
60 370 700 1280 185.5 1105 160 2 25.0 295 43 130 18.5
120 370 700 1200 174 1040 150.5 3 26.0 275 40 130 18.5
240 370 700 1185 172 1035 150 3 27.0 275 40 130 19.0
420 370 700 1010 146.5 860 125 10 27.0 200 29 130 19.0
Hard None … … 730 106 690 100 5 15.0 270 39 120 17.5
5 370 700 1300 188.5 1125 163 3 18.0 … … 125 18.0
15 370 700 1360 197 1195 173 2 21.0 … … 130 18.5
30 370 700 1310 190 1170 170 1 24.5 315 46 130 19.0
60 370 700 1295 188 1105 160 1 26.5 … … 130 19.0
120 370 700 1240 180 1090 158 2 27.5 … … 130 19.0
240 370 700 1215 176 1055 153 2 27.5 … … 130 19.0
Alloy C17500
Annealed None … … 350 51 170 25 30 25 … … 110 16.3
120 425 800 805 117 625 91 14 44 … … 135 19.3
120 455 850 835 121 675 98 14 48 … … 140 20.0
120 480 900 805 116.5 625 91 14 48 215 31 140 20.0
120 510 950 795 115 600 87 16 48.5 … … 140 20.0
Hard None … … 440 63.5 425 61.5 2 27.8 … … 125 18.3
120 425 800 985 142.5 860 125 11 44.0 … … 140 20.0
120 455 850 915 133 800 116 13 45.0 … … 140 20.0
120 480 900 850 123 760 110.5 13 47.5 250 36 140 20.0
120 510 950 800 116 705 102 12 49.0 … … 140 20.0
(a) At 0.2% offset. (b) In 50 mm (2 in.). (c) 107 cycles

Table 11 Recommended precipitation-hardening schedules and resulting properties for solution-treated beryllium-copper castings
Solution treatment Aging treatment
Electrical
Temperature Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength(a)
Elongation(b), conductivity,
Alloy °C °F Time, min °C °F Time, min MPa ksi MPa ksi % Hardness %IACS
C81300 980–1010 1800–1850 60 480 900 120 365 53 250 36 11 89 HB(c) 60

C81700 900–925 1650–1700 60 455 850 180 635 92 470 68 8 217 HB(d) 48
C81800 900–925 1650–1700 60 480 900 180 705 102 515 75 8 92 HRB 45
C82000 900–925 1650–1700 180 480 900 180 690 100 515 75 8 195 HB(d) 45
C82100 900–925 1650–1700 60 455 850 180 635 92 470 68 8 217 HB(d) 48
C82200 900–925 1650–1700 60 445–455 835–850 120 655 95 515 75 8 96 HRB 45
C82400 785–850 1450–1560 60 345 650 180 1035 150 965 140 1 34 HRC 25
C82500 785–800 1450–1475 60 345 650 180 1105 160 795 115 1 40 HRC 20
C82600 785–800 1450–1475 60 345 650 180 1105 160 1035 150 1 40 HRC 19
C82700 785–800 1450–1475 180 345 650 180 1070 155 895 130 0 39 HRC 20
C82800 785–800 1450–1475 60 345 650 180 1140 165 1000 145 1 42 HRC 18
(a) At 0.2% extension under load. (b) In 50 mm (2 in.). (c) 500 kg load. (d) 3000 kg load
Table 12 Dimensional variations in beryl- Table 13 Suggested methods for measur-

lium-copper solenoid guides aged with and ing the hardness of heat-treated C17200
without fixtures (Example 2) Thickness
Dimensional variation(a) mm in. Hardness test method Load, kg
Dimension Loose pieces Fixtured pieces 0.03–0.08 0.001–0.003 Diamond pyramid 0.2
A(b)
3/16 in. 1/32
in. max 0.08–0.38 0.003–0.015 Diamond pyramid 0.5
B 1/8 to 1/16 in. 0.010 in. 0.38–0.51 0.015–0.020 Rockwell 15
C –4 to 2° 1/2° superficial 15N
D –4 to 2° 1/2° 0.51–1.02 0.020–0.040 Rockwell 30
superficial 15N
1.02 0.040 Rockwell B or C Standard
Fig. 18 Parts that can and those that cannot be stacked

in fixtures for the control of dimensional toler-
ances during aging
Note: Linear dimensions are in inches. (a) Assuming no deviations

from the die operation. (b) Twist in 3 in.
Fig. 19 Spring clip representing a type of beryllium-

copper part that should be partially aged with-
out a fixture and then placed on a mandrel for final aging, Fig. 20 Variation in tensile strength of hard C17200 strip after aging. The strip was 0.17 to 0.19 mm (0.0065 to 0.0075
for control of diameter in.) thick and was aged 3 h at 315 °C (600 °F). The number of tests of each group was 200.
Heat Treating / 259
Fig. 21 Variation in hardness for 41 lots of heat-treated

beryllium-copper terminal springs tested over
a three-month period. High and low values in each lot are
plotted.
Variation in hardness for 50 batches of aged spring contact receptacles stamped from 4 hard C17200 strip
1
Fig. 22
Table 14 Typical effects of heat treatment and cold work on properties of 1% Cr-Cu alloys Heat Treating of Miscellaneous
Ultimate
Electrical
Precipitation-Hardening Alloys
tensile strength Yield strength(a)
conductivity,
Condition MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation(b), % Hardness %IACS Other alloys that can be age hardened are the
Alloy C18200 nickel-tin bronze alloys C94700 and C94800,
Solution treated 240 35 105 15 42 50 HRF 35–42 copper-nickel-beryllium alloy C96600, and the
Solution treated and aged 350 51 275 40 15 90 HB(c) 75–82 complex, special alloys C99400 and C99500.
Solution treated and drawn 40% 415 60 310 45 15 65 HRB 40 The solution-treating and precipitation-harden-
Solution treated, hard drawn, and aged 435 63 385 56 18 68–75 HRB 80
Solution treated, aged, and drawn 30% 480 70 425 62 18 75–80 HRB 80
ing treatments for these alloys are shown in
Table 16.
Alloy C81500
A protective atmosphere of exothermic gas or
Cast, solution treated, and aged 350 51 275 40 17 105 HB(c) 75–80
dissociated ammonia is recommended during
(a) At 0.5% extension under load. (b) In 50 mm (2 in.). (c) 500 kg load the aging of these alloys to produce bright sur-
faces. Parts heated in gas-fired or oil-fired fur-
naces in which the products of combustion are
to 930 °F) to produce special mechanical and solution of zirconium. If material containing used as a protective atmosphere may tarnish
physical properties. A typical aging cycle is 4 h 0.15% Zr or more is heated above 980 °C slightly and require cleaning. Aging in an oxi-
or more at 455 °C (850 °F). (1795 °F), the Cu3Zr phase will begin to melt. A dizing atmosphere results in scaling.
Typical effects of heat treatment and cold slight amount of melting will not affect mechan- Alloys C19000 and C19100 (Cu-4Ni-0.25P)
work on the properties of chromium-copper are ical properties, but if excessive melting occurs, also respond to precipitation hardening. The
shown in Table 14. The hard drawn specimens the ductility of the alloy will decrease. alloys are solution treated at 705 to 790 °C
were obtained by reducing the cross-sectional Normally, as the solution temperature is (1300 to 1450 °F). A reducing or neutral atmos-
area of solution-annealed specimens by increased from 900 to 980 °C (1650 to phere should be used to prevent internal oxida-
approximately 40%. 1795 °F), the aging temperature should also be tion, especially on thin sections. Water quench-
increased to maintain high electrical conductiv- ing is preferred, although rapid air cooling may
ity. Aging treatments that produce the best com- be adequate for separate small parts.
Heat Treating of Precipitation hardening is accomplished by
bination of mechanical properties and electrical
Zirconium-Copper Alloys conductivity are: aging the alloy at 425 to 480 °C (800 to 900 °F)
for 1 to 3 h. While annealing is required to facil-
The solution treatment of zirconium-copper itate cold working prior to aging, temperatures
of the composition 99.7% Cu (min), 0.13 to Temperature as low as 620 °C (1150 °F) followed by normal
0.30% Zr consists of heating to 900 to 980 °C Condition °C °F Time, h air cooling are adequate.
(1650 to 1795 °F) and quenching in water. The Solution treated
material may then be precipitation hardened for At 900 °C (1650 °F) 500 930 3 Heat Treating of Spinodal-
1 to 4 h at 500 to 550 °C (930 to 1020 °F). If At 900 °C (1650 °F) 400 750 3
cold working is done prior to aging, the aging and cold worked
Hardening Alloys
temperature is reduced to 370 to 480 °C (700 to At 980 °C (1795 °F) 550 1020 3
At 980 °C (1795 °F) 450 840 3
900 °F) for 1 to 4 h. and cold worked Spinodal structures are composed of a fine,
Time at the solution-treating temperature homogenous mixture of two phases that form by
should be minimized in order to limit grain growth the growth of composition waves in a solid solu-
and possible internal oxidation by a reaction of the The increase in the strength of zirconium-cop- tion during a suitable heat treatment. The phases
zirconium with the furnace atmosphere. Because per depends primarily on cold working. of the spinodal product differ in composition from
the solution and diffusion of the zirconium occur Although aging results in some increase in each other and from the parent phase but have the
rapidly at the solution-treating temperature, hold- strength, its chief effect is to increase electrical same crystal structure as the parent phase. The
ing at temperature is not required. conductivity. The properties developed by vari- fineness of spinodal structures is characterized by
Optimal mechanical properties and resistance ous combinations of heat treatment and cold the distance between regions of identical compo-
to softening are developed with a maximum working are given in Table 15. sition, which is of the order of 50 to 1000 Å.
Table 15 Effect of heat treatment and cold work on properties of zirconium-copper alloy C15000
Aging
Electrical
Solution-treating temperature(a) Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength
Amount of cold Hardness, conductivity,
°C °F work, % °C °F Time, h MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation(b), % HRB %IACS
900 1650 20 475 885 1 310 45 260 38 25 48 85 min

900 1650 80 425 795 1 425 62 380 55 12 64 85 min
980 1795 None … … … 200 29 41(c) 6(c) 54 … 64
980 1795 20 … … … 270 39 250(c) 36(c) 26 37 64
980 1795 80 … … … 440 64 420(c) 61(c) 19 73 64
980 1795 None 500 930 3 205 30 90 13 51 … 87
980 1795 None 550 1025 3 205 30 90 13 49 … 95
980 1795 20 400 750 3 330 48 260 38 31 50 80
980 1795 20 450 840 3 330 48 275 40 28 57 92
980 1795 85 400 750 3 495 72 440 64 24 79 85
980 1795 85 450 840 3 470 68 425 62 23 74 91
(a) Hold 30 min, water quench. (b) In 50 mm (2 in.). (c) 0.5% extension under load
Table 16 Typical heat-treating schedules and resulting properties for miscellaneous precipitation-hardening alloys
Solution treatment Tempering treatment
Temperature Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength(a)
Elongation(b), Hardness,
Alloy °C °F Time, min °C °F Time, min MPa ksi MPa ksi % HB(c)
C94700 775–800 1425–1475 120 305–325 580–620 300 585 85 415 60 10 180
C94800 … … … 305–325 580–620 360–1000 415 60 205 30 8 120
C96600 995 1825 60 510 950 180 760 110 485 70 7 230
C99400 885 1625 60 480 900 60 545 79 370 54 … 170
C99500 885 1625 60 480 900 60 595 86 425 62 8 196
(a) At 0.2% extension under load for C96600; at 0.5% extension under load for all other alloys. (b) In 50 mm (2 in.). (c) 3000 kg load
The conditions for the formation of a spinodal composition is adjusted toward equilibrium. At
structure are thermodynamic and diffusional; the large supersaturations (TA), the solution is
particular alloy system must have a miscibility unstable, and the two-phase mixture gradually
gap (either stable or metastable), and the atoms emerges by the continuous growth of initially
of the two component metals must possess suffi- small amplitude fluctuations (Fig. 24). The rate
cient mobility at the heat-treating temperature. A of reaction is controlled by the rate of atomic
phase diagram of a hypothetical binary alloy migration and the diffusion distances involved,
system with a stable miscibility gap is shown in which depend on the scale of decomposition
Fig. 23. An alloy of composition C0 that is (undercooling).
homogenized in the single-phase region and The essential features of the spinodal process
then held within the spinodal region is unstable can be understood by considering this diffusion-
to composition variations and will transform al clustering as the inverse of the homogeniza-
spontaneously to the two product phases 1 and tion of a nonuniform solid solution exhibiting a
2 without requiring nucleation. If an alloy sinusoidal variation of composition with dis-
decomposes within the spinodal region by a dif- tance. Long wavelength fluctuations grow slug-
fusional process that allows composition varia- gishly because of the large diffusion distances;
tions to increase in magnitude, it is said to short wavelength fluctuations are suppressed by
Fig. 23 Phase diagram of a binary alloy system that decompose spinodally. The resulting spinodal the so-called gradient, or surface energy, of the
contains a miscibility gap in the solid state. An structures refer to phase mixtures that are diffuse or incipient interfaces that evolve during
equilibrium structure for alloy C0 at temperature TA would
contain two phases of compositions C1 and C2. Spinodal derived from a particular kinetic process govern- phase separation. Therefore, the microstructure
decomposition can occur in the temperature-composition ing the initial stages of phase separation. The that develops during spinodal decomposition has
range below the chemical-spinodal line, which is the locus chemical spinodal line shown in Fig. 23 is not a a characteristic periodicity that is typically 2.5 to
of points defined by the inflection points of the isothermal phase boundary but a demarcation indicating a 10 nm (25 to 100 Å) in metallic systems.
free energy (G) composition curves (∂2G/∂C 2 0).
difference in thermodynamic stability. The heat treatment that causes the spinodal
The spinodal reaction is a spontaneous decomposition of a hypothetical alloy of compo-
unmixing or diffusional clustering distinct from sition C0 (Fig. 23) is:
classical nucleation and growth in metastable
solutions. This different kinetic behavior, which • Homogenize at a temperature above the mis-
cibility gap, such as T0, so that only statistical
does not require a nucleation step, was first
variations in composition exist within the
described by Gibbs in his treatment of the ther-
specimen
modynamic stability of undercooled or supersat-
urated phases. At small undercoolings or low • Cool rapidly to a temperature within the
spinodal region, such as TA, and hold at that
supersaturations (TA), the solution is
temperature, or continuously cool the speci-
metastable; the appearance of a second phase
men from T0 to room temperature
requires relatively large localized compositional
fluctuations. This is the classical nucleation Table 17 lists the recommended solution treat-
process, giving rise to so-called critical nuclei, ment for the copper-nickel-chromium and cop-
Fig. 24 Two sequences for the formation of a two-
which can grow spontaneously. As the particles per-nickel-tin spinodal-hardening alloys. It is
phase mixture by diffusion processes: nucle-
ation and growth, and spinodal decomposition of the new phase grow by diffusion, the matrix important to maintain control within the limits
Heat Treating / 261
shown in order to obtain the proper heat-treating regular solution temperature in preparation for of the quenching of spinodal-hardening C71900
response in the subsequent spinodal aging treat- the quench. (copper-nickel-chromium) alloy is somewhat
ment. Exceeding the upper limit may result in Oxidation. When spinodal copper-nickel-tin less critical, but it is equally important to begin
excessive grain growth in wrought materials, alloys are solution treated in air or oxidizing the quench at a temperature above the 900 °C
which could impair formability in the solution- atmospheres, oxidation is encountered, which (1650 °F) temperature.
annealed condition. Overheating cast material can be extremely abrasive to tools although it Spinodal Hardening (Aging). Table 18 gives
may cause incipient melting, resulting in brittle will not substantially affect the mechanical typical aging treatments and some resultant
material that does not respond to spinodal hard- properties of the spinodal-hardened material. properties of various spinodal-hardening alloys.
ening, particularly in the copper-nickel-tin The oxide generally does not penetrate far below The effect of cold working between the solution
alloys. Solution treating below the minimum the surface of these alloys, and it can be removed quench and aging steps is also given for the cop-
temperature results in incomplete solution and by mechanical, chemical, or abrasive cleaning per-nickel-tin alloys. The copper-nickel-chromi-
failure of the material to harden fully during the methods. um (C71900) alloy can be hardened by slow
spinodal aging treatment. Quenching is a critical step of the solution cooling from the solution-treating (full anneal-
Wrought materials of some of these alloys can process for copper-nickel-tin alloys. Successful ing) range through 760 °C (1400 °F) or by a
be extensively cold worked, with up to 90% heat treating requires that the material be spinodal aging treatment in the 425 to 760 °C
reduction, after an effective solution treatment quenched at the highest possible rate from the (800 to 1400 °F) range after a solution treat-
and quench. Solution anneals used between solution-treating temperature. It is therefore nec- ment. Slow cooling from solution temperature
working schedules must be controlled toward essary to provide both rapid transfer from fur- tends to produce slightly greater ductility.
the lower end of the temperature range and the nace to quench tank and an efficient quenching The Cu-Ni-Sn alloys are hardened by treating
minimum holding times to minimize grain medium. Delays sufficient to cause the loss of in the rather narrow temperature range of 350 to
growth because the solution temperature is temperature before the quench could allow the 360 °C (660 to 680 °F). The development of the
above the recrystallization temperature. copper-nickel-tin intermetallic phase to form, optimal properties requires the careful control of
However, wrought alloys should be solution reducing the effectiveness of the entire heat temperature and time at temperature. The use of
treated for approximately 12 h for each inch of treatment. The quenching medium, which is hardness alone to evaluate results may not be
section thickness (or fraction thereof). generally water, must be sufficiently cold and adequate because high hardness may be main-
Homogenization. Cast microstructures of agitated to maintain a rapid cooling rate to tained where excessive aging causes a decrease
spinodal-hardening alloys generally require below the 200 °C (400 °F) level to ensure that no in elastic properties. Variations in tensile proper-
homogenization to encourage a uniform distri- premature spinodal hardening occurs. ties of 70 to 100 MPa (10 to 15 ksi) are possible
bution of hardening elements and adequate In some circumstances, particularly with the without a significant hardness change.
response to the hardening treatments. The low-tin alloys (C72600 and C72700), oil, air, or Microduplexing. The copper-nickel-tin
C71900 alloy may be homogenized by a pro- cold-gaseous-medium quenching may be used spinodal alloys can be treated using a combina-
longed solution-treating temperature. The cop- for small parts or very thin sections, but a care- tion of cold working and heat treatment called
per-nickel-tin alloys have a tendency to develop ful evaluation of these methods should be con- microduplexing. The alloys are cold worked to
porosity at higher temperatures, and therefore ducted to ensure the adequacy of the quench. significant reductions (typically 40 to 60%) and
homogenization is best accomplished by first Both mechanical testing of fully treated materi- given a partial solution treatment below the sin-
heating the alloys to 725 °C (1335 °F) and hold- als and metallographic examination of the gle-phase boundary, typically at 725 °C
ing long enough to spheroidize the phase (3 to microstructure should be employed to evaluate (1335 °F). The alloy is then aged at the higher
12 h). The temperature is then increased to the the quenching practice. The overall cooling rate spinodal-hardening temperature level of 425 °C
(800 °F) for an extended time. The higher aging
Table 17 Recommended solution-heat-treating temperatures and times for spinodal temperature is used to keep the aging time with-
alloys in reason, as microduplex age hardening takes
Solution-heat-treating temperature
place much more slowly than full spinodal
hardening. This treatment results in moderately
Alloy Alloy number °C °F Time at temperature, h
high tensile properties and significantly greater
Cu-30Ni-3Cr C71900 900–950 1650–1740 1/2 2
ductility. The curves in Fig. 25 show the effect
Cu-4Ni-4Sn C72600 700–760 1300–1400 1/2 2
Cu-9Ni-6Sn C72700 730–790 1350–1450 1/2 2 of the microduplex treatment in comparison to
Cu-10Ni + 8Sn + 0.2Nb C72800 805–845 1480–1550 1/2 2 conventional spinodal treatment using a 425 °C
Cu-15Ni-8Sn C72900 815–860 1500–1575 1/2 2 (800 °F) age.
Table 18 Typical strengths and recommended aging times for various spinodal alloys
Tensile strength Yield strength(b)
Alloy Solution-treated and
Alloy number cold-worked temper(a) Aging cycle, h at °C (°F) MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, %
Cu-4Ni-4Sn C72600 TD 02(1/2H) 11/2 at 350 (660) 635–690 92–100 495–570 72–83 (0.05) 12
Cu-4Ni-4Sn C72600 TD 06(XH) 11/2 at 350 (660) 690–725 100–105 565–620 82–90 (0.05) 9
Cu-4Ni-4Sn C72600 TD 08(S) 11/2 at 350 (660) 705–795 102–115 565–655 82–95 (0.05) 7
Cu-9Ni-6Sn C72700 TD 04(H) 11/2 at 350 (660) 860–1035 125–150 760–895 110–130 (0.05) 8
Cu-9Ni-6Sn C72700 TD14(SS) 11/2 at 350 (660) 1055–1145 153–166 930–985 135–143 (0.05) ...
Cu-10Ni-8Sn-0.2Nb C72800 TB 00 cast and 4–6 at 350 (660) 830–965 120–140 550–690 80–100 (0.01) 3
solution treated
Cu-10Ni-8Sn-0.2Nb C72800 TB 00 hot worked and 3–5 at 350 (660) 965–1070 140–155 690–825 100–120 (0.01) 6–14
solution treated
Cu-10Ni-8Sn-0.2Nb C72800 TD 01(1/4H) 3 at 350 (660) 1140–1240 165–180 895–930 130–135 (0.01) 7
Cu-10Ni-8Sn-0.2Nb C72800 TD 04(H) 3 at 350 (660) 1205–1380 175–200 930–1000 135–145 (0.01) 7
Cu-10Ni-8Sn-0.2Nb C72800 TD 06(XH) 3 at 350 (660) 1205–1380 175–200 965–1035 140–150 (0.01) 5
Cu-10Ni-8Sn-0.2Nb C72800 TD 08(S) 3 at 350 (660) 1240–1380 180–200 1000–1070 145–155 (0.01) 4
Cu-10Ni-8Sn-0.2Nb C72800 TD 14(SS) 11/2 at 350 (660) 1240–1380 180–200 1070–1140 155–165 (0.01) 2.5
Cu-15Ni-8Sn C72900 TD 14(SS) 11/2 at 350 (660) 1140–1380 165–200 1035–1170 150–170 (0.05) 3
Cu-30Ni-3Cr C71900 Hot extruded 11/2 at 760 (405) 550 80 345 50 (0.20) 25
(a) Temper designations are defined in the article "Standard Designations for Wrought and Cast Copper and Copper Alloys" in this Handbook. (b) Offset shown in parentheses
Table 19 Typical heat treatments and resulting properties for complex (-) aluminum bronzes
Tensile strength Yield strength(b)
Alloy Typical condition(a) MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation(c), % Hardness, HB
C62400 As-forged or extruded 620–690 90–100 240–260 35–38 14–16 163–183

Solution treated at 870 °C (1600 °F) and 675–725 98–105 345–385 50–56 8–14 187–202
quenched, tempered 2 h at 620 °C (1150 °F)
C63000 As-forged or extruded 730 106 365 53 13 187
Solution treated at 855 °C (1575 °F) and 760 110 425 62 13 212
C95300 As-cast 495–530 72–77 185–205 27–30 27–30 137–140
Solution treated at 855 °C (1575 °F) and 585 85 290 42 14–16 159–179
C95400 As-cast 585–690 85–100 240–260 35–38 14–18 156–179
C95500 As-cast 640–710 93–103 290–310 42–45 10–14 183–192
(a) As-cast condition is typical for moderate sections shaken out at temperatures above 540 °C (1000 °F) and fan cooled or mold cooled, annealed at 620 °C (1150 °F), and fan (rapid) cooled. (b) At 0.5% extension under load.
(c) In 50 mm (2 in.)
martensitic phase to decompose, forming the

embrittling - eutectoid. The presence of
appreciable amounts of this eutectoid structure
can result in low tensile elongation, low energy
of rupture, severely reduced impact values, and
reduced corrosion resistance in some media.
For adequate protection against detrimental
eutectoid transformation, cooling after temper-
ing should bring the alloy to a temperature
LIVE GRAPH below 370 °C (700 °F) within about 5 min, and
Click here to view LIVE GRAPH to a temperature below 275 °C (530 °F) within
Click here to view 15 min. Normally, the danger of eutectoid
transformation is much lower in nickel-alu-
minum bronzes, and these alloys can be air
cooled after tempering.
The normal precautions used in the heat treat-
Fig. 26 Annealing curves for cold-reduced -aluminum
bronzes. Time at annealing temperature, 1 h
ing of steel have been found to be applicable to
aluminum bronze, with critical cooling rates
crystallographic change during hardening. The being somewhat lower than those for steel.
Fig. 25 Aging response of Cu-15Ni-8Sn (C72900) chemical segregation (spinodal decomposition) Soaking time should be at least 45 min at tem-
solution treated below the single-phase is not accompanied by a second phase that can perature, and longer times may be used without
boundary (microduplexed) and above the single-phase cause distortion during the aging process. fear of excess surface oxidation. Oil quenching
boundary. Treatments prior to aging: A, solution treated
above the single-phase boundary at 825 °C (1520 °F) for Therefore, stability is greatly increased over is used on heavy, complex sections to avoid
30 min and water quenched; B (microduplexed), solution that of precipitation-hardening alloys. Fixturing quench cracking, particularly in nickel-alu-
treated below the single-phase boundary at 725 °C may nonetheless be necessary for extremely minum bronzes such as C63000.
(1340 °F) for 1 h and water quenched tight dimensional control, but this is rare. Alpha-aluminum bronzes are those alu-
minum bronzes that contain less than 9% Al, or
Effect of Grain Size. The temperatures Heat Treating of Aluminum Bronzes less than 8.5% Al with up to 3% Fe. They are
required for solution treatment are well into the essentially single-phase alloys, except for fine
recrystallization/growth range for spinodal- The microstructures and consequent heat iron-rich particles in those alloys that contain
hardening alloys. The normal grain size obtained treatabilities of aluminum bronzes vary with iron. For -aluminum bronzes, effective
in properly treated wrought products is in the aluminum content much the same as these strengthening can be attained only by cold work,
0.010 to 0.090 mm (0.0004 to 0.0035 in.) range, characteristics vary with carbon content in and annealing and/or stress relieving is the only
but coarser grain sizes have been used without steels. Unlike steels, aluminum bronzes are heat treatment of practical use. The most preva-
adverse results. Maintaining low solution tem- tempered above the normal transformation lent alloys of this group are C60600, C61000,
peratures in an attempt to minimize grain growth temperature, typically in the range from 565 to C61300, and C61400. In addition, alloys con-
is good practice, but is second in importance to 675 °C (1050 to 1250 °F). In the selection of taining up to 9.6% Al, with microstructures con-
ensuring a complete solution treatment and ade- tempering temperatures, consideration must be taining small amounts of phase at high tem-
quate quench. An extremely fine grain size (2 to given to both required properties and the hard- peratures, have such limited heat treatability that
4 m) may be produced in the microduplexing ness obtained upon quenching. Normal temper- they, too, can be hardened only by cold work.
treatment of copper-nickel-tin alloys because of ing time is 2 h at temperature. Moreover, heavy Annealing of -aluminum bronzes is carried
the much lower solution-treating temperature or complex sections should be heated slowly to out at temperatures from about 540 to about
and the nucleating effects of undissolved avoid cracking. After the tempering cycle has 870 °C (1000 to 1600 °F), with the iron-contain-
phase particles. been completed, it is important that aluminum ing alloys requiring temperatures nearer the high
Fixturing in Close Tolerances. Excellent bronzes be cooled rapidly using water quench- end of this range. Alloys of intermediate compo-
dimensional reproducibility can be achieved ing, spray cooling, or fan cooling. Slow cooling sition (containing small amounts of phase),
without fixturing during heat treatment. This is through the range from 565 to 275 °C (1050 to such as C61900, are normally annealed at 595 to
because the spinodal alloys do not undergo a 530 °F) can cause the residual tempered 650 °C (1100 to 1200 °F). Figure 26 presents
Heat Treating / 263
annealing curves for typical -aluminum bronze resemble those of carbon steels. For these alloys, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
alloys C61300 and C61400. the quench-hardening treatment is essentially a
Complex ␣-␤ aluminum bronzes are those high-temperature soak intended to dissolve all of This article was adapted from:
aluminum bronzes whose normal microstructures the phase into the phase. Quenching results in • A. Cohen, Heat Treating of Copper Alloys,
contain more than one phase to the extent that ben- a hard room-temperature martensite structure, Heat Treating, Vol 4, ASM Handbook, ASM
eficial quench and temper treatments are possible. and subsequent tempering reprecipitates fine International, 1991, p 880–898
These copper-aluminum alloys, with and without needles in the structure, forming a tempered • C.R. Brooks, Plastic Deformation and
iron, are heat treated by procedures somewhat martensite. Table 19 gives typical tensile proper- Annealing, Heat Treatment, Structure and
similar to those used for the heat treatment of steel ties and hardnesses of - aluminum bronzes after Properties of Nonferrous Alloys, American
and have isothermal transformation diagrams that various stages of heat treatment. Society for Metals, 1982, p 1–73
Machining*
MACHINABILITY of copper and copper type and geometry of tool used, the cutting oper- standard test method described in ASTM E 618,
alloys can be related to the type of chips (turn- ation, the machine tool, metallurgical structure of “Standard Method for Evaluating Machining
ings) they produce during high-speed machining the tool and workpiece, the cutting/cooling fluid, Performance Using an Automatic Screw/Bar
operations, including machining in automatic and the machinist’s skill and experience. Machine.” The method calls for manufacture of
screw machines. As described in this article, the For an automatic screw machine operator, a large quantities of the standard test piece shown
machinability of copper and copper alloys is gen- definition based on some combination of produc- in Fig. 2. The test piece simulates typical screw
erally considered quite good in comparison with tion rate (the bottom-line criterion), tool wear, machine products in size, scrap ratio (the amount
other structural materials, particularly steels. and surface finish has the most practical signifi- of chips removed relative to the weight of starting
cance. Such a definition can be provided using the material), and machining operations.
Defining Machinability
Machinability can be defined in terms of
power consumption, tool wear rates, surface fin-
ish, chip morphology, or combinations of these
criteria (Ref 1). In fact, the meaning of “machin-
ability” depends on the particular needs of the
individual observer (or product).
Another difficulty in defining machinability is
that it depends on the combined influences of a
large number of factors, many of which are quite
complex. For example, machinability is certainly
closely linked to the physical and mechanical
properties of the workpiece: hard, brittle metals
being generally more difficult to machine than
soft, ductile ones (Fig. 1). But very ductile metals,
such as pure copper, stainless steels, and some
aluminum alloys tend to form long stringy chips,
which makes them troublesome to machine.
Machinability is also strongly dependent on the
1.50
1.00
Carbon and
Power required for turning, hp/in.3/min
0.80 alloy steels
0.60
Copper-base
0.40 alloys Free-cutting
steels
Cast irons
0.20
Aluminum
alloys
0.10
Magnesium alloys
0.08
30 40 60 80 100 200 400
Hardness, HB Fig. 2 Details of the ASTM E 618 machinability test specimen and the relative position of the form tools. As shown
in this figure, the standard automatic screw machine part is designed to be made from 25 mm (1 in.) diam bar
stock. The part used in the machinability tests for brasses, steels, and aluminum alloys was downsized to permit use of
Fig. 1 Influence of workpiece hardness on machinability 19 mm (0.75 in.) diam rod; this is permitted under ASTM E 618, if done for all materials.
*Portions of this article are adapted from Copper Rod Alloys for Machined Products, Copper Development Association Inc., New York, 1996. Used with permission.
Machining / 265
The ASTM test evaluates the machinability very hard tempers, these are not conditions to Type I (Free-Cutting) Alloys
of a material by determining the effect of pro- be expected in high-speed production. For
duction rate (spindle speed and cutting tool feed mass-produced screw machine parts made
rate) on tool wear. Tool wear is measured indi- from free-cutting brass or one of the other Strictly speaking, lead-bearing copper alloys
rectly by monitoring the dimensions of the test leaded copper alloys, high-speed steel is the are composite structures rather than true alloys.
piece and surface finish, just as in commercial standard tool material. This is because lead is insoluble in copper and
machine shop practice, where tools are resharp- It is not possible to present a full series of appears as a dispersion of microscopic globules,
ened when parts go out of tolerance. The ASTM ASTM E 618-based machinability indexes in as shown in Fig. 5. The stress-raising effect of
test method makes it possible to interpolate the this article because data of the type plotted in these lead particles causes chips to break up into
production rate that provides an “optimal” Fig. 3 are not yet available for the hundreds of tiny flakes as the metal passes over the tool face.
eight-hour tool life, and that production rate is copper alloys. The conventional index ratings (This is what is meant by the term “free-cutting.”)
taken as the machinability rating of the test listed in Tables 1 and 2 for wrought and cast Careful observations have shown that chips
material (Fig. 3a). alloys, respectively, are based on allowable from leaded alloys remain in contact with the
The most important advantage of the ASTM machining speed, tool wear, finish, accuracy, tool face for only a very short time before the
E 618 method is that it permits a fair compari- and power requirements, plus a degree of sub- energy of fracture actually propels them away
son of completely different materials. Such a jective judgment. They provide a reasonable, from the cutting tool. The short contact time
comparison, particularly between free-cutting approximate guide to machinability. reduces friction, which in turn minimizes tool
brass (63Cu-3.1Pb-34.5Zn) and leaded Effect of Chip Appearance on wear and energy consumption. It has been sug-
American Iron and Steel Institute/Society of Machinability. Chip appearance is a good indi- gested that lead also acts as an “internal lubri-
Automotive Engineers (AISI/SAE) 12L14 steel, cator of the machinability of copper and copper cant” as it smears over the tool face.
has always been difficult, and the several alloys. It also relates to the microstructure of the The beneficial effect of lead on free-cutting
machinability indexes currently in use only con- material and permits categorization of copper behavior increases with lead content, but the rate
fuse the issue. When rated according to ASTM alloys in terms of reasonably similar machining of improvement decreases as lead content rises.
E 618, brass is nearly five times as machinable characteristics. Copper alloys produce three dis- Significantly improved machinability can be
as the leaded steel, meaning that if C36000 tinct types of chips: measured in leaded alloys containing less than
were assigned an index rating of 100, AISI/SAE 0.5% Pb, although optimal free-cutting behavior
12L14 would have a rating of 21. ASTM E 618- • Type I (free-cutting) alloys yield small, frag- occurs at concentrations between 0.5% and
based machinability ratings of a few common mented chips, making them well suited for 3.25% (Fig. 6). The specified nominal lead con-
screw machine feedstock metals are shown in high-speed machining. They contain lead or tent in C36000 is 3.1%.
Fig. 3(b). alternative free-cutting additives. Effects of Lead on Properties. Lead does not
• Type II (short-chip) materials, which are gen- have a significant effect on strength; however,
erally multiphase alloys, produce curled but leaded alloys can be difficult to cold work exten-
Machinability of Copper Alloys brittle turnings. sively. The effect becomes more pronounced as
lead content rises; therefore alloys such as
All copper alloys are machinable in the • Type III (long-chip) materials, which are usu-
C34500 and C35300, which have lower lead
ally single-phase alloys, produce long and
sense that they can be cut with standard contents than C36000, may be better choices for
continuous chips that are often tightly curled.
machine tooling. High-speed steel suffices for products that require both high-speed machining
all but the hardest alloys. Carbide tooling can Examples of the three types of chips are shown and extensive cold deformation.
be used but is rarely necessary, and while in Fig. 4. How these chip characteristics influ- Other detrimental effects of lead include an
grinding may be required for a few alloys in ence machinability is addressed subsequently. impairment in welding and brazing properties.
120
C36000
6000 100
4000 C36000/M2
80
Production rate, pieces/h
C46400/M2 C34000/M2
Machinability index
C34000
2000 C36000/A2 60
C46400 2011-T3
C34000/A2
40
1000
800 1213/M2
12L14/M2 12L14
600 20
400 1213\A2 12L14\A2
0
1 2 4 8 10 20
Workpiece materials
Form tool life, h
LIVE GRAPH
(a) Click here to view (b)
Fig. 3 Results of a universal machinability index test for various alloys. (a) Tool life data plotted to determine the maximum theoretical production rate for an 8 h tool life. This value
of production rate is taken as the machinability rating of the material under test. (b) Universal machinability ratings (maximum theoretical production rates for 8 h M2 tool
life) of common automatic screw machine materials using ASTM E 618. Data are normalized to alloy C36000 (free-cutting brass 100). Source: Ref 2
Lead may cause related problems in products duce free-cutting behavior in copper alloys. These ing components have traditionally been made
such as welding electrodes and cutting torch elements can be more effective than lead in terms from leaded red or semi-red brasses that not
tips, which operate at high temperatures. of the amounts needed to produce optimal longer meet the lead content restrictions estab-
Lead causes no significant changes in the cor- improvements, but they are not without short- lished by the Environmental Protection Agency or
rosion behavior of an alloy, but trace quantities comings. Bismuth and tellurium can cause seri- the National Sanitation Foundation. This has led
can be dissolved from machined surfaces by suf- ous embrittlement and/or directionally sensitive to the development of low-lead red brass casting
ficiently aggressive media, including some ductility when present in uncontrolled concentra- alloys containing bismuth and selenium.
potable waters. If lead exposure is a problem, tions, while sulfur cannot be used in many alloy Examples include C89510 and C89520, which
wetted surfaces can be protected with electro- systems because of its reactivity. Generally, contain between 0.5 and 2.2% Bi and 0.35 to
plated or organic coatings. Surface lead can also unleaded free-cutting alloys are considerably 1.1% Se (Bi:Se ratio ≥2:1). These alloys have
be removed by a relatively simple etching more expensive than leaded versions and there- machinability ratings between 75 and 85 (C36000
process that leaves nothing but “pure” brass fore should be considered only when lead must be 100). Selenium enhances the effect of bismuth
exposed to the environment. avoided entirely. Such is the case with plumbing in red brasses; therefore, it reduces the amount of
Alternative Free-Cutting Additives. Addi- fixtures, which have strict regulations regarding bismuth needed to improve machinability and
tions of tellurium, sulfur, and bismuth also pro- lead contents. Sand-cast faucets and other plumb- lessens the chances of embrittlement.
Table 1 Machinability ratings of wrought copper alloys

Machinability Machinability
UNS No. Alloy name index rating UNS No. Alloy name index rating
Type I: free-cutting copper alloys for screw machine production (suitable for automatic Type III: long-chip copper alloys. (Usually single phase alloys. Stringy or tangled chips,
machining at the highest available cutting speeds) somewhat “gummy” behavior. Not for screw machine work.)
C36000 Free-cutting brass 100 C63200 Nickel-aluminum bronze, 9% 40
C35600 Extra-high-leaded brass 100 C22600 Jewelry bronze, 871/2% 30
C32000 Leaded red brass 90 C23000 Red brass, 85% 30
C34200 High-leaded brass, 641/2% 90 C24000 Low brass, 80% 30
C35300 High-leaded brass, 62% 90 C26000 Cartridge brass, 70% 30
C35330 Arsenical free-cutting brass 90 C26130 Arsenical cartridge brass, 70% 30
C38500 Architectural bronze 90 C26800 Yellow brass, 66% 30
C14500 Tellurium-bearing copper 85 C27000 Yellow brass, 65% 30
C14520 Phosphorus deoxidized, 85 C61000, C61300, Aluminum bronzes, 7% 30
tellurium-bearing copper C61400
C14700 Sulfur-bearing copper 85 C65100 Low silicon bronze B 30
C18700 Leaded copper 85 C65500 High silicon bronze A 30
C31400 Leaded commercial bronze 80 C65600 Silicon bronze 30
C31600 Leaded commercial bronze 80 C67000 Manganese bronze B 30
(nickel-bearing) C10100 Oxygen-free electronic copper 20
C34500 Leaded brass 80 C10200 Oxygen-free copper 20
C37700 Forging brass 80 C10300 Oxygen-free extra low phosphorus copper 20
C54400 Phosphor bronze, B-2 80 C10400, C10500, Oxygen-free coppers with silver 20
C19100 Nickel copper with tellurium 75 C10700
C19150 Leaded nickel copper 75 C10800 Oxygen-free low phosphorus copper 20
C34000 Medium-leaded brass, 64 /2%
1 70 C11000 Electrolytic tough pitch copper 20
C35000 Medium-leaded brass, 62% 70 C11300, C11400, Tough pitch coppers with silver 20
C37000 Free-cutting Muntz metal 70 C11500, C11600
C48500 Naval brass, high-leaded 70 C12000 Phosphorus-deoxidized, low-residual 20
C67300 Leaded silicon-manganese bronze 70 phosphorus copper
C69710 Leaded arsenical silicon red brass 70 C12100 Phosphorus-deoxidized, low-residual 20
C17300 Leaded beryllium copper 60 phosphorus copper
C33500 Low-leaded brass 60 C12200 Phosphorus-deoxidized, high-residual 20
C67600 Leaded manganese bronze 60 phosphorus copper
C48200 Naval brass, medium-leaded 50 C12900 Fire-refined tough pitch copper with silver 20
C66100 Leaded silicon bronze 50 C15000 Zirconium copper 20
C79200 Leaded nickel silver, 12% 50 C16200 Cadmium copper 20
C16500 Cadmium-tin copper 20
Type II: short-chip copper alloys. (Usually multiphase alloys. Short, curled or serrated
C18000 Nickel-chromium-silicon copper 20
chips. Screw machine production depends on type of cutting operation.)
C18100 Chromium-zirconium-magnesium copper 20
C64200 Arsenical silicon-aluminum bronze 60 C18135 Chromium-cadmium copper 20
C62300 Aluminum bronze, 9% 50 C18150 Chromium-zirconium copper 20
C62400 Aluminum bronze, 101/2% 50 C18200, C18400 Chromium coppers 20
C17410, C17500, Beryllium coppers 40 C21000 Gilding, 95% 20
C17510 C22000 Commercial bronze, 90% 20
C28000 Muntz metal, 60% 40 C50700 Tin (signal) bronze 20
C61800 Aluminum bronze, 10% 40 C51000 Phosphor bronze, 5% A 20
C63000 Nickel-aluminum bronze, 10% 40 C52100 Phosphor bronze, 8% B-2 20
C63020 Nickel-aluminum bronze, 11% 40 C61000 Aluminum bronze, 7% 20
C63200 Nickel-aluminum bronze 40 C64700 Silicon-bronze 20
C46200 Naval brass, 631/2% 30 C70600 Copper-nickel, 10% 20
C46400 Naval brass, uninhibited 30 C71500 Copper-nickel, 30% 20
C67400 Silicon-manganese-aluminum brass 30 C74500 Nickel silver, 65-10 20
C67500 Manganese bronze A 30 C75200 Nickel silver, 65-18 20
C69400 Silicon red brass 30 C75400 Nickel silver, 65-15 20
C69430 Arsenical silicon red brass 30 C75700 Nickel silver, 65-12 20
C15715, C15725, Aluminum oxide dispersion-strengthened 20
C15760 coppers
C17000 Beryllium copper 20
C17200 Beryllium copper 20
C62500 Aluminum bronze, 13% 20
Source: Ref 1
Machining / 267
Table 2 Machinability ratings of copper

casting alloys
UNS No. Alloy name Machinability
Type I free-cutting alloys

C83600 Leaded red brass 90
C83800 Leaded red brass 90
C84400 Leaded semi-red brass 90
C84800 Leaded semi-red brass 90
C94320 High-leaded tin bronze 90
C85200 Leaded yellow brass 80
C85310 Leaded yellow brass 80
C97300 Leaded nickel brass 70
Type II short-chip alloys (moderately machinable)
C83500 Leaded tin bronze 60
C83520 Leaded tin bronze 60 Fig. 4 Broken chips typical of free-cutting brass, type I (center), flanked by type II, short-chip turnings (right), and type
III, long-chip turnings (left)
C86500 Leaded high-strength 60
manganese bronze
C63380 Silicon-aluminum bronze 50
C64200 Silicon-aluminum bronze 50
C90500 Tin bronze 50
C90300 Tin bronze 50
C95300 Aluminum bronze 35
C61800 High-strength manganese 30
bronze
C67000 High-strength manganese 30
bronze
… Beryllium bronze 20–40
Fig. 6 Effect of lead content on the machinability of
Type III long-chip alloys (less easy to machine) yellow brass
C86100 High-strength manganese bronze20
C95200 Aluminum bronze 20 modate up to 9% Al and remain homogeneous.
C95400 Aluminum bronze 20 The equilibrium room temperature solubility
C95500 Aluminum bronze 20
limit for tin in copper is quite low, near 1% by
Note: Additional machinability ratings for copper casting alloys can be weight, but wrought copper-tin alloys (tin
found in the article “Cast Copper and Copper Alloys” in this Handbook. bronzes), which are heated during processing,
Source: Ref 3
remain structurally homogeneous up to almost
15% Sn because the transformation that pro-
Type II (Short-Chip) Alloys duces the second phase is rather sluggish.
Copper-nickel alloys have homogeneous alpha
Two or more phases may appear in the structures no matter how much nickel is present.
microstructure when alloy concentration is suffi- Type III copper alloys are soft and ductile in
ciently high (for example, high-zinc brasses con- the annealed state. Their mechanical properties
taining both alpha and beta phases). Beta makes are governed by alloying and the degree of cold
cold work more difficult, but it improves the work. Pure copper can be strengthened only by
capacity for hot deformation considerably. cold working; whereas, the strength of single-
Heterogeneous (two or more phases) type II Fig. 5 Microstructure of alloy C36000 (free-cutting phase brasses, bronzes, aluminum bronzes, and
brass) showing globules of lead (dark) and alpha
alloys tend to be stronger than single-phase mate- grains (light). 270 copper-nickels derives from the combined
rials, but ductility is correspondingly reduced. effects of cold work and alloying.
Figure 4 (right side) shows turnings from a important than tool wear or chip management, Even highly alloyed single-phase alloys retain
multiphase type II alloy. As the metal passes both of which are less favorable in type III a considerable degree of ductility, as can be seen
over the cutting tool, it tends to shear laterally in alloys. Type II alloys are often processed on in their turnings. Figure 4 (left side) shows the
a series of closely spaced steps, producing automatic screw machines, although production long, stringy chips typical of type III alloys. The
ridges on the short, helical chips. This intermit- rates are considerably lower than those attain- smooth and uniform chip surface reflects the
tent shear process raises the potential for tool able with free-cutting alloys. uninterrupted passage of the cutting tool. The
chatter and poor surface quality, but these prob- chip is thicker than the feed rate because the
lems can be avoided by adjusting machining Type III (Long-Chip) Alloys copper is upset as it passes over the face of the
parameters appropriately. Chip breakers can be tool. The accompanying cold work makes the
used to reduce the length of the coiled turnings. The simplest copper alloys are those with chip hard and springy, but it also consumes ener-
The machinability of type II alloys depends on essentially uniform microstructures. In pure gy that, converted to heat in the chip and cutting
the complex relationships between alloy copper, the structure contains only one phase, or tool, increases tool wear.
microstructure and mechanical properties. Power crystal form, commonly designated alpha. This The machinability of type III alloys therefore
consumption varies with mechanical properties single-phase structure is retained within fairly can be related to the following factors:
and work hardening rate, while the shape of the broad limits when alloying elements are added,
turnings depends on the ductility of the metal. but the alloy content at which additional phases • Initial hardness, either from prior cold work
In part because of their relatively manageable begin to appear differs with the individual alloy- or alloy content. Soft materials generally con-
chips, multiphase alloys are considered to have ing element and with processing conditions. sume less energy than harder alloys, and other
better machinabilities than ductile type III met- For example, up to approximately 39% Zn factors aside, produce less tool wear. On the
als. The higher power consumption for the hard- can be added to copper to form a single-phase other hand, softer materials tend to deflect
er type II alloys is generally taken as being less alpha brass. The alpha structure can also accom- under the pressure of the cutting tool, reduc-
ing dimensional accuracy. Improperly ground tortion effects caused by the slight (0.5%) volume in such cases is free-cutting brass. Other free-
tools have a tendency to dig into such metals, change that occurs during heat treatment. cutting alloys are specified when the electrical,
leading to chatter and poor surface finish. chemical, or mechanical property requirements
• Work hardening rate, as a function of defor- of the product exclude brass.
mation. A high work hardening rate results Selecting Copper Screw machine parts that require severe cold
in high energy consumption, hard chips, Alloys for Machinability deformation, as in deep knurling or coarse-
and high tool wear. Severely work-hardened rolled threads, may require an alloy with a
chips can tear away from the underlying It is difficult to assign machinability ratings reduced lead content. Candidates include
soft matrix, causing smearing and poor sur- unambiguously since machinability itself can C34000 (medium-leaded brass, 6412%), C34500
face finish. have several meanings. All ranking systems (high-leaded brass) and C35300 (high-leaded
• Chip appearance. Although the type III met- therefore have strengths and weaknesses brass, 62%), all of which contain 2% Pb.
als are machinable, their tendency to form depending on the individual observer’s needs. Type II alloys can be used with automatic
long, stringy chips makes them less than Tables 1 and 2 group the copper alloys in three tooling, although production rates will be signif-
ideal candidates for high-speed production on broad categories. Note that the groups are relat- icantly lower than with free-cutting alloys. The
automatic screw machines, where clearing ed to the manner of chip formation described curly-chip alloys have a tendency to produce
chip tangles may cause difficulty. earlier. Note also that there is a considerable dif- chatter, with resulting degradation in surface fin-
ference in machinability between the free-cut- ish, unless the tool and workpiece are rigidly
There is a considerable range in machining
ting compositions, type I alloys, and metals that supported. If proper care is exercised, the alloys
performance among alloys in this group. Soft
exhibit types II and III behavior. are readily machinable.
coppers and brasses machine quite readily, while
Differences among metals within the groups, Although the type III alloys can be cut rela-
high-strength alloys may require carbide tool-
especially the latter two, are relatively small. tively easily, they are considered less machin-
ing, grinding, and in a few cases, heat treatment
This is another way of saying that when materi- able than other alloy types because of the more
for optimal manufacture.
als selection is based on factors other than free- rapid tool wear they generate and because of
cutting behavior, machinability assumes less their tendency to form long, stringy chips.
critical importance. Attaining fine surface finishes also requires
Additional Factors Products manufactured on automatic screw greater attention to cutting conditions than it
Affecting Machinability machines and other high-speed machine tools does with other alloys. Since the metals are used
are usually specified in free-cutting grades to for reasons other than high-speed machining
Grain Size. Finer grain sizes are generally maximize cutting speeds and avoid chip clear- characteristics, these factors do not have an
beneficial to mechanical properties, finer- ance problems. The most common choice by far overriding effect on alloy selection.
grained metals being stronger and more ductile
than those with coarse structures. These benefits
extend to machinability. The effect is more pro- End cutting-edge End cutting-edge
nounced in leaded multiphase alloys, although angle: see note angle: see note
some improvement in machinability can be
observed in fine-grained type III alloys as well. 10 to 15° 10 to 15°
Texture. The grain structure in wrought, side cutting angle side cutting angle
rolled, or extruded metals will reflect the direc-
tion of deformation. That is, the grains of the 0° back rake 5 to 10° back rake
metals, grain boundaries, and second phases, if
any, tend to become elongated in the direction of
hot or cold work, leading to the familiar fibrous 0 to 3° 5 to 10°
texture of heavily wrought metals. side rake side rake
Since any nonuniformity in the structure of a
0 to 5°
metal can influence chip behavior, and therefore side clearance
6° end clearance 5 to 10° 6 to 15°
machining properties, it is understandable that side clearance end clearance
machinability is somewhat enhanced in cutting
directions that cross the direction of deformation. Type I free-cutting alloys Type II short-chip alloys
For example, rods and bars machine better cir-
cumferentially than longitudinally; plates machine
better in the transverse or through-thickness direc- End cutting-edge
tion than parallel to the rolling direction. angle: see note
Temper. Mechanical properties affect cutting
power requirements. Generally, the harder the 15° lead angle Note: A 19 to 5° cutting edge angle should prove
metal the higher the power needed. In most satisfactory for most rough and finish turning operations.
When the end cutting edge of a finishing tool is ground
cases, however, the economic effect of temper
parallel with the axis, considerably heavier feeds may
on attainable cutting speed and surface finish is 10 to 20° back rake be employed on light finishing cuts. Tools should be
more important than power consumption. It has ground and set so that the tool point is on center with
already been pointed out that soft, annealed tem- the effective rake angles in correct relation to the center
pers can cause galling and smearing. This is line of the work.
especially true of type III alloys and is one rea- 20 to 30°
side rake
son such metals are often machined in a slightly 10° to 15°
10 to 20°
cold-worked condition. side clearance front clearance
Heat Treatment. Beryllium coppers are rough-
machined best in the solution annealed state, then
heat treated to full hardness before finish machin- Type III long-chip alloys
ing, or if necessary, grinding. Not only does this
produce better results, it also avoids potential dis- Fig. 7 Carbon and high-speed steel turning tools used for copper and copper alloys. Source: Ref 1
Machining / 269
Recommended Machining Practices Form tools should be ground with a front clear- tooling is used in place of the more common
ance angle between 7 and 12° (Fig. 10). high-speed steel. Recommended conditions are
Corresponding angles for carbide tools are given listed in Table 3.
The conditions recommended in this section
in Fig. 8 and 10. Cutting Fluids. Because of the “sticky” nature
for type I, II, and III alloys should only be used
Excessive clearance angles reduce tool support of the alloys, it is important to use cutting fluids
as starting points from which to optimize a
and, when combined with large rake angles, pro- that provide both good lubrication and efficient
machining operation. The machining conditions
duce a fragile, chisel-like cutting edge. It is there- cooling. Mineral oils augmented with 10 to 20%
used with a given copper or copper alloy—
fore best to begin with intermediate clearance lard oil are generally satisfactory. Sulfurized cut-
speed, feed, tool geometry, and lubricant—will
angles, adjusting them up or down, as necessary. ting fluids help prevent sticking in soft copper
be determined by the needs of the individual job,
The type III long-chip alloys require some- and copper-nickels, but they may stain freshly
the condition of the machine, and the skill of the
what lower cutting speeds and feed rates than machined surfaces if not removed quickly.
machinist/operator.
type I and II copper-base materials, although Type II (Short-Chip) Alloys. The materials
speeds can be increased significantly if carbide within this group display a wide range of
Single-Point and Form Turning
End cutting-edge End cutting-edge
angle: 8 to 15° angle: 8 to 15°
Type III (Long-Chip) Alloys. The long, con-
tinuous turnings generated from unleaded, sin- 10 to 15° 10 to 15°
gle-phase alloys deform and work harden as they lead angle lead angle
(or to suit)
pass over the cutting tool. The deformation gen- (or to suit)
erates heat and increases tool wear. Both of these
effects can be minimized by providing generous
0° back rake 0 to 5° back rake
rake angles to ease the chip off the tool face.
Single-point tools should be ground with a back 2 to 6°
rake of 10 to 20° and a side rake of as much as side rake
4 to 6°
20 to 30° (see Fig. 7 and 8 for a description of side rake
the machining terminology used in this article).
Steep rake angles should be used with cau- 4 to 6° 4 to 6° 4 to 8° 4 to 8°
tion, however, because they tend to force the tool side clearance front clearance side clearance front clearance
into the work, and the tearing action this pro-
Type I free-cutting alloys Type II short-chip alloys
duces leads to poor surface finishes. The effect is
particularly noticeable with nonrigid setups and
on machines with worn spindles or slides, that
End cutting-edge
is, conditions that encourage chatter. angle 8 to 15°
Rake angles can be reduced somewhat with
single-point carbide tools and with either dove- 10 to 15°
Note: Rake angles are based on the
tail or circular form tools (Fig. 9 and 10). In all lead angle
tool shank being set parallel with the
cases, finely polished or burnished cutting sur- (or to suit)
center line of the work and with the
faces will reduce friction and heat buildup. tool point on center. Placing the tool
Coppers and copper-nickels tend to build up 4 to 8° back rake
point above or below center will
(weld) on the cutting tool. Built-up particles can change the effective rake angles
appreciably, particularly on work of
break away and jam between the tool and work-
small diameter. On a setup where
piece, damaging the surface finish. Burnishing the tool holder is not parallel with the
the cutting tool face to a smooth finish helps 15 to 25° center line, the rake angles should be
reduce sticking, as does the application of low- side rake ground so that when the tool is
friction coatings such as titanium nitride. 7 to 10° 7 to 10° mounted, they are in correct relation.
For single-point high-speed steel tools, a front side clearance front clearance
clearance of from 10 to 15° and a side clearance
of 10 to 20° is sufficient to permit loose particles Type III long-chip alloys
to escape (Fig. 7). Smaller clearances can be tol-
erated in single-phase brasses and bronzes. Fig. 8 Carbide turning tools for copper and copper alloys
Fig. 9 Design of straight-blade and circular cutoff tools for turning copper and copper alloys. Source: Ref 1
Fig. 10 Design of circular and dovetail form tools for turning copper and copper alloys. Source: Ref 1
Table 3 Turning data applicable to single-point and form tools for copper alloys
For single-point tools only
Side relief Front relief Back rake Side rake Surface speed Roughing feed Finishing feed
Tool material angle, degrees angle, degrees angle, degrees angle, degrees m/min sfm m/rev mil/rev m/rev mil/rev
Free-cutting type I alloys

HSS(a) 0–5 6 0–5 0–3 92–305 300–1000 51–381 2–15 51–76 2–3
Carbide 4–6 4–6 0 2–6 152–488 500–1600 51–381 2–15 51–76 2–3
Short-chip type II alloys
HSS(a) 5–10 6–15 5–10 5–10 46–92 150–300 51–203 2–8 51–76 2–3
Carbide 4–8 4–8 0–5 4–8 122–183 400–600 51–203 2–8 51–76 2–3
Long-chip type III alloys
HSS(a) 10–20 10–15 10–20 20–30 23–46 75–150 51–203 2–8 51–76 2–3
Carbide 7–10 7–10 4–8 15–25 92–152 300–500 51–203 2–8 51–76 2–3
(a) HSS, M2 high-speed steel. Source: Ref 1
strength and ductility, and cutting conditions Cutting fluids should match the workpiece brass. Recommended cutting speeds for leaded
must be adjusted accordingly. At one end of material. Alloys with machinability ratings sim- copper metals other than free-cutting brass range
the spectrum are the ductile, high-zinc brasses, ilar to high-strength long-chip alloys require a from 91 to 305 m/min (300–1000 sfm).
which can be cut using conditions approaching cutting fluid that provides effective lubrication Cutting Fluids. Straight light mineral oils are
those used with high-strength long-chip as well as effective cooling. For these, a mineral generally preferred as cutting fluids for the free-
alloys, that is, rake angles up to 10° and rea- oil fortified with between 5 and 15% lard oil or cutting alloys. Soluble oils also give good results.
sonably generous clearance. The less ductile a sulfurized fatty-oil base thinned with a light
grades of phosphor and aluminum bronze mineral oil will give good lubrication. The alloys
should be cut using little or no rake, because in this group that have relatively high machin- Milling
the duplex structure of these metals makes ability ratings can be cut satisfactorily using sol-
them prone to chatter. uble oils. Type III (Long-Chip) Alloys. The chip clear-
Cutting speeds between 46 and 92 m/min Type I (Free-Cutting) Alloys. These materi- ance problems these ductile metals present dur-
(150 and 300 sfm) are recommended for single- als require little or no rake since chips tend to ing milling are similar to those encountered dur-
point or form cutting with high-speed steel; break up almost immediately after they form. ing turning. Milling cutters with tooth spacings
speeds can be increased to between 122 and 183 Modest clearance angles up to 5° can be used but no finer than four to eight teeth per inch will
m/min (400 and 600 sfm) with carbide tooling. are not necessary unless the tool tends to drag. facilitate chip removal. Combined cutters can
Optimal feed rates should be determined by Free-cutting brass, C36000, can be cut at the also be used, but teeth should be interlocked to
beginning with a fairly light cut, approximately maximum attainable speed. In fact, in the range of prevent chips from collecting between cutter
0.05 mm/rev (0.002 in./rev), increasing this diameters normally encountered in screw machine elements. Spiral cutters are useful for wide cuts;
gradually until surface finish and/or tool wear products, there are no commercially available helix angles as large as 53° have been found to
rates deteriorate. machine tools that exceed the speed capacity of be satisfactory for cutting copper.
Machining / 271
moderate milling conditions. Recommended tool

geometries are listed in Table 4.
Drilling
Most copper alloys can be drilled with stan-
dard twist drills, although high-production con-
ditions usually call for special drill configura-
tions. Some authorities claim that ductile alloys
perform better with fast-twist drills, while others
hold that moderate or slow twists are better able
to clear long, stringy chips. There is general
agreement that small-diameter holes in copper
are best cut with fast-twist drills. Free-cutting
grades, including C36000, can be drilled very
rapidly with straight-fluted brass drills, which
permit easy escape for the tiny fragmented chips
of the alloys.
Fig. 11 Milling cutter used for copper and copper alloys. Source: Ref 1
Full rake angles are normally retained in drills
used on long-chip copper alloys. Drill-tip angles
should be between 100 and 110°, and lip clear-
Table 4 Milling data for copper alloys ance angles may have to be as steep as 20° (Fig.
Land Surface speed 12). Notching the cutting edge helps break up
Rake angle, Clearance angle,
Workpiece material degrees degrees mm in. m/min sfm long, stringy turnings. Drills for short-chip and
Free-cutting type I alloys 0–10 10–15 0.38–0.76 0.015–0.030 61–152 200–500
free-cutting alloys should be flat-ground to a 0°
Short-chip type II alloys 0–10 5–15 0.38–0.76 0.015–0.030 46–61 150–200 rake. Standard 118° tip angles should be used;
Long-chip type III alloys 0–15 5–15 0.38–0.76 0.015–0.030 15–46 50–150 lip clearance can range from 12 to 15° (Fig. 12).
Recommended speeds are similar to those
Source: Ref 1
used for turning operations, meaning that small-
diameter holes can usually be drilled at the max-
imum possible spindle speed. Feed rates should
Generous rake angles and adequate clearance alloys, but optimal conditions must be selected
range between 0.05 and 0.76 mm/rev (0.002 and
should be provided on face-, side-, and end- for each alloy. Small-diameter cutters should be
0.030 in./rev), depending on alloy type. Readily
milling cutters to prevent burnishing of the ground with radial teeth (0° rake) for hard alu-
machinable brasses and free-cutting alloys drill
workpiece. Up to 15° clearance can be incorpo- minum bronzes.
best with high feeds, while ductile coppers and
rated on tooth sides in side and face cutters and Recommended milling speeds for these alloys
long-chip alloys fare better with lighter feeds.
on tooth ends in end cutters (Fig. 11). A radial can be as high as 61 m/min (200 sfm).
Cutting fluids are beneficial but not absolute-
undercut will prevent tooth edges from dragging Recommended feeds range from 0.4 to 0.56
ly necessary when drilling highly machinable
along the workpiece. Cutting edges should be mm/rev (0.016–0.022 in./rev) per tooth for spiral
free-cutting alloys; they are, however, required
finely polished and/or coated to reduce loading. cutters and from 0.25 to 0.56 mm/rev
for other compositions.
Recommended milling speeds range from 15 (0.010–0.022 in./rev) per tooth for end mills.
to 45 m/min (50–150 sfm), although consider- Soluble-oil coolants are satisfactory for these
ably higher speeds can be used. Feed rates alloys. Mineral oils containing about 5% lard oil Boring
range from 0.18 to 0.76 mm/rev (0.007–0.030 can also be used.
in./rev) depending on the type of cutter. Type I (Free-Cutting) Alloys. These alloys can Tool geometry is most important in boring in
Recommended milling conditions are listed in be milled at speeds up to 152 m/min (500 sfm). As order to achieve the required smooth finished
Table 4. with turning operations, carbide tooling permits surface and to direct chip flow away from the cut
Type II (Short-Chip) Alloys. As with turning the highest cutting speeds. Cutting fluids are gen- surface. Tools for boring copper alloys are
operations, rake angles should generally be erally necessary at high speeds and feeds, primari- shown in Fig. 13; relevant machining data are
reduced from those used with ductile long-chip ly for heat removal, but are often not used under presented in Table 5.
Reaming
Fluted reamers used with copper alloys are
similar to those used with steel, except that
Table 5 Boring data for copper alloys

using carbide tooling
Back rake Side rake
Speed
angle, angle,
Workpiece material degrees degrees m/min sfm
Free-cutting 0 5 152–305 500–1000

type I alloys
Short-chip 0–5 5–10 122–183 400–600
type II alloys
Long-chip 5–10 15–20 61–152 200–500
type III alloys
Source: Ref 1
Fig. 12 Drill point and clearance angles for twist drills. Source: Ref 1
clearances should be increased to 8 to 10°. All recommended feeds and depths of cut for holes tions permit, threading should be performed
types of reamers can be used; however, fluted up to 25 mm (1 in.) in diameter. with alloys in the softest available temper.
reamers are less prone to chatter, an important Thread die cutting generally follows the rec-
consideration with tough short-chip alloys. A ommendations for turning operations: soft, duc-
rake angle (hook) of 5° is used on all copper Threading and Tapping tile long-chip alloys require large rake angles
alloys except free-cutting leaded compositions, (17–25°, and up to 30° for pure copper); hard
which are generally reamed with zero or nega- Free-cutting brass accepts fine- to medium- multiphase alloys such as tin bronzes and high-
tive rake (Fig. 14). It is important that cutting pitch rolled threads quite well; however, coarse strength yellow brasses require intermediate
tools be lapped to a fine surface finish. or deep threads may call for alloys such as medi- rake angles (generally 12–17°, but up to 25° for
Copper and long-chip metals should be um-leaded brass, C34000, or the high-leaded high-strength aluminum bronzes). Free-cutting
reamed at a speed of 12 to 27 m/min (40–90 brasses C34500 and C35300, which have some- brass and highly leaded tin bronzes require zero
sfm); short-chip alloys at 23 to 46 m/min what lower lead contents than C36000 and are rake. Tools for threading and tapping are shown
(75–150 sfm); and free-cutting leaded alloys at therefore more ductile. The ductile unleaded in Fig. 15 and 16.
30 to 61 m/min (100–200 sfm). Table 6 gives copper alloys can also be roll threaded. If condi- Table 7 lists recommended rake angles and
chamfers for taps used with the copper metals.
No back rake No side rake Refer to Fig. 16 for descriptions of the terms
used. Threading and tapping speeds are listed in
Side Table 8, while tool geometries for tap and die
Feed Back cutting chasers and circular chasers are given in Tables
Bore relief angle Cutting angle cutting angle 9 and 10, respectively.
(end clearance angle) angle
Nose
Additional bore Lip angle (end
angle
Clearance angle Positive
cutting Sawing (Ref 3)
angle)
Work diameter side rake Rotation
Selection of the proper width of saw, number
of teeth, pressure, feed, and speed is as important
as the condition of the machine involved. Width
True rake angle of the hacksaw or bandsaw blade is usually gov-
Positive back rake
Feed erned by type of equipment. It is advisable that
C
L the blade be wide enough to withstand normal
Positive feeding pressures. Correct tension is vital. A
side rake Lead
Lead angle clearance loose blade will cause crooked cuts, buckling,
to work Nose angle and twisting as well as stripped teeth. Too great a
(side relief) tension will also cause snapping and throw too
great a load on guides and the machine itself.
Positive back rake Feeding pressure should be determined by size
and machinability of the alloy. On gravity- or
Fig. 13 Design of boring tools used for copper alloys. Source: Ref 1
hand-fed bandsaw machines, moderate feed is
desirable on small sections or readily machined
alloys. Increased pressure is recommended on
heavy sections or alloys with low machinability
ratings to reduce saw wear. Modern power hack-
saw machines employ either mechanical or
hydraulic feeds, permitting increased feed setting
on small sections of soft alloys. Large sections
and hard alloys require reduced feed settings.
Correct tooth specification is important to per-
mit adequate chip clearance. Coarse teeth are
desirable on soft or thick material and finer teeth
are indicated on thin sections or hard alloys. Care
must be taken to ensure correct set. If the set is
worn to any great extent, crooked cuts and exces-
sive heat with subsequent saw failure will result.
Solid and inserted tooth shapes for circular saws
are shown in Fig. 17; relevant circular sawing data
are given in Table 11. For band sawing of copper
alloys, blades of 13 or 19 mm (0.5 or 0.75 in.)
Fig. 14 Reamer angles and clearances. Source: Ref 1
width are most commonly used, and only for short
radius cutting should narrow blades be used. The
Table 6 Reaming data for copper alloys using high-speed steel tooling
Feed Table 7 Tapping data for copper alloys
Hole diameter Copper Brass and bronze Depth of cut Tap rake Die chamfer,
mm in. mm/rev in./rev mm/rev in./rev mm in. Workpiece material angle, degrees degrees
3.2 1/8 0.15 0.006 0.25 0.010 0.08–0.10 0.003–0.004 Free-cutting type I alloys 2–4 10–30(a)
3.2–9.5 1/8 3/8 0.15–0.25 0.006–0.010 0.25–0.41 0.010–0.016 0.08–0.18 0.004–0.007 Short-chip type II alloys 5–8 10–15(a)
9.5 3/8 0.23–0.61 0.009–0.024 0.41–0.91 0.016–0.036 0.18–0.38 0.007–0.015 Long-chip type III alloys 8–10 10–15(a)
Source: Ref 1 (a) Two or three threads. Source: Ref 1

Machining / 273
Table 8 Threading and tapping Table 9 Tool geometry for tap Table 10 Tool geometry for
speeds for copper alloys using and die chasers circular chasers
high-speed steel tooling Tap Die Rake Face Throat
Lineal threading angle, angle, angle, Clearance,
Rake Throat Rake Throat
Workpiece material degrees degrees degrees degrees
or tapping speed(a) angle, angle, angle, angle,
Workpiece material m/min sfm Workpiece material degrees degrees degrees degrees Free-cutting –5 to 5 0 25 12
Free-cutting –5 to 5 15 –10 to 0 15 type I alloys
Free-cutting type I alloys 30–61 100–200 Short-chip 10–20 1–2 25 12
Short-chip type II alloys 15–27 50–90 type I alloys
Short-chip 5–12 20 1–10 20 type II alloys
Long-chip type III alloys 12–15 40–50 Long-chip 15–35 2–3 25 12
type II alloys
Long-chip 15–25 30 12–30 30 type III alloys
(a) Recommended cutting speeds are for moderate-pitch threads. Use
speeds in the lower ranges for coarse threads. Source: Ref 1 type III alloys
Source: Ref 1
Source: Ref 1
Fig. 15 Threading tap design used for copper and copper alloys. Source: Ref 1 Fig. 16 Chasers for die heads and collapsible taps. Source: Ref 1
Table 11 Circular sawing data for copper alloys

Chromium
Hook plated to Hollow ground
Machin- Tooth Diameter Thickness Number angle, Rim speed Feed Coolant, Hardness 0.05 mm taper
ability(a) type(b) mm in. mm in. of teeth degrees m/min sfm mm/min in./min lubricant HRC (0.002 in.) per mm per in.
Rod,
38 mm (
11/2 in.)
I SST(c) 305 12 2.4 3/32 150–200 10–15 1220–2440 4000–8000 1524 60 Grease stick 52–56 Yes 0.09 0.0035
II TST(c) 305 12 2.4 3/32 100–125 10–15 1219–1524 4000–5000 762 30 Grease stick 52–56 Yes 0.09 0.0035
III Ins. SST 305 12 3.2 1/8 75–100 5–10 610–914 2000–3000 508–762 20–30 Grease stick 60–62 No 0.025 0.0010
Rod, 38–102 mm (11/2–4 in.)
I Ins. Alt. SST 406 16 4.8 3/16 60–64 10–15 305 1000 762–1016 30–40 Compound(d) 64–66 No 0.09 0.0035
& BST
II Ins. Alt. SST 406 16 4.8 3/16 60–64 10–15 305 1000 508–762 20–30 Compound(d) 62–64 No 0.025 0.0010
& BST
III Ins. Alt. SST 406 16 6.3 1/4 60–64 5–10 229 750 254–508 10–20 Compound(d) 62–64 No 0.025 0.0010
& BST
Rod, 102–204 mm (4–8 in.)
I Ins. Alt. SST 711 28 6.3 1/4 60–80 10–15 183–229 600–750 508–762 20–30 Compound(d) 62–64 No 0.025 0.0010
& BST
II Ins. Alt. SST 711 28 6.3 1/4 60–80 10–15 183–229 600–750 381–635 15–25 Compound(d) 62–64 No 0.025 0.0010
& BST
III Ins. Alt. SST 711 28 6.3 1/4 60–80 5–10 152–198 500–650 254–381 10–15 Compound(d) 62–64 No 0.025 0.0010
& BST
(a) Machinability: I, free-cutting; II, short-chip; III, long-chip. (b) SST, standard square tooth; TST, topped square tooth; BST, bevel standard tooth; Ins., inserted; Alt., alternating. (c) Using semihigh-speed steel, all others are
high-speed steel. (d) Compound, soluble oil 10% and 1 lb heavy soap per 20 gal. Source: Ref 1
Table 12 Band saw teeth and speeds

Stock diameter of thickness, mm (in.)
1.6–6.4 (1/16 1/4) 6.4–25 (1/4 1) 25 (1)
Teeth Velocity Teeth Velocity Teeth Velocity
Machinability
rating of alloys per cm per in. m/s ft/min per cm per in. m/s ft/min per cm per in. m/s ft/min
70–100 7 18 2.5–5.1 500–1000 4 10 1.8–2.3 350–450 1.5 4 1.3–1.8 250–350

30–60 7 18 1.3–1.8 250–350 4 10 1.2–1.3 230–250 1.5 4 1.0–1.2 200–230
20 (except copper) 7 18 1.3–1.5 250–350 4 10 1.0–1.3 200–250 1.5 4 0.8–1.0 150–200
Copper 7 18 4.1–7.6 800–1500 4 10 3.0–5.1 600–1000 1.5 4 1.5–3.0 300–600
Source: Ref 3
data in Table 12 will aid considerably in selecting mended for all types of grinding except for can be found in Machining, Volume 16 of
a good combination of saw tooth and linear speed. surface grinding softer alloys. For these con- ASM Handbook.
For power hacksaws, a good rule in select- ditions, silicon carbide wheels are preferred. Electrical Discharge Machining. In the
ing saw tooth pitch is to use fewer teeth for In all cases, vitrified bond wheels of medium EDM process, metal is removed by rapid spark
thick sections to provide for better chip clear- grade (J to N) are recommended. Emulsions discharges between an electrode and a conduc-
ance, and more teeth for thinner sections. Data of soluble oil and water are satisfactory grind- tive workpiece separated by a 0.013 to 0.9 mm
for power hacksawing are listed in Table 13. ing fluids. (0.0005–0.035 in.) gap filled with a dielectric
fluid. The workpiece is melted, vaporized in
Grinding (Ref 4) part, and expelled from the gap. Figure 18 shows
Nontraditional Machining Methods a typical EDM setup.
The grinding of copper alloys is not com-
Electrical discharge machining is often used to
mon, but in some applications grinding is the Nontraditional machining methods com-
produce beryllium-copper mold components for
best means of obtaining accuracy and finish. monly carried out on copper and copper
injection molding of plastics. The effectiveness of
Sometimes, when finish grinding must supple- alloys include electrical discharge machining
EDM is not dependent on the strength or hardness
ment machining, one grinding operation can (EDM), electrochemical machining (ECM),
of the workpiece, and the beryllium copper can be
be used to replace both operations. and photochemical machining (PCM). Each
machined in the age-hardened condition without
Speeds, feeds, and wheels are given in of these processes are briefly described
affecting strength and with no need for further
Table 14. Aluminum oxide wheels are recom- subsequently. More detailed information
heat treatment. The EDM process is also used to
drill small, burr-free holes in miniature compo-
nents and for making prototype quantities of con-
tacts for aerospace and electronic components.
Electrochemical machining is the controlled
removal of metal by anodic dissolution in an
electrolytic cell in which the workpiece is the
anode and the tool is the cathode. The electrolyte
is pumped through the cutting gap between the
tool and the workpiece, while direct current is
passed through the cell at a low voltage, to dis-
solve metal from the workpiece. Figure 19
shows a typical setup for ECM.
The ECM process is used to machine oddly
shaped, small deep holes in copper and copper
alloys that would be difficult, if not impossible,
to make by mechanical machining.
Electrochemical machining is used for opera-
tions as widely different as milling, drilling,
deburring, etching, and marking.
Photochemical machining, also known as
chemical blanking, is a metal-etching process
that uses a photoresist (photosensitive masking)
to define the locations where the metal will be
etched (removed) (Ref 7). The PCM process is
Fig. 17 Solid and inserted tooth shapes for circular saws used for copper and copper alloys. Source: Ref 1
used to produce intricate and close-tolerance
patterns in a variety of flat parts (including foil)
with a thickness range of 0.01 to 1.6 mm
Table 13 Power hacksaw teeth and speeds (0.005–0.062 in.).
Stock diameter or thickness, mm (in.) Copper and copper alloys are among the most
6.35–25.4 (1/4 1) 25.4 (1) etchable metals used in photochemical machin-
Teeth Teeth
ing. Electrolytic copper, oxygen-free copper,
Workpiece material per cm per in.
Strokes
per minute per cm per in.
Strokes
per minute
beryllium copper, brass, phosphor bronze, cop-
per nickel, and nickel silver flat products are
Free-cutting type I alloys 2.4–4 6–10 130–150 1.6–2.4 4–6 130–150
Short-chip type II alloys 2.4–4 6–10 90–120 1.6–2.4 4–6 90–120
readily processed using the PCM process.
Long-chip type III alloys 2.4–4 6–10 60–90 1.6–2.4 4–6 60–90 Products include contacts and terminals, lead
Source: Ref 1
frames, and copper foil/plastic printed circuit
board laminates.
Machining / 275
Table 14 Conditions for the grinding of copper alloys

Surface grinding Cylindrical grinding Centerless grinding
Wheel classification Work speed, m/min (sfm) 30 (100) Regulating wheel
Workpiece 20–70 HRB C-46-K-V Infeed Angle 3˚
Workpiece 60–100 HRB A-46-K-V Rough, mm/pass (in./pass) 0.05 (0.002) Speed 30 rev/min
Wheel speed, m/min (sfm) 1680–1980 (5500–6500) Finish, mm/pass (in./pass) 0.01 (0.0005) max Internal grinding
Table speed, m/min (sfm) 15–30 (50–100) Traverse Wheel classification
Downfeed Rough 1/3 wheel width/work rev Workpiece 20–70 HRB A-46-J-V
Rough, mm/pass (in./pass) 0.075 (0.003) Finish 1/6 wheel width/work rev
Workpiece 60–100 HRB A-60-L-V
Finish, mm/pass (in./pass) 0.01 (0.0005) max Wheel speed, m/min (sfm) 1520–1980 (5000–6500)
Crossfeed 1/3 wheel width/pass Centerless grinding
Work speed, m/min (sfm) 30–60 (100–200)
Cylindrical grinding Grinding wheel classification A-60-L-V Infeed
Wheel speed, m/min (sfm) 1680–1980 (5500–6500) Rough, mm/pass (in./pass) 0.05 (0.002)
Wheel classification Work feed, mm/min (in./min) 125 (50) Finish, mm/pass (in./pass) 0.005 (0.0002)
Workpiece 2–70 HRB A-60-N-V Infeed Traverse
Workpiece 60–100 HRB A-46-L-V Rough, mm/pass (in./pass) 0.13 (0.005) Rough 1/3 wheel width/work rev
Wheel speed, m/min (sfm) 1680–1980 (5500–6500) Finish, mm/pass (in./pass) 0.04 (0.0015) max Finish 1/6 wheel width/work rev
Source: Metcut Research Associates Inc.
Fig. 18 Typical setup for electrical discharge machining. Negative (standard) polarity
is shown. Positive (reverse) polarity is also extensively used. Source: Ref 5 Fig. 19 Schematic of the electrochemical machining system. Source: Ref 6
REFERENCES 4. M.L.H. Wise, M.A. Staley, and M. Samandi, SELECTED REFERENCES

Machining of Copper and Copper Alloys,
1. Copper Rod Alloys For Machined Products, Machining, Vol 16, ASM Handbook, ASM • “Alloy Data Sheet: SeBiLOY, Low-Lead Red
Copper Development Association, 1996, International, 1989, p 805–819 Brass Casting Alloys C89510 and C89520,”
p 41–43, 85–93 5. J.E. Fuller, Electrical Discharge Machining, Document No. A1032-00, Copper
2. “Comparative Machinability of Brasses, Steels, Machining, Vol 16, ASM Handbook, ASM Development Association, 1995
and Aluminum Alloys: CDA’s Universal International, 1989, p 557–564 • “Machinability of Copper-Based Alloys,”
Machinability Index,” SAE Technical Paper 6. T.L. Lievestro, Electrochemical Machining, Project Report 384, International Copper
Series, Number 900365, SAE International, 1990 Machining, Vol 16, ASM Handbook, ASM Research Association, 1985
3. G. Joseph and K.J.A. Kundig, Copper: Its International, 1989, p 533–541 • “The Machining of High-Conductivity
Trade, Manufacture, Use, and Environmental 7. H. Friedman, Photochemical Machining, Copper,” Project Report 343A, inter-
Status, International Copper Association, Ltd. Machining, Vol 16, ASM Handbook, ASM national Copper Research Association,
and ASM International, 1999, p 259–271 International, 1989, p 587–593 1984
Welding
COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS can be tungsten arc welding (GTAW), plasma arc weld- • Copper-tin alloys (phosphor bronzes), which
welded by a variety of fusion and solid-state ing (PAW), and submerged arc welding (SAW). contain up to 10% Sn and 0.2% P
processes. Fusion welding processes involve These welding processes will be discussed with • Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum
localized melting and solidification of the base reference to specific copper alloy groups. The bronzes), which contain up to 10% Al
metal and filler metal, or the base metal only if effects of various alloying agents are also • Copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronzes),
no filler metal is used (i.e., autogenous welds). addressed relative to welding metallurgy and which contain up to 3% Si
Fusion welding methods commonly used to process considerations. Examples of standard • Copper-nickel alloys, which contain up to
join copper and its alloys include arc welding joint geometry, process parameters, and specific 30% Ni
processes, resistance welding processes, oxy- applications are described. More detailed informa- • Copper-zinc-nickel alloys (nickel silvers),
fuel welding, and electron beam welding. tion on the specific welding processes discussed which contain up to 27% Zn and 18% Ni
Solid-state welding is the joining of base met- can be found in Welding, Brazing, and Soldering, • Special alloys, which contain alloying ele-
als by chemical bond formation without heat- Volume 6 of ASM Handbook, and in the Selected ments to enhance a specific property or char-
ing the base metals above their respective References listed at the conclusion of this article. acteristic, for example, machinability
melting points. Solid-state welding processes Many copper alloys have common names, such
used to join copper and its alloys include cold as oxygen-free copper (99.95% Cu min), beryl-
welding, explosion welding, roll welding, fric- Alloy Metallurgy and Weldability
lium copper (0.2 to 2.0% Be), Muntz metal (Cu-
tion welding, and ultrasonic welding. Table 1 40Zn), Naval brass (Cu-39.25Zn-0.75Sn), and
summarizes the applicability of the most com- Many common metals are alloyed with cop-
commercial bronze (Cu-10Zn).
monly used welding processes for major alloy per to produce the various copper alloys. The
A more standardized system of identification
classifications. most common alloying elements are aluminum,
is the Unified Numbering System (UNS). In this
nickel, silicon, tin, and zinc. Other elements and
system, wrought alloys of copper are designated
metals are alloyed in small quantities to improve
by numbers 1xxxx to 7xxxx, and cast alloys are
certain material characteristics, such as corro-
designated 8xxxx to 9xxxx; thus, the same alloy
sion resistance or machinability. Copper and its
can be produced as a wrought and cast product.
alloys are divided into nine major groups. These
Arc Welding major groups are:
The UNS system is described in the article
“Standard Designations for Wrought and Cast
• Coppers, which contain a minimum of 99.3% Copper and Copper Alloys” in this Handbook.
In manufacturing, copper and copper alloys are Cu Table 2 lists various copper alloys that are fre-
often joined by welding. The arc welding process- • High-copper alloys, which contain up to 5% quently arc welded, their UNS numbers, and
es are of prime concern. Arc welding can be per- alloying elements their physical properties. Many of the physical
formed using shielded metal arc welding • Copper-zinc alloys (brasses), which contain properties of copper alloys are important to the
(SMAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), gas up to 40% Zn welding processes, including melting tempera-
Table 1 Applicable welding processes for copper and copper alloys

Weldability(a) by
Oxyfuel gas Resistance Solid-state Electron beam
Alloy UNS No. welding SMAW GMAW GTAW welding welding welding
ETP copper C11000–C11900 NR NR F F G NR NR

Oxygen-free copper C10200 F NR G G E NR G
Deoxidized copper C12000 G NR E E E NR G
C12300 G NR E E E NR G
Beryllium copper C17000–C17500 NR F G G F F F
Cadmium/chromium copper C16200 NR NR G G F NR F
C18200 NR NR G G F NR F
Red brass—85% C23000 F NR G G G F …
Low brass—80% C24000 F NR G G G G …
Cartridge brass—70% C26000 F NR F F G G …
Leaded brasses C31400–C38590 NR NR NR NR NR NR …
Phosphor bronzes C50100–C52400 F F G G G G …
Copper-nickel—30% C71500 F F G G G G F
Copper-nickel—10% C70600 F G E E G G G
Nickel silvers C75200 G NR G G G F …
Aluminum bronze C61300 NR G E E G G G
C61400 NR G E E G G G
Silicon bronzes C65100 G F E E G G G
C65500 G E E E G G G
ETP, electrolytic tough pitch; SMAW, shielded metal arc welding; GMAW, gas metal arc welding; GTAW, gas tungsten arc welding.(a) E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; NR, not recommended
Welding / 277
ture, coefficient of thermal expansion, and elec- alloys. Small amounts of volatile, toxic alloying tilation is mandatory, and source-capture systems
trical and thermal conductivity. As shown in elements are often present in copper and its are necessary to contend with the fumes.
Table 2, certain alloying elements greatly alloys. As a result, the requirement of an effec- Tin increases the hot-crack susceptibility
decrease the electrical and thermal conductivi- tive ventilation system to protect the welder during welding when present in amounts from
ties of copper and copper alloys. This will in and/or the welding machine operator is more 1 to 10%. These alloys are typically the phos-
turn significantly affect the weldability of the critical than when welding ferrous metals. phor bronzes and tin brasses. Tin, when com-
alloys. The copper and copper alloys listed in Zinc reduces the weldability of all brasses in pared with zinc, is far less volatile and toxic.
Table 2 are rated for their relative weldability relative proportion to the percent of zinc in the During welding, tin may preferentially oxidize
using SMAW, GTAW, and GMAW. alloy. Zinc has a low boiling temperature, which relative to copper. The results will be an oxide
Several alloying elements have pronounced results in the production of toxic vapors when entrapment, which may reduce the strength of
effects on the weldability of copper and copper welding copper-zinc alloys. Effective forced ven- the weldment.
Table 2 Nominal compositions, melting points, relative thermal conductivities, and weldabilities of wrought coppers and copper alloys
that are commonly arc welded
Melting point (liquidus) Weldability(b) by
Nominal Relative thermal
UNS No. Alloy name composition, % °C °F conductivity(a) GTAW GMAW SMAW
OFC and ETP coppers

C10200 Oxygen-free copper (OFC) 99.95 Cu 1083 1981 100 G G NR
C11000 Electrolytic tough pitch (ETP) copper 99.90 Cu, 0.04 O2 1083 1981 100 F F NR
Deoxidized coppers
C12000 Phosphorus-deoxidized copper, low-P 99.9 Cu, 0.008 P 1083 1981 99 E E NR
C12200 Phosphorus-deoxidized copper, high-P 99.9 Cu, 0.02 P 1083 1981 87 E E NR
Beryllium coppers
C17000 High-strength beryllium copper 98.3 Cu, 1.7 Be 982 1800 27–33(c) G G G
C17200 High-strength beryllium copper 98.1 Cu, 1.9 Be 982 1800 27–33(c) G G G
C17500 High-conductivity beryllium copper 96.9 Cu, 0.6 Be, 2.5 Co 1068 1955 53–66(c) F F F
Low-zinc brasses
C21000 Gilding 95 Cu, 5 Zn 1065 1950 60 G G NR
C22000 Commercial bronze 90 Cu, 10 Zn 1043 1910 48 G G NR
C23000 Red brass 85 Cu, 15 Zn 1026 1880 41 G G NR
C24000 Low brass 80 Cu, 20 Zn 999 1830 36 G G NR
High-zinc brasses
C26000 Cartridge brass 70 Cu, 30 Zn 954 1750 31 F F NR
C26800 Yellow brass 65 Cu, 35 Zn 932 1710 30 F F NR
C28000 Muntz metal 60 Cu, 40 Zn 904 1660 31 F F NR
Tin brasses
C44300 Admiralty brass 71 Cu, 28 Zn, 1 Sn(d) 937 1720 28 F F NR
C46400 Naval brass 60 Cu, 39.25 Zn, 0.75 Sn(d) 899 1650 30 F F NR
Special brasses
C67500 Manganese bronze A 58.5 Cu, 39 Zn, 1.4 Fe, 888 1630 27 F F NR
1 Sn, 0.1 Mn
C68700 Aluminum brass, arsenical 77.5 Cu, 20.5 Zn, 971 1780 26 F F NR
2 Al (0.06 As)
Nickel silvers
C74500 Nickel silver 65 Cu, 25 Zn, 10 Ni 1021 1870 12 F F NR
Phosphor bronzes
C50500 Phosphor bronze, 1.25% E 98.7 Cu, 1.3 Sn (0.2 P) 1076 1970 53 G G F
C51000 Phosphor bronze, 5% A 95 Cu, 5 Sn (0.2 P) 1049 1920 18 G G F
C52100 Phosphor bronze, 8% C 92 Cu, 8 Sn (0.2 P) 1026 1880 16 G G F
C52400 Phosphor bronze, 10% D 90 Cu, 10 Sn (0.2 P) 999 1830 13 G G F
Aluminum bronzes
C61300 Aluminum bronze D, Sn-stabilized 89 Cu, 7 Al, 3.5 Fe (0.35 Sn) 1046 1915 14 G E G
C61400 Aluminum bronze D 91 Cu, 6–8 Al, 1.5–3.5 Fe, 1046 1915 17 G E G
1 max Mn
C63000 Aluminum bronze E 82 Cu, 10 Al, 5 Ni, 3 Fe 1054 1930 10 G G G
Silicon bronzes
C65100 Low-silicon bronze B 98.5 Cu, 1.5 Si 1060 1940 15 E E F
C65500 High-silicon bronze A 97 Cu, 3 Si 1026 1880 9 E E F
Copper-nickel
C70600 Copper nickel 88.6 Cu, 9–11 Ni, 1.4 Fe, 1149 2100 12 E E G
1.0 Mn
C71500 Copper nickel 70 Cu, 30 Ni 1238 1238 8 E E E
(a) Based on the thermal conductivity of alloy C10200 (2553.8 kJ/m2 kJ/m2
in meters per hour at 20 °C) as 100. For comparison, carbon steel has a thermal conductivity of 339 in meters per hour at 20 °C, which is 13 on this
scale. (b) E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; NR, not recommended. (c) In the precipitation hardened condition. (d) Alloys C44300 and C46400 contain nominal 0.06% As; alloys C44400 and C46600, a nominal 0.06% Sb; alloys
C44500 and C46700, a nominal 0.06% P.
Beryllium, aluminum, and nickel form per alloys by rendering the alloys hot-crack sus- When using SMAW, out-of-position welding is
tenacious oxides that must be removed prior to ceptible. The adverse effect on weldability usually limited to the joining of aluminum bronzes
welding. The formation of these oxides during begins to be evident at about 0.05% of the addi- and copper-nickel alloys, but it can also be done
the welding process must be prevented by tive and is more severe with larger concentra- on some phosphor bronzes and silicon bronzes.
shielding gas or by fluxing, in conjunction with tions. Lead is the most harmful of the alloying Precipitation-Hardenable Alloys. The most
the use of the appropriate welding current. The agents with respect to hot-crack susceptibility. important precipitation-hardening reactions are
oxides of nickel interfere with arc welding less However, alloys that contain 0.5 to 4% Pb are obtained with beryllium, chromium, boron,
than those of beryllium or aluminum. not recommended for welding, as indicated in nickel, silicon, and zirconium. Care must be
Consequently, the nickel silvers and copper- Table 1, and are not included in Table 2. taken when welding precipitation-hardenable
nickel alloys are less sensitive to the type of copper alloys to avoid oxidation and incomplete
welding current used during manufacture. fusion. Whenever possible, the components
Beryllium-containing alloys also produce toxic Factors Affecting Weldability should be welded in the annealed condition, and
fumes during welding. then the weldment should be given a precipita-
Silicon has a beneficial effect on the weld- Besides the alloying elements that comprise a tion-hardening heat treatment.
ability of copper-silicon alloys because of its specific copper alloy, several other factors affect Hot Cracking. Copper alloys, such as cop-
deoxidizing and fluxing actions. The combina- weldability. These factors are the thermal con- per-tin and copper-nickel, are susceptible to hot
tion of this effect and the low thermal conduc- ductivity of the alloy being welded, the shielding cracking at solidification temperatures. This
tivity makes silicon bronzes the most weldable gas, the type of current used during welding, the characteristic is exhibited in all copper alloys
of the copper alloys for any arc process. joint design, the welding position, and the sur- with a wide liquidus-to-solidus temperature
Phosphorus is beneficial to certain copper face condition and cleanliness. The effects of the range. Severe shrinkage stresses produce inter-
and copper alloys as a strengthener and deoxi- shielding gas, type of current, and joint design dendritic separation during metal solidification.
dizer. When added to brass, phosphorus inhibits used during welding are discussed under the sec- Hot cracking can be minimized by reducing
dezincification corrosion. In the amounts nor- tions for each individual process and alloy, restraint during welding, preheating to slow the
mally present in most copper alloys, phosphorus described later in this article. cooling rate and reduce the magnitude of weld-
does not adversely affect or hinder welding. Effect of Thermal Conductivity. The behav- ing stresses, and reducing the size of the root
Chromium like beryllium and aluminum, ior of copper and copper alloys during welding opening and increasing the size of the root pass.
can form a refractory oxide on the surface of the is strongly influenced by the thermal conductiv- Porosity. Certain elements (for example, zinc,
molten weld pool. Arc welding should be done ity of the alloy. Table 2 shows the relative ther- cadmium, and phosphorus) have low boiling
in an inert protective atmosphere to prevent for- mal conductivities based on the conductivity of points. Vaporization of these elements during
mation of chromium oxides. alloy C10200 (oxygen-free copper). As shown in welding may result in porosity. When welding
Cadmium has no serious effect on the weld- Table 2, the thermal conductivity varies greatly copper alloys containing these elements, porosi-
ability of copper. However, the low boiling tem- from this baseline value, which is 339 kJ/m2 in ty can be minimized by fast weld speeds and a
perature of cadmium does result in evaporation of meters per hour at 20 °C (226 Btu/ft2 in feet per filler metal low in these elements.
this alloy at welding temperatures, thereby creat- hour at 68 °F). The range is from 100 for alloys Surface Condition. Grease and oxide on
ing a potential health hazard. Cadmium will also C10200 and C11000 to lows of 8 to 12 for nick- work surfaces should be removed before weld-
form an oxide in the molten weld metal, but the el silvers and copper-nickel alloys and 9 for ing. Wire brushing or bright dipping can be
oxide can be easily reduced by fluxing agents. alloy C65500. In comparison, carbon steel has a used. Millscale on the surfaces of aluminum
Oxygen can cause porosity and reduce the thermal conductivity of 13 on this scale. bronzes and silicon bronzes is removed for a dis-
strength of welds made in certain copper alloys When welding commercial coppers and light- tance from the weld region of at least 12.7 mm
that do not contain sufficient quantities of phos- ly alloyed copper materials with high thermal (0.5, or 12 in.), usually by mechanical means.
phorus or other deoxidizers. Oxygen may be conductivities, the type of current and shielding Grease, paint, crayon marks, shop dirt, and sim-
found as a free gas or as cuprous oxide. Most com- gas must be selected to provide maximum heat ilar contaminants on copper-nickel alloys may
monly welded copper alloys contain deoxidizing input to the joint. This high heat input counter- cause embrittlement and should be removed
elements—usually phosphorus, silicon, alu- acts the rapid heat dissipation away from the before welding. Millscale on copper-nickel
minum, iron, or manganese. These elements will localized weld zone. Depending on section alloys must be removed by grinding or pickling;
readily combine with oxygen and eliminate the thickness, preheating may be required for cop- wire brushing is not effective.
potential for porosity. The same deoxidizers are per alloys with lower thermal conductivities.
also included in the filler metals. The soundness The interpass temperature should be the same as
and strength of arc welds made in commercial for preheating. Copper alloys are not postweld Arc Welding Processes
coppers depend upon the cuprous oxide content. heat treated as frequently as steels, but some
As the oxide content decreases, weld soundness alloys may require controlled cooling rates to Copper and most copper alloys can be joined
increases. Deoxidized coppers provide the best minimize residual stresses and hot shortness. by arc welding. The commercial alloys that are
results because they are free from cuprous oxides Welding Position. Due to the highly fluid readily arc welded are listed in Table 2. Welding
and contain residual amounts of phosphorus. nature of copper and its alloys, the flat position processes that use gas shielding are generally
Iron and manganese do not significantly is used whenever possible for welding. The hor- preferred, although SMAW can be used for
affect the weldability of the alloys that contain izontal position is used in some fillet welding of many noncritical applications.
them. Iron is typically present in some special corner joints and T-joints. Argon, helium, or mixtures of the two are
brasses, aluminum bronzes, and copper-nickel Vertical and overhead positions and the hori- used as shielding gases for GTAW, PAW, and
alloys in amounts of 1.4 to 3.5%. Manganese is zontal position are less frequently used in weld- GMAW. Generally, argon is used when manual-
commonly used in these same alloys, but at ing butt joints. These positions are ordinarily ly welding material that is less than 3.2 mm
lower concentrations than iron. restricted to GTAW, GMAW, and PAW of the (0.13, or 18 in.) thick, has low thermal conduc-
Free-Machining Additives. Lead, selenium, less conductive aluminum bronzes, silicon tivity, or both. Helium or a mixture of 75% heli-
tellurium, and sulfur are added to copper alloys bronzes, and copper-nickel alloys. Small-diame- um and 25% argon is recommended for machine
to improve machinability. Bismuth (or bismuth ter electrodes and filler-metal wires are used in welding of thin sections and for manual welding
plus selenium) is also used for this purpose as conjunction with low welding currents for out- of thicker sections of alloys that have high ther-
well when lead-free alloys are desired. These of-position welding. Current pulsation is used mal conductivity. Small amounts of nitrogen can
minor alloying agents, while improving machin- with GTAW, GMAW, and PAW to control weld be added to the argon shielding gas to increase
ability, adversely affect the weldability of cop- pool fluidity. the effective heat input.
Welding / 279
Shielded metal arc welding can be used to Gas Metal Arc Welding Plasma Arc Welding
weld a wide range of thicknesses of copper
alloys. Covered electrodes for SMAW of cop- Gas metal arc welding is used to join all of the The welding of coppers and copper alloys
per alloys are available in standard sizes rang- coppers and copper alloys listed previously in using PAW is comparable to GTAW of these
ing from 2.4 to 4.8 mm (332 to 316 in.). Other Table 2. Gas tungsten arc welding is preferred alloys. Argon, helium, or mixtures of the two
sizes are available in certain electrode classifi- for thicknesses less than 3.2 mm (0.13, or 18 in.), are used for the welding of all alloys.
cations, and the reader is referred to American while GMAW is preferred for section thickness- Hydrogen gas should never be used when
National Standards Institute/American Weld- es above 3.2 mm (0.13, or 18 in.) and for the join- welding coppers. Plasma arc welding has two
ing Society (ANSI/AWS) A5.6 “Specification ing of aluminum bronzes, silicon bronzes, and distinct advantages over GTAW: (1) the tung-
for Covered Copper and Copper Alloy Arc copper-nickel alloys. sten is concealed and entirely shielded, which
Welding Electrodes.” The major application of GMAW of copper greatly reduces contamination of the electrode,
Higher thermal conductivity and thermal alloys is in the joining of material thicknesses particularly for alloys with low-boiling-tem-
expansion of copper and copper alloys result in between 3.2 and 12.7 mm (0.13 and 0.5, or 18 perature constituents such as brasses, bronzes,
greater weld distortion than in comparable steel and 12 in.) thick, and the process is almost phosphor bronzes, and aluminum bronzes; and
welds. The use of preheat, fixtures, proper weld- invariably selected for arc welding sections of (2) the constricted arc plume gives rise to
ing sequence, and tack welds can minimize dis- copper alloys thicker than 12.7 mm (0.5, or 12 higher arc energies while minimizing the
tortion or warping. in.). The high deposition rate for GMAW is a growth of the HAZ. As with GTAW, current
major advantage in this application when pulsation and current ramping may also be
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding compared to GTAW or SMAW. The greater used. Plasma arc welding equipment has been
heat input to the weld, compared with that for miniaturized for intricate work, known as
Gas tungsten arc welding is well suited for GTAW, is a disadvantage in some applications microplasma welding.
copper and copper alloys because of its due to the formation of a wider HAZ. Plasma arc welding of coppers and copper
intense arc, which produces an extremely high Direct current electrode positive (DCEP) is alloys may be performed either autogenously
temperature at the joint and a narrow heat- used exclusively for GMAW of copper alloys. or with filler metal. Filler metal selection is
affected zone (HAZ). In welding copper and Typically, argon is used as a shielding gas. identical to that outlined for GTAW.
the more thermally conductive copper alloys, Helium or mixtures of argon and helium are Automation and mechanization of this process
the intensity of the arc is important in com- often used when hotter arc voltages are needed is readily performed and is preferable to
pleting fusion with minimum heating of the with standard operating current levels. A GTAW where contamination can restrict pro-
surrounding, highly conductive base metal. A square-groove joint is not ordinarily used for duction efficiencies. Welding positions for
narrow HAZ is particularly desirable in the welding thicknesses greater than 3.2 mm PAW are identical to those for GTAW.
welding of copper alloys that have been pre- (0.13, or 18 in.), except for coppers. Single-V- However, the plasma keyhole mode has been
cipitation-hardened. grooves are used for thicknesses of 3.2 to 12.7 evaluated for thicker sections in a vertical-up
The most frequent use of GTAW for copper mm (0.13 to 0.5, or 18 to 12 in.). When section position. Generally, all information presented
and copper alloys is on sections up to 3.2 mm thicknesses exceed 12.7 mm (0.5, or 12 in.), for GTAW is applicable to PAW.
(0.13, or 18 in.) thick that have been prepared double-V-grooves or double-U-grooves are
with a square edge. Often no filler metal is used as joint preparations. Submerged Arc Welding
used in joining these thicknesses. Filler metal Welding Position. Most GMAW of copper
is usually required in GTAW of sections thick- alloys is done in the flat position with spray The welding of thick gage material, such as
er than 3.2 mm (0.13, or 18 in.). Gas tungsten transfer; fillet welds acceptable for many seamed pipe formed from heavy plate, can be
arc welding of sections thicker than 12.7 mm applications can be produced in a horizontal achieved by continuous metal-arc operation
(0.5, or 12 in.) is performed only if GMAW position. Gas metal arc welding is preferred to under a granular flux. Effective deoxidation
equipment is not available or if special condi- GTAW or SMAW when weld positions other and slag-metal reactions to form the required
tions exist. These conditions would include hot than flat are required. Out-of-position welding weld-metal composition are critical, and the
shortness of the base metal or adjacent heat- is usually restricted to the less-fluid copper SAW process is still under development for
sensitive features that make it necessary to alloys, such as aluminum bronzes, silicon copper-base materials. A variation on this
limit the heat input to the base material. Under bronzes, and copper-nickel alloys. Small- process can be used for weld cladding or hard-
certain conditions, pulsed GMAW would be diameter filler metals and low welding cur- facing. Promising results have been seen with
the preferred process. rents are preferred for such applications, and a the copper-nickel alloys for section thickness-
Type of Current. Direct current electrode globular or short-circuiting transfer is ordinar- es greater than 12.7 mm (0.5, or 12 in.). V-
negative (DCEN) is used for GTAW of most ily used. The development of pulsed spray groove and U-groove joint designs similar to
copper and copper alloys. This permits the use transfer has been quite advantageous for weld- those used in GMAW are satisfactory.
of an electrode that has a minimum diameter ing of coppers and copper alloys. Small- to Commercially available fluxes should be
for a given welding current and that provides medium-diameter wires can be readily used used for the copper-nickel alloys. Welding
maximum penetration of the base material. out-of-position for vertical and overhead weld- conditions, which are greatly dependent upon
Alternating current stabilized by high frequen- ing of most alloys. the flux used, are provided by the flux manu-
cy is used on beryllium coppers and aluminum facturer. Special attention should be given to
bronzes to prevent the buildup of tenacious Shielded Metal Arc Welding the weld bead sequence when multi-pass welds
oxide film on the base metals. are deposited, to ensure complete fusion while
Electrodes. Many of the standard tungsten When compared with SMAW of low-carbon maintaining proper bead contour. X-ray quali-
or alloyed tungsten electrodes can be used in steels, SMAW of copper and copper alloys uses ty results can be obtained when the technique
GTAW of copper and copper alloys. The selec- larger root openings, wider groove angles, more is correctly performed.
tion factors normally considered for tungsten tack welds, higher preheat and interpass temper-
electrodes apply in general to the copper and atures, and higher welding currents. Welding of
copper alloys. Except as noted for the specific coppers and copper alloys using SMAW is
classes of copper alloys, thoriated tungsten almost always restricted to flat-position weld-
Filler Metals
(usually EWTh-2) is preferred for its better ing. Out-of-position welding using this process
performance, longer life, and greater resist- is usually limited to the joining of phosphor Both covered electrodes and bare electrode
ance to contamination. bronzes and copper-nickel alloys. wire and rods are available for welding copper
and copper alloys. Tables 3, 4, and 5 list the var- per-zinc alloys with the DCEP setting. The cov- and PAW contain from 8.5 to 11% Al and are
ious American Welding Society (AWS) classifi- ered electrode can also be used for welding of designated as ERCuAl-A2. This electrode has a
cations for the filler metals for GTAW, GMAW, silicon bronze, copper, and galvanized steel. higher strength than the covered electrode. Both
and SMAW, respectively. Weld-metal mechanical properties are slightly filler metals can be used for joining aluminum
Copper Filler Metals. The electrodes and higher than those of silicon bronze base metal. bronzes, silicon bronzes, copper-nickel alloys,
rods used to weld the coppers, primarily deoxi- Copper-Aluminum Filler Metals. There are a copper-zinc alloys, manganese bronzes, and
dized and electrolytic tough pitch (ETP) cop- number of copper-aluminum (aluminum bronze) many combinations of dissimilar metals.
pers, are designated as ERCu and have a mini- filler metals for both hardfacing and joining ERCuAl-A3 electrodes and rods are used for
mum copper content of 98%. These filler metals, applications. The first of these is designated as repair welding of aluminum bronze castings
which can be used with GMAW, GTAW, and ERCuAl-A1 and is an iron-free aluminum using GMAW and GTAW. The high aluminum
PAW processes, have electrical conductivity rat- bronze. It is used as a surfacing alloy for wear- content produces welds with less tendency to
ings of 25 to 40% International Annealed resistant surfaces with relatively light loads and crack in highly stressed cross sections.
Copper Standard (IACS). for resistance to corrosive media, such as salt Repair of both wrought and cast aluminum
The covered electrodes used for SMAW are water and some commonly used acids. This alloy bronze materials containing nickel can be per-
designated as ECu. These are normally used is not recommended for joining applications. formed with copper-nickel-aluminum electrodes
with DCEP. Compared to carbon steel elec- Another hardfacing filler metal is ECuAl-B, and bare wire. The designations for these metals
trodes of the same diameter, the required weld- which is a covered electrode containing 7.5 to are ECuNiAl and ERCuNiAl. These electrodes
ing current for ECu electrodes is typically 30 10% Al. These electrodes are used for surfacing offer good corrosion resistance as well as good
to 40% greater. applications and repair welding of aluminum cavitation resistance in both salt water and
Copper-Zinc Filler Metals. Copper-zinc bronze castings with similar compositions. brackish water.
(brass) weld rods are available in three classifi- The covered electrodes for SMAW are desig- Joining of manganese-nickel-aluminum bronzes
cations: RBCuZn-A (Naval Brass), RCuZn-B nated as ECuAl-A2 and contain from 6.5 to 9% is performed with covered electrodes, designated
(Low-Fuming Brass), and RCuZn-C (Low- Al. The bare-wire electrodes for GTAW, GMAW, as ECuMnNiAl, and bare filler metals, designated
Fuming Brass). These particular welding rods
are used for braze welding of copper, bronze,
and nickel alloys. Their electrical conductivity is Table 3 Filler metals for GTAW of copper and copper alloys
about 25% IACS; thermal-conductivity values Filler metal AWS classification Principle constituents(a)
are about 30% of those of copper. Copper ERCu 98.0 min Cu Ag, 1.0 Sn, 0.5 Mn, 0.50 Si, 0.15 P
Copper-zinc filler metals cannot be used as Phosphor bronze ERCuSn-A 93.5 min Cu Ag, 4.0–6.0 Sn, 0.10–0.35 P
electrodes for the arc welding processes. The Aluminum bronze ERCuAl-A2 1.5 Fe, 9.0–11.0 Al, bal Cu Ag
Aluminum bronze ERCuAl-A3 3.0–4.25 Fe, 11.0–12.0 Al, bal Cu Ag
high zinc content tends to become volatile dur- Silicon bronze ERCuSi-A 2.8–4.0 Si, 1.5 Zn, 1.5 Sn, 1.5 Mn, 0.5 Fe
ing arc welding and boils from the molten weld Copper-nickel ERCuNi 1.00 Mn, 0.40–0.70 Fe, 29.0–32.0 Ni Co, 0.20–0.50 Ti,
pool. This boiling of the low-melting-tempera- bal Cu Ag
ture constituents results in a porous weld.
Note: These data are based on AWS A5.27, A5.6, and A5.7; see current editions of those specifications for complete compositions and qualifications.
Copper-Tin Filler Metals. The copper-tin (a) Single percentages are maximums unless otherwise stated. Optional elements and impurities have been omitted.
(phosphor bronze) welding electrodes and rods
are designated as ECuSn-A, ERCuSn-A, and
ECuSn-C. The ECuSn-A and ECuSn-C elec-
trodes contain approximately 5 and 8% Sn, Table 4 Filler metals for GMAW of copper and copper alloys
respectively. Phosphorus is used as a deoxidizer Electrode
for both electrodes. These electrodes are suitable designation(a) Common name Base-metal applications
for welding bronze, brass, and copper if the ERCu Copper Coppers
ERCuSi-A Silicon bronze Silicon bronzes, brasses
presence of tin in the weld metal is not objec- ERCuSn-A Phosphor bronze Phosphor bronzes, brasses
tionable. These filler metals are also commonly ERCuNi Copper-nickel Copper-nickel alloys
used for repair welding of castings. Greater ERCuAl-A2 Aluminum bronze Aluminum bronzes, brasses, silicon bronzes,
weld-metal strength and hardness are obtained manganese bronzes
ERCuAl-A3 Aluminum bronze Aluminum bronzes
with the ECuSn-C electrodes than with the ERCuNiAl … Nickel-aluminum bronzes
ECuSn-A electrodes. ERCuMnNiAl … Manganese-nickel-aluminum bronzes
The ERCuSn-A rods can be used with GTAW RBCuZn-A Naval brass Brasses, copper
and PAW for joining phosphor bronzes. Preheat RCuZn-B Low-fuming brass Brasses, manganese bronzes
RCuZn-C Low-fuming brass Brasses, manganese bronzes
temperatures of about 200 °C (400 °F) are
required when welding with these electrodes, (a) See the most recent edition of AWS A5.7, “Specification for Copper and Copper Alloy Bare Welding Rods and Electrodes,” or AWS A5.27,
particularly for heavy sections. “Specification for Copper and Copper Alloy Gas Welding Rods.”
Copper-Silicon Filler Metals. Copper-sili-
con (silicon bronze) electrodes are used in bare-
wire form for GMAW, GTAW, PAW, and some- Table 5 Filler metal for SMAW of copper and copper alloys
times for oxyfuel welding. The designation for
Covered
these electrodes is ERCuSi-A. Chemical compo- electrode(a) Common name Base-metal applications
sitions contain between 2.8 and 4.0% Si with ECu Copper Coppers
approximately 1.5% Mn, 1.0% Sn, and 1.0% Zn. ECuSi Silicon bronze Silicon bronzes, brasses
These filler metals are frequently used to weld ECuSn-A, ECuSn-C Phosphor bronze Phosphor bronzes. brasses
silicon bronzes and brasses. They are also used ECuNi Copper-nickel Copper-nickel alloys
ECuAl-A2 Aluminum bronze Aluminum bronzes, brasses,
for braze welding of galvanized steel. The elec- silicon bronzes, manganese bronzes
trical conductivity is about 6.5% IACS, and the ECuAl-B Aluminum bronze Aluminum bronzes
thermal conductivity is approximately 8.4% of ECuNiAl … Nickel-aluminum bronzes
that of copper. The covered electrodes in this ECuMnNiAl … Manganese-nickel-aluminum bronzes
filler metal classification are designated as (a) See the most recent edition of AWS A5.6, “Specification for Covered Copper and Copper Alloy Arc Welding Electrodes.”
ECuSi and are used primarily for welding cop-
Welding / 281
as ERCuMnNiAl. Like the copper-nickel-alu- tain ≥99% Cu (UNS Numbers C10100 to same. Table 6 lists several representative welding
minum electrodes, these electrodes have good C15760). The coppers are welded using GTAW, conditions for GTAW of commercial coppers.
resistance to cavitation, erosion, and corrosion. GMAW, and SMAW. Additional information on Effect of Cuprous Oxide. Cuprous oxide
Copper-Nickel Filler Metals. Covered elec- the properties and applications of coppers can be may be present within the base metal or intro-
trodes for this classification are designated as found in the articles “Wrought Copper and duced through oxidation of the molten weld pool
ECuNi, and bare electrode wire and rods are Copper Alloys” and “Properties of Wrought during, the arc welding process. Migration of
designated as ERCuNi. The nominal composi- Copper and Copper Alloys” in this Handbook. cuprous oxides to the grain boundaries lowers
tions are 70% Cu and 30% Ni. Titanium is used the strength and ductility of the weld and
as a deoxidizer in these filler metals, which are Gas Tungsten Arc Welding adversely affects fatigue properties.
used for the joining of copper-nickel alloys. The best results in the arc welding of copper
When using GTAW to join commercial cop- are obtained on the deoxidized coppers because
Welding of Coppers pers, weld quality will differ depending on the these alloys are free of cuprous oxides and they
cuprous oxide content of the copper. The nomi- contain residual phosphorus. This phosphorus
As indicated in Table 2, coppers include oxy- nal welding conditions, however, for a given combines with oxygen, which is absorbed dur-
gen-free, ETP, and deoxidized grades that con- thickness and joint design are approximately the ing the heating or welding, and prevents the for-
Table 6 Nominal conditions for GTAW of commercial coppers using EWTh-2 electrodes, ERCu welding rod, and DCEN
Workpiece Root Electrode Welding rod
Number
thickness opening(a) diameter diameter Gas flow rate Travel speed Preheat
Shielding of
mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in. gas(b) L/min ft3/h Current, A m/min in./min °C °F passes
Butt joints—square groove

1.6 1/16 0 0 1.6 1/16 None used Argon 7.1 15 110–114 0.30 12 None used 1
3.2 1/8 0 0 2.4 3/32 None used Argon 7.1 15 175–225 0.28 11 None used 1
3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 2.4 3/32 2.4 3/32 Argon 7.1 15 175–225 0.28 11 None used 1
4.8 3/16 4.8 3/16 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 Helium 15.0 30 190–225 0.25 10 95 200 1
Butt joints—60° single-V groove, 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) root face
6.4 1/4 1.6 1/16 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 Helium 15.0 30 225–260 0.23 9 150 300 1
9.5 3/8 1.6 1/16 4.8 3/16 4.8 3/16 Helium 18.9 40 280–320 … … 260 500 2
Butt joints—60° double-V groove, 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) root face(c)
12.7 1/2 1.6 1/16 6.4 1/4 6.4 1/4 Helium 18.9 40 375–525 … … 260 500 3
Lap joints—fillet welded(d)
1.6 1/16 0 0 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 Argon 7.1 15 130–150 0.25 10 None used 1
3.2 1/8 0 0 2.4 3/32 3.2 1/8 Argon 7.1 15 200–250 0.23 9 None used 1
4.8 3/16 0 0 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 Helium 15.0 30 205–250 0.20 8 95 200 1
6.4 1/4 0 0 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 Helium 15.0 30 250–280 0.18 7 150 300 1
9.5 3/8 0 0 4.8 3/16 4.8 3/16 Helium 18.9 40 300–340 … … 260 500 3
Outside corner joints—square groove
3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 2.4 3/32 3.2 1/8 Argon 7.1 15 170–225 0.28 11 None used 1
4.8 3/16 4.8 3/16 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 Helium 15.0 30 190–225 0.25 10 95 200 1
6.4 1/4 4.8 3/16 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 Helium 15.0 30 225–260 0.23 9 150 300 1
9.5 3/8 6.4 1/4 4.8 3/16 4.8 3/16 Helium 18.9 40 280–320 … … 260 500 2
Outside corner joints—50° single-bevel groove, 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) root face
4.8 3/16 1.6 1/16 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 Helium 15.0 30 205–250 0.20 8 95 200 1
6.4 1/4 1.6 1/16 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 Helium 15.0 30 250–280 0.18 7 150 300 1
9.5 3/8 1.6 1/16 4.8 3/16 4.8 3/16 Helium 18.9 40 300–340 … … 260 500 3
Inside corner joints—square groove, fillet welded
3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 2.4 3/32 3.2 1/8 Argon 7.1 15 200–250 0.23 9 None used 1
T-joints—fillet welded
3.2 1/8 1.6 1/16 2.4 3/32 3.2 1/8 Argon 7.1 15 200–250 0.23 9 None used 1
4.8 3/16 1.6 1/16 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 Helium 15.0 30 205–250 0.20 8 95 200 1
6.4 1/4 1.6 1/16 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 Helium 15.0 30 250–280 0.18 7 150 300 1
9.5 3/8 1.6 1/16 4.8 3/16 4.8 3/16 Helium 18.9 40 300–340 … … 260 500 3
Note: The data in this table are intended to serve as starting points for the establishment of optimal joint design and conditions for welding of parts on which previous experience is lacking. They are subject to adjustments nec-
essary to meet the special requirements of individual applications. (a) Copper, carbon, graphite, or ceramic tape backing strips or rings may be used (see text). (b) Mixtures of argon and helium are also used (see text). (c) Depth
of back V is 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) of stock thickness. (d) Use of filler metal is optional for thickness of 6.4 mm (1/4 in.) or less.
mation of cuprous oxide. The strength, ductility, known as ERCu, as shown in Table 3. Alloys Example 1: Redesign of Joint and Fixture
and porosity of welds made in alloy C10200 such as C12000 and C12200 (deoxidized cop- to Minimize Distortion in GTAW of Alloy
(oxygen-free copper) are intermediate between pers) do not contain enough residual phospho- C12000. A wafer of nuclear fuel was encapsu-
the same properties for welds made in deoxi- rus to ensure sound welds and are not used as lated in a can and cover assembly constructed of
dized coppers (alloys C12000 and C12200) and filler metal. The ERCu filler metal has other alloy C12000 using automatic GTAW. The com-
those made in alloy C11000 (ETP copper), advantages, such as relatively high electrical pleted weldment is shown in Fig. l(a). As shown
which contains 0.02 to 0.5% oxygen. conductivity (30 to 40% IACS) and good color in detail A in Fig. 1, the can has a machined
While cuprous oxide does have an adverse match to the copper base metal. Any of the recess for the wafer and a 0.13 mm (0.005 in.)
effect on the mechanical properties of coppers, other filler metals listed in Table 3 can be used thick bottom. The can-to-cover joint had raised
weld properties of arc welded coppers contain- in GTAW of commercial coppers. Most of the lips, which eliminated the need for filler metal.
ing cuprous oxide are superior to those obtained alloys contain adequate amounts of deoxidizing The weld had to provide a hermetic seal with-
from oxyacetylene welding of oxygen-bearing elements such as phosphorus, silicon, iron, alu- out distortion of the assembly, including the thin
coppers. Welds made by oxyfuel welding are minum, or titanium. These filler metals offer can bottom that was only 4.8 mm (0.19, or 316 in.)
subject to gassing and embrittlement. the advantage of greater joint strengths, but from the welded area. A mass spectrometer was
Shielding Gases. Argon is the preferred they have lower electrical conductivity and used to conduct leak testing of the weldment.
shielding gas when welding copper sections up to poor color match. The welds were made in a controlled atmos-
1.6 mm (0.06, or 116 in.) thick. As sections grow Welding Technique. Either the forehand or phere chamber with the can mounted in a rotat-
thicker, slower travel speeds and higher preheat backhand welding technique can be used when ing copper chill-block clamping fixture under-
temperatures are required when using argon GTAW is used for coppers. Forehand welding neath a stationary electrode. Welding conditions
shielding gas. For sections in excess of 1.6 mm is preferred for all welding positions. It pro- are given in the table accompanying Fig. 1.
(0.06, or 116 in.), helium is the preferred gas. The duces a smaller and more uniform bead size Originally the fixture and joint shown in Fig. 1
risk of oxide entrapment in the weld pool is great- than is possible with backhand welding; how- and detail A were used. However, at currents high
ly reduced when using helium. Also, compared to ever, a greater number of passes may be enough for fusion, the welds were porous the
argon, helium provides deeper penetration or required to fill the joint. joint leaked, and the can warped unacceptably.
higher travel speed for the same welding current. The weld joint should be filled using one or The porosity that caused leaking resulted
Mixtures of argon and helium shielding gases more stringer beads or narrow weave beads. from the machining operation of the can. The
result in intermediate welding characteristics. Wide oscillation of the arc while welding should lubricant was wiped under the surface of the
For welding positions other than the flat posi- be avoided, lest the edges of the bead be inter- metal by the cutting tool, and subsequent clean-
tion, a mixture of 65 to 75% He with argon pro- mittently exposed to the atmosphere and conse- ing operations failed to remove it. Machining
vides a good balance between the penetrating quently to oxidation. The first bead should pen- without a lubricant eliminated the difficulty. To
effect of helium and the ease of control for etrate the root of the joint and be relatively thick, minimize distortion, the joint and fixture were
argon. Gas flow rate usually ranges from 7.1 to to provide time for deoxidation of the weld improved as follows. The square lips of the joint
19 L/min (15 to 40 ft3 /h), with higher values metal and to avoid cracking of the bead. were chamfered (40°) to a sharp edge, as shown
being used for high currents in the welding of Joint Designs. Welding of butt joints with in detail B in Fig. 1. This was done to reduce the
thick sections. thicker cross sections requires the use of filler heat input required to make the weld. With the
Type of Current. As indicated in Table 6, metal and a root opening, due to the high ther- chamfered lips, the welding current could be
DCEN is preferred for GTAW of commer- mal conductivity of copper. Clearance is needed lowered because a smaller mass of metal was
cial coppers. to prevent the base metal from conducting the being melted at any instant. The mass of the fix-
Electrodes. In GTAW of coppers, best results heat away too rapidly and solidifying the filler ture was increased, as shown in Fig. 1(b), to
for electrode life and maintenance are obtained metal, thus choking the joint before it is filled. increase heat withdrawal. The redesigned fixture
using a thoriated tungsten electrode containing 2% Because of the high fluidity of copper, backing also provided complete support for the thin can
thoria (EWTh-2). Proper electrode preparation for rings or strips are ordinarily used in GTAW of butt bottom against pressure during leak testing.
the welding of copper is usually a pointed elec- joints. The backing rings are typically made of Before welding, the assembly was retained in
trode with an included angle of 60°. The tip of the copper, carbon, graphite, or ceramic tape. Backing the fixture, which was held by a small chuck
point is truncated with a diameter approximately is needed both for tightly fitted butt joints used in with all of the 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) thick can bot-
one-third the diameter of the electrode. thin metal and for loosely fitted butt joints in thick tom resting on the thick copper backing, as
Welding without Filler Metal. Square- metal, to prevent the loss of the fluid weld pool. shown in detail B of Fig. 1. The fixture assembly
groove butt joints on copper up to 3.2 mm (0.13, Backing may also be used when needed for this was welded in a chamber that was first vacuum-
or 18 in.) thick can be gas tungsten arc welded purpose with other joint geometries. purged and then filled with 100% Ar under
without the use of filler metal. However, filler Preheating. For GTAW of sections greater slightly positive pressure.
metal is sometimes required as thicknesses than 3.2 mm (0.13, or 18 in.), preheating of the The torch was rigidly mounted on a sliding
approach this value. Copper sections greater base material is typically required to maintain base with locating stops with which the elec-
than 3.2 mm (0.13, or 18 in.) may be gas tungsten the base metal at welding temperature. trode tip was positioned over the seam and
arc welded without the use of filler metal by Without preheating, the high thermal conduc- clamped into position. In the argon atmosphere
making two passes, one from each side. tivity of coppers results in excessive loss of it was not necessary to provide a shielding gas to
Filler Metals. As shown in Table 6, copper heat away from the weld zone. The small arc the electrode tip or to use an electrode cup. The
sections greater than 3.2 mm (0.13, or 18 in.) that that is typically used in GTAW cannot main- electrode was ground to a sharp point to reduce
are joined by GTAW typically require the use of tain sufficient welding heat in thick sections of current flow and arc wander.
filler metals. As discussed previously, the copper, even under the most favorable con- During welding, the chuck holding the fixture
adverse effect of the formation of cuprous oxide ditions. Preheat temperatures are also shown was rotated by a variable-speed drive. Arc sta-
requires that the filler metal contain a residual in Table 6. bility was maintained by a superimposed high-
deoxidizer. The deleterious effect of oxygen is Deoxidized Copper. When copper weld- frequency current that was continuous. Current
even more severe within the filler metal than ments require the strength of the base metal, upslope was not controlled. Two revolutions at
within the base metal because the filler metal deoxidized coppers are usually used. Even 3.5 rev/min were used, because slight variations
has greater exposure to welding heat. with the localized heat input of GTAW, special in pressure between the cover and the can caused
In most cases, copper filler metal is selected fixturing and other welding conditions may be variations in the thickness of the weld bead after
that contains a maximum of 0.15% P and needed to minimize distortion, as shown in the the first revolution. The second revolution
0.50% Si as deoxidizers. This filler metal is following example. smoothed out these irregularities and ensured
Welding / 283
adequate penetration of the base metal along the ly lower strength and ductility and are slightly ft) length was standard for inductor stock. The
circumference of the joint. After the second rev- more porous. Gas tungsten arc welds in alloy weldment was bent into coils with an inside
olution, the current was tapered to 0 A in 5 s. C11000 have somewhat lower tensile strength diameter of 100 mm (4 in.). The bar stock was
Distortion was minimized because of the than those in deoxidized coppers, and they are located to the inside of the coil. The require-
low welding current, the high heat-sink effi- also more porous (see the subsequent discussion ment of the joint was to maintain good electri-
ciency, and rigid support by the fixture. “Effect of Cuprous Oxide”). However, the prop- cal conductivity.
Control of heat input was also helpful in pre- erties of gas tungsten arc welds in ETP copper Originally, the bar and tubing were torch
venting excessive internal gas expansion after are acceptable in most applications involving brazed along the entire length using a silver
the joint was closed. welded electrical conductors, particularly when alloy filler metal. Not only was the filler metal
After welding, the chamber was evacuated to tensile strength is relatively unimportant, as in expensive, but brazing was slow, requiring two
1.3 104 Pa (106 torr). The interior of the can the induction-coil weldment described in the fol- operators to handle the lengths of tubing and bar.
remained at approximately 0.1 MPa (15 psi). lowing example. A faster and less costly method was developed
Under the pressure differential, the can, still in Example 2: Automatic GTAW of Joints by mechanizing a GTAW procedure in which no
the fixture, was inspected for leaks by use of a between Alloy C11000 Bar and Tubing. A filler metal was used, thus increasing the pro-
mass spectrometer. The fixture supported the solid bar approximately 9 m (30 ft) long of duction rate.
can bottom against internal pressure. alloy C11000 was gas tungsten arc welded
Oxygen-Free and ETP Coppers. Compared automatically to a comparable length of tubing
to GMAW or other processes with nonlocalized of the same alloy. The weldment was used in
heat input, GTAW is preferred for the joining of making water-cooled induction coils for low
either oxygen-free copper (alloy C10200) or frequency (60 to 180 Hz) induction heating that
ETP copper (alloy C11000) for thicknesses up to required more cross-sectional area for electri-
approximately 13 mm (0.5, or 12 in.). cal conduction than was provided by the tubu-
Because of the absence of a deoxidizer, gas lar section alone. Figure 2 shows a weldment
tungsten arc welds in alloy C10200 have slight- with a cross section of typical size. The 9 m (30
Fig. 2 Conditions for automatic GTAW of alloy

Fig. 1 Conditions for GTAW of a nuclear fuel container. Distortion in welding was minimized by increasing the mass C11000 tubing and bar inductor coils. The posi-
of the fixture to increase heat withdrawal and by chamfering joint edges to permit reduction of welding current. tions of the assembly, guide rolls, and torch during weld-
Dimensions in figure given in inches ing are shown.
Welding conditions for the application are sound, trouble-free welds that also provide good Similar operating conditions are employed in
given in the table accompanying Fig. 2. The fix- color match to the copper base metal and have welding crucibles for arc melting of refractory
ture, designed to accommodate the sizes of good electrical conductivity. The ERCu elec- metals in controlled atmospheres. These cru-
inductor bar and tubing regularly used, consisted trode was used as a basis for the conditions list- cibles are typically heavy-wall deoxidized cop-
of six guide rolls, as shown in Fig. 2. These guide ed in Table 7. per cylinders with wall thicknesses up to 32 mm
rolls properly aligned the assembly during weld- Copper electrodes of higher purity than ERCu (1.25 in.), diameters of 0.3 to 1.2 m (1 to 4 ft),
ing. A chain and variable-speed drive was used to are seldom used in GMAW of copper because and lengths of 1 to 7.5 m (3 to 25 ft). Formed
pull the assembly through the rolls during weld- these usually result in welds that are porous, due and welded copper plate is used because seam-
ing. Positioning of the torch over the joint was to the absence of deoxidizers. Most of the elec- less tubes of this size are not available.
achieved by using an adjustable mount. trodes listed in Table 4 can be used. Any of the Longitudinal seams are welded, and flanges are
The first 25 mm (1 in.) of the leading edge of electrodes other than ERCu will produce dense, welded to each end of the cylinders by GMAW.
the joint was brazed prior to welding, to prepare strong welds, but they will result in poor color Such cylinders are preheated to 650 °C (1200 °F)
the assembly for feeding through the guide rolls. match and unacceptable electrical conductivi- before welding. Welding is done automatically,
The position of the assembly, guide rolls, and ties. Filler metals should be deposited as stringer to avoid exposing operators to such heavy sec-
electrode holder during welding is shown in Fig. beads or narrow weave beads using the spray- tions at elevated temperatures.
2. The relative travel speed of the assembly as transfer mode; weaving of the electrodes may Oxygen-Free and ETP Coppers. The
pulled through the rolls was 5.5 mm/s (13 result in oxidation at the edges of the weld. GMAW process is also used for welding oxy-
in./min). A single pass was used without coolant Welding Technique. The forehand welding gen-free copper in the production of the cru-
for each side of the weldment and the ends were technique should be used in the flat position. cibles previously described. These crucibles are
trimmed after welding. For vertical-position welding, an upward pro- also used for arc melting of refractory metals.
The high thermal conductivity of alloy gression should be utilized. Gas metal arc weld- However, the weld properties are inferior to
C11000 caused rapid dissipation of the heat ing of copper is not recommended for the over- those produced with deoxidized copper. Because
energy. However, this difficulty was overcome head position due to poor bead contour. The oxygen-free copper contains no residual deoxi-
without preheating by the use of helium as the preferred process for overhead-position welding dizer, heating and welding cycles must be kept
shielding gas. Helium provided a hotter arc than is GTAW. as short as possible, and gas shielding must be
could be obtained with argon. Thus, it was pos- Joint Design. A square-groove joint is used for completely effective to avoid excessive porosity.
sible to produce the relatively deep, narrow the single-pass welding of coppers up to 3.2 mm Although the strength and soundness of welds in
beads at the stated travel speed. Oxygen from (0.13, or 18 in.) thick. A backing bar is used for oxygen-bearing coppers, such as ETP copper,
the oxide in alloy C11000 caused some porosity, zero root openings, and a grooved copper backing are substantially less than in oxygen-free copper,
but this was minimized by the fast freezing pro- bar is used for root openings of 1.6 mm (0.06, or the reduced properties are seldom important for
1
moted by the high travel speed. The required 16 in.) maximum. The square-groove joint can welds in electrical conductors. Busbars made of
joint properties were obtained in spite of the also be used for one-pass-per-side welding of ETP copper are frequently joined using the
potential for porosity. coppers up to 6.4 mm (0.25, or 14 in.) thick. GMAW process. The use of filler metals such as
Single-V-groove joints are used when welding ERCu or another of the standard filler metals
Gas Metal Arc Welding coppers of sections above 6.4 mm (0.25, or 14 listed in Table 4 significantly lowers the electri-
in.). The filler metal is deposited on one side cal conductivity of the joint. In order to mini-
As has been previously discussed, oxygen has using three or more passes, and the root pass is mize this adverse effect, large root faces are used
a detrimental effect when copper is welded. The back gouged to sound metal before the last pass to increase the contact area at the joint line. For
resulting porosity and reduced weld strength is applied to the back of the joint. In some appli- improved electrical conductivity, a filler metal
described for GTAW of copper are more pro- cations, the root pass is applied using GTAW with chemical composition approximately
nounced in GMAW. This is due to the greater heat and subsequent passes are completed via 0.75% Sn, 0.25% Si, and 0.20% Mn is some-
input associated with the process. Gas metal arc GMAW for rapid buildup. times used for welding ETP copper busbars.
welds of deoxidized coppers compare favorably If heavy sections (thicker than 12.7 mm, or
in density and strength with the welds made using 0.5 in.) are to be welded, these should be pre-
GTAW. However, the greater heat input and less- pared with a double-V- or a double-U-groove Shielded Metal Arc Welding
er localization of heat obtained with GMAW joint. Welding is performed by applying alter-
result in greater porosity and lower strength in the nating passes to opposite sides of the joint, if Problems with porosity and low weld strength,
HAZ of the welds. This is especially true in cop- readily accessible, to minimize distortion. In a due to oxygen content of the base metal and oxy-
pers that contain insufficient amounts of deoxi- small, closed vessel, limited access may prevent gen absorption during welding, are more severe
dizer, particularly ETP copper. Consequently, the use of this technique, and in addition, heat in joining coppers by SMAW than by the gas-
GMAW has less applicability than GTAW to the buildup often prevents welding on both sides. shielded processes. The resulting lower mechan-
welding of ETP copper, oxygen-free copper, or Preheating. Because of the high thermal ical properties greatly limit the usefulness of
low-phosphorus-deoxidized copper up to approx- conductivity of copper, sections thicker than weldments produced using SMAW. Additionally,
imately 13 mm (0.5, or 12 in.) thick. 6.4 mm (0.25, or 14 in.) are usually preheated. electrical conductivity suffers greatly.
Nominal Conditions. Table 7 gives the nom- As shown in Table 7, single-V-groove joints in
inal conditions for gas metal arc butt welding of 6.4 mm (0.25, or 14 in.) thick copper, welded
copper and copper alloys. In welding joints for using 1.6 mm (116 in.) diameter filler metal, are
Welding of High-Strength
which the root opening is between 1.6 and 3.2 also preheated. Beryllium Coppers
mm (0.06 and 0.13, or 116 and 18 in.), mixtures of Deoxidized Coppers. Heavy-wall copper
helium and argon are used as shielding gas pressure vessels (up to about 40 mm, or 1.5 in., The wrought high-strength beryllium cop-
instead of pure argon. This results in lower wall thickness), which are usually made from pers include alloys C17000 and C17200,
requirements for preheat, deeper penetration phosphorus-deoxidized copper, are frequently which contain nominally 1.7 and 1.9% Be,
into the weld joint, and higher rates of filler gas metal arc welded. Residual phosphorus respectively, and up to 0.25% Co. A free-
metal deposition. helps obtain maximum weld strength while min- machining grade version of C17200 is avail-
Filler Metals (Electrode Wires). The recom- imizing porosity. In order to meet the high heat able that is modified with a small lead addi-
mended ERCu electrode contains phosphorus, demand in welding these heavy-walled vessels, tion, but this grade is not recommended for
tin, silicon, and manganese as deoxidizers to welding currents and preheat temperatures may welding. The high-strength beryllium coppers
minimize porosity. The electrode produces be higher than those shown in Table 7. are joined by GTAW and GMAW. Additional
Table 7 Nominal conditions for gas metal arc butt welding of commercial coppers and copper alloys
Workpiece Root Electrode
Weld types for
thickness(a) Root face opening(b) diameter Gas flow rate Travel speed Preheat temperature
butt joints, Electrode Shielding Current Voltage, Number of
as described mm in. mm in. mm in. type mm in. gas(c) L/min ft3/h (DCEP), A V m/min in./min °C °F passes
Commercial coppers
Square groove(b) 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 0 0 ERCu 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 310 27 0.76 30 None used 1
Square groove(c) 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 0–1.6 0–1/16 ERCu 1.6 1/16 Argon(d) 15–16.5 30–35 325–350 28–33 … … None used 1
Square groove 6.4 1/4 6.4 1/4 0 0 ERCu 2.4 3/32 Argon 15 30 460 26 0.50 20 95 200 2
6.4 1/4 6.4 1/4 0 0 ERCu 2.4 3/32 Argon 15 30 500 27 0.50 20 95 200 1
75–90° single-V-groove(c) 6.4 1/4 3.2 1/8 0–3.2 0–1/8 ERCu 1.6 1/16 Argon(d) 15–16.5 30–35 400–425 32–36 … … 200–260 400–500 2
12.7 1/2 0–3.2 0–1/8 0–3.2 0–1/8 ERCu 1.6 1/16 Argon(d) 15–16.5 30–35 425–450 35–40 … … 425–480 800–900 4
90° single-V-groove(c) 9.5 3/8 4.8 3/16 0 0 ERCu 2.4 3/32 Argon 15 30 500 27 0.35 14 200 400 (e)
9.5 3/8 4.8 3/16 0 0 ERCu 2.4 3/32 Argon 15 30 550 27 0.35 14 200 400 (e)
12.7 1/2 6.4 1/4 0 0 ERCu 2.4 3/32 Argon 15 30 540 27 0.30 12 200 400 (e)
12.7 1/2 6.4 1/4 0 0 ERCu 2.4 3/32 Argon 15 30 600 27 0.25 10 200 400 (e)
Alloys C17000 and C17200 (high-strength beryllium coppers)(f)

90° single-V-groove 6.4–9.5 1/4–1/2 0.8–1.6 1/32–1/16 … … Alloy C17000, 1.2 0.045 Ar/He 21 45 175–200 … … … 150–200 300–400 3–4(g)
C17500
30° double-U-groove(h) 19–38.1 3/4–1/2 1.6 1/16 … … Alloy C17000, 1.6 1/16 Ar/He 28 60 325–350 … … … 150–200 300–400 10–20(i)
C17500
Alloy C17500 (high-conductivity beryllium coppers)(f)
90° single-V-groove 6.4–9.5 1/4–1/2 0.8 1/32 … … Alloy C17500 1.2 0.045 Ar/He 15 30 200–240 … … … 315 600 3–4(j)
19.0 3/4 0.8 1/32 … … Alloy C17500 1.2 0.045 Ar/He 15 30 200–240 … … … 480 900 6(j)
Low-zinc brasses
Square groove(c) 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 0 0 ERCuSi-A 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 275–285 25–28 … … None used 1
3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 0 0 ERCuSi-A 1.6 1/16 Helium 16.5 35 275–285 25–28 … … None used 1
60° single-V-groove(c) 9.5 3/8 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuSi-A 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 275–285 25–28 … … None used 2
12.7 1/2 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuSi-A 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 275–285 25–28 … … None used 4
70° single-V-groove(c) 9.5 3/8 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuSi-A 1.6 1/16 Helium 16.5 35 275–285 25–28 … … 260(k) 500(k) 2
12.7 1/2 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuSi-A 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 275–285 25–28 … … 260(k) 500(k) 4
High-zinc brasses, tin brasses, special brasses, nickel silvers
Square groove(c) 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 0 0 ERCuSn-A 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 275–285 25–28 … … None used 1
70° single-V-groove(c) 9.5 3/8 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuSn-A 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 275–285 25–28 … … None used 2
12.7 1/2 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuSn-A 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 275–285 25–28 … … None used 4
Phosphor bronzes(l)
90° single-V-groove(c) 9.5 3/8 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuSn-A 1.6 1/16 Helium 16.5 35 275–285 25–28 … … 95–150 200–300 3–4(m)
12.7 1/2 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuSn-A 1.6 1/16 Helium 16.5 35 275–285 25–28 … … 175–200 350–400 5–6(m)
Aluminum bronzes(n)
Square groove(o) 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 0 0 ERCuAl-A2 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 280–290 27–30 … … None used 1
60–70° single-V-groove(c) 9.5 3/8 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuAl-A2 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 280–290 27–30 … … None used 2
12.7 1/2 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuAl-A2 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 280–290 27–30 … … None used 3
Silicon bronzes(p)
Square groove(q) 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 0 0 ERCuSi-A 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 260–270 27–30 … … None used 1
70° single-V-groove(c) 9.5 3/8 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuSi-A 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 260–270 27–30 … … None used 2
12.7 1/2 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuSi-A 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 260–270 27–30 … … None used 3
Copper nickels
Square groove(c) 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 0 0 ERCuNi 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 280 27–30 … … None used 1
60° single-V-groove(c) 9.5 3/8 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuNi 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 280 27–30 … … None used 2
12.7 1/2 0 0 3.2 1/8 ERCuNi 1.6 1/16 Argon 15 30 280 27–30 … … None used 4
Welding / 285
Note: The data in this table are intended to serve as starting points for the establishment of optimal joint design and conditions for welding of parts on which previous experience is lacking. They are subject to adjustments necessary to meet the special requirements of individual
applications. (a) Thicknesses up to 38.1 mm (11/2 in.) are sometimes welded by use of slightly higher current and lower travel speed than shown for a thickness of 12.7 mm (1/2 in.). (b) Copper backing. (c) Grooved copper backing. (d) Or 75Ar-25He. (e) Special welding sequence
is used (see text). (f) See Table 2 for compositions. (g) The final pass is made on the root side after back chipping. Wire brush after each pass. (h) Similar to the double-V-groove weld, but with a groove radius of 9.5 mm (3/8 in.). (i) Several passes are made on the face side, then
several on the back side, until the weld is completed. Back chip the root pass before making the first pass on the back side. Wire brush after each pass. (j) The final pass is made on the root side after back chipping. (k) Should not be overheated; as little preheat as possible should
be used. (l) Welding conditions based on alloys C51000, C52100, and C52400; current is increased or speed is decreased for alloy C50500. (m) Hot peening between passes is recommended for maximum strength. (n) Slight preheat may be needed on heavy sections; interpass tem-
perature should not exceed 315 °C (600 °F). (o) With aluminum bronze backing. (p) No preheat is used on any thickness; interpass temperature should not exceed 95 °C (200 °F). (q) With silicon bronze backing
Table 8 Nominal conditions for GTAW of beryllium coppers

For butt joints having zero root openings; welding with a zirconiated tungsten electrode, filler metal of the same composition as the base metal, argon-helium gas at 12 L/min (25
ft3/h)
Workpiece thickness Electrode diameter Travel speed Preheat temperature
mm in. Butt-joint groove mm in. Current(a), A m/min in./min °C °F Number of passes
Alloy C17500 (high-conductivity beryllium copper)(b)

0–2.4 0–3/32 Square 2.4 3/32 150 0.13–0.25 5–10 None used 1
2.4–3.2 3/32–1/8 90° single-V(c) 4.8 3/16 250 0.13–0.25 5–10 None used 1–2
6.4 1 /4 90° single-V(c) 4.8 3/16 250 0.13–0.25 5–10 425 800 4–5
Alloys C17000 and C17200 (high-strength beryllium coppers)(b)
0–2.4 0–3/32 Square 2.4 3/32 150 0.13–0.25 5–10 None used 1
2.4–3.2 3/32–1/8 90° single-V(c) 2.4 3/32 180 0.13–0.25 5–10 None used 1
6.4–12.7(d) 1/4–1/2(d) 90° single-V(c) 4.8 3/16 250 0.13–0.25 5–10 150 300 3–4
12.7(d) 1/2(d) 90° single-V(c) 4.8 3/16 250 0.13–0.25 5–10 200 400 5–8
Note: The data in this table are intended to serve as starting points for the establishment of optimal joint design and conditions for welding of parts on which previous experience is lacking. They are subject to adjustments nec-
essary to meet the special requirements of individual applications. (a) High-frequency-stabilized alternating current is preferred; DCEN, with a thoriated tungsten electrode, is suitable under some conditions (see text). (b) For
composition, see Table 2. (c) Maximum root face is 1.6 mm (1/16 in.). (d) Gas tungsten arc welding is used on these thicknesses only when GMAW cannot be used.
Table 9 Three applications of GTAW of high-strength beryllium coppers welding, without a solution anneal, is ade-
Pressure vessel (Example 3) Generator liner (Example 4) Cover to housing (Example 5)
quate. Omission of solution annealing avoids
the expense and distortion associated with this
Alloy C17000 C17000 to C17200 Cast Be-Cu (1.7% Be) to C17000
Size of workpiece 483 mm diam by 1016 mm 495 mm diam by 1219 mm 295 mm (11.6 in.)
high-temperature operation. Following are
(19 in. diam by 40 in.) (19.5 in. diam by 48 in.) three applications of GTAW of high-strength
Thickness of work metal 19 mm (3/4 in.) (a) 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) beryllium coppers.
Filler metal 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) diam alloy None None Examples 3, 4, and 5: Gas Tungsten Arc
C17200
Current, A 100–150 DCEN 122, ac(b) 275, ac(b)
Welding of High-Strength Beryllium
Shielding gas Argon and helium Argon and helium Argon and helium Coppers. Welding conditions for GTAW for
Gas flow rate 12 L/min (25 ft3/h) 12 L/min (25 ft3/h) 9.5 L/min (20 ft3/h) three applications are shown in Table 9.
Travel speed 0.50 m/min (20 in./min) 0.25 m/min (10 in./min) 0.30 m/min (12 in./min) Example 3 is a weldment in an alloy C17000
Number of passes 10 1 1
Postweld heat 345 °C (650 °F), 3 h None None
pressure vessel. In Example 4, a cylindrical
Testing method X-ray(c) … (d) generator liner was constructed using alloy
C17000 and alloy C17200. Example 5 shows a
ac, alternating current. (a) Reinforcing rings, 40 by 32 mm (11/2 by 11/4 in.) welded to 6 by 6 mm (1/4 by 1/4 in.) longitudinal ribs. (b) High-frequen- cast beryllium-copper cover made from alloy
cy-stabilized. (c) Weld was tested by dye-penetration techniques; leak testing was by helium mass spectrometry and x-ray radiography. (d) Weld depth
of 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) minimum was determined ultrasonically; weld was leak-tested by helium mass spectrometry at 76 MPa (11 ksi). C17000 that was welded to a housing of the
same alloy.
The pressure vessel in Example 3 was used to
information on the properties and application the joint or to provide joint reinforcement in a V- scavenge propane from a freon bubble chamber.
of these materials can be found in the articles groove weld. This is due to the high concern for Use of GTAW was dictated because the vessel
“Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys” and strength when welding these alloys. Rods or could not be solution-annealed after welding
“Properties of Wrought Copper and Copper strips of the same composition as the base metal because of danger of warpage. The service con-
Alloys” in this Handbook. are generally used as filler metals; the standard ditions for this vessel included pressure of 41
filler metals of other copper alloys are weaker MPa (6 ksi) and rapid thermal cycling.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding and offer no advantages. The cylindrical generator liner (Example 4)
Joint Design. As Table 8 indicates, the typical was back-extruded from a cast billet.
Copper alloys C17000 and C17200, high- joint designs for GTAW of high-strength berylli- Longitudinal rings about 6 by 6 mm (0.25 by
strength beryllium coppers, are readily welded um copper are square-groove or 90° single-V- 0.25 in.) were machined on the outer surface.
using GTAW. These alloys are more easily weld- groove butt joints with a 1.6 mm (0.06, or 116 in.) Nine reinforcing rings were rolled from
ed than the high-conductivity beryllium coppers, maximum root face and zero root opening. The extruded alloy C17000, equally spaced along
which exhibit higher melting temperature and 90° single-V-groove butt welds can be used for the longitudinal rings, and welded to them.
less fluidity. Gas tungsten arc welding can be thicknesses in excess of 12.7 mm (0.5, or 12 in.). The reinforcing rings measured 40 mm (1.5
used for section thicknesses in excess of 12.7 Preheating and Postweld Heat Treatment. in.) wide and 32 mm (1.25 in.) high. The liner,
mm (0.5 in.) when the use of the preferred As shown in Table 8, preheat temperatures of used in a magneto-hydrodynamic electrical
GMAW process is not practical. 150 to 200 °C (300 to 400 °F) are recommended power generator, contained plasma at 1650 to
Nominal Conditions. Table 8 lists the sug- for GTAW of section thicknesses greater than 1925 °C (3000 to 3500 °F). The cover-to-hous-
gested starting points for nominal conditions for 3.2 mm (0.13, or 18 in.). Maximum weld strength ing weldment was for ocean-cable use. The
GTAW of high-strength beryllium coppers. The is obtained by solution annealing and aging after cast cover was welded to an extruded housing
shielding gas is usually a mixture of argon and welding. Aging treatments are 3 h at 315 °C to produce a joint that was watertight at 83
helium to obtain a hot arc, smooth and spatter- (600 °F) for alloy C17000 and 3 h at 345 °C MPa (12 ksi). This application is shown as
free welds, and maximum electrode life. (650 °F) for alloy C17200. This postweld treat- Example 5 in Table 9.
Electrodes. The preferred electrode when ment does not consistently provide the full
using alternating current is zirconiated tungsten strength of solution-annealed and aged base
(EWZr); noncritical applications can use the metal, even for welds made under optimal con- Gas Metal Arc Welding
more economical pure tungsten (EWP). For ditions. Higher strength can be obtained by cold
DCEN, the thoriated electrodes (such as working the annealed metal to a higher temper Alloys C17000 and C17200 are more easily
EWTh–2) are preferred. and modifying the aging treatment. welded using the GMAW process than is high-
Filler Metals. The addition of filler metals is For some applications, the intermediate conductivity alloy C17500. These alloys have
almost always required to provide proper fill for weld metal strength obtained by aging after lower melting temperatures, greater fluidity, and
Welding / 287
50% lower thermal conductivities. The GMAW ing welding. Cleanliness of the joint faces and trical conductivities; (2) oxide-forming charac-
process is generally preferred for the welding of surrounding surfaces before and during welding teristics; and (3) responsiveness to heat treat-
precipitation-hardened, high-strength beryllium is necessary to ensure weld soundness. ment. Although compromise is necessary
coppers in thicknesses of 6.4 mm (0.25, or 14 in.) Nominal Conditions. Table 8 gives the nom- between weld strength and conductivity, high
and greater. This process is also preferred for inal starting conditions for GTAW of high-con- thermal conductivities are typically the prime
thicknesses from 6.4 mm (0.25, or 14 in.) down ductivity beryllium copper alloy C17500. objectives in welding assemblies using this alloy.
to 2.4 mm (0.09, or 332 in.) if heat treatment is to Shielding gas, type of current, and electrode Nominal Conditions. Table 7 lists the typical
be done after welding. type are the same as for C17000 and C17200 conditions for GMAW of high-conductivity
Nominal Conditions. Table 7 gives the high-strength alloys. beryllium coppers. Typically, DCEP is used.
nominal welding conditions for GMAW of Type of Current. Variation in arc length or Argon is a suitable shielding gas; however,
high-strength beryllium coppers. The shielding welding speed during GTAW can result in the greater heat input, which is usually required
gas used for GMAW is typically a mixture of formation of tenacious films on beryllium cop- when welding this alloy, can be obtained
argon and helium. Direct current electrode pers. For this reason, high-frequency stabilized through the use of an argon-helium gas mix.
positive is used to prevent the buildup of alternating current is preferred in automatic Filler Metals. As with GTAW for high-con-
oxides during welding. The filler metal is ordi- welding and must be used in manual welding. ductivity beryllium coppers, GMAW utilizes a
narily of the same composition as the base The alternating current continually breaks up the filler metal of similar composition to the base
metal, for joints requiring maximum strength. oxide coating, and high-frequency adds to the metal. If reduced conductivity is an acceptable
However, electrode wires ERCuSi-A and cleaning action during welding. Direct current result of the weld metal, wires made of high-
ERCuAl-A2 can be used when joint strength is electrode negative can be employed in the auto- strength beryllium copper alloys C17000 and
less critical. Preheating, postweld heat treat- matic welding of beryllium coppers. The advan- C17200 can be used for greater welding ease.
ing, and joint designs are generally the same as tage is found with the high heat input to the work Because of the precipitation-hardening charac-
discussed in the section on GTAW of high- and the deep penetration of this polarity. Close teristics of beryllium coppers, the joint strength
strength beryllium coppers. control of the arc length and welding speed must is always somewhat lower than that of the base
be maintained to minimize oxide formation. material and depends on the initial condition of
High-conductivity beryllium coppers are the base metal, the welding conditions, and the
Welding of High-Conductivity more susceptible to porosity and cracking than filler-metal selection.
Beryllium Copper welds made in high-strength beryllium copper. Other electrodes, such as ERCuSi-A or
This is particularly true in multi-pass welding. ERCuAl-A2, can be used for GMAW of alloy
However, successfully welded joints exhibit C17500. Because of their lack of beryllium con-
The traditional wrought high-conductivity improved mechanical properties in HAZ com- tent, however, these alloys do not develop the
alloys (C17500 and C17510) contain 0.2 to pared with similar joints in high-strength beryl- high strength attained when beryllium copper
0.7% Be and nominal 2.5% Co (or 2% Ni). lium coppers. filler metal is used.
The leanest high-conductivity alloy is Filler Metals. Material with the same compo- Preheating and Postweld Aging. Section
C17410, which contains somewhat less than sition as the base alloy (C17500) is generally thicknesses of alloy C17500 greater than 3.2 mm
0.4% Be and 0.6% Co. This section will used, since high electrical conductivity is (0.13, or 18 in.) are usually preheated at 315 to
describe the GTAW and GMAW of alloy desired in the welds. If maximum electrical con- 480 °C (600 to 900 °F), depending on section
C17500, the most frequently welded high- ductivity through the weld joint is not a require- thickness. When a beryllium copper filler metal
conductivity beryllium copper alloy. ment, silicon bronze filler metal is satisfactory. is used, strength can be increased by aging after
Additional information on the properties and Aluminum bronze filler metals can be used but welding. The aging heat treatment for alloy
applications of these materials can be found in are less satisfactory than silicon bronze. C17500 is 480 °C (900 °F) for 3 h.
the articles “Wrought Copper and Copper Joint Design. As Table 8 indicates, the usual Properties of Weldments. Based on its high
Alloys” and “Properties of Wrought Copper joint designs for GTAW of high-conductivity thermal conductivity and moderate to high
and Copper Alloys” in this Handbook. beryllium copper are square-groove or 90° sin- strength, alloy C17500 is used for welded water-
gle-V-groove butt joints with a 1.6 mm (0.06, cooled assemblies such as tuyeres for blast fur-
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding or 116 in.) root face and zero root opening. All naces, attrition mills for grinding beryllium
joints should be backed with grooved copper or chips to powder, and molds for the continuous
Gas tungsten arc welding of precipitation- graphite backing strips or rings. casting of steel. While some strength is lost in
hardened copper alloy C17500 (high-conductivi- Preheating. Preheating is not ordinarily the weld metal and the adjoining HAZ when
ty beryllium copper) is performed for thickness- needed for welding alloy C17500 up to about 3 alloy C17500 is welded, the magnitude of this
es up to 6.4 mm (0.25, or 14 in.). This process mm (0.13, or 18 in.) thick. However, thicker decrease is affected by the condition and thick-
produces a narrow HAZ, which is desirable. stock that may require multipass welds is usual- nesses of the base metal, and by joint design,
Ordinarily, the maximum thickness that can be ly preheated to approximately 425 °C (800 °F). welding process, and parameters.
gas tungsten arc welded without substantial
decrease in strength is about 13 mm (0.5 in.). Gas Metal Arc Welding
However, thicker sections have been gas tungsten Welding of Cadmium and
arc welded. For weldments that require postweld Gas metal arc welding is preferred to GTAW Chromium Coppers
heat treatments, GTAW is generally used only for for joining alloy C17500 with section thickness-
thicknesses up to 2.4 mm (0.09, or 332 in.), with es greater than 2.4 mm (0.09, or 332 in.) when the Typically, the welding procedures for GTAW
GMAW being used for thicker sections. weldment is to be heat treated to obtain maxi- of coppers are a satisfactory basis for determin-
High-conductivity beryllium copper is more mum weld strength. It is also the process of ing initial welding parameters for cadmium and
difficult to weld than the high-strength berylli- choice for joining thicknesses in excess of 6.4 chromium coppers. These alloys have lower
um coppers because of its higher thermal con- mm (0.25, or 14 in.) if the welding is done on thermal and electrical conductivities than cop-
ductivity, which is about twice that of the high- precipitation-hardened material. Gas metal arc per, and they can be welded with lower preheats
strength beryllium coppers. A difficulty welding can be used for thicknesses up to 19 and heat inputs than those required for copper.
common to the beryllium coppers is the forma- mm (0.75, or 34 in.). Section thickness limitations are the same as for
tion of surface oxides, both beryllium oxide and As pointed out in the discussion of GTAW of GTAW of coppers. In addition to GTAW,
cuprous oxide. The beryllium oxide is a tena- alloy C17500, the three important factors in arc GMAW can be used for the joining of cadmium
cious oxide that inhibits wetting and fusion dur- welding this alloy are: (1) high thermal and elec- and chromium coppers. The nominal conditions
previously stated for GMAW welding of coppers addition of filler metal is recommended when brasses, tin brasses, special brasses, and nickel
are satisfactory for the welding of cadmium and welding sections greater than 1.6 mm (0.06, or 116 silvers) are given in Table 7. Welding parameters
chromium coppers. in.) thick. The arc is concentrated on the filler and variables are generally the same when using
The filler metal types, welding currents, metal, thus reducing the zinc loss and fuming of either ERCuAl-A2 or ERCuSn-A filler metals.
polarities, and shielding gas mixtures for either the base material. For the welding of low-zinc The difference between the two filler metals is a
GTAW or GMAW of coppers are suitable for the brass, ERCuSn-A is recommended; RCuSi-A and higher weld-metal strength with ERCuAl-A2
joining of cadmium and chromium coppers. ERCuAl-2 are recommended for high-zinc alloys. and better color match with ERCuSn-A.
These alloys should be welded using the stan- The silicon found in ERCuSi-A helps to Preheating is seldom necessary since these
dard joint geometries listed for GTAW and decrease the zinc fumes. For this reason and to alloys have relatively low thermal conductivi-
GMAW of coppers. provide reinforcement, ERCuSi-A is sometimes ties. However, preheating does help to limit zinc
used, with alternating current, on copper-zinc fuming in some applications because it permits
alloys 1.3 mm (0.05 in.) or less. Thinner sections the use of lower welding amperages.
Welding of Copper-Zinc Alloys of high-zinc alloys are sometimes gas tungsten
arc welded using ERCuAl-A2. The addition of Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Brasses are basically copper-zinc alloys and this filler metal produces sound welds but does
are the most widely used group of copper alloys. not decrease zinc vaporization. Brasses can be welded using SMAW. A vari-
As shown in Table 2, brasses can be categorized Thin brass sheets less than 1.6 mm (0.06, or ety of covered electrodes can be used, including
as low-zinc brasses (5 to 20% Zn), high-zinc 1
16 in.) thick can be welded without the addition phosphor bronze, silicon bronze, or aluminum
brasses (30 to 40% Zn), tin brasses, and special of filler metal. Zinc fuming can be limited bronze (ECuSi, ECuSn-A, ECuSn-C, ECuAl-
brasses. Copper-zinc alloys are joined by through the use of high electrode travel speed, A2, ECuAl-B). Relatively large welding grooves
GTAW, GMAW, and SMAW. Additional infor- which generates short weld pool arc times. Tube are required for good joint penetration and to
mation on the properties and applications of sheet joints can be made with brass members, avoid the entrapment of slag. Welding is typical-
copper-zinc (brass) alloys can be found in the using the same kind of joint preparation, if high ly done using a backing strip of copper or brass.
articles “Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys” electrode speed is maintained. Phosphor bronze electrodes, such as ECuSn-
and “Properties of Wrought Copper and Copper A and ECuSn-C, have been used for SMAW of
Alloys” in this Handbook. Gas Metal Arc Welding low-zinc brasses. Preheating of the base metal
from 200 to 260 °C (400 to 500 °F) is required.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Unleaded brasses can be welded using Application of filler metal should be in narrow,
GMAW. These brasses include both the low-zinc shallow stringer beads.
Table 2 lists the copper-zinc (brass) alloys and alloys (red brasses) and the high-zinc alloys The high-zinc copper alloys can be welded
shows their relative weldability. The low-zinc (including yellow brasses, tin brasses, and spe- with aluminum bronze (ECuAl-A2) electrodes.
brasses are shown to have good weldability cial brasses). Copper-zinc alloys are not used as Preheat and interpass temperatures are 260 to
using GTAW. High-zinc brasses, tin brasses, filler metals for GMAW due to the violent fum- 370 °C (500 to 700 °F). The arc is held directly
special brasses, and nickel silvers have only fair ing and loss of zinc that accompanies arc weld- on the molten weld pool rather than toward the
weldability. This is because of the high zinc con- ing of these zinc-bearing alloys. base metal, and it is advanced slowly to mini-
tent or the moderate zinc content in combination Low-Zinc Brasses. Table 7 lists nominal con- mize zinc volatilization and fuming.
with other elements, such as oxide-forming alu- ditions for butt welding of low-zinc brasses, using
minum or nickel. GMAW. These alloys include up to 20% Zn.
Gas tungsten arc welding is sometimes used Direct current electrode positive is always used. Welding of
for the welding of copper-zinc alloys with 20% Silicon bronze (ERCuSi-A) wire provides easy Copper-Zinc-Nickel Alloys
Zn or less. Alloys containing up to 1% Pb can welding, since it has good fluidity at low welding
also be welded with this process. Gas tungsten currents. A 60° single-V-groove is used with this Nickel silvers, which are alloys composed of
arc welding is used because of its ability to weld filler metal. When ERCuSn-A electrode wire is copper (65%), zinc (17 to 25%), and nickel (10
rapidly with a highly localized heat input. It used, its sluggish flow characteristics make a 70° to 18%), can be joined by GMAW and GTAW
should be noted that most leaded copper alloys V-groove advisable for heavier sections, as shown processes, although welding of these alloys is
are generally not recommended for arc welding. in Table 7. ERCuSn-A is primarily used for a bet- not widely practiced. From a welding stand-
Section thicknesses of copper-zinc alloys ter color match on low-zinc copper alloys. The point, nickel silvers are similar to brasses, hav-
ordinarily welded using GTAW are limited to wider groove provided with the 70° V-groove ing comparable zinc content.
about 9.5 mm (0.38, or 38 in.). However, thick joint allows more room for manipulation of the Nickel silvers are frequently used for decorative
sections of cast alloys such as manganese bronze molten weld pool. Except for color, weld metal purposes where color match is important.
are sometimes repair welded in localized areas. properties are comparable when using either of However, there are no zinc-free filler metals that
Preheating is not normally required for the weld- these two types of electrodes. A preheat in the are suitable for arc welding that give good color
ing of these alloys. range of 95 to 315 °C (200 to 600 °F) is some- match. Therefore, GTAW is usually restricted to
Shielding Gas. Selection of the proper times required for low-zinc brasses due to their thicknesses of 2.4 mm (0.094, or 332 in.) or less
shielding gas for GTAW of copper-zinc alloys is relatively high thermal conductivities. without the addition of filler metal. Square-groove
influenced by the heat required to fuse the met- High-Zinc Copper Alloys. Nonleaded cop- butt, lap, or edge joints are used. The joint faces
als together. This requirement is directly related per alloys that have zinc contents from 20 to must be in contact before and during welding.
to the thermal conductivity of the base metal. 40% or more can be gas metal arc welded.
Normally argon is used for GTAW of the less However, the weldability is less than with non-
conductive materials. Helium or helium mixes leaded low-zinc brasses. The evolution of zinc Welding of Phosphor Bronzes
are the preferred shielding gases for alloys hav- fumes is more severe, and the welds experience
ing higher thermal conductivities. However, the greater porosity and lower strength than with The phosphor bronzes (C50100-C52400)
use of helium and helium-rich gas mixes can low-zinc brasses. Both wrought and cast alloys contain additions of tin (up to 10%) and phos-
reduce the fumes produced when welding the can be joined by GMAW. Massive sections, such phorus (0.2%), which produce good resistance
less conductive alloys, such as high-zinc brasses, as for manganese bronze ship propellers, are to flowing seawater and to most nonoxidizing
tin brasses, special brasses, and nickel silvers. regularly repair welded using this process. acids (except hydrochloric acid). Phosphor
Filler Metals. Filler metals used in GTAW of The nominal conditions for gas metal arc butt bronzes are joined by GTAW, GMAW, and
copper-zinc alloys should not contain zinc. The welding of high-zinc copper alloys (yellow SMAW. Additional information on the proper-
Welding / 289
Table 10 Nominal conditions for GTAW of square-groove butt joints in phosphor bronzes
Electrode
Workpiece (EWTh-2) Welding rod Preheat
thickness Root opening diameter diameter(a) Gas flow rate Travel speed temperature
Current Number
mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in. Shielding gas L/min ft3/h (DCEN), A m/min in./min °C °F of passes
1.6 1/16 0 0 3.2 1/8 None used Argon 15 30 90–150 1.78 70 None used 1
3.2 1/8 1.6 1/16 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 Argon 15 30 100–220 1.27 50 None used 1
Notes: (1) The data in this table are intended to serve as starting points for the establishment of optimal joint design and conditions for welding of parts on which previous experience is lacking. They are subject to adjust-
ments necessary to meet the special requirements of individual applications. (2) Higher welding current or lower welding travel speed is used in welding alloy C50500. (a) ERCuSn-A, or rod of composition close to that
of the base metal
Table 11 Suggested conditions for GMAW of phosphor bronzes decreased, and more gas is permitted to evolve
Joint design
before solidification. However, preheating
Workpiece thickness Root opening
Electrode
diameter(a)
increases the susceptibility of the weld to the
mm in. Groove type mm in. mm in. Arc voltage, V
Welding current
(DCEP), (a) A
formation of large columnar grains and the risk
of hot cracking. This susceptibility requires that
1.6 1/16 Square 1.3 0.05 0.8 0.030 25–26 130–140
3.2 1/8 Square 2.4 0.09 0.9 0.035 26–27 140–160
welding be performed with a stringer bead tech-
6.4 1/4 V 1.6 0.06 1.2 0.045 27–28 165–185 nique and that each weld layer be peened. A
12.7 1/2 V 2.4 0.09 1.6 0.062 29–30 315–335 small weld pool and rapid electrode travel speed
19.0 3/4 Double-V or double-U 2.4 0.09 2.0 0.078 31–32 365–385 are required. Interpass temperatures while weld-
25.4 1.0 Double-V or double-U 2.4 0.09 2.4 0.094 33–34 440–460
ing should not exceed the preheat temperatures
(a) ERCuSn-A phosphor bronze electrodes and argon shielding gas because of the hot shortness of the phosphor
bronze alloys.
ties and applications of phosphor bronzes can be When matching the composition of the base Shielded Metal Arc Welding
found in the articles “Wrought Copper and metal is not essential, ERCuSi-A filler metal can
Copper Alloys” and “Properties of Wrought be used instead, producing stronger welds.
Copper and Copper Alloys” in this Handbook. When welding section thicknesses less than 3 Shielded metal arc welding is done on a
mm (0.13, or in.), phosphor bronze strip can be limited basis for phosphor bronzes. The cov-
butt welded using autogenous GTAW. ered electrodes typically used are ECuSn-A
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Preheating is not normally required for and ECuSn-C. These electrodes may be used
GTAW of thin sections of phosphor bronzes. interchangeably and are designed for use
Sheet and other wrought forms of phosphor with DCEP.
Thick sections usually require preheating to 175
bronze can be gas tungsten arc welded up to Preheating is required in the range of 150 to
or 200 °C (350 or 400 °F) and are slowly cooled
approximately 13 mm (0.5, or 12 in.). The process 200 °C (300 to 400 °F), since the phosphor
after welding. Due to the hot-short nature of
can also be used to join or repair phosphor bronze bronzes are very sluggish. However, because of
phosphor bronze, weld layers should be thin,
castings. Copper-tin alloys solidify with large, the hot shortness of these alloys, the interpass
and interpass temperature should not exceed 200
weak, dendritic grain structures that are suscepti- temperature must not exceed the preheat tem-
°C (400 °F). Hot peening is often used to refine
ble to cracking. Hot peening each layer of multi- perature. This is extremely important in thicker
grain size and minimize distortion.
pass welds reduces cracking and stresses and sections. Stringer beads with rapid travel speed
therefore the likelihood of weld metal cracking. are normally used. In groove welding, the first
Nominal Conditions. The use of GTAW for Gas Metal Arc Welding two passes are made with a weaving technique.
joining nonleaded phosphor bronzes is The width of the weave should not exceed two
described in Table 10. Square-groove butt joints Table 7 gives the nominal conditions for electrode diameters. The remaining passes are
are employed, and the current used is DCEN or GMAW of butt joints using phosphor bronze. made without appreciable traverse weaving and
a stabilized alternating current arc. Lead-bearing or other free-machining types are with the use of narrow stringer beads. The devel-
The nominal conditions shown in Table 10 are not welded. Table 11 gives GMAW conditions opment of the coarse, dendritic structure with
based primarily on the three phosphor bronzes that can be used as starting points for establish- low strength and ductility is minimized by the
given in Table 2, which have low thermal con- ing welding conditions for joining phosphor control of preheat and interpass temperatures.
ductivities. These include alloys C51000, bronzes. As with GTAW, the welding conditions Hot peening is often used after welding to
C52100, and C52400. When welding alloy are based on three poorly conductive phosphor reduce grain size. For the maximum ductility,
C50500, higher welding currents or slower bronze alloys (C51000, C52100, and C52400). the welded assembly should be postweld heat
welding travel speeds are required. This alloy When welding the more conductive alloy treated to 480 °C (900 °F) and cooled rapidly.
commonly known as phosphor bronze 1.25% E, C50500, higher welding currents or slower Groove joints should be wide, with an included
contains approximately 98.7% Cu and has 3 to 4 welding speeds are needed. For joining thick- angle of 80 to 90° to achieve proper washing and
times the thermal conductivity of the other nesses of 9.5 to 12.7 mm (0.38 to 0.5, or 38 to 12 tie-in at the walls of the groove.
alloys in this grouping. in.), 90° single-V-grooves are used rather than
Shielding Gas. The use of argon as a shield- the narrow grooves used for most other poorly
ing gas is most common, since argon restricts conductive alloys. Welding of Aluminum Bronzes
the size of the HAZ. This minimizes the area Filler Metals. For joining phosphor bronzes,
where mechanical properties are decreased. ERCuSn-A electrode wire is generally used. The As shown in Table 2, aluminum bronzes
When necessary for thicker sections, helium filler metal wire that contains about 0.5% Si is (C60600-C64400) are complex alloys based on
shielding gas can be used, along with an argon sometimes used to minimize porosity in the weld. the Cu-Al-Ni-Fe-Si-Sn system. They are welded
backup gas shield. Preheating. As with other copper alloys, pre- using GTAW, GMAW, or SMAW. Some alu-
Filler metal may be added to the weld joint heating of the phosphor bronzes helps in obtain- minum bronzes are also used as hardfacing
using either ERCuSn-A or wire of approximate- ing complete fusion. Also, porosity is minimized alloys (see the article “Copper and Copper Alloy
ly the same composition as the base metal. because the freezing rate of the weld pool is Coatings” in this Handbook). Additional infor-
mation on the properties and applications of alu- other aluminum bronze wire of matching chem- Not only was the cost of production reduced
minum bronzes can be found in the articles ical composition can be used when the composi- by eliminating the complex and expensive coring
“Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys” and tion and color of the weld metal must closely in the casting, but the weight of the welded hous-
“Properties of Wrought Copper and Copper match that of the base metal. ing was less than that of the completed cast hous-
Alloys” in this Handbook. Preheating of aluminum bronzes for GTAW ing. Furthermore, the cast housing had been
of sections thinner than approximately 6 mm made of an alloy that, although easy to cast, did
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (0.25 in.) is not necessary. Aluminum bronzes not resist erosion, corrosion, or cavitation as well
have a low thermal conductivity but may require as did the alloys used in the welded assembly.
Gas tungsten arc welding is readily used for preheating for section thicknesses greater than 6
joining aluminum bronzes up to 9.5 mm (0.38, mm (0.25 in.). When preheating is required, the Gas Metal Arc Welding
or 38 in.). Aluminum bronze castings are also preheat and interpass temperature should not
repair welded by GTAW. Conditions differ exceed 150 °C (300 °F) for alloys with less than Gas metal arc welding with aluminum bronze
somewhat from those of most other copper 10% Al. In the following example, preheating electrode wire is the preferred technique for
alloys. Porosity is minimized in the weld metal was used for joining of a 9.5 mm (0.38, or 38 in.) welding aluminum bronzes. Because of the
by the presence of iron, manganese, or nickel in thick aluminum bronze. comparatively high surface tension of the molten
the filler metal or base metal. Example 6: Use of GTAW versus GMAW weld pool and the relatively low thermal con-
Nominal Conditions. Table 12 lists the nom- to Avoid Melt-Through of Neighboring ductivity of the base metal, welding can be per-
inal conditions for welding of aluminum bronze Sections. The propeller housing for the Kort formed in all positions. Welding in the vertical
alloys. Conditions must be selected to avoid dif- nozzle shown in Fig. 3 was originally made as and overhead positions is usually performed
ficulties that result from the tenacious refractory a one-piece sand casting from aluminum with either the globular or short-circuiting mode
aluminum oxide films that form almost instanta- bronze alloy C95500 (aluminum bronze 9B), of metal transfer, using filler metal up to 1.6 mm
neously during any heating process such as which contains 10% Al and 1% Fe. Difficulties (116 in.) in diameter.
welding unless oxygen is completely excluded were experienced in the coring necessary to Nominal Conditions. The nominal condi-
from the metal. Heat input requirements are not produce the thin outer shell. This led to the tions for gas metal arc butt welding of aluminum
high, since aluminum bronzes have a thermal production of this outer shell as a separate bronze are given in Table 7. Backing strips or
conductivity near that of carbon steel. piece that was welded to the casting to make a rings of aluminum bronze are used when weld-
Shielding Gas. Argon is typically used with two-piece structure. ing material up to 3.2 mm (0.13, or 18 in.) thick.
alternating current as a shielding gas for the The inner section was cast in propeller bronze These conditions make it necessary to use heli-
welding of aluminum bronzes. For better pen- as one intricate piece that included a central hub um or argon-helium mixes for shielding gas
etration or faster travel speed, direct current and shaft-mounting flange connected to the instead of the argon shown in Table 7. These hot-
can be used with argon, helium, or a mixture of main body of the nozzle by four arms. The outer ter shielding gases provide adequate heat input.
these two gases. While the shielding gas pro- shell was cut from 9.5 mm (0.38, or 38 in.) thick Filler Metals. ERCuAl-A2 ordinarily is used
tects the weld pool and adjacent base metal, alloy C61300 (aluminum bronze) with soft tem- in the GMAW of aluminum bronze. The 1.5%
the use of a special flux augments the shield- per and was wrapped around the cast intersec- Fe present in this wire reduces the hot-short
ing effect of the gas. The flux is applied to the tion after being cold formed into a truncated cracking susceptibility of the weld metal. The
edge of the weld joints to increase fluidity and cone. Before cold forming, all edges of the shell use of ERCuAl-A3 also produces welds that are
help protect the base metal from oxide forma- were machined to a 35° bevel to provide a free from hot shortness. Joints made with
tion. Aluminum oxide forms even at room groove for subsequent welding. ERCuAl-A3 are also stronger and harder, but
temperature, and the flux prevents air from The assembly was tack welded together, and lower in ductility.
reaching the prepared edges until the protec- then circumferential seams at the top and bottom Joint Design. The joining of aluminum bronzes
tive argon shielding gas can become effective were gas metal arc welded. Next, to avoid melt- thicker than about 13 mm (0.5 in.) requires wider
in the localized area. through of the cast intersection (and resultant root openings and groove angles than those indi-
Type of Current. As stated above, alternating poor effect on the propeller stream), GTAW was cated in Table 7. This is necessary to avoid incom-
current is used for GTAW of aluminum bronzes. used for the longitudinal seam in the shell and plete fusion and to improve the penetration result-
The alternating current is stabilized by continu- for joining two brackets to the shell. The brack- ing from the use of a thicker section, which
ous high frequency and is preferred to DCEN, ets were used for mounting the shell to the hull increases the weld heat-sink characteristics.
since it prevents oxide formation on the surface of the vessel. Figure 3 illustrates the weldment Preheating. For most thin sections of alu-
of the weld pool. High-frequency-stabilized as constructed. minum bronzes, preheating is not required prior
alternating current is particularly desirable when
multi-pass welding of these alloys is performed.
Direct current electrode negative can be used in Table 12 Nominal conditions for GTAW of aluminum bronzes
a single-pass welding, particularly for automatic Workpiece Electrode Welding rod
welding. Surfaces must be well cleaned and pro- thickness(a) Root opening diameter(b) diameter(c) Flow rate of argon
Current (ac,
HF-stabilized) Number
tected, and the arc must be closely controlled. mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in. L/min ft3/h (d) A of passes
Electrodes. Gas tungsten arc welding of alu- Square-groove butt joints
minum bronzes typically uses zirconiated tung- 0–1.6 0–1/16 0 0 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16(e) 9.5–15 20–30 25–80 1
sten (EWZr) or unalloyed tungsten (EWP) elec- 1.6–3.2 1/16–1/8 1.6 max 1/16max 2.4 3/32 3.2 1/8 9.5–15 20–30 60–175 1
trodes. Thoriated tungsten electrodes are used 3.2 1 /8 3.2 max 1/8 max 4.8 3/16 4.0 5/32 15 30 210 1
with direct current; however, these electrodes 70° single-V-groove butt joints
cause the arc to wander when they are used with 9.5 3/8 0 0 4.8 3/16 4.0 5/32 15 30 210–330 4
alternating current. The thoriated tungsten gives Fillet-welded T-joints of square-groove inside corner joints
a longer tip life and is easier to start. Electrode 9.5 3/8 (f) 4.8 3/16 4.0 5/32 15 30 225 3
preparation for use with direct current is a
tapered cone-shaped tip. For alternating current, ac, alternating current; HF, high frequency. Note: The data in this table are intended to serve as starting points for the establishment of optimal joint
design and conditions for welding of parts on which previous experience is lacking. They are subject to adjustments necessary to meet the special
the end of the electrode is typically balled via an requirements of individual applications. (a) Preheating is not ordinarily used in welding the thicknesses shown. (b) Zirconiated or unalloyed electrodes
arc melting process. are recommended with high-frequency-stabilized alternating current. (c) Preferred welding rod is ERCuAl-A2; otherwise ERCuAl-A3 or rod of the
same composition as the base metal. (d) Direct current electrode negative can also be used in making single-pass welds (see text). (e) Use of welding
Filler Metals. ERCuAl-A2 is ordinarily used rod is optional for thicknesses up to 1.6 mm (1/16 in.). (f) Zero root opening for T-joints; 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) max for corner joints
for joining aluminum bronzes. ERCuAl-A3 or
Welding / 291
to welding. If preheat is used, the preheat and Except for thin sections, a 70 to 90° V-groove applied extensively in the vertical and overhead
interpass temperatures should not exceed 150 °C joint is used. Typically, a backing strip of the positions. Direct current electrode negative with
(300 °F) for alloys that contain less than 10% Al. same composition as the base metal is also uti- argon or helium shielding can be used for sec-
When aluminum content exceeds 10%, preheat lized. Deposition technique and bead thickness tion thicknesses less than 1.6 mm (0.06, or 116
temperatures should be elevated to 260 °C are not critical because the weld metal has excel- in.). Zirconiated (EWZr) or pure tungsten
(500 °F). Again, interpass temperatures should lent hot strength and ductility. (EWP) electrodes are recommended.
not exceed preheat temperatures, due to the hot Electrodes. Aluminum bronze electrodes Filler Metals. The conventional silicon
shortness of these alloys. ECuAl-A2 and ECuAl-B are used for SMAW of bronze filler metal, ERCuSi-A, which is similar
aluminum bronze alloys C61300 and C61400. in composition to alloy C65500 (high-silicon
Shielded Metal Arc Welding Preheating of thick sections of these alloys may bronze A), can be used to weld any of the silicon
be needed and is usually in the range of 200 °C bronzes. Alloy C65500 is the most commonly
Aluminum bronzes are readily welded using (400 °F) with a controlled interpass temperature used of all the silicon bronzes. Thin sections of
SMAW for both the wrought and cast forms. not exceeding 200 °C (400 °F). Depending upon this alloy are readily welded using GTAW with-
The fluxing action of the electrode coating section thickness and overall mass, preheat and out the addition of filler metal.
removes the aluminum oxides that form on the interpass temperatures may vary from 65 to Joint Design. On metal thicknesses great-
surface of the alloys. 425 °C (150 to 800 °F). Weldments made of alu- er than 6.4 mm (0.25, or 14 in.) a V-groove
minum bronze alloys containing 7% Al need not with a 60° included angle is used. Butt joints
be heat treated after welding. Aluminum bronzes in thin sections can be welded without
having an aluminum content greater than 7% are special preparation.
usually welded with electrodes that contain more Preheating. Silicon bronzes have the lowest
aluminum than do ECuAl-A2 and ECuAl-B. thermal conductivity of all copper alloys. The
These higher-aluminum bronze electrodes, thermal conductivity of these alloys is less than
ECuAl-C, ECuAl-D, and ECuAl-E, are best that of carbon steels. Further, these alloys exhib-
known as surfacing electrodes and have nominal it hot shortness. Based on this, preheating can be
aluminum contents of 10, 11.5, and 13%, respec- harmful to the welding of these alloys, and
tively. These electrodes are described in AWS interpass temperature on multi-pass welds
A5.13 and have strength corresponding to the should not exceed 95 °C (200 °F).
aluminum content. In welding high-aluminum
bronzes, thick sections may require preheating Gas Metal Arc Welding
up to 620 °C (1150 °F), and fan cooling may be
necessary to avoid cracking. These alloys may The nonleaded silicon bronzes are readily
also require annealing at 620 °C (1150 °F), fol- welded using GMAW. Nominal conditions for
lowed by fan cooling for stress relief. GMAW of silicon bronzes in various thicknesses
and joint designs are given in Table 7. This
process is used for section thicknesses greater
Welding of Silicon Bronzes than 6.4 mm (0.25, or 14 in.). Rapid travel speeds
(minimum of 3.5 mm/s, or 8 in./min) should be
Silicon bronzes (C64700–C66100), which are used to avoid excessive heat buildup. As shown in
based on the Cu-Si-Sn system, are the most Table 7, the welding current used for these alloys
weldable of the copper alloys. Silicon bronzes is slightly lower than that used for other copper
can be welded by most arc welding processes, alloys. Because of the low thermal conductivity
the most commonly utilized being GTAW, of silicon bronzes (Table 2), the resulting low heat
GMAW, and SMAW. Additional information on input to the weld is adequate for complete fusion
the properties and applications of silicon bronzes and good penetration. Argon shielding gas is pre-
can be found in the articles “Wrought Copper ferred. A thin layer of oxide forms on the weld
and Copper Alloys” and “Properties of Wrought metal after each pass and must be removed by
Copper and Copper Alloys” in this Handbook. wire brushing prior to the next weld pass.
All silicon bronze alloys can be gas metal arc
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding welded using ERCuSi-A filler metal. The chem-
ical composition of this wire is similar to that of
Silicon bronze alloys that do not contain lead alloy C65500 (high-silicon bronze A), which is
can be gas tungsten arc welded in thin and mod- the most frequently used silicon bronze. These
erately thick sections. These alloys are typically wires may include up to 1.5% Sn instead of, or
the most weldable of all copper alloys. Inherent in addition to, the 1.5% Mn specified as a maxi-
characteristics of these bronzes that contribute to mum for alloy C65500.
their weldability include low thermal conductiv- Joint Preparation. Metal thicknesses of 6.4
ity, good deoxidation of the weld metal by sili- to 19 mm (0.25 to 0.75, or 14 to 34 in.) should uti-
con, and protection offered by the resulting slag. lize a single 60° V-groove. For silicon bronze
Silicon bronzes have a relatively narrow hot- alloys of section thicknesses greater than 19 mm
short range just below the solidus, and they must (0.75 in.), U-grooves or 60° double-V-groove
be rapidly cooled through this range to avoid joints can be used.
weld cracking. Preheating. As with GTAW of silicon bronze
Nominal Conditions. Table 13 lists the nom- alloys, preheating is not required and should not
inal welding condition for GTAW of silicon be used with GMAW of silicon bronze. Interpass
bronzes. The data for manual welding include temperatures must be held below 95 °C (200 °F)
welding conditions for various positions. to prevent weld cracking. Stress relieving of sil-
Fig. 3 Conditions for GTAW of a propeller housing.
Because of their low fluidity, silicon bronzes are icon bronze weldment is recommended to pre-
The weldment replaced a single-piece casting,
thereby reducing cost and improving serviceability. the only group of copper alloys where GTAW is vent stress-corrosion cracking failures.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding should be used, due to the higher thermal con- Backing strips or rings should be made of cop-
ductivity of this alloy. Preheating is not neces- per or copper-nickel alloy not carbon, graphite,
Shielded metal arc welding of silicon bronze sary, and backing strips or rings can be used. or steel.
alloys is usually done using ECuAl-A2 alu-
minum bronze electrodes. Welding temperatures
Table 13 Nominal conditions for GTAW of silicon bronzes using zero root opening, no
are easily attained, due to the low thermal con-
preheat, EWTh-2 electrodes, ERCuSi-A welding rod, and argon shielding gas
ductivity of silicon bronzes. As with other arc
welding processes, preheat and interpass tem- Electrode Welding rod
Workpiece thickness(a) diameter diameter(b) Gas flow rate Current Travel speed
peratures should not exceed 95 °C (200 °F) to Number
mm in. mm in. mm in. L/min ft3/h (DCEN), A m/min in./min of passes
prevent hot-short cracking.
Groove dimensions are similar to those used for Automatic welding
steel joints. Metal thicknesses up to 4 mm (0.16, Square-groove butt joints, flat position
or 532 in.) can be welded with square grooves. 0.3–1.3 0.012–0.050 3.2 1/8 None used 7.1–16.5 15–35 80–140 1.52–2.03 60–80 1
1.6–3.2 1/16–1/8 3.2 1/8 None used 7.1–16.5 15–35 90–210 1.14–1.52 45–60 1
Thicker sections can he welded with a single-V- or 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 1.6 1/16 7.1–16.5 15–35 250 0.46–0.50 18–20 1
double-V-groove of 60° included angle.
Manual welding
Weld properties in silicon bronzes joined
Square-groove butt joints, flat position
using SMAW are usually substantially lower
1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 7.1 15 100–120 0.30 12 1
than those of welds made by the gas-shielded 3.2 1/8 1.6 1/16 2.4 3/32 7.1 15 130–150 0.30 12 1
processes. Based on this, these welds may not 4.8 3/16 2.4 3/32 3.2 1/8 9.5 20 150–200 … … 1
meet code or design requirements for strength. 6.4 1/4 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 9.5 20 250–300 … … 1
Peening of welds reduces residual stress and 6.4 1/4 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 9.5 20 150–200 … … 3
minimizes weld distortion. Square-groove butt joints, vertical and overhead positions
1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 7.1 15 90–110 … … 1
3.2 1/8 1.6 1/16 2.4 3/32 7.1 15 120–140 … … 1
Welding of Copper-Nickel Alloys 60° single-V-groove butt joints, flat position
9.5 3/8 3.2 1/8 3.2 1/8 9.5 20 230–280 … … 3–4
12.7 1/2 3.2 1/8 4.8 3/16 9.5 20 250–300 … … 4–5
Copper-nickel alloys (C70000–C79900) are 19.0 3 /4 3.2 1 /8 4.8 3/16 9.5 20 300–350 … … 9–10
the most corrosion-resistant copper-base 25.4 1 3.2 1 /8 6.4 1/4 9.5 20 300–350 … … 13
alloys. Alloy C71500 (Cu-30Ni) has the best Fillet-welded lap joints, flat position
general resistance to aqueous corrosion, but 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 7.1 15 110–130 0.25 10 1
alloy C70600 (Cu-10Ni) is often selected 3.2 1/8 2.4 3/32 2.4 3/32 7.1 15 140–160 0.25 10 1
because it offers good resistance at lower cost. 4.8 3/16 2.4 3/32 3.2 1/8 9.5 20 175–225 … … 1
Copper-nickel alloys are readily welded by 6.4 1/4 2.4 3/32 3.2 1/8 9.5 20 175–225 … … 3
9.5 3/8 3.2 1/8 4.8 3/16 9.5 20 250–300 … … 3
GTAW, GMAW, and SMAW. Additional infor- 12.7 1/2 3.2 1/8 4.8 3/16 9.5 20 275–325 … … 6
mation on the properties and applications of 19.0 3/4 3.2 1/8 4.8 3/16 9.5 20 300–350 … … 12
copper-nickel alloys can be found in the arti- 25.4 1 3.2 1/8 6.4 1/4 9.5 20 325–350 … … 16
cles “Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys” and Fillet-welded lap joints, vertical and overhead positions
“Properties of Wrought Copper and Copper 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 7.1 15 100–120 … … 1
Alloys” in this Handbook. 3.2 1/8 2.4 3/32 2.4 3/32 7.1 15 130–150 … … 1
Square-groove outside corner joints, flat position
1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 7.1 15 100–130 0.30 12 1
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 3.2 1/8 1.6 1/16 2.4 3/32 7.1 15 130–150 0.30 12 1
4.8 3/16 2.4 3/32 3.2 1/8 9.5 20 150–200 … … 1
Gas tungsten arc welding is the preferred Square-groove outside corner joints, vertical and overhead positions
process for joining copper-nickel alloys with 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 7.1 15 90–110 … … 1
section thicknesses up to 1.6 mm (0.06, or 116 3.2 1/8 1.6 1/16 2.4 3/32 7.1 15 120–140 … … 1
in.). This process may also be used for thick- 50° single-bevel-groove outside corner joints, flat position(c)
er sections. Automatic welding produces sat- 6.4 1/4 2.4 3/32 3.2 1/8 9.5 20 175–225 … … 3
isfactory results in thin sections of tube 9.5 3/8 3.2 1/8 4.8 3/16 9.5 20 230–280 … … 3
sheets. Manual welding is normally used for 12.7 1/2 3.2 1/8 4.8 3/16 9.5 20 275–325 … … 7
19.0 3/4 3.2 1/8 4.8 3/16 9.5 20 300–350 … … 14
sheet and plate thicknesses up to 6.4 mm 25.4 1 3.2 1/8 6.4 1/4 9.5 20 325–350 … … 20
(0.25, or 14 in.).
Fillet-welded square-groove inside corner joints, flat position(d)
Nominal Conditions. Conditions by which
1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 7.1 15 110–130 0.25 10 1
copper-nickel alloys can be manually and auto- 3.2 1/8 2.4 3/32 2.4 3/32 7.1 15 140–150 0.25 10 1
matically welded using GTAW are given in 4.8 3 /16 2.4 3 /32 3.2 1 /8 9.5 20 175–225 … … 1
Table 14. These include butt joints with square- Fillet-welded T-joints, flat position
and single-V-groove preparation. 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 1.6 1/16 7.1 15 110–130 0.25 10 1
Preferred conditions include the use of argon 3.2 1/8 2.4 3/32 2.4 3/32 7.1 15 140–160 0.25 10 1
shielding gas, DCEN, and thoriated tungsten 4.8 3/16 2.4 3/32 3.2 1/8 9.5 20 175–225 … … 1
electrodes. However, these variables are not crit- 6.4 1/4 2.4 3/32 3.2 1/8 9.5 20 175–225 … … 3
9.5 3/8 3.2 1/8 4.8 3/16 9.5 20 230–280 … … 3
ical for copper-nickel, since these alloys have 12.7 1/2 3.2 1/8 4.8 3/16 9.5 20 275–325 … … 7
low heat conductivities. Helium may be substi- 19.0 3/4 3.2 1/8 4.8 3/16 9.5 20 300–350 … … 14
tuted for argon as a shielding gas, but argon pro- 25.4 1 3.2 1/8 6.4 1/4 9.5 20 325–350 … … 20
vides better arc control and stability. Alternating
Note: The data in this table are intended to serve as starting points for the establishment of optimal joint design and conditions for welding of parts
current can be employed for automatic welding on which previous experience is lacking. They are subject to adjustments necessary to meet the special requirements of individual applications. (a)
if there is adequate control of arc length. Thicknesses greater than about 12.7 mm (1/2 in.) are gas tungsten arc welded only when it is not practical to use GMAW. (b) Wire feed rate of 2.9–3.2
m/min (115–125 in./min). (c) Root face is 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) for thicknesses of 12.7 mm (1/2 in.) or less, and 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) for thicknesses greater
During GTAW of alloy C70600, slightly high- than 12.7 mm (1/2 in.). (d) Maximum root opening is equal to base metal thickness, t.
er welding currents or slower travel speeds
Welding / 293
Table 14 Nominal conditions for gas tungsten arc butt welding of copper-nickel alloys Table 15 Suggested conditions for GMAW
ERCuNi of copper-nickel alloy plate
Workpiece Electrode welding rod Flow rate Workpiece Electrode
thickness diameter(a) diameter(b) of argon Current Travel speed Welding
Number thickness feed(a)
Arc current
mm in. Butt-joint groove mm in. mm in. L/min ft3/h (DCEN), A m/min in./min of passes
mm in. m/min in./min voltage, V (DCEP), A
Automatic welding of alloy C70600 (copper-nickel, 10%) 6.4 1/4 4.5–5.6 180–220 25–26 130–140
3.2 1/8 Square 4.8 3/16 1.6 1/16 15 30 310–320 0.38–0.46 15–18 1 9.5 3/8 5.1–6.1 200–240 26–27 140–160
Manual welding of alloy C70600 (copper-nickel, 10%) 12.7 1/2 5.6–6.1 220–240 27–28 165–185
19.0 3/4 5.6–6.1 220–240 29–30 315–335
3.2 1/8 Square 4.8 3/16 3.2 1/8 15 30 300–310 0.13 5 1 25.4 1.0 5.6–6.1 220–240 31–32 365–385
9.5 3/8 70–80° single-V 4.8 3/16 4.8 3/16 15 30 300–310(c) 0.15 6 2–4 25.4 1.0 6.1–6.6 240–260 33–34 440–460
Manual welding of alloy C71500 (copper-nickel 30%)
(a) ERCuNi electrode, 1.6 mm (1/16 in.), argon shielding gas
3.2 1/8 Square 4.8 3/16 3.2 1/8 15 30 270–290 0.13 5 1
9.5 3/8 70–80° single-V 4.8 3/16 4.0 5/32 15 30 270–290(c) 0.15 6 4
Data in this table are intended to serve as starting points for the establishment of optimal joint design and conditions for welding of parts on which obtained in the flat position. This process is pre-
previous experience is lacking. They are subject to adjustments necessary to meet the special requirements of individual applications. Root opening
is zero. Preheating is not needed. (a) Preferred electrode material is EWTh-2. (b) Filler metal (ERCuNi) must be used on all welded joints (see text). ferred in some applications where access to the
(c) Current should be increased in equal increments with each pass, up to a maximum of about 375 A, with larger welding rods. joint is limited, as in the butt welding of copper-
nickel pipe.
Filler Metals. ERCuNi is used as a filler Filler Metals. ERCuNi electrode wire is the
metal in GTAW of copper-nickel alloys. This common choice for GMAW of copper-nickel Welding of Dissimilar Metals
filler metal contains 0.20 to 0.50% Ti to mini- alloys. This wire resembles alloy C71500 in
mize porosity and the possibility of oxygen composition, since it has a 70 to 30 copper-to-
Copper and many copper alloys can be
embrittlement in either the weld metal or the nickel ratio. ERCuNi contains 0.15 to 1.00%
welded to other (dissimilar) copper alloys, to
HAZ. Because the standard copper-nickel alloys Ti, which serves as a deoxidizer to minimize
carbon and alloy steels, to stainless steels, and
do not contain titanium or a comparable deoxi- porosity and prevent oxygen embrittlement.
to nickel and nickel alloys using GTAW and
dizer, filler metal should be used even in weld- Titanium also improves the fluidity of the
GMAW. Tables 16 and 17 provide guidelines
ing thin sheets of copper-nickel. This will avoid weld pool.
for joining copper and copper alloys to dis-
the formation of porosity. However, special Joint Design. For GMAW of butt joints in
similar metals.
compositions of alloys C70600 and C71500 are non-leaded copper-nickels 3.2 mm (0.13, or 18
available that do contain titanium. Thin sheets of in.) thick, the joint design usually includes a
these special alloys can be welded without the square-groove weld and grooved copper back- Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
use of a filler metal. In multi-pass welding of ing. This is indicated in Table 7. For thickness-
copper-nickel alloys, the filler metal diameter es between 3.2 and 12.7 mm (0.13 and 0.5, or Copper and many copper alloys can be gas
and welding current may be increased with suc- 1
8 and 12 in.), single-V-grooves of 60 to 80° and tungsten arc welded to other materials with
cessive passes to provide efficient deposition. grooved copper backing are typically used. For good results. The use of a filler metal is typi-
Autogenous welds can sometimes be made on section thicknesses greater than 12.7 mm (0.5, or cally required. Copper and its alloys have been
sheet thicknesses up to 1.6 mm (0.06, or 116 in.), 1
2 in.), double-V-groove or double-U-groove readily gas tungsten arc welded to steels, stain-
but porosity may be a problem due to the joints are used. As with GTAW of copper-nick- less steels, nickel, and nickel alloys. Gas tung-
absence of deoxidizers in the base metal. el alloys, backing material should be made of sten arc welding for the joining of these dis-
copper or copper-nickel rather than carbon, similar metals is usually restricted to thin
graphite, or steel. sections less than 3.2 mm (0.13, or 18 in.) thick.
Gas Metal Arc Welding Preheating and Postheating. The copper- Preliminary surface welding, also known as
nickel alloys have thermal conductivity equal to buttering, is ordinarily not required for thin
Gas metal arc welding is the preferred welding
or lower than that of low-carbon steel. sections. For section thicknesses exceeding 3.2
process for non-leaded copper-nickel alloys thick-
Therefore, no preheating or postheating is need- mm (0.13, or 18 in.), the preferred joining
er than approximately 1.6 mm (0.06, or 116 in.).
ed. However, interpass temperatures should be process is GMAW or SMAW. Usually, when
Table 15 lists welding conditions for GMAW of
maintained below 65 °C (150 °F). GTAW is used to join copper alloys to dissimi-
copper-nickel alloy plate. The preferred welding
lar metals, the arc is directed at the more con-
position is the flat position. Argon is the preferred
ductive metal being welded. Table 16 shows
shielding gas; however, argon-helium mixes give Shielded Metal Arc Welding combinations of dissimilar metals that are
better penetration on thick sections. Direct current
joined by GTAW with the aid of copper alloy or
electrode positive is recommended. Both wrought and cast forms of copper-nick-
nickel alloy filler metals. The recommended
Nominal conditions for gas metal arc butt el alloys can be welded using SMAW. The weld-
filler metals, preheat temperature, and interpass
welding of non-leaded copper-nickel alloys for ability of these alloys is similar to that of low-
temperature for each combination are given.
various joint designs and thicknesses are given carbon steels because the thermal conductivity
Except when one or both members of the joint
in Table 7. These alloys can be satisfactorily of these alloys is quite similar to that of steel.
being welded have high thermal conductivity,
welded using either spray or short-circuiting Copper-nickel electrode ECuNi is used in weld-
preheating is not required for GTAW of copper
transfer. Spray transfer is normally used for sec- ing the copper-nickel alloys C70600 and
and dissimilar metals. This is restricted to section
tions greater than 6.4 mm (0.25, or 14 in.). Pulsed C71500 with DCEP.
thicknesses of 3.2 mm (0.13, or 18 in.) or less.
spray transfer or short-circuiting transfer can be The weld deposits ordinarily have a high cen-
used to weld thin sections. These transfer meth- ter crown, and the slag is viscous when molten
ods provide better control of the molten weld and quite adherent when cold. Therefore, special Gas Metal Arc Welding
pool when welding in the vertical and overhead care is needed to ensure complete slag removal
positions. Selection of processing conditions is before complete solidification of the weld metal, The GMAW process can be used for joining
not critical in GMAW of these poorly heat-con- to prevent slag entrapment when cleaning nearly all combinations of the weldable copper
ductive alloys. Alloy C70600 is usually welded between passes. Welding in both the vertical and alloys. Two major considerations when develop-
at a slightly higher current or slower travel speed overhead positions using SMAW provides good ing the GMAW procedures are: (1) the composi-
than alloy C71500. results in these alloys, although best results are tion of the welding wire to be used as an electrode;
and (2) the preheat temperatures required. As with tics should be noted when welding a dissimilar- very low permissible exposure limits, as set by
the other arc welding processes, the arc is typical- metal combination. Typically, the restrictions for the American Conference of Governmental
ly directed at the more conductive material to con- preheat, interpass temperature, and surface Industrial Hygienists. These would include such
centrate the heat energy on this base metal. cleansing that apply to the individual alloy also elements as arsenic, beryllium, cadmium,
The electrodes as well as preheat and interpass apply to that alloy when joining it to other cop- chromium, lead, manganese, and nickel. When
temperatures for GMAW of copper and copper per alloys or other metal groups. Of particular welding, brazing, or soldering copper or copper
alloys to dissimilar metals are given in Table 17. importance is preheat and interpass temperature alloys, adequate ventilation is required to ensure
This table includes all alloys listed in Table 16 for for alloys that exhibit hot shortness. that contaminant levels do not exceed the human
GTAW, plus the high-zinc brasses, tin brasses, For GMAW of copper or copper alloys to fer- exposure limits. Precautions may include local
and special brasses. As is shown in Table 17, rous or nickel alloys, the primary consideration is exhaust ventilation, general area exhaust ventila-
ERCuAl-A2 comes close to being the universal dilution. Strength is not a factor because it is quite tion, operator respiratory protection, or a combi-
electrode for GMAW of dissimilar copper alloys. easy to generate weld metal whose strength is nation of these. The reader is referred to
However, this filler metal is incompatible with equal to that of the two base materials. The diffi- ANSI/AWS Z49. 1, “Safety in Welding and
phosphor bronzes. Silicon bronze (ERCuSi-A) culty is in retaining the ductility demanded by the Cutting,” for detailed information.
and phosphor bronze (ERCuSn-A) electrodes are in-service requirements of the weldment. The most Copper alloys that contain appreciable
useful for many combinations of copper alloys serious effect of excessive dilution is the formation amounts of beryllium, cadmium, or chromium
that do not contain nickel. Copper electrodes of shrinkage cracks. These can start in the weld may present health hazards to the welder and
(ERCu) are suitable for final welding passes (cap metal itself and propagate into the base metal. others. Exposure to welding fumes containing
or cover passes) of coppers to any of the com- Two methods are frequently used to control these elements can produce adverse health
monly welded copper alloys. Underlying or pre- dilution in GMAW of combinations involving defects. The user should consult the
liminary weld deposits are typically made with copper alloys. The first is to braze one side of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
alloy electrodes. For joining copper to copper- joint, thus promoting a minimum amount of guidelines for the specific element.
nickel alloys, ERCuNi (copper-nickel) electrodes dilution on that side, and weld the other side of Fumes and dust of copper and zinc can cause
are generally used. the joint. The second technique is to overlay one irritation of the upper respiratory tract, nausea,
Generally, for welding dissimilar copper or both joint surfaces with a buffer material. This metal-fume fever, skin irritation, dermatitis, and
alloys, the electrode selected should be suitable technique, known as buttering, is typically used eye problems. It should be noted that cadmium
for welding one of the materials within the com- on thicker sections. Filler-metal selection again and beryllium fumes are toxic when inhaled.
bination to itself. The primary exception to this should be based upon the composition of the Fluxes used during welding, brazing, and sol-
general rule is in the welding of silicon bronzes base alloy and the requirements for weld-metal dering of certain copper alloys may contain fluo-
to copper-nickel alloys. The only electrode that strength and ductility. rides and chlorides. Again, these fumes can be irri-
can be used successfully for the joining of this tating to the eyes, nose, throat, and skin.
combination is ERCuAl-A2. Additionally, some fluorine compounds are toxic.
As has been stated in earlier sections dealing Safe Welding Practices Proper personal hygiene must be emphasized,
with specific alloy groups, alloys which have particularly before eating. Food and beverages
susceptibility to hot cracking, oxide formation, Many of the elements used in producing cop- should not be stored or consumed in and/or
or other deterrents to weld strength characteris- per alloys, as well as copper itself, have low or around the work area. Contaminated clothing
Table 16 Electrodes and preheat and interpass temperatures used in GTAW of copper and copper alloys to dissimilar metals
Electrodes (with preheat and interpass temperatures) for welding metal in column 1 to:
Metal to be welded Coppers Phosphor bronzes Aluminum bronzes Silicon bronzes Copper-nickel alloys
Copper alloys
Low-zinc ERCuSn-A or ERCu … … … …
brasses (540 °C, or 1000 °F)
Phosphor ERCuSn-A or ERCu … … … …
bronzes (540 °C, or 1000 °F)
Aluminum ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 or ERCuSn-A … … …
bronzes (540 °C, or 1000 °F) (200 °C, or 400 °F)
Silicon ERCuSn-A or ERCu ERCuSi-A ERCuAl-A2 … …
bronzes (540 °C, or 1000 °F) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max)
Copper-nickel ERCuAl-A2 or ERCuNi or ERCu ERCuSn-A ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 …
alloys (540 °C, or 1000 °F) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max)
Nickel alloys
Nickel and ERCuNi or ERCuNi-7 (a) (a) (a) ERCuNi or ERCuNi-7
Ni-Cu alloys (540 °C, or 1000 °F) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max)
Ni-Cr, Ni-Fe, and ERCuNi-3 (a) (a) (a) ERCuNi-3
Ni-Cr-Fe alloys (540 °C, or 1000 °F) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max)
Steels
Low-carbon ERCuAl-A2 or ERCu or ERCuNi-3 ERCuSn-A ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 or ERCuNi-3
steels (540 °C, or 1000 °F) (200 °C, or 400 °F) (150 °C, or 300 °F) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max)
Medium-carbon ERCuAl-A2 or ERCu or ERCuNi-3 ERCuSn-A ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 or ERCuNi-3
steels (540 °C, or 1000 °F) (200 °C, or 400 °F) (200 °C, or 400 °F) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max)
High-carbon ERCuAl-A2 or ERCu or ERCuNi-3 ERCuSn-A ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 or ERCuNi-3
steels (540 °C, or 1000 °F) (260 °C, or 500 °F) (200 °C, or 400 °F) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max)
Low-alloy ERCuAl-A2 or ERCu or ERCuNi-3 ERCuSn-A ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 or ERCuNi-3
steels (540 °C, or 1000 °F) (260 °C, or 500 °F) (260 °C, or 500 °F) (200 °C, or 400 °F) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max)
Stainless ERCuAl-A2 or ERCu or ERCuNi-3 ERCuSn-A ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 or ERCuNi-3
steels (540 °C, or 1000 °F) (200 °C, or 400 °F) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max) (65 °C max, or 150 °F max)
Filler metal selections shown are based on weldability, except where mechanical properties are usually more important. Preheating usually is used only when at least one member is thicker than 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) or is highly con-
ductive (see text). Preheat and interpass temperatures are subject to adjustment based on size and shape of weldment. (a) These combinations are seldom welded; as a starting point in developing welding procedures, use of
ERCuAl-A2 filler metals is recommended, except for combinations including phosphor bronze.
Welding / 295
Table 17 Electrodes and preheat and interpass temperatures used in GMAW of copper and copper alloys to dissimilar metals
Electrodes (with preheat and interpass temperatures) for welding metal in column 1 to:
High-zinc brasses, tin,
Metal to be welded Coppers Low-zinc brasses brasses, and special brasses Phosphor bronzes Aluminum bronzes Silicon bronzes Copper-nickel alloys
Copper alloys
Low zinc ERCuSn-A or ERCu … … … … … …
brasses (540 °C, or 1000 °F)
High-zinc, tin, ERCuSi-A or ERCuSn-A … … … … …
special brasses ERCuSn-A or ERCu (315 °C, or 600 °F)
(540 °C, or 1000 °F)
Phosphor ERCuSn-A or ERCu ERCuSn-A ERCuSn-A … … … …
bronzes (540 °C, or 1000 °F) (260 °C, or 500 °F) (315 °C, or 600 °F)
Aluminum ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 or … … …
bronzes (540 °C, or 1000 °F) (315 °C, or 600 °F) (315 °C, or 600 °F) ERCuSn-A
(200 °C, or 400 °F)
Silicon ERCuSn-A or ERCu ERCuA1-A2 or ERCuA1-A2 or ERCuSi-A ERCuA1-A2 … …
bronzes (540 °C, or 1000 °F) ERCuSi-A ERCuSi-A (65 °C, or 150 °F) (65 °C, or 150 °F)
(65 °C, or 150 °F) (65 °C, or 150 °F)
Copper-nickel ERCuA1-A2 or ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 ERCuSn-A ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 …
alloys ERCuNi or ERCu (65 °C, or 150 °F) (65 °C, or 150 °F) (65 °C, or 150 °F) (65 °C, or 150 °F) (65 °C, or 150 °F)
(540 °C, or 1000 °F)
Nickel alloys
Nickel and ERCuNi or ERCuNi-7 (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) ERCuNi or
Ni-Cu alloys (540 °C, or 1000 °F) ERCuNi-7
(65 °C, or 150 °F)
Ni-Cr, Ni-Fe, ERCuNi-3 (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) ERCuNi-3
and Ni-Cr-Fe (540 °C, or 1000 °F) (65 °C, or 150 °F)
alloys
Steels
Low-carbon ERCuA1-A2 or ERCuSn-A ERCuA1-A2 ERCuSn-A ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 or
steels ERCu or ERCuNi-3 (315 °C, or 600 °F) (260 °C, or 500 °F) (200 °C, or 400 °F) (150 °C, or 300 °F) (65 °C, or 150 °F) ERCuNi-3
(540 °C, or 1000 °F) (65 °C, or 150 °F)
Medium-carbon ERCuA1-A2 or ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 ERCuSn-A ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 or
(540 °C, or 1000 °F) (65 °C, or 150 °F)
High-carbon ERCuA1-A2 or ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 ERCuSn-A ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 or

(540 °C, or 1000 °F) (65 °C, or 150 °F)
Low-alloy ERCuA1-A2 or ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 ERCuSn-A ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 or
(540 °C, or 1000 °F) (65 °C, or 150 °F)
Stainless ERCuA1-A2 or ERCuA1-A2 or ERCuA1-A2 ERCuSn-A ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 or
steels ERCu or ERCuNi-3 ERCuSn-A (315 °C, or 600 °F) (200 °C, or 400 °F) (95 °C max, or (95 °C max, or ERCuNi-3
(540 °C, or 1000 °F) (315 °C, or 600 °F) 200 °F max) 200 °F max) (65 °C max, or
150 °F max)
Cast irons
Gray and ERCuA1-A2 or ERCu ERCuA1-A2 or ERCuA1-A2 ERCuSn-A ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 or ERCuA1-A2 or
malleable irons (540 °C, or 1000 °F) ERCuSn-A (315 °C, or 600 °F) (200 °C, or 400 °F) (200 °C, or 400 °F) ERCuSi-A ERCuNi-3
(315 °C, or 600 °F) (150 °C, or 300 °F) (65 °C max, or
150 °F max)
Ductile irons ERCuA1-A2 or ERCu ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 ERCuSn-A ERCuA1-A2 ERCuA1-A2 or ERCuA1-A2 or
(540 °C, or 1000 °F) (315 °C, or 600 °F) (315 °C, or 600 °F) (200 °C, or 400 °F) (95 °C max, or ERCuSi-A ERCuNi
200 °F max) (150 °C max, or (65 °C max, or
300 °F max) 150 °F max)
Electrode selections in table are based on weldability, except where mechanical properties are usually more important. Preheating usually is used only when at least one member is thicker than
3.2 mm (1/8 in.) or is highly conductive (see text). Preheat and interpass temperature are subject to adjustment based on size and shape of weldment. (a) These combinations are seldom welded;
as a starting point in developing welding procedures, use of ERCuA1-A2 electrodes is recommended, except for combinations including phosphor bronze.
should be changed. For more detailed informa- of copper and copper alloys. These include oxy- Copper, with the exception of ETP copper, and
tion on safety considerations, see the article fuel gas welding, various resistance welding some copper alloys, most notably the brasses,
“Safe Practices” in Welding, Brazing, and methods, electron beam welding, and, to a lesser can be welded with the OFW process. The prime
Soldering, Volume 6 of ASM Handbook. extent, laser beam welding. Table 1 summarizes disadvantage of the OFW process is that the low
the applicability of these processes for major heat input of the oxyacetylene flame makes
alloy classifications. More detailed information welding slow compared to arc welding. To coun-
on non-arc fusion welding processes can be terbalance the low heat input, higher preheat
found in Welding, Brazing, and Soldering, temperatures or an auxiliary heat source is often
Volume 6 of ASM Handbook, and in the selected required, particularly with alloys with high con-
Other Non-Arc Fusion references listed at the conclusion of this article. ductivity or with thick sections. Welding fluxes
Welding Processes are often required to exclude air from the weld
metal at elevated temperatures.
Oxyfuel Gas Welding Welding of Copper. Oxygen-free and deoxi-
Although the arc welding processes described dized coppers can be welded using the OFW
earlier in this article are the most frequently General Welding Considerations. Oxyfuel process. Because of the slow welding travel speed,
employed welding methods, there are other gas welding (OFW) can be used for small, non- preheat and auxiliary heating are recommended
fusion welding processes associated with joining critical applications, including repair welding. with thicknesses over 3.2 mm (0.13, or 18 in.).
Type ERCu or ERCuSi filler metal can be used, available. If a color match is not essential, braze Abutting ends, as they become plastic, must be
depending on the desired joint properties. Both the welding can be done with an OFW torch and pushed together with minimum upsetting force
welding rod and the joint surfaces should be coat- RBCuZn-C welding rod. A commercial brazing to produce a satisfactory weld. Copper and cop-
ed with the appropriate flux, although oxygen- flux and a neutral flame should be used. per alloy tubing is frequently manufactured from
free copper can be welded without the use of a Welding of Aluminum Bronzes. Problems strip in a tube mill using high-frequency resist-
flux. The OFW flame should be neutral when flux with fluxing aluminum oxide from weld metal ance welding. The edges of the weld joint are
is used, and slightly oxidizing when welding with- precludes the use of OFW for joining alu- resistance heated to welding temperature utiliz-
out flux. minum bronzes. ing the skin effect with high-frequency current.
Backhand welding is generally preferred for Welding of Silicon Bronzes. Oxyfuel gas The heated edges are forged together continu-
the flat position. Backhand technique can give a welding should only be used when arc welding ously in the tube mill to consummate a weld.
thicker bead than forehand welding, and oxide equipment is not available. Silicon bronzes can
entrapment is less. Control of the molten weld be oxyfuel gas welded using ERCuSi-A welding Welding Characteristics
pool is greatly improved when the joint axis is rod with a suitable flux and using a slightly oxi-
tilted about 10 to 15° and the direction of weld- dizing flame. Fixturing should not unduly restrict The resistance weldability of any copper or
ing is uphill. movement of the components during welding, copper alloy is inversely proportional to its
Completed weld beads may be peened to and welding should be performed rapidly. Either electrical and thermal conductivities.
relieve welding stresses and increase the weld forehand or backhand welding can be used, with Generally, alloys with lower conductivities are
metal strength by cold working. Peening may be the former preferred for thin sections. easier to weld (see Table 18) and require lower
done either while the weld metal is still warm or Welding of Copper-Nickel Alloys. Oxyfuel welding currents (see Tables 18 and 19).
after it cools to room temperature. welding of copper-nickel alloys should also be Compared to steel, most copper alloys require
Welding of Cadmium and Chromium limited to applications where arc welding equip- shorter weld time, lower electrode force, high-
Coppers. Oxyfuel gas welding of cadmium cop- ment is not available. Welding is performed using er current, and different electrode materials
per requires a flux containing sodium fluoride ERCuNi welding rods with a soft and slightly that are compatible with the alloy being weld-
and either fused borax or boric acid, or both, to reducing flame. An oxidizing flame will form a ed. The conditions for spot welding various
dissolve cadmium oxides. The OFW process cuprous oxide that will dissolve in molten metal, copper alloys are given in Table 19.
should not be used to join chromium copper reduce corrosion resistance, and cause embrittle- Minimum spot spacing and contacting over-
because of problems caused by chromium oxide ment. Preheat is not recommended. Liberal use of lap for RSW of high-zinc brasses are given in
formation on weld faces. a flux made especially for nickel or copper-nickel Table 20. When workpieces of unequal thick-
Welding of Beryllium Coppers. The OFW alloys is necessary to protect the welding rod and ness are welded, spot spacing should be equal
process is not recommended for joining berylli- base metal from oxidation. to the minimum spacing recommended for the
um coppers because of problems caused by the average thickness. The values listed for con-
tenacious surface oxide that inhibits wetting and tacting overlap are designed to prevent bulging
fusion during welding. Resistance Welding of the edge and expulsion of weld metal in
Welding of Brasses. The OFW procedures welding workpieces that are manually posi-
outlined for copper are also suitable for brasses. Resistance welding incorporates a group of tioned between the electrodes. The contacting
The low brasses are readily joined by OFW, and processes in which heat for welding is generated overlap can sometimes be less than shown
the process is particularly suited for piping by the resistance to the flow of electrical current when the workpieces are held in fixtures.
because it can be performed in all welding posi- through the parts being joined. It is most com- Breaking loads in shear of spot welded joints
tions. Silicon bronze (ERCuSi-A) welding rod monly used to weld two overlapping sheets or are also listed in Table 20.
or one of the brass welding rods (RBCuZn-A, plates that may have different thicknesses.
RBCuZn-B, or RBCuZn-C) may be used. Brass Specific resistance welding processes used to
welding rods containing 38 to 41% Zn develop a join copper and copper alloys include resistance
Welding Equipment
significant proportion of the hard, strong beta spot welding (RSW), resistance seam welding
phase in the weld metal. This beta phase is soft (RSEW), projection welding (PW), flash weld- Single-phase and three-phase direct-energy
and ductile at elevated temperatures, and cracking (FW), and high-frequency resistance weld- and electrostatic stored energy (capacitor-dis-
ing is not a problem. ing (HFRW). charge) welding machines are used for resist-
Very little zinc oxide appears on the molten Copper and copper alloys that are frequently ance welding of copper and copper alloys. The
weld metal surfaces when OFW with a neutral resistance welded are listed in Table 18, which addition of slope control to single-phase direct-
or slightly oxidizing flame. When a strongly gives nominal compositions, melting points (liq- energy welding machines is not necessary for
oxidizing flame is used, an oxide film forms on uidus temperatures), relative thermal and electri- spot welding most copper alloys. In welding
the molten weld metal surface that suppresses cal conductivities, and welding indexes for high-zinc brasses, the use of upslope can result
evaporation of zinc, provided the weld metal is RSW. Leaded and other free-machining copper in an increase of as much as 20% in weld
not overheated. alloys, which are seldom resistance welded, are strength. Downslope is not recommended for
For OFW of high brasses, RBCuZn-B or not listed in this table. welding of any of the copper alloys.
RBCuZn-C welding rods are used. These low- Resistance spot welding is widely used for Welding Machine Controls. Copper alloys
fuming rods have compositions similar to the joining coppers and copper alloys. Principal are particularly sensitive to variations in welding
high brasses. A flux of AWS classification FB3- applications include welding sections up to conditions, and therefore all direct-energy
C, FB3-D, or FB3-K is required, and the torch about 1.52 mm (0.060 in.) thick, particularly machines used for welding these alloys should
flame should be adjusted to slightly oxidizing to those alloys with low electrical conductivities. be equipped with synchronous electronic con-
control fuming. Preheating and an auxiliary heat Many copper alloys with low conductivities can trols, especially in applications requiring short
source may also be necessary. be seam welded easily. Coppers are difficult to weld times. These devices are capable of con-
Welding of Phosphor Bronzes. Oxyfuel gas seam weld. Projection welding is not recom- trolling weld time and welding current for
welding is not recommended for joining the mended for copper or for most brasses. Bronzes repeated operations with extreme accuracy.
phosphor bronzes. The wide HAZ and the slow can be projection welded with satisfactory
cooling rate may result in hot cracking since results in many applications. Flash welding can Electrodes
phosphor bronzes are hot short susceptible. In an be used for joining round stock, tubing, sheet,
emergency, OFW with ERCuSn-A welding rods and mill shapes made of copper and copper The current used for resistance welding of
can be used if arc welding equipment is not alloys, including some leaded copper alloys. copper alloys is much higher than that used for
Welding / 297
welding low-carbon steel, and therefore, the Electrode Materials. The Resistance Welder denum alloys), containing copper and cadmium,
electrode must have high electrical conductivity Manufacturers Association (RWMA) class 1 are sometimes used for welding copper and
to minimize heat buildup. electrode materials (typically tungsten or molyb- high-conductivity brass and bronze. Class 2
Table 18 Nominal compositions, melting points, relative thermal conductivities, relative electrical conductivities, and RSW indexes for
some coppers and copper alloys
Relative
Relative electrical
Nominal composition, % Melting point (liquidus)
thermal conductivity(b), Welding
UNS No. Alloy name Cu Zn Sn Ni Other °C °F conductivity(a), % % IACS index(c)
OF and ETP coppers

C10200 Oxygen-free copper (OF) 99.95 … … … … 1083 1981 100 101 (d)
C11000 Electrolytic tough pitch copper (ETP) 99.90 … … … 0.04 O 1083 1981 100 101 H-350
Deoxidized coppers
C12000 Phosphorus-deoxidized copper, 99.9 … … … 0.008 P 1083 1981 99 98 (d)
low residual phosphorus (DLP)
C12200 Phosphorus-deoxidized copper, 99.9 … … … 0.02 P 1083 1981 87 85 (d)
high residual phosphorus (DHP)
Beryllium coppers
C17500 High-conductivity beryllium copper, 0.6% 96.9 … … … 0.6 Be, 2.5 Co 1068 1955 53–66(e) 45(e) (f)
C17000 High-conductivity beryllium copper, 1.7% 98.3 … … … 1.7 Be 982 1800 27–33(e) 22(e) C-150
C17200 High-strength beryllium copper, 1.9% 98.1 … … … 1.9 Be 982 1800 27–33(e) 22(e) C-150
Chromium copper
C18400 Chromium copper 99.2 … … … 0.8 Cr 1075 1967 83(e) 80(e) (d)
Low-zinc brasses
C21000 Gilding, 95% 95 5 … … … 1066 1950 60 56 H-200
C22000 Commercial bronze, 90% 90 10 … … … 1043 1910 48 44 H-200
C23000 Red brass, 85% 85 15 … … … 1027 1880 41 37 H-200
C24000 Low brass, 80% 80 20 … … … 999 1830 36 32 G-175
High-zinc brasses
C26000 Cartridge brass, 70% 70 30 … … … 954 1750 31 28 E-150
C26800, Yellow brass, 65% 65 35 … … … 932 1710 30 27 F-150
C27000
C28000 Muntz metal, 60% 60 40 … … … 904 1660 31 28 F-150
Tin brasses
C44300 to Inhibited admiralty brass 71 28 1 … (g) 938 1720 28 25 (f)
C44500
C46400 to Naval brass 60 39 0.8 … (h) 899 1650 30 26 (f)
C46700
Special brasses
C66700 Manganese brass 70 28 … … 1.2 Mn 1093 2000 25 17 (f)
C67500 Manganese bronze A 58.5 39 1 … 1.4 Fe, 0.1 Mn 888 1630 27 24 C-125
C68700 Aluminum brass, arsenical 77.5 20.5 … … 2 Al, 0.06 As 971 1780 26 23 (f)
C69400 Silicon red brass 81.5 14.5 … … 4 Si 918 1685 7 6.2 (f)
Nickel silvers
C74500 Nickel silver 65–10 65 25 … 10 … 1021 1870 12 9 C-125
C75200 Nickel silver 65–18 65 17 … 18 … 1110 2030 8 6 C-125
C75400 Nickel silver 65–15 65 20 … 15 … 1077 1970 9 7 C-125
C75700 Nickel silver 65–12 65 23 … 12 … 1038 1900 10 8 (f)
C77000 Nickel silver 55–18 55 27 … 18 … 1054 1930 8 51/2 (f)
Phosphor bronzes
C50500 Phosphor bronze, 1.25% E 98.7 … 1.3 … 0.3 P 1077 1970 53 48 G-200
C51000 Phosphor bronze, 5% A 94.8 … 5 … 0.2 P 1049 1920 18 15 D-125
C52100 Phosphor bronze, 8% C 92 … 8 … 0.3 P 1027 1880 16 13 D-125
C52400 Phosphor bronze, 10% D 90 … 10 … 0.3 P 999 1830 13 11 D-125
Aluminum bronzes
C61300 Aluminum bronze D, Sn-stabilized 92.7 … 0.30 … 7 Al, 3.5 Fe 1046 1915 14 12 (f)
C61400 Aluminum bronze D 91 … … … 7 Al, 2 Fe, 1 Mn 1046 1915 17 14 (f)
C63000 Aluminum bronze 82 … … 5 1.5 Mn, 3 Fe, 10 Al 1054 1930 10 7 (f)
Silicon bronzes
C65100 Low-silicon bronze B 98.5 … … … 1.5 Si 1060 1940 15 12 B-125
C65500 High-silicon bronze A 97 … … … 3 Si 1027 1880 9 7 B-125
Copper-nickels
C70600 Copper-nickel, 10% 88.6 … … 10 1.4 Fe, 1.0 Mn 1149 2100 12 9 (f)
C71500 Copper-nickel, 30% 69.5 … … 30 0.5 Fe 1238 2260 8 4.6 C-125
(a) Based on alloy C10200, which has a thermal conductivity of 226 Btu · ft/h · °F, as 100%. For comparison, 1010 steel has a thermal conductivity of 30 Btu · ft/h · °F or about 13% on this relative scale. (b) The ratio of the
resistivity of the International Annealed Copper Standard at 20 °C to the resistivity of the material at 20 °C, expressed in percent and calculated on a volume basis. (c) Welding index from the Third Edition of Volume 1 of the
“Resistance Welding Manual,” published by the Resistance Welder Manufacturers Association. A is the basis of comparison and is the equivalent of conditions for clean, cold rolled steel. B indicates that the alloy is readily weld-
able, but not as easily as steel, C, D, E, F, and G represent progressive stages of increasing difficulty. G indicates that the alloy can be successfully welded, but 100% uniform results cannot be expected. H includes those metals
which are considered commercially impractical to spot weld. The numbers following the letters indicate the approximate percentage of secondary current required, based on mild steel = 100. (d) Alloys not having a spot weld-
ing index by RWMA, but which are listed as not recommended for spot welding by the Copper Development Association. (e) In precipitation-hardened condition. (f) Alloys not having a spot welding index by RWMA, but which
are listed as good or excellent under suitability for being joined by spot welding by the Copper Development Association. (g) Alloys C44300, C44400, and C44500 contain 0.02 to 0.10% As, Sb, or P, respectively. (h) Alloys
C46500, C46600, and C46700 contain 0.02 to 0.10% As, Sb, or P, respectively.
materials, containing copper and chromium, are Table 19 Guidelines for resistance spot welding of selected copper alloys
used on low-conductivity brass and bronze and Welding parameter(a)
the copper-nickel alloys. Class 3 materials are
Electrode force
used in electrodes for seam welding.
UNS No. Alloy name Weld time, cycles kN lbf Welding current, A
Electrodes must be sufficiently water cooled
to minimize sticking to the work metal and to C23000 Red brass 6 1.8 400 25,000
C24000 Low brass 6 1.8 400 24,000
prolong their life. Face contours must be care- C26000 Cartridge brass 4 1.8 400 25,000
fully prepared and the electrodes must be prop- C26800–C27000 Yellow brass 4 1.8 400 24,000
erly aligned for welding. C28000 Muntz metal 4 1.8 400 21,000
C51000–C52400 Phosphor bronze 6 2.3 510 19,500
C62800 Aluminum bronze 4 2.3 510 21,000
Selection of Process C65100–C65500 Silicon bronze 6 1.8 400 16,500
C66700 Manganese brass 6 1.8 400 22,000
Weldability of the work metal often determines C68700 Aluminum brass 4 1.8 400 24,000
which process should be used for a given applica- C69200 Silicon brass 6 2.3 510 22,000
tion. Some of the coppers and copper alloys can be (a) For spot welding 0.91 mm (0.036 in.) thick sheet using RWMA type E electrodes with 4.8 mm (3/16 in.) diam face and 30° chamfer and made of
spot welded, but not seam welded because of high RWMA class 1 material
conductivity, and not projection welded because
of low compressive strength of the projections at
elevated temperature. For further discussion, see Table 20 Guidelines for resistance spot welding of high-zinc brasses
the subsequent sections of this article on specific Thickness of thinnest sheet Minimum spot spacing Minimum contacting overlap(a) Shear load of joint
alloys. In welding dissimilar metals, heat balance mm in. mm in. mm in. kN lbf
can also be important in the choice of process. 0.81 0.032 16 5/8 13 1/2 1.47 330
Spot and seam welds can be made in work 1.27 0.050 16 5/8 16 5/8 2.28 512
metal as thin as 0.025 mm (0.001 in.). Spot 1.63 0.064 19 3/4 19 3/4 3.02 680
welding of metal as thick as 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) 2.39 0.094 25 1 25 1 5.20 1168
3.18 0.125 38 11/2 32 11/4 8.33 1872
has been reported for copper alloys. Projection
welding is best suited for work thicker than 0.5 (a) Minimum edge distance is equal to one half the contacting overlap.
mm (0.020 in.).
The use of projection welding frequently can
increase the quality of joints in high-conductiv- reached, coined projections are preferred to Resistance Welding of
ity alloys because welding current can be con- formed projections. Specific Alloy Groups
centrated where needed. Distortion and elec- Flash welding techniques produce very good
trode pickup are minimized because the results on copper and copper alloys. The design Copper. Copper and copper alloys having
electrode contacts a large area of the work of the equipment must provide accurate control electrical conductivity higher than about 30%
metal. Projection welding may be preferred of all factors, including upset pressure, platen IACS (see Table 18) are the least well suited for
when the components are self-locating or to travel, flash-off rate, current density, and flash- resistance spot, projection, or seam welding,
simplify fixturing or improve dimensional ing time. mainly because of severe electrode pickup. Thin
accuracy. Leaded copper alloys can be flash welded, but copper stock can be welded using electrodes
Lap joints that must be liquid-tight usually are the integrity of the joint depends upon the alloy faced with RWMA class 13 (tungsten) or class
made most efficiently by seam welding. composition. Lead content of up to 1.0% is usu- 14 (molybdenum), but surface appearance is
However, if a seam does not require the leak- ally not detrimental. poor and frequent electrode maintenance is
tightness provided by over-lapping spots, spot Rapid upsetting at minimum pressure is nec- required. A tinned coating on wire or sheet is
welding is frequently preferred. essary as soon as the abutting faces are molten helpful in welding copper.
Electrode forces lower than those needed for because of the relatively low melting tempera- Beryllium-copper alloys can be resistance
welding low-carbon steel are used, but extreme- ture and narrow plastic range of copper alloys. welded most successfully in thin gages. Spot
ly low forces, which can cause electrode pickup Low pressure is usually applied to the joint welding produces satisfactory welds; seam
and weak welds, should be avoided. Low elec- before the flashing current is initiated so that welding is less successful. Projection welding is
trode force can also cause high-zinc alloys to platen motion will begin immediately after satisfactory, provided that the projections can be
flash or burn through. flashing starts. Termination of flashing current is formed with the work metal in the annealed
Seam welding is nearly impossible on copper critical. Premature termination of current will condition and without cracking the work metal
and many of the high-copper alloys, but most result in lack of fusion at the weld interface. around the projection. Close control of welding
low-conductivity copper alloys can be seam Excessive flashing will overheat the metal and conditions is required for consistent weld size
welded readily using higher welding current and result in improper upsetting. and joint strength.
lower electrode force than those used for weld- Oxide films produced by heat treating must be
ing low-carbon steel. The usual spot spacing is Preweld Cleaning removed to ensure low and consistent contact
12 to 18 spots per inch. If fewer than 12 spots resistance. Work metals that have not been heat-
per inch are used, the spots sometimes do not Dirt, scale, oil, drawing compound, or other ed after rolling frequently need only degreasing
overlap. Spots that are too closely spaced can foreign matter on the surface of the workpiece before welding.
cause excessive hot working of the base metal. should be removed before resistance welding. An Low electrical conductivity (22% IACS for
Cooling by flooding, immersion, or mist pro- indication of surface cleanness is the surface con- alloys C17000 and C17200) contributes to the
tects the work metal and electrodes from over- tact resistance, which should be uniform for best weldability of beryllium-copper alloys.
heating and electrode pickup. welding results. High or erratic contact resistance However, they are more difficult to resistance
Projection welding is best suited for copper usually causes poor welds rather than reduced weld than low-carbon steel. Alloy C17500 has
alloys of less than 30% IACS electrical conduc- electrode life, although increased electrode pick- an electrical conductivity of 45% IACS and is
tivity. The design of the projections in relation to up is an indication of high surface resistance. more difficult to resistance weld than higher-
the thickness and type of work metal is impor- Surface cleaning can be done by various mechan- strength, lower-conductivity beryllium copper.
tant. In general, to prevent collapse of the metal ical or chemical methods described in the article Low- and High-Zinc Brasses. The low-zinc
in the projection before welding temperature is “Surface Engineering” in this Handbook. brasses are difficult to weld, although easier than
Welding / 299
copper, and are subject to electrode pickup. Resistance welding of aluminum bronze is dependent; when a material gets hotter, the
Welds made in these brasses may lack strength, similar to resistance welding of silicon bronze, absorption of the incident light increases.
principally because of comparatively high elec- but with much more electrode pickup and expul- However, the high thermal conductivity of cop-
trical conductivity (32 to 56% IACS). sion of weld metal, which can be controlled by per prevents the metal from getting hotter, there-
The high-zinc brasses have an electrical con- careful adjustment of weld time, welding cur- by maintaining high reflectivity.
ductivity of 27 to 28% IACS and can be both rent, and electrode force.
spot and projection welded over a wide range of Nickel silvers, which have about the same
conditions. Electrode pickup can be a problem conductivities (6 to 10.9% IACS) as copper-nick-
unless weld time, welding current, and electrode els, are spot welded as readily as copper-nickels
force are properly selected. but are more difficult to seam weld. Surface con- Solid-State Welding
Excessive electrode pickup and blowthrough of taminants such as lead and bismuth (which form
the weld may occur when long weld times, high low-melting eutectics with copper and nickel) or
energy input, and low electrode forces are used. sulfur (which may be introduced in forming) Solid-state welding processes are those that
Yellow brasses (alloys C26800 and C27000) are must be removed before resistance welding. produce coalescence of the faying surfaces at
less susceptible to electrode pickup than cartridge temperatures below the melting point of the base
brass except when long weld times and high ener- Safety metal being joined without the addition of braz-
gy input are used. Electrode force should be suffi- ing or soldering filler metal. Pressure may or
cient to prevent arcing or expulsion of molten In resistance welding of copper alloys, a ven- may not be applied. These processes involve
metal, to which these alloys are subject because of tilation system may be needed because many either the use of deformation or of diffusion and
their 30 to 40% Zn content, which boils at about copper alloys contain at least small amounts of limited deformation in order to produce high-
905 °C (1665 °F). As shown in Table 19, the rec- toxic alloying elements. However, the need for quality joints between both similar and dissimi-
ommended electrode force, when using electrodes ventilation is less critical for resistance welding lar materials.
having a face diameter of 4.8 mm (316 in.), is operations than for arc welding operations Diffusion welding, also referred to as diffu-
approximately 1.8 kN (400 lbf). because a smaller volume of metal is heated and sion bonding, involves minimal pressurization,
The copper-nickel alloys have electrical a smaller volume of fumes is generated. but relatively high temperatures and long peri-
conductivities of 4.5 to 11% IACS, are readily ods of time. In its simplest form, the process
spot and seam welded with relatively low weld- involves holding premachined and cleaned parts
ing current, and generally do not alloy with the Electron Beam and in intimate contact, and then heating them in a
electrode material and cause electrode pickup. Laser Beam Welding protective atmosphere. As its name implies, dif-
Bronzes. The phosphor bronzes, except alloy fusion has a major role in the joining of mating
C50500, which is not recommended for resist- The high-heat-intensity electron beam weld- parts, although other mechanisms, such as
ance spot and seam welding because of its high ing (EBW) and laser beam welding (LBW) microyielding and oxide dissolution, are also
electrical conductivity (48% IACS), have rela- processes are used for more specialized applica- critical steps in successful welding.
tively low electrical conductivity (11 to 20% tions. Although these methods offer improved Industrial applications for diffusion welded cop-
IACS) and are readily spot and seam welded productivity because of their high travel speed, per or copper alloys are limited. Copper bonds to
using low welding currents. Electrode pickup equipment costs are much higher than arc, oxy- itself readily, if the surface oxide can be disrupted,
can be reduced by use of a type F (radius) elec- fuel, and resistance welding processes. and temperatures ranging from 850 to 950 °C
trode face and frequent redressing to keep the The EBW of copper and its alloys is influ- (1560 to 1740 °F) have been employed.
face clean and smooth. Hot shortness can be enced by the same factors that affect the arc Alternatively, a liquid-phase procedure that utilizes
minimized by supporting the workpieces to pre- welding of these metals. The high thermal con- silver as an interlayer has been adopted to reduce
vent strain during welding and by using a greater ductivity of copper causes less difficulty in welding times. Copper/aluminum dissimilar welds
minimum overlap than recommended by the EBW than in arc welding. have also been processed by diffusion welding.
data in Table 20. Molten metal may be expelled from the weld Friction welding is a solid-state welding
Silicon bronze alloys (7 to 12% IACS conductiv- joint during EBW of nondeoxidized coppers process that uses compressive force of the work-
ity) are the most easily resistance spot and seam (especially alloy C11000, tough pitch copper), pieces that are rotating or moving relative to one
welded of all copper alloys. Low welding current causing spatter and uneven weld surfaces. This another, producing heat and plastically displac-
and low electrode force (see Table 19) usually are can usually be remedied by the use of a cosmet- ing material from the faying surface, thereby
required. Short weld times should be avoided, to ic pass. The vacuum environment eliminates creating a weld. Friction welding has been used
prevent shrinkage voids. The surface oxides that possible hydrogen embrittlement; nevertheless, to join similar metals (e.g., copper to copper and
develop during annealing must be removed to root voids and porosity still can occur. brass to brass) and dissimilar metals. Examples
ensure low and consistent surface contact resistance. The presence of low-melting elements ordi- of the latter include friction welding of copper,
narily makes the welding of free-machining brass, bronze, and copper-nickel to carbon steel,
copper alloys impractical, and the volatility of stainless steel, titanium, and aluminum.
zinc prevents the welding of the brasses and Copper/aluminum alloy 1100 dissimilar welds
other zinc-containing copper alloys. As shown in are the most common.
Table 1, the remaining zinc-free copper alloys Roll welding, also referred to as roll cladding,
can generally be electron-beam welded without is a process in which two or more sheets or plates
any unusual problems. are stacked together and then passed through rolls
The LBW of copper and its alloys has very until sufficient deformation has occurred to pro-
limited applications. The primary difficulties duce solid state welds. Both cold roll welding and
with LBW of copper are the high reflectivity to hot roll welding methods are employed.
the incident laser beam and the high thermal As shown in Table 21, copper and copper
conductivity of copper and copper alloys. alloys are commonly roll welded with carbon
Copper reflects approximately 99% of the inci- steels, aluminum alloy 1100, and stainless
dent light energy of the far infrared wavelength steels. A key roll welding/cladding application is
of the CO2 laser. This is the reason copper is the production of coins by the U.S. Mint. Silver
Fig. 4 Metallographic cross section of the edge of a commonly used for mirrors in CO2 laser beam shortages in the 1960s and 1970s resulted in the
cupronickel-clad copper coin. delivery systems. Reflectivity is temperature introduction of coins made from new materials.
These coins required a unique set of properties per that is 5.1 mm (0.20 in.) thick. To obtain oxide layers are destroyed, exposing clean metal
for acceptance by the general public and use in good bond strength, the surfaces are chemically surfaces on the two components to be welded.
automatic vending machines. Copper clad with cleaned and wire brushed. The strips are then Cold pressure welding can be accomplished by
cupronickel was found to meet these require- roll welded to a combined thickness of 2.29 mm deforming in lap or butt configurations, drawing,
ments (Fig. 4). The cladding process is relative- (0.090 in.) (Fig. 5). A second rolling operation or extrusion. Examples of copper/aluminum dis-
ly simple, although stringent in its requirement reduces the final thickness 1.36 mm (0.0535 in.). similar welds are shown in Fig. 6 and 7.
for surface preparation. Cladded strips are pro- The strips thus undergo a total reduction of 82%. Ultrasonic welding is a quasi-solid-state
duced by continuous rolling with the surfaces Cold welding, also referred to as cold pres- process that produces a weld by introducing
prepared just prior to rolling by processes such sure welding, is a solid-state joining process in high-frequency vibration to the weldment as it is
as wire brushing. Welding typically is accom- which pressure is used at room temperature to held under moderately high clamping forces.
plished in a single rolling pass. Subsequent heat produce coalescence of metals with substantial The weld is produced without significant melt-
treatments may be employed to improve the deformation at the weld. During cold welding, ing of the base materials. Ultrasonic welding is
weld quality by processes such as sintering, dif-
fusion, and recrystallization.
The starting material for the U.S. quarter is
two outer layers of 75Cu-25Ni, each 1.2 mm
(0.048 in.) thick, with an inner layer of pure cop-
Fig. 5 Schematic showing 70% reduction in cross sec-

tion of a U.S. Mint quarter coin (composed of an
inside layer of pure copper sandwiched between two thin
layers of cupronickel material) as it undergoes an initial
roll welding operation. A second rolling operation further
reduces the material to a final thickness of 1.36 mm
(0.0535 in.) for a total reduction of 82%. Fig. 6 Multilayer copper-aluminum tube produced by cold pressure draw welding
Table 21 Typical properties and applications of common roll welded clad laminates
Thickness Width Tensile strength Yield strength
Materials system Composite ratio, % mm in. mm in. MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, % Application
Copper 10300/ 50:50 0.25–2.54 0.010–0.100 12.7–50 0.5–2 260(a) 38(a) 215(a) 31(a) 40(a) Typically used for commutators
low-carbon steel in electric motors, replacing
copper 10400. The lower
conductivity of steel causes less
heat loss during welding, resulting
in faster, better quality welds. The
added strength of steel allows
thickness reduction.
Deoxidized copper/ 5:90:5, 0.25–2.54 0.010–0.100
610
24 420(b) 61(b) 250(b) 36(b) 35(b) Used in heat exchangers, replacing
carbon steel/ 10:80:10, brazing shim material. One-piece
deoxidized copper 15:70:15 manufacturing eliminates separate
shims and reduces assembly cost.
Because no ferrous surfaces are
exposed, no flux is needed.
Copper 11000/ 50:50 0.51–2.54 0.020–0.100 50–510 2–20 180(c) 26(c) 12(c) 1.7 35(c) Developed specifically for transition
1100 aluminum joints between copper and
aluminum in refrigeration
equipment. Usually used in the
form of deep-drawn tubing.
Copper 10300/ 17:66:17, 0.10–0.15 0.004–0.006 12.7–150 0.5–6 415(d) 60(d) 275 40 20(d) Replaces heavier gages of copper
type 430 stainless steel/ 20:60:20, and bronze in buried communica-
copper 10300 33:34:33 tions cable. The stainless steel
provides resistance to gnawing by
rodents, which is a serious
problem in underground
installations.
Phosphor bronze 51000/ 10:85:5 0.38–1.52 0.015–0.060
610
24 455(e) 66(e) 435 63 16(e) Used in automotive applications,
carbon steel/copper such as windshield-wiper
bearings. The bronze provides the
bearing qualities, the steel
provides strength, and the copper
aids tooling life and provides
corrosion resistance in service.
(a) In eighth hard-temper. (b) 10:80:10 material. (c) In three-quarter-hard temper. (d) 20:60:20 material. (e) In quarter-hard temper
Welding / 301
Fig. 8 Ultrasonically welded brush assemblies. (a) Starter brush plate. (b) Truck starter brush
Fig. 10 Automotive starter motor armature with

ultrasonically welded wires to commutator
Handbook, ASM International, 1993, p

752–771
Fig. 9 Portion of ultrasonically welded field coil assembly • Resistance Welding of Copper and Copper
Alloys, Welding, Brazing, and Soldering, Vol
Reliable welds in field coil assemblies, wire 6, 9th ed., Metals Handbook, American
harness systems, induction coils, and trans- Society for Metals, 1983, p 545–556
former terminations can also be made with
ultrasonic welding. Figure 9 shows one joint of In addition, information was included from
a typical field coil. To assemble the complete numerous articles dealing with solid-state weld-
device, stranded copper wire is joined to alu- ing methods that have been published in both
minum ribbon, copper ribbon to aluminum rib- Volume 6 of ASM Handbook (current edition)
bon, and aluminum ribbon to itself. These joints and Metals Handbook (9th edition).
are made ultrasonically to achieve high strength
and conductivity.
Fig. 7 Copper-aluminum butt joints obtained by cold
Completely automated equipment has been
pressure welding two 20 mm ( in.) bars using two SELECTED REFERENCES
different methods. (a) Cold pressure butt welding with con- developed for welding automotive starter motor
tinuous thrust. (b) Multiple-step upsetting method. Note the armatures such as that in Fig. 10. The armature
substantial deformation at the weld interface. This upset has a slotted commutator with risers into which • E. Brandon, The Weldability of Oxygen-
metal is normally removed automatically.
pairs of copper wires 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) thick Free Boron Deoxidized Low Phosphorus
are inserted. Previously, the wires were soldered Copper, Weld. J., Vol 48 (No. 5), 1969, p
an attractive technique for fabricating electrical into the slots; when the armature was exposed to 187s–94s
and electronic assemblies requiring the joining excessive electrical current, however, as in cold • R.S. Bray et al., Metallographic Study of
of thin-gage metals. As described subsequently, starting conditions, the solder would soften and Weld Solidification in Copper, Weld. J., Vol
many such applications involve combinations of melt, the wires would spin free, and the armature 48 (No. 5), 1969, p 181s–5s
copper, brass, and aluminum. failed. With ultrasonic welding, the wires are • R.J.C. Dawson, “Welding of Copper and
Both single and stranded wires can be welded to welded to each other and to the sides of the slot Copper Base Alloys,” Bulletin No. 287,
other wires and to terminals. In joining stranded or with a single weld pulse. Such joints do not lose New York, Welding Research Council,
braided wires, the individual wires are consolidat- strength at temperatures up to at least 150 °C Sept 1983
ed into a single mass. Typical examples are shown (300 °F). An automated index-and-weld system • C.S. Dimbylow and R.J.C. Dawson,
in the brush assemblies of Fig. 8. In the starter permits joining pairs of wires into a 25-slot com- Assessing the Weldability of Copper Alloys,
brush plate, two stranded copper wires are welded mutator in a cycle time of 20 s for a production Weld. Met. Fabr.,Vol 46 (No. 9), 1978, p
to copper-plated steel. The truck starter brush rate of three armatures/min or 180/h. 461–471
involves stranded copper wire welded to brass. • T. Enjyo et al., Diffusion Welding of Copper
Formerly, this type of assembly required rivet to Aluminum, Trans. JWRI, Vol 8, 1979, p
attachment and crimping of a copper bridge, fol- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 77–83
lowed by soldering to achieve electrical conductiv-
This article was largely adapted from: • S.M. Fisher et al., The Structural Integrity of
ity. The ultrasonic joints, made with a contoured tip Copper-Nickel to Steel Shielded Metal Arc
within about 1 s for each weld, provide low resist- • M.N. Rogers, Welding of Copper Alloys, Weldments, Weld. J., Vol 62 (No. 3), 1983, p
ance, as well as savings in time and material. Welding, Brazing, and Soldering, Vol 6, ASM 37–43
• S.H. Gutierrez, Understanding GTA Welding • Aluminum Bronze, Weld. J., Vol 67 (No. 7), • W.F. Savage et al., Microsegregation in
of 90/10 Copper Nickel, Weld. J., Vol 70 (No. 1988, p 53–9 70Cu-30Ni Weld Metal, Weld. J., Vol 55 (No.
5), 1991, p 76–78 • “Resistance Welding of Copper and Copper 6), 1976, p 165s–73s
• E.W. Hartsell, Joining Copper and Copper Base Alloys,” Bulletin No. 20, Resistance • W.F. Savage et al., Microsegregation in Partially
Alloys, Weld. J., Vol 52 (No. 2), 1973, p Welder Manufacturers’ Association Heated Regions of 70Cu-30Ni Weldments,
89–100 • J.H. Rogerson, Significance of Welds in Weld. J., Vol 55 (No. 7), 1976, p 181s–7s
• K. Hashimoto et al., Laser Welding Copper Copper and Cupronickel Alloy Welds. Their • “Spot Welding 65-35 Brass on Single-Phase
and Copper Alloys, J. Laser Appl., Vol 3 (No. Relevance to Design and Quality Standards, Equipment with Slope Control,” Bulletin No. 25,
1), 1991, p 21–5 Weld. J., Vol 3 (No. 4), 1984, p 192–4 Resistance Welder Manufacturers’Association
• L.D. Johnson, Some Observations on • J. Ruge, K. Thomas, C. Eckel, and S. Sun- • M. Tumuluru and E.F. Nippes, Weld Ductility
Electron Beam Welding of Copper, Weld. J., daresan, Joining of Copper to Titanium by Studies of a Tin-Modified Copper-Nickel
Vol 49 (No. 2), 1970, p 55s–60s Friction Welding, Weld. J., Vol 66 (No. 8), Alloy,” Weld. J., Vol 69 (No. 5), 1990, p
• T.J. Kelley, Ultrasonic Welding of Cu-Ni to 1986, p 28–31 197s–203s
Steel, Weld. J., Vol 60 (No. 4), 1981, p 29–31 • L.W. Sandor, Copper-Nickel for Ship Hull • Welding Copper and Copper Alloys, Welding
• J. Littleton et al., Nitrogen Porosity in Gas Constructions—Welding and Economics, Handbook, Vol 3, 8th ed., American Welding
Shielded Arc Welding of Copper, Weld. J., Weld. J., Vol 61 (No. 12), 1982, p 23–30 Society, 1996, p 163–216
Vol 53 (No. 12), 1974, p 561s–5s • L.W. Sandor, Pulsed HMA Spot Welding of • K. Wold, Welding of Copper and Copper
• T.M. Mustaleski, R.L. McCaw, and J.E. Copper-Nickel to Steel, Weld. J., Vol 63 (No. Alloys, Met. Prog., Vol 108 (No. 8), Dec
Sims, Electron Beam Welding of Nickel- 6), 1984, p 35–50 1975, p 43–7
Brazing, Soldering, and
Adhesive Bonding
BRAZING AND SOLDERING processes Therefore, the finished metallurgical structures, coppers containing not more than about 1% of
are frequently used to join copper and copper grain sizes, and mechanical properties of the an additive element, such as silver, zirconium,
alloys. Brazing, by definition, employs filler specific copper alloy must be considered when chromium, lead, selenium, tellurium, or sulfur.
metals having a liquidus above 450 °C (840 brazing is utilized. Tough pitch coppers are subject to embrittle-
°F) and below the solidus of the base metal. The metallurgical structures of brazed joints are ment when heated in reducing atmospheres con-
Brazing is distinguished from soldering by the largely those of the brazing filler metal, enriched taining hydrogen. At temperatures above 480 °C
melting point of the filler metal; solders melt with copper from the parent material. Because (900 °F), even relatively small amounts of hydro-
below 450 °C (840 °F). Brazing and soldering some surface melting of the copper alloys being gen lead to embrittlement and internal cavitation
are used to join structural components, com- joined occurs, the interfaces usually show primary caused by the reduction of copper oxide and the
mercial and consumer products, and electrical dendrites of a copper-rich phase growing from the formation of high-pressure steam within the solid
and electronic devices. copper alloy and braze metal interface. The braz- metal. Consequently, although tough pitch cop-
Adhesive bonding is a materials joining ing filler metal becomes more copper-rich, pro- pers are generally rated as having good to excel-
process in which an adhesive (usually a ther- ducing additional dendritic growth with increased lent brazeability, they should not be brazed in a
mosetting or thermoplastic resin) is placed brazing temperature and time. furnace that contains hydrogen at a reducing
between faying surfaces and solidifies to pro- potential such as dissociated ammonia or in an
duce an adhesive bond. In terms of production Brazeabilty exothermic-based or endothermic-based atmos-
cost, ability to accommodate manufacturing tol- phere. Heating by open flame or by torch also may
erances and component complexity, facility and As shown in Table 1, the brazeabilty of copper result in hydrogen diffusion and embrittlement.
tooling requirements, reliability, and repairabili- and copper alloys generally ranges from good to Phosphorous-deoxidized and oxygen-free
ty, adhesive bonding is very competitive when excellent. With some alloys, however, some diffi- coppers can be brazed without flux in hydrogen-
compared to other joining methods. culties may be encountered. For example, some containing atmospheres without risk of embrit-
lead-containing alloys can form a dross that inter- tlement, provided self-fluxing filler metals
feres with wetting; tin-containing alloys, if not (BCuP series) are used. The use of flux is
Brazing stress relieved before brazing, may crack when required, however, when the silver alloy filler
subjected to rapid localized heating. Aluminum metals that contain additives such as zinc, cad-
Copper and copper alloys are among the most bronzes containing more than 8% Al require spe- mium, or lithium (BAg series) are used to braze
easily brazed metals available. A wide range of cial techniques because of the tenacious refracto- these coppers or to braze these coppers to copper
filler metals is used to join the many different ry oxides that form on their surfaces. alloys or other metals.
copper and copper alloys, and all the conven- Coppers. Included in this group are oxygen- The coppers, including those that contain
tional brazing processes can be employed. These containing or tough pitch, phosphorus-deoxi- small additions of silver, lead, tellurium, seleni-
include furnace, torch, induction, resistance, and dized, and oxygen-free coppers, together with um, or sulfur (generally no more than 1%), are
dip brazing. The selection of the brazing process
and filler metal depends on the alloy composi-
Table 1 Brazing and soldering characteristics of the major classes of coppers and cop-
tion, the shape and dimension of the parts to be
per alloys
joined, and the intended application.
Rating(a)
Alloy UNS No. Brazing Soldering
Metallurgical Considerations
ETP copper C11000–C11900 E G
Oxygen-free copper C10200 E E
Because the brazeability of most copper Deoxidized copper C12000–C12300 E E
alloys is very good, the material considerations Beryllium copper C17000–C17500 G G
are generally not as difficult as those of some Cadmium/chromium C16200–C18200 G G
other metals. However, the specific metallurgy copper
Red brass, 85% C23000 E E
of the individual copper or copper alloy is an Low brass, 80% C24000 E E
important factor and should be considered when Cartridge brass, 70% C26000 E E
selecting a manufacturing method. Most brazing Leaded brasses C31400–C38590 E G
operations will result in recrystallization of the Phosphor bronzes C50100–C52400 E E
Copper-nickel, 30% C71500 E E
copper alloy being joined. Fine grain sizes can Copper-nickel, 10% C70600 E E
be eliminated and the cold-working step Nickel silvers C75200 E E
removed, which may or may not be desirable. Aluminum bronze C61300, C61400 F NR
Often, electrical conductivity is an important Silicon bronzes C65100–C65500 E G
factor in a copper alloy brazed joint when over- ETP, electrolytic tough pitch. (a) E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; NR, not recommended
all resistance across the joint must be controlled.
readily brazed with the self-fluxing BCuP filler Therefore, these alloys must have low residual low thermal conductivity and should be heated
metals, but wetting action is improved when a stresses before brazing. Heating to the brazing and cooled uniformly.
flux is used and when a sliding motion between temperature should be uniform to minimize ther- Brazing Dissimilar Alloys. Most of the
components is provided while the filler metal is mal stressing. Brazing results are poor at a lead alloys belonging to any one of the above groups
molten. Precipitation-hardenable copper alloys content of 3% and above because of liquidation can be brazed to an alloy of another group.
that contain beryllium, chromium, or zirconium and the brittleness of phases formed in the joint However, to achieve compatibility, some com-
form oxide films that impede the flow of filler by lead and the filler metal. Alloys containing promise may be required in the selection of
metal. To ensure proper wetting action of the more than 5% Pb are usually not brazed. brazing temperature, filler metal, and flux. For
joint surface by the filler metal, beryllium copper Tin-containing brasses, which include admi- example, if a component made of copper is to be
parts, for example, should be freshly machined ralty brass, naval brass, and leaded naval brass, brazed to a component made of aluminum
or mechanically abraded before being brazed. contain up to 1% Sn and may contain other bronze, the brazing temperature should be pred-
Removal of beryllium oxide from joint surfaces alloying elements such as lead, manganese, icated on the lower melting temperature of the
requires the use of a high-fluoride-content flux. arsenic, nickel, and aluminum. Except for the bronze, and a suitable flux should be selected to
Brazing precipitation-hardenable coppers in the aluminum-containing alloys, these brasses are accommodate the bronze. It is not uncommon
aged condition reduces their mechanical proper- readily brazed; they have greater resistance to for three or more different copper alloys to be
ties. Properties can sometimes be partly restored thermal shock and are less susceptible to hot brazed together in a single assembly.
by a subsequent aging treatment. Beryllium cop- cracking than the high-lead brasses. For proper
per, for example C17200, which contains 1.8 to wetting, brasses that contain aluminum require a Filler Metals
2.0% Be, can be brazed and solution heat treated special flux, such as American Welding Society
by heating to 790 °C (1450 °F), followed by rapid (AWS) type FB4-A. Table 2 presents the nominal compositions,
quenching. Subsequent aging at approximately Phosphor Bronzes. These copper-tin alloys solidus and liquidus temperatures, and electrical
315 °C (600 °F) develops adequate hardness. contain small amounts of phosphorus, up to conductivities of some filler metals used in braz-
When the sections to be brazed are thin and can be about 0.25%, added as a deoxidizer. Although ing of copper and copper alloys, as well as the
cooled very rapidly, solution heat treated berylli- susceptible to hot cracking in the cold worked joint clearance used with each. The filler metals
um copper may be brazed in the temperature range condition, alloys in this group have good braze- listed in Table 2 represents four series: (1) cop-
of 620 to 650 °C (1150 to 1200 °F). ability and are adaptable to brazing with any of per-zinc (RBCuZn) alloys, (2) copper-phospho-
Coppers that contain metals that are more the common filler metals that have melting tem- rus and copper-silver-phosphorus (BCuP)
refractory, such as chromium or zirconium, will peratures lower than that of the base metal. The alloys, (3) silver (BAg) alloys, and (4) gold
form oxide films that slow or prevent the flow of use of a flux is generally preferred. To avoid (BAu) alloys. The copper (BCu) filler metals are
the brazing filler metal. Under these conditions, cracking, parts made from phosphor bronzes omitted. Because of their high liquidus tempera-
cleaning operations are often needed to remove should be stress relieved at approximately 290 to ture (1080 °C, or 1980 °F), these filler metals are
the surface oxides prior to brazing. The brazing 345 °C (550 to 650 °F) before brazing. restricted to use with the copper-nickel alloys
operation is then carried out in either a protec- Silicon bronzes, which contain up to about only. Of the filler metals listed in Table 2, the
tive atmosphere or one that has essentially 3.25% Si and are in a highly stressed condition, BCuP and BAg alloys are by far the most wide-
reducing conditions. Fluxes can be used to assist are susceptible to hot shortness and stress crack- ly used in brazing copper and its alloys.
in the surface oxide removal or to prevent their ing by molten filler metal. To avoid cracking, the Copper-Zinc (RBCuZn) Filler Metals.
reformation during the brazing process. alloys should be stress relieved at approximately Because of their high liquidus temperature, poor-
When chromium coppers are brazed at a tem- 290 to 345 °C (550 to 650 °F) before brazing. er corrosion resistance, anodic position relative
perature within the solution treatment range For best brazing results, joint surfaces should be to copper, and sensitivity to overheating, copper-
(980 °C, or 1800 °F, for example), brazing and freshly machined or mechanically cleaned. zinc filler metals are seldom used in brazing cop-
solution treatment can be combined. Brazed Silicon bronzes containing aluminum require per and copper alloys. Overheating causes the
chromium copper parts can then be aged in a sub- the use of AWS type FB4-A flux. zinc to vaporize and form voids in the joint. In
sequent operation to develop improved mechani- Aluminum Bronzes. Because of their alu- applications where corrosion resistance is not
cal properties and electrical conductivity. minum content, which results in the formation important, these filler metals can be used for
Zirconium coppers do not precipitation of aluminum oxide on the surface, aluminum joining copper, copper nickel, or silicon bronze.
harden without the benefit of prior cold work- bronzes are generally considered difficult to They are sometimes used in joining copper to
ing, a sequence that is incompatible with braz- braze. However, alloys containing 8% Al or less steel, stainless steel, and nickel alloys. These
ing. In the absence of cold working, the are brazeable, provided AWS type FB4-A flux is filler metals generally require the use of a flux.
strength of zirconium coppers is not improved used to dissolve the aluminum oxide. The oxide, Copper-Phosphorus and Copper-
by aging treatments, although electrical con- which inhibits the flow of filler metal, cannot be Phosphorus-Silver (BCuP) Filler Metals.
ductivity is improved. reduced in dry hydrogen. Use of the low-melting The BCuP alloys are self-fluxing when used for
Red brasses (copper-zinc alloys that contain high-silver filler metals is recommended for brazing unalloyed coppers, but the use of a flux
up to 20% Zn) are readily brazed with a variety these bronzes. is generally recommended when these filler
of filler metals. Flux is normally required for Copper nickels, which may contain from metals are used in brazing special coppers and
best results, especially when the zinc content is about 5 to 40% Ni, are susceptible both to hot copper alloys. In general, BCuP filler metals
above 15%. cracking and to stress cracking by molten filler are not suitable for use in brazing copper-nick-
Yellow brasses (copper-zinc alloys that con- metal. The silver alloy filler metals (BAg series) el alloys containing 20% or more nickel. The
tain 25 to 40% Zn) are readily brazed, but low- are preferred for brazing these alloys. In gener- BCuP filler metals have good corrosion resist-
melting filler metals should be used to avoid al, the use of filler metals containing phosphorus ance, but they are severely attacked in sulfur-
dezincification of the base metal. should be avoided, because the copper nickels bearing atmospheres at elevated temperature.
Leaded Brasses. If added to red brass or yel- are susceptible to the formation of brittle nickel Among the advantages of these filler metals is
low brass, lead forms a dross on heating that can phosphides at the interface, which lower joint their relatively low cost.
seriously impede wetting and the flow of filler strength and ductility. Silver Alloy (BAg) Filler Metals. The silver-
metal. Consequently, in brazing leaded brasses, Nickel silvers (brasses that contain up to alloy filler metals listed in Table 2 are suitable
the use of a flux is mandatory to prevent dross approximately 20% Ni but that do not contain for use with all brazeable coppers and copper
formation in the joint area. silver) are highly susceptible to hot cracking and alloys as well as most dissimilar alloy combina-
The susceptibility of leaded brasses to hot should be stress relieved at approximately tions. The lower brazing temperatures indicated
cracking varies directly with lead content. 290 °C (550 °F) before being brazed. They have in Table 2 for some of the silver-alloy filler met-
Brazing, Soldering, and Adhesive Bonding / 305
als make them particularly well suited for with this flux include most of the copper-phos- Joint Clearance and Design
brazing copper alloys with an appreciable zinc phorus alloys listed in Table 2 (with the excep-
content. These include yellow brasses, which tion of BCuP-1) and most of the silver alloys, Both lap and butt joints may be used for
are subject to dezincification. The corrosion including those with liquidus temperatures brazements. Joint clearances are primarily relat-
resistance of silver-alloy filler metals ranges below 760 °C (1400 °F). ed to the brazing filler metals being used and
from good to excellent, although the cadmium- Types FB3-C and FB3-D have higher activity their capillary attraction. If the gap is too small,
containing silver alloys are avoided when temperature ranges, respectively, up to 1205 °C then the brazing filler metal will not flow into
brazing equipment for the dairy, food, and (2200 °F). These fluxes can be used with any the joint. Typical joint clearances are identified
pharmaceutical industries, because of the high filler metal that is listed in Table 2. in Table 2.
toxicity of cadmium. The principal disadvan- Type FB4-A flux is specifically designed for Clearance can also influence the mechanical
tage of silver alloy filler metals is high cost, aluminum-containing copper alloys and has a strength of the brazed joints. Allowances
but this disadvantage can be largely offset by wide range of activity from 595 to 879 °C (1100 should be made in joint design for relative
correct joint design. Flux is generally required to 1600 °F). This flux is generally used with the expansion of the parts at the brazing tempera-
for all but the lithium-containing filler metals silver alloy filler metals. ture, especially where dissimilar metals are
(BAg-8a and BAg-19), which are self-fluxing The highest-temperature fluxes are types involved. Penetration of the brazing filler
in dry, nonoxidizing protective atmospheres. FB3-I, FB3-J, and FB3-K, which work at tem- metal through a joint to the opposite side of
This is because of the ability of lithium to peratures from 760 to 1205 °C (1400 to placement can be an effective measure of braz-
reduce refractory oxides on the base-metal sur- 2200 °F). These are generally used with the ing filler metal flow, and a preferable joint
faces at brazing temperature. RBCuZn filler metals, with long and active design allows this observation to be made.
Gold alloy (BAu) filler metals, such as BAu- conditions at temperature, although they can Generally, braze joints should be designed for
4 in Table 2, are high-cost compositions that are be used with all other brazing filler metals for an effective joint area of 80%, in order to allow
generally restricted to highly specialized appli- copper alloys. for voids.
cations such as joining vacuum tube components In the case of a lap joint, the joint length
that are hermetically sealed. In this application, Surface Preparation should be, at a minimum, three times the thick-
the low vapor pressure of gold is advantageous. ness of the thinnest component being joined.
The high liquidus temperatures of gold alloy Cleaning. Good wetting and flow of filler
filler metals further limit their use to brazing metal in brazed joints can only be achieved
coppers and a few high melting temperature Selection of Brazing Process
when the joint surfaces are clean and free of
copper-nickel alloys. oxides, dirt, and other foreign substances. The selection of the brazing process is as
Standard solvent or alkaline degreasing proce- important as the selection of the brazing filler
Brazing Fluxes dures are suitable for cleaning copper-base metal. In fact, one often depends on the other.
metals. Mechanical methods may be used to When a specific process is required, the range
The AWS brazing flux classifications for cop- remove surface oxides, but care should be of allowable filler metals may be restricted.
per and copper alloys are given in Table 3. Major taken to leave the metal free of undesirable The number of parts to be made and the pro-
ingredients, filler metal type for which the flux films or deposits. Chemical removal of surface duction rates desired also influence brazing
is suitable, activity temperature range, applica- oxides requires an appropriate pickling solu- process selection. Another consideration is the
tion process, and recommended base metals are tion. Cleaning solutions for copper and copper materials to be joined, because brazing may
also given in Table 3. It should be noted that all alloys are described in the article “Surface affect their mechanical properties. Table 4
fluxes are marketed as proprietary compositions, Engineering” in this Handbook. compares the characteristics of the commonly
and there are no standard compositions. They Copper Plate. It is often desirable to copper used brazing processes.
are classified by type only. Of the fluxes listed in plate the faces of copper alloys that contain
Table 3, there are four primary categories used strong oxide-forming elements to simplify braz-
most frequently. ing and fluxing requirements. Copper plate Furnace Brazing
Type FB3-A is the general-purpose, low-tem- about 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) thick is used on
perature flux used with all coppers and copper chromium-copper alloys while about 0.013 mm Furnace brazing is a mass-production process.
alloys, except those with high levels of alu- (0.0005 in.) thickness is sufficient on beryllium Its primary advantage is that it can be used to
minum. The filler metals that are compatible copper, aluminum bronze, and silicon bronze. process a large number of assemblies on a batch
Table 2 Compositions and selected properties of filler metals commonly used in brazing of copper and copper alloys
Nominal composition, % Solidus temperature Liquidus temperature Typical diametral joint clearance
AWS filler metal Conductivity (a),
designation Ag Cu P Zn Cd Ni Other °C °F °C °F %IACS mm in.
RBCuZn-A … 59.25 … 40 … … 0.75 Sn 890 1630 900 1650 26 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005

RBCuZn-D … 48 … 42 … 10 … 920 1690 935 1715 … … …
BCuP-1 … 95 5 … … … … 710 1310 900 1650 … 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005
BCuP-2 … 92.75 7.25 … … … … 710 1310 795 1460 … 0.025–0.075 0.001–0.003
BCuP-4 6 86.75 7.25 … … … … 645 1190 725 1335 … 0.025–0.075 0.001–0.003
BCuP-5 15 80 5 … … … … 645 1190 800 1475 10 0.025–0.13 0.001–0.005
BAg-1 45 15 … 16 24 … … 605 1125 620 1145 28 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005
BAg-1a 50 15.5 … 16.5 18 … … 625 1160 635 1175 24 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005
BAg-2 35 26 … 21 18 … … 605 1125 700 1295 29 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005
BAg-3 50 15.5 … 15.5 16 3 … 630 1170 690 1270 18 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005
BAg-5 45 30 … 25 … … … 675 1250 745 1370 19 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005
(b) 75 22 … 3 … … … … … 740 1365 … 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005
BAg-8 77 23 … … … … … 780 1435 780 1435 … 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005
BAg-8a 72 27.8 … … … … 0.2 Li 765 1410 765 1410 89(c) 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005
BAg-19 92.5 7.3 … … … … 0.2 Li 780 1435 890 1635 88(c) 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005
BAu-4 … … … … … 18 82 Au 950 1740 950 1740 6 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005
(a) Ratio of the resistivity of the material at 20 °C (68 °F) to that of IACS, expressed as a percentage and calculated on a volume basis. (b) Special filler metal used in brazing nickel silver knife handles. (c) Conductivity of filler
metal after volatilization of lithium in brazing
Table 3 AWS brazing flux classifications

Activity temperature
range
Typical
Classification Form Filler metal type ingredients Application °C °F Recommended base metals
FB3-A Paste BAg and BCuP Borates, fluorides General-purpose flux for most ferrous 565–870 1050–1600 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous
and nonferrous alloys. (Notable metal, except those with aluminum or
exception aluminum bronze, etc. magnesium as a constituent. Also used
See flux 4-A) to braze carbides
FB3-C Paste BAg and BCuP Borates, fluorides, Similar to 3-A, but with capability 565–925 1050–1700 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous
boron for extended heating times or metal, except those with aluminum or
temperature through use of a magnesium as a constituent. Also used
deoxidizing additive to braze carbides
FB3-D Paste BAg, BCu, BNi, Borates, fluorides Similar to 3-C, but with a higher 760–1205 1400–2200 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous
BAu, and RBCuZn active-temperature range metal, except those with aluminum or
magnesium as a constituent. Also used
to braze carbides
FB3-E Liquid BAg and BCuP Borates, fluorides Low-activity liquid flux used in 565–870 1050–1600 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous
brazing jewelry or to augment metal, except those with aluminum or
furnace brazing atmospheres magnesium as a constituent. Also used
to braze carbides
FB3-F Powder BAg and BCuP Borates, fluorides Similar to 3-A in a powder form 650–870 1200–1600 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous
metal, except those with aluminum or
to braze carbides
FB3-G Slurry BAg and BCuP Borates, fluorides Similar to 3-A in a slurry form 565–870 1050–1600 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous
metal, except those with aluminum or
to braze carbides
FB3-H Slurry BAg and BCuP Borates, fluorides, Similar to 3-C in a slurry form 565–925 1050–1700 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous
boron metal, except those with aluminum or
to braze carbides
FB3-I Slurry BAg, BCu, BNi, Borates, fluoride Similar to 3-D in a slurry form 760–1205 1400–2200 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous
BAu, and RBCuZn metal, except those with aluminum or
to braze carbides
FB3-J Powder BAg, BCu, BNi, Borates, fluorides Similar to 3-D in a slurry form 760–1205 1400–2200 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous
BAu, and RBCuZn metal, except those with aluminum or
to braze carbides
FB3-K Liquid BAg, BCuP, Borates Exclusively used in torch brazing by 760–1205 1400–2200 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous
and RBCuZn passing fuel gas through a container metal, except those with aluminum or
of flux. Flux applied by the flame magnesium as a constituent. Also used
to braze carbides
FB4-A Paste BAg and BCuP Chlorides, fluorides, General-purpose flux for many alloys 595–870 1100–1600 Brazeable base metals containing up to
borates containing metals that form 9% Al (aluminum brass, aluminum
refractory oxides bronze, Monel K500). May also have
application when minor amounts of
titanium or other metals are present,
which form refractory oxides
Note: The selection of a flux designation for a specific type of work may be based on the filler metal type and the description above, but the information here is generally not adequate for flux selection.
or continuous basis at low unit cost. Furnace Table 4 Characteristics of the brazing processes used to join copper and copper alloys
brazing can be used to braze a number of joints Characteristics(a)
on the same assembly simultaneously or to braze
Capital Running Basic Flux Operator skill
a variety of different assemblies simultaneously. Method cost cost output required Versatility required
Furnace brazing also provides an enclosed con- Torch (flame) L/M M/H L Yes H Yes
tainer for atmospheres that can protect assem- Electrical resistance M M M/H Yes L No
blies against surface oxidation and other unde- Induction M/H M M/H Y/N M No
sirable effects encountered when heating in air. Furnace (atmosphere) M/H M/H H Y/N M No
Furnace (vacuum) H L H No M No
Advantages of furnace brazing that are more Dip (flux bath) L/M M/H L/M Yes L Yes
specifically applicable to the joining of copper
(a) H, high; M, medium; L, low
and copper alloys relate to the furnace as a
source of heat and to the cooling chamber that is
provided on conveyor belt furnaces as a means mally used in torch, induction, and resistance the same amount of energy expended (assemblies
for cooling assemblies from the brazing temper- brazing. Few furnace heating cycles are less than per kilowatt-hour of input, for example).
ature to 150 °C (300 °F) or below. To a lesser 5 min in duration. For heating copper alloys sus- The cooling rates that can be obtained in the
degree, the prepared protective atmospheres that ceptible to hot cracking, however, the slower, cooling chambers of brazing furnaces can be
can be used most conveniently in furnace braz- more uniform heating of a furnace is desirable. closely controlled to ensure slow, uniform cool-
ing, notably the exothermic-based and endother- In conveyor furnaces with multiple-zone heating. For copper alloys susceptible to hot crack-
mic-based atmospheres, constitute another ing chambers, the heating rate can be controlled ing, the control of cooling rate from the brazing
advantage when brazing deoxidized coppers and with great accuracy. Depending on furnace capac- temperature is as important as control of the rate
copper alloys in a furnace. ity and the size of the assemblies to be brazed, the of heating to the brazing temperature.
The rate of heating assemblies in a brazing production rate in furnace brazing may equal or Limitations. Apart from the high initial
furnace is low when compared with rates nor- exceed that obtainable in induction brazing for equipment costs and the floor space required to
accommodate a furnace with both a heating liquidus; for example, BCuP-3, with a liquidus must maintain this position throughout brazing
chamber and a cooling chamber (the length of of 805 °C (1485 °F), and BCuP-5, with a liq- and cooling. Self-jigging is the preferred method
the cooling chamber is usually at least three uidus of 800 °C (1475 °F) flow freely and make of assembly. An assembly is self-jigging when
times that of the heating chamber), most of the good joints at 705 °C (1300 °F). In the following its component parts incorporate design features
limitations of furnace brazing are related to the example, furnace brazing was done at 42 °C that ensure that each component, when assem-
deleterious effects of furnace temperatures and (75 °F) below the liquidus of the filler metal ( a bled, remains in proper relationship throughout
brazing fluxes on furnace muffles and linings, self-fluxing silver-containing BCuP alloy), with- the brazing cycle without the aid of auxiliary fix-
electrical heating elements, rails, trays, convey- out using a protective atmosphere. tures. When self-jigging is not feasible or when
or belts, and other components. These effects Example 1: Brazing at 42 °C (75 °F) below the assembly requires positioning or support in
increase in seriousness as the operating temper- the Liquidus of the Filler Metal—without addition to that provided by self-jigging, auxil-
ature of the furnace increases. A furnace used for Protective Atmosphere. The contact arm iary fixtures are used. These fixtures may take
brazing copper and copper alloys with silver assembly (Fig. 1) was a component of a line volt- the form of a simple bracket or wire stand,
alloy filler metals and operating at a temperature age thermostat. The two contacts were made of ceramic blocks, clamps, or cast supports.
below 815 °C (1500 °F) could be expected to fine silver and, when brazed to the copper arm, Venting Fully Enclosed Assemblies. Fully
require considerably less maintenance, repair, required a highly conductive joint to accommo- enclosed assemblies, whether assembled by self-
and replacement of components than a similar date high-service currents without overheating. jigging or supported by auxiliary fixturing, must
furnace used to braze carbon steel with copper Neither a flux nor a protective atmosphere was be vented to permit the escape of entrapped air.
filler metals and operating at a temperature of used, because the brazing temperature was con- When heated, entrapped air expands and, unless
1095 °C (2000 °F). The use of flux, required for siderably below the liquidus of the filler metal. adequately vented, escapes from a sealed assem-
brazing with most silver alloy filler metals, The copper-silver-phosphorus (BCuP-5) filler bly in the area of the joint, resulting in flux spat-
could offset the advantage of a lower operating metal is self-fluxing on both copper and silver, ter, joint porosity, and misalignment of brazed
temperature, however, by introducing corrosion and its unusually wide temperature range components. A small pinhole or slot, located
and corrosive deterioration not encountered in a between solidus and liquidus (645 and 800 °C, or safely away from the area of the joint, is usually
flux-free furnace chamber. 1190 and 1475 °F) permits brazing at a tempera- sufficient to provide adequate venting and to
A furnace operating at 815 °C (1500 °F) ture below the liquidus. The assembly was avoid damage to the joint.
requires idling at elevated temperature when not brazed at 760 °C (1400 °F), below the liquidus
in use, as does a furnace operating at 1095 °C temperature, in a mesh belt conveyor furnace at a Torch Brazing
(2000 °F), adding to power costs. Idling prevents production rate of 377 assemblies per hour.
thermal cycling that can cause serious damage to Accelerated Heating. The furnace tempera- Torch brazing of copper and copper alloys is
components such as furnace brickwork. Lower ture setting used in a given brazing operation used on many components and in numerous
operating temperatures usually permit the use of may exceed that attained by the workload during industrial applications. The properties of copper
lower idling temperatures. However, for fur- the heating cycle to accelerate the heating of the and copper alloys introduce certain specific con-
naces operating with combustible protective work. Temperature differentials between the siderations in torch brazing.
atmospheres, the hazard of explosion is greatest thermocouple and the work being processed Applications. Joining components of various
when the furnace is operating at temperatures must be closely monitored and controlled. types of heat exchangers probably represents the
below approximately 760 °C (1400 °F), and spe- Experimentation is required to establish the time largest field of application for torch brazing of
cial precautions must be scrupulously observed spent by the workload in the heating zone when copper and copper alloys; products include con-
in this range. using higher furnace temperatures. Above 955 °C densers, evaporators, air conditioners, radiators,
Furnaces. In design and equipment, the fur- (1750 °F), the substitution of a reducing protec- and refrigerators, all of which depend on the high
naces used for brazing copper and copper tive atmosphere for a brazing flux helps extend thermal conductivity of copper. Torch brazed
alloys are essentially the same as those used the life of heating elements and other furnace
for brazing steel. components by eliminating both oxidation and
Because of the damaging effects of sulfur and the corrosive reactions of volatized flux.
sulfur-bearing compounds on copper and copper Furnace Atmospheres. Protective atmos-
alloys, the products of combustion in gas-fired fur- pheres are used in furnace brazing of copper and
naces operating without a muffle must be com- copper alloys, although numerous exceptions
pletely free of sulfur. Electric furnaces may be exist. Combusted fuel gases are economical pro-
operated without a muffle unless damage to brick- tective atmospheres for copper and copper alloys,
work and other furnace components caused by except for oxygen-bearing copper. Atmospheres
volatilized flux and flux droppings warrants use of with a high-hydrogen content cannot be used
a muffle. Muffles may also be used to ensure the when brazing oxygen-bearing copper; hydrogen
purity and to maintain the dew point of a protec- diffuses into the copper, reduces copper oxide,
tive atmosphere, particularly when the atmosphere and forms water vapor that will rupture the cop-
is serving in place of a flux and its effectiveness per. Inert gases that have proper dew points also
depends on freedom from contamination. are suitable atmospheres for brazing copper and
Temperatures for furnace brazing depend on copper alloys. Table 5 lists AWS atmosphere
the filler metal used, the melting temperature of types, as well as approximate compositions, filler
the base metal, and any harmful effects, such as metals, and braze-metal combinations.
dezincification and hot-short cracking, that Vacuum is a suitable brazing environment,
result from exceeding prescribed temperature provided neither base metal nor filler metal con-
limits. The brazing temperature selected is usu- tains elements that have high vapor pressures at
ally at least 28 °C (50 °F) higher than the liq- brazing temperature. Zinc, phosphorus, and cad-
uidus temperature of the filler metal; even high- mium are examples of elements that vaporize
er brazing temperatures may be used to promote when heated in vacuum.
fluidity or to achieve other desired results (such Assembly for Brazing. The component parts
as combining brazing and solution heat treat- to be furnace brazed must be assembled in an
ment in the same furnace operation). Some filler essentially fixed position with filler metal pre- Fig. 1 Furnace brazed contact arm assembly. Brazed
without protective atmosphere, 42 ˚C (75 ˚F)
metals can be used at a temperature below the placed before entering the furnace, and they below the liquidus of the filler metal. Dimensions in inches
products that depend on the high electrical con- held too long at brazing temperature. Application form of wire, powder, or a paste with flux is
ductivity of copper include motor windings, reac- of flux suppresses zinc volatilization. less neat in appearance than filler metal
tor coils, switches, contactors, and terminal leads. Alloys containing elements that readily form deposited from preplaced preforms. The latter,
Process Selection. The selection of torch refractory oxides (aluminum, beryllium, chromi- made from either wire or strip, are used in
brazing in preference to another brazing process, um, and silicon) must be protected by flux and deep joints or in joints having a change in
such as furnace or induction brazing, depends should not be exposed to an oxidizing flame. direction of the mating surfaces.
largely on feasibility and cost. Torch brazing is One of the notable differences between the The BCuP filler metals contain phosphorus,
often used when workpiece limitations preclude torch brazing of steel and the torch brazing of which makes them self-fluxing on copper; how-
the use of alternative brazing processes. copper alloys is that steel can withstand very ever, when these fillers are used with copper
Manual Torch Brazing. Low equipment cost rapid heating rates, whereas some of the cop- alloys, an AWS type FB3-A flux is advised.
is a major advantage in manual torch brazing, per alloys (the phosphor bronzes, for exam- Of the types of filler metal used in torch
which is particularly useful for assemblies ple) are subject to cracking if heated too rap- brazing, BCuP-2 and 4 are the most fluid, and
involving unequal masses. A brazer with moder- idly when the metal is under high restraint fill joints having diametral clearances of 0.025
ate skill can adjust and apply the heating flame during brazing. to 0.075 mm (0.001–0.003 in.). BCuP-5 can
so that unequal masses are brought uniformly to Filler metals used for torch brazing of copper tolerate looser fits. Acceptable diametral clear-
brazing temperature. The brazer can also apply and copper alloys include the lower melting ance is 0.025 to 0.13 mm (0.001–0.005 in.).
the heat selectively to the joints of assemblies BAg silver alloys, the lower melting BCuP cop- BCuP alloys are lower in cost than silver alloy
involving both large and small areas. The size of per-phosphorus alloys, and the copper-zinc filler filler metals and also provide a better color
brazing flames may range from those of metal RBCuZn-A. match on copper after the oxide film that forms
extremely small torches, the size of a hypoder- The BAg-1 and BAg-1a alloys have the low- during cooling has been removed. The follow-
mic needle used for electronic leads, up to those est melting temperatures of all the filler metals ing example describes the use of BCuP-5 in
of large torches used in brazing assemblies used in torch brazing of copper and copper torch brazing.
weighing hundreds of pounds. alloys and possess excellent flow characteristics. Example 2: Use of Self-Fluxing Filler
Several precautions should be taken when These filler metals contain more silver than Metal in Torch Brazing Return Bends for a
torch brazing certain coppers and copper alloys. BAg-2 (Table 2) and are therefore more costly. Heat Exchanger. Return bends were brazed to
Where it is necessary to braze oxide-containing For this reason, BAg-2 is sometimes preferred, heat exchanger tubes (Fig. 2). The tubes and
(tough pitch) coppers, a reducing atmosphere in although it has a higher liquidus temperature return bends were made of alloy C12200
the flame must be avoided because it can pro- than either BAg-1 or BAg-1a. (phosphorus-deoxidized copper, DHP), 9.5
mote hydrogen embrittlement. For these coppers, The color of silver alloy filler metals does mm (38 in.) outside diameter, with 0.4 mm
a neutral or slightly oxidizing flame and a short not match that of most copper alloys. Joints (0.016 in.) and 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) wall thick-
brazing cycle are necessary. Brasses are subject that are visible are plated or painted if appear- nesses, respectively. Ends of the tubes were
to volatilization of zinc when overheated or when ance is important. Face-fed filler metal in the expanded to fit over the ends of the return
Table 5 Atmospheres for brazing copper and copper alloys

AWS brazing
Composition of atmosphere, %
atmosphere Maximum dew point
type No. Source incoming gas H2 N2 CO CO2 Filler metals Base metals Remarks
1 Combusted fuel gas Room temperature 5–1 87 5–1 11–12 BAg(a), BCuP, Copper, brass(a) Referred to commonly as
(low hydrogen) RBCuZn exothermic generated
atmospheres
2 Combusted fuel gas Room temperature 14–15 70–71 9–10 5–6 BCu, BAg(a), Copper(b), brass(a), Decarburizes. Referred to
(decarburizing) RBCuZn, BCuP low nickel, Monel, commonly as
medium-carbon endothermic generated
steel(c) atmospheres
3 Combusted fuel –40 °C (–40 °F) 15–16 73–75 10–11 … Same as 2 Same as 2 plus Referred to commonly as
gas, dried medium- and high- endothermic generated
carbon steels, Monel, atmospheres
nickel alloys
4 Combusted fuel gas, –40 °C (–40 °F) 38–40 41–45 17–19 … Same as 2 Same as 2 plus Carburizes
dried (decarburizing) medium- and high-
carbon steels
5 Dissociated ammonia –54 °C (–65°F) 75 25 … … BAg(a), BCuP, Same as for 1, 2, 3, 4 …
RBCuZn(a), plus alloys containing
BCu, BNi chromium
6A Cryogenic or purified –68 °C (–90 °F) 1–30 70–99 … … Same as 5 Same as 3 …
N2 H2
6B Cryogenic or purified –29 °C (–20 °F) 2–20 70–99 1–10 … Same as 5 Same as 4 …
N2 H2 CO
6C Cryogenic or purified N2 –68 °C (–90 °F) … 100 … … Same as 5 Same as 3 …
7 Deoxygenated and –59 °C (–75 °F) 100 … … … Same as 5 Same as 5 plus cobalt, …
dried hydrogen chromium, tungsten
alloys and carbides (d)
8 Heated volatile materials Inorganic vapors … … … … BAg Brasses Special purpose. May be
(zinc, cadmium, used in conjunction
lithium, volatile with 1 through 5 to
fluorides) avoid use of flux
9 Purified inert gas Inert gas (helium, … … … … Same as 5 Same as 5 plus Special purpose. Parts
argon, etc.) titanium, zirconium, must be very clean
hafnium and atmosphere must
be pure.
9A Purified inert gas H2 Inert gas (helium, 1–10 … … … … … …
argon, etc.)
(a) Flux required in addition to atmosphere when alloys containing volatile components are used. (b) Copper should be fully deoxidized or oxygen-free. (c) Heating time should be minimized to avoid objectionable decarbur-
ization. (d) Flux must be used in addition to the atmosphere if appreciable quantities of aluminum, titanium, silicon, or beryllium are present.
bends with diametral clearance of 0.1 to 0.23 alloys form refractory oxides, and this influ- flames are used to help the fluxes prevent oxida-
mm (0.004–0.009 in.). Brazed joints had to be ences choice of flux. tion of base-metal surfaces.
leaktight at 2760 kPa (400 psi) pressure. When BAg or BCuP filler metal is used in Although high heat input is necessary to over-
All parts were vapor degreased before braz- brazing copper or in brazing a copper alloy that come high thermal conductivity, many copper
ing. Each leg of the return bends was mechani- contains no elements that cause it to form refrac- alloys cannot withstand the rapid heating rates
cally fitted with a preformed ring of 0.75 mm tory oxides (aluminum, beryllium, chromium, that can be used on steel. Under too rapid heating,
(0.030 in.) diameter BCuP-5 filler wire, which and silicon), a type FB3-A flux is used. When high thermal expansion can cause local stresses,
does not require a flux when used for brazing brazing copper alloys that form refractory resulting in distortion and cracking in some
copper. The wire ring had to fit tightly on the oxides, a more active flux is usually required. For alloys. Accidental overheating can cause damage
tube, so that the filler metal would be heated by instance, aluminum bronzes require a type FB4- to copper and copper alloy assemblies more read-
conduction as the base metal was heated to braz- A flux to inhibit the oxidation of aluminum. ily than to those made of steel. Particular care
ing temperature. If heated directly, the filler Gas fluxing, by entraining volatilized flux in should be taken with phosphor bronzes, leaded
metal might have melted before the base metal the gas flame, is used in torch brazing copper brasses, nickel silvers, and silicon bronzes. The
reached brazing temperature. and copper alloys. When used on copper and use of gases of lower flame temperature requires
The joints were assembled and manually its alloys, gas fluxing protects the surface of less skill in avoiding these difficulties.
brazed using a Y-shaped oxyacetylene torch with the base metal from becoming oxidized or dis- Mechanized and automatic torch brazing
two tips. The opposing tips surrounded the joint colored, eliminating postbraze cleaning. The equipment and operations are the same as those
with flame, making heating faster and more uni- joint surfaces are also protected with an appro- applied on steel assemblies, except for the spe-
form than it would have been with only one priate flux. cial considerations discussed earlier in this sec-
flame. The joint was brought up to temperature Fuel Gases. The fuel gas mixtures generally tion. Mechanized torch brazing is widely used in
as rapidly as possible to prevent liquidation of used in torch brazing of copper and copper manufacturing air conditioners, radiators, and
the filler metal. Each joint took 5 s to braze. alloys are oxyacetylene, oxy-natural gas, other types of heat exchangers that use hairpin
Because no flux was used, brazed joints did not oxypropane, oxyhydrogen, and air/natural gas. coils of copper tubing with aluminum fins.
have to be cleaned. Oxyfuel gases are highest in cost, flame temper- Conveyor belts and turntables are used exten-
The manufacturer also used multiple-flame ature, and heating rate, with oxyacetylene the sively for both mechanized and automatic torch
gas-air burners for this product. Such equipment highest in the group in each respect. Oxyfuel brazing. The following example illustrates the
was used for high production on a given size of gases are widely used in manual torch brazing use of a turntable in an operation that was whol-
return bend. Multiple burners heated both joints where temperature can be controlled by torch ly automatic except for assembly.
at one time while the assemblies were on a con- manipulation. The cost advantage of air/natural Example 3: Use of an Eight-Station
veyor line. Natural gas was used in preference to gas is exploited particularly in mechanized and Turntable for Automatic Brazing of Bulb and
acetylene for economy and heating control; automatic high-production torch brazing, where Tube Assemblies. An eight-station automatic
some joints were overheated and others under- the lower flame temperature offers protection setup (Fig. 3) replaced a manual torch brazing
heated when using the rapid heating of acety- from damage caused by overheating. Desired setup that required two operators and used a
lene. Radiant gas burners were also used for this heating rates are obtained economically by using rotating fixture for brazing copper bulb and tube
work. Furnace brazing could not be used, high flow rates together with multiple torches or assemblies. Production rate (about 700 joints per
because the remainder of the assembly, includ- radiant burners. Neutral or slightly reducing hour, gross) was not increased with the automat-
ing the aluminum fins, could not be heated. ic method, and improvement in quality was neg-
Fluxes. Selection of flux for torch brazing of ligible. However, only one unskilled operator
copper and copper alloys depends not only on was needed. Therefore, the cost of direct labor
the filler metal used (as it does for brazing of was reduced more than 50%. The sequence of
steel), but also on the base metal. Some copper operations is given in Fig 3. The air/natural gas
torches at stations 4, 5, and 6 were adjusted to
produce neutral or slightly reducing flames.
Filler metal was BAg-1 in flux-paste form. The
completed assemblies were leak tested with air
at 415 kPa (60 psi). Rejection rate was 1%,
which was considered satisfactory. The joints
were clean and ductile.
Joint Design. For widely used silver alloy and
copper-zinc alloy filler metals, diametral clear-
ances differ; clearances of 0.05 to 0.13 mm
(0.002–0.005 in.) are suitable. For BCuP filler
metals, diametral clearances of 0.025 to 0.075 mm
(0.001–0.003 in.) are suitable for BCuP-2 and
BCuP-4, and 0.025 to 0.13 mm (0.001–0.005 in.)
for BCuP-5. Much torch brazing is done by face
feeding of filler metal, and when this is desired,
joints should be limited to a depth that can be
quickly and adequately fed by the filler metal
used. Deep joints and those that change direction
sharply require the use of preplaced filler metal.
Induction Brazing
The efficiency of heating by induction
varies directly with the electrical resistivity of
Fig. 2 Return bend assembly of a heat exchanger. Fig. 3 Bulb and tube assembly. Brazed by mechanically
the alloy. Brass, because it has higher electri-
Includes a dual-tip torch used for rapid heating held torches on an eight-station turntable.
of the self-fluxing filler metal. Dimensions in inches Dimensions in inches cal resistivity, can be heated more efficiently
LIVE GRAPH
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than copper; steel, which has even higher The low efficiency of the process also demands to the chromium-copper post was obtained using
resistivity, can be heated more efficiently than relatively high power requirements. the square three-turn inductor shown in Fig. 5.
brass. In terms of the high-frequency power Inductor design is similar to that needed for Before brazing, the chromium copper base
input and the time required to heat 1 lb of other metals. The objective is controlled heat was bright dipped, and the tungsten-silver alloy
metal in a joint assembly to a brazing temper- input and distribution. Single- or multiple-turn contact was cleaned with an abrasive cloth. Type
ature of about 700 °C (1300 °F), a power input inductors are utilized, sometimes in conjunction FB3-A flux paste was applied to both compo-
of 15 kW (at 450 kHz) can heat a steel joint with concentrators, to focus heat in desirable nents with a brush. They were then assembled
to this temperature in about 16 s, whereas locations. In the following example, the control with a disk of filler metal placed between them
brass requires about 30 s and copper about of heat input and distribution was critical, and (Fig. 5). Power supply was a 50 kW, 10 kHz
55 s (Fig. 4). excellent results were obtained at a relatively low motor-generator set. When the brazing alloy
Despite the fact that induction brazing is less operating frequency (10 kHz) using a three-turn melted and flowed, the contact was rotated to
efficient with copper-base alloys than with other inductor. This example also illustrates another release any entrapped gases and improve wet-
metals, the process is widely used because of its advantage of induction brazing, that is, it is the ting. Production rate was ten joints per hour.
high-production capability, especially in situa- best option for retaining material properties. Inductors for Mass Production. Induction
tions where flames cannot be tolerated and Example 4: Use of a Multiple-Turn Inductor heating is suited for mass producing brazed assem-
atmosphere protection is an alternative to flux- to Control Heat Input and Minimize Over- blies, primarily because inductors can be designed
ing. Induction brazing usually minimizes the aging of Chromium Copper. Chromium copper that heat a line of assemblies as they are carried
possible warping of parts. However, the initial (C18200, 0.6% Cr) has high electrical conductivi- through the induction field by conveyor belt or
cost of the induction heating equipment is high. ty (78% IACS) and develops improved mechanical turntable. Hairpin and pancake inductors are most
properties in the precipitation-hardened condition. widely used for conveyorized applications,
After solution heat treatment, it is aged at 400 to because they do not obstruct passage of the assem-
500 °C (750 to 930 °F). Heating for brazing is crit- blies as they travel through the induction field.
ical, because the copper can overage or partly Because steel assemblies heat more efficiently
anneal at temperatures above 500 °C (930 °F), the (Fig. 4), they are generally more adaptable to
overaging effect increasing with increasing tem- brazing in a conveyorized setup than are assem-
perature and time at temperature. Consequently, in blies made of copper and copper alloys. An alter-
brazing a tungsten-silver alloy contact to a precip- native design for use with copper alloys is the
itation-hardened chromium copper post (Fig. 5), multiple-station inductor. With this type of induc-
heat input to the post required careful control to tor, two or more (often as many as six) assemblies
minimize overaging. The joint required high elec- can be brazed simultaneously or in a selective
trical conductivity and impact strength, and the sequence that permits loading at one or more sta-
chromium copper post had to retain its hardness tions while other stations are heating. An example
and strength to resist distortion when subjected to of the application of a multiple-station inductor
repeated impact. Brazing the tungsten-silver alloy for brazing armatures for motors follows.
Fig. 4 Power input and heating time required for high-
frequency induction brazing. Power is contact required the use of a nickel-containing sil- Example 5: Use of Two Four-Station
expressed as kilowatts required to heat 1 lb of metal at the ver-alloy filler metal for adequate wetting. BAg-3 Inductors for High-Production Brazing of
joint to 700 ˚C (1300 ˚F). was chosen rather than BAg-4 or BAg-13, because Motor Armatures. In the production of motor
BAg-3 has a lower brazing range (690 to 815 °C, armatures, copper end rings were induction
or 1270 to 1500 °F); induction brazing was select- brazed to both ends of 14 copper rivets that held
ed to control heat input and minimize the duration the armature laminations (Fig. 6) at a rate of 433
of the brazing cycle. Optimum control of heat input assemblies per hour (two joints per assembly) in
Fig. 5 Tungsten-silver alloy contact and chromium

post in position for induction brazing. Used Fig. 6 Motor armature and a four-station inductor. Used for high-production brazing of copper end rings to rivets
three-turn inductor. Dimensions in inches holding armature laminations. Dimensions in inches
two four-station, single-turn inductors, using a 5 establishing electrical contact across the joint is ing, and arc processes that involve impact,
kW, 450 kHz vacuum tube power supply. ordinarily applied through the electrodes (Fig. such as stud and percussion welding, general-
Induction brazing was selected for this applica- 7). The electrode pressure also is the usual ly cannot be used because the stranded or
tion partly because the rapid rate of heating left means for providing the tight fit needed for braided copper conductors do not provide a
the magnetic properties of the silicon steel arma- capillary behavior in the joint. The heat for rigid workpiece for the lap connections in use.
ture laminations relatively unaffected. resistance brazing can be generated mainly in T-joints of multiple-strand wires to flat sur-
Each of the eight inductor stations contained a the workpieces themselves, in the electrodes, or faces have been made by percussion welding
graphite bushing into which an armature assem- in both, depending on the electrical resistivity in some instances.
bly could be placed. The inductors and bushings and dimensions. Resistance welding cannot be used on multi-
were attached to graphite blocks that supported Applicability. Resistance brazing is often ple-strand copper electrical conductors rated to
the armatures during the brazing cycle. used in the joining of copper conductors, termi- carry a current higher than about 60 A, because
Silver-containing filler metal BCuP-5 was nals, and other parts in lap joints for electrical the amount of current needed to make the weld
selected for its brazing range and because it is self- connections where heating must be localized is prohibitively large. Such connections are
fluxing on copper. Because the filler metal would and closely controlled while brazing the joint made by resistance brazing.
not wet the graphite holders, there was no difficul- and where the brazed joint must have low elec- Brazing of Leads to Commutator Bars.
ty in brazing rings to both ends of the armatures trical resistance. Generation of heat in the filler The success with resistance brazing for join-
simultaneously. Conductivity was adequate. metal and nearly complete filling with a thin ing small copper electrical conductors to mas-
Before brazing, the copper rings were layer of the filler metal in the joint help in meet- sive copper assemblies has led to the use of
degreased and bright dipped. Each inductor sta- ing both of these objectives. the process for attaching armature leads to
tion was loaded by first placing a copper end Filler Metals. The filler metal most frequent- commutator bars on large electrical motors
ring at the bottom of the graphite bushing, fol- ly used is BCuP-5, which is used without a flux and generators. Joints made by this method
lowed by a preform of brazing alloy. The arma- when brazing copper in most applications. In provide a large conducting cross section that
ture was then inserted in the hole in the graphite spite of the comparatively low electrical conduc- prevents significant resistive heating at the
block (Fig. 6, section A-A), and a second ring of tivity of BCuP-5 (approximately 10% IACS, connections in service. The joints are made at
filler metal was placed on top of the armature, Table 2), producing brazed joints having a low much lower temperature than would be possi-
followed by another end ring of copper. When voltage drop acceptable for nearly all applicable by resistance welding, which could be
one of the four-station inductors was loaded in tions is not difficult, because the layer of filler done only with excessively high current and
this manner, power was applied and the brazing metal in the brazed joint is very thin and the would produce weaker joints with too small a
cycle began. The operator then began loading joints are designed to provide a conducting area conducting area at the joint.
the second four-station inductor. larger than the cross section of the smaller The use of conventional resistance welding
Filler Metals. As indicated in Examples 4 and 5, member. Silver (BAg-type) brazing alloys are equipment and high-resistivity electrodes with
brazing filler metals for induction heating are usu- also used for resistance brazing applications. specially contoured tips makes it possible to
ally the silver-containing alloys and the copper- Brazing of Multiple-Strand Copper Wire. concentrate the heating at the joint, to keep
phosphorus and copper-phosphorus-silver alloys. Resistance brazing is preferred for making con- the heating time to a minimum, and to obtain
nections of terminals or assemblies to stranded efficient handling and comparatively high pro-
or braided copper electrical conductors. Torch duction rates. In the example that follows,
Resistance Brazing brazing does not provide sufficiently localized joint quality, localization and control of heat
or controlled heating for most applications of input, and initial cost of equipment were
Resistance brazing is a resistance joining this type. Induction brazing, the only other braz- major factors in the selection of resistance
process in which the workpieces are heated ing process that permits selective heating, pro- brazing for attaching dual armature leads to
locally and filler metal that is preplaced vides well-controlled but somewhat less local- commutator bars.
between the workpieces is melted by the heat ized heating than resistance brazing, and the Example 6: Resistance Brazing for
obtained from resistance to the flow of electric equipment for induction brazing is more costly. Joining Armature Leads to Commutators.
current through the electrodes and the work. In Resistance brazing, like other brazing processes, When carbon arc brazing was used for joining
the usual application of resistance brazing, the is often selected over soldering because of the alloy C10200 armature leads to alloy C11000
heating current is passed through the joint higher strength of the filler metal. commutator bars (Fig. 8), the joints were
itself. Equipment is the same as that used for The major arc welding processes are usual- porous and high in electrical resistance. This
resistance welding, and the pressure needed for ly ruled out on the same basis as torch braz- caused excessive temperature rise in the
motors in which they were used. Changing the
method of making the connections to resist-
ance brazing using BCuP-5 filler metal and
the conditions listed with Fig. 8 eliminated the
porosity and reduced the electrical resistance
across the joint. A temperature of 705 to 730
°C (1300–1350 °F) was required to ensure an
acceptable joint. Torch brazing was ruled out
because of excessive width of heating and
inadequate heat control. Induction heating
was rejected because the initial investment for
equipment would have been too great.
The setup used for resistance brazing is
shown in Fig. 8. The width of the slots in the
riser portions of the commutator bars was
increased by 0.15 mm (0.006 in.) to accom-
modate a U-shaped strip of filler metal. Detail
Fig. 7 Typical setups for resistance brazing. (a) For small flat parts or small flat portions of larger components, using
A shows the work arranged for brazing with
opposed water-cooled metal electrodes of the conventional resistance welding type. (b) For large flat parts, typ-
ically of a highly conductive metal such as copper, using opposed carbon block electrodes attached to water-cooled cop- the upper lead extending about 1.8 mm (0.073
per alloy electrode holders. (c) For joining flanged fins to tube, using circular clamping electrodes in.) above the commutator bar to be contacted
by the molybdenum electrode. Neither fluxing pressed approximately flush with the bar sur- of self-fluxing BCuP-5 alloy for the filler
nor prebraze cleaning was required. face. Use of a controlled amount of filler metal metal avoids corrosion problems and the need
To initiate the brazing sequence, a valve was made final grinding unnecessary. for flux removal.
manually actuated. The air cylinders were Observation by the operator permitted ter-
positioned and applied pressure to the elec- mination of the heating sequence as soon as Dip Brazing
trodes. The contactor switch was then activat- the leads in the commutator slot reseated
ed by a push button to energize the primary of themselves. The transformer circuit was then Dip brazing in molten salt is also referred to
the transformer. High secondary current heated opened by a push button and cooling began. as salt-bath dip brazing and molten chemical-
the commutator bar in the area between the The electrodes were then retracted by releas- bath dip brazing. In this process, the assembly to
electrode tips. A red color was visible, starting ing the air valve. As a safety measure, a timer be joined is immersed in a bath of molten salt,
at the tips and progressing to a point between in the circuit limited brazing time to a maxi- which provides the heat and may supply the
them. The filler metal melted, the leads in the mum of 1 min. If required time exceeded this fluxing action for brazing as well. The bath tem-
slot partially melted, and the leads were com- setting, the operator had to release and repush perature is maintained above the liquidus of the
the operating button. filler metal but below the melting range of the
Brazing with Portable Machines. One com- base metal. Applications of dip brazing of cop-
mon use of portable resistance welding machines per alloys included waveguides and waveguide
for resistance brazing is attaching bus bar termi- hardware, flowmeter hardware, and capillary
nals or similar strip connectors to large electrical tube and bellows assemblies. Neutral chloride-
equipment that cannot be brought to or posi- base salts are used. The most commonly used
tioned for brazing in a conventional fixed-posi- filler metal is BCuP.
tion resistance welding machine. Electrical con- The support given immersed workpieces by
nections to such equipment can often be made the buoyancy of the molten salt and the rapid
more economically by resistance brazing than by and even heating afforded by dip brazing make
mechanical means and are made more readily by this process especially useful for joining assem-
resistance brazing than by arc welding. blies requiring minimum distortion, such as
Resistance brazing done with portable resist- waveguides. When a waveguide assembly has a
ance welding machines is a convenient and eco- large number of brazed joints, both external and
nomical way of interconnecting large copper internal, a salt bath is particularly efficient for
electrical bus bars or of attaching either large or simultaneous brazing of all joints in a single
small copper bus bars to motor-generators, immersion in the molten salt. With dip brazing,
transformers, and other electrical equipment. a flange fitting and the end of a waveguide tube
Lap joints made in this way have a bonding area to be joined to it can be brazed by immersing
that provides adequate strength and current-car- only the joint portion in the molten salt bath, as
rying capacity. Joints that have a large area of in the example that follows.
contact are brazed by making a series of spot Example 7: Use of Dip Brazing to
brazes that overlap to provide full-joint or near- Minimize Distortion. A waveguide assembly
ly full-joint bonding. (Fig. 9), which consisted of a straight tube of
The low melting temperature of the filler alloy C22000 (commercial bronze, 90%) and a
metal helps to avoid overheating and excessive flange of cast bronze, was used in electrical
annealing of the work, and the usual selection equipment. The dimensions of the thin-walled
tube (38 by 60 by 1.6 mm wall, or 114 by 238 by
1
16 in. wall) had to be maintained to close toler-
ances, and dip brazing was chosen as the joining
process to avoid unacceptable amounts of
warpage. Torch brazing had been tried but
resulted in excessive distortion.
After burrs were removed from the joint area,
tube and flange were degreased, bright dipped,
rinsed in water, and dried. The parts were assem-
bled so that the tube extended through the
flange. Two accurately located sets of holes
were drilled through the longer sides of the rec-
tangular tube, and a pin was inserted through
each set of holes to support the flange in the ver-
tical position during brazing.
Filler metal in the form of a rectangular pre-
form of 0.8 mm (132 in.) diameter BAg-1 wire
was placed around the tube and adjacent to the
flange (opposite the face). Type FB3-A flux was
applied to the joint area, and the assembly was
preheated in an oven to 315 °C (600 °F) for 5
min to dry the flux and shorten the time required
in the brazing bath.
For brazing, the assembly was supported verti-
cally (flange down) on a rack, which was sus-
Fig. 8 Resistance brazing of armature leads to Fig. 9 Waveguide assembly brazed by partial
pended from a rod extending through the tube.
commutator bars. Alloy C10200 (OF copper) immersion in a molten salt bath. Alloy C22000
brazed to alloy C11000 (tough pitch copper); copper alloy (commercial bronze, 90%) brazed to cast bronze; silver Supported in this manner, the assembly was self-
filler metal (BCuP-5). Dimensions in inches alloy filler metal (BAg-1). Dimensions in inches jigged, with gravity locating the flange. Self-jig-
ging by staking was used on similar waveguide to remove the oxide from the surface and intermetallic phase growth are controlled by the
assemblies, and tack welding was used on others. enhance the solderability of the base metal amount of tin and other elements in the solder,
Several assemblies simultaneously were partly groups. As shown in Table 1, the degree of sol- the soldering temperature, and time. Thus, to
immersed to a depth of about 75 mm (3 in.) for 114 derability for copper and copper alloys general- minimize the thickness of the intermetallic
min in a molten bath of neutral chloride salt (55% ly ranges from good to excellent. phase, a low-tin solder or a short soldering time
barium chloride, 25% sodium chloride, and 20% should be utilized. Another way to minimize the
potassium chloride) operated at 732 °C (1350 °F). Solders intermetallic formation is to use a barrier coating,
After brazing, the assemblies were allowed to cool such as nickel, silver, or gold. Additional infor-
in air approximately 260 to 315 °C (500 to 600 °F) The most widely used solders for joining cop- mation on intermetallic phase growth can be
before they were washed in hot water to remove per and its alloys are the tin-lead solders listed in found in the section “Solder Joint Metallurgy.”
any residue of salt and flux, rinsed in hot water, Table 6, although tin-antimony (95Sn-5Sb) and
bright dipped to remove slight oxidation that tin-silver (95Sn-5Ag) solders are used in drink- Fluxes
formed during cooling, rinsed in cold water, and ing water applications to eliminate possible lead
dried. Uniform fillets were formed and satisfacto- contamination of the water. Zinc-base solders The major role of the flux is the removal of
ry joint penetration was obtained. The flange face containing 3% Cu and small but important thin oxide layers during the initial stages of the
was subsequently machined, which removed the amounts of titanium, chromium, nickel, and alu- soldering process, thereby permitting the molten
portion of the tube that extended beyond the minum have also been developed for copper and solder to react with the substrate and to spread.
flange. The final dimensions of the assembly brass radiators. Organic and rosin types of noncorrosive fluxes
were within tolerance. Copper and tin react readily to form two inter- are excellent for soldering coppers and may be
metallic compounds, Cu6Sn3 and Cu3Sn, at the used with some success on copper alloys con-
faying surfaces of the solder joint. These inter- taining tin and zinc, if surfaces to be soldered are
Soldering metallic layers form when the solder is molten, precleaned. These fluxes are used for soldering
as well as after solidification, by means of solid- electrical connections and electronic compo-
Copper and copper alloys are among the most state diffusion during storage or service at elevat- nents. A light coat of flux should be applied to
frequently soldered engineering materials. In ed temperature. Although intermetallic com- precleaned faying surfaces.
fact, copper joining is practically synonymous pounds are a necessary part of solder wetting, The inorganic corrosive fluxes can be used on
with soldering. With most copper and copper excessively thick layers can be detrimental to all the copper alloys, but they are required only
alloys, the copper surface oxide is easily dis- joint integrity. Specifically, the brittle nature of on those alloys that develop refractory surface
rupted and displaced by most flux types. The intermetallic compounds can jeopardize the oxides, such as silicon and aluminum bronze.
presence of alloying elements such as beryllium, mechanical strength of the joint, particularly at Aluminum bronze is especially difficult to sol-
chromium, silicon, and aluminum modifies the high loading rates, such as those that occur under der and requires special fluxes or copper plating.
nature of the oxide, making it more tenacious. impact or vibration conditions. Therefore, a thin Inorganic chloride fluxes are useful for solder-
For these alloys, a special flux is recommended intermetallic layer is desirable. The kinetics of ing the silicon bronzes and copper nickels.
Table 6 Tin-lead solders for joining copper and copper alloys

Preferred soldering
Specification Melting range, °C (°F) processes(b)
Nominal
DIN 1707 ISO 3677 ASTM(c) composition(a), wt% Solidus Liquidus F I K T Applications
Antimony-containing solders
L-PbSn12Sb BPb88Sn250–295 … 12Sn; 0.45Sb; bal Pb 250 (482) 295 (563) X … … X Radiator construction
L-PbSn20Sb BPb80Sn186–270 20B 20Sn; 0.70Sb; bal Pb 186 (367) 270 (518) X … … X …
L-PbSn25Sb BPb75Sn186–260 25B 25Sn; 0.85Sb; bal Pb 186 (367) 260 (500) X … … X Radiator construction, tin-lead bearing
L-PbSn40Sb BPb60SnSb186–225 40B 40Sn; 1.45Sb; bal Pb 186 (367) 205 (401) X … X X Radiator construction
Low-antimony-content solders
L-PbSn8(Sb) BPb92Sn280–305 … 8Sn; 0.31Sb; bal Pb 280 (536) 305 (581) X X … X Radiator construction, thermostats
L-PbSn33(Sb) BPb67Sn183–242 … 33Sn; 0.31Sb; bal Pb 183 (361) 242 (468) X … … … Cable cover soldering
L-Sn50Pb(Sb) BSn50Pb183–215 50B 50Sn; 0.31Sb; bal Pb 183 (361) 215 (419) X … X X Precision soldering and plumbers
L-Sn60Pb(Sb) BSn60Pb183–190 60B 60Sn; 0.31Sb; bal Pb 183 (361) 190 (374) X X X X Electrical engineering, precision
work soldering
Antimony-free solders
L-PbSn40 BPb60Sn183–235 40A 40Sn; bal Pb 183 (361) 235 (455) X … X X Tableware
L-Sn50Pb BSn50Pb183–215 50A 50Sn; bal Pb 183 (361) 215 (419) X … X X Electrical engineering
L-Sn60Pb BSn60Pb183–190 60A 60Sn; bal Pb 183 (361) 190 (374) X X X X Electrical engineering, printed circuits
L-Sn63Pb BSn63PB183 … 63Sn; bal Pb 183 (361) 183 (361) X X X X Electrical engineering, electronic
Solders with copper addition
L-Sn50PbCu BSn60Pb183–215 … 50Sn; 1.4Cu; bal Pb 183 (361) 215 (419) … … X … Electrical engineering, electronic
L-Sn60PbCu BSn60Pb183–190 … 60Sn; 0.15Cu; bal Pb 183 (361) 190 (374) … … … X Electrical engineering, electronic
L-Sn60PbCu2 BSn60Pb183–190 … 60Sn; 1.8Cu; bal Pb 183 (361) 190 (374) … … X X Printed circuits
Solders with silver addition
L-Sn50PbAg BSn50PbAg178–210 … 50Sn; 3.5Ag; bal Pb 178 (352) 210 (410) … … X X Electrical engineering
L-Sn60PbAg BSn60PbAg178–180 … 60Sn; 3.5Ag; bal Pb 178 (352) 180 (356) … X X X Electronic
L-Sn63PbAg BSn63Pb178 … 63Sn; 1.4Ag; bal Pb 178 (352) 178 (352) … X X X Printed circuits
Solders with phosphorus addition
L-Sn50PbP BSn50Pb183–215 … 50Sn; bal Pb(d) 183 (361) 215 (419) … … … X Electrical engineering, printed circuits
L-Sn60PbP BSn60Pb183–190 … 60Sn; bal Pb(d) 183 (361) 190 (374) … … … X Principally for immersion soldering
L-Sn63PbP BSn63Pb183 … 63Sn; bal Pb(d) 183 (361) 183 (361) … … … X Electrical engineering, printed circuits
L-Sn60PbCuP BSn60Pb183–190 … 60Sn; 0.15Cu; bal Pb(d) 183 (361) 190 (374) … … … X Principally for immersion soldering
(a) Tolerance is tin contents 0.5%. Other tolerances and accepted impurities after DIN 1707. (b) F flame furnaces; I induction soldering; K soldering iron; T immersion (dip) soldering. (c) After ASTM B 32. (d)
Phosphorus addition from 0.001 up to 0.004%
Oxide films reform quickly on cleaned copper Removal of Inorganic-Flux Residues. Zinc tube in applications where the presence of a flame
alloys, and fluxing and soldering should be done chloride fluxes leave a fused residue that absorbs may be undesirable. Care must be taken to ensure
immediately after cleaning. Copper tube sys- water from the atmosphere. Removal of this that the joint has reached the soldering tempera-
tems soldered with 50% tin-50% lead or 95% residue is best accomplished by thorough washing ture, which can be tested by the uniformity of the
tin-5% antimony solder require a mildly corro- in a hot solution of 2% concentrated hydrochloric observed heat and oxidation pattern and the capa-
sive liquid flux or petrolatum pastes containing acid (20 mL/L, or 2.5 oz/gal), followed by a hot- bility of melting the solder wire into the joint.
zinc and ammonium chlorides. Many liquid water rinse and air blast drying. The acid solution Solder joints are made on pipe and tubing rap-
fluxes for plumbing application are self-clean- removes the white zinc oxychloride crust, which is idly and effectively. The solder alloys used
ing, but there is always a risk of corrosive action insoluble in water. Complete removal sometimes depend on the strength requirements of the pip-
continuing after soldering. requires additional rinsing in hot water that con- ing system, but solders from 40 to 60% Sn with
A highly corrosive flux can remove some tains some washing soda (sodium carbonate) the balance lead are often used. Where creep
oxides and dirty films, but there is always an before a clear water rinse. Mechanical scrubbing conditions are known to exist or are required in
uncertainty whether uniform cleaning has may also be necessary. the load-carrying capability of the tube, a higher
been achieved and whether corrosive action lead solder is desirable. Changes to the higher
continues after soldering. Optimal soldering Pipe and Tube Soldering lead solder generally require a change in flux.
always starts with clean surfaces and a mini- Tests should be made to ensure that the appro-
mum amount of flux. Solder joints are widely used in the plumbing priate solder alloy and flux combination has
industry. The universal application of soldered been selected. Pipe and tubing used for potable
Precleaning and Surface Preparation copper tubing attests to the relative simplicity of water applications or elevated temperatures at
performing the task and the reliability of the higher pressure usually are manufactured with
Oil, film, grease, tarnish, paint, pencil joints that are made. There are several important 95%Sn-5%Sb solder. Soldering techniques with
markings, machining lubricants, and general rules to ensure the correct application of solder- this alloy are different, and care should be taken
atmospheric dirt interfere with the soldering ing technology to pipe joining. Preparation of to ensure that the techniques used are capable of
process. A clean surface is imperative to pipe ends for soldering is dependent on the producing the desired sound joints.
ensure a sound and uniform quality soldered material and size of the pipe. Essentially, the
joint. Fluxing alone cannot substitute for ade- objective is to obtain a clean surface for joining. Solder Joint Metallurgy
quate cleaning. Solvent or alkaline cleaning Pipe ends should be cut square and prepared so
and pickling are used to clean copper surfaces that fittings can be placed evenly to allow for When a solder joint is produced by the spread
as well as remove oxides. Mechanical prepa- uniform gaps for good capillary joining. Sound of a liquid metal or alloy over a solid base metal
ration with abrasives can also be used to soldered joints usually can be made with a 0.1 or alloy, a metallurgical reaction between the two
remove oxides. Chemical removal of oxides mm (0.004 in.) joint clearance. Tube end clean- frequently occurs, resulting in the formation of
requires proper choice of pickling solution ing prior to solder joining can be achieved by intermetallic compounds. As mentioned earlier,
followed by rinsing. Typical procedures for light abrasion with fine grades of abrasive paper. there are two main intermetallics in the copper-tin
cleaning are described in the article “Surface A wide range of fluxes is available for tube system, Cu6Sn5 and Cu3Sn, both of which are
Engineering” in this Handbook. end pipe joining. These vary in quality and effec- found at joint interfaces between copper or brass
tiveness, and care should be taken to select a flux and tin-lead solders. In this particular joint, lead
Flux Removal known to provide good joint solder spread with shows little tendency to react with the base metal.
low residual corrosion tendencies. Paste fluxes Tin diffuses quite deeply into the brass, in addi-
After the soldering operation, the workpiece is usually are applied by a small brush or clean tion to forming an interfacial compound. An
cleaned, primarily to remove flux residues that cloth to the pipe end and internally in the fitting. important effect is the dissolution of the base
can cause corrosion of the part while in storage or The parts then are pushed together and the joint metal into the solder alloy. The effect of time and
during service. Flux residues should be removed assembly heated to make the solder joint. temperature on the reaction of copper and copper
as soon as possible after the soldering process Pipe and tube soldering usually is accom- alloys with two separate solders is shown in Fig.
because their ability to be removed decreases plished with gas torches fueled with propane or 10. The temperature effect is dominant, followed
with time, whereas their tenacity and potential for natural gas. For larger sized copper piping, by the effect of alloy addition or modification to
corrosive damage increase with time. acetylene torches sometimes are used because of the base metal. The effect of tin content on the
Removal of Rosin-Flux Residues. Nonacti- the high heat conductivity of the material. time required to react with a base-metal strip is
vated rosin-flux residues may remain on the sol- Generally, neutral to very slightly reducing presented in Fig. 11 for the entire tin-lead system.
dered joint unless appearance is important or the flames should be used and the pipe and fitting This figure gives an indication of the relative
joint area is to be painted or otherwise coated. heated as uniformly as possible until the solder reaction rates of different solder alloys at various
Activated rosin fluxes are treated in the same temperature is reached. Soldering temperature processing temperatures. These effects are sum-
manner as organic fluxes for structural solder- can be determined by the ability to melt the end marized in a nomograph presented as Fig. 12.
ing, but they should be removed for critical elec- of a solder wire when applied to the surface of The dissolution of base metal into the solder
tronic applications. When rosin residues are to the pipe or fitting. When the solder begins to alloy and formation of an intermetallic com-
be removed, alcohol or chlorinated hydrocar- melt, the normal practice is to feed additional pound, should this occur naturally in the system,
bons are used. Certain rosin activators are solu- solder into the capillary space while moving the results simultaneously during a soldering opera-
ble in water but not in organic solvents. This flux torch around the fitting on the opposite side to tion. Examination of soldered joints in brass
residue is removed using organic solvents, fol- that at which the solder is being applied. This with one particular solder is shown in Fig. 13,
lowed by water rinsing. ensures that the joint is heated sufficiently so which demonstrates that as the intermetallic
Removal of Organic-Flux Residues. The that cold soldered joints are not made. compound thickness increases, the strength
residues from the organic fluxes are quite solu- Penetration of the solder around the joint can be properties of the joint are decreased. After a sol-
ble in hot water. Double rinsing is always advis- visually observed, and usually some fillet should der joint is complete, intermetallic compound
able. Oily or greasy paste flux residues may be form between the pipe and fitting. formation can occur by diffusion of solder alloy
removed with an organic solvent. Soldering Other methods of joint heating are in use, elements and base-metal elements. The extent of
pastes are emulsions of petroleum jelly and a including induction furnace heating, radiant heat- diffusion depends on the service temperature of
water solution of zinc-ammonium chloride. The ing, and direct resistance heating. Portable equip- the joint. Figure 14 shows various curves with a
corrosive chloride residue must be removed ment for resistance heating using tongs with 60%Sn-40%Pb solder after exposure at various
from the soldered joint. graphite electrodes can be directly applied to the temperatures for extended periods of time.
Intermetallic compounds form in copper-tin sys-

tem through solid-state diffusion, resulting in a
reduction in strength properties of the joints, as
shown in Fig. 15.
Intermetallic compounds are very important to
soldering technology. Potential problems with
rapid compound formation sometimes can be
overcome by changes in base-metal composition
or by plating of surfaces prior to the joining
operation. Dissolution rate during soldering,
reaction rate during soldering, and solid-state dif-
fusion after soldering must be taken into account
in any concerned manufacturing program.
Intermetallic compounds can be influential in
soldered joint reliability over a long period of
time. In addition, these compounds also can
affect electrical properties in solder joints and
may become very significant in microelectronic
applications.
Soldered Joint Properties

Physical and mechanical property values of
bulk solders give an indication of their capabil-
ities in providing the desired joint properties
for service. However, the specific nature of the
solder joint/base metal relationship requires
that for practical purposes, measurement of sol-
dered joint properties directly is advisable for
successful application.
Shear Strength. The most widely reported joint
strengths for soldered joints are shear strengths in
lap joints as presented in Table 7, where data are
given for a wide range of tin-lead and antimony-
containing solders. Generally, the higher tin con-
tent solders provide a higher shear strength.
The relationship of shear strength to tin con-
Fig. 10 Effect of time and temperature on the reaction of copper and copper alloys with two solders. (a) 30%Sn-70%Pb
tent is more clearly illustrated in Fig. 16, which
solder. (b) 1%Sn-97.5%Pb-1.5%Ag solder. Source: Copper Development Association
shows that the maximum shear strength is
obtained at approximately 60% Sn content. A
limited number of short-term shear strength data
for soldered joints at 20 and 100 °C (68 and
212 °F) are presented in Table 8. Differences
between these data and those shown in Table 7
are due to different sources of information. Note
the loss in strength as the temperature of testing
is increased to 100 °C (212 °F).
Fig. 12 Reaction of tin-lead solder with copper alloys C10200 and C26000 under static infinite-
volume conditions. Select the exposure conditions on scales A and B. With a straight edge between the con-
Fig. 11 Effect of tin content on the time required for ditions, find the intersection with base line C. Using a straight edge, connect this point on line C with the tin content of
tin-lead solders to react with 1 mil of base the solder on scale D. Read the reaction-zone thickness on scale E. The nomograph may also be used in reversed
metal strip thickness at four temperatures. Source: Copper sequence to select operating conditions given a permissible reaction zone thickness and solder composition. Source:
Development Association Copper Development Association
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Elevated-Temperature Properties. An impor- creep strength of the three materials shown. Tin- similar to that presented in Fig. 19. The load
tant measure of the capability of the soldered joint antimony solders are therefore utilized at higher increases until fracture initiation occurs, at which
is its ability to sustain stress for long periods of temperatures. However, the costs of the alloy must point the load value drops to a lower level and
time, which is good creep resistance. Table 9 be taken into account in overall design of any sys- proceeds at a constant value as the joint is peeled
shows a number of tin-lead solders and strength tem using soldered joints. Good high-temperature apart. Peel strength, or fracture initiation
properties at three separate test temperatures. Note properties are also obtained with a 95%Sn-5%Ag strength, is a specific mechanical property of a
that the higher lead content solders perform much alloy, for which curves for creep tests under shear soldered joint and should be determined for each
better in a creep situation than the higher tin con- are presented in Fig. 18. particular system and design. An example of data
tent solder alloys. Additional data are presented For elevated-temperature usage, tin-lead-sil- obtained in this way at various processing tem-
graphically in Fig. 17 for three separate solder ver solders frequently are selected. Table 10 peratures and with various fluxes is shown in Fig.
alloys. The 95%Sn-5%Sb solder alloy has the best shows results obtained with a specific loading 20. The importance of the total solder system in
program comparing several tin-lead-silver alloys determining strength properties is clearly evi-
35 and tin-lead solders. The advantages of the sil- dent. The solder alloy has an inherent strength
30%Sn-70%Pb solder
510 °F
ver-containing materials are clearly evident in property that it can give to the joint. The realiza-
30
Alloy C26000: 680 °F their ability to withstand much higher stresses tion of this property depends on the application
850 °F
on creep loading. These tests were carried out of an appropriate flux to obtain maximum adhe-
510 °F initially at a low load, which was increased daily sion at the joint and also the performance of sol-
Copper C10200: 680 °F
25
850 °F to obtain the values presented. Although this is dering at a precise temperature to obtain opti-
Peel strength, lb/in.
not a creep test, the results are comparable to mum strength values. This method of testing is
Copper creep tests and can be used on a relative basis for
20 C10200 design purposes. Sufficient data are presented, LIVE GRAPH
however, to demonstrate to the designer that spe- Click here to view
cific material selection can be made in relation
15 to a product, depending on loading requirements
Alloy C26000 in service. From an economic standpoint, it is
essential to use the advantages of a silver addi-
10 tion for its inherent benefits. Conversely, some-
times savings can be made where silver-bearing
solders are used without properly assessing the
5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 need for them.
Fracture Initiation Strength. There are a
Reaction zone thickness, 0.001 in.
number of applications involving soldered joints
where the applied stresses tend to open or peel
Fig. 13 Effect of intermetallic compound at soldered
the joint apart, rather than pull or shear the joint.
joint on peel strength. Source: Copper
Development Association Tearing a joint apart produces a fracture curve Fig. 15 Effect of thickness of intermetallic com-
pound in soldered joints on tensile strength
at room temperature
Table 7 Shear strength of soldered lap joints

Joint between Joint between
copper members brass members
Tin content, % MPa ksi MPa ksi
ASTM grade A tin-lead solders

10 14.5 2.1 12.4 1.8
20 20.7 3.0 19.3 2.8
30 27.6 4.0 22.8 3.3
40 34.5 5.0 27.6 4.0
50 38.6 5.6 31.0 4.5
60 39.3 5.7 29.6 4.3
ASTM grade C tin-lead-antimony solders
10 14.5 2.1 12.4 1.8
20 21.4 3.1 19.3 2.8
30 28.9 4.2 22.8 3.3
40 34.5 5.0 27.6 4.0
50 39.3 5.7 27.6 4.0
60 42.1 6.1 27.6 4.0
6000 40
Shear strength, MPa
Shear strength, psi
4000 30
20
2000
10
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Tin, %
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view Fig. 16 Shear strengths of copper joints soldered with
Fig. 14 Curves showing rate of growth of layers of intermetallic compound between a 60Sn-40Pb coating and cop- tin-lead solders. Source: International Tin
per at various temperatures. RT, room temperature. Source: Tin Research Association Research Institute
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
appropriate to lead attachments in electronics, silver solder alloy over various tin-lead materials formance of fatigue tests under constant stress
solder joints in containers under pressure, and in can be observed. The particular alloy selected for causes progressive and rapid relaxation of the
the tanks of automotive radiators. A comparison joining should depend on the economics of the joint, and conversely, tests under constant strain
of the peel property or fracture initiation strength materials and the loading required on the joint. do not reflect a practical application situation.
with various solder alloys and alloy C26000 The fatigue strength of soldered joints is a The influence of the rate of stress cycling in
brass under this type of load at various test tem- complex and difficult subject to examine. terms of rate of straining on the fatigue life of
peratures from room to 150 °C (300 °F) is pre- Because solder alloys are strain-rate sensitive copper soldered joints with 60%Sn-40%Pb alloy
sented in Fig. 21. The superiority of a tin-lead- and have large elongation capabilities, the per- is presented in Fig. 22. Fatigue of soldered joints
LIVE GRAPH
Table 8 Short-term shear strength of soldered joints tested at 0.002 in./min Click here to view
Shear strength
Loss in
Composition, % 20 °C (68 °F) 100 °C (212 °F)
strength (68 to
Tin Lead Other MPa ksi MPa ksi 212 °F), %
60 40 … 19.6 2.84 12.8 1.85 35

10 90 … 16.5 2.42 10.8 1.56 35
62 36 (a) 26.9 3.98 11.8 1.71 57
40 58 (b) 23.5 3.41 10.8 1.56 54
95 … (c) 27.4 3.98 13.7 1.99 50
5 93.5 (d) 17.7 2.56 11.8 1.71 33
(a) 2% Ag. (b) 2% Sb. (c) 5% Sb. (d) 1.5 Ag
Table 9 Maximum sustained stress at various temperatures

Values will not cause failure of soldered lap joints in 10 years (in air). Fig. 17 Creep strengths at elevated temperatures for
copper joints soldered with several alloys.
Sustained stress Source: International Tin Research Institute
20 °C (68 °F) 100 °C (212 °F) 150 °C (300 °F)
Tin
content, % kPa psi kPa psi kPa psi
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
5 3450 500 1720 250 1030 150
10 3240 470 1380 200 690 100
20 2480 360 830 120 340 50
30 2070 300 620 90 210 30
40 1790 260 520 75 210 30
50 1720 250 520 75 210 30
60 1720 250 520 75 210 30
Fig. 19 Stress-strain relationship for test of soldered

joint with peel-type failure. Source: Copper
Development Association
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 18 Stress-time to failure curves at various temperatures for overlap joints between brass components soldered
with 95%Sn-5%Ag alloy. Source: International Tin Research Institute
Table 10 Stepped loading creep tests on nominal 1⁄2 by 1⁄8 in. overlap joints on copper
Composition, % Temperature, °C (°F) Breaking stress, kPa (psi)
Lead Tin Silver Liquidus Solidus 20 °C (68 °F) 100 °C (212 °F) 150 °C (300 °F)
98 2 … 320 (608) 304 (580) … 4,137 (600) 2,070 ( 300)

95 5 … 312 (594) 270 (518) … 3,720 (540) 2,070 ( 300)
97.5 1 1.5 313 (595) 301 (573) 11,310 (1,640) 6,205 (900) 4,830 (700)
96.5 2 1.5 306 (583) 301 (573) 10,340 (1,500) 6,070 (880) 4,830 (700)
93.5 5 1.5 304 (579) 301 (573) 14,820 (2,150) 5,520 (800) 3,860 (560)
70 30 … 255 (491) 183 (361) 6,205 (900) 2,590 (375) …
60 40 … 241 (466) 183 (361) 5,860 (850) 2,070 (300) … Fig. 20 Fracture initiation strength for copper joints
soldered with four fluxes over a range of
50 50 … 216 (421) 183 (361) 6,030 (875) 2,070 (300) … temperatures. Source: Copper Development Association
has been obtained from a thermal cycling of tronics. For example, copper foil clad laminates the resultant durability is poor. Several chemical
printed circuit joints where the only stresses are joined by adhesive bonding during construc- etch treatments have been developed for copper
implied are those imposed by the joint itself dur- tion of printing wiring boards. Epoxy adhesives and copper alloys (most notably brasses and
ing the thermal cycle. Metallurgical change dur- are commonly employed. Epoxies are also used bronzes) that are suitable for long-term structur-
ing thermal cycling and straining occurs by to join copper plumbing tube used for both al applications. Two of these, an Ebonol C etch
internal diffusion, complicating analysis of potable water and for waste, vent, and drain and an alkaline-chlorite etch (Ref 3–5), result in
service. One example, sold under the tradename
fatigue in soldered joints. The fatigue life of dif- black oxide surfaces that have microrough mor-
ferent solder alloys at two test temperatures at a Copper-Bond (Ref 1, 2), is suitable for use with phologies. These porous oxides facilitate bond-
strain rate of 5 reversals/min is shown in Table capillary spaces between 0.05 and 0.13 mm ing. Microrough surfaces have also been pro-
11. A lead-indium solder alloy composition (0.002 and 0.005 in.) wide. Epoxies have also duced by anodizing copper in a sodium
gives best results under these conditions. been found safe for use in food and beverage hydroxide solution (Fig. 23).
contact applications. The processing steps for the Ebonol C and the
Surface Preparation. For structural applica- alkaline-chlorite etches are shown in Table 12.
Adhesive Bonding LIVE GRAPH tions under which high stresses occur, surface These etches are used for alloys containing at
Click here to view preparation is critical. Common practice is to least 95% Cu. An etching procedure for other
The largest use of adhesive bonding of copper prepare the surface by mechanical abrasion. copper alloys, based on a ferric chloride-nitric
and copper alloys is in the field of microelec- Although this produces adequate bond strength, acid solution, is also shown in Table 12.
Table 11 Fatigue life of solder alloys sub-

jected to 5 strain reversals/min
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Life at 3% shear
strain imposed at
Composition, %
20 °C 100 °C This article was adapted from:
Tin Lead Other (68 °F) (212 °F)
63 37 … 16,000 3,000 • M. Prager, Brazing of Copper and Copper

40 60 … 13,000 5,100 Alloys, Welding, Brazing, and Soldering, Vol
95 … (a) 6,300 3,600 6, Metals Handbook, American Society for
42 … (b) 8,500 6,300 Metals, 1983, p 1033–1048
50 … (c) 17,000 6,700
95 … (d) 20,000 4,900 • R.E. Beal et al., Soldering, Welding, Brazing,
… 50 (c) 52,000 5,400 and Soldering, Vol 6, Metals Handbook,
Fig. 21 Fracture initiation strength for several solders. (a) 5% Sb. (b) 58% Bi. (c) 50% In. (d) 3.5% Ag, 0.5% Sb, and 1% Cd
American Society for Metals, 1983, p
Source: Copper Development Association 1069–1101
30
Stress, MPa
20
10
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 22 Influence of rate of stress cycling. In terms of straining on the fatigue life of ring-and-plug joints of copper Fig. 23 Microrough copper surface prepared by
soldered with 60%Sn-40%Pb alloy. The minimum stress imposed was nominally zero and the maximum anodizing in a sodium hydroxide solution.
stress in the loading cycle is the ordinate. Source: International Tin Research Institute Source: Ref 6
Table 12 Etching procedures for copper adherends

Step Ebonol C Ferric chloride/ alkaline chlorite Ferric chloride/nitric acid
1. Degreasing Trichloroethane (vapor), 87–90 °C Trichloroethane Trichloroethane (vapor), 87–90 °C

(190–194 °F) as needed (190–194 °F) as needed
2. Cleaning 10 vol% HNO3 (70%); 90 vol% 11 vol% HNO3; 68 vol% H3PO4; …
H2O, 30 s, 25 °C (77 °F) 10 vol% 11 vol% acetic anhydride;
H2O, 4 min, 25 °C (77 °F)
3. Rinse H2O, running transfer to etchant Distilled H2O, then acetone …
4. Etch Ebonol C, 6.8 kg (240 oz); 30 g/L (4 oz/gal) NaClO2; 100 g/L (13 oz/gal) 6 wt% FeCl (42%); 12 wt%
H2O to make 3.8 L (1 gal), Na3PO4; 50 g/L (6.6 oz/gal) HNO3; 82 wt% deionized H2O,
2 min, 36 °C (95 °F) NaOH, 15 min, 95 °C (205 °F) 2 min, 25 °C (77 °F)
5. Rinse H2O, 2–3 min, 10–15 °C Deionized H2O, 25 °C H2O, 3–5 min, 10–15 °C
(50–60 °F) (77 °F), then acetone (50–60 °F)
6. Dry Air or dry N2 Air Air or dry N2
REFERENCES • A. Dixon, Resistance Brazing, Welding, • E.K. Ohriner, Intermetallic Formation in

Brazing, and Soldering, Vol 6, Metals Soldered Copper-Based Alloys at 150 to 250
1. A.R. Bunk, M.A. Roe, and M. Luttinger, Handbook, American Society for Metals, C, Weld. J., Vol 66 (No. 7), 1987, p 191s–201s
Epoxies for Residential Copper Plumbing, 1983, p 976–988 • J.J. Ramon and S.F. Dirnfeld, A Practical
Adhes. Age, Dec 1984 • S.F. Gibbay, F. Dirnfeld, J. Ramon, and H.Z. Way to Measure the Strength of Small
2. Copper-Bond Epoxy Adhesive, Marsh Wagner, Mechanism of Tough-Pitch Copper Soldered Joints, Weld. J., Vol 67 (No. 10),
Laboratories, Pittsburgh, PA, 1986 Embrittlement by Silver Brazing Alloys, 1988, p 19–21
3. R.F. Wegman, Surface Preparation Techniques Weld. J., Vol 69 (No. 10), 1990, p 378s–81s • W.J. Reichennecker, Effect of Long Term
for Adhesive Bonding, Noyes Publications, 1989 • T.A. Jones and C.E. Albright, Laser Beam Elevated Temperature Aging on the Electrical
4. D.E. Packham, Adhesive Joints: Formation, Brazing of Small Diameter Copper Wires to Resistance of Soldered Copper Joints, Weld.
Characteristics, and Testing, K. Mittal, Ed., Laminated Copper Circuit Boards, Weld. J., J., Vol 62 (No. 10), 1983, p 290–294s
Plenum Publishing, 1984 Vol 63 (No. 12), 1984, p 34–47 • W.J. Reichennecker, Effect of Solder
5. J.R.G. Evans and D.E. Packham, J. Adhes., • A.A. McFayden, R.R. Kapoor, and T.W. Thickness and Joint Overlap on the Electrical
Vol 10, 1979, p 39 Eagar, Effect of Second Phase Particles on Resistance of Soldered Copper Joints, Weld.
6. D.E. Packham, Int. J. Adhes., Vol 6, 1986, p 225 Direct Brazing of Alumina Dispersion J., Vol 60 (No. 5), 1981, p 199–201s
Hardened Copper, Weld. J., Vol 69 (No. 11), • W.J. Reichennecker, Electrical Conductivity
1990, p 399s–407s of Copper-Tin Intermetallic Compound
SELECTED REFERENCES
• D. Mottram, A.S. Wronski, and A.C. Chilton, Cu3Sn in the Temperature Range –195 °C to
Brazing Copper to Mild and Stainless Steel +150 °C, Weld. J., Vol 59 (No. 10), 1980,
Brazing
Using Copper-Phosphorus-Tin Pastes, Weld. p 308s–310s
• E. Belkin, and P.K. Nagata, Hydrogen J., Vol 65 (No. 4), 1986, p43–46 • Z.P. Saperstein and M.A.H. Howes,
Embrittlement of Tough-Pitch Copper by • W.H. Munse and J.A. Alagia, Strength of Mechanical Properties of Soldered Joints in
Brazing, Weld. J., Vol 54 (No. 2), 1975, Brazed Joints in Copper Alloys, Weld. J., Vol Copper Alloys, Weld. J., Vol 48 (No.8), 1969,
p 54s–62s 36 (No. 4), 1957, p 177s–184s p 317–327s
• S.K. Chatterjee, and Z. Mingxi, Tin-
Soldering • P.T. Vianco, General Soldering, Welding,
Containing Brazing Alloys, Weld. J., Vol 70 Brazing, and Soldering, Vol 6, ASM Hand-
(No. 5), 1991, p 118s–122s • S.F. Dirnfeld and J.J. Ramon, Microstructure book, ASM International, 1993, p 964–984
• A. Datta, A. Rabinkin, and D. Bose, Rapidly Investigation of Copper-Tin Intermetallics • P.T. Vianco, Soldering in Electronic
Solidified Copper-Phosphorus Base Brazing and the Influence of Layer Thickness on Applications, Welding, Brazing, and
Foils, Weld. J., Vol 63 (No. 10), 1984, p Shear Strength, Weld. J., Vol 69 (No. 10), Soldering, Vol 6, ASM Handbook, ASM
14–21 1990, p 373s–377s International, 1993, p 985–1000
Surface Engineering
THE SELECTION OF SURFACE ENGI- Heat treating of copper and copper alloys in bright dip solutions are given in Table 2. Bright
NEERING TREATMENTS for copper and cop- air results in the formation of copper oxides; fur- dips for copper-base materials consist of sulfuric
per alloys is generally based on application ther cleaning will be necessary to remove these and nitric acids in varying proportions with a
requirements for appearance and corrosion resist- oxides, as discussed subsequently. The need for small amount of water and hydrochloric acid.
ance. These treatments range from simple low- such cleaning can be prevented by heat treating Proprietary pickle and bright dips, using sulfuric
cost chemical processes that provide a uniform in reducing atmospheres, such as nitrogen with 1 acid and stabilized hydrogen peroxide, are also
surface appearance, to expensive electroplates to 4% H, in which the formation of copper available. Whereas the conventional bright dips
that provide maximum corrosion resistance. oxides will be completely suppressed. Such use highly concentrated acids, this sulfuric acid-
atmospheres will not, however, prevent the oxi- hydrogen peroxide bath is dilute and reduces
dation of reactive alloying constituents such as worker safety hazards.
Cleaning and Finishing Processes aluminum, silicon, or zinc. After bright dipping and thorough rinsing in
cold running water, stain or tarnish may be
Prior to subsequent processing or the applica- Pickling and Bright Dipping removed by dipping in a cyanide solution. Some
tion of a protective or decorative coating, the cop- proprietary bright dips, incorporated with corro-
per or copper alloy surface must be prepared by Pickling in solutions containing 4 to 15 vol% sion inhibitors, eliminate the use of toxic cyanides
suitable cleaning procedures. The severity of these sulfuric acid or 40 to 90 vol% hydrochloric acid and chromates and are easy to waste treat.
cleaning procedures will depend on the past pro- is used for the removal of oxides formed on the When a semibright finish is satisfactory, a
cessing history of the metal. Copper and copper surface of copper-base materials during mill dichromate color dip is less expensive and more
alloys obtained from major materials suppliers processing and fabricating operations. The sul- convenient to use than the conventional acid dip.
should be received reasonably clean (free from furic acid solution is used to remove black cop- Color dip should not be used if parts are to be
heat treat scale or tarnish) and should only require per oxide scale on brass extrusions, forgings, plated or soldered. The following conditions for
minimal cleaning prior to further processing. and machined parts; oxide on copper tubing, color dipping include a solution that removes
forgings, and machined parts; and light anneal- red copper oxide and imparts a film that resists
Table 1 Pickling conditions for copper- ing scale or tarnish. The hydrochloric acid solu- discoloration during storage and work:
base materials tion is primarily used for finishing, but is also
used to remove scale and tarnish from brass Sodium dichromate 30 to 90 g/L (4 to 12 oz/gal)
Constituent or condition Amount or value
forgings and machined parts, and oxide on cop- Sulfuric acid, 1.83 sp gr 5 to 10 vol%
Sulfuric acid bath per forgings and machined parts. Conditions for Water bal
Sulfuric acid(a) 15–20 vol% Immersion time 30 s
pickling copper-base metals with sulfuric acid Temperature of solution Room temperature
35% hydrogen peroxide 3–5 vol%
Water bal and hydrochloric acid are shown in Table 1.
Temperature of solution Room temperature to Sometimes no additional surface preparation is Extruded yellow brass rod may be pickled,
60 °C (140 °F) necessary to produce the uniformity of appear- usually in dilute sulfuric acid, to remove light
Immersion time 15 s to 5 min ance required for further finishing of copper; oxide prior to drawing, forging, or machining.
Hydrochloric acid bath however, heavily scaled material may need a Yellow brass forgings are similarly treated for
Hydrochloric acid(b) 40–90 vol% bright dip or color dip after pickling. the removal of oxide scale and forging lubricant.
Water bal Except for bright annealed material, copper
Temperature of solution Room temperature Hydrochloric acid solutions may be used instead
Immersion time 1–3 min alloys must be pickled after each annealing of sulfuric acid in some applications. Bright dip-
treatment, completely descaled, and bright ping follows pickling to complete the removal of
(a) 1.83 sp gr. The bath needs additives to stabilize peroxide and accel- dipped to produce a natural surface color and all oxide. The yellow brass is then given a color
erators to maintain etch rate. Proprietary products are available from
metal finishing suppliers. (b) 1.16 sp gr
luster suitable for other finishing treatments dip to produce a uniform cartridge-brass color.
such as electroplating or painting. Scale dip and Although brass sand castings are seldom pick-
led, a solution similar to that used for forgings
Table 2 Scale dip and bright dip conditions for copper-base metals may be used when pickling is indicated.
These solutions remove scale that is not removed by sulfuric or hydrochloric acid solutions; lower concentrations of A typical acid treatment cycle for copper-base
nitric acid and higher concentrations of sulfuric acid produce a bright lustrous finish; these solutions can remove materials is given in the following list. The cycle
0.0255 mm (0.001 in.) of metal and should not be used when close dimensional tolerances must be maintained. may be terminated after any water rinse if the
Solutions are used at room temperature.
desired finish and color have been obtained:
Hydrochloric acid(c)
Solution Sulfuric acid(a), vol% Nitric acid(b), vol% g/L oz/gal Water, vol% Immersion time, s • Pickling
Scale dip
• Cold water rinse
Solution A 0 50 4 1/2 50 15–60 • Scale dip or bright dip
Solution B 25–35 35–50 4 1/2 35–40 15–60 • Cold water rinse (repeat once)
Bright dip 50–60 15–25 4 1/2 bal 5–45 • Color dip
(a) 1.83 sp gr. (b) 1.41 sp gr. (c) 1.16 sp gr. Excess hydrochloric acid spots brass. Wood soot and activated charcoal are added to the solution to pre-
• Cold water rinse (repeat once)
vent this condition. • Hot water rinse
• Air-blast dry
Surface Engineering / 321
Aluminum bronzes form a tough, adherent clean and bright surface. The wire is subse- at 70 to 80 °C (160 to 175 °F). This solution
aluminum oxide film during hot fabrication. quently pickled in sulfuric acid and treated in a removes most tarnish stains and poses no health
This film can be removed or loosened by the fol- dichromate solution to remove zinc sweat. The or ecological hazards.
lowing strong alkaline solution: wire is then finish pickled in 10 to 15% sulfuric Tarnish Prevention. Tarnishing of copper
acid solution at 60 °C (140 °F). alloys after pickling or degreasing operations is
Sodium hydroxide 10 wt% Tarnish Removal. Tarnish, the surface discol- accelerated when the metal is inadequately dried
Water bal oration formed on copper-base materials during following rinsing and can be particularly rapid if
Temperature of solution 75 °C (170 °F) exposure to the atmosphere or to alkaline clean- the final rinse solution is contaminated with the
Immersion time 2 to 6 min
ing, usually consists of a thin film of oxide or sul- cleaning solutions. Significant resistance to tar-
fide. One of the most commonly used dips for nishing after cleaning can be rendered by incor-
After this treatment the material can be treat- removing tarnish is an aqueous solution of 8 to porating benzotriazole (BTA) or tolyltriazole
ed in acid solutions by some of the same cycles 60 g/L (1 to 8 oz/gal) of sodium cyanide. The (TTA) into the final rinse. Typical concentra-
used for other copper-based materials. metal to be cleaned is immersed for 1 to 2 min in tions are 0.1 to 0.5% with the rinse water being
Alloys containing silicon may form oxides the cyanide solution at room temperature. Steel used at 40 to 60 °C (104 to 140 °F).
of silicon that are removable only by hydrofluo- tanks are used to contain the solution. Thorough Pickling Equipment. Equipment requirements
ric acid. Proprietary fluorine-bearing com- rinsing is required after the dip treatment. for the automatic pickling of brass forgings of
pounds are also available for this purpose. If a Extreme safety precautions must be fol- various sizes are given in Table 4. The automatic
dull brown-to-gray appearance is not objection- lowed when cyanide solutions are being used pickling machine is similar to automatic plating
able, the material may be pickled in the conven- because cyanide is highly poisonous. To pre- equipment. Solution conditions for automatic
tional sulfuric acid solution to remove the cop- vent the formation of ammonia, metal previ- pickling of brass forgings are as follows:
per oxides. If a brighter finish is required, one of ously cleaned in an alkaline solution must be
the solutions in Table 3 may be used. thoroughly rinsed before it is brought into con- • Hydrochloric acid solution at room temperature
Alloys containing beryllium that have been tact with the cyanide solution. Cyanide must • Nitric-sulfuric acid solution, 38 °C (100 °F)
heat treated at relatively low temperatures (below not come in contact with acid because lethal maximum
400 °C, or 750 °F) can be pickled or bright hydrocyanic acid is produced. Despite the • Sodium dichromate solution, room temperature
dipped as any other copper alloy; however, alloys strict safety precautions that are necessary, • Cold water rinse, 2300 L/h (600 gal/h)
containing beryllium that have been heat treated cyanide solutions are commonly used. • Hot water rinse, 66 to 82 °C (150 to 180 °F),
at temperatures above 400 °C (750 °F) in opera- A solution containing 5 to 10 vol % 4 L/h (1 gal/h)
tions such as solution annealing and those that hydrochloric or sulfuric acid may also be used to
have been bright annealed will generally possess Compositions of pickling tanks are deter-
remove tarnish from copper-base materials. mined by the type of solution used, such as:
a surface oxide that contains beryllium oxide as Immersion time is a few seconds in either of
a major constituent. This oxide can be difficult to these solutions at room temperature. Thorough
remove if present in a thickness greater than 0.04 rinsing in water is required after the treatment.
Solution Tank material
to 0.05 m (1.6 to 2.0 in.). A 1 or 2 min soak in The hydrochloric acid solution may be con- Hydrochloric acid Plastic-lined steel
a solution of 50% sodium hydroxide at 130 °C Nitric-sulfuric acid Type 316 stainless steel
tained in a vitrified crock, or in a rubber-lined or Color dip (dichromate solution) Plastic-lined steel
(265 °F) before acid pickling facilitates removal glass-lined tank. A vitrified crock or lead-lined Cold water rinse (four tanks) Steel
of any beryllium oxide. tank may be used as a container for the sulfuric Hot water rinse Steel or rubber-lined steel
Nickel silvers and copper-nickel alloys do acid solution. Plastics such as polypropylene or
not respond readily to the pickling solution usu- polyvinyl chloride are also suitable containers Work baskets require type 316 stainless steel
ally used for brasses because nickel oxide has a for hydrochloric and sulfuric acid solutions. or plastic composition with dimensions of 330
limited solubility in sulfuric acid. Heavy scaling These materials are resistant to 50% sulfuric by 635 by 155 mm (13 by 25 by 6 in.) and 610
of these alloys should be avoided during anneal- acid and 37% hydrochloric acid up to 65 to by 205 by 180 mm (24 by 8 by 7 in.). Equipment
ing by using a reducing atmosphere. For exam- 70 °C (150 to 160 °F). requirements for pickling brass tubes or rods and
ple, the annealing of 18% nickel silver in a rich Another noncyanide solution sometimes used the equipment for pickling brass tubing are list-
reducing atmosphere results in a slight tarnish for removing tarnish consists of 10% citric acid ed in Table 5.
that is easily removed in the sulfuric acid pickle
and dichromate solutions ordinarily used for Table 4 Production capacity of equipment for automatic pickling of brass forgings
descaling brass. Controlling the atmosphere dur-
Immersion time, 40 s; total cycle time, 6 min
ing annealing produces a bright metal finish.
Tubing made of 30% copper-nickel may be Size of forgings
annealed in a reducing atmosphere, but not in a Item or condition Small Medium Large
brightening atmosphere, to produce a clean sur- Number of pieces per hour 2500 500 250
face that does not require acid treatment; 18% Pieces per basket 250 50 25
Pounds pickled per hour 2500 2500 2500
nickel silver wire is pretreated in a proprietary Configuration of forgings Irregular Irregular(a) Irregular(a)
hot alkaline cleaning solution and then annealed
in a controlled atmosphere furnace to produce a (a) May contain cavities; require hand loading into baskets
Table 3 Pickling conditions for copper Table 5 Equipment requirements for pickling brass tubes or rods
alloys containing silicon
Oxide scale is removed from 25 mm (1 in.) diam brass tubing and rods that are 1.9 to 21 m (6 to 70 ft) in length;
Solutions are used at room temperature. immersion time varies from 5 to 30 min; the source of heat is steam, 105,000 kJ (100,000 Btu)
Constituent or condition Solution A Solution B Temperature

Tanks(a) Material Solution °C °F Overflow(b)
Sulfuric acid(a) 5–15 vol% 40–50 vol%
Hydrofluoric acid(b) 1/2–15 vol% 1/2–5 vol% Acid tank Stainless steel 10% sulfuric acid 38–60 100–140 …
Nitric acid(c) … 15–20 vol% Cold water rinse tank Wood … … … 380 L/h (100 gal/h)
Water bal bal Hot water rinse tank Wood … 54–71 130–160 38 L/h (10 gal/h)
Immersion time 1/2–10 min 5–45 s
(a) All tanks measure 1.1 by 0.9 by 21 m (3.5 by 3 by 70 ft) and hold 6738 L (1780 gal) for a 0.6 m (2 ft) depth of solution. (b) Connected to bottom
(a) 1.83 sp gr. (b) 52%. (c) 1.41 sp gr of tank
Tanks for sulfuric acid may be lined with Abrasive Blast Cleaning Preshaped abrasives of various sizes and
natural rubber. Tanks intended to contain nitric shapes also may be used. Although more expen-
and hydrofluoric acids may be lined with Abrasive cleaning is used to remove molding, sive than material in its natural form, preshaped
polyvinyl chloride or polypropylene. core sand, and investment material from the abrasives permit a more constant and uniform
Additional information on materials and con- exterior and interior surfaces of copper-base polishing action, are more effective in holes and
struction of acid tanks is given in the article castings. Selection of the proper kind and parti- recesses, and retain their effective cutting shape
“Acid Cleaning” in Surface Engineering, cle size of grit determines the type and color of for a longer period of use.
Volume 5 of the ASM Handbook. the finish. The coarser grits clean faster but give Compounds. Parts heavily coated with
Defects from Pickling. By far the most a rougher finish. grease or oil or contaminated with dirt or chips
common defect encountered in pickling brass is Dry abrasive cleaning of beryllium copper is should be degreased before mass finishing,
the presence of red stain on the metal. Caused usually confined to castings. Steel shot is used preferably in a separate barrel, dip tank, or
by cuprous oxide, this defect may be removed for general cleaning to remove sand and slight degreaser. A better practice is to clean parts in
by pickling in a solution of 10% sulfuric acid surface imperfections from the casting after the barrel when progressing from rough to fin-
containing 98 g/L (13 oz/gal) of ferric sulfate at mold shakeout. Sands are used to blend in sur- ishing cycles and to bright dip before burnish-
temperatures up to 60 °C (140 °F), or in a solu- face areas, to remove heat treat scale, and to ing. A sulfuric-nitric acid or sulfuric acid-hydro-
tion of 12% sulfuric acid containing 45 g/L (6 produce a uniform surface texture. Graded gen peroxide bright dip should be used if plating
oz/gal) of sodium dichromate at room tempera- bronze chips, together with the regular commer- follows burnishing.
ture. Alternatively, sulfuric acid-hydrogen per- cial abrasives, are used in some applications to Soft water and neutral compounds are pre-
oxide solution can be used. Red stains may impart a better color and finish. Abrasive blast ferred for mass finishing copper and copper
result from the presence of metallic iron in the cleaning is seldom used to produce decorative alloys. The use of liquid soap-free alkaline com-
pickling solution, causing copper to plate out finishes on copper alloys. pounds for mass finishing highly leaded, free-cut-
on the parts when the parts come in contact Wet Blasting offers a means of cleaning pre- ting brasses prevents the formation of lead soaps
with iron or steel. This is because iron is anod- viously blasted and machined surfaces without that impair the effectiveness of the operation.
ic to copper. Care must be taken to prevent any damaging the finished or threaded areas. Wet Compounds for mass finishing are classified
stray pieces of iron, such as nails or tools, from blasting produces various degrees of satin finish. according to the following categories and are
entering the pickling solution. Red stains can The process is ideal for removing oxide film purchased as proprietary materials:
also result from the reaction of sulfuric acid on acquired during brazing, soldering, welding, or
cuprous oxide (Cu2O), forming cupric oxide heat treating and for removing smudges, stains, • Cleaning compounds possess high deter-
gency and buffering action for removing oils,
(CuO) and copper. This can be removed in any and finger marks. For example, bronze castings
greases, and residues.
of the previously mentioned oxidizing acids. that have been machined and brazed often are
Oil and lubricants remaining on formed metal wet blasted with quartz (140-grit) for 12 to 5 min • Descaling compounds are used to remove tar-
nish from copper alloys; neutralizing cycles
must be removed before pickling and dipping. If to remove braze discoloration and shop dirt. The
usually follow the use of these compounds.
formed material is to be bright dipped, it should parts are normally degreased before wet blasting.
first be degreased, or the lubricant remaining After the castings are wet blasted, they are • Grinding compounds are used with abrasive
mediums for softening the water, saponifying
will prevent the bright dip from being effective. cleaned ultrasonically, inspected, and assembled.
oils, and keeping chips clean; these com-
If the work is to be annealed and pickled, it Surfaces cleaned by wet blasting are uniform
in appearance, although their color is not the pounds inhibit tarnish and improve the color
should be degreased, usually in a hot water
same as original grit-blasted surfaces because of of parts.
rinse, because the oil may cause excess cuprous
oxide and unwanted red staining to form during the abrasive used. Cleaning action is gentle but • Abrasive compounds contain grits such as
effective because water is the carrier. aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, emery,
annealing. In extreme instances, the more
quartz sand, or pumice.
volatile constituents of the oil burn off readily,
leaving a carbonaceous deposit that must be Mass Finishing Surface Finishes. Although mass finishing
removed mechanically. produces the final finish for many parts, it is
Acid stains will appear on the metal if it is not Mass finishing is best suited for stamped, used more extensively for cleaning prior to plat-
thoroughly rinsed and cleansed of all remaining formed, or machined parts. Castings with rem- ing and painting or for deburring and polishing
acid after pickling or dipping. At least two sepa- nants of gates and parting lines; forgings with before a final finish is applied. Operating condi-
rate washings in water or one thorough running heavy scale, flash lines, or die marks; and heavi- tions for mass finishing are given in Table 6.
water wash should be used before drying. ly burred, pitted, or dented parts are not well suit- Bright rolling or water rolling in a barrel is an
Dipping in a soap solution or a buffered salt ed for mass finishing. Light burrs can sometimes economical bulk method of finishing small
solution will neutralize traces of acid. be removed by a prior bright dip, after which parts. The finishes may be dull, semibright, or of
The metal is etched or pitted if it is immersed tumbling may be used for radius blending, pol- high luster. This operation consists of tumbling
for too long in a pickling solution or dip, or if the ishing, and burnishing. High thin burrs of soft the parts in water containing a suitable additive.
solution is too strong or too hot. The proper alloys are likely to peen over. Mass finishing of The water acts as the carrier for the fine bur-
time, temperature, and concentration of solution soft alloys at excessive speeds with insufficient nishing materials. Selection of additive and
may be determined quickly during trial runs. amounts of solution can result in roughened and cycle time controls the surface roughness, stock
Safety Practices. Acids, even in dilute indented surfaces. Dry tumbling is generally removal, color, and reflective luster. Operating
solution, can cause serious injuries to the eyes restricted to small parts of simple shape and conditions for water rolling are given in Table 7.
and other portions of the body. Operators maximum dimension less than 50 mm (2 in.). A prime consideration for successful water
should wear face shields, rubber boots, and Abrasives. Aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, rolling is the cleanness of the parts. Oil, grease,
rubber aprons for protection. Eye fountains limestone, and flintstone are the abrasive materi- scale, and dirt should be removed before rolling
and showers adjacent to acid tanks, for use in als most often used in mass finishing of copper for luster. Basic cleaning and pickling operating
the event of an accident, should be provided. and copper alloys. Combinations of these abra- conditions used before water rolling are given in
Adequate ventilation and suitable hoods for sives may be used for specific applications. For Table 8.
the tanks are recommended. example, a blend of aluminum oxide and silicon For economy, cleaning and pickling should be
Extreme caution should be exercised when carbide of mesh size 46 to 150 produces a rea- done in the same barrel by the same operator.
adding acid to a water solution, especially if sul- sonably fine matter surface on parts with heavy For example, oily gripper parts from eyelet
furic acid is used. Sulfuric acid should be added burrs. Aluminum oxide has a cutting action, and machines are placed in an oblique stainless steel
slowly and only while stirring the solution. silicon carbide has a planing action. barrel and cleaned by a suitable alkaline cleaner.
Table 6 Operating conditions for mass finishing Buffing of copper and copper alloys is usual-
ly accomplished with standard sectional cloth
Size of abrasive particles
wheels operating at moderate speeds of 1200 to
Material Medium mm in. Tumbling time, h Finish
1800 rev/min. Typical wheel speeds for various
Heavy cutting finishes are:
Brass or bronze castings Aluminum oxide 6.4–19 0.25–0.75 6–16 Matte
Moderate cutting Wheel speed
Brass stampings Aluminum oxide 6.4–19 0.25–0.75 1–6 Light matte Finish m/min ft/min
Brass screw-machine parts Aluminum oxide or granite 6.4–19 0.25–0.75 1/2–6 Light matte or bright
Dull(a) 915–1675 3000–5500
Light cutting (a) Satin 1220–1830 4000–6000
Brass stampings or screws(b) Limestone 3.2–13 0.13–0.50 2–6 Bright Cutting and coloring 1675–2135 5500–7000
High luster(b) 2135–2440 7000–8000
(a) Submerged tumbling is used for fragile and precision parts. (b) Screw-machine parts
(a) Using 120- to 200-grit aluminum oxide. (b) Using tripoli, lime, and
silica with no-free-grease binder
Table 7 Operating conditions for bright rolling or water rolling

Solutions are used at room temperature. Time, 20-60 min. Resulting surface has bright finish. When is it necessary to mush a buff to the con-
Weight of load Water
tour of a complicated part, buffing speeds may
Parts kg lb Additive(a) L gal Speed, rev/min
range between 200 and 1000 rev/min.
Neutral compounds that are free of sulfur must
Blanks or buttons, copper(b) 363–408 800–900 Cream of tartar 95 25 32
Gripper post, nickel over brass 136 300 Proprietary(c) 95 25 32
be used to avoid staining in the plating operation
Fragile tubular part, brass(d) 18 40 Proprietary 20 5 7 when polishing and buffing precede electroplat-
ing. Excessively high temperatures during pol-
(a) 9 g/L (1 oz/gal). (b) Removal of burrs. (c) Additive containing sodium bicarbonate, cream of tartar, sodium acid pyrophosphate, sodium sulfite, ishing and buffing may cause difficulties in sub-
and a wetting agent. (d) Wall thickness is 0.150 mm (0.006 in.).
sequent cleaning and plating operations. When
flawless chromium-plated surfaces are required,
After rinsing, the parts are pickled in a 1 to 2% and error. Conditions for vibratory finishing are it is necessary both to buff and color buff the pol-
sulfuric acid solution and rinsed. Clear water given in Table 9. ished copper alloy surfaces before plating.
and additives, burnishing compounds, are Chromium reproduces all imperfections in the
added, and the parts are rolled until the desired Polishing and Buffing underlying plating or base metal, and because
finish is obtained. If the work appears to dark- chromium is hard and has a high melting point, it
en during water rolling, the medium should be Copper alloy parts are polished after scale is more resistant to flow and is not readily buffed
dumped, the barrel and parts rinsed and then removal and dressing or rough cutting, but before by normal methods. A good chromium-plated
charged with a fresh burnishing compound. final finishing operations, which include buffing, surface can be obtained without the color buff
Parts suitable for water rolling to a bright finish burnishing, or honing. Rough castings normally operation, by only polishing and cut-down buff-
include posts, sockets, studs, tack buttons, and require two polishing operations before buffing. ing. An example of offhand belt polishing and
zipper parts. Forgings and stampings require one polishing wheel buffing operations is given in Table 10.
Vibratory finishing is particularly effective operation before buffing. Pipe, tubing, and some Scratch brushing is used to produce a con-
for deburring, forming radii, descaling, and stampings can be buffed without previous polish- trasting surface adjacent to a bright reflective
removing flash from castings and molded parts. ing. Buffing is not required when a brushed or surface; to produce an uneven surface for better
It may also be used for burnishing. Vibratory satin finish is desired as the final finish. paint adherence; to remove metal during final
finishers deburr parts 50 to 75% faster and are Because copper-base materials are softer than finishing of parts with intricate recesses that are
more versatile than rotary tumbling barrels. steel, fewer stages of successively finer polish- inaccessible to polishing and buffing wheels;
There is no cascading of parts, with the atten- ing are required to achieve a uniformly fine sur- and to remove impacted soil and buffing com-
dant possibility of damage by impact. The face finish. For many parts, especially those hav- pounds from previous finishing operations, prior
process is adaptable to both light castings and ing machined surfaces or those free of defects, a to subsequent finishing in some applications.
formed parts. Vibratory finishing is also effec- single-stage polishing operation using 180- to Various types of scratching mediums are used
tive on internal surfaces and recesses that are 200-grit abrasive on a lubricated belt or setup to produce different finishes, such as butler,
not usually worked by rotary tumbling. wheel may be all that is required before buffing. satin, directional, sunburst (or circular), and
The mediums for vibratory finishing of cop- Poor-quality surfaces require preliminary rough matte. These mediums are as follows:
per and copper alloys are similar to those used polishing on a dry belt or wheel with 80- to 120- • Wire wheels are used on copper or brass grill
for rotary tumbling. Dry mediums are used grit abrasive. Surfaces on intermediate quality work to clean intricate recesses, holes, or
occasionally, but usually a liquid is added to may be given a first-stage polishing with 120- to ribbed areas and to produce a decorative non-
provide lubrication, suspension of worn-off 160-grit abrasive, either dry or lubricated. Belt continuous scratch pattern on ornamental
particles, and a more gentle cleaning action. polishing is generally advantageous for high- parts such as vases, lamps, and kitchenware.
The selection of medium is frequently by trial production finishing except when special shapes • Emery cloth or paper is a common medium
are processed. These are best handled by the for producing a series of linear or circular
Table 8 Operating conditions for cleaning contoured faces of setup polishing wheels. parallel lines on flat objects with no sudden
and pickling in water rolling barrels
Barrel is made of Type 304 stainless steel. Speed of rota- Table 9 Operating conditions for vibratory finishing
tion, 7-32 rev/min; cycle time, 15-20 min. Parts are thor-
oughly rinsed in hot water after cycle is finished. Machined
Ratio of
part diam
medium Vibrations Time,
Temperature mm in. Material Medium Parts per load to parts(a) per min min Purpose
Solution Concentration °C °F
25 1 Nickel silver Steel pins and quartz sand 650 4 to 1 1500 40 Deburr
Alkaline cleaner(a) 15–20 g/L (2–3 oz/gal) 71 160 38 11/2 Brass Steel wire brads 500 2 to 1 1300 60 Deburr and form radii
Pickling solution(b) 1–2% 54 130 75 3 Brass Arkansas stone 150 10 to 1 1500 35 Deburr and finish
(a) Sodium hydroxide or proprietary compound. (b) H2SO4 (a) 0.03 m3 (1 ft3) bowl
changes in contour. This type of decora- Chemical and Dirt particles, abrasives, metal dust, and inert
tive finish is applied to fireplace acces- Electrochemical Cleaning materials are removed by one or both of these
sories, automotive hub caps, and kitchen- processes. To remove undesirable materials by
ware and appliances. During fabrication, copper alloys may saponification, emulsification, or similar means,
• Polishing wheels headed with greaseless become coated with lubricating oils, drawing it is necessary to use particular chemicals or
compounds produce scratch-brush finishes compounds, greases, oxides, dirt, metallic parti- combinations of chemicals.
with parallelism of the directional pattern. cles, or abrasives. These must be removed by Solvent Cleaning and Vapor Degreasing.
Decorative items such as jewelry, building cleaning. The selection of the cleaning process Solvent cleaning of copper alloys involves
paneling, and built-in refrigerator and stove depends on the type of lubricant and other mate- immersion in special naphthas with flash points
parts can be finished in this manner. rials to be removed, the equipment available, the over 38 °C (100 °F) for the removal of light
• Soft tampico and manila brushes remove soil environment restrictions, and the degree of grease and light oil. An example of this type of
from scrollwork and embossed areas on cleanness required. The nature and size of the naphtha is Stoddard solvent. These solvents are
ornate tableware serving sets and jewelry pieces also influence the selection of equipment preferred to kerosine and to the naphthas used in
prior to final processing. or process. paints because less residue remains on the work
Where permissible, mechanical scrubbing, after the special naphthas have evaporated.
Table 11 gives the sequence of operations and accomplished by turbulent boiling, pressure The straight-chain naphthas are not effective
mediums for scratch-brush finishing several spraying, or agitating, aids in the removal of any for complete removal of heavy grease, burned-
copper alloy products. substances that are not exceptionally adherent. on hydrocarbons, pigmented drawing com-
Although scratch-brush finishing is useful for Occasionally, hand brushing may be used for pounds, and oils containing solid contaminants.
producing eye-appealing finishes and as a small production quantities. Buffing compounds containing tallow, stearic
mechanical means for preparing surfaces for Lubricants made from animal or vegetable acid, and metallic soaps require cyclic hydrocar-
subsequent processing, certain hazards must be oils or greases, such as tallow, lard oil, palm oil, bons such as toluol and xylol for effective clean-
recognized. Extreme care and control are and olive oil, can usually be removed by saponi- ing. Table 12 gives cycles for solvent cleaning of
required when the part being worked contains fication. In this process, the parts are immersed copper alloys.
patterns with sharp corners or embossments in an alkaline solution where the oil reacts with Chlorinated solvents such as methylene chlo-
because the sharpness of detail may be the alkali to form water-soluble soap com- ride (boiling point, 40 °C, or 104 °F),
destroyed. In salvage or rework operations, it is pounds. Mineral oils that are not saponifiable, trichloroethylene (boiling point, 90 °C, or
difficult and sometimes impossible to blend the such as kerosine, machine oil, cylinder oil, and 189 °F), and perchloroethylene (boiling point,
original brush pattern into a repaired area from general lubricating oils, are usually removed 120 °C, or 250 °F) have been used instead of
which a defect has been removed by grinding. from the metal by emulsion cleaning. naphtha. These compounds are less of a fire haz-
ard than straight petroleum solvents but are
much more toxic. Because of environmental
Table 10 Offhand belt polishing and wheel buffing operations for sand cast red constraints their use is gradually being curtailed.
brass parts Vapor degreasing effectively removes many
Sand cast lavatory fittings made of red brass are finished in a sequence of six operations in preparation for decorative soils from copper alloys. Stabilized trichloroeth-
chromium plating; sequential finishing of spout with flat surfaces ylene is used extensively in vapor degreasing
Wheel speed, Pieces Belt life, Polishing lubricant because it does not attack copper alloys during
Operation Type of contact wheel rev/min per hour Type of abrasive belt pieces or buffing compound degreasing and because it has high solvency for
Rough polishing Cloth(a) 2100 23 80-grit silicon carbide 29 None or light application the oils, greases, waxes, tars, lubricants, and
of grease stick coolants in general use in the copper and brass
Final polishing Cloth(a) 2100 30 220-grit Al2O3 49 Grease stick industry. Perchloroethylene is used especially
Spot polishing Cloth(a) 2100 46 220-grit Al2O3 77 Grease stick
General buffing Spiral-sewn, treated 2400 32 … … Tripoli for removing high-melting pitches and waxes,
cloth sections with for drying parts by vaporizing entrapped mois-
intermediate airway(b) ture, and for degreasing thin-gage materials.
Spot buffing Spiral-sewn, treated 2400 115 … … Tripoli Vapor degreasing or solvent cleaning is not
cloth sections with
intermediate airway(b) effective for removing inert materials and inor-
Color buffing Spiral-sewn, treated 1700 75 … … Silica compound ganic soils such as metal salts, oxides, or com-
cloth sections with pounds that are not generally soluble in chlori-
intermediate airway(b) nated solvents. Similarly, vapor degreasing for
(a) 355 mm (14 in.) diam, 45 mm (13/4 in.) width, 90 density. (b) 355 mm (14 in.) diam, 60.3 mm (23/8 in.) width, 18 ply, 86/93
removal of hard and dry buffing compounds
could leave behind the insoluble and hard-to-
Table 11 Suggested sequence of operations for scratch brushing of copper alloy parts
Size of wheel
Part Finish desired Abrasive Type of wheel mm in. Speed, rev/min
Black fuse body, Dull, smooth, black None Tampico 80 diam by 75 thick, 7 diam by 3 thick, 1200
yellow brass(a) 5 rows wide 5 rows wide
Silver-plated red Semibright Solution of soap Nickel-silver wire, 150 diam by 75 thick, 6 diam by 3 thick, 850
brass lipstick case(b) bark and cream 0.100 mm 6 rows wide 6 rows wide
of tartar (0.004 in.) diam
Black-on-bronze Black background Pumice in water Cloth, sewn sections 180 diam by 13 wide 7 diam by 1/2 wide 850
bookends, highlights with colored
relieved(b) copper highlights
Silver-plated lipstick cap(c) Satin Greaseless rouge, Loose cloth wheel 150 diam by 51 wide 6 diam by 2 wide 1800
proprietary
Nickel-plated refrigerator Satin Greaseless compound Loose cloth wheel 305 diam by 50–510 wide 12 diam by 2–20 wide 1800
panels or stove parts(d)
(a) Clean brush often by running pumice stone across face of wheel. (b) Lacquer after scratch brushing. (c) Lacquer after finishing. (d) Chromium plate after finishing
clean abrasives. Solvent emulsion cleaners, the cleaning solution, there is a practical limit reduces hexavalent chromium to trivalent
although slow, are highly effective for complete to the amount of contamination a given volume chromium, which does not affect subsequent
removal of buffing compounds. can accommodate without redepositing soil on plating. Periodic additions are required because
Solid particles of metal dust or chips that are the metal. In this condition, the solution should trivalent chromium is reoxidized to hexavalent
held on the surface by organic soil can be be discarded even though analysis reveals by the oxygen released at the anode.
removed mechanically by the washing action of unused cleaner. Ultrasonic cleaning of copper-base materi-
the solvent. Removal of these particles is accel- Dissolved air in fresh cleaning solutions is fre- als is used when the size of particles remaining
erated and accomplished better with solvent quently the cause of tarnishing of copper alloys. on the surface is less than 5 to 10 m (0.2 to
sprays or by immersion in boiling solvent than The air can be eliminated by heating the solution 0.4 mil) in any one direction and for removing
with the vapor phase of the degreaser. to the boiling point for about 12 h before use. This dirt and chips that cause smudge, as indicated
Emulsion and Alkaline Cleaning. Parts with procedure may not be advisable with every pro- by a white cloth wipe test. Remove much of the
heavy soils such as machine oils, grease, and prietary cleaner because of constituents that surface contamination by other more economi-
buffing compounds are treated first with emul- break down at the boiling temperature. Some cal cleaning procedures before ultrasonic
sion cleaners to remove most of the soil. After uninhibited alkaline cleaners may also cause a cleaning. This increases the life of the ultra-
the parts have been rinsed, the remaining soil is slight darkening or tarnishing of the work sur- sonic cleaning solution and maintains produc-
removed by alkaline soak or electrolytic clean- face. The darkening may be removed by dipping tion efficiency. After ultrasonic cleaning, the
ing. Precleaning reduces the contamination of in dilute hydrochloric acid or in cyanide solution. parts may be rinsed in deionized or distilled
the alkaline solution, extending the life of the Electrolytic alkaline cleaning is the most water and dried with warm filtered air or in a
solution. Thorough alkaline cleaning must fol- reliable method for cleaning parts for plating. vacuum oven.
low the emulsion cleaning cycle before the sub- The work is the cathode, and steel electrodes are Ultrasonic cleaning is used with alkaline
sequent acid cycles. Extreme caution must be the anodes. Reverse-current anodic cleaning can- cleaning solutions, solvents, vapor degreasing
exercised to avoid dragging emulsifiers through not be used for more than a few seconds because solutions, or acid pickling solutions to increase
the rinses and into a plating solution, especially copper dissolves in the solution. Copper alloys the rate of cleaning or to complete the removal
an acid solution. with tarnish readily during exposure to the oxy- of soil from areas not completely cleaned by
Emulsion cleaning may be accomplished by gen that is released at the anode, but this can be soak or spray procedures. An example of the
soaking the work for 3 min or less in a mildly minimized by the addition of inhibitors. In many need for ultrasonic assistance is the cleaning of
agitated solution. Spraying is helpful only when electroplating operations, anodic cleaning for a fine internal threads on brass parts. An alkaline
all surfaces being cleaned can be thoroughly few seconds is used to develop tarnish because it solution containing 15 to 30 g/L (2 to 4 oz/gal)
contacted. The thin film of oil remaining after indicates that all soil has been removed. The of cleaner may be used for ultrasonic cleaning of
emulsion cleaning acts as a temporary tarnish small amount of metal dissolved by anodic such parts.
preventive. Some parts may be stored after dry- cleaning exposes a more active surface for elec-
ing, depending on the composition of the solu- troplating, and the light tarnish formed is readily Chemical and Electrolytic Polishing
tion and the metal being cleaned; however, brass dissolved by a mild hydrochloric or sulfuric acid
may become pitted by prolonged exposure to solution. Current density during anodic electro- Chemical or electrolytic polishing imparts a
certain emulsifier films. When emulsion-cleaned cleaning of brass should be about 3 A/dm2 (30 smooth bright finish and removes burrs selec-
zinc-bearing brass parts are cleaned electrolyti- A/ft2) at 3 to 4 V. Use of high currents will etch tively from certain areas. Usually the same
cally by alkalines, sufficient time should be the brass and cause dezincification. solution will accomplish both purposes,
allowed for the dispersal of the emulsifier in the Copper-base materials are electrolytically although variations in operating conditions
alkaline solution to avoid pitting. cleaned by cathodic cleaning followed by short- may be desirable, depending on which feature
The environmental restrictions placed on the time anodic cleaning, or by soak cleaning fol- is required.
use of chlorinated solvents have resulted in the lowed by anodic cleaning. Positively charged For electropolishing, the parts are racked and
industry turning more and more to alkaline particles plated onto the work during cathodic made the anode in an acid solution. Direct cur-
cleaners for degreasing copper and its alloys. cleaning cause smut, which may lead to blister- rent is applied and the process selectively
Table 13 lists typical compounds from which ing and poor adhesion of the plated metal if not removes more metal from the high points of the
these are formulated. A great number of these completely removed. To avoid this condition, a surface than from the low. This results in a high
cleaners, which usually contain proprietary short period of anodic cleaning should follow polish and the removal of burrs.
additives, are available on the market. Selection the cathodic electrocleaning. Chemical polishing imparts a finish similar to
of a cleaner is best achieved by a test program in Racks and baskets that are used during the that obtained by electropolishing, but eletropol-
which several cleaners are evaluated. However, application of chromate chemical conversion ished surfaces are usually smoother and brighter.
the most critical factor in their effective use is to coatings should not be used in alkaline cleaning Electropolishing for 4 to 6 min will reduce the
ensure vigorous flow of the cleaner across the solutions. Contamination of the cleaning solution surface roughness to between one-third and one-
parts being cleaned. with as little as 10 ppm of hexavalent chromium half the original value. Electropolishing and
Solutions for soak cleaning usually contain 30 can cause poor adhesion and blistering of subse- chemical polishing will remove minor scratches
to 60 g/L (4 to 8 oz/gal) of cleaner and are quent metal deposits. To avoid the effects of acci- and defects, as well as burrs.
operated at 60 to 88 °C (140 to 190 °F). For dental contamination when chromate treatments Selection of these processes is influenced by
every 6 °C (10 °F) rise in temperature above are used, sodium hydrosulfite should be added to the following considerations:
60 °C (140 °F), the cleaning time is reduced by the cleaning solution at the rate of 14 g (12 oz) per
about 25%. Regardless of the concentration of 380 L (100 gal). The sodium hydrosulfite Table 13 Compounds used for formulat-
ing alkaline cleaners
Table 12 Cycles for cleaning copper alloy parts with a solvent cleaner Soak Electrolytic
Temperature of solvent Component cleaners, % cleaners, %
Immersion
Part Solvent cleaner °C °F time, min Soil removed Sodium hydroxide 10–20 10–15
Sodium polyphosphates 5–20 5–20
Dose cap(a) Stoddard solvent or mineral spirits RT to 49 RT to 120 2 Heavy drawing compound Sodium orthosilicate, 30–50 30–50
Brass retainer ring(a) Stoddard solvent or mineral spirits RT to 49 RT to 120 2 Eyelet machine lubricant sesquisilicate, metasilicate
Brass rods Sawdust, dampened with Stoddard RT RT 5(b) Mill lubricant Sodium carbonate, bicarbonate 0–25 0–25
solvent or mineral spirits Resin-type soaps 5–10 None
Organic emulsifiers, 2–10 1–3
RT, room temperature. (a) Hand cleaning necessary with fragile parts. (b) Tumbled in barrel
wetting agents, chelating agents
• For complex parts, electropolishing and machining alloys. Materials successfully cleaners. Many plating processes do not use
chemical polishing are easier and less expen- treated include copper, beryllium copper, sin- the anodic alkaline clean, especially when an
sive than mechanical polishing. gle-phase bronzes, and single-phase nonlead- acid dip is used after the cathodic alkaline
• Copper-base materials that are polished ed brasses. clean. The acid dip suffices to remove any
either electrolytically or chemically do not • Condition of the initial surface. smut or stain. An acid dip may be simply 15%
require the use of buffing or polishing com- • Grain size of the metal. The smaller the grain sulfuric acid or, if the surface needs additional
pounds. Thus, they do not encounter the dif- size the better the finish. A grain size of 0.004 pickling, a bright dip may be used. There are a
ficulties associated with removal of mm (0.0002 in.) yields excellent results; sat- number of bright dips for copper alloys on the
entrapped compounds and usually do not isfactory results are produced with grain sizes market based on the sulfuric acid-hydrogen
require any additional cleaning operations up to about 0.01 mm (0.0004 in.). peroxide system (see Table 1), in addition to
other than rinsing. the example in Fig. 2. A chromate bright dip
• Parts racked for electropolishing may be should not be used before plating because of
electroplated in the same racks, which results possible chromium contamination of the plat-
in considerable savings in handling costs.
Preparation for Plating ing bath, which could lead to blistering, pit-
• Electrolytically or chemically polished sur- ting, and peeling of the electrodeposit.
faces tarnish less readily than mechanically Before copper alloys are plated, surface Oxides can be removed from cast or heat-
polished surfaces. Some chemical polishing oxides are removed and the surfaces chemical- treated copper alloys by either abrasive or chem-
baths can offer passivation and prevent cop- ly activated for adherence of the plate. Heavy ical cleaning procedures. Castings always
per from tarnishing during storage. oxide scales are usually removed at the mill, so require abrasive cleaning; however, they do not
• Parts that might deform during mechanical descaling is not normally a part of the preplate necessarily require subsequent pickling or bright
polishing or tumbling will not be deformed treatment. Figures 1 and 2 show sequences of dipping for the removal of oxides. If acid treat-
by electrolytic or chemical polishing. operations required for preparing the surfaces ment is required, thorough rinsing is mandatory
• Mechanical polishing may result in a of copper alloys. These operations apply to to prevent spotting of the plating by entrapped
deformed surface layer that differs from the both lead-free and leaded materials and to soft- acid. Stampings and drawn parts can be treated
base metal and does not accept plating uni- soldered assemblies. For many plating opera- in the same manner as castings; however, it may
formly. Electroplate on electropolished base tions, where the copper alloy is relatively be less expensive to pickle the parts before abra-
metal has adhesion superior to that on clean, free of oils, and uncontaminated by sive finishing if heavy oxides are present.
mechanically finished surfaces. buffing compounds, the process can be simpli- Screw-machine parts made of leaded copper
fied by eliminating the alkaline soak. If the alloys usually require no treatment for oxide
Parts that are electropolished include fishing
surface contains buffing compounds, it may removal before plating, but abrasive cleaning
lures, plumbing fixtures, furniture arms and legs,
require precleaning by soaking in emulsion can be used when required.
lamps and lighting fixtures, wire goods, brass
appliance parts, jewelry, nameplates, and bezels.
Copper-plated parts, such as automobile tail
pipes, die castings that have not been buffed, and
high-altitude oxygen bottles are electropolished
effectively for an improved finish. The thickness
of copper plate should be in excess of 20 m
(0.8 mil) before electropolishing. Most of the
commercial solutions used for electropolishing
copper alloys contain phosphoric acid with addi-
tional agents.
A sequence of operations for electropolishing
consists of:
• Racking the parts
• Cleaning to remove oil, grease, dirt, and
oxide
• Double rinsing in water at room temperature
• Electropolishing for 2 to 4 min at about 65 °C
(150 °F), using a current density of 30 A/dm2
(300 A/ft2)
• Double rinsing in water at room temperature
and drying
If the parts are to be electroplated after elec-
tropolishing, the drying operation in the previ-
ously mentioned sequence is omitted and the
process continues with anodic alkaline cleaning Operating temperature
Cycle
°C °F
until the surface is light brown in color. Then the Solution No. Type of solution Composition of solution(a) time, s
parts are rinsed in water at room temperature, 1 Cathodic alkaline Na2CO3H2O, 40–50%; Na3PO4 · 12H2O, 25–40%; 60–71 140–160 60–180
dipped in 5% sulfuric acid solution, double cleaner(b) NaOH, 10–25%; Na2SiO3, 15–40%
rinsed in water at room temperature, immersed 2 Anodic cleaner(b) Same as Solution 1 60–71 140–160 5–10
in the cyanide copper strike solution, and plated. 3 Cyanide dip NaCN, 15–45 g/L (2–6 oz/gal) Room Room 30
The quality of electrolytically or chemically pol- 4 Acid dip HBF4, 5–10% Room Room 5–10
ished surface is affected by the following factors:
(a) By volume, except where otherwise noted. (b) Current density 1 to 3 A/dm2 (10 to 30 A/ft2), 3 to 4 V
• Composition of the material. Most copper
alloys are suitable except those containing Fig. 1 Surface preparation required for removal of buffing compounds and tarnish before plating of copper alloys. If
appreciable amounts of lead, such as the free- the buffing compound is hard and dry, an additional presoak in a solvent emulsion cleaner can be used.
Beryllium Copper. Surface preparation proce- lium copper.PThe alkaline soak clean and the metal powders are not as porous and can be eas-
dures for beryllium copper are the same as for anodic alkaline clean may or may not be required, ily electroplated. A sequence of operations for
other copper alloys, unless the beryllium copper depending on the degree of surface contamination surface preparation of powder metallurgy (P/M)
has been heat treated and still contains surface resulting from heat treatment. In rare cases, the parts before electroplating is shown in Fig. 3.
oxides resulting from that heat treatment. Such plaster is required to remove scale resulting from Because P/M parts are made from different
oxides on beryllium copper are more difficult to high-temperature (400 °C, or 750 °F) heat treat- alloys and because porosity varies, a suitable
remove than normal oxides on other copper alloys. ments such as in solution annealing. The parts surface preparation and electroplating technique
They can be best removed in strong, hot caustic must be soaked in a 50% solution of sodium must be developed for each part.
solutions followed by a good bright dip. The pro- hydroxide at 130 °C (265 °F) for 1 or 2 min before The methods applicable to porous cast parts
cedure outlined in Fig. 2 should be sufficient if the acid pickling in a good bright dip. can be used for low-porosity P/M parts with
bright dip cycle is increased to 10 to 15 s. The sul- Powder Metallurgy Parts. Technology has densities more than 95% of theoretical. P/M
furic-peroxide bright dips also work well on beryl- advanced to a level where parts sintered from strip stock bonded to steel is an example of low-
porosity material. The surface preparation and
plating techniques vary for higher-porosity parts
with densities 85 to 90% of theoretical.
During plating of P/M parts, the pores act as
thermal pumps. Solutions are released from or
absorbed by the pores, depending on whether
the solution is hotter or colder than the parts.
Deep and interconnecting pores are likely to
entrap cleaning or rinsing solutions, which are
released slowly during plating. Porosity must be
determined before cleaning, and suitable tech-
niques must be used to prevent solution entrap-
ment. Entrapped solutions may cause precipita-
tion of metal compounds on the work surfaces
during plating. The porous nature of P/M parts
causes contamination and depletion of all solu-
tions and necessitates that the solutions be
closely controlled.
Spotty plating is caused by entrapped solu-
Operating temperature tions that seep out of the pores and stain the plat-
Cycle
Solution No. Type of solution Composition of solution(a) °C °F time, s ed surface as it dries. Spots may not develop for
several days after plating or may appear to be
1 Cathodic alkaline Na2CO3 · H2O, 40–50%; Na3PO4 · 12 H2O, 25–40%; 60–71 140–160 60–180
cleaner(b) NaOH, 10–25%; Surface active agent, 1%
insignificant immediately after plating and sub-
2 Anodic cleaner(b) Same as solution 1 60–71 140–160 5–10 sequently enlarge with time.
3 Bright dip(c) H2SO4, 65–75%; HNO3, 20–35%; HCl, 1.1 g/L Cool Cool 5–10 A continuous plated coating can seldom be
( 1 6 oz/gal); H2O, 5–10% attained on P/M parts unless the pores are
(a) By volume, except where noted. (b) Current density, 1 to 3 A/dm2 (10 to 30 A/ft2), 3 to 4 V. (c) Constant agitation of work closed. Methods for closing the pores include
buffing, rolling, burnishing, heat treating, and
Fig. 2 Surface preparation required for the removal of buffing compounds and for bright dipping before plating of impregnation. Buffing, rolling, or burnishing are
copper alloys used when appearance is important and dimen-
sional tolerances are not critical. These tech-
niques can be applied either before or after plat-
ing. Heat treating is one of the most satisfactory
methods for closing pores when surface quality
and size are more important than appearance.
Occasionally, green compacts are electroplated
and then sintered. Another technique is to sinter
fully, then to plate and heat treat. This procedure
requires washing and acid dipping the parts to
neutralize alkalinity prior to heat treating.
Impregnation with copper, lead, tin, waxes,
resins, or oils is another method for closing the
pores of P/M parts before plating. Thermosetting
polyester styrene and silicone resins are suitable
impregnating materials. When the polyester-
styrene resin is used, the parts are degreased,
baked to remove moisture, then impregnated
under vacuum and pressure. An emulsion clean-
er can be used to remove excess resin from blind
holes and threads prior to curing the resin at 120
Solution No. Type of solution Composition of solution Operating temperature Cycle time, s
to 150 °C (250 to 300 °F). Tumbling or polishing
1 Cyanide dip NaCN, 7.5 g/L (1 oz/gal)
can be used to remove excess cured resin.
Room temperature 30–60
2 Acid dip H2SO4, 3–5 vol% Room temperature 5–10 When silicone resin is used, the surfaces of
the powder compact are coated with a thin
water-repellent film. Then the compact is heated
Fig. 3 Surface preparation of brass powder metallurgy parts before plating in air to 205 °C (400 °F), quenched in a solution
of 4% silicone (type 200) and 96% per- Chromium is occasionally plated directly Usually, applying an undercoat prior to the
chloroethylene, and baked again for 12 to 2 h. onto copper and copper alloys as a low-cost deposition of cadmium is unnecessary.
After being pickled in acid, the part can be plat- decorative coating and color match. A plated Cadmium plating is used to minimize galvan-
ed in the conventional manner, preferably in an nickel undercoat is applied when quality plat- ic corrosion between copper-base materials
alkaline bath. ing of chromium is required to produce color and other cadmium-plated metals in the same
Before being impregnated with oil, the parts depth and resistance to corrosion, abrasion, assembly. Cadmium-plated copper parts are
are heated in a vapor degreaser and, while hot, and dezincification. used in aircraft, marine, and military applica-
immersed in cold oil. After cooling in the oil, the Decorative chromium deposits are character- tions involving atmospheric exposure; howev-
parts are removed, drained of oil, and then rinsed istically thin and porous. Galvanic action er, the use of cadmium is being curtailed
in cold solvent. Parts impregnated with oil have between the chromium and base metal may because of health and safety concerns associ-
been coated with copper by conventional elec- occur during exposure to aggressive environ- ated with its use.
troplating processes with resultant satisfactory ments and result in accelerated corrosion. With Gold is usually applied over an electroplat-
bonding of the coating. copper alloys of high zinc content, dezincifica- ed undercoating of nickel or silver, but may be
Evalution of Cleanness Prior to Plating. tion and eventual lifting and flaking of the electroplated directly on the copper alloy. In
The degree of cleaning required for a copper deposit may result. For added protection, the electronics industry, nickel is plated to
alloy part depends on its intended end use. In chromium deposits plated directly on the base copper before gold plating. The nickel barrier
some cases visual observation of the cleaned metal are coated with clear lacquers or with the stops migration of copper into the gold layer.
part is sufficient to determine if adequate clean- more durable combination coatings of silicone The gold thickness is about 2.5 m (0.1 mil).
ing has been accomplished. However, cleaning and acrylic thermosetting organic resins. The nickel barrier is normally a minimum of
conducted prior to deposition processes must be Decorative chromium deposits are usually 1.3 m (0.05 mil) thick; however, exposure of
very thorough, and methods of evaluating the 0.25 to 0.50 m (0.01 to 0.02 mil) thick. When the gold-plated part to elevated temperatures
surface cleanness are often required. For metal chromium is deposited directly onto the base for extended periods of time may require a
that has been degreased, this evaluation can be metal, the thickness of the deposit is seldom less nickel barrier 127 m (5 mils) thick. If silver
best achieved by spraying the part with water than 38 m (1.5 mils), and for many applica- is the barrier, government specifications for
from an atomizer; areas that are clean show up tions a minimum of 50 m (2 mils) is specified. electronic applications usually require a mini-
as a continuous film, while areas that have been The compositions and operating conditions for a mum thickness of 5 m (0.2 mil) of silver and
inadequately cleaned are covered with small general, additive-free, decorative chromium 1.3 m (0.05 mil) of gold.
water droplets. plating bath and a bright, crack-free bath are When gold is plated directly on copper alloy,
Another technique for evaluating the clean- given in Table 14. Additional information can be a deposit of 3 m (0.1 mil) or more is needed
ness of small parts involves suspending them found in the article “Decorative Chromium because of rapid diffusion, especially at elevated
in the mouth of a beaker containing a few mils Plating” in Surface Engineering, Volume 5 of temperatures. This rapid diffusion, especially at
of 10% ammonium sulfide. After an exposure the ASM Handbook. elevated temperatures. This rapid diffusion
time of 5 to 10 s, a uniform tarnish film will Hard chromium deposits are used primarily to destroys the electrical and decorative properties
appear over clean areas. Nonuniformity in the improve wear resistance and friction characteris- of the deposit by interdiffusion between the
color of the tarnish film indicates the presence tics. Because most of the copper-base materials coating and the base metal. Total coverage and
of residual soils. With practice, the tarnishing are soft and ductile, the base metal lacks suffi- freedom from porosity are necessary for corro-
test can provide a rapid assessment of the efficient hardness to support thick deposits of hard sion protection.
ciency of a particular cleaning process. For chromium against heavy pressures without the For greatest adhesion, the part should be plat-
safety reasons the test must be conducted in a risk of scoring or flaking. Hard chromium is ed with a gold strike before the final deposit of
fume hood. electroplated from solutions under conditions gold. One satisfactory strike solution consists of
It is often difficult to determine if residual similar to those used for decorative chromium potassium gold cyanide 0.8 g/L (0.1 troy oz/gal
oxides remain on a copper alloy surface follow- plating; however, the deposits are much thicker, as gold) and potassium cyanide 45 g/L (6
ing pickling operations, particularly if the oxides frequently dull in appearance, and generally oz/gal). To avoid tarnishing, the struck part
are of the refractory type. One evaluation method deposited directly on the base metal. To conform should be transferred immediately to the plating
consists of first immersing the part in rosin flux to exact dimensional tolerances and to avoid solution with the current flowing as the work
and then in 60-40 tin-lead solder held at 245 °C buildup of deposit at corners, an excess of enters the solution. An alternate procedure is to
(475 °F) for 5 s. The resultant solder coating is deposit is plated and the final dimension is rinse the struck work, then acid dip, rinse, and
compared to the solder coating on a part that is attained by grinding or lapping. Further infor- plate with a suitable current density.
known to be clean. Areas still covered with oxide mation can be found in the article “Industrial Current density for racked parts varies from
will appear as areas not wet by the solder. (Hard) Chromium Plating” in Volume 5 of the 0.2 to 1 A/dm2 (2 to 10 A/ft2), depending on the
ASM Handbook. solution used. The rate of deposition depends on
Cadmium. Copper-base materials are easily the solution and varies from 100 mg/A min
Plating, Coating, and electroplated with cadmium from conventional (0.3 A/dm2, or 3 A/ft2, for 14.4 min deposits 3
Coloring Processes plating baths. A typical bath has the following m, or 0.1 mil, of gold) in most cyanide and
composition: neutral solutions to one-third of this rate in most
Copper alloys can be plated, coated with acid solutions. For barrel plating, the limiting
organic substances, or chemically colored to fur- Cadmium oxide 22 to 33 g/L (3.0 to 4.5 oz/gal) current density for all solutions is about one-
ther extend the variety of available finishes. Sodium cyanide 85 to 110 g/L (11.5 to 15.0 oz/gal) third of that used in rack plating.
Sodium hydroxide 16 to 24 g/L (2.1 to 3.2 oz/gal) Cyanide solutions are the most efficient and
Brightening agent As required
have the best throwing power, whereas
Electroplating
Table 14 Compositions and operating conditions for two chromium plating baths
Metals such as gold, silver, rhodium, nickel
Constituent or condition General decorative bath Bright, crack-free bath
chromium, tin, and cadmium are electrodeposit-
ed on copper and copper alloys. Copper electro- Chromic acid 250 g/L (33.0 oz/gal) 260–300 g/L (35–40 oz/gal)
Ratio of chromic acid to sulfate 100:1 to 125:1 150:1
plating with these metals is used primarily for Operating temperature 38–49 °C (100–120 °F) 52–54 °C (125–130 °F)
decorative purposes and for preventing tarnish Cathode current density 810–1885 A/m2 (75–175 A/ft2) 2690–3230 A/m2 (250–300 A/ft2)
or corrosion.
deposits from acid and neutral solutions are a smooth uniform plated surface is required. rhodium. For decorative purposes, the thick-
less porous and are not stained by incomplete- Polishing and buffing are not required when ness of rhodium is usually about 0.25 m
ly removed solution. nickel is to be plated on a reasonably smooth (0.01 mil). Deposits of 25 m (1 mil) or more
Patented solutions for plating gold contain surface from solutions that produce a high are used for functional purposes, but these
0.03 kg (1 troy oz) of gold per gallon, usually degree of leveling of the deposit as it builds up heavier deposits do not have the brightness or
added as potassium gold cyanide, and propri- in thickness. Deposits from these solutions are color characteristics of the decorative finishes.
etary brightening agents. Insoluble anodes are smooth and bright. Nickel plating with high Rhodium plating solutions are of the sulfuric
used with these solutions. The patent-free hot leveling and brightness can provide an attrac- acid or phosphoric acid type. Formulas and
gold cyanide solution is extremely sensitive to tive mirorrlike finish. Proprietary leveler operating conditions are given in Table 16.
impurities, and the deposits lack brightness. The brighteners are added to the nickel bath to Additional information on rhodium plating
solution is limited in application. Gold metal achieve high leveling with nickel deposits as can be found in the article “Platinum-Group
anodes are used with this solution. thin as 7.6 to 10 m (0.3 to 0.4 mil). Metals Plating” in Surface Engineering,
The proprietary solutions are brightened or Numerous types of nickel electroplating Volume 5 of the ASM Handbook.
colored by codeposited base metals, especially solutions are available. The solutions differ in Silver plating is used for decorative and func-
silver, nickel, cobalt, and copper. These base basic composition, preferred operating condi- tional purposes. Its useful characteristics for
metals may be classed as impurities for some tions, and quality of the deposit. Three com- functional applications include:
applications. When gold deposits of less than monly employed nickel electroplating solu-
0.33 m (0.013 mil) are used on a plated item, tions are listed in Table 15. More detailed • High surface conductivity for radio frequen-
the deposit should be protected by lacquer or a information on these and other nickel plating cies. A minimum of 3 m (0.1 mil) of silver
chromate passivation. solutions and processes can be found in the is required for these applications.
Nickel is plated onto copper-base materials for article “Nickel Plating” in Volume 5 of the • Low resistance for electrical contacts. The
decorative purposes and as an undercoating for ASM Handbook. thickness of silver used for electrical contacts
increased corrosion resistance of nickel-chromi- Most decorative plating is done in solutions ranges from very thin deposits, such as those
um coating systems. Because nickel deposits that yield bright or semibright deposits. produced by immersion coating to electro-
have a yellow cast and tarnish easily, many nick- Although dull nickel deposits may be buffed plates 13 m (0.5 mil) thick.
el-plated parts are finished with electroplated to a high luster, the cost of buffing limits dull • Antiseizing or antigalling properties for
chromium. Costume jewelry, lipstick cases, hard- nickel to nondecorative or functional uses. wear surfaces.
ware for doors and windows, automotive hub Black nickel is a decorative finish only. It
caps, air valves, and plumbing fixtures are exam- should be plated over a deposit or base metal Silver can be deposited as a dull plate from
ples of copper-base parts regularly plated with that is corrosion resistant. Very thin deposits cyanide solutions or as a bright plate from
nickel, either as a final coat or an undercoat. of black nickel are recommended because baths containing suitable brighteners.
Nickel electrodeposits from some solutions thick deposits lack the ductility and adhesive- Electrolyte compositions and operating condi-
reproduce the irregularities in the base metal ness required to withstand shock. tions are given in Table 17. Plating times for
surface to a marked degree. The base metal Rhodium. An undercoat of nickel is used the deposition of 25 m (1 mil) of silver, as a
must be polished and buffed before plating if when copper alloys are to be plated with function of current density, are:
Table 15 Nickel electroplating solutions Current density

A/dm2 A/ft2 Plating time, min
Electrolyte composition(a), g/L Watts nickel Nickel sulfamate Typical semibright bath(b)
Nickel sulfate, NiSO4·6H2O 225 to 400 … 300 1 10 38

Nickel sulfamate, Ni (SO3NH2)2 … 300 to 450 … 2 20 18
Nickel chloride, NiCl2·6H2O 30 to 60 0 to 30 35 3 30 13
Boric acid, H3BO3 30 to 45 30 to 45 45 4 40 9
Operating conditions
Noncyanide plating solutions are also avail-
Temperature, °C 44 to 66 32 to 60 54
Agitation Air or mechanical Air or mechanical Air or mechanical
able but the volumes used are very small com-
Cathode current density, A/dm2 3 to 11 0.5 to 30 3 to 10 pared to cyanide solutions. Additional informa-
Anodes Nickel Nickel Nickel tion on silver solution formulations can be found
pH 2 to 4.5 3.5 to 5.0 3.5 to 4.5 in the article “Silver Plating” in Volume 5 of the
Mechanical properties(c) ASM Handbook.
Tensile strength, MPa 345 to 485 415 to 610 … Tin. As a protective coating, tin is not neces-
Elongation, % 10 to 30 5 to 30 8 to 20 sarily anodic to copper alloys. A copper alloy
Vickers hardness, 100 gram load 130 to 200 170 to 230 300 to 400
Internal stress, MPa 125 to 210 (tensile) 0 to 55 (tensile) 35 to 200 (tensile)
may not always be fully protected against a cor-
rosive environment at the expense of tin. Some
(a) Antipitting agents formulated for nickel plating are often added to control pitting. (b) Organic additives available from plating supply houses are corrosion products of tin are more noble than
required for semibright nickel plating. (c) Typical properties of bright nickel deposits are as follows: elongation, 2 to 5%; Vickers hardness, 100 gram
load, 600 to 800; internal stress, 12 to 25 MPa (compressive).
copper and can create the type of galvanic con-
ditions that lead to pitting corrosion. Tin can be
Table 16 Solutions for decorative rhodium plating

Phosphoric acid Sulfuric acid
Rhodium (concentrated) fluid (concentrated) fluid Current density Temperature
Solution type g/L oz/gal mL/L oz/gal mL/L oz/gal A/dm2 A/ft2 Voltage, V °C °F Anodes
Phosphate 2(a) 0.3(a) 40–80 5–10 … … 2–16 20-160 4–8 40–50 105–120 Platinum or
platinum-coated(b)
Phosphate-sulfate 2(c) 0.3(c) … … 40–80 5–10 2–11 20-110 3–6 40–50 105–120 Platinum or
platinum-coated(b)
Sulfate 1.3–29(c) 0.17–0.3(c) … … 40–80 5–10 2–11 20-110 3–6 40–50 105–120 Platinum or
platinum-coated(b)
(a) Rhodium as metal, from phosphate complex syrup. (b) Platinum-coated products are also known as platinized titanium. (c) Rhodium, as metal, from sulfate complex syrup
plated from alkaline stannate baths or from sul- Electroless Plating Electroless plating processes are used to
fate or fluoborate acid baths. Compositions and plate copper with gold and silver for decora-
operating conditions of tin electrolytes are given Electroless plating involves the reduction of a tive purposes. Nickel, gold, and silver are fre-
in Tables 18 to 20. Additional information can metal salt to its metallic state by electrons sup- quently applied to copper electronic compo-
be found in the article “Tin Plating” in Volume 5 plied from the simultaneous oxidation of a nents to prevent tarnishing during subsequent
of the ASM Handbook. reducing agent. The electroless plating solutions processing and to aid in the soldering of semi-
Tin-Copper Alloys. The 40 to 50% Sn alloy, are compounded so that the concentration of the conductors. Brass parts are plated with elec-
speculum metal, has been used as a decorative reducing salts, metal salts, buffering salts, and troless nickel for improved wear and corro-
coating because of its silverlike color. The the pH controls the rate of reduction of the metal sion resistance. Electroless tin plating has
bronze alloy coatings containing 10 to 20% Sn salt and of the oxidation of the reducing agent. If been used for copper tubes to prevent corro-
are producible to match the color of gold and these reactions are not controlled, the metal sion by carbonated waters.
have been used as decorative deposits for this deposit is reduced spontaneously to a fine pow- Activation Prior to Electroless Nickel
reason. Information on bronze plating is given in der. The metal to be plated acts as a catalyst and Plating. Once a copper alloy surface is clean
the article “Copper and Copper Alloy Coatings” localizes the deposit of the plate to the part itself. and oxide-free, it must be activated before elec-
in this Handbook. Electroless plating completely plates uniform troless nickel can deposit. To prevent reoxida-
Tin-lead alloys can be plated on copper deposits to any thickness desired over intricately tion, this activation should be initiated without
alloys in almost any proportion from a fluobo- shaped parts or assemblies and into deep recess- long intermediate delays. The preferred method
rate bath. An alloy of 7% Sn and 93% Pb has es and long tubular holes. Fine and close-fitting for initiating deposition is an electrolytic strike
been used for corrosion resistance, especially to threads can be plated uniformly over the entire in the electroless nickel bath. Using a nickel
sulfuric and chromic acids. The 60% Sn, 40% threaded area. anode, the parts are made cathodic at 5 V for 30
Pb eutectic alloy has excellent solderability and On copper-base materials, the process is lim- to 60 s. This applies a thin, electyrolytic nickel-
good electrical properties and corrosion resist- ited to the plating of nickel, tin, gold, and silver phosphorus coating and provides a catalytic sur-
ance. The eutectic alloy may be applied also by deposits. Solutions for plating these deposits face. After the current is removed, the electroless
hot dipping, but control of thickness is as diffi- are affected adversely by contaminants, such as deposition can continue.
cult as with hot dipping in pure tin. cyanides, lead, zinc, manganese, and cadmium. Another method for initiating electroless depo-
Compositions of solutions for plating 7Sn-93Pb Tin may render the nickel plating solution sition on copper alloy surfaces is to preplate sur-
and 60Sn-40Pb (solder) are given in Table 21. inoperative; therefore, tin-containing copper faces with electrolytic nickel. One disadvantage of
alloys must be plated with copper or gold this method is that blind holes, internal surfaces,
Table 17 Plating solutions for silver before final nickel coating is applied. Lead or low current density areas may not be coated by
Component/parameter Rack Barrel poses another problem for electroless nickel the strike, resulting in incomplete coverage or
Silver as KAg(CN)2, 15–40 (2.0–2.5) 5–20 (0.7–2.5) plating. Lead in amount of 0.5 to 10% is often unplated areas. The use of nickel chloride strikes
g/L (oz/gal) added to copper alloys to make them easier to also may result in chloride contamination of the
Potassium cyanide 12–120 (1.6–16) 25–75 (3.3–10) machine. Unless the free lead present on the electroless nickel bath through drag-in.
(free), g/L (oz/gal) surface of the part is removed, adhesion fail- A third method of activating copper alloys in
Potassium carbonate 15 (2.0) 15 (2.0)
(min), g/L (oz/gal) ures and coating porosity result. Surface lead is electroless nickel solutions is to touch them
Temperature, °C (°F) 20–30 (70–85) 15–25 (60–80) best removed by immersing parts for 30 s to 2 with a piece of steel or with another part already
Current density, 0.5–4.0 (5–40) 0.1–0.7 (1–7.5) min in a 10 to 30% solution of fluoboric acid at coated with electroless nickel after they have
A/dm2 (A/ft2) room temperature. been immersed in the bath. This creates a gal-
Table 18 Composition and operating conditions for stannate (alkaline) tin plating electrolytes
Values of composition are for electrolyte startup; operating limits for the electrolyte composition are approximately –10 to +10% of startup values
Composition Operating conditions
Potassium stannate Sodium stannate Potassium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide Tin metal(a) Temperature Cathode current density
Solution g/L oz/gal g/L oz/gal g/L oz/gal g/L oz/gal g/L oz/gal °C °F A/dm2 A/ft2
A 105 14 … … 15(b) 2(b) … … 40 5.3 66–88 150–190 3–10 30–100

B 210 28 … … 22 3 … … 80 10.6 77–88 170–190 0–16 0–160
C 420 56 … … 22 3 … … 160 21.2 77–88 170–190 0–40 0–400
D … … 105(c) 14 … … 10(b) 1.3(b) 42 5.6 60–82 140–180 0.5–3 6–30
(a) As stannate. (b) Free alkali may need to be higher for barrel plating. (c) Na2SnO3 · 3H2O; solubility in water is 61.3 g/L (8.2 oz/gal) at 16 °C (60 °F) and 50 g/L (6.6 oz/gal) at 100 °C (212 °F)
Table 19 Composition and operating Table 20 Composition and operating conditions for fluoborate tin (acidic) plating
conditions for sulfate (acidic) tin plating electrolyte
electrolyte
Constituent or condition Standard High-speed High throwing power
Amount Operating limits
Electrolyte, g/L (oz/gal)
Constituent g/L oz/gal g/L oz/gal Stannous fluoborate 200 (26.7) 300 (39.7) 75 (9.9)
Stannous sulfate 80 10.6 60–100 8–13 Tin metal(a) 80 (10.8) 120 (16.1) 30 (4.0)
Tin metal, as sulfate 40 5.3 30–50 4–6.5 Free fluoboric acid 100 (13.4) 200 (26.8) 300 (40.2)
Free sulfuric acid 50 6.7 40–70 5.3–9.3 Free boric acid 25 (3.35) 25 (3.35) 25 (3.35)
Phenolsulfonic acid(a) 40 5.3 30–60 4–8 Peptone(b) 5 (0.67) 5 (0.67) 5 (0.67)
-naphthol 1 0.13 1 0.13 -naphthol 1 (0.13) 1 (0.13) 1 (0.13)
Gelatin 2 0.27 2 0.27 Hydroquinone 1 (0.13) 1 (0.13) 1 (0.13)
Temperature, °C (°F) 16–38(c) (60–100)(c) 16–38 (60–100) 16–38 (60–100)
Note: Temperature range for sulfate electrolytes is 21 to 38 °C (70 to Cathode current density, A/dm2 (A/ft2) 2–20 (20–200) 2–20 (20–200) 2–20 (20–200)
100 °F), and they do not require heating. Cooling can be considered if
temperature rises to reduce adverse effects of heat on the electrolyte Note: The standard electrolyte composition is generally used for rack or still plating, the high-speed composition for applications like wire plating,
constituents. Cathode current density is 1 to 10 A/dm2 (10 to 100 A/ft2). and the high-throwing-power composition for barrel plating or applications where a great variance exists in cathode current density as a result of cath-
(a) Phenolsulfonic acid is most often used. Cresolsulfonic acid performs ode configuration. (a) As fluoborate. (b) Dry basis. (c) Electrolytes do not require heating. Cooling may be considered if temperature rises to reduce
equally well and is a constituent of some proprietary solutions. adverse effects of heat on the electrolyte constituents.
vanic cell, producing an electric current to initi- application of a lacquer. These clear coatings are pot lives. They are good for severe indoor
ate the electroless reaction. Deposition spreads organic chemicals formulated from various applications, but they degrade rapidly and
until the whole part is covered with electroless resins and additives that are usually applied in a darken in a few months of exterior service.
nickel. However, two problems can occur with solvent vehicle. They harden in air at room tem- • Silicone coatings. Silicones provide the best
galvanic activation: perature (air-drying lacquers) or with baking potential for coatings that must operate at ele-
(thermosetting lacquers). The performance of vated temperatures. Thin films of these high-
• Galvanic currents do not travel well around thermosetting or heat-cured lacquers is superior cost coatings are used, and protection by a sec-
sharp curves, such as those on threads or cor- to that of air-drying lacquers. The use of the ond coat of a more durable abrasion resistant
ners, and can leave bare spots or areas of thermosetting types is preferred if ovens are lacquer may be necessary. Ultraviolet absorb-
reduced thickness available. Distinction should be made, however, ing compounds are added to prevent darkening
• Passivation of the copper can occur before between true thermosetting and forced drying. of the silicone during exterior exposures.
the deposit spreads across the entire surface,
leading to poor adhesion.
All lacquers can be force dried after a suitable • Alkyd coatings. Slow drying or baking is
air-flash period to facilitate handling, but ther- required when applying the alkyd coatings.
More detailed information on preparing copper mosetting materials must be heated to an appro- Modified with melamine resins, these coat-
alloys for electroless nickel plating, bath compo- priate temperature, 120 to 205 °C (250 to ings are low cost and durable enough for
sitions and characteristics, and properties of 440 °F) or higher, for 5 to 60 min, to cross-link exterior applications. Resistance to chemicals
electroless nickel deposits can be found in the the polymers present in them and to develop is usually good.
article “Electroless Nickel Plating” in Volume 5 their inherent characteristics. • Urethane coatings. Color degradation on exte-
of the ASM Handbook. The catalytic activity of copper is such that rior exposure has been a problem with urethane
essentially complete curing of thermosetting lac- coatings. Resistance to chemicals and abrasion
Immersion Plating quers is obtained at temperatures lower than those are good even for the air drying coatings.
required with inert substrates. Consequently, • Cellulose acetate butyrate. Usually considered
Immersion plating, sometimes called galvanic many thermosetting lacquers discolor copper for interior applications, cellulose acetate
plating, depends on the position that the base alloys severely when heated to temperatures rec- butyrate coatings are air drying and have mod-
metal occupies in the electromotive series with ommended by their suppliers. Such discoloration erate cost and properties. They have a tenden-
respect to the metal to be deposited from solu- can be minimized by curing at lower temperatures. cy to darken during exterior applications.
tion. Plating occurs when the metal from a dis- Selection Criteria. Lacquers should be • Vinyl. Vinyl coatings require stabilization
solved metal salt is displaced by a more active, selected and applied on the basis of the intended against ultraviolet degradation. They are usu-
less noble metal that is immersed in the solution. service environment of a given product. For ally relatively soft and flexible coatings.
As the depositing metal is displaced from the exterior service, a dry film thickness of 38 to 50 • Polyvinyl fluoride (PVF) film. Applied by roll
bath, metal from the workpiece dissolves in the m (1.5–2 mils) is recommended. In less severe bonding with an adhesive, PVF films have
solution and becomes a contaminant in the bath. indoor service, a dry film thickness of about 13 been used to protect sheet copper in exterior
Depleted baths are never replenished, but are to 18 m (0.5–0.7 mil) performs satisfactorily. applications. It has been projected that these
replaced with fresh solution. Service characteristics of various resins used in clear films can protect a properly prepared
When immersion plating copper-base mate- lacquer formulations are listed below: substrate for twenty years or more.
rials, only those metals more noble than cop-
per can be displaced from solution, thereby • Nitrocellulose. Nitrocellulose coatings are the Coloring
limiting this process to metals such as gold least expensive and most common are drying
and silver. Immersion-plated deposits are thin, coatings for interior service. They are modified Copper-base materials may be surface treated
usually in the range of 0.050 to 0.50 m with alkyd or acrylic resins. Nitrocellulose to produce a variety of colors, ranging from dark
(0.002 to 0.02 mil). coatings are used in exterior applications; how- reds to black. The final color depends on base
Compositions and operating temperatures of ever, they are usually stripped and replaced at metal composition, solution composition,
solutions for immersion plating of gold and intervals of less than one year. They do not immersion time, and operator skill. Coloring is
silver are: have high resistance to chemicals, but they are primarily an art, and practical experience is nec-
fast drying and easy to use. essary to develop the skill required to produce
Gold plating • Acrylic. Available in air dying or thermoset- uniform finishes consistently. Copper alloys are
Potassium gold cyanide 4 g/L (1/2 oz/gal) ting compositions, acrylics are relatively high colored chemically to enhance the appearance of
Potassium or sodium cyanide 25 g/L (31/2 oz/gal cost materials. The air drying modifications a product, to provide an undercoating for subse-
Sodium carbonate 30 g/L (4 oz/gal) are popular for exterior applications, while the quent organic finishes as with brass, and to
Temperature of solution 60 to 80 °C (140 to 180 °F)
thermosetting types are useful for interior reduce light reflection in optical systems.
Silver plating applications requiring high resistance to heat Chemical coloring produces a thin layer of a
Silver cyanide 7.5 g/L (1 oz/gal) and abrasion. Since the thermosetting coatings compound on the surface of the base metal. This
Sodium or potassium 15 g/L (2 oz/gal) are not conveniently stripped, they are unsuit- layer retains some of the characteristics of the
Temperature of solution 18 to 38 °C (65 to 100 °F)
able for major architectural applications. metal surface prior to coloring, such as smooth
• Epoxy coatings. Epoxy coatings have excel- and lustrous or dull.
Organic Coatings lent resistance to wear and chemicals. They The procedures for artificial coloring of met-
are relatively expensive and are only avail- als utilize many of the reactions that occur more
Tarnishing or discoloration of copper alloys able in thermosetting or two part (catalyst slowly under natural conditions. Some colored
can be retarded or delayed indefinitely by the activated) compositions with relatively short films not found in nature can be produced artifi-
Table 21 Bath compositions and operating conditions for tin-lead plating

Conditions for operating include a cathode current density of 3 A/dm2 (30 A/ft2); anode to cathode ratio is 2 to 1; solution has maximum pH of 0.2 and is mildly agitated at a tem-
perature of 16 to 38 °C (60 to 100 °F); air agitation cannot be used because it will oxidize the tin.
Total tin Stannous tin Lead Free fluoboric acid Free boric acid Peptone
Anode
Constituent g/L oz/gal g/L oz/gal g/L oz/gal g/L oz/gal g/L oz/gal g/L oz/gal Composition
7Sn-93Pb 7.0 0.94 6.0 0.80 88.4 11.8 100.0 13.4 25 3.4 0.50 0.067 7Sn-93Pb
60Sn-40Pb 60.0 8.0 55.0 7.4 25.0 3.4 100.0 13.4 25 3.4 5.0 0.67 63Sn-37Pb
Table 22 Solutions for coloring copper alloys

Desired color Solution composition Process conditions Comments
Solutions for alloys containing 85% Cu

Dark red Molten potassium nitrate Temperature, 650–700 °C (1200–1300 °F); Parts must be lacquered.
immersion time,
20 s; hot water quench
Black(a) Solution A: liquid sulfur, 28 g (1 oz); sulfurated Room temperature Produces a dull black finish; a reddish
potash, 57 g (2 oz); ammonium hydroxide (sp gr bronze to dark brown finish can be obtained
0.89), 7 g ( 1/4 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal) by dry scratch brushing with a fine wire or
cloth wheel.
Solution B: sulfurated potash, 1.9 g/L … Solution strength should be adjusted to
( 1/4 oz/gal) of water blacken the part in approximately 1 min; too
rapid formation of coloring film can result
in a nonadherent and brittle film.
Solution C: potassium sulfide, 3.7–7.5 g/L Immersion time,
10 s Parts must be lacquered.
( 1/2 –1 oz/gal) of water
Steel black Arsenious oxide (white arsenic), 113 g (4 oz); Temperature of solution, 82 °C (180 °F) Immerse parts in the solution until a uniform
hydrochloric acid (sp gr 1.16), 240 cm3 (8 fl oz); color is obtained; scratch brush while wet,
water, 4 L (1 gal) then dry and lacquer.
Black anodizing Sodium hydroxide, 45 g (16 oz); water, Temperature, 82–99 °C (180–210 °F); current Adequate ventilation is required. After
4 L (1 gal) density, 0.2–1 A/dm2 (2–10 A/ft2); anode-to-cathode anodizing, the parts are washed in hot and
ratio, 1:1; voltage, 6 V; cathodes, steel, carbon, or cold water, rinsed in hot water, dried, buffed
graphite; anodizing time, 45 s to 3.75 min; tank lightly with a soft cloth wheel, and
material, steel lacquered, if desired.
Reddish bronze Sulfurated potash, 57 g (2 oz); sodium Temperature, 77 °C (170 °F); immersion time Parts are usually scratch brushed with a fine
to dark brown hydroxide, 85 g (3 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal) depends on final color desired wire wheel; lacquering is required.
(statuary bronze)
Verde antique Solution A: copper nitrate, 113 g (4 oz); … Verde antique finishes are also known as
ammonium chloride, 113 g (4 oz); calcium patina. They are stippled on brass or copper
chloride, 113 g (4 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal) and dried. Parts made of copper or copper
Solution B: acetic acid, 2 L ( gal); ammonium … plated are usually treated in a sulfide solution
chloride, 570 g (20 oz); sodium chloride, 200 g to produce a black base color, which results in
(7 oz); cream of tartar, 200 g (7 oz); copper a dark background. The use of sodium salts in
acetate, 200 g (7 oz); water, 2 L (gal) the verde antique solution results in a yellowish
color, while ammonium salts impart a bluish cast.
Stippling can be repeated, and when the antique
green color appears, immersion in boiling water
will produce several different color effects.
Other color effects are obtained by using some
dry colors such as light and dark chrome green,
burnt and raw sienna, burnt and raw umber, ivory
drop white, and drop black, or Indian red. After
coloring, the surface should be lacquered or waxed.
A semiglossy appearance of the lacquered surface
can be produced by brushing with paraffin,
beeswax, or carnuba wax on a goats-hair brush
rotated at about 750 rev/min.
Light brown Barium sulfide, 16 g (1/2 oz); ammonium Room temperature …
carbonate, 7 g (1/4 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal)
Brown Potassium chlorate, 155 g (51/2 oz); nickel Temperature, 90–100 °C (195–212 °F) …
sulfate, 78 g (23/4 oz); copper sulfate, 680 g
(24 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal)
Solutions for alloys containing <85% Cu
Black Solution A: copper sulfate, 85 g (3 oz); Brass parts are placed in oblique tumbling barrel Parts must be lacquered.
sodium thiosulfate, 170 g (6 oz); water, made of stainless steel. The parts are covered with
11–19 L (3–5 gal) water; the copper sulfate and sodium thiosulfate
are dissolved in warm water and added to the
contents of the barrel. The parts are tumbled for
15 to 30 min to obtain finish, the solution is
drained from barrel, and the parts are washed
thoroughly in clean water. The parts are then
removed from the barrel and dried in sawdust
or air blasted.
Solution B: copper carbonate, 16 g (1/2 oz); Temperature, 88–93 °C (190–200 °F) …
ammonium hydroxide (sp gr 0.89), 113 g (4 oz);
sodium carbonate, 7 g (1/4 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal)
Statuary bronze Copper carbonate, 16 g (1/2 oz); ammonium Temperature, 88–93 °C (190–200 °F). Immerse the Parts must be coated with clear lacquer.
hydroxide (sp gr 0.89), 113 g (4 oz); sodium parts in the hot solution for 10 s; rinse in cold water
carbonate, 7 g (1/4 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal) and dip in solution of dilute sulfuric acid; rinse in hot
and then cold water; clean with soft cloth or sawdust.
Blue black Copper carbonate, 0.45 kg (1 lb); ammonium Temperature, 54–79 °C (130–175 °F) Excess copper carbonate should be present; proper
hydroxide (sp gr 0.89), 1 L (1 qt); water, 3 L (3 qt) proper color should be obtained in 1 min. color should be obtained in 1 min.
Brown Part 1: copper sulfate, 113 g (4 oz); potassium Immerse parts in Part 1 for 1 min; without rinsing,
chlorate, 227 g (8 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal). Part 2: immerse parts in Part 2 for a short time; rinse in cold
liquid sulfur, 28 g (1 oz), or sulfurated potash, water; repeat dipping operation in both solutions until
57 g (2 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal) desired color is obtained; rinse work in hot water;
dry in hot sawdust or with an air blast; scratch
brush with fine wire wheel and lacquer.
(continued)
(a) Alloys blackened by these solutions include silicon bronzes; beryllium coppers; bronzes containing up to 8% Sn; phosphor bronzes of all types; and brasses, leaded or unleaded, with zinc contents up to 35%. Several other
proprietary processes are also available for producing a satisfactory black finish.
Table 22 (continued)
Desired color Solution composition Process conditions Comments
Solutions for alloys containing <85% Cu

Light brown Part 1: liquid sulfur, 14 g (1/2 oz), or sulfurated Immerse parts in Part 1; without rinsing, …
(old English potash, 28 g (1 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal). Part 2: immerse in Part 2; rinse in cold water; repeat dipping
finish) copper sulfate, 57 g (2 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal) operations until light color is obtained. For uniform
finish, scratch brush and repeat dipping operations
until desired color is obtained; rinse parts in cold
and hot water; dry in sawdust; scratch brush on a
fine wire wheel; and lacquer.
Antique green Nickel ammonium sulfate, 227 g (8 oz); sodium Temperature, 71 °C (160 °F) …
on brass thiosulfate, 227 g (8 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal)
Hardware green Ferric nitrate, 28 g (1 oz); sodium thiosulfate, 170 g Temperature, 71 °C (160 °F) …
on brass (6 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal)
Brown on Potassium chlorate, 155 g (51/2 oz); nickel sulfate, Temperature, 91–100 °C (195–212 °F) …
brass or copper 78 g (23/4 oz); copper sulfate, 680 g (24 oz); water,
4 L (1 gal)
Light brown on Barium sulfide, 14 g (1/2 oz); ammonium carbonate, … Color is made more clear by wet scratch
brass or copper 7 g (1/4 oz); water, 4 L (1 gal) brushing and redipping.
(a) Alloys blackened by these solutions include silicon bronzes; beryllium coppers; bronzes containing up to 8% Sn; phosphor bronzes of all types; and brasses, leaded or unleaded, with zinc contents up to 35%. Several other
proprietary processes are also available for producing a satisfactory black finish.
cially. Additional color combinations, such as obtained by relieving by scratch brushing with a Ingredient Parts by weight
oxidized and highlighted finishes, can be pro- slurry of fine pumice, hand rubbing with an Copper 30
duced by successive chemical and mechanical abrasive paste, mass finishing, or buffing to Nitric acid, concentrated 60
operations, to emphasize or to remove partially remove some or all of the colored film from the Acetic acid, 6% 600
the chemically colored film. highlights. Clear lacquers are usually necessary Ammonium chloride 11
Ammonium hydroxide 20
Coloring copper alloys is essentially a process for adequate life and service of chemical films (technical grade, 0.90 sp gr)
for coloring copper, because zinc and tin com- used as outdoor decorative finishes. Finishes for
pounds are colorless. These constituents and exposure indoors are often used without addi-
their concentrations greatly affect many of the tional protection to the conversion coating. When preparing the solution, copper is dis-
chemical reactions and color tones of the coat- solved in the nitric acid, and as soon as the
ings formed. A copper content of less than 85% action ceases, the remaining three constituents
is required to produce a good blue-black finish Passivation are added. The solution is allowed to stand sev-
on brass by an ammoniacal copper sulfate or eral days before use. Parts treated with this solu-
ammoniacal copper carbonate blackening or Passivation refers to the process of forming a tion are coated with linseed oil.
blue dip solution. Other solutions are more suit- protective film on metal. The blue-green patina
able for coloring high-copper alloys. of copper developed during atmospheric expo-
sure of copper alloys is a protective coating that ACKNOWLEDGMENT
After machining and mechanical surface
preparation have been completed, the parts is aesthetically pleasing. The patina may be arti-
This article was adapted from A.J. Brock,
should be thoroughly cleaned to remove dirt, oil, ficially produced or accelerated by a solution
Surface Engineering of Copper and Copper
grease, and oxide films. Cleaning is important having the formulation:
Alloys, Surface Engineering, Volume 5, ASM
for the development of a uniform film in chemi- Handbook, ASM International, 1994, p
cal coloring. The cleaning and deoxidizing pro- Ammonium sulfate 2.7 kg (6 lb)
Copper sulfate 85 g (3 oz) 805–818
cedures should be selected so that the structure Ammonia (technical grade, 39.6 cm3 (1.34 fl oz)
of the metal at the surface undergoes a minimum 9.90 sp gr)
of undesirable change. Acid dipping or bright Water 25 L (6.5 gal) SELECTED REFERENCES
dipping using nitric-sulfuric acid solution may Total solution 27 L (7.3 gal)
be necessary to remove oxides and to activate • Lawrence J. Durney, Ed., Electroplating
the surface for chemical coloring. A certain A fine spray of the solution should be applied Engineering Handbook, 4th ed., Van
amount of trial and error is usually required to to a chemically clean surface. The film should Nostrand Reinhold, 1984
establish the most suitable techniques for sur- be permitted to dry before the part is sprayed a • David Fishlock, Metal Coloring, Robert
face preparation. second time. Five or six repetitions of the spray- Draper Ltd., 1970
Coloring Solutions. Many types of chemical ing and drying sequence are required. The color • Metal Finishing Guidebook and Directory,
solutions are used for coloring copper alloys. begins to develop in about 6 h and at first is Elsevier Science Publishing (latest edition)
The formulations and conditions commonly somewhat bluer than natural patina. A more • Samuel Spring, Metal Cleaning, Reinhold
used in commercial applications to produce col- attractive color develops as the surface is 1963
ors are given in Table 22. exposed to natural weathering. • Surface Preparation and Finishes for Metals,
Post Treatment. Many chemical films must Small copper parts may be coated with an McGraw-Hill, 1971
be scratch brushed to remove excess or loose imitation patina by dipping them in or brushing • Understanding Copper Alloys, Winchester
deposits. In addition, contrast in colors can be them with the following solution: Press, 1977
Metallography, Microstructures, and
Phase Diagrams
Metallography and Microstructures of Copper and Macroexamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Microexamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Microstructures of Beryllium-Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Macroexamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Microexamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Solidification Structures of Copper Alloy Ingots . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Metallography and Microstructures of Dendrites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

Beryllium-Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Ingot Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Specimen Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Phase Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Metallography and Microstructures of
COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS present Mounting. In general, the procedures for remove metal that has been cold worked fol-
no extraordinary problems to the metallograph- mounting copper and copper alloy specimens lowed by finish grinding to obtain a suitable sur-
er, and specimens (both wrought and cast) are are the same as those for other metals. Coppers face. Finish grinding is performed using flat
prepared in much the same way as those of other and copper alloys are extremely susceptible to wheels and silicon carbide papers of progres-
metals (Ref 1, 2). This article discusses metallo- work hardening; therefore, when possible, the sively finer grit—usually 240, 320, 400, and
graphic preparation for macro- and microexami- face used for examination should be the one that 600. Ultrafine 800- and 1200-grit papers are
nation. The micrographs that follow the text has been subjected to the least cutting. sometimes used.
illustrate the effects of alloying elements, heat Bakelite (Georgia Pacific Corp.) is the An acceptable alternative to wet grinding is to
treatment, percentages of reduction by rolling, mounting material most often used. Diallyl dry grind on belts having progressively finer grit
welding and brazing, corrosion, and powder phthalate, glass or fiber filled, is a suitable alter- sizes (180, 240, and 320 grit), then to hand pol-
metallurgy (P/M) processing. native to Bakelite. Methyl methacrylate is soft- ish on progressively finer emery papers (1, 0, 00,
er than Bakelite and thus is not as good for edge 000, and 0000). Wet grinding is recommended;
Macroexamination preservation. However, its transparency is during either procedure, the specimen should
sometimes advantageous. always be rotated 90° before grinding using the
Specimens for macroscopic examination are The combination of heat and pressure needed next finer grit size.
extracted from larger masses using common cut- for compression-mounting materials will some- Rough Polishing. Most coppers and copper
ting tools. The tools must be kept sharp to mini- times crush or adversely affect specimens, espe- alloys are relatively soft and so require a polish-
mize cold working of the specimen. cially those of thin sheet or strip. Under these ing medium that provides maximum cutting
Surface Preparation. Surfaces suitable for conditions, one of the epoxies or some other with minimum rubbing. Rough polishing should
macroetching usually can be obtained in two castable mounting material must be used. Edge be performed using diamond-impregnated nylon
machining operations. In the first operation, a preservation of copper and copper alloy speci- cloth. Duck canvas, wool broadcloth, and cotton
heavy cut is taken to remove the metal that was mens can be accomplished by the same methods (listed in order of decreasing preference) are
cold worked during sectioning; in the second, a used for specimens of other metals. also used for polishing.
light cut is taken using a V-shape tool to remove Grinding. Wet grinding is preferred for all The preferred abrasive for rough polishing on
the remaining effects of cold work. coppers and copper alloys. Common practice any of the cloths mentioned above is 3- to 9-m
The need for further surface preparation involves rough grinding the specimen surface to diamond paste. However, 400-grit or finer alu-
depends on the amount of detail required. The
surface detail revealed by etching increases as Table 1 Etchants for macroscopic examination of coppers and copper alloys
the degree of surface irregularity decreases. The
Procedure for use: immerse at room temperature, rinse in warm water, dry
machined surface is often ground using 180-grit
or finer abrasive—sometimes as fine as 600 grit. Composition Copper or copper alloys Comments
Etching. Deep etching removes the effects of 1. 50 mL HNO3, 0.5 g AgNO3 All coppers and copper alloys Produces a brilliant,
cold work, but produces a rough surface; there- (silver nitrate), 50 mL H2O deep etch
fore, it is common practice to deep etch the 2. 10 mL HNO3 and 90 mL H2O Coppers and all brasses Grains; cracks and other defects
3. 50 mL HNO3 and 50 mL H2O(a) Coppers, all brasses, Same as above;
machined or rough-ground surface, regrind it aluminum bronze(b) reveals grain contrast
lightly, then etch it lightly. 4. 30 mL HCl, 10 mL FeCl3, Coppers and all brasses Same as etchant above(c)
Selection of an etchant for a macrospecimen 120 mL H2O or methanol
depends primarily on the alloy to be etched and 5. 20 mL acetic acid, 10 mL 5% CrO3, All brasses Produces a brilliant, deep etch
5 mL 10% FeCl3, 100 mL H2O(d)
the features to be examined. Because the capa- 6. 2 g K2Cr2O7, 4 mL saturated Coppers, high-copper alloys, Grain boundaries,
bilities of two or more etchants often overlap or solution of NaCl, 8 mL H2SO4, phosphor bronze oxide inclusions
are the same, selection of a specific etchant is 100 mL H2O(e)
arbitrary. Table 1 lists compositions of the more 7. 40 g CrO3, 7.5 g NH4Cl (ammonium Silicon brass, silicon bronze General macrostructure
chloride), 50 mL HNO3, 8 mL
commonly used macroetchants, along with etch- H2SO4, 100 mL H2O
ing procedures, purposes of the etchants or char- 8. 45 mL acetic acid and 45 mL HNO3 Copper Grain boundary and macroetch
acteristics revealed, and alloys for which they by polish attack
are ordinarily used. 9. Saturated (HN4)2S2O8 Copper and copper alloys Use after the acetic acid
(ammonium persulfate) listed above; increases
contrast of brass
Microexamination 10. 40 mL HNO3, 20 mL acetic acid, Copper and copper alloys Macroetch 90-10, 70-30
40 mL H2O and leaded brass
Specimens of copper and copper alloys for
microscopic examination are extracted from (a) Solution should be agitated during etching to prevent pitting of some alloys. (b) Aluminum bronzes may form smut, which can be removed by
brief immersion in concentrated HNO3. (c) Excellent for grain contrast. (d) Amount of water can be varied as desired. (e) Immerse specimen 15-30
larger masses by sawing, shearing, filing, hollow min; then swab with fresh solution.
boring, or abrasive-wheel cutting.
338 / Metallography, Microstructures, and Phase Diagrams
mina (Al2O3) used with distilled water as the ing the usual advantages over mechanical pol- are generally based on conditions where elec-
vehicle is usually an acceptable alternative. A ishing of saving time, minimizing the human trolytic polishing completely replaces mechani-
wheel speed of approximately 200 rpm is gener- variable, and minimizing artifacts resulting from cal polishing. Useful results may be obtained
ally recommended. disturbed metal, electrolytic polishing offers when mechanical polishing is followed by elec-
Finish Polishing. Generally, napped cloths some advantages for copper and copper alloys: trolytic polishing. Durations for electrolytic pol-
are preferred for finish polishing. The abrasive is ishing are then always under 1 min.
usually 0.3 m -Al2O3 or 0.05 m -Al2O3; • It is excellent for revealing grain size and Examination of As-Polished Specimens.
shape on all sides of specimens.
both abrasives are used with water as a vehicle. As-polished specimens of coppers and copper
Other abrasives that have proved satisfactory for • It is especially well adapted to use on single- alloys are frequently examined metallograph-
phase copper alloys.
finish polishing are magnesium oxide (MgO) in ically. Characteristics revealed include the
distilled water, ferric oxide (Fe2O3), colloidal • It reveals true microstructure with less diffi- presence of oxide in as-cast copper, lead par-
culty than mechanical polishing.
silica (SiO2), and fine diamond paste. ticles and cavities in cast red brass, oxides in
Recommended wheel speed is 150 to 200 rpm. Disadvantages of electrolytic polishing for zirconium copper, and corrosion in brazed
Specimen rotation during polishing elicits copper and copper alloys include: joints. As-polished specimens are used also
numerous opinions. Hand polishing necessitates for microprobe examinations. Specimens are
developing a personal technique that may • Different rates of attack cause some phases of also examined under polarized light to differ-
multiphase alloys to stand out in relief.
require a degree of manual dexterity; mechani- entiate cuprous oxide (Cu2O) inclusions from
cal polishing gives more reproducible results • The edge effect of electrolytic polishing, other inclusions. Under polarized light, only
whereby edges of specimens are attacked and
and is preferred. the Cu2O inclusions appear ruby red; under
polished more than other areas, limits appli-
After polishing, the specimen is rinsed in white light, copper oxide and other inclusions
cation of the process to examination of sur-
water and dried with warm air. Automatic polish- appear blue-gray. Oxides of arsenic and anti-
faces in from the edges.
ing (usually vibratory) has proved highly suc- mony also are optically active under polar-
cessful for polishing copper alloys. Automatic • Attack around nonmetallic particles, voids,
ized light.
and inclusions in the specimen may occur at
polishing greatly minimizes human variables. Chemical Etching. Table 3 lists chemical
a more rapid rate than attack of the matrix,
Attack polishing (combined polishing and etch- etchants that are used for coppers and copper
and so the size of voids or inclusions may be
ing) using ferric nitrate Fe(NO3)3 or ammonium alloys and includes etching procedures and the
exaggerated.
hydroxide/ammonium persulfate [NH4OH- alloys to which each etchant is commonly
(NH4)2S2O8] solution can be more safely per- Table 2 lists compositions of some electropo- applied. The ammonium hydroxide/hydrogen
formed using automatic equipment than by hand. lishing solutions, together with electropolishing peroxide/water solution (etchant 1, Table 3) is
Electrolytic polishing of coppers and copper conditions that have proved satisfactory for the by far the most widely used etchant. It is proba-
alloys alleviates many of the difficulties encoun- coppers and copper alloys shown in the last col- bly optimal for routine work and applies to most
tered in mechanical polishing. Apart from offer- umn in the table. The durations listed in Table 2 coppers and copper alloys. This etchant was
Table 2 Electrolytes and conditions for electrolytic polishing of copper and copper alloys
Current density
Composition Voltage A/cm2 A/in.2 Cathode Duration Copper or copper alloy
1. 825 mL H3PO4 1.0–1.6 0.02–0.1 0.13–0.65 Copper 10–40 min Unalloyed copper
and 175 mL H2O
2. 250 mL H3PO4, 3–6 0.4–0.8 2.6–5.2 Stainless steel 50 s Coppers and copper alloys
250 mL ethanol,
50 mL propanol, 500 mL
distilled H2O, 3 g urea
3. 700 mL H3PO4 and 1.2–2.0 0.06–0.1 0.39–0.64 Copper 15–30 min Coppers; , , and -
350 mL H2O brasses; aluminum, silicon,
tin; and phosphor bronzes;
beryllium, iron, lead, or chromium
4. 580 g H4P2O7 and 1.2–1.9 0.08–0.12 0.05–0.77 Copper 10–15 min Coppers, brasses
1000 mL H2O
5. 300 mL HNO3 and 20–70 0.65–3.1 4.2–20.0 Stainless 10–60 s Coppers, brasses
600 mL methanol 30–50 2.5–3.1 16.1–51.0 Stainless 5–10 s Silicon bronze, phosphor bronze
6. 170 g CrO3 1.5–12 0.95–2.2 6.1–14.2 Stainless 10–60 s Brasses
and 830 mL
H2O
7. 400 mL 1.0–2.0 0.06–0.15 0.39–0.97 Copper or stainless 1–15 min , - brasses; copper-iron, copper-chromium
H3PO4 and
600 mL H2O
8. 30 mL HNO3, 45–50 1.05–1.25 6.77–8.1 Stainless 15 s Bronzes (have tendency to etch)
900 mL methanol,
300 g Cu(NO3)2
(cupric nitrate)
9. 670 mL H3PO4, 2–3 0.1 0.64 Copper 15 min Copper; copper-tin containing up to 6% Sn
100 mL H2SO4,
and 300 mL
distilled H2O
10. 470 mL H3PO4, 2–2.3 0.1 0.64 Copper 15 min Copper-tin up to 9% Sn
200 mL H2SO4,
400 mL distilled H2O
11. 350 mL H3PO4 and 2–5 0.02–0.07 0.13–0.45 Copper 10–15 min Copper alloys with high lead (to 30%)
650 mL ethanol
12. 540 mL 2 0.065–0.075 0.4–0.5 Copper 5–15 min Copper
H3PO4 and 2–2.2 0.1–0.15 0.64–0.97 Copper 15 min Nickel silver
460 mL H2O
Metallography and Microstructures of Copper and Copper Alloys / 339
used for many of the specimens shown in the other etchants listed in Table 3 have limited uses, citric acid/24 g lead acetate/1000 mL water) for
micrographs in this article. This etchant is also although some are used for the same alloys and copper and copper alloys. Recommended prac-
widely used for determining the inclusion con- structures as the etchants discussed previously. tices for copper color metallography can be
tent of brass and bronze strip. Tint etchants for color metallography of cop- found in Ref 2 and 3.
The potassium dichromate/sulfuric acid/sodi- per and copper alloys have also been developed. Electrolytic etching reveals cold-worked
um chloride/water etchant (usually referred to These include Klemm’s reagent I (50 mL satu- structures of brasses, gives contrast to phase in
simply as potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7; see rated aqueous sodium thoisulfate/1 g potassium brass, and, in copper-nickel alloys, reduces the
etchant 4 in Table 3) is also used extensively, metabisulfite) for brasses, Klemm’s reagent II contrast due to coring that usually appears with
especially for revealing structures of welded and (50 mL saturated aqueous sodium thiosulfate/5 g chemical etching. It is also used to bring out the
brazed joints. potassium metabisulfite) for alpha brasses, general structure of beryllium copper, cartridge
Chromic acid (H2CrO4, etchant 5 in Table 3) is Klemm’s reagent III (5 mL saturated aqueous brass, free-cutting brass, aluminum bronze,
also prevalent. For the micrographs shown in this sodium thiosulfite/45 mL water/20 g potassium nickel silver, and admiralty metal. Table 4 lists
article, it was used for electrodeposited copper, metabisulfite) for bronzes, and Baraha’s lead five electrolytes that have proved successful for
nickel silver, and brazed joints in copper. The sulfide etchant (240 g sodium thiosulfate/30 g electrolytic etching.
Table 3 Etchants and procedures for microetching of coppers and copper alloys
Composition(a) Procedure Copper or copper alloy
1. 20 mL NH4OH, 0–20 mL H2O, Immersion or swabbing 1 min; H2O2 Use fresh for coppers and copper alloys; film on etched
8–20 mL 3% H2O2 content varies with copper content of ally aluminum bronze can be removed using weak Grard’s
to be etched; use fresh H2O2 for best results(b) solution, preferred for brasses
2. 1 g Fe(NO3)3 and 100 mL H2O Immersion Etching and attack polishing of coppers and alloys
3. 25 mL HN4OH, 25 mL H2O, Immersion Attack polishing of coppers and some copper alloys
50 mL 2.5% (NH4)2S2O8
4. 2 g K2Cr2O7, 8 mL H2SO4, Immersion; NaCl replaceable by 1 drop HCl per 25 mL Coppers; copper alloys of beryllium, manganese, and silicon;
4 mL NaCl (saturated solution), solution; add just before using; follow with FeCl3 or nickel silver; bronzes, chromium copper; preferred for all
100 mL H2O other contrast etch coppers to reveal grain boundaries, grain contrast,
and cold deformation
5. CrO3 (saturated aqueous solution) Immersion or swabbing Coppers, brasses, bronzes, nickel silver
6. 50 mL 10–15% CrO3 and 1–2 drops HCl Immersion; add HCl at time of use Same as above; color by electrolytic etching or with
FeCl3 etchants
7. 8 g CrO3, 10 mL HNO3, 10 mL Immersion or swabbing Grain contrast etch for ETP copper, does not dissolve Cu2O;
H2SO4, 200 mL H2O use after etchant 3 when etching deoxidized high-
phosphorus copper for microstructure
8. 10 g (NH4)2S2O8 and 90 mL H2O Immersion; use cold or boiling Coppers, brasses, bronzes, nickel silver, and aluminum bronze
9. 10% aqueous copper ammonium chloride Immersion; wash specimen thoroughly Coppers, brasses, nickel silver; darkens in - brass
plus NH4OH to neutrality or alkalinity
10. FeCl3, g HCl, mL H2O, mL Immersion or swabbing; etch lightly or by successive Coppers, brasses, bronzes, aluminum bronze; darkens b phase
5 50 100 light etches to required results in brass; gives contrast following dichromate and other etches
20 5 100(c)(d)
25 25 100
1 20 100
8 25 100
5 10 100(e)(f)
11. 5 g FeCl3, 100 mL ethanol, 5–30 mL HCl Immersion or swabbing for 1 s to several minutes Coppers and copper alloys; darkens phase in - brasses and
aluminum brass
12. HNO3 (various concentrations) Immersion or swabbing; 0.15–0.3% AgNO3 added to Coppers and copper alloys
1:1 solution gives a brilliant, deep etch
13. NH4OH (dilute solutions) Immersion Attack polishing of brasses and bronzes
14. 50 mL HNO3, 20 g CrO3, 75 mL H2O Immersion Aluminum bronze free-cutting brass; film from polishing can
be removed with 10% HF
15. 5 mL HNO3, 20 g CrO3, 75 mL H2O Immersion Same as above
16. 59 g FeCl3 and 96 mL ethanol Immersion; heat sample first in hot H2O Macro- and microetch for annealed copper-nickel alloys
17. 16 g CrO3, 1.8 g NH4Cl (ammonium Immersion Preferred etch for copper-nickel; preferential attack of
chloride), 10 mL HNO3, 200 mL H2O copper-rich phase in castings
18. 5 parts HNO3, 5 parts acetic acid, 1 part H3PO4 Immersion, 3 s Coppers, brasses
19. Equal parts HN4Cl and H2O Immersion Coppers and alloys
20. 60 g FeCl3, 20 g Fe(NO3)3, 2000 mL H2O Immersion Copper-nickel alloys
21. 1 part acetic acid, 1 part HNO3, 2 parts acetone Immersion Copper-nickel alloys
(a) The use of concentrated etchants is intended unless otherwise specified. (b) This etchant may be alternated with FeCl3. (c) Grard’s No. 1 etchant. (d) Plus 1 g CrO3. (e) Grard’s No 2 etchant. (f) Plus 1 g CuCl2 and 0.05
g SnCl2 (tin chloride)
Table 4 Electrolytes and operating conditions for electrolytic etching of copper and copper alloys
Composition Operating conditions Copper or copper alloy
1. 5–14% H3PO4 (8%) and rem H2O Voltage range, 1–8; etching time, 5–10 s Coppers, cartridge brass, free-cutting brass, admiralty, gilding
metal
2. 250 mL 85% H3PO4, 250 mL 95% ethanol, Voltage range, 1–3; current density, 0.1–0.15 A/cm2 Coppers
500 mL H2O, 2 mL wetting agent (0.64–0.97 A/in.2); etching time, 30–60 s
3. 30 g FeSO4 (ferrous sulfate), 4 g NaOH, 0.1 A at 8–10 V for 15 s; do not swab surface Darkens phase in brasses and gives contrast after H2O2-
100 mL H2SO4, 1900 mL H2O after etching NH4OH etch; also for nickel silver and bronzes
4. 1 mL CrO3 and 99 mL H2O 6 V; aluminum cathode; etching time, 3–6 s Beryllium copper and aluminum bronze
5. 5 mL acetic acid (glacial), 10 mL HNO3 Voltage range 0.5–1 V; current density, 0.2–0.5 A/cm2 Copper-nickel alloys; avoiding contrast associated with coring
30 mL H2O (1.3–1.9 A/in.2); etching time, 5–15 s
Examination for Inclusions. Microscopic with NH4 OH-H 2O2 (etchant 1, Table 3), fol- REFERENCES
examination has become increasingly valu- lowed by washing it in running water and
able for evaluating the fabrication character- drying with an air blast. 1. Metallography and Microstructures, Vol 9,
istics of certain copper alloys, particularly ASM Handbook, ASM International, 1985
brass and bronze sheet and strip. A correla- 2. G.F. Vander Voort, Metallography: Principles
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
tion exists between the number of inclusions and Practice, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
present, as well as their length and distribu- This article was adapted from R.E. 1984 (now available from ASM International)
tion, and fabrication characteristics, espe- Ricksecker and T.F. Bower, Copper and Copper 3. G.F. Vander Voort, Copper Color
cially formability. Inclusions are best Alloys, Metallography and Microstructures, Vol Metallography, Adv. Mater. Process., July
revealed by swabbing the specimen quickly 9, ASM Handbook, 1985, p 399 to 414. 2000, p 36–40
Fig. 1 Alloy C11000 (ETP copper), static cast. Excellent Fig. 2 Same material as Fig. 1, but at higher magnifica- Fig. 3 Same material as Fig. 1, static cast. Grains from
definition of dendritic structure. Etchant 10, tion to show detail of dendritic structure. Etchant the chilled bottom grew through the dendrite
Table 3. 5 . (J. Bartholomew) 4, Table 3. 75 . (J. Bartholomew) "skeletons," producing a mixed grain structure. Etchant 10,
Table 3. 3
Fig. 4 Alloy C12200 (DHP copper). Longitudinal sec- Fig. 5 Same alloy as Fig. 4. Transverse section shows the Fig. 6 Alloy C36000 (free-cutting brass), as-cast. Solid-
tion of static-cast ingot showing columnar struc- cross section of the columnar structure and a grain state transformation makes this structure appear
ture. Pouring direction was from top to bottom. Etchant boundary. Etchant 4, then etchant 1, Table 3. 50 . (J. Dibee) unlike an as-cast structure. Etchant 1, Table 3. 50 . (J.
10, Table 3. 2 . (J. Dibee) Bartholomew)
Fig. 7 Same material as Fig. 6, with Fig. 8 Same alloy as Fig. 6, with Fig. 9, 10 Same alloy as Fig. 6, semicontinuous cast. Fig. 9: -phase dendrites in the
primary dendrites of phase phase darkened by preferential columnar zone near the outside edge of the ingot. Fig. 10: mixed - and -
darkened. Lead appears as small sphe- attack of the etchant. In this case, phase phase dendrites near the center of the ingot. Etchant 1, Table 3. 30
roids. Etchant 1, Table 3. 50 . (J. Dibee) is formed in the solid state during cooling.
Etchant 16, Table 3. 50 . (J. Dibee)
Fig. 11 Alloy C26000 (cartridge brass), annealed. Fig. 12 Alloy C68700 (arsenical aluminum brass), Fig. 13 Alloy C46400 (uninhibited naval brass), as-
Polarized light illumination was used to annealed. Structure is -brass, with the alu- cast. Transverse macrosection showing the
increase contrast of the microstructure. Etchant 18, then minum in solid solution. Etchant 18, Table 3. 55 . (J. columnar structure of the outer edges of the casting that
etchant 19, Table 3. 55 . (J. Dibee) Dibee) result from more rapid cooling near the surface of the cast-
ing. Etchant 12, Table 3. 1.5 . (J. Dibee)
Fig. 14 Same specimen as Fig. 13, except at higher Fig. 15 Alloy C68700 (arsenical aluminum brass), as- Fig. 16 Same as Fig. 15, except at higher magnifica-
magnification to reveal dendritic microstruc- cast. Macrosection showing typical dendritic tion to reveal more detail of the structure.
ture. Etchant 1, then etchant 16, Table 3. 30 . (J. Dibee) structure. See Fig. 16 for detail. Etchant 18, then etchant Same etchants as Fig. 15. 75 . (J. Dibee)
16, Table 3. 4 . (J. Dibee)
Fig. 17 Alloy C71500 (copper-nickel, 30% Ni), as- Fig. 18 Alloy C26000 (cartridge brass), cast, slowly Fig. 19 Same alloy and processing as Fig. 18. Higher
cast. Longitudinal section showing columnar cooled, and quenched. Primary dendrites magnification shows that fine dendrites origi-
structure near the surface of the billet. The grains are aligned in 100
crystallographic directions. The fine, nate in the coarse ones and have the same orientation.
inclined upward from horizontal by up to 30° due to con- quenched structure has the same orientation as the coarse Dendrites starting in directions that are not 100
do not
vection in the initial state of freezing. Etchant 18, then dendrites. Etchant 1, Table 3, then electropolished with grow very far. Same etchant and electrolyte as Fig. 18.
etchant 16, Table 3. 0.3 . (J. Bartholomew) electrolyte 1, Table 2. 30 . (J. Dibee) 85 . (J. Dibee)
Fig. 20 Alloy C70600 (copper-nickel, 10% Fig. 21 Alloy C46400 (uninhibited Fig. 22 Alloy C18200 (chromium copper, 0.8% Cr), solutionized 5 min at
Ni), semicontinuous cast. naval brass), extruded, drawn, 1010 °C (1850 °F). Solutionizing increases solubility of chromium,
Microstructure shows the distinct segregation of and annealed. Structure shows twinned which gives higher hardness after quenching and aging. However, if all chromium
the copper-rich phase (dark) and the nickel-rich grains resulting from annealing. Etchant goes into solid solution, uncontrolled grain growth results, starting where there is
phase (light). Etchant 17, Table 3. 50 . (J. Dibee) 16, Table 3. 300 . (J. Dibee) the most cold work before heat treatment (right). Excessive grain growth embrittles
grain boundaries; temperature, chromium content, cold work, and time at temper-
ature must be controlled to prevent complete solution of chromium and uncon-
trolled grain growth. 0.45 . (T. Cobb)
Fig. 23, 24, 25, 26 The effect of oxygen content on the microstructure of as-cast, copper-oxygen alloys. Oxygen contents less than 0.39% result in primary dendrites of copper (light)
plus eutectic (mottled areas of small, round oxide in copper). Fig. 23: 0.024% O. Fig. 24: 0.05% O. Fig. 25: 0.09% O. Fig. 26: 0.18% O. As-polished. 100
Fig. 27, 28, 29, 30 Same as Fig. 23 to 26. Fig. 27: 0.23% O. Fig. 28: 0.32% O. Figures 29 and 30, containing more than 0.39% O, have structures consisting of particles or den-
drites of oxide (dark) and eutectic. Fig. 29: 0.44% O. Fig. 30: 0.50% O. As-polished. 100
Fig. 31, 32, 33, 34 Same as Fig. 23 to 26, with dark oxide dendrites in a eutectic matrix. Fig. 31: 0.60% O. Fig. 32: 0.70% O. Fig. 33: 0.78% O. Fig. 34: 0.91% O. As-pol-
ished. 100
Fig. 35 Copper C10200 (OF copper), hot-rolled bar. Fig. 36 Same as Fig. 35, cold worked, annealed 30 min Fig. 37 Same as Fig. 35, hot-rolled bar, heated 1 h in
Large, equiaxed, twinned grains. Etchant 1, at 850 °C (1560 °F). Equiaxed, recrystallized air to 665 °C (1225 °F). Specimen from near
Table 3. 100 grains, containing twinned areas. Etchant 4, Table 3. 250 surface shows Cu2O (dark dots) caused by oxygen pene-
tration during heating. Etchant 1, Table 3. 250
Fig. 38 Copper C11000 (ETP copper) hot-rolled rod. Fig. 39 Same as Fig. 38. Longitudinal section shows Fig. 40 Same as Fig. 38, extruded rod. Longitudinal
Transverse section shows equiaxed grains and equiaxed grains and well-dispersed, slightly elon- section showing equiaxed grains and dis-
dispersion of Cu2O particles. Etchant 4, Table 3. 250 gated Cu2O particles (dark dots). Etchant 4, Table 3. 250 persed Cu2O (dark dots). Etchant 4, Table 3. 400
Fig. 41 Same as Fig. 38, heated in hydrogen. Fig. 42 Same as Fig. 38, heated to 850 °C (1560 °F) in Fig. 43 Copper C12500 (FRTP copper) hot-rolled strip
Hydrogen diffused into the copper, reacted an atmosphere containing hydrogen. Structure 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) thick. Structure consists of
with Cu2O at the grain boundaries, formed steam, and shows same voids as Fig. 41. Etchant 4, Table 3. 250 twinned grains of copper, with stringers of Cu2O particles
forced the copper grains apart, causing embrittlement and resulting from segregation of the oxide in the ingot during
porosity. See also Fig. 42. Etchant 4, Table 3. 75 casting. Etchant 1, Table 3. 200
Fig. 44 Copper C12200 (DHP copper). Internal Fig. 45 Same metal as Fig. 44. Lap defect in the fin of a con- Fig. 46 Same as Fig. 45. Lap defect between fins of a
oxidation (presence of dark dots of P2O5). denser tube. Lap was caused by tool misalignment condenser tube, caused by tool misalignment
Etchant 4, Table 3. 75 during the rolling of fins in the tube. Etchant 4, Table 3. 75 during fin rolling. Etchant 4, Table 3. 75
Fig. 47 Copper C14520 (DPTE copper) Fig. 48 Copper C14700 (sulfur-bear- Fig. 49 Alloy C17200 (beryllium cop- Fig. 50 Same alloy and processing as
hot-rolled and drawn rod. Dark ing copper) rod, cold worked per), solution treated 10 min Fig. 49, but aged 3 h at 360 °C
particles elongated in the rolling direction to 50% reduction. Transverse section at 790 °C (1450 °F) and water quenched. (600 °F) after solution treatment. Typical
are copper telluride, which improves shows dispersion of round particles of Typical hardness is 62 HRB. Structure is hardness is 37 HRC. Copper-beryllium
machinability. Etchant, 7, Table 1. 250 CuS, which improves machinability. equiaxed grains of supersaturated solid precipitate at grain boundaries and within
Etchant 7, Table 1. 200 solution of beryllium in copper. Etchant 3, grains. Etchant 3, Table 3. 300
Table 3. 300
Fig. 51 Same alloy and processing as Fig. 49, except Fig. 52 Copper C11000 (ETP copper) cold-rolled bar, Fig. 53 Edge of fusion zone of weld in Fig. 52. Gas
reduced 11% by cold rolling to quarter-hard annealed approximately 1 h by holding at porosity (dark areas) in fusion zone (upper left)
temper. Typical hardness is 79 HRB. Alpha grains are elon- 375 °C (705 °F), then tungsten arc welded in two passes and in the heat-affected zone (bottom right). Etchant 1,
gated in the direction of rolling. Etchant 3, Table 3. 300 using straight-polarity direction current and copper 11000 Table 3. 25
filler metal. See Fig. 53 for structure details at the fusion
zone edge. Etchant 1, Table 3. 2
Next Page
Fig. 54 Copper C10100 (OFE copper) Fig. 55 Alloy C70600 (copper-nickel,

bar, electron beam welded 10% Ni), 2.3 mm (0.090 in.)
without filler metal. Columnar grains in thick. Laser welded to 1020 steel base.
fusion zone (middle) and original equiaxed Weld made with 2.0 kW of laser input
grains in base metal. The scattered black energy at travel speed of 17 to 25.4 mm/s
dots along the edge of the fusion zone are (40 to 60 in./min). No melting of the steel
gas porosity. Etchant 2, Table 3. 35 base occurred. Etchant 21, Table 3. 15
Fig. 56 Copper C10100 (OFE copper) Fig. 57 Same as Fig. 56, brazed with
brazed with BCuP-5 filler BAg-8a filler metal. Silver-
metal. Silver-copper-phosphorus eutectic copper eutectic (mottled gray) in the joint,
(mottled gray) in the joint, with large den- with small dendrites of copper solid solu-
drites of copper solid solution (light gray) tion (dark) extending into the joint from
extending into the joint from the grains of the unalloyed base metal. Grains of unal-
unalloyed base metal. Grains of unalloyed copper in the base metal are
loyed copper in the base metal are medi- extremely large. Etchant 5, Table 3. 70 Fig. 58 Same alloy as Fig. 55, except 2.5 mm (0.1 in.) thick. Alloy laser welded to 1020
um size. Compare with Fig. 53. Etchant 5, steel, with a 0.8 mm (0.03 in.) gap between pieces. Laser input energy was 5
Table 3. 125 kW; travel speed, 17 mm/s (40 in./min). Etchant 21, Table 3. 20
Fig. 59 Brazed joint between tubes Fig. 60 Brazed joint between tubes of Fig. 61 Brazed joint in Fig. 59, except Fig. 62 Brazed joint in Fig. 60, except
of copper C12200 (DHP copper C12200. Filler metal at higher magnification. Filler at a higher magnification.
copper). Filler metal was BAg-1. See Fig. was BCuP-5. See Fig. 62 for details of metal (middle) has copper-rich dendrites Filler metal (top) has copper-rich dendrites
61 for details of structure. Etchant 4, structure. Etchant 4, Table 3. 100 in a matrix of silver-copper-zinc-cadmium (light gray) in a matrix of silver-copper-
Table 3. 75 eutectic (dark gray, mottled). Etchant 4, phosphorus. Base metal is at the bottom.
Table 3. 540 Etchant 4, Table 3. 540
Previous Page
Fig. 63 Alloy C26000 (cartridge brass) Fig. 64 Same as Fig. 63, with a Fig. 65 Grain structure of drawn cup Fig. 66 Structure of the drawn cup in
drawn cup, showing "orange smooth surface. See Fig. 66 for in Fig. 63. The rough surface Fig. 64. Because grains are
peel" (rough surface). See Fig. 65 for grain structural details. Etchant 1, Table 3. of the cup was caused by the large grain small, the cup has a smooth surface.
structure. Etchant 1, Table 3. Actual size Actual size size. Etchant 1, Table 3. 85 Etchant 1, Table 3. 85
Fig. 67 Copper C12200 drawn condenser tube, with a Fig. 68 Same material and processing as Fig. 67. An Fig. 69 Alloy C26000 (cartridge brass) tube, drawn,
branched intergranular stress-corrosion crack intergranular stress-corrosion crack, possibly annealed and cold-reduced 5%. Typical inter-
starting at an outside surface. See Fig. 68 for details of a caused by amine boiler-treatment compounds in boiler granular stress-corrosion crack, with some branching.
similar crack. Potassium dichromate. 100 condensate. Potassium dichromate. 500 NH4OH + H2O2. 150
Fig. 70 Alloy C26000 (cartridge brass), showing a Fig. 71 Copper C11000 (ETP copper) 16 mm (0.625 Fig. 72 Same material and processing as Fig. 71.
transgranular corrosion crack. Note the lack of in.) diam bar, tested at 350 °C (660 °F) at an Magnetized view showing a W-type crack. 645
branching in the inner (fatigue) section of the crack. extension rate of 0.03 mm/s (0.00114 in./s). W-type void
Etchant 1, Table 3. 130 formation. Etchant 1, Table 3. 160
Fig. 73 Copper C10100 (OFE copper) 10 mm (0.375 in.) diam rod, rolled to 1.3 mm Fig. 74 Same as Fig 73. A small Fig. 75 Copper 10200 (OF copper) 6.3
(0.052 in.) strip and annealed. Crack formed at the intersection of shearing crack formed at the intersec- mm (0.25 in.) diam rod.
grain boundary and the surface. The specimen was tested at 550 °C (1020 °F) with an tion of a grain boundary and the surface. Microstructure after testing at 550 °C
extension rate of 0.03 mm/s (0.001 in./s). Etchant 1, Table 3. 910 Same testing conditions and etchant as (1020 °F) with an extension rate of 0.03
Fig. 73. 1000 mm/s (0.001 in./s). Etchant 1, Table 3. 800
Fig. 76, 77 Alloy C26000 (cartridge brass) hot rolled to 10 mm (0.4 in.) thick, Fig. 78, 79 Same alloy and processing as Fig. 76 and 77, except reduced by cold
annealed to a grain size of 15 m, cold rolled to 40% to 6 mm (0.24 in.) rolling from 6 mm (0.24 in.) to 4 mm (0.15 in.) thick. Hard temper; nom-
thick, and annealed to a grain size of 120 m. Diagram in lower left corner of each micro- inal tensile strength of 524 MPa (76,000 psi). Etchant 1, Table 3. 75
graph indicates the view relative to the rolling plane of the sheet. Nominal tensile strength
of 296 MPa (43000 psi). Etchant 1, Table 3. 75
Fig. 80, 81, 82, 83 Alloy C26000 (cartridge brass), processed to obtain various grain sizes. Preliminary processing: hot rolled, annealed, cold rolled, annealed to a grain size of 25 m,
cold rolled to 70% reduction. Final anneal temperature gives difference in grain sizes. Fig. 80: grain size is 5 m; final annealed at 330 °C (625 °F). Fig. 81: grain
size is 10 m; final annealed at 370 °C (700 °F). Fig. 82: grain size is 15 m; final annealed at 405 °C (760 °F). Fig. 83: grain size is 20 m; final annealed at 425 °C (800 °F). Etchant 1, Table 3.
75
Fig. 84, 85, 86, 87 Same as Fig. 80 to 83. Fig. 84: grain size is 125 m; final annealed at 640 °C (1180 °F). Fig. 85: grain size is 150 m; final annealed at 665 °C (1225 °F). Fig.
86: grain size is 175 m; final annealed at 680 °C (1260 °F). Fig. 87: grain size is 200 m; final annealed at 705 °C (1300 °F). Etchant 1, Table 3. 75
Fig. 88 Same alloy as Fig. 80 to 87. Local (plug-type) Fig. 89 Alloy C28000 (Muntz metal) ingot, as-cast. Fig. 90 Same as Fig. 89, showing feathers that
dezincification (dark, at specimen surface) Structure is dendrites of phase in a matrix of formed at grain boundaries during quench-
consists of a spongy mass of copper that resulted from the phase. Etchant 1, Table 3. 210 ing of the all- structure. Etchant 1, Table 3. 105
selective removal of zinc. Etchant 1, Table 3. 150
Fig. 91 Same as Fig. 89, hot-rolled Fig. 92 Cu-27.5Zn-1.0Sn alloy tube. Fig. 93 Alloy C44300 (arsenical Fig. 94 Same alloy as Fig. 90, drawn
plate. Uniform (layer) dezinci- Stress-corrosion crack admiralty) tube, drawn, stress and annealed tube. Uniform
fication. Alpha grains remain in the cor- through the wall of the tube, probably relieved, and bent 180°. Transgranular dezincification, with grains in the cor-
roded area (top). Etchant 1, Table 3. 90 caused by mercury or ammonia. Etchant stress-corrosion crack. Etchant 1, Table roded area (dark at the surface). Etchant 1,
1, Table 3. 100 3. 200 Table 3. 250
Fig. 95 Alloy C67500 (manganese bronze A) extruded Fig. 96 Alloy C51000 (phosphor bronze, 5% A) rod, Fig. 97 Alloy C64700 (silicon-nickel bronze), aged 2 h
rod. Iron-rich phase (light, outlined) within extruded, cold drawn, and annealed 30 min at at 480 °C (900 °F) after solution treatment.
phase (smooth etching) and between and phases. 565 °C (1050 °F). Structure consists of recrystallized Alpha grains appear hazy because of unresolved nickel-
Etchant 1, Table 3. 875 grains with annealing twins. Etchant 4, Table 3. 500 silicon precipitate. Etchant 4, Table 3. 200
Fig. 98 Same as Fig. 97, but at a higher magnification Fig. 99 Alloy C70600 (copper-nickel, 10% Ni), Fig. 100 Alloy C74500 (nickel silver, 65-10) cold-rolled
to reveal nickel-silicon precipitate at grain showing the grain-boundary cracks (dark sheet, 2.5 mm (0.10 in.) thick, annealed at 650 to
boundaries and within grains. Etchant 4, Table 3. 500 areas) typical of stress-rupture failure. Etchant 4, Table 700 °C (1200 to 1290 °F). Longitudinal section shows equiaxed
3. 300 crystallized grains of solid solution containing twin bonds.
Etchant 20, Table 3. 100
Fig. 101 Alloy C86200 (64Cu-26Zn-3Fe-4Al-3Mn Fig. 102 Alloy C86300 (63Cu-25Zn-3Fe-6Al-3Mn Fig. 103 Dealuminized alloy C95400 (aluminum
manganese bronze) as sand cast. Small nee- manganese bronze), as sand cast. Essentially bronze), as sand cast. Voids (black) and
dles of solid solution in a matrix of phase (various the same composition as alloy in Fig. 101, but higher min- matrix (medium gray) around grains at top resulted from
shades of gray). Black dots of iron-rich phase are well dis- imum strength requirements. Constituents are the same as dealuminizing in salt water. Small, gray rosettes in grains
persed. Compare with Fig. 102. Etchant 1, then etchant Fig. 101, except very little solid solution is present. are an aluminum-rich aluminum-nickel-iron phase. Alpha
16, Table 3. 100 Same etchants as Fig. 101. 100 grains at the bottom are a matrix of eutectoid transformed
phase. Etchant 8, Table 3. 250
Fig. 104 Alloy C95400 (aluminum Fig. 105 Alloy C95500 (nickel-alu- Fig. 106 Same alloy as Fig. 105, Fig. 107 Alloy C97800 (Cu-5Sn-2Pb-
bronze), solution treated 2 h minum bronze, 11.5% Al) except 11.0% Al with larger 2Zn-25Ni), as sand cast.
at 900 °C (1650 °F), water quenched, as sand cast. Small grains (light gray, grains and a greater amount of eutectoid Structure is dendrites of phase (variegat-
tempered 2 h at 650 °C (1200 °F), and mottled) in matrix of retained phase decomposed phase in the matrix. ed gray) showing coring and interdendrit-
water quenched. Alpha grains (white nee- (white), with some eutectoid decomposed Electrolytically etched in electrolyte 5, ic copper-nickel-tin phase (light). Etchant
dles) are smaller than in the as-cast condi- phase (dark gray). Compare with Fig. Table 4. 250 4, Table 3. 75
tion (Fig. 103). Etchant 4, Table 3. 200 106. Electrolytically etched in electrolyte
5, Table 4. 250
Fig. 108 Transmission electron micrograph of a rapid- Fig. 109 Transmission electron micrograph of same alloy as in Fig. 108, solution heat treated at 950 °C (1740 °F) for
ly solidified Cu-5Ni-2.5Ti alloy, hot extruded 1 h and air cooled. Grain size is less than 2 m. The structure is primary Ni3Ti and a fine precipitate of
at 750 °C (1380 °F), solution heat treated 1 h at 950 °C (Cu,Ni)3Ti. See also Fig. 108 and 110. As-polished. 28,000
(1740 °F); air cooled. Fine precipitate is (Cu,Ni)3Ti. As-pol-
ished. 18,000
Fig. 110 Transmission electron micrograph of same Fig. 111 Transmission electron micrograph of a copper- Fig. 112 Alloy 36000 (free-cutting brass) semisolid
alloy and processing as Fig. 109, but higher zirconium (0.57Zr, with 0.31ZrO2) powder processed plumbing fitting. The large particles
magnification shows the very fine (0.25 m) aging pre- metallurgy product, as hot extruded. The relatively coarse (white, light gray) are solid that was present before casting;
cipitate of (Cu,Ni)3Ti. See also Fig. 108 and 109. As-pol- dark particles are Cu5Zr precipitates; the finer dark particles the matrix was rapidly solidified to produce the structure
ished. 75,200 are probably ZrO2. As-polished. 24,480 . (N. Grant) shown. NH4OH H2O2 H2O. 310 . (K.P. Young)
Fig. 113 Temper: spring (H08). Elongated, cold- Fig. 114 Temper: extra hard (H06). Elongated, cold- Fig. 115 Temper: hard (H04). Elongated, cold-
worked, fine-grained structure worked, fine-grained structure worked, fine-grained structure
Fig. 116 Temper: half hard (H02). Moderately cold- Fig. 117 Temper: quarter hard (H01). Slightly cold- Fig. 118 Temper: annealed (O61). Fine-grained,
worked, fine-grained structure worked, fine-grained structure annealed structure
Fig. 113 to 118 Longitudinal sections of rolled C69000 alloy electrical contact (outlet) material. Processing history: Fig. 113 to 117, rolled to temper; Fig. 118, annealed to tem-
per. Metallographic technique: diamond polish (0.25 m). Etchant: 85% NH4OH H2O (equal parts), 15% H2O2. 1000 . (P. Basalyk, G. Grosse)
Fig. 119 80Cu-20graphite motor brush pressed from Fig. 120 40Cu-60graphite motor brush pressed from Fig. 121 30Cu-70graphite motor brush pressed from
powder and sintered. Dark areas are powder and sintered. Gray graphite matrix, powder and sintered. Gray graphite matrix,
graphite; light areas are copper. As-polished. 100 (W.H. light areas are copper, black spots are voids. As-polished. light areas are copper, black spots are voids. As-polished.
Rowley, Jr.) 100 (W.H. Rowley, Jr.) 100 (W.H. Rowley, Jr.)
Fig. 122 75Cu-25W, pressed, sintered, and coined; Fig. 123 75Cu-25W disk, produced as a tungsten Fig. 124 75Cu-25W powder metallurgy disk, pressed
annealed at 980 °C (1800 °F). Tungsten par- powder compact infiltrated with copper. The and sintered (not infiltrated). The microstruc-
ticles (gray) in copper matrix; some porosity (black). microstructure consists of particles of tungsten (dark con- ture consists of particles of tungsten (dark-etching con-
Compact was polished with Al2O3 slurry in K3Fe(CN)6 stituent) in a matrix of copper (light). Compare with Fig. stituent) in a matrix of copper (light). Compare with Fig.
NaOH, then etched in NH4OH H2O2. 400 124. 1:1 K3Fe(CN)6 10% NaOH. 500 123. 1:1 30% K3Fe(CN)6 10% NaOH. 1000
Fig. 125 70Cu-30W contact made by pressing and sintering a mixture of copper and Fig. 126 Same as Fig. 125, except this specimen was etched and is shown at a
tungsten powders. Structure: tungsten phase (gray areas) in a copper matrix. higher magnification. Dark areas in the structure are the tungsten phase
Black spots are voids. See also Fig. 126. As-polished. 250 (with some voids); light areas, the copper matrix. K3Fe(CN)6 NaOH, then NH4OH
H2O2. 500
Metallography and Microstructures of
Beryllium-Copper Alloys
BERYLLIUM-COPPER ALLOYS are Specimen Preparation sample is rotated 90° between each grinding.
selected as representative metallographic spec- Silicon carbide or Al2O3 abrasives may be used.
imens depending on product form. Edge and Mechanical polishing is usually accom-
interior samples are important in castings, forg- Metallographic equipment and procedures for plished in rough and final stages. Rough polish-
ings, and hot- or cold-finished rod, bar, tube, beryllium-containing alloys are much the same ing is performed using a 6 m diamond on a
and plate. Longitudinal and transverse sections, as those recommended for general metallurgical wheel covered with a hard, napless chemotextile
which should be examined in strip and wire, are laboratory use. cloth. Extender oil is applied sparingly, and the
equally important in heavy-section wrought Sectioning of specimens is carried out by wheel is rotated at approximately 300 rpm or
products. Strip may also be examined by elec- sawing, abrasive cutting, or shearing, depending less. The specimen is initially positioned so that
tropolishing and etching a small spot on the on section thickness and strength. Abrasive the direction of polishing is perpendicular to the
rolled surface, although this approach is gener- wheels formulated for nonferrous or medium- 600-grit grinding scratches. Maintaining this
ally not used by commercial suppliers. Care hardness materials and general-purpose use are orientation, it is moved radially back and forth
should be taken when examining components satisfactory for beryllium copper. Abrasive cut- between center and edge of the polishing wheel
manufactured from these alloys to select sec- ting should be performed wet to avoid thermal under moderate pressure until these scratches
tions that reveal the microstructural effects of damage to the specimen and to guard health and are removed. The specimen is then briefly rotat-
the parts-fabrication process (stamping and safety. Sufficient surface metal is then removed ed counter to the rotation of the wheel to distrib-
forming, machining, plating) and the undis- from the sectioned face of the specimen by wet ute the rough polishing scratches randomly.
turbed structure of the raw material. Age hard- rough grinding to eliminate any deformed mate- Final polishing is performed using 0.05 m
ening of these beryllium-containing alloys by rial introduced during sectioning. Al2O3 in distilled water suspension and a wheel
the parts fabricator can produce distinct Mounting is usually required for specimens covered with low-nap rayon cloth. Speeds are
changes in matrix etching response, but does too small to be hand held while polishing or for the same as those used for coarse polishing. The
not alter the grain size or intermetallic-com- those requiring edge preservation. Flat strip or wheel is kept moderately saturated with polishing
pound particle distribution that are characteris- transverse sections of small-diameter rod and suspension, and the specimen is counterrotated to
tic of the mill production process. Components wire may be stacked and gripped in reusable vary the direction of final polishing. An exception
should be examined before and after fabricator metal screw clamps for unembedded prepara- to this procedure is the case of the softer annealed
heat treatment. tion. Alternatively, samples may be embedded or lightly cold-worked tempers of beryllium cop-
with cold-mounting or compression-molding per, in which unidirectional final polishing, paral-
resins; commercial metal or plastic sample lel to the specimen long axis, helps to minimize
Health and Safety clips are used to stand the sample upright in the scratching. The specimen is washed under run-
mold. Transparent mounting resins are pre- ning water after each polishing step with mild
Despite low concentrations of beryllium in ferred for delicate fabricated parts, such as soap and a cotton swab, then rinsed with alcohol
commercial beryllium-copper alloys (nominal- electrical contacts, to help locate features of and dried under a warm air blast.
ly 2 wt% or less), these materials can be haz- interest in the final plane of polish. When dis- Automatic Grinding and Polishing. Several
ardous to health if excessive quantities of dust, tortion of the sample under pressure is to be automatic metallographic preparation machines
mists, or fumes containing particles of alloy avoided, cold mounting is preferred over com- are available that provide rapid and reproducible
small enough to enter the lungs (typically 10 pression molding. grinding and polishing of multiple specimens
m or less) are inhaled. Precautions are not Edge protection may be enhanced by nickel through the use of preset pressure control and a
required for metallographic sectioning, grind- plating prior to mounting or by using hard cycle timer. These machines use metal sample
ing, or polishing performed wet or for shearing compression-molding resins formulated for holder disks that accommodate 4 to 12 or more
of clean, thin-section strip or wire. Adequate edge preservation. Glass beads or alumina cylindrical metallographic mounts or various
ventilation should be provided for dry section- (Al2O3) granules added to cold-mounting resins numbers and sizes of unembedded samples. The
ing, grinding, or polishing operations that pro- for the same purpose will likely contaminate the holders are rotated by the sample mover head of
duce dust or fumes. Metallographic preparation polishing wheel and cause undesirable specimen the machine at approximately 150 rpm and are
equipment and laboratory work surfaces should scratching, particularly in the softer forms of mechanically pressed against the rotating work
be damp wiped periodically to remove accumu- beryllium copper. wheel, which can be a coarse grinding stone, a
lation of dry alloy particles. Beryllium-contain- Grinding. Coarse grinding is performed wet wheel accepting successively finer grades of
ing alloys are not harmful in contact with skin on a belt or disk grinder using 120- or 180-grit abrasive paper, or cloth-covered polishing
or wounds, or if swallowed. For additional abrasive paper to remove any deformed metal wheels. Some systems also employ lapping
information, see the article “Toxicity of layer. Fine grinding is also performed wet, techniques. Work wheels must be manually
Metals” in Properties and Selection: either by hand on strips of abrasive paper or changed between preparation steps, but the spec-
Nonferrous Alloys and Special Purpose mechanically on 300-rpm or faster disks using imens are never removed from the holder until
Materials, Volume 2 of the ASM Handbook. 240-, 320-, 400-, then 600-grit abrasives. The they are ready to be etched. This preserves a
Metallography and Microstructures of Beryllium-Copper Alloys / 355
common plane of polish and maintains flatness and a platinum cathode. An electrolyte of 40 mL In addition to grain structure and flow pat-
of the prepared surfaces. Due to the high pres- phosphoric acid (H3PO4), 60 mL hydrogen perox- terns, macroetched samples of beryllium cop-
sures and short cycle times typically used, these ide (H2O2), 40 mL methanol, and 20 mL H2O pers with 1.6 wt% or more Be reveal locally
automatic machines increase metallographic may also be used for beryllium copper in con- heat-affected zones as light etched areas if rean-
laboratory productivity and improve edge junction with a stainless steel cathode, a mask of nealed or unaged and as dark etched areas if
preservation and inclusion retention. 0.5 to 1 cm2 (0.08 to 0.16 in.2) area, 20 to 30 V, aged. Light etched or reddish-colored areas
Automatic metallographic preparation tech- and approximately 0.2 A. This technique is adjacent to exterior or crack surfaces in uni-
niques vary according to the machine used and applicable to general polishing, but is particular- formly aged materials usually signal environ-
materials being prepared, but the following pro- ly suited to examining intermetallic phases in mental attack leading to local depletion of beryl-
cedures have been successfully used for berylli- beryllium copper, which can be rendered in high lium and lack of aging response. Matrix
um-containing alloys and can be adapted to any relief. Polishing is accomplished in a few sec- darkening on etching is absent in beryllium cop-
automatic system. onds to a few minutes, using a moderately pers containing less than 0.6 wt% Be, limiting
Holders containing mounted specimens or pumped electrolyte. the information revealed by macroetching of
relatively square cut, unembedded specimens these alloys essentially to matters of grain mor-
are rough ground on 120- or 240-grit paper and phology. Castings and cast billet exhibit colum-
fine ground on 240-, 320-, 400-, then 600-grit Macroexamination nar dendritic grain growth from solidification.
papers. Very uneven, unembedded specimens Hot-finished, large-section forms of the berylli-
may require coarse 60- or 80-grit stone or paper Castings, forgings, billet, hot-rolled plate um-containing alloys occasionally exhibit in the
grinding to bring all the samples in a holder to a and hot-extruded rod, bar, and tube forms of macrostructure individual large grains, elongat-
single plane of polish. A copious flow of recir- beryllium-containing alloys are frequently sub- ed in the direction of working.
culated water-base coolant is applied to the work jected to low-magnification macroexamination.
wheel during each grinding step; it is not neces- Fracture surfaces of failed components or
sary to wash the samples in the holder between mechanical test specimens of these product Microexamination
grindings. Wheel speeds of 150 rpm, pressures forms may also be examined at low magnifica-
of 150 N (35 lbf), and times of approximately 30 tion. One purpose of macroexamination is to Distinctive features in the microstructure of
s per grinding are usually sufficient. Zirconia evaluate grain structure and metal flow patterns beryllium-copper alloys, which are due to the
(ZrO2) abrasive papers will last longer than sili- indicating thermomechanical processing histo- combined effects of composition, cold work,
con carbide or Al2O3 under these grinding con- ry. The technique also applies to documenta- and thermal treatment, are readily revealed by
ditions. The loaded sample holder is then ultra- tion of differential heat treatment, weld pene- conventional metallographic and scanning elec-
sonically cleaned in alcohol, dried in an air blast, tration, or localized structural damage due to tron microscope techniques. Beryllides, other
and returned to the machine for polishing. environmental attack. Fracture surfaces indi- phases, and surface effects can be examined on
Two or three polishings may be employed. cate the relative ductility of the material and the as-polished specimens; however, etchants must
One approach, which applies primarily to hold- mode of failure. be used to reveal other features of interest.
ers containing up to six 30 mm (1.25 in.) Fracture Surface Characteristics. Tensile Etching procedures for beryllium-contain-
mounts, begins with 6 m diamond on a hard, fracture surfaces of wrought beryllium copper ing alloys vary with alloy type and condition or
napless chemotextile, proceeds to 3 m dia- appear macroscopically ductile. Tensile frac- temper. Particularly for beryllium coppers with
mond on a low-nap cloth, and finishes with 1 tures of annealed material typically exhibit less than 0.6 wt% Be, general microstructures
m diamond on a soft, high-nap cloth. Wheel macrocup/cone ductile behavior. Alloys heat are more difficult to reveal in the age-hardened
speed in each case is 150 rpm. The first and sec- treated at temperatures and/or times less than or conditions than in the hot-finished, solution-
ond polishings use a pressure of 150 N (35 lbf) equal to those required to achieve maximum pre- annealed, or cold-worked conditions.
for 2 min per step, the final polishing, 100 N (25 cipitation hardened strength are underaged or Microetchants for beryllium copper are listed
lbf) pressure for 35 s. Polishing extender is peakaged and exhibit blocky, transgranular frac- in Table 1, along with their compositions, etch-
dripped sparingly on the wheels during each tures. Alloys heat treated at higher temperatures ing procedures, uses, and precautions.
step, and the sample holder and work wheels and longer times than those required to produce Ammonium persulfate hydroxide (etchant 1,
should rotate in the same direction in each step. maximum strength are overaged, have a ductile Table 1) is a general purpose etchant for berylli-
Another approach, useful for high-volume appearance, and show grain facets. um coppers. It reveals grain structure in unaged
production of embedded and unembedded sam- Fatigue fracture features in wrought berylli- material, although twinning may be present to
ples, is to use a 9 m diamond slurry on a lap- um copper depend on stress intensity and bend- complicate grain size measurement. In the case
ping disk, followed by a 0.3 m Al2O3 suspen- ing mode. Low stress intensity tends to produce of alloys with 1.6 wt% or more Be, this etchant
sion on a low-nap rayon cloth, with an optional ductile fracture surfaces with a mixed mode darkens the matrix of age-hardened material; the
intermediate step of 3 m Al2O3 suspension on character. Higher levels of stress intensity degree of coloration varies with the extent of
a hard chemotextile. Times and pressures are cause a trend toward transgranular fracture. precipitation in the alloy. A variation of this
varied to suit the size and number of samples. Beryllium copper resists corrosion in many etchant that contains H2O2 (etchant 2, Table 1)
The sample holder is ultrasonically cleaned environments, but can stress-corrosion crack in offers improved grain-boundary delineation in
and dried after each polishing, and the samples the presence of ammonia. Such cracks are unaged material.
are then removed from the holder for etching transgranular and intergranular. Grains in aged, concentrated alloys of berylli-
and final examination. Specimens of different Macroetching. Once ground to at least 320 um copper may be highlighted by etching with
alloys and hardnesses usually may be mixed in a or 400 grit, beryllium copper is macroetched by ammonium persulfate hydroxide, followed by
single holder without harming the prepared sur- an initial, brief immersion in concentrated brief swabbing with dichromate (etchant 3,
faces of the softer samples. NHO3, followed by immersion in or flooding Table 1) to lighten the matrix. Another reliable
Electropolishing. Clean, as-rolled strip sur- with dilute HNO3 (1 part concentrated HNO3 to way to enhance grain boundaries in unaged
faces or sectioned sample faces of beryllium- 2 parts distilled H2O). The etchant attack is alloys of these compositions is to age the sam-
copper alloys prepared through 400- to 600-grit stopped by rinsing in running water. After the ples for 15 to 20 min at 370 °C (700 °F), then
grinding paper may be electropolished. A satis- etched sample is rinsed in alcohol and dried in a follow with the two-stage etching procedure
factory all-purpose electrolyte for beryllium-cop- warm air blast, the macrostructure can be pre- described above. This technique eliminates
per alloys is a mixture of 1 part nitric acid served by spraying on a coat of clear lacquer, twinning, and grain size can be accurately deter-
(HNO3) and 2 parts methanol used at a tempera- preferably containing a copper tarnish inhibitor mined from the decoration of the grain bound-
ture of –30 °C (–20 °F), with a voltage of 25 V such as benzotriazol (C6H4NHN:N). aries with dark etching precipitate.
Alloys with 0.6 wt% or less Be exhibit little alloys contain 1.60 to 2.00 wt% Be, with The high-conductivity alloys have low berylli-
microstructural difference between the aged and approximately 0.25 wt% Co. The addition of um levels (0.2 to 0.7 wt%) and high cobalt and
unaged conditions, and grain structure is fre- cobalt promotes fine grain size in the cast form, nickel levels. The wrought version of the alloy
quently obscured by twinning if ammonium per- lessens grain growth during annealing, and containing 2.4 to 2.7 wt% Co is designated
sulfate hydroxide is used. To enhance the gener- reduces the rapid softening of the alloy due to C17500. The cast version is designated C82000.
al microstructure in these situations, the cyanide overaging. Solution annealing at temperatures of The wrought version containing 1.4 to 2.2 wt%
(etchant 6, Table 1), persulfate hydroxide/ 760 to 790 °C (1400 to 1450 °F), followed by Ni instead of cobalt is designated C17510, and
cyanide (etchant 7, Table 1), or two-step cyanide rapid quenching, retains the beryllium in solid the corresponding casting alloy is C82200. The
(etchant 6, Table 1)/cyanide peroxide hydroxide solution at room temperature. Precipitation properties of the nickel-containing alloys are very
(etchant 8, Table 1) etchants are used. Care must hardening can be accomplished by aging for 0.1 similar to the cobalt-containing alloys. The solu-
be taken to observe all safety precautions of to 4 h at 260 to 400 °C (500 to 750 °F); the time tion-annealing temperature range for the high-
these toxic solutions. and temperature depend on the composition, conductivity alloys is 900 to 955 °C (1650 to
None of the etchants listed differentially amount of cold work, and strength levels 1750 °F). Aging is performed at 425 to 565 °C
attack intermetallic compounds in beryllium desired. Cold working prior to aging results in (800 to 1050 °F) for 3 to 8 h, depending on the
copper—to distinguish cobalt or nickel beryl- faster age hardening and higher strengths. amount of cold work and combination of proper-
lides from phase, for example. This distinction The most commercially important of the ties sought.
must be made on the basis of appearance in the high-strength compositions is C17200, which The various commercial beryllium-copper
as-polished condition. Beryllides are blue gray; contains 1.80 to 2.00 wt% Be. This is the alloys discussed and/or illustrated in this article
phase is creamy white and surrounded by a strongest of the beryllium-copper alloys; tensile are listed in Table 2, which provides composi-
thin, dark outline. strengths range to 1520 MPa (220 ksi) in the tional limits. The phases and constituents result-
Any of the etchants listed, which are intended fully age-hardened condition. A leaded version ing from alloying elements and various heat
for bright-field optical microscopy, may be uti- of this alloy, C17300, exhibits improved treatments are discussed subsequently.
lized for scanning electron microscopy examina- machinability. A composition slightly lower in The Beryllide Phase. Commercial beryllium-
tion to reveal fine structural details not optically cost, C17000, with 1.60 to 1.79 wt% Be, is copper alloys contain cobalt or nickel or both.
resolvable. One such application is the resolu- available with tensile properties in the age-hard- These alloying elements are normally in solution
tion of the lamellar structure of grain-boundary ened condition approximately 10% lower than in the liquid metal. Because of their strong affin-
precipitate in high-temperature aged beryllium those of C17200. ity for beryllium, they combine with it and sep-
coppers containing 1.60 to 2.00 wt% Be. The high-strength alloys are also produced as arate during solidification as particles that are
casting alloys, designated C82400, C82500, approximately 10 m in the longest dimension.
C82510, C82600, and C82800. The beryllium These constituent particles are termed beryl-
Microstructures of content is higher (up to approximately 2.75 lides. During subsequent thermomechanical pro-
Beryllium-Copper Alloys wt%) than in wrought alloys, but the general cessing, the beryllides are broken up somewhat
microstructural characteristics are similar. These but are not dissolved into solid solution during
The two general categories of beryllium-cop- alloys are produced as cast ingots that can be normal solution annealing.
per alloys are the high-strength and the high- remelted and cast by foundries using any con- The primary beryllide phase is best observed
conductivity alloys. The wrought high-strength ventional molding technique. in the as-polished condition as blue-gray
Table 1 Recommended etching reagents for beryllium-copper alloys

Etchant Composition(a) Comments
1. Ammonium persulfate hydroxide 1 part NH4OH (concentrated) and 2 parts Used for observation of the general structure of all beryllium-copper
(NH4)2S2O8 (ammonium persulfate) 2.5% in H2O alloys. Preheat sample in hot water (optional); swab etch 2–20 s;
use fresh.
2. Ammonium persulfate hydroxide (variation) 2 parts 10% (NH4)2S2O8, 3 parts NH4OH (concentrated), Used for all beryllium-copper alloys. Offers improved grain boundary
1 part 3% H2O2, and 5–7 parts H2O delineation in unaged material. A, 1/4 H, 1/2 H, H tempers (unaged, use
less H2O. AT through HT and aged, use more H2O). Use fresh; swab or
immerse 5–60 s. Preheat specimen in hot H2O if etching rate is slow.
3. Dichromate 2 g K2Cr2O2 (potassium dichromate), 8 mL H2SO4 Used for observation of the grain structure of wrought C17000, C17200,
(concentrated), 1 drop HCl per 25 mL of solution, and C17300. Use for AT through HT and mill hardened (aged) tempers.
100 mL H2O Etch first with ammonium persulfate hydroxide (No. 1 or 2); wipe
dichromate 1–2 times over specimen to remove dark etch color. Do
not overetch; sample may pit. Can be used with laboratory aging of
annealed or as-rolled material at 370 ˚C (700 ˚F) for 15–20 min to
enhance grain boundary delineation for grain size determination
4. Hydroxide/peroxide 5 parts NH4OH (concentrated), 2–5 parts 3% H2O2, and Common etchant for copper and brass, also applicable to beryllium-
5 parts H2O copper alloys. Use fresh.
5. Ferric chloride 5 g FeCl3 (ferric chloride), 50 mL HCl, and 100 mL H2O Common etchant for copper alloys, also applicable to cold-rolled
tempers of beryllium-copper alloys C17500 and C17510 to show
grain structure. Immerse 3–12 s.
6. Cyanide 1 g KCN (potassium cyanide) and 100 mL H2O General structure of beryllium-copper alloys C17500, C17510 (No. 6).
7. Persulfate hydroxide/cyanide 4 parts ammonium persulfate hydroxide etchant Immerse 1–5 min; stir slowly while etching; use etchant 7 if others
(etchant 1 or 2) and 1 part cyanide etchant (etchant 6) are too weak to bring out structure. A two-step technique for improved
8. Cyanide peroxide hydroxide 20 mL KCN, 5 mL H2O2, and 1–2 mL NH4OH results on C17510 includes immersion in etchant 6 followed by
swabbing with etchant 8. Caution: Poison fumes. Use fume hood.
Do not dispose of used solutions directly into drains. Pour used
solution into beaker containing chlorine bleach. Let stand 1 h, then
flush down drain with plenty of running water.
9. Phosphoric acid electrolyte 20 mL H2O (tap, not distilled), 58 mL 3% H2O2, For deep etching of beryllium-copper. Polished specimen through 1 mm
48 mL H3PO4, and 48 mL ethyl alcohol or finer Al2O3. Use 0.5–1 cm2 (0.08–0.16 in.2) mask. 0.1 A to etch
(higher amperes to polish). Low-to-moderate flow rate. 3 to 6 s to etch,
up to 60 s to polish
(a) Where H2O is indicated, use distilled water unless otherwise noted.
Table 2 Chemical compositions of beryllium-copper alloys out at the grain boundaries as dark nodules on a
bright matrix. The lamellar morphology of the
Composition, wt%
phase is resolved by scanning or transmission
Alloy Be Co Ni Pb Other Cu
electron microscopy.
Wrought alloys Hardening Precipitates. Excellent room-
C17000 1.60–1.79 (a) (a) … … bal temperature mechanical properties of beryllium-
C17200 1.80–2.00 (a) (a) … … bal
C17300 1.80–2.00 (a) (a) 0.20-0.6 … bal
copper alloys are derived from the formation of
C17500 0.40–0.7 2.4–2.7 … … … bal a series of metastable precipitates during aging.
C17510 0.20–0.6 0.30(b) 1.4–2.2 … … bal Several such metastable phases form before the
Cast alloys equilibrium phase is observed. The precipita-
C82000 0.45–0.8 2.4–2.7 0.20 … 0.15 Si bal tion sequence at large undercoolings is:
C82200 0.35–0.8 … 1.0–2.0 … … bal
C82400 1.65–1.75 0.20–0.40 0.10 … 0.20 Fe bal
Supersaturated solid solution →
C82500 1.90–2.15 0.35–0.7 0.20 … 0.20–0.35 Si, 0.20 Fe bal
C82510 1.90–2.5 1.0–1.2 0.20 … 0.20–0.35 Si, 0.25 Fe bal Guinier-Preston (GP) zones → → →
C82600 2.25–2.45 0.35–0.7 0.20 … 0.20–0.35 Si, 0.25 Fe bal
C82800 2.50–2.75 0.35–0.7 0.20 … 0.20–0.35 Si, 0.25 Fe bal Guinier-Preston zones are the first precipi-
tates to form and are coherent with the matrix.
(a) Nickel + cobalt, 0.20 min.; Nickel + cobalt + iron, 0.60 max. (b) Maximum if no range given
They are nucleated in large densities. The
coherency strain fields set up due to the misfit of
Chinese script in castings. The secondary beryl- The Gamma Phase. The phase forms in the zones and the matrix strengthen the alloy.
lides forming after solidification of the major overaged beryllium-copper alloys as an equlibri- With continued aging, GP zones transform to
phase can have a rodlike morphology with pre- um precipitate. In concentrated alloys of berylli- more stable precipitates.
ferred crystallographic orientation with the um-copper, the -phase precipitation starts at the The metastable precipitates can be detected
matrix. In wrought products, the beryllides grain boundaries and advances into the adjoining by transmission electron microscopy. They are
appear as roughly spherical, blue-gray particles. grains, consuming the fine, metastable precipi- identified by the characteristic features observed
The Beta Phase. The phase forms peritec- tates. This type of precipitation is termed discon- in the electron diffraction pattern. The presence
tically from the liquid metal. It is observed in tinuous precipitation or cellular precipitation. of hardening precipitates can be recognized only
high-strength alloy castings as an interdendritic The precipitates formed by this mechanism indirectly by light microscopy as striations on
network surrounding the primary copper-rich have a platelike morphology. In the age-hardened the surface of a polished and etched alloy that
phase. Experiments have shown that the phase state, the grain boundary containing the precip- result from the overlap of coherency strains.
cannot be retained at room temperature because itate is soft compared to the hardened matrix.
it decomposes into and phases by a eutectoid Precipitation of the phase can also occur in ACKNOWLEDGMENT
transformation. The (transformed) phase the grain boundaries in high-strength beryllium-
stands out in relief in the as-polished state as copper alloys if the rate of quenching from the This article was adapted from J.C. Harkness
white angular patches. In wrought metal con- solution-annealing temperature is not fast and A. Guha, Beryllium-Copper and Beryllium-
taining 1.8 to 2.0 wt% Be, long (transformed) enough to retain beryllium in solid solution. In Nickel Alloys, Metallography and Micro-
stringers may exist due to insufficient homoge- metallographically polished specimens etched structures, Vol 9, ASM Handbook, ASM
nization before hot working. using standard procedures, the phase stands International, 1985 p 392–398.
Fig. 1 C82200 alloy casting. As-cast microstructure Fig. 2 C82500 alloy casting, solution annealed at Fig. 3 C17200 alloy strip, mill hardened to AM (TM00)
shows interdendritic networks of large primary 790 °C (1450 °F) and aged to peak hardness at temper to achieve maximum formability at mod-
beryllide phase in a matrix of solid solution. Preferred 315 °C (600 °F) for 3 h. Microstructure consists of Chinese- erate strength. Longitudinal section shows roughly
orientation of small secondary beryllides is observed with script beryllides in a copper-rich solid-solution matrix, equiaxed grains of phase and cobalt beryllides.
the matrix. Etchant 6 (Table 1). 400 with angular phase transformed to a lamellar aggregate Metastable precipitates that form during hardening and
of and phases. Striations are the result of metastable increase strength and hardness are not resolved. Etchant 1
precipitation in the alloy. Etchant 1 (Table 1). 400 (Table 1). 400
Fig. 4 C17200 alloy strip, mill hardened to XHMS Fig. 5 C17200 alloy strip, solution annealed at 790 °C Fig. 6 C17200 alloy strip, solution annealed at 790 °C
(TM08) temper for high strength and limited (1450 °F) and water quenched. Longitudinal (1450 °F), quenched rapidly to room tempera-
formability. Longitudinal section shows elongated grains section shows equiaxed grains of supersaturated -phase ture, and precipitation hardened at 315 °C (600 °F) for 3
of the phase and cobalt beryllides. Striations result from solid solution of beryllium in copper. Cobalt beryllide par- h to achieve maximum hardness. Longitudinal section
precipitation of metastable phases not resolved by optical ticles are uniformly dispersed throughout the structure. shows equiaxed grains and the cobalt-beryllide phase
microscopy. Etchant 1 (Table 1). 400 Etchant 1 or 2 (Table 1). 400 uniformly dispersed. Metastable phases are not resolved,
but small quantities of equilibrium phase are present in
the grain boundaries. Etchant 1 (Table 1). 400
Fig. 8 C17200 alloy strip, solution annealed at 790 °C Fig. 9 C17510 alloy strip, solution annealed at 900 °C
(1450 °F) and cold rolled at 37% to full hard tem- (1650 °F), quenched rapidly to room temperature,
per. Longitudinal section shows elongated grains of phase and precipitation hardened at 480 °C (900 °F) for 3 h to
Fig. 7 C17200 alloy strip, solution annealed at 790 °C and cobalt beryllides. Etchant 1 or 2 (Table 1). 400 achieve maximum hardness. Equiaxed grains of
(1450 °F) and cold rolled at 11% to quarter-hard supersaturated solution of beryllium and nickel in copper
temper. Typical hardness is 79 HRB. Alpha grains are elon- are shown. Etchant 6 (Table 1). 400
gated in the direction of rolling. Etchant 1 (Table 1). 400
Fig. 10 C17510 alloy strip, solution annealed, cold Fig. 11 C17500 alloy strip, solution annealed at 900 °C Fig. 12 C17500 alloy strip, solution annealed, cold
rolled, and precipitation hardened at 480 °C (1650 °F), quenched rapidly to room tempera- rolled, and precipitation hardened at 480 °C
(900 °F) for 2 h to achieve maximum hardness. Structure ture, and precipitation hardened at 480 °C (900 °F) for 3 h (900 °F) for 2 h to achieve maximum hardness. Structure
consists of phase and a uniform distribution of the nickel- to achieve maximum hardness. Microstructure shows consists of the phase and a uniform distribution of the
beryllide phase. Elongated grains are the result of cold equiaxed grains of supersaturated solution of beryllium beryllide phase. Elongated grains are the result of cold
work. Metastable precipitates are not resolved. Etchant 6, and cobalt in copper. The cobalt-beryllide phase is uni- work, and metastable hardening precipitates are not
followed by swabbing with etchant 8 (Table 1). 400 formly distributed, and metastable hardening precipitates resolved. Etchant 6 (Table 1). 400
are not resolved. Etchant 6 (Table 1). 400
Fig. 13 C17200 alloy strip, solution annealed, cold

Fig. 14 C17200 alloy strip, solution annealed and Fig. 15 C17200 alloy plate, cast, homogenized, and
rolled full hard, and precipitation hardened at aged at 370 °C (700 °F) for 6 h to attain an hot worked. The microstructure shows nonuni-
315 °C (600 °F) for 2 h to achieve maximum hardness. overaged condition. The structure shows precipitates in form distribution of grain sizes, which is typical of a hot-
Longitudinal section shows elongated grains of phase the grain boundaries, which appear as dark nodules in a worked product. Greater uniformity in grain size distribu-
and cobalt beryllides. Striations are caused by metastable light matrix. Etchant 1 (Table 1). 400 tion may be achieved in the finished product by
precipitates not resolved by optical microscopy. Etchant 1 successive cold-working and annealing operations.
(Table 1). 400 Etchant 1 (Table 1). 700
Fig. 16 C17200 alloy strip, solution annealed and age Fig. 17 C17200 alloy strip heated to 885 °C (1625 °F) Fig. 18 C17510 alloy rod, solution annealed in air at
hardened. The white constituents of the struc- and water quenched. The microstructure 980 °C (1800 °F) for 3 h, then aged at 480 °C
ture are stringers. These zones of beryllium shows “burned metal” caused by solution annealing at too (900 °F) for 3 h. The microstructure shows internal oxida-
segregation are carried through from billet casting and high a temperature. Partial melting at the grain bound- tion resulting from solution annealing without a protective
homogenization. Etchant 1 (Table 1). 700 aries, caused by extreme temperatures, resolidifies as atmosphere. Note the loss in hardness (as indicated by the
phase. Etchant 1 (Table 1). 700 microhardness indentations) within the internal oxidation
zone. Etchant 6 (Table 1). 200
Solidification Structures of
Copper Alloy Ingots
SOLIDIFICATION STRUCTURES OF As shown in Fig. 2(a), dendrite arm spacing highest rate. These results contrast with those
COPPER ALLOY INGOTS intended for subse- varies greatly across this ingot. If these data are for the smaller ingot of continuous-cast DHP
quent working are primarily discussed in this compared to those in Fig. 1(b) for the same copper, which was solidified under condi-
article. Ingots intended for remelting and shaped alloy, the microstructure may be interpreted tions of high heat transfer in the secondary
castings produced in foundries are not specifi- regarding solidification time; solidification time cooling zone.
cally discussed, although they have solidifica- was shortest—cooling rate was highest—at the Factors affecting dendritic structure of
tion structures that, in many respects, are similar center of the ingot. copper alloy ingots include composition, cool-
to those of ingots intended for subsequent work- Figure 2(b) presents a curve of dendrite ing rate, and agitation during solidification (Ref
ing. Also discussed briefly are cast structures arm spacing versus position in a 229 mm (9 3–6). Increasing the cooling rate produces finer
produced by semisolid forming and rapid solid- in.) diam semicontinuous-cast ingot of alloy secondary dendrite arm spacing. For many alloy
ification technologies. C71500 (Ref 2). These data and those in Fig. systems, increasing the solute content also pro-
1(b) for the same alloy indicate that the finest duces finer spacing. As shown in Fig. 3(a), the
dendrite arm spacing is at the surface, which relationship between composition and dendrite
Dendrites solidified in the shortest time, or cooled at the arm spacing for copper-silver alloys is approxi-
Dendritic structure is an almost universal

feature of copper alloy ingots. A variety of den-
dritic structures are pictured in micrographs in
this article.
Figure 1(a) shows the effect, during solidi-
fication, of cooling rate on the spacing
between adjacent arms in dendrites in two
bronze alloys (Ref 1). Increasing the cooling
rate (decreasing the solidification time) leads
to finer dendrite arm spacing. Solidification
time generally is more useful than cooling rate
in interpreting dendritic structure of copper
alloys, regardless of solute content. Cooling
rate has little meaning for pure or nearly pure
metals, which have near zero change in tem- Click here to view Click here to view
perature during solidification.
Figure 1(b) provides data on the spacing of
Fig. 1 Dendrite arm spacing as affected by solidification conditions in specimens of four cast copper alloys. (a) Effect
of cooling rate on two bronze alloys (Ref 1). (b) Effect of local solidification time on alloy C71500 (copper nick-
dendrite arms for various solidification times in el, 30%) (Ref 2) and on alloy C12200 (DHP copper)
slowly cast laboratory specimens of alloy
C12200 (DHP copper). The small amount of
solute in alloy C12200 (0.015 to 0.040% P) does
not result in thermal behavior different from that
of unalloyed copper, but does cause dendritic
growth. Figure 1(b) also presents data on the
spacing of dendrite arms in alloy C71500 (cop-
per nickel, 30%) (Ref 2).
The phase diagram for the copper-nickel
system shows that, although only one phase
forms in the solid, solute redistribution occurs
during solidification. Dendrite arm spacings
in the alloy C71500 ingot were smaller than
those in the alloy C12200 ingot because the
dendrite arms in the alloy C71500 ingot were
branched into secondary arms. Secondary LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH
dendrite arm spacing is also called cell size. Click here to view Click here to view
Branched dendrite arms are typical of highly Fig. 2 Variation in dendrite arm spacing across (a) a continuous-cast ingot of alloy C12200 (DHP copper, see Fig. 16
alloyed ingots. and 17) and (b) a semicontinuous-cast ingot of alloy C71500 (copper nickel, 30%). Source: Ref 2
Solidification Structures of Copper Alloy Ingots / 361
mated by Eq 1, which was determined by curve- d 290R –0.42 (Eq 2) of equal solute content leads to considerable vari-
fitting techniques: ation in the observed dendritic pattern.
d 180R –0.43 (Eq 3) Within one cast grain, there is one crystallo-
d 306 R –0.39 C –0.31 (Eq 1) graphic orientation, to which the dendrite struc-
Thus, dependence of dendrite arm spacing on ture has a definite relationship (Ref 8). In copper
where d is dendrite arm spacing in microns, R is cooling rate is similar over a wide range of com- alloys, dendrites grow in (100) crystallographic
the cooling rate in degrees centigrade per mercial alloys, despite wide variations in other directions and tend to develop low solute
minute, and C is silver content in atomic per- characteristics of the alloy systems. (k0 1) concentration contours in (100) planes
cent. Equations of this form, with different con- Interpretation of Dendrite Patterns. The (Ref 9). Because grains have various orienta-
stants, have been shown to fit extensive data in dendritic structure in the columnar region of an tions, their dendritic structures are intersected by
other binary systems. ingot of alloy C71500, shown in Fig. 5, is typical the plane of polish as determined by the crystal-
Dendritic structure also depends on the equi- of many copper-base and other alloy systems. lographic orientation of the grain.
librium distribution coefficient, k0. Figure 3(b) Etching reveals a relatively consistent pattern of At a free or outside surface, various orienta-
illustrates that with the same cooling rate, a finer coring, or variation in local solute content within tions are apparent (Ref 10). In addition, den-
dendritic structure usually is achieved at lower each grain. This basic pattern is produced by the drites can be bent and broken, that is, remelted at
solute levels in alloy systems having a low k0 intersection of the plane of polish with the ran- branching points. Similar effects are visible in
value, such as the copper-lead system, than in domly oriented platelike regions of equal solute the interiors of cast structures. These effects
those having a higher k0 value, such as the cop- concentration within the three-dimensional den- result in structures in which the “dendrites” no
per-cobalt system (Ref 4). dritic structure (Ref 7). The platelike regions in longer have one orientation; in crystal multipli-
Data on dendrite arm spacing in various Fig. 5 are high in solute content, because k0 1 cation (Ref 5, 6), where new grains form from
commercial alloys are presented in Fig. 4. for copper-rich copper-nickel alloys. Such plate- the detached dendrite arms of other grains; and
Although freezing range and other solidifica- like regions have low solute content in alloys for in nondendritic solidification, where the dendrit-
tion characteristics in these nine commercial which k0 1, such as copper-zinc alloys. The ic structure is disrupted to the point that dendrite
alloys vary considerably, the data fall between wide variation in the angle of intersection of the fragments produce a grain size equivalent to the
two curves: plane of polish with these relatively planar regions dendrite arm spacing (Ref 11).
Disruption of dendrite structure is caused by
liquid metal movement in the less extreme case of
crystal multiplication. Strong agitation is required
to produce the unusual structures in nondendritic
solidification. A copper-base cast structure pro-
duced by semisolid processing is illustrated in Fig.
6 (Ref 12). Mechanical mixing of the melt creates
the spherical microstructure of the casting.
At the opposite end of the spectrum of dis-
rupted dendritic growth are structures solidified
in zero gravity (Ref 13) or in other environments
that tend to preserve growth of specific dendrit-
ic orientations. In electromagnetic casting of
copper alloys (Ref 14), casting takes place in an
electromagnetic field rather than a mold. Mold
LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH contact can lead to some undesirable effects, but
Click here to view Click here to view also tends to be the source of grains of varying
Fig. 3 Variation of dendrite arm spacing in cast copper alloy specimens with (a) cooling rate during solidification for orientation. Dendrites tend to grow along a free
various amounts of silver solute and (b) amount of solute for various alloying elements (specimens solidified at surface in the direction of heat flow. In the case
the same rate). Source: Ref 4
of electromagnetic casting, this results in surface
LIVE GRAPH dendrites (and grains) that align parallel to the
Click here to view
casting direction (Fig. 7).
Fig. 5 Alloy C71500 (copper nickel, 30%) ingot.

Dendritic structure in the columnar region of the
ingot shows coring (variation in solute concentration). The
Fig. 4 Minimum dendrite arm spacing as a function of cooling rate for 10 commercial alloys. Higher cooling rates light areas are nickel-rich; the dark areas are low in nick-
result in smaller dendrite arm spacing. el. Waterbury reagent. 20
Fig. 6 Alloy C36000 (free-cutting brass), semisolid

formed. Large grains originate from solid materi-
al present before casting; the remainder of the structure
was solidified more rapidly to produce the structure
shown. NH4OH, H2O2, and H2O. 155
Fig. 8, 9 Alloy C36000 (free-cutting brass), semicontinuous cast. Dendritic structure in specimens from two loca-
tions in the ingot. Fig. 8: mixed structure of dendrites (light) and phase (dark) at the center of the ingot.
Fig. 9: Uniform distribution of dendrites (light) with interdendritic phase (dark) near the surface of the ingot. NH4OH
H2O2. 30
Fig. 7 Alloy C63800 produced by mold-free electro-

magnetic casting. Surface dendrites are aligned
parallel to the casting direction. Compare with Fig. 10.
Equal parts saturated NH4OH, H2O2, and H2O. 25
Fig. 10 Alloy C63800, direct-chill cast. Inverse segrega-
tion (a high level of solute at the surface of the
The preceding discussion of dendritic struc- ingot) has produced a nondendritic structure at the surface
tures has shown the relationship between den- (right). Compare with Fig. 7. Same etchant as Fig. 7. 5
dritic structures and grain structure in ingots.
Grains form by a dendritic growth process type of microstructure is caused by cooling condi-
(with the exceptions noted subsequently). tions and by the resulting grain structure in the
Dendritic fragmentation or disruption changes region of equiaxed grains at the center of the ingot. Fig. 11 Alloy C71500 (copper nickel, 30%) ingot,
direct-chill semicontinuous cast. Microprobe
grain size, columnar/equiaxed relationship, In the columnar region near the surface of the record of solute distribution in the equiaxed zone of the
semisolid flow properties, and so on. Thus, same ingot (Fig. 9), the dendrites are more uni- ingot. 8 mL HNO3, 15 mL H2SO4, 5 mL HCl, 5 g FeCl3,
factors that influence dendritic structure are formly distributed in the structure. In addition, the and 145 mL H2O, then Waterbury reagent. 85
significant for grain structure as well. Because phase is not concentrated, but has formed in
dendritic structure is the result of solute redis- close association with the dendrites. magnetic stirring has solved problems in steel
tribution (coring) during solidification, sec- Gross macrosegregation is observed in certain ingot “hot tear” segregation (Ref 17).
ond-phase structures and homogenization are alloys, especially those with long freezing Homogenization variously affects different
also influenced by dendrite structure, especial- ranges. The result can be solute enrichment, or copper alloys. Coring in brass often is eliminated
ly the characteristic dimension of solute varia- depletion, which produces compositions having unintentionally during high-temperature fabrica-
tions (dendrite arm spacing). unusual second phases. An example is direct- tion or even slow cooling of a large ingot after
Second Phase. Many commercially pro- chill cast alloy C63800 shown in Fig. 10; com- casting (Ref 18). However, coring persists in most
duced copper alloy ingots are basically of the pare this to the electromagnetic-cast ingot sur- cast ingots of copper-nickel alloys. Figure 11
single-phase solid-solution type. However, even face shown in Fig. 7. shows segregation in the equiaxed zone at the cen-
alloys that should be single phase, such as alloy Segregation between grains is a form of ter of an alloy C71500 direct-chill semicontinu-
C26000 (cartridge brass, 70%), can contain non- macrosegregation that occurs in late stages of ous-cast ingot (Ref 2). Also shown are the results
equilibrium phase in interdendritic locations. freezing as solute-rich liquid fills stressed low- of a microprobe traverse across the section. The
A nonequilibrium second phase also occurs in integrity grain boundaries. This problem is most dark-etching copper-rich areas illustrated in this
ingots of alloy C52400 (phosphor bronze D), apparent in alloys with a long freezing range, micrograph reach copper concentrations of 80%;
which contains 10% Sn (Ref 15). such as alloys with substantial tin, phosphorus, in the less heavily cored regions near the surface
High-zinc brasses generally contain some equi- or lead. One recent approach to solving this of the ingot (not shown in the micrograph), the
librium phase. Figure 8 shows an ingot of alloy problem is application of electromagnetic stir- maximum copper content was 75%.
C36000 (free-cutting brass) in which -dendrite ring to refine grain size (Ref 16) in copper-base High rates of solidification produce fine
arms are separated by regions of phase. This alloys. Similar successful application of electro- dendrite arm spacing; such a structure homog-
enizes more quickly than a coarse dendritic to a technology with great promise in some phase diagrams (Ref 20). An example of a rapid-
structure. Rapid cooling after solidification applications. Figure 12 shows the range of cool- ly solidified Cu-Zn-Al alloy is presented in Fig.
reduces the time available for homogenization. ing rates under consideration, which may be 13. Possible applications for various alloy sys-
Rapid solidification followed by slow cooling compared to cooling rates in Fig. 1. At rapid tems produced by rapid solidification are listed in
can result in a degree of coring very different cooling rates, alloys can be produced with Table 1. Although opportunities for applying this
from that resulting from slow solidification microcrystalline or even glassy structures. For technology are numerous, processing technology
followed by rapid cooling. This accounts for example, Cu-50Zr has a glass transition temper- will require dedicated effort. It is likely that appli-
the wide variation in degree of homogeniza- ature of 480 °C (895 °F) (Ref 19). Very fine cations will be unrelated to most products made
tion found in the structure of as-cast ingots of grain structure can be produced from a glass. from more conventional copper ingot processing.
the same alloy. Some solutes, such as nickel, Other advantages of rapid solidification
diffuse more slowly in copper at casting and include reduced chemical segregation, fine grain
working temperatures than other solutes, such microstructure, uniform distribution of very fine Grains
as zinc (Ref 2). precipitates, increased tolerance for residual ele-
Rapid solidification technology is evolving ments, and extended solid solubilities for solutes Typical grain structures that occur in continu-
from a subject of considerable academic interest as compared to expectations based on equilibrium ous-cast ingots, static-cast ingots, and continu-
ous-cast wire bars of various copper alloys are
Table 1 Advantages of rapidly solidified copper alloys discussed in the following paragraphs. Proper
procedures for the investigation of these grain
Alloy system Comments
structures are indicated.
Cu-Al Enhanced mechanical properties; superplasticity Grain Structure in Continuous-Cast Ingots.
Cu-Zr Amorphous; enhanced mechanical properties
Cu-Fe Enhanced mechanical properties; (low-cost additive)
Figures 14 and 15 show a transverse section and a
Cu-Be Enhanced mechanical properties longitudinal section of a continuous-cast ingot of
Cu-Be + (Zr, Cr, Mg, Ni, Ti) Combination of high strength and high thermal conductivity alloy C12200 (DHP copper). The sections illus-
Cu-Pb Enhanced lubrication trated in Fig. 16 and 17 are from this same ingot.
Cu-Cr Hot hardness; high strength and electrical conductivity
Cu-Ga, Cu-Si, Cu-Ge, Cu-Sn Enhanced mechanical properties; strength and ductility
In the transverse section, the grains are essentially
Cu-Ti, Cu-Zr, Cu-40Zr-10Fe Very low (~0) magnetoresistance radial from the surface to the center. Care was
Cu-Zr-P Amorphous; enhanced corrosion resistance taken to cut the longitudinal section exactly
through the center of the ingot. The black line at
the middle of the longitudinal section is a colum-
nar grain oriented along the axis of the ingot; this
grain is barely discernible in the transverse sec-
tion. As is typical of relatively pure copper, the
grain boundaries are sharply defined.
Figure 18 is a schematic approximation of the
freezing front in the continuous process used for
casting the ingot in Fig. 14 and 15. At the surface
Fig. 12 The effect of cooling rate on microstructure. Rapid solidification increases homogeneity and results in micro-
crystalline or glassy structures. Classifications are approximate and depend on composition and processing
as well as cooling rate. Fig. 13 Scanning electron micrograph of Cu-24.3Zn-
9Al (at.%) alloy, rapidly solidified by melt spin-
ning. Beta-phase grain size is very fine, and the structure
shows no evidence of segregation. As-polished. 950
Fig. 14, 15 Alloy C12200 (DHP copper), continuous

cast in a 102 mm (4 in.) diam ingot. Fig. Fig. 16, 17 Same alloy and processing as Fig. 14 and 15. Fig. 16: section normal to the direction of columnar
14: transverse section. Fig. 15: longitudinal section. growth taken from near the surface of the ingot. The structure is coarse, unbranched dendrites. Fig. 17:
Columnar grains are oriented along the axis. See also Fig. longitudinal section taken from near the center of the ingot. Dendrite spacing is much finer than in Fig. 16. Waterbury
25 and 26. Waterbury reagent. 0.6 reagent. 150
of the ingot, the interface advances approxi- detached arms, which would form new equiaxed C36000 (free-cutting brass). In the transverse
mately at right angles to the mold wall; at the grains (Ref 22). As a result, the internal structure section, the structure appears completely
center of the ingot, the interface advances along of DHP copper ingots is completely columnar. equiaxed, with finer grains at the edge and
the axis of the ingot. Columnar grains usually However, the chill surface structure is branched coarser grains at the center. In the longitudinal
develop with a preferred crystal orientation in dendritic. Therefore, grain refinement at the section, columnar grains are visible that extend
the direction of heat flow and with the grain chill surface is possible, for example, by stirring for almost half the radius toward the center of
boundaries parallel to this direction (Ref 8). at the start-of-freezing position (Ref 23). the ingot. This demonstrates the importance of
In the structure shown in Fig. 15, the grain The influence of dendrite structure on grain orientation of the macrosection in providing an
boundaries near the center of the ingot do not structure is demonstrated by the differing accurate representation of grain structure; the
follow the isotherms during growth, but contin- effects of different solute element additions on transverse section is clearly misleading. In the
ue parallel to the crystal direction established the change from columnar to equiaxed solidifi- transverse section and the longitudinal section,
near the surface, that is, at the start of growth. cation. A higher concentration of elements close examination shows concentric rings of
The longitudinal center grain is an exception. At produces a result similar to a low partition relatively fine, equiaxed grains within the zone
the very center of the ingot, a grain can grow coefficient. This follows the same trend as of columnar grains. These fine grains are
continuously and still maintain a constant orien- reported in aluminum (Ref 24), which is formed from dendrite arms that are detached
tation of its direction of growth. explained by the influence of alloying ele- by convection during solidification, such as the
As noted earlier in discussing electromagnetic ments on dendritic branching and therefore convection caused by afterpouring to prevent
casting, dendrites at the surface can also grow par- crystal multiplication. Table 2 summarizes the top-pipe formation. Marked variation in local
allel to the casting direction along the ingot sur- possibilities for crystal multiplication at the grain size is a typical condition in alloys in
face. Because the start of freezing is a discontinu- surface and interior of ingots, depending on which the dendrite arms are branched.
ity in the freezing front, there are two preferred the dendritic structure. Branched dendrites are an effective source of
growth directions—one in the casting direction Grain Structure in Static-Cast Ingots. detached arms for the formation of new
and one approximately perpendicular to the freez- Figures 19 and 20 show transverse and longi- equiaxed grains (Ref 6).
ing front. This is true at all mold and chill surfaces tudinal sections of a static-cast ingot of alloy Grain Structure in Wire Bars. Figure 21
and explains the appearance of branched dendrites shows a transverse section through a wire bar of
at chill surfaces as well as their absence in the inte- tough-pitch (level-set) copper, which contains
rior of lightly alloyed castings (Ref 21). approximately 0.04% O. Measurements of den-
A notable feature of DHP copper ingots is the drite arm spacing indicate the minimal correlation
relationship between grain structure and dendrit- between grain size and dendrite spacing (Ref 25).
ic structure. The unbranched dendrites charac- Interpretation of complex structures of this kind
teristic of this alloy are not effective sources of must consider heat loss from the open (top) sur-
face and to the mold as well as the movement of
partially formed (dendritic) grains during ingot
solidification. Structures rather different from that
shown in Fig. 21 are seen in “wire bar” produced
by continuous casting processes such as the
wheel-and-belt or Hazelett twin-belt methods.
Figures 22 and 23 illustrate the grain structure
produced in a continuous-cast wire bar (Ref 26).
In this copper alloy having only 150 to 200 ppm
Fig. 19, 20 Alloy C36000 (free-cutting brass), static-
oxygen, grain size can be varied greatly primarily
cast 203 mm (8 in.) diam ingot. Fig. 19:
transverse section. Fig. 20: longitudinal section. Columnar by changing the casting temperature. Lower cast-
grains extend nearly halfway to the center of the ingot. ing temperature allows the solid fragments pro-
Boiling 20% HNO3 20% acetic acid. 0.3
Fig. 18 The freezing front during continuous casting of

a copper alloy ingot. Arrows are normal to the
liquid-solid interface and show the freezing direction.
Table 2 The effect of dendrite structure

on crystal multiplication
“Low” solute “High” solute
Surface of ingot Branched Branched

dendrites dendrites
Crystal Crystal
multiplication multiplication
possible possible
Interior of ingot Unbranched Branched
dendrites dendrites Fig. 22, 23 The effect of casting temperature on con-
tinuous-cast copper wire bar. Fig. 22: cast
No crystal Crystal
multiplication multiplication Fig. 21 Alloy C11000 electrolytic tough pitch copper at 1150 °C (2100 °F). Fig. 23: cast at 1120 °C (2050 °F). The
wire bar. Transverse section shows a pattern of higher casting temperature produced a coarser grain struc-
possible coarse and fine grains. 50% HNO3 50% H2O. 0.6 ture in the ingot. Etchant not reported. 0.4
duced by crystal multiplication to survive as the cracks originating from thermal stresses or fric- severity of the cracks is further revealed by
nuclei of new grains. Although grain structure is tional forces. inspection of the longitudinal section (Fig. 26).
more uniform, the main improvement in the cast Thermal-Stress Cracking. Longitudinal sur- Even more sensitive is a leak test of a wafer or a
structure of continuous-cast processes for wire rod face cracks are common in ingots fabricated fracture test of suspect material, followed by
is control of oxygen content. In static-cast wire with poor control conditions (leaving a hot spot). scanning electron microscopy of the fracture
bar, the set surface absorbs oxygen from the air. This type of crack is illustrated in Fig. 24. surface. Separation during fracture of solids is
By contrast, continuous-cast wire bar has oxides Center cracks, which are also called spider easily differentiated from solidification cracks.
distributed evenly throughout the cross section. In cracks, may form in an ingot that has excessive Fine, intergranular cracking may occur in the
addition, because feeding of shrinkage in continu- cooling at the end of solidification combined center of ingots having equiaxed grains in the
ous casting differs from static casting, good results with intergranular segregation that weakens the center region. This type of cracking is illustrated
are obtained at lower oxygen contents. grain boundaries. in Fig. 27, which shows an ingot of alloy
Dye-penetrant indications of center cracks in C36000 (free-cutting brass). The cracking dis-
such an ingot of alloy C12200 (DHP copper) are cussed to this point results from the thermal
Ingot Defects shown in transverse and longitudinal sections in stresses of solidification.
Fig. 25 and 26. Etched sections through the Transverse Defects. Transverse cracking is
Defects in ingots are regarded as those same continuous-cast 102 mm (4 in.) diam ingot common in continuous-cast ingots. The mecha-
nonuniform features of the structure that usually are shown in Fig. 14 and 15. The cracks, which nism of formation of these cracks, called witness
are the direct cause of rejections during subse- were not readily visible in the etched cast struc- marks, has been explained (Ref 27). Surface
quent working. Examples of ingot defects are ture, are easily discernible by dye-penetrant cold shuts, another transverse defect, are illus-
macrosegregation, inclusions, unsoundness, and inspection of the transverse section (Fig. 25); the trated in Fig. 28 and 29. Cold shuts and similar
surface defects often result from low casting
speed (Ref 28). Figure 30 shows hot tears at the
grain boundaries and between dendrite cells in
Fig. 24 Alloy C36000 (free-cutting brass) semicontinu- Fig. 27 Same alloy and processing as Fig. 24, showing
ous cast in a 254 mm (10 in.) diam ingot. A Fig. 25, 26 Spider cracks in the center of the ingot in fine intergranular cracks in the region of
longitudinal crack in the surface of the ingot. Severe Fig. 14 and 15. Fig. 25: transverse sec- equiaxed grains at the center of the ingot. HNO3 H2O
macrosegregation can accompany cracks of this type. See tion. Fig 26: longitudinal section. Dye penetrant. at 60 °C (140 °F). 4
also Fig. 39. Not polished, not etched. Actual size Approximately 0.5
Fig. 28 Alloy C36000 (free-cutting brass), slowly Fig. 30 Low-oxygen, high-purity copper ingot, with hot
poured semicontinuous-cast ingot showing Fig. 29 Semicontinuous-cast ingot of alloy C26000 tears (black) at grain boundaries and between
cold shuts on the surface of the ingot. Cold shuts often (cartridge brass). Longitudinal section through dendrite cells. Some segregation of solute occurs even in
result from low casting speeds. See also Fig. 29. Not pol- cold shuts on the surface of the ingot (left). See also Fig. high-purity materials and can weaken grain boundaries
ished, not etched. 0.25 . Source: Ref 28 28. Etchant not reported. 6 . Source: Ref 28 and hot tears. Alcoholic FeCl3. 60 . Source: Ref 1
an ingot of low-oxygen, high-purity copper. ly cooled central region of the ingot than in the shows the region adjacent to the longitudinal
Even in high-purity material, some segregation rapidly frozen outer regions (Ref 30). surface crack in an ingot of alloy C36000 (free-
of solute can occur during solidification, weak- Macrosegregation. A common type of segre- cutting brass) shown in Fig. 24. The light areas
ening the grain boundaries and leading to hot gation is macrosegregation, which results from have a high coefficient of x-ray absorption and
tears (Ref 1). Solutes at a level of 1 ppm can seg- the interdendritic flow of solute-enriched liquid have been identified as lead rich.
regate to very high levels at grain boundaries (Ref 31). The variation in tin concentration in a Macrosegregation can also result from other
(Ref 29). This is a result of solute redistribution cast slab of tin bronze (8% Sn) is illustrated in mechanisms, such as the reaction of two ele-
during solidification combined with favorable Fig. 34. A higher level of solute at the surface is ments to form an undesirable stable solid con-
energetics for solute buildup at grain boundaries often observed and is termed inverse segregation. stituent in the melt; the constituent agglomerates
at the atomic level and is best determined by Figure 35 shows a high percentage of an inter- during melting and often is nonuniformly distrib-
Auger analysis of fracture surfaces. metallic tin-rich phase near the bottom surface of uted in the casting. Such constituents having high
Unsoundness. Gas that evolved during solid- an ingot of tin bronze having 5% Sn (Ref 1). The melting points are usually hard and brittle and
ification can result in diverse structural features, surface layer of tin-rich phase that is nearly pure thus undesirable. Figure 38 illustrates inclusions
including those that clearly constitute defects. tin presumably was formed by exudation. The in a brass alloy of high tensile strength; this alloy
The gas is evolved because of its lower solubili- exudation results from the flow of solute-enriched, contained 2% Fe (Ref 33). The inclusions formed
ty in the solid metal than in the liquid phase. interdendritic liquid out of the surface region of when 0.01% Si was added to the melt.
Unsoundness in semicontinuous-cast ingots is the casting during the late stages of solidification. Effects of Defects on Fabrication. In some
usually nonuniform (Ref 2). Shrinkage cavities An example of extreme segregation in alloy instances, relationships between ingot struc-
near the surface of an ingot of alloy C71500 C36000 (free-cutting brass) is presented in Fig. ture and success of fabrication are clearly
(copper nickel, 30%) are revealed by microradi- 36. The segregate is greatly enriched in zinc. established. For example, segregation caused
ography (Fig. 31), but not by optical microscopy Replacing the cover of carbon powder formerly by exudation will persist into the fabricated
(Fig. 32). The gross unsoundness at the center of used in casting brass (Fig. 36) with a light glass structure, as shown in Fig. 39. Another exam-
the ingot, which is the result of microshrinkage cover (supplied as proprietary formulations) pre- ple is the extrusion defect of the type present-
and gas evolution, is shown in Fig. 33. Usually, vents vaporization of zinc. ed in Fig. 40 and 41; this defect can result
gas evolution and microshrinkage result in a Sever macrosegregation can accompany ingot when longitudinal surface cracks in the ingot
higher percentage of porosity in the more slow- cracks caused by thermal stresses. Figure 37 flow inward during extrusion.
Fig. 31, 32 ,33 Alloy C71500 (copper nickel, 30%), semicontinuous cast in a 229 mm (9 in.) diam ingot. Fig. 31: shrinkage porosity in the ingot is revealed by microradiogra-
phy. Fig. 32: the same section, but optical microscopy does not reveal the interdendritic shrinkage cavities. Fig. 33: specimen from near the center of the ingot.
The pores are larger than in Fig. 31. Fig. 31 and 33: as-polished. Fig. 32: Waterbury reagent. All 50 . Source: Ref 1
Fig. 36 Alloy C36000 (free-cutting brass) ingot, semi-

continuous cast. Zinc-rich “smudges” on the
surface (top left to bottom right) are the result of conden-
Fig. 35 Horizontal cast strip of tin bronze (5% Sn), sation, on the mold wall, of zinc vapor trapped by the
showing inverse segregation at the bottom sur- layer of carbon powder covering the melt. This problem
Fig. 34 Variation in tin content across a 56 mm (2.25 face of the casting (right). The surface layer is nearly pure has been solved by the use of proprietary glass covers that
in.) thick slab of tin bronze (8% Sn). See also tin. 40 mL HNO3, 25 g CrO3, and 35 mL H2O. 100 . prevent zinc evaporation and recondensation. NH4OH
Fig. 35 and Fig. 10. Source: Ref 32 Source: Ref 1 H2O2. 10
Fig. 37 Alloy C36000 (free-cutting brass) ingot. A Fig. 38 Cu-37Zn-2Al-2Fe alloy, showing globular Fig. 39 Phosphor bronze strip rolled from a static-cast
microradiograph of a thin section taken from an inclusions of a hard, iron-rich constituent that ingot, showing gross tin sweat on the surface
area near the longitudinal crack in the specimen shown in precipitated after the addition of 0.01% Si to the melt. The (top). Illustrates how segregation caused by exudation per-
Fig. 24. Light areas are lead rich. As-polished. 50 specimen is from a sample quenched from the top of the sists in the fabricated structure. Etchant not reported.
melt. As-polished. 40 . Source: Ref 33 300 . Source: Ref 34
Fig. 42, 43 Alloy C63800 ingot, hot rolled in several

passes to 80% total reduction. Fig. 42:
the edge was rolled from an ingot without inverse segre-
gation. Fig. 43: the edge was rolled from an ingot with
inverse segregation.
Fig. 40 Alloy C36000 (free-cutting brass) extrusion. Fig. 41 Same specimen as Fig. 40. Polished and
Transverse fracture shows internal cracks, etched transverse section shows internal
which are associated with a pipe, or extrusion, defect. See cracks, which result when longitudinal surface cracks in
also Fig. 41. Not polished, not etched. 1.4 the ingot flow inward during extrusion. 50 mL HNO3
50 mL acetic acid. 1.4
Advantages claimed for electromagnetic cast- REFERENCES Copper Alloys,” INCRA Project 165,
ing include better surface after hot rolling in Swedish Institute for Metals Research,
material free of inverse segregation (Ref 12). Stockholm, 1971
1. A. Cibula, “Review of Metallurgical Factors
Similarly, edge condition after hot or cold reduc- 5. M.C. Flemings, Solidification Processing.
Influencing the Quality of Copper and
tion is better when the casting is free of surface McGraw-Hill, 1974
Copper Alloy Castings,” BNFMRA
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International Conference on the Control of
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the Composition and Quality of Copper and
edges of alloy C63800 ingots after hot rolling to 1984
Copper Alloy Castings for Fabrication, Oct
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1967 (Düsseldorf, Germany)
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2. D.A. Granger and T.F. Bower, Techniques
much better condition than the edge rolled from Commercial Copper-Base Alloys,” INCRA
for the Interpretation of Cast Structures in
an ingot with surface defects (Fig. 43). Report 165A, Swedish Institute for Metals
Two Semi-Continuous Cast Copper Alloys,
J. Inst. Met., Vol 98, 1970, p 353 Research, Stockholm, 1973
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 3. L. Backerud and L.M. Liljenvall, Copper 8. B. Chalmers, Principles of Solidification,
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12. K.P. Young, ITT Engineered Metals Process Columbus, OH, 1985 Destructive Testing of Cast Slabs and
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Boskanova, J. Cryst. Growth, Vol 60, Nov 1962 Copper Alloy Castings for Fabrication, Oct
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Copper Alloys,” Paper 22, Copper 1983, 23. T.F. Bower and M.C. Flemings, Formation and Segregation, Interfacial Segregation,
Nov 1983 (London), The Metals Society of the Chill Zone in Ingot Solidification, American Society for Metals, 1979
and Copper Development Association Trans. AIME, Vol 239, 1967, p 216 30. C.E. Ransley and D.E.J. Talbot, Hydrogen
24. L.A. Tarshis, J.L. Walker, and J.W. Rutter, Porosity in Metals, With Special Reference
15. A. Butts, Ed., Copper, Hafner, 1970 (fac-
Experiments in the Solidification Structure to Aluminum and Its Alloys, Z. Metallk., Vol
simile of the 1959 edition), p 879
of Alloy Castings, Met. Trans., Vol 2, 1971, 46, 1995, p 328
16. D.S. Calvert, BNF Metals Technology
p 2589 31. M.C. Flemings and R. Mehrabian,
Center, Wantage, U.K., private communica- 25. J. McCloskey and H. Popps, Solidification “Segregation in Castings and Ingots,”
tion, 1985 of Electrolytic Tough Pitch Copper, Wire J. Solidification, 1969 Seminar, American
17. J.J. Moore, The Application of Int., Oct 1970 Society for Metals, 1970
Electromagnetic Stirring (EMS) in the 26. J.M.A. Dompas, J.G. Smets, and J.R. 32. A. Krell, H. Vosskühler, and K. Walter, The
Continuous Casting of Steel, Continuous Schoofs, Continuous Casting and Rolling of Continuous Casting of Copper and Its
Casting, Vol 3, Iron and Steel Society of Copper Rod at the M.H. Olin Copper Alloys, Met. Rev., Vol 5, 1950, p 413
AIME, Warrendale, PA, 1984 Refinery, Wire J. Int., Sept 1974; C.J. Petry, 33. D.A. Hudson, Iron-Rich Spots Formed by
18. H.D. Brody and M.C. Flemings, Solute “Use of the Hazelett Twin-Belt Mold for Silicon and Boron in Brasses, J. Inst. Met.,
Redistribution in Dendritic Solidification, Continuous Casting of Copper,” Paper No. Vol 92, 1963–1964, p 280
Trans. AIME, Vol 236, 1966, p 615 78-19, TMS Paper Selection 34. G.L. Bailey and W.A. Baker, “Roman
19. H. Jones, Rapid Solidification of Metals and 27. Continuous Casting of Steel, Proceedings of Melting and Casting of Non-Ferrous
Alloys, The Institution of Metallurgists, the 2nd Process Technology Conference, Metals,” Monograph and Report Series No.
London, 1984 Vol 2, American Institute of Mining, 6, Institute of Metals, London, 1949
Phase Diagrams
PHASE DIAGRAMS covering many of the higher, are widely used by the electrical industry on the Cu-Sn-P (phosphor bronzes), Cu-Sn-
commercially important copper alloy systems are to produce wire for motors, generators, and Pb-P (leaded phosphor bronzes), Cu-Al (alu-
presented in this article. Crystallographic data in power distribution and control equipment. minum bronzes), and Cu-Sn (silicon bronzes)
tabular form accompany some of the diagrams. Electrical coppers have different degrees of puri- systems. Other copper alloys are based on the
The binary alloy diagrams included here (Fig. ty and therefore different characteristics. For Cu-Ni (copper-nickels) and Cu-Ni-Zn (nickel
1–26) are the result of critical assessment by example, some contain deliberate small addi- silvers) systems. Each of these alloy systems
experts in the field under the coordination of the tions of silver, cadmium, or zirconium for may be modified with other alloying elements
International Programme for Alloy Phase Dia- improved resistance to thermal softening. to create alloys with special properties and/or
grams. The ternary alloy diagrams (Fig. 27–51) Tellurium- and sulfur-bearing coppers have characteristics (for example, improved wear or
were selected from the comprehensive collection improved machining characteristics. corrosion resistance).
of ternary diagrams, the multivolume Handbook Copper alloys range from high copper alloys The binary systems included in this article
of Ternary Alloy Phase Diagrams, edited by P. containing nominally 94% Cu to the more include Cu-Ag, Cu-Al, Cu-As, Cu-Au, Cu-Be,
Villars, A. Prince, and H. Okamoto and published highly alloyed brasses, bronzes, copper-nick- Cu-Bi, Cu-Cd, Cu-Co, Cu-Cr, Cu-Fe, Cu-Mn,
by ASM International in 1994. All of the binary els, nickel silvers, and some specialty alloys. Cu-Ni, Cu-O, Cu-P, Cu-Pb, Cu-Pd, Cu-S, Cu-
and ternary phase diagrams presented herein were High copper alloys contain small amounts of Sb, Cu-Se, Cu-Si, Cu-Sn, Cu-Te, Cu-Zn, and
also published in Alloy Phase Diagrams, Volume various alloying elements, such as beryllium, Cu-Zr. Ternary systems illustrated include Cu-
3 of the ASM Handbook. This volume should be cadmium, chromium, or iron. Alloying gener- Ag-Au, Cu-Ag-Cd, Cu-Al-Fe, Cu-Al-Mn, Cu-
consulted for original bibliographic citations ally serves to impart higher strength, thermal Al-Zn, Cu-Fe-Ni, Cu-Ni-Sn, Cu-Ni-Zn, Cu-Pb-
relating to specific phase diagrams. stability, or other mechanical attributes, while Zn, Cu-Sb-Sn, and Cu-Sn-Zn. The ternary
Copper Alloy Systems. Copper is one of the retaining sufficient electrical conductivity for diagrams are mostly isothermal sections at vari-
few metals that are used mainly in pure form the intended use. The brasses are based on the ous temperatures. Solidus and liquidus projec-
rather than as alloys. Commercially pure cop- Cu-Zn, Cu-Zn-Pb (leaded brasses), and Cu- tions for some of these ternary systems can be
pers, with minimum copper content of 99.3% or Zn-Sn (tin brasses) systems. Bronzes are based found in Volume 3 of the ASM Handbook.
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Composition, Pearson Space
Phase wt% Cu symbol group
(Ag) 0–8.8 cF4 Fm3m

(Cu) 92.0–100 cF4 Fm3m
Fig. 1 The copper-silver (Cu-Ag) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Atomic percent copper Composition, Pearson Space
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1100 (Al) 0–5.65 cF4 Fm3m
1084.87
52.5–53.7 tI12 I4/mcm
β0 1 70.0–72.2 oP16 or oC16 Pban or Cmmm
1000 L
γ0 2 70.0–72.1 mC20 C2/m
1 74.4–77.8 hP42 P6/mmm
900 β
ε1 2 74.4–75.2 (a) …
1 77.5–79.4 (b) …
800 2 72.2–78.7 hP4 P63/mmc
77.4–78.3 m
Temperature, ˚C
(c) R3
γ1 0 77.8–84 (d) …
ε2
700
660.452 ˚C 1 79.7–84 cP52 P43m
η1 0 83.1–84.7 (d) …
600 85.0–91.5 cI2 Im3m
δ 2 88.5–89 (e)
548.2 ˚C ζ1
567 ˚C (Cu) 90.6–100 cF4 Fm3m
500
η2 Metastable phases
… tP6 …
400 (A1) θ (Cu)
… cF16 Fm3m
ζ2 Al3Cu2 61–70 hP5 P3m1
α2
300
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 (a) Monoclinic? (b) Cubic? (c) Rhombohedral. (d) Unknown. (e) D022-type long-period superlattice
Al Weight percent copper Cu
Fig. 2 The copper-aluminum (Cu-Al) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view Composition, Pearson Space
Phase wt% As symbol group
(Cu) 0 to ~7.96 cF4 Fm3m

12.8–16.4 hP2 P63/mmc
(HT) 28.2–31.2 hP8 P63/mmc
(LT) 28.8–31.2 hP24 P3c1
(HT) 32.1–33.1 cF16 Fm3m
(LT) 32.1–33.1 oI28 Ibam
(As) 100 hR2 R3m
Metastable phases
Cu2As ~37.1 tP6 P4/nmm
Cu3As4 ~61.12 oI28 Immm
Fig. 3 The copper-arsenic (Cu-As) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
(Au,Cu) 0–100 cF4 Fm3m

Au3Cu 3–16.8 cP4 Fm3m
AuCu(I) 19–30 tP4 P4/mmm
AuCu(II) 16.8–35 oI40 Imma
AuCu3(I) 40–58 cP4 Pm3m
AuCu3(II) 39–? tP28 mm
P4
Fig. 4 The copper-gold (Cu-Au) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
Phase Diagrams / 371
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Phase wt% Be symbol group
(Cu) 0–2.2 cF4 Fm3 m

4.3–9.8 cI2 Im3m
10.3–12.4 cP2 Pm3 m
~20.4 to ~38.5 cF24 Fd3m
(Be) 40.4–100 cI2 Im3m
(Be) 57.5–100 hP2 P63/mmc
Fig. 5 The copper-beryllium (Cu-Be) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Phase wt% Bi symbol group
(Cu) 0–0.010 cF4 Fm3m

(Bi) 100 hR2 R3m
Metastable phase
Cu5Bi2 57 … …
Fig. 6 The copper-bismuth (Cu-Bi) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Phase wt% Cd symbol group
(Cu) 0–3.6 cF4 Fm3m

46.9 hP24 P63/mmc
56.0–58.3(a) cF1124 F43m
65.9–77 cI52 …
84.6–85.9 hP28 P63/mmc
(Cd) ~99.9–100 hP2 P63/mmc
(a) At 300 °C (572.0 °F)
Fig. 7 The copper-cadmium (Cu-Cd) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
(Co) 0–20.9 cF4 Fm3m

(Co) 0–9(a) hP2 P63/mmc
(Cu) 93–100 cF4 Fm3m
Metastable phase
9–10 hR1 m
R3
(a) The composition of (Co) is between 0 and 0.3 wt% Cu in equilibrium, but is 0–9 wt% Cu in the
metastable state, which is obtained by quenching from high temperatures.
Fig. 8 The copper-cobalt (Cu-Co) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Phase wt% Cr symbol group
(Cu) 0–0.73 cF4 Fm3m

(Cr) 99.8–100 cI2 Im3m
Fig. 9 The copper-chromium (Cu-Cr) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
(Fe) 0–7.6 cI2 m

Im3
(Fe) 0–13 cF4 Fm3m
(Fe) 0–2.2 cI2 m
Im3
(Cu) 95.9–100 cF4 Fm3m
Fig. 10 The copper-iron (Cu-Fe) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Phase wt% Mn symbol group
(Cu,Mn) 0–100 cF4 Fm3m

(Mn) 85.8–100 cI2 Im3m
(Mn) 99.5–100 cP20 P4132
(Mn) 99.7–100 cI58 I43m
Fig. 11 The copper-manganese (Cu-Mn) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Phase wt% Ni symbol group
(Cu,Ni) 0–100(a) cF4 Fm3m
(a) Above 354.5 °C (669.2 °F)
Fig. 12 The copper-nickel (Cu-Ni) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Phase wt% O symbol group
(Cu) 0–0.008 cF4 Fm3m

Cu2O(a) 11.2 cP6 Pn3m
CuO(b) 20 mC8 …
Cu4O3(c) 15.9 tI28 I4/mcm
(a) or cuprite. (b) or tenorite. (c) Additional possible phase, or paramelaconite
Fig. 13 The copper-oxygen (Cu-O) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Phase wt% P symbol group
(Cu) 0–1.7 cF4 Fm3m

Cu3P 14–18 hP24 P63cm
CuP2 49.4 mP12 P21/c
Cu2P7(a) 63.1 mC72 C2/m
(a) Not shown in the diagram
Fig. 14 The copper-phosphorus (Cu-P) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Phase wt% Pb symbol group
(Cu) 0(a) cF4 Fm3m

(Pb) 100 cF4 Fm3m
(Pb)(b) 100 hP2 P63/mmc
(a) Metastable solid solubility may extend up to 10.0–12.0 wt% Pb. (b) Above 10.3 GPa
Fig. 15 The copper-lead (Cu-Pb) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Phase wt% Pd symbol group
(Cu,Pd) 0–100 cF4 Fm3m

Cu3Pd () ~12.1 to ~32 cP4 Pm3m
Cu3Pd ()
1D-LPS ~26 to ~39 tP28 P4mm
2D-LPS ~28 to ~43 … …
CuPd () ~49 to ~60 cP2 m
Pm3
Fig. 16 The copper-palladium (Cu-Pd) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Phase wt% S(Cu/S) symbol group
(Cu) 0–0.012 cF4 m

Fm3
chalcocite 20.14–20.01 mP144(?) P21/c
(Cu2S)
chalcocite 20.14–20.22 hP6 P63/mmc
(Cu2S)
Djurleite (Cu~1.96S) 20.4–20.69 oP380(?) Pmnm
P21nm(?)
Pmn21
Digenite (Cu2–S) 20.14–22.24 cF12 Fm3m
Anilite (Cu1.75S) 22.38 0.03 oP44(?) Pnma
Covellite (CuS) 33.5 hP12 P63/mmc
(S) ~100 oF128 Fddd
mP48 P21/a
hR6
R3
Metastable phases
Protodjurleite 20.4 (1.00)(a) … …
20.5 (0.999)(b)
Tetragonal 20.5 (0.999) tP12 P43212
Hexagonal- 20.7–22.4 … …
tetragonal CuxS (0.98–0.89)
Low digenite 21.99–22.22 … m
R3
(Dg) (0.911–0.899)(c)
Blaubleibender 26.5 1.4 … …
Fig. 17 The copper-sulfur (Cu-S) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
covellite I (0.71 0.5)
Blaubleibender 31.6 1.95 … …
LIVE GRAPH covellite II (0.6 0.1)
Click here to view CuS2 50.23 (0.3) … Pa3(?)
(a) At 75 °C (167 °F). (b) At 93 °C (199 °F). (c) At 25 °C (77 °F)
Fig. 18 Enlargement of the Cu-S diagram from 0 to 160 °C (32–320 °F)
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 19 Copper-saturated boundary of digenite (copper sulfide)

LIVE GRAPH
Phase wt% Sb symbol group
(Cu) 0–10.6 cF4 Fm3m

31.6–46.0 oF16 Fm3m
~26.0–26.7 hP2 P63/mmc
30.3–32 hP? P63/mmc
~36.1–39.4 oP8 Pmmn
~34.1–34.5 hP26 P3
~47.4–48.9 tP6 P4/nmm
(Sb) ~100 hR2 m
R3
Fig. 20 The copper-antimony (Cu-Sb) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Phase wt% Se symbol group
(Cu) ~0 cF4 Fm3m

Cu2–xSe ~38.3–38.8 (a) …
Cu2–xSe ~38.3–41.6(b) cF12 Fm3m
Cu3Se2 45 … 21m
P4
CuSe 55.4 … P63/mmc
CuSe 55.4 … …
CuSe 55.4 … P63/mmc
CuSe2 71.3 oP6 Pnnm
(Se) ~100 hP3 P3121
(a) Monoclinic. (b) Homogeneity range at room temperature, 0.18

x
0.22, and at 500 °C (932 °F) x 0
to ~0.26
Fig. 21 The copper-selenium (Cu-Se) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
(Si) 0 cF8 Fm3m

SiII (HP) 0 tI4 I41/amd
(a) 87.2–88.16 (b) …
(a) 87.0–88.22 (c)
R3
(a) 87.2–88.8 (c) m
R3
(d) 89.3–89.4 (e) …
90.3–91.4 (f) …
(g) 91.4–91.62 cP20 P4132
91.6–93.2 cI2 Im3m
(h) 93.0–94.80 hP2 P63/mmc
(Cu) 94.6 to ~100 cF4 Fm3m
Other reported phases
(i) … (f) …
Metastable … (f) …
(a) Also denoted Cu3Si. (b) Orthorhombic. (c) Rhombohedral. (d) Also denoted Cu15Si4. (e) Cubic. (f)
Tetragonal. (g) Also denoted Cu5Si. (h) Also denoted Cu7Si. (i) Originally denoted
Fig. 22 The copper-silicon (Cu-Si) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Phase wt% Sn symbol group
0–15.8 cF4 Fm3m

22.0–27.0 cI2 Im3m
25.5–41.5 cF16 Fm3m
32–33 cF416 F43m
32.2–35.2 hP26 P63
27.7–39.5 oC80 Cmcm
59.0–60.9 hP4 P63/mmc
44.8–60.9 (a) …
(Sn) ~100 tI4 I41/amd
(Sn) 100 cF8 Fd3m
(a) Hexagonal; superlattice based on NiAs-type structure
Fig. 23 The copper-tin (Cu-Sn) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Phase wt% Te symbol group
(Cu) 0 cF2 m
Fm3
Cu2Te group
A 50–53.6 cF12 m
Fd3
B 50–52.99 hP6 P6/mmm
C 50.4–52.5 hP* …
D 50.46–51.1 o** …
E 50.3–50.46 o** …
F 51.0–52 o** …
G 51.3–51.6 o** …
H 52.12–53.1 hP72 P3m1
I 52.23–52.88 … …
J 52.23–52.6 hP* …
K 52.9–53.3 hP22 P3m1
L 54–58 tP6 P4/nmm
L 55–58 … …
M 58–59 … …
N 57–58.8 … …
CuTe 67 oP4 Pmmn
(Te) 100 hP3 P3121
High-pressure phase
CuTe2 50.1 cP12 Pa3
Fig. 24 The copper-tellurium (Cu-Te) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Phase wt% Zn symbol group
or (Cu) 0–38.95 cF4 Fm3 m

36.8–56.5 cI2 Im3m
45.5–50.7 cP2 Pm3m
57.7–70.6 cI52 I43m
73.02–76.5 hP3 P6
78.5–88.3 hP2 P63/mmc
or (Zn) 97.25–100 hP2 P63/mmc
Fig. 25 The copper-zinc (Cu-Zn) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Phase wt% Zr symbol group
(Cu) 0 to ~0.172 cF4 Fm3m

Cu9Zr2(a) 24.18 tP24 P4/m
Cu51Zr14 28.27 hP65 P6/m
Cu8Zr3 34.99 oP44 Pnma
Cu10Zr7 50.13 oC68 …
CuZr 58.9 cP2 Pm3m
CuZr2 74.17 tI6 I4/mmm
(Zr) ~97.8–100 cI2 Im3m
(Zr) ~99.86–100 hP2 P63/mmc
(a) Tetragonal long-period superlattice derived from the AuBe5-type structure
Fig. 26 The copper-zirconium (Cu-Zr) binary phase diagram and crystal structure data
Fig. 27 Cu-Ag-Au isothermal section at 950 °C (1740 °F) Fig. 28 Cu-Ag-Au isothermal section at 850 °C (1560 °F)
Fig. 29 Cu-Ag-Au isothermal section at 775 °C (1425 °F) Fig. 30 Cu-Ag-Au isothermal section at 300 °C (570 °F)
Fig. 31 Cu-Ag-Cd isothermal section at 600 °C (1110 °F) Fig. 32 Cu-Ag-Cd isothermal section at 500 °C (930 °F)
Fig. 33 Cu-Ag-Cd isothermal section at 300 °C (570 °F) Fig. 34 Cu-Al-Fe isothermal section at 600 °C (1110 °F)
Fig. 35 Cu-Al-Mn isothermal section at 950 °C (1740 °F) Fig. 36 Cu-Al-Mn isothermal section at 700 °C (1290 °F)
Fig. 37 Cu-Al-Mn isothermal section at 25 °C (75 °F) Fig. 38 Cu-Al-Zn isothermal section at 700 °C (1290 °F)
Fig. 39 Cu-Al-Zn isothermal section at 550 °C (1020 °F) Fig. 40 Cu-Al-Zn isothermal section at 350 °C (660 °F)
Fig. 41 Cu-Al-Zn isothermal section at 200 °C (390 °F) Fig. 42 Cu-Fe-Ni isothermal section at 400 °C (750 °F)
Fig. 43 Cu-Fe-Ni isothermal section at 20 °C (70 °F) Fig. 44 Cu-Ni-Sn isothermal section at 700 °C (1290 °F)
Fig. 45 Cu-Ni-Sn isothermal section at 550 °C (1020 °F) Fig. 46 Cu-Ni-Zn isothermal section at 775 °C (1425 °F)
Fig. 47 Cu-Ni-Zn isothermal section at 650 °C (1200 °F) Fig. 48 Cu-Ni-Zn isothermal section at 20 °C (70 °F)
Fig. 49 Cu-Pb-Zn isothermal section at 25 °C (75 °F) Fig. 50 Cu-Sb-Sn phases present at temperatures below the reactions in
the solid state
Fig. 51 Cu-Sn-Zn isothermal section at 500 °C (930 °F)

Engineering Properties and
Service Characteristics
Corrosion Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 High-Temperature Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

Nature of the Protective Oxide Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Effects of Alloy Compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Fatigue Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Types of Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Factors Influencing Alloy Selection in Specific Environments . . 392 Alloy Metallurgy and General Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . 440
Atmospheric Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Fatigue Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Corrosion in Soils and Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Fatigue Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Corrosion in Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Structure, Processing, and Property Relationships . . . . . . . . . . 443
Corrosion in Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Corrosion in Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Properties of Pure Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Corrosion in Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Corrosion in Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 Atomic and Electron Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
SCC of Copper Alloys in Specific Environments . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Crystal Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Protective Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Density and Volume Change on Freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Corrosion Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Electrical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Stress-Corrosion Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Magnetic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Environmental Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Metallurgical Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Optical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Mechanical and Geometrical Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Nuclear Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
SCC Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Mitigation of SCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Cracking Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Properties of Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . 453
Effect of Temperature on Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Low-Temperature Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 Properties of Cast Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Corrosion Behavior
COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS are • Electrical wiring, hardware, and connectors; For the corrosion reaction to proceed, copper
widely used in many environments and appli- printed circuit boards; and electronic applica- ions and electrons must migrate through the Cu2O
cations because of their excellent corrosion tions that require demanding combinations of film. Consequently, reducing the ionic or elec-
resistance, which is coupled with combinations electrical, thermal, and mechanical proper- tronic conductivity of the film by doping with
of other desirable properties, such as superior ties, such as semiconductor packages, lead divalent or trivalent cations should improve cor-
electrical and thermal conductivity, ease of fab- frames, and connectors rosion resistance. In practice, alloying additions
ricating and joining, wide range of attainable of aluminum, zinc, tin, iron, and nickel are used
mechanical properties, and resistance to bio- to dope the corrosion produce films, and they
fouling. Copper corrodes at negligible rates in Nature of the Protective Oxide Film generally reduce corrosion rates significantly.
unpolluted air, water, and deaerated nonoxidiz-
ing acids. Copper alloy artifacts have been Copper and its alloys are unique among the
found in nearly pristine condition after having corrosion-resistant alloys in that they do not form Effects of Alloy Compositions
been buried in the earth for thousands of years, a truly passive corrosion product film. In aqueous
and copper roofing in rural atmospheres has environments at ambient temperatures, the corro- Copper alloys are traditionally classified
been found to corrode at rates of less than 0.4 sion product predominantly responsible for pro- under the groupings listed in Table 1.
mm (15 mils) in 200 years. Copper alloys resist tection is cuprous oxide (Cu2O). This Cu2O film Coppers and high-copper alloys have simi-
many saline solutions, alkaline solutions, and is adherent and follows parabolic growth kinet- lar corrosion resistance. They have excellent
organic chemicals. However, copper is suscep- ics. Cuprous oxide is a p-type semiconductor resistance to seawater corrosion and biofouling,
tible to more rapid attack in oxidizing acids, formed by the electrochemical processes: but are susceptible to erosion-corrosion at high
oxidizing heavy-metal salts, sulfur, ammonia
water velocities. The high-copper alloys are pri-
(NH3), and some sulfur and NH3 compounds. 4Cu 2H2O → 2Cu2O 4H 4e (anode) (Eq 1) marily used in applications that require enhanced
Resistance to acid solution depends mainly on
mechanical performance, often at slightly elevat-
the severity of oxidizing conditions in the solu- and ed temperature, with good thermal or electrical
tion. Reaction of copper with sulfur and sul-
conductivity. Processing for increased strength in
fides to form copper sulfide (CuS or Cu2S) usu-
ally precludes the use of copper and copper
O2 2H2O 4e → 4(OH) (cathode) (Eq 2) the high-copper alloys generally improves their
alloys in environments known to contain cer- resistance to erosion-corrosion. A number of
tain sulfur species. with the net reaction: 4Cu O2 → 2Cu2O. alloys in this category have been developed for
Copper and copper alloys provide superior
Table 1 Generic classification of copper alloys
service in many of the applications included in
the following general classifications: Generic name UNS No. Composition
Wrought alloys
• Applications requiring resistance to atmos- Coppers C10100–C15760 99% Cu
pheric exposure, such as roofing and other High-copper alloys C16200–C19600 96% Cu
architectural uses, hardware, building fronts, Brasses C20500–C28580 Cu-Zn
grille work, hand rails, lock bodies, door- Leaded brasses C31200–C38590 Cu-Zn-Pb
knobs, and kick plates Tin brasses C40400–C49080 Cu-Zn-Sn-Pb
Phosphor bronzes C50100–C52400 Cu-Sn-P
• Freshwater supply lines and plumbing fit- Leaded phosphor bronzes C53200–C54800 Cu-Sn-Pb-P
tings, for which superior resistance to corro- Copper-phosphorus and Cu-Ag-P alloys C55180–C55284 Cu-P-Ag
sion by various types of waters and soils is Aluminum bronzes C60600–C64400 Cu-Al-Ni-Fe-Si-Sn
important Silicon bronzes C64700–C66100 Cu-Si-Sn
Other copper-zinc alloys C66400–C69900 ...
• Marine applications—most often freshwater Copper-nickels C70000–C79900 Cu-Ni-Fe
and seawater supply lines, heat exchangers, Nickel silvers C73200–C79900 Cu-Ni-Zn
condensers, shafting, valve stems, and marine Cast alloys
hardware—in which resistance to seawater, Coppers C80100–C81100 99% Cu
hydrated salt deposits, and biofouling from High-copper alloys C81300–C82800 94% Cu
marine organisms is important Red and leaded red brasses C83300–C85800 Cu-Zn-Sn-Pb (75–89% Cu)
Yellow and leaded yellow brasses C85200–C85800 Cu-Zn-Sn-Pb (57–74% Cu)
• Heat exchangers and condensers in marine
Manganese bronzes and leaded C86100–C86800 Cu-Zn-Mn-Fe-Pb
service, steam power plants, and chemical manganese bronzes
process applications, as well as liquid-to-gas Silicon bronzes, silicon brasses C87300–C87900 Cu-Zn-Si
or gas-to-gas heat exchangers in which either Tin bronzes and leaded tin bronzes C90200–C94500 Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb
process stream may contain a corrosive con- Nickel-tin bronzes C94700–C94900 Cu-Ni-Sn-Zn-Pb
Aluminum bronzes C95200–C95810 Cu-Al-Fe-Ni
taminant Copper-nickels C96200–C96800 Cu-Ni-Fe
• Industrial and chemical plant process equip- Nickel silvers C97300–C97800 Cu-Ni-Zn-Pb-Sn
ment involving exposure to a wide variety of Leaded coppers C98200–C98800 Cu-Pb
organic and inorganic chemicals Miscellaneous alloys C99300–C99750 ...
386 / Engineering Properties and Service Characteristics
electronic applications—such as contact clips, Cast brasses for marine use are also modified reflect their historic uses, such as G Bronze, Gun
springs, and lead frames—that require specific by the addition of tin, lead, and, sometimes, Metal, Navy M Bronze, and steam bronze.
mechanical properties, relatively high electrical nickel. This group of alloys is known by various Contemporary uses include pumps, valves, gears,
conductivity, and atmospheric-corrosion resist- names, including composition bronze, ounce and bushings. Wrought tin bronzes are known as
ance. See the article “Applications” in this metal, and valve metal. These older designations phosphor bronzes and find use in high-strength-
Handbook for examples of such alloys. are used less frequently because they have been wire applications, such as wire rope. This group of
Brasses are basically copper-zinc alloys and supplanted by alloy numbers under the UNS or alloys has fair resistance to impingement and good
are the most widely used group of copper alloys. Copper Development Association (CDA) sys- resistance to biofouling.
The resistance of brasses to corrosion by aque- tem. The cast marine brasses are used for plumb- Copper Nickels. Alloy C71500 (Cu-30Ni) has
ous solutions does not change markedly as long ing goods in moderate-performance seawater the best general resistance to aqueous corrosion of
as the zinc content does not exceed about 15%; piping systems or in deck hardware, for which all the commercially important copper alloys, but
above 15% Zn, dezincification may occur. they are subsequently chrome plated. C70600 (Cu-10Ni) is often selected because it
Figure 1 shows the effect of zinc content on cor- Aluminum Brasses. An important con- offers good resistance at lower cost. Both of these
rosion of brasses. Quiescent or slowly moving stituent of the corrosion film on a brass that con- alloys, although well suited to applications in the
saline solutions, brackish waters, and mildly tains a few percent aluminum in addition to cop- chemical industry, have been most extensively
acidic solutions are environments that often lead per and zinc is aluminum oxide (Al2O3), which used for condenser tubes and heat-exchanger
to the dezincification of unmodified brasses. markedly increases resistance to impingement tubes in recirculating steam systems. They are
Susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking attack in turbulent high-velocity saline water. superior to coppers and to other copper alloys in
(SCC) is significantly affected by zinc content; For example, the arsenical aluminum brass resisting acid solutions and are highly resistant to
alloys that contain more zinc are more susceptible. C68700 (76Cu-22Zn-2Al) is frequently used for SCC and impingement corrosion.
Resistance increases substantially as zinc content marine condensers and heat exchangers in which Nickel Silvers. The two most common nick-
decreases from 15 to 0%. Stress-corrosion crack- impingement attack is likely to pose a serious el silvers are C75200 (65Cu-18Ni-17Zn) and
ing is practically unknown in commercial copper. problem. Aluminum brasses are susceptible to C77000 (55Cu-18Ni-27Zn). They have good
Elements such as lead, tellurium, beryllium, dezincification unless they are inhibited, which resistance to corrosion in both fresh and salt
chromium, phosphorus, and manganese have little is usually done by adding 0.02 to 0.10% As. waters. Primarily because their relatively high
or no effect on the corrosion resistance of coppers Inhibited Alloys. Addition of phosphorus, nickel contents inhibit dezincification, C75200
and binary copper-zinc alloys. These elements are arsenic, or antimony (typically 0.02 to 0.10%) and C77000 are usually much more resistant to
added to enhance such mechanical properties as to admiralty metal, naval brass, or aluminum corrosion in saline solutions than brasses of sim-
machinability, strength, and hardness. brass effectively produces high resistance to ilar copper content.
Tin Brasses. Tin additions significantly dezincification. Inhibited alloys have been Copper-silicon alloys generally have the
increase the corrosion resistance of some brass- extensively used for such components as con- same corrosion resistance as copper, but they
es, especially resistance to dezincification. denser tubes, which must accumulate years of have higher mechanical properties and superior
Examples of this effect are two tin-bearing continuous service between shutdowns for weldability. These alloys appear to be much
brasses: uninhibited admiralty metal (no active repair or replacement. more resistant to SCC than the common brasses.
Unified Numbering System, or UNS, number) Phosphor Bronzes. Addition of tin and phos- Silicon bronzes are susceptible to embrittlement
and naval brass (C46400). Uninhibited admiral- phorus to copper produces good resistance to by high-pressure steam and should be tested for
ty metal was once widely used to make heat- flowing seawater and to most nonoxidizing acids suitability in the service environment before
exchanger tubes; it has largely been replaced by except hydrochloric (HCl). Alloys containing 8 to being specified for components to be used at ele-
inhibited grades of admiralty metal (C44300, 10% Sn have high resistance to impingement vated temperature.
C44400, and C44500), which have even greater attack. Phosphor bronzes are much less suscepti- Aluminum bronzes containing 5 to 12% Al
resistance to dealloying. Admiralty metal is a ble to SCC than brasses and are similar to copper have excellent resistance to impingement corro-
variation of cartridge brass (C26000) that is pro- in resistance to sulfur attack. Tin bronzes—alloys sion and high-temperature oxidation. Aluminum
duced by adding about 1% Sn to the basic 70Cu- of copper and tin—tend to be used primarily in the bronzes are used for beater bars and for blades in
30Zn composition. Similarly, naval brass is the cast form, in which they are modified by further wood pulp machines because of their ability to
alloy resulting from the addition of 0.75% Sn to alloy additions of lead, zinc, and nickel. Like the withstand mechanical abrasion and chemical
the basic 60Cu-40Zn composition of Muntz cast brasses, the cast tin bronzes are occasionally attack by sulfite solutions.
metal (C28000). identified by older, more colorful names that In most practical commercial applications, the
corrosion characteristics of aluminum bronzes
are primarily related to aluminum content.
Alloys with up to 8% Al normally have com-
Pitting pletely face-centered cubic (fcc) structures
0 0 and good resistance to corrosion attack. As alu-
10 Dezincification minum content increases above 8%, - duplex
10
structures appear. The phase is a high-temper-
Zinc content, %
Zinc content, %
15 15 ature phase retained at room temperature upon

fast cooling from 565 °C (1050 °F) or above.
20 20 Slow cooling for long exposure at temperatures
from 320 to 565 °C (610–1050 °F) tends to
30 30 decompose the -phase into a brittle 2
eutectoid having either a lamellar or a nodular
40 40 structure. The -phase is less resistant to corro-
sion than the -phase, and eutectoid structures
are even more susceptible to attack.
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 100 200 300 400 500 Depending on specific environmental condi-
Decrease in tensile strength Penetration, μm
tions, -phase or eutectoid structure in alu-
minum bronze can be selectively attacked by a
Fig. 1 Effect of zinc content on corrosion of brasses. Brass strip, 0.8 mm (0.032 in.) thick, was immersed for 60 days mechanism similar to the dezincification of
in 0.01 M ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) solution at 45 °C (113 °F) brasses. Proper quench-and-temper treatment of
Corrosion Behavior / 387
duplex alloys, such as C62400 and C95400, pro- forms of corrosion, depending primarily on potential of pure copper is about – 0.3 V.
duces a tempered -structure with reprecipitated environmental conditions. Table 2 lists the iden- Alloying additions of zinc or aluminum move
acicular -crystals, a combination that is often tifying characteristics of the forms of corrosion the potential toward the anodic (more elec-
superior in corrosion resistance to the normal that commonly attack copper metals as well as tronegative) end of the range; additions of tin or
annealed structures. the most effective means of combating each. nickel move the potential toward the cathodic
Iron-rich particles are distributed as small (less electronegative) end. Galvanic corrosion
round or rosette particles throughout the struc- General Corrosion between two copper metals is seldom a signifi-
tures of aluminum bronzes containing more than cant problem, because the potential difference is
about 0.5% Fe. These particles sometimes General corrosion is the well-distributed so small.
impart a rusty tinge to the surface, but have no attack of an entire surface with little or no local- Table 3 lists a galvanic series of metals and
known effect on corrosion rates. ized penetration. It is the least damaging of all alloys valid for dilute aqueous solutions, such as
Nickel-aluminum bronzes are more complex forms of attack. General corrosion is the only seawater and weak acids. The metals that are
in structure with the introduction of the -phase. form of corrosion for which weight loss data can closely grouped together can be coupled to each
Nickel appears to alter the corrosion characteris- be used to estimate penetration rates accurately. other without significant galvanic damage.
tics of the -phase to provide greater resistance General corrosion of copper alloys results However, the connecting of metals from differ-
to dealloying and cavitation-erosion in most liq- from prolonged contact with environments in ent groups leads to damage of the more anodic
uids. For C63200 and perhaps C95800, quench- which the corrosion rate is very low, such as metal; the larger the difference in galvanic
and-temper treatments may yield even greater fresh, brackish, and salt waters; many types of potential between groups, the greater the corro-
resistance to dealloying. Alloy C95700, a high- soil; neutral, alkaline, and acid salt solutions; sion. Accelerated damage due to galvanic effects
manganese cast aluminum bronze, is somewhat organic acids; and sugar juices. Other substances is usually greatest near the junction, where the
inferior in corrosion resistance to C95500 and that cause uniform thinning at a faster rate electrochemical current density is the highest.
C95800, which are low in manganese and slight- include oxidizing acids, sulfur-bearing com- Another factor that affects galvanic corrosion
ly higher in aluminum. pounds, NH3, and cyanides. is area ratio. An unfavorable area ratio exists
Aluminum bronzes are generally suitable for when the cathodic area is large and the anodic
service in nonoxidizing mineral acids, such as area is small. The corrosion rate of the small
phosphoric (H3PO4) sulfuric (H2SO4), and HCl; Galvanic Corrosion anodic area may be several hundred times
organic acids, such as lactic, acetic greater than if the anodic and cathodic areas
(CH3COOH), or oxalic; neutral saline solutions, An electrochemical potential almost always were equal in size. Conversely, when a large
such as sodium chloride (NaCl) or potassium exists between two dissimilar metals when they anodic area is coupled to a small cathodic area,
chloride (KCl); alkalies, such as sodium are immersed in a conductive solution. If two dis- current density and damage due to galvanic cor-
hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide similar metals are in electrical contact with each rosion are much less. For example, copper rivets
(KOH), and anhydrous ammonium hydroxide other and immersed in a conductive solution, a (cathodic) used to fasten steel plates together
(NH4OH); and various natural waters including potential results that enhances the corrosion of the lasted longer than 1.5 years in seawater, but steel
sea, brackish, and potable waters. Environments more electronegative member of the couple (the rivets used to fasten copper plates were com-
to be avoided include nitric acid (HNO3); some anode) and partly or completely protects the more pletely destroyed during the same period.
metallic salts, such as ferric chloride (FeCl3) electropositive member (the cathode). Copper Prevention. Five principal methods are avail-
and chromic acid (H2CrO4); moist chlorinated metals are almost always cathodic to other com- able for eliminating or significantly reducing
hydrocarbons; and moist NH3. Aeration can mon structural metals, such as steel and alu- galvanic corrosion:
result in accelerated corrosion in many media minum. When steel or aluminum is put in contact
that appear to be compatible. with a copper metal, the corrosion rate of the steel • Select dissimilar metals that are as close as
or aluminum increases, but that of the copper possible to each other in the galvanic series.
Exposure under high tensile stress to moist
NH3 can result in SCC. In certain environments, metal decreases. The common grades of stainless • Avoid coupling small anodes to large cath-
corrosion can lower the fatigue limit to 25 to steel exhibit variable behavior; that is, copper met- odes.
50% of the normal atmospheric value. als may be anodic or cathodic to the stainless steel, • Insulate dissimilar metals completely wher-
depending on conditions of exposure. Copper ever practicable.
metals usually corrode preferentially when cou- • Apply coatings and keep them in good repair,
Types of Attack pled with high-nickel alloys, titanium, or graphite. particularly on the cathodic member.
Corrosion potentials of copper metals gener- • Use a sacrificial anode; that is, couple the
Coppers and copper alloys, like most other ally range from –0.2 to –0.4 V when measured system to a third metal that is anodic to both
metals and alloys, are susceptible to several against a saturated calomel electrode (SCE); the structural metals.
Table 2 Guide to corrosion of copper alloys

Form of attack Characteristics Preventive measures
General thinning Uniform metal removal Select proper alloy for environment conditions based on weight loss data.
Galvanic corrosion Corrosion preferentially near a more cathodic metal Avoid electrically coupling dissimilar metals. Maintain optimal ratio of anode
to cathode area. Maintain optimal concentration of oxidizing constituent
in corroding medium.
Pitting Localized pits, tubercles; water line pitting; Alloy selection, design to avoid crevices, keeping metal clean
crevice corrosion; pitting under foreign objects or dirt
Impingement, erosion-corrosion, Erosion attack from turbulent flow plus dissolved gases, Design for streamlined flow; keep velocity low. Remove gases from liquid
cavitation generally as lines of pits in direction of fluid flow phase and use erosion-resistant alloy.
Fretting Chafing or galling, often occurring during shipment Lubricate contacting surfaces; interleave sheets of paper between sheets of
metal. Decrease load on bearing surfaces.
Intergranular corrosion Corrosion along grain boundaries without visible signs of cracking Select proper alloy for environmental conditions based on metallographic
examination of corrosion specimens.
Dealloying Preferential dissolution of zinc or nickel, resulting in a layer Select proper alloy for environmental conditions based on metallographic
of sponge copper examination of corrosion specimens.
Corrosion fatigue Several transangular cracks Select proper alloy based on fatigue tests in service environment. Reduce
mean or alternating stress.
SCC Cracking, usually intergranular but sometimes transgranular, Select proper alloy based on stress-corrosion tests; reduce applied or residual
that is often fairly rapid stress. Remove mercury compounds or NH3 from environment.
Pitting continually increase with extended times of expo- Impingement

sure. Instead, pits tend to reach a certain limit
As with most commercial metals, corrosion of beyond which little apparent increase in depth Various forms of impingement attack occur
copper metals results in pitting under certain occurs. Of the copper alloys, the most pit resistant where gases, vapors, or liquids impinge on metal
conditions. Pitting is sometimes general over the are the aluminum bronzes with less than 8% Al surfaces at high velocities, such as in condensers
entire surface, giving the metal an irregular and and the low-zinc brasses. Copper nickels and tin or heat exchangers. Rapidly moving turbulent
roughened appearance. In other cases, pits are bronzes tend to have intermediate pitting resist- water can strip away the protective films from
concentrated in specific areas and are of various ance, but the high-copper alloys and silicon copper alloys. When this occurs, the metal cor-
sizes and shapes. bronzes are somewhat more prone to pitting. rodes at a more rapid rate in an attempt to
Localized pitting is the most damaging form Crevice corrosion is a form of localized cor- reestablish this film, but because the films are
of corrosive attack because it reduces load-carry- rosion that occurs near a crevice formed either by being swept away as rapidly as they are being
ing capacity and increases stress concentration by two metal surfaces or a metal and a nonmetal sur- formed, the corrosion rate remains constant and
creating depressions or holes in the metal. Pitting face. Like pitting, crevice attack is a random high. The conditions under which the corrosion
is the usual form of corrosive attack at surfaces on occurrence, the precise location of which cannot product film is removed are different for each
which there are incomplete protective films, non- always be predicted. Also, like pitting, the depth alloy and are discussed in various sections of
protective deposits of scale, or extraneous of attack appears to level off rather than to this article that deal with corrosion of copper
deposits of dirt or other foreign substances. increase continually with time. This depth is usu- alloys in specific environments.
Copper alloys do not corrode primarily by pit- ally less than that from pitting, and for most cop- Erosion-corrosion is characterized by under-
ting, but because of metallurgical and environ- per alloys, it will be less than 400 m (15.8 mils). cut grooves, waves, ruts, gullies, and rounded
mental factors that are not completely understood, For most copper alloys, the location of the holes; it usually exhibits a directional pattern.
the corroded surface does show a tendency toward attack will be outside but immediately adjacent Pits are elongated in the direction of flow and
nonuniformity. In seawater, pitting tends to occur to the crevice due to the formation of metal ion are undercut on the downstream side. When the
more often under conditions of relatively low concentration cells. Classic crevice corrosion condition becomes severe, it may result in a pat-
water velocity, typically less than 0.6 to 0.9 m/s resulting from oxygen depletion and attack with- tern of horseshoe-shaped grooves or pits with
(2–3 ft/s). The occurrence of pitting is somewhat in crevices is less common in copper alloys. their open ends pointing downstream (Fig. 3).
random regarding the specific location of a pit on Aluminum- and chromium-bearing copper As attack progresses, the pits may join, forming
the surface as well as whether it will even occur on alloys, which form more passive surface films, fairly large patches of undercut pits. When this
a particular metal sample. Long-term tests of cop- are susceptible to differential oxygen cell attack, form of corrosion occurs in a condenser tube, it
per alloys show that the average pit depth does not as are aluminum alloys and stainless steels. The is usually confined to a region near the inlet end
occurrence of crevice attack is somewhat statisti- of the tube where fluid flow is rapid and turbu-
Table 3 Galvanic series in seawater cal in nature, with the odds of it occurring and its lent. If some of the tubes in a bundle become
Anodic severity increasing if the area within a crevice is plugged, the velocity is increased in the remain-
Magnesium small compared to the area outside the crevice. ing tubes; therefore, the unit should be kept as
Magnesium alloys Other conditions that will increase the odds of clean as possible. Erosion-corrosion is most
Zinc crevice attack are higher water temperatures or a often found with waters containing low levels of
Galvanized steel
Aluminum alloy 5052H flow condition on the surface outside the crevice. sulfur compounds and with polluted, contami-
Aluminum alloy 3004 Figure 2 compares the crevice corrosion nated, or silty salt water or brackish water. The
Aluminum alloy 3003 behavior for several different materials exposed erosive action locally removes protective films,
Aluminum alloy 1100 to ambient-temperature seawater for various thus contributing to the formation of concentra-
Aluminum alloy 6053
Alclad aluminum alloys periods. In each case, a nonmetallic washer tion cells and to localized pitting of anodic sites.
Cadmium created the crevice. The more classical form of Cavitation is a phenomenon that occurs in
Aluminum alloy 2017 crevice corrosion (that is, beneath the crevice moving water when the flow is disturbed so as to
Aluminum alloy 2024 former) is shown for type 904L stainless steel create a local pressure drop. Under these condi-
Low-carbon steel
Wrought iron (20Cr-25Ni-4.5Mo-1.5Cu) after only 30 days tions, a vapor bubble will form and then col-
Cast iron of exposure (Fig. 2a). For 70Cu-30Ni, corro- lapse, applying a momentary stress of up to
Ni-Resist cast iron sion occurred just outside of the crevice mouth 1379 MPa (200 ksi) to the surface. The current
AISI type 410 stainless steel (active) and was found to be quite shallow after 6 theories of cavitation state that this repeated
50Pb-50Sn solder
AISI type 304 stainless steel (active) months (Fig. 2b). In contrast, crevice-related mechanical working of the surface creates a
AISI type 316 stainless steel (active) corrosion of alloy 400 (70Ni-30Cu) was more local fatigue situation that aids the removal of
Lead severe after only 45 days (Fig. 2c). In some metal. This is in agreement with the observa-
Tin cases, corrosion may occur within as well as tions that the harder alloys tend to have greater
Muntz metal (C28000)
Manganese bronze (C67500) outside of the crevice. resistance to cavitation and that there is often an
Naval brass (C46400) Local cell action similar to crevice attack may incubation period before the onset of cavitation
Nickel (active) also result from the presence of foreign objects attack. Of the copper alloys, aluminum bronze
Inconel (active) or debris, such as dirt, pieces of shell, or vegeta- has the best cavitation resistance. Cavitation
Cartridge brass (C26000)
Admiralty metal (C44300) tion, or it may result from rust, permeable scales, damage will be confined to the area where the
Aluminum bronze (C61400) or uneven accumulation of corrosion product on bubbles collapse, usually immediately down-
Red brass (C23000) the metallic surface. This type of attack can stream of the low-pressure zone. On symmetri-
Copper (C11000) sometimes be controlled by cleaning the sur- cal components having repeated elements (e.g.,
Silicon bronze (C65100)
Copper-nickel, 30% (C71500) faces. For example, condensers and heat impellers) the pattern of damage may repeat
Nickel (passive) exchangers are cleaned periodically to prevent itself at identical locations on each element as
Inconel (passive) deposit attack. shown in Fig. 4.
Monel Water line attack is a term used to describe Prevention. Impingement attack can be
AISI type 304 stainless steel (passive)
AISI type 316 stainless steel (passive) pitting due to a differential oxygen cell func- reduced, and the life of the unit extended, by
Silver tioning between the well-aerated surface layer of decreasing fluid velocity, streamlining the flow,
Gold a liquid and the oxygen-starved layer immedi- and removing entrained air. This is usually
Platinum ately beneath it. The pitting occurs immediately accomplished by redesigning water boxes, injec-
Cathodic below the water line. tor nozzles, and piping to reduce or eliminate
Fig. 2 Crevice-related corrosion for different alloys in natural seawater. (a) Alloy 904L (20Cr-25Ni-4.5Mo-1.5Cu) after 30 days. (b) 70Cu-30Ni after 180 days. (c) Alloy 400 (70Ni-
30Cu) after 45 days
Fig. 4 Cavitation damage repeated on successive vanes

of a bronze impeller
products having flat faces. Fretting is not con-

fined to coppers and copper alloys, but has been
recognized on almost every kind of surface—
steel, aluminum, noble metals, mica, and glass.
Prevention. Fretting can be controlled, and
sometimes eliminated by:
Fig. 3 Horseshoe-shaped depressions on the internal surface of a brass heat exchanger tube caused by erosion-
corrosion
• Lubricating with low-viscosity high-tenacity
oils to reduce friction at the interface between
the two metals and to exclude oxygen from
low-pressure pockets, obstructions to smooth metal surface that are surrounded or filled with
the interface
flow, abrupt changes in flow direction, and other corrosion product. Fretting is sometimes
features that cause local regions of high-velocity referred to as chafing, road burn, friction oxida- • Separating the faying surfaces by interleav-
ing an insulating material
or turbulent flow. Condensers and heat exchang- tion, wear oxidation, or galling.
ers are less susceptible to impingement attack if The basic requirements for fretting are as • Increasing the load to reduce motion between
faying surfaces; this may be difficult in prac-
they are made of one of the aluminum brasses or follows:
tice, because only a minute amount of rela-
copper nickels, which are more erosion-resistant
than the brasses or tin brasses. Erosion-resistant • Repeated relative (sliding) motion between tive motion is necessary to produce fretting
two surfaces must occur. The relative ampli- • Decreasing the load at bearing surfaces to
inserts at tube inlets and epoxy-type coatings are
tude of the motion may be very small— increase the relative motion between parts
often effective repair methods in existing shell
motion of only a few tenths of a millimeter
and tube heat exchangers. When contaminated
is typical.
waters are involved, filtering or screening the Intergranular Corrosion
liquids and cleaning the surfaces can be very • The interface must be under load.
effective in minimizing impingement attack. • Both load and relative motion must be suffi- Intergranular corrosion is an infrequently
cient to produce deformation of the interface. encountered form of attack that occurs most
The use of cathodic protection can lessen all
forms of localized attack except cavitation. • Oxygen and/or moisture must be present. often in applications involving high-pressure
Fretting does not occur on lubricated surfaces in steam. This type of corrosion penetrates the
Fretting continuous motion, such as axle bearings, but metal along grain boundaries—often to a depth
instead on dry interfaces subject to repeated, of several grains—which distinguishes it from
Another form of attack, called fretting or fret- small relative displacements. A classic type of surface roughening. Mechanical stress is appar-
ting corrosion, appears as pits or grooves in the fretting occurs during shipment of bundles of mill ently not a factor in intergranular corrosion. The
alloys that appear to be the most susceptible to ally penetrates the metal, weakening it structural- Brasses with copper contents of 85% or
this form of attack are Muntz metal, admiralty ly and allowing liquids or gases to leak through more resist dezincification. Dezincification of
metal, aluminum brasses, and silicon bronzes. the porous mass in the remaining structure. brasses with two-phase structures is generally
The term plug-type dealloying refers to the more severe, particularly if the second phase is
dealloying that occurs in local areas; surround- continuous; it usually occurs in two stages: the
Dealloying ing areas are usually unaffected or only slightly high-zinc -phase, followed by the lower-zinc
corroded (Fig. 5 and 6). In uniform-layer deal- -phase.
Dealloying is a corrosion process in which the loying, the active component of the alloy is Tin tends to inhibit dealloying, especially in
more active metal is selectively removed from an leached out over a broad area of the surface (Fig. cast alloys. Alloys C46400 (naval brass) and
alloy, leaving behind a weak deposit of the more 7 and 8). Dezincification is the usual form of C67500 (manganese bronze), which are -
noble metal. Copper-zinc alloys containing more corrosion for uninhibited brasses in prolonged brasses containing about 1% Sn, are widely used
than 15% Zn are susceptible to a dealloying contact with waters high in oxygen and carbon for naval equipment and have reasonably good
process called dezincification. In the dezincifica- dioxide (CO2). It is frequently encountered with resistance to dezincification.Addition of a small
tion of brass, selective removal of zinc leaves a rel- quiescent or slowly moving solutions. Slightly amount of phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony to
atively porous and weak layer of copper and cop- acidic water, low in salt content and at room admiralty metal (an all- 71Cu-28Zn-1Sn brass)
per oxide. Corrosion of a similar nature continues temperature, is likely to produce uniform attack, inhibits dezincification. Inhibitors are not entire-
beneath the primary corrosion layer, resulting in but neutral or alkaline water, high in salt content ly effective in preventing dezincification of the
gradual replacement of sound brass by weak, and above room temperature, often produces - brasses, because they do not prevent dezin-
porous copper. Unless arrested, dealloying eventu- plug-type attack. cification of the -phase.
Where dezincification is a problem, red brass,
commercial bronze, inhibited admiralty metal,
and inhibited aluminum brass can be successful-
ly used. In some cases, the economic penalty of
avoiding dealloying by selecting a low-zinc
alloy may be unacceptable. Low-zinc alloy tub-
ing requires fittings that are available only as
sand castings, but fittings for higher-zinc tube
can be die cast or forged much more economi-
cally. Where selection of a low-zinc alloy is
unacceptable, inhibited yellow brasses are gen-
erally preferred.
Dealloying has been observed in other alloys.
Dealloying of aluminum occurs in some copper-
aluminum alloys, particularly with those having
more than 8% Al. It is especially severe in alloys
with continuous phase and usually occurs as
plug-type dealloying. Nickel additions exceed-
ing 3.5% or heat treatment to produce an
microstructure prevents dealloying. Dealloying
of nickel in C71500 is rare, having been
observed at temperatures over 100 °C (212 °F),
low flow conditions, and high local heat flux
(Fig. 9). Dealloying of tin in cast tin bronzes
have been observed as a rare occurrence in hot
brine or steam. Cathodic protection generally
Fig. 5 A large plug of dezincified metal beneath a deposit on a brass pipe protects all but the two-phase copper-zinc alloys
from dealloying.
Fig. 7 Layer-type dezincification of a brass pump com-

ponent. The dark (red) outer layers are uniform-
Fig. 6 Plug-type dezincification in an -brass (70Cu-30Zn) exposed for 79 days in 1 N NaCl at room temperature. Note ly corroded regions surrounding the uncorroded metal
porous structure within the plug. The dark line surrounding the plug is an etching artifact. 160 (original yellow) of the brass.
Corrosion Fatigue
The combined action of corrosion (usually

pitting corrosion) and cyclic stress may result in
corrosion fatigue cracking. Like ordinary fatigue
cracks, corrosion fatigue cracks generally prop-
agate at right angles to the maximum tensile
stress in the affected region. However, cracks
resulting from simultaneous fluctuating stress
and corrosion propagate much more rapidly than
cracks caused solely by fluctuating stress. Also,
corrosion fatigue failure usually involves several
parallel cracks, but it is rare for more than one
crack to be found in a part that has failed by sim-
ple fatigue. The cracks shown in Fig. 10 are
characteristic of service failures resulting from
corrosion fatigue.
Ordinarily, corrosion fatigue can be readily
identified by the presence of several cracks ema-
nating from corrosion pits. Cracks not visible to
the unaided eye or at low magnification can be
made visible by deep etching or plastic defor-
mation or can be detected by eddy-current
inspection. Corrosion fatigue cracking is often
transgranular, but there is evidence that certain
Fig. 8 Layer-type dezincification of a thin brass sheet. The 0.48 mm (0.019 in.) sheet is shown in cross-section. The
dezincified layers converge toward the edge (left side) of the sheet. Note the porosity of the dezincified metal.
environments induce intergranular cracking in
copper metals.
In addition to effective resistance to corro-
sion, copper and copper alloys also resist corro-
sion fatigue in many applications involving
repeated stress and corrosion. These applica-
tions include such parts as springs, switches,
diaphragms, bellows, aircraft and automotive
gasoline and oil lines, tubes for condensers and
heat exchangers, and fourdrinier wire for the
paper industry.
Copper alloys that are high in fatigue limit
and resistance to corrosion in the service envi- Fig. 10 Typical corrosion fatigue cracking of a copper
ronment are more likely to have good resistance alloy. Transgranular cracks originate at the
base of corrosion pits on the roughened inner surface of a
to corrosion fatigue. Alloys frequently used in tube. Etched. About 150
applications involving both cyclic stress and cor- Fig. 9 Residual copper layer from a C71500 feedwater
rosion include beryllium coppers, phosphor pressure tube that underwent denickelification.
The tube was subjected to 205 °C (400 °F) steam on the
bronzes, aluminum bronzes, and copper nickels. external surface and boiling water on the internal surface
(175 °C, or 350 °F, at pH 8.6 to 9.2).
Stress-Corrosion Cracking
• Potential, pH, and temperature of the envi-
ronment
Stress-corrosion cracking and season crack- • Minor alloying elements in the copper alloy
ing describe the same phenomenon—the • Heat treatment, microstructure, and amount
apparently spontaneous cracking of stressed of cold work of the copper alloy
metal. Stress-corrosion cracking is often inter-
granular (Fig. 11), but transgranular cracking A detailed discussion of these variables can be
may occur in some alloys in certain environ- found in the article “Stress-Corrosion Cracking”
ments. Stress-corrosion cracking occurs only if which immediately follows in this Handbook Fig. 11 Typical SCC in a copper alloy. Intergranular
cracking in an etched specimen. About 60
a susceptible alloy is subjected to the com- and in Ref 1 to 5.
bined effects of sustained stress and certain Conditions Leading to SCC. Ammonia and
chemical substances. ammonium compounds are the corrosive sub- A specific corrosive environment and sus-
Copper alloys crack in a wide variety of elec- stances most often associated with SCC of cop- tained stress are the primary causes of SCC;
trolytes. In some cases, the crack surfaces have per alloys. These compounds are sometimes microstructure and alloy composition may affect
the distinctive brittle appearance that is associat- present in the atmosphere; in other cases, they the rate of crack propagation in susceptible
ed with SCC. In other cases, the threshold stress are in cleaning compounds or in chemicals used alloys. Microstructure and composition can be
for cracking may be close to that observed in air, to treat boiler water. Both oxygen and moisture most effectively controlled by selecting the cor-
and the fracture surfaces resemble those of sam- must be present for NH3 to be corrosive to cop- rect combination of alloy, forming process, ther-
ples fractured in air. It is also clear in many sys- per alloys; other compounds, such as CO2, are mal treatment, and metal-finishing process.
tems that cracking occurs at low threshold thought to accelerate SCC in NH3 atmospheres. Although test results may indicate that a finished
stresses only when certain environmental condi- Moisture films on metal surfaces will dissolve part is not susceptible to SCC, such an indication
tions exist. Variables that control this threshold significant quantities of NH3, even from atmos- does not ensure complete freedom from crack-
stress in a specific environment include: pheres with low NH3 concentrations. ing, particularly where service stresses are high.
Applied and residual stresses can both lead to ing SCC in an ammonium salt environment (Ref decrease dangerous tensile stresses or to convert
failure by SCC. Susceptibility is largely a func- 4). More recently, mechanical strain was found them to less objectionable compressive stresses.
tion of stress magnitude. Stresses near the yield to lead to dezincification of both 85Cu-15Zn and
strength are usually required, but parts have 70Cu-30Zn alloys in an NH4OH-(NH4)2SO4-
failed under much lower stresses. In general, the CuSO4 electrolyte (Ref 6). Unstressed samples Factors Influencing Alloy
higher the stress, the weaker the corroding medi- of the same alloys did not show dezincification. Selection in Specific Environments
um must be to cause SCC. The reverse is also Strain-induced dealloying was further shown to
true: the stronger the corroding medium, the occur in both intergranular (copper-zinc) and Selection of a suitably resistant material
lower the required stress. transgranular (copper-zinc-nickel) (Ref 7). requires consideration of the many factors that
Sources of Stress. Applied stresses result These observations indicated that stress corro- influence corrosion. Operating records are the
from ordinary service loading or from fabricat- sion of copper alloys is integrally related to most reliable guidelines as long as the data are
ing techniques, such as riveting, bolting, shrink strain-induced dealloying. accurately interpreted. Some of the information in
fitting, brazing, and welding. Residual stresses Control Measures. Stress-corrosion cracking this article has been collected over a period of 20
are of two types: differential-strain stresses, can be controlled, and sometimes prevented, by years or more. Results of short-term laboratory
which result from nonuniform plastic strain dur- selecting copper alloys that have high resistance and field testing are also described, but these data
ing cold forming, and differential-thermal-con- to cracking (notably those with less than 15% may not be as reliable for solving certain prob-
traction stresses, which result from nonuniform Zn); by reducing residual stress to a safe level by lems. Laboratory corrosion tests often do not
heating and/or cooling. thermal stress relief, which can usually be duplicate such operating factors as stress, veloci-
Residual stresses induced by nonuniform applied without significantly decreasing ty, galvanic coupling, concentration cells, initial
straining are primarily influenced by the method strength; or by altering the environment, such as surface conditions, and contamination of the sur-
of fabrication. In some fabricating processes, it is by changing the predominant chemical species rounding medium. If damage occurs by pitting,
possible to cold work a metal extensively and yet present or introducing a corrosion inhibitor. intergranular corrosion, or dealloying (as in de-
produce only a low level of residual stress. For Residual and assembly stresses can be elimi- zincification) or if a thick adherent scale forms,
example, residual stress in a drawn tube is influ- nated by recrystallization annealing after form- corrosion rates calculated from a change in
enced by die angle and amount of reduction. ing or assembly. Recrystallization annealing weight may be misleading. For these forms of
Wide-angle dies (about 32°) produce higher cannot be used when the integrity of the struc- corrosion, estimates of reduction in mechanical
residual stresses than narrow-angle dies (about ture depends on the higher strength of strain- strength are often more meaningful. Corrosion
8°). Light reductions yield high residual stresses hardened metal, which always contains a certain fatigue and SCC are also potential sources of fail-
because only the surface of the alloy is stressed; amount of residual stress. Thermal stress relief ure that cannot be predicted from routine meas-
heavy reductions yield low residual stresses (sometimes called relief annealing) can be spec- urements of weight loss or dimensional change.
because the region of cold working extends deep- ified when the higher strength of a cold-worked Over the years, experience has been the best
er into the metal. Most drawing operations can be temper must be retained. Thermal stress relief criterion for selecting the most suitable alloy for
planned so that residual stresses are low and sus- consists of heating the part for a relatively short a given environment. The CDA has compiled
ceptibility to SCC is negligible. time at low temperature. Specific times and tem- much field experience in the form of the ratings
Residual stresses resulting from upsetting, peratures depend on alloy composition, severity for wrought alloys shown in Table 5. Similar
stretching, or spinning are most difficult to evalu- of deformation, prevailing stresses, and the size tabular data for cast alloys are given in the arti-
ate and to control by varying tooling and process of the load being heated. Usually, time is from cle “Cast Copper and Copper Alloys” in this
conditions. For these operations, SCC can be pre- 30 min to 1 h and temperature is from 150 to Handbook. Such tables should be used only as a
vented more effectively by selecting a resistant 425 °C (300 to 795 °F). Table 4 lists typical guide; small changes in the environment condi-
alloy or by treating the metal after fabrication. stress-relieving times and temperatures for some tions sometimes degrade the performance of a
Alloy Composition. Brasses containing less of the more common copper alloys. given alloy from “suitable” to “not suitable.”
than 15% Zn are highly resistant to SCC. The exact thermal treatment should be estab- Whenever there is a lack of operating expe-
Phosphorus-deoxidized copper and tough pitch lished by examining specific parts for residual rience, whenever reported test conditions do
copper rarely exhibit SCC, even under severe stress. If such examination indicates that a ther- not closely match the conditions for which
conditions. On the other hand, brasses contain- mal treatment is insufficient, temperature and/or alloy selection is being made, and whenever
ing 20 to 40% Zn are highly susceptible. time should be adjusted until satisfactory results there is doubt as to the applicability of pub-
Susceptibility increases only slightly as zinc are obtained. Parts in the center of a furnace load lished data, it is always best to conduct an
content is increased from 20 to 40%. may not reach the desired temperature as soon as independent test. Field tests are the most reli-
There is no indication that the other elements parts around the periphery. Therefore, it may be able. Laboratory tests can be equally valuable,
commonly added to brasses increase the proba- necessary to compensate for furnace loading but only if operating conditions are precisely
bility of SCC. Phosphorus, arsenic, magnesium, when setting process controls or to limit the num- defined and then accurately simulated in the
tellurium, tin, beryllium, and manganese are ber of parts that can be stress relieved together. laboratory. Long-term tests are generally pre-
thought to decrease susceptibility under some Mechanical methods, such as stretching, flex- ferred because the reaction that dominates the
conditions. Addition of 1.5% Si is known to ing, bending, straightening between rollers, initial stages of corrosion may differ signifi-
decrease the probability of cracking. peening, and shot blasting, can also be used to cantly from the reaction that dominates later
Altering the microstructure cannot make a reduce residual stresses to a safe level. These on. If short-term tests must be used as the basis
susceptible alloy totally resistant to SCC. methods depend on plastic deformation to for alloy selection, the test program should be
However, the rapidity with which susceptible
alloys crack appears to be affected by grain Table 4 Typical stress-relieving parameters for some common copper alloys
size and structure. All other factors being Temperature
equal, the rate of cracking increases with grain Common name UNS No. °C °F Time, h
size. The effects of structure on SCC are not Commercial bronze C22000 205 400 1
sharply defined, primarily because they are Cartridge brass C26000 260 500 1
interrelated with effects of both composition Muntz metal C28000 190 375 1/2
Admiralty metal C44300, C44400, C44500 300 575 1
and stress. Phosphor bronze, 5 or 10% C51000, C52400 190 375 1
Relationship between Dezincification and Silicon bronze C65500 370 700 1
SCC. It was first shown in 1972 that dezincifica- Aluminum bronze C61300, C61400 400 750 1
tion of 70Cu-30Zn brass occurs in the crack dur- Copper nickel, 30% C71500 425 800 1
Table 5 Corrosion ratings of wrought copper alloys in various corrosive media

This table is intended to serve only as a general guide to the behavior of copper and copper alloys in corrosive environments. It is impossible to cover in a simple tabulation the
performance of a material for all possible variations of temperature, concentration, velocity, impurity content, degree of aeration, and stress. The ratings are based on general per-
formance; they should be used with caution, and then only for the purpose of screening candidate alloys. The letters E, G, F, and P have the following significance: E, excellent:
resists corrosion under almost all conditions of service. G, good: some corrosion will take place, but satisfactory service can be expected under all but the most severe conditions.
F, fair: corrosion rates are higher than for the G classification, but the metal can be used if needed for a property other than corrosion resistance and if either the amount of corro-
sion does not cause excessive maintenance expense or the effects of corrosion can be lessened, such as by use of coatings or inhibitors. P, poor: corrosion rates are high, and serv-
ice is generally unsatisfactory.
Low-zinc High-zinc Special Phosphor Aluminum Silicon Copper Nickel
Corrosive medium Coppers brasses brasses brasses bronzes bronzes bronzes nickels silvers
Acetate solvents E E G E E E E E E
Acetic acid(a) E E P P E E E E G
Acetone E E E E E E E E E
Acetylene(b) P P (b) P P P P P P
Alcohols(a) E E E E E E E E E
Aldehydes E E F F E E E E E
Alkylamines G G G G G G G G G
Alumina E E E E E E E E E
Aluminum chloride G G P P G G G G G
Aluminum hydroxide E E E E E E E E E
Aluminum sulfate and alum G G P G G G G E G
Ammonia, dry E E E E E E E E E
Ammonia, moist(c) P P P P P P P F P
Ammonium chloride(c) P P P P P P P F P
Ammonium hydroxide(c) P P P P P P P F P
Ammonium nitrate(c) P P P P P P P F P
Ammonium sulfate(c) F F P P F F F G F
Aniline and aniline dyes F F F F F F F F F
Asphalt E E E E E E E E E
Atmosphere:
Industrial(c) E E E E E E E E E
Marine E E E E E E E E E
Rural E E E E E E E E E
Barium carbonate E E E E E E E E E
Barium chloride G G F F G G G G G
Barium hydroxide E E G E E E E E E
Barium sulfate E E E E E E E E E
Beer(a) E E G E E E E E E
Beet-sugar syrup(a) E E G E E E E E E
Benzene, benzine, benzol E E E E E E E E E
Benzoic acid E E E E E E E E E
Black liquor, sulfate process P P P P P P P G P
Bleaching powder (wet) G G P G G G G G G
Borax E E E E E E E E E
Bordeaux mixture E E G E E E E E E
Boric acid E E G E E E E E E
Brines G G P G G G G E E
Bromine, dry E E E E E E E E E
Bromine, moist G G P F G G G G G
Butane(d) E E E E E E E E E
Calcium bisulfate G G P G G G G G G
Calcium chloride G G F G G G G G G
Calcium hydroxide E E G E E E E E E
Calcium hypochlorite G G P G G G G G G
Cane-sugar syrup(a) E E E E E E E E E
Carbolic acid (phenol) F G P G G G G G G
Carbonated beverages(a)(e) E E E E E E E E E
Carbon dioxide, dry E E E E E E E E
Carbon dioxide, moist(a)(e) E E E E E E E E E
Carbon tetra-chloride (dry) E E E E E E E E E
Carbon tetra-chloride (moist) G G F G E E E E E
Castor oil E E E E E E E E E
Chlorine, dry(f) E E E E E E E E E
Chlorine, moist F F P F F F F G F
Chloracetic acid G F P F G G G G G
Chloroform, dry E E E E E E E E E
Chromic acid P P P P P P P P P
Citric acid(a) E E F E E E E E E
Copper chloride F F P F F F F F F
Copper nitrate F F P F F F F F F
(continued)
(a) Copper and copper alloys are resistant to corrosion by most food products. Traces of copper may be dissolved and affect taste or color of the products. In such cases, copper alloys are often tin coated. (b) Acetylene forms
an explosive compound with copper when moisture or certain impurities are present and the gas is under pressure. Alloys containing less than 65% Cu are satisfactory; when the gas is not under pressure, other copper alloys are
satisfactory. (c) Precautions should be taken to avoid SCC. (d) At elevated temperatures, hydrogen will react with tough pitch copper, causing failure by embrittlement. (e) Where air is present, corrosion rate may be increased.
(f) Below 150 °C (300 °F), corrosion rate is very low; above this temperature, corrosion is appreciable and increases rapidly with temperature. (g) Aeration and elevated temperature may increase corrosion rate substantially. (h)
Excessive oxidation may begin above 120 °C (250 °F). If moisture is present, oxidation may begin at lower temperatures. (j) Use of high-zinc brasses should be avoided in acids because of the likelihood of rapid corrosion by
dezincification. Copper, low-zinc brasses, phosphor bronzes, silicon bronzes, aluminum bronzes, and copper nickels offer good resistance to corrosion by hot and cold dilute H2SO4 and to corrosion by cold concentrated H2SO4.
Intermediate concentrations of H2SO4 are sometimes more corrosive to copper alloys than either concentrated or dilute acid. Concentrated H2SO4 may be corrosive at elevated temperatures due to breakdown of acid and for-
mation of metallic sulfides and sulfur dioxide, which cause localized pitting. Tests indicate that copper alloys may undergo pitting in 90 to 95% H2SO4 at about 50 °C (122 °F), in 80% acid at about 70 °C (160 °F), and in 60%
acid at about 100 °C (212 °F). (k) Wetting agents may increase corrosion rates of copper and copper alloys slightly to substantially when carbon dioxide or oxygen is present by preventing formation of a film on the metal sur-
face and by combining (in some instances) with the dissolved copper to produce a green, insoluble compound.
Table 5 (continued)
Copper sulfate G G P G G G G E G
Corn oil(a) E E G E E E E E E
Cottonseed oil(a) E E G E E E E E E
Creosote E E G E E E E E E
Downtherm “A” E E E E E E E E E
Ethanol amine G G G G G G G G G
Ethers E E E E E E E E E
Ethyl acetate (esters) E E G E E E E E E
Ethylene glycol E E G E E E E E E
Ferric chloride P P P P P P P P P
Ferric sulfate P P P P P P P P P
Ferrous chloride G G P G G G G G G
Ferrous sulfate G G P G G G G G G
Formaldehyde (aldehydes) E E G E E E E E E
Formic acid G G P F G G G G G
Freon, dry E E E E E E E E
Freon, moist E E E E E E E E E
Fuel oil, light E E E E E E E E E
Fuel oil, heavy E E G E E E E E E
Furfural E E F E E E E E E
Gasoline E E E E E E E E E
Gelatin(a) E E E E E E E E E
Glucose(a) E E E E E E E E E
Glue E E G E E E E E E
Glycerin E E G E E E E E E
Hydrobromic acid F F P F F F F F F
Hydrocarbons E E E E E E E E E
Hydrochloric acid (muriatic) F F P F F F F F F
Hydrocyanic acid, dry E E E E E E E E E
Hydrocyanic acid, moist P P P P P P P P P
Hydrofluoric acid, anhydrous G G P G G G G G G
Hydrofluoric acid, hydrated F F P F F F F F F
Hydrofluosilicic acid G G P G G G G G G
Hydrogen(d) E E E E E E E E E
Hydrogen peroxide up to 10% G G F G G G G G G
Hydrogen peroxide over 10% P P P P P P P P P
Hydrogen sulfide, dry E E E E E E E E E
Hydrogen sulfide, moist P P F F P P P F F
Kerosene E E E E E E E E E
Ketones E E E E E E E E
Lacquers E E E E E E E E E
Lacquer thinners (solvents) E E E E E E E E E
Lactic acid(a) E E F E E E E E E
Lime E E E E E E E E E
Lime sulfur P P F F P P P F F
Linseed oil G G G G G G G G G
Lithium compounds G G P F G G G E E
Magnesium chloride G G F F G G G G G
Magnesium hydroxide E E G E E E E E E
Magnesium sulfate E E G E E E E E E
Mercury or mercury salts P P P P P P P P P
Milk(a) E E G E E E E E E
Molasses E E G E E E E E E
Natural gas(d) E E E E E E E E E
Nickel chloride F F P F F F F F F
Nickel sulfate F F P F F F F F F
Nitric acid P P P P P P P P P
Oleic acid G G F G G G G G G
Oxalic acid(g) E E P P E E E E E
Oxygen(h) E E E E E E E E E
Palmitic acid G G F G G G G G G
Paraffin E E E E E E E E E
Phosphoric acid G G P F G G G G G
Picric acid P P P P P P P P P
Potassium carbonate E G E E E E E E E
Potassium chloride G G P F G G G E E
Potassium cyanide P P P P P P P P P
Potassium dichromate (acid) P P P P P P P P P
(continued)
(a) Copper and copper alloys are resistant to corrosion by most food products. Traces of copper may be dissolved and affect taste or color of the products. In such cases, copper alloys are often tin coated. (b) Acetylene forms an
explosive compound with copper when moisture or certain impurities are present and the gas is under pressure. Alloys containing less than 65% Cu are satisfactory; when the gas is not under pressure, other copper alloys are sat-
isfactory. (c) Precautions should be taken to avoid SCC. (d) At elevated temperatures, hydrogen will react with tough pitch copper, causing failure by embrittlement. (e) Where air is present, corrosion rate may be increased. (f)
Below 150 °C (300 °F), corrosion rate is very low; above this temperature, corrosion is appreciable and increases rapidly with temperature. (g) Aeration and elevated temperature may increase corrosion rate substantially. (h)
Intermediate concentrations of H2SO4 are sometimes more corrosive to copper alloys than either concentrated or dilute acid. Concentrated H2SO4 may be corrosive at elevated temperatures due to breakdown of acid and forma-
tion of metallic sulfides and sulfur dioxide, which cause localized pitting. Tests indicate that copper alloys may undergo pitting in 90 to 95% H2SO4 at about 50 °C (122 °F), in 80% acid at about 70 °C (160 °F), and in 60% acid
at about 100 °C (212 °F). (k) Wetting agents may increase corrosion rates of copper and copper alloys slightly to substantially when carbon dioxide or oxygen is present by preventing formation of a film on the metal surface and
by combining (in some instances) with the dissolved copper to produce a green, insoluble compound.
Table 5 (continued)
Potassium hydroxide G G F G G G G E E
Potassium sulfate E E G E E E E E E
Propane(d) E E E E E E E E E
Rosin E E E E E E E E E
Seawater G G F E G E G E E
Sewage E E F E E E E E E
Silver salts P P P P P P P P P
Soap solution E E E E E E E E E
Sodium bicarbonate E E G E E E E E E
Sodium bisulfate G G F G G G G E E
Sodium carbonate E E G E E E E E E
Sodium chloride G G P F G G G E E
Sodium chromate E E E E E E E E E
Sodium cyanide P P P P P P P P P
Sodium dichromate (acid) P P P P P P P P P
Sodium hydroxide G G F G G G G E E
Sodium hypochlorite G G P G G G G G G
Sodium nitrate G G P F G G G E E
Sodium peroxide F F P F F F F G G
Sodium phosphate E E G E E E E E E
Sodium silicate E E G E E E E E E
Sodium sulfate E E G E E E E E E
Sodium sulfide P P F F P P P F F
Sodium thiosulfate P P F F P P P F F
Steam E E F E E E F E E
Stearic acid E E F E E E E E E
Sugar solutions E E G E E E E E E
Sulfur, solid G G E G G G G E G
Sulfur, molten P P P P P P P P P
Sulfur chloride (dry) E E E E E E E E E
Sulfur chloride (moist) P P P P P P P P P
Sulfur dioxide (dry) E E E E E E E E E
Sulfur dioxide (moist) G G P G G G G F F
Sulfur trioxide (dry) E E E E E E E E E
Sulfuric acid 80–95%(j) G G P F G G G G G
Sulfuric acid 40–80%(j) F F F P F F F F F
Sulfuric acid 40%(j) G G P F G G G G G
Sulfurous acid G G P G G G G F F
Tannic acid E E E E E E E E E
Tartaric acid(a) E E G E E E E E E
Toluene E E E E E E E E E
Trichloracetic acid G G P F G G G G G
Trichlorethylene (dry) E E E E E E E E E
Trichlorethylene (moist) G G F G E E E E E
Turpentine E E E E E E E E E
Varnish E E E E E E E E E
Vinegar(a) E E P F E E E E G
Water, acidic mine F F P F G F F P F
Water, potable E E G E E E E E E
Water condensate(c) E E E E E E E E E
Wetting agents(k) E E E E E E E E E
Whiskey(a) E E E E E E E E E
White water G G G E E E E E E
Zinc chloride G G P G G G G G G
Zinc sulfate E E P E E E E E E
(a) Copper and copper alloys are resistant to corrosion by most food products. Traces of copper may be dissolved and affect taste or color of the products. In such cases, copper alloys are often tin coated. (b) Acetylene forms an
explosive compound with copper when moisture or certain impurities are present and the gas is under pressure. Alloys containing less than 65% Cu are satisfactory; when the gas is not under pressure, other copper alloys are sat-
isfactory. (c) Precautions should be taken to avoid SCC. (d) At elevated temperatures, hydrogen will react with tough pitch copper, causing failure by embrittlement. (e) Where air is present, corrosion rate may be increased. (f)
Below 150 °C (300 °F), corrosion rate is very low; above this temperature, corrosion is appreciable and increases rapidly with temperature. (g) Aeration and elevated temperature may increase corrosion rate substantially. (h)
Intermediate concentrations of H2SO4 are sometimes more corrosive to copper alloys than either concentrated or dilute acid. Concentrated H2SO4 may be corrosive at elevated temperatures due to breakdown of acid and forma-
tion of metallic sulfides and sulfur dioxide, which cause localized pitting. Tests indicate that copper alloys may undergo pitting in 90 to 95% H2SO4 at about 50 °C (122 °F), in 80% acid at about 70 °C (160 °F), and in 60% acid
at about 100 °C (212 °F). (k) Wetting agents may increase corrosion rates of copper and copper alloys slightly to substantially when carbon dioxide or oxygen is present by preventing formation of a film on the metal surface and
by combining (in some instances) with the dissolved copper to produce a green, insoluble compound.
supplemented with field tests so that the labo- data are valid only when corrosion is uniform. on one or more specimens may or may not be
ratory results can be reevaluated in light of true When corrosion occurs predominantly by pit- warranted. Despite the deficiencies in laborato-
operating experience. ting or some other localized form or when cor- ry testing, information gained in this manner
Erroneous conclusions based on laboratory rosion is intergranular or involves the forma- serves as a useful starting point for alloy selec-
results can also be reached by measuring corro- tion of a thick, adherent scale, direct tion. Operating experience may later indicate
sion damage inaccurately, especially when cor- measurement of the extent of corrosion pro- the need for a more discriminating selection.
rosion is slight. It is common practice to vides the most reliable information. A common
express test results in terms of penetration or technique is to measure the maximum depth of Atmospheric Corrosion
average reduction in metal thickness, even penetration observed on a metallographic cross
when corrosion was actually measured by section through the region of interest. Comprehensive tests conducted over a 20-
weight loss. Weight loss or average-penetration Statistical averaging of repeated measurements year period under the supervision of ASTM as
Table 6 Atmospheric corrosion of selected copper alloys

Corrosion rates at indicated locations(a)
Altoona, PA New York, NY Key West, FL La Jolla, CA State College, PA Phoenix, AZ
Alloy m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr
C11000 1.40 0.055 1.38 0.054 0.56 0.022 1.27 0.050 0.43 0.017 0.13 0.005
C12000 1.32 0.052 1.22 0.048 0.51 0.020 1.42 0.056 0.36 0.014 0.08 0.003
C23000 1.88 0.074 1.88 0.074 0.56 0.022 0.33 0.013 0.46 0.018 0.10 0.004
C26000 3.05 0.120 2.41 0.095 0.20 0.008 0.15 0.006 0.46 0.018 0.10 0.004
C52100 2.24 0.088 2.54 0.100 0.71 0.028 2.31 0.091 0.33 0.013 0.13 0.005
C61000 1.63 0.064 1.60 0.063 0.10 0.004 0.15 0.006 0.25 0.010 0.51 0.002
C65500 1.65 0.065 1.73 0.068 … … 1.38 0.054 0.51 0.020 0.15 0.006
C44200 2.13 0.084 2.51 0.099 … … 0.33 0.013 0.53 0.021 0.10 0.004
70Cu-29Ni-1Sn(b) 2.64 0.104 2.13 0.084 0.28 0.011 0.36 0.014 0.48 0.019 0.10 0.004
(a) Derived from 20-year exposure tests. Types of atmospheres: Altoona, industrial; New York City, industrial marine; Key West, tropical rural marine; La Jolla, humid marine; State College, northern rural; Phoenix, dry rural.
(b) Although obsolete, this alloy indicates the corrosion resistance expected of C71500.
Table 7 Average atmospheric-corrosion rates of various metals for 10- and 20-year
exposure times
Corrosion rates are given in mils/yr (1 mil/yr 0.025 mm/yr). Values cited are one-half reduction of specimen thick-
ness.
Atmosphere
New York, NY (urban-industrial) La Jolla, CA (marine) State College, PA (rural)
Metal 10 yr 20 yr 10 yr 20 yr 10 yr 20 yr
Aluminum 0.032 0.029 0.028 0.025 0.001 0.003

Copper 0.047 0.054 0.052 0.050 0.023 0.017
Lead 0.017 0.015 0.016 0.021 0.019 0.013
Tin 0.047 0.052 0.091 0.112 0.018 ...
Nickel 0.128 0.144 0.004 0.006 0.006 0.009
65% Ni, 32% Cu, 2% Fe, 1% Mn (Monel) 0.053 0.062 0.007 0.006 0.005 0.007
Zinc (99.9%) 0.202 0.226 0.063 0.069 0.034 0.044
Zinc (99.0%) 0.193 0.218 0.069 0.068 0.042 0.043
0.2% C Steel(a) (0.02% P, 0.05% S, 0.48 … … … … …
0.05% Cu, 0.02% Ni, 0.02% Cr)
Low-alloy steel(a) (0.1% C, 0.2% P, 0.09 … … … … …
0.04% S, 0.03% Ni, 1.1% Cr, 0.4%. Cu)
(a) Kearney, NJ (near New York City).
well as many service records, have confirmed initial color may show differences in color after
the suitability of copper and copper alloys for weathering under similar conditions. Therefore,
atmospheric exposure (Table 6). Copper and alloys having the same or nearly the same com-
copper alloys resist corrosion by industrial, position are usually used together for consisten-
marine, and rural atmospheres except atmos- cy of appearance in a specific structure.
pheres containing NH3 or certain other agents Copper alloys are often specified for marine
where SCC has been observed in high-zinc atmosphere exposures because of the attractive
alloys (20% Zn). The copper metals most and protective patina they form during the expo-
widely used in atmospheric exposure are sure. In marine atmospheric exposures, this pati-
C11000, C22000, C23000, C38500, and na consists of a film of basic copper chloride or
C75200. Alloy C11000 is an effective material carbonate, sometimes with an inner layer of
for roofing, flashings, gutters, and downspouts. Cu2O. The severity of the corrosion attack in Fig. 12 Typical corrosion rates of representative cop-
Table 7 compares the atmospheric corrosion marine atmospheres is somewhat less than that per alloys in a marine atmosphere. (a) Average
rates of copper and various other metals and in industrial atmospheres but greater than that in data for copper, silicon bronze, and phosphor bronze. (b)
Average data for brass, aluminum bronze, nickel silver,
alloys. Metals that are not particularly resistant rural atmospheres. However, these rates and copper-nickel
to dilute H2SO4, such as copper, cadmium, nick- decrease with time.
el, and iron, show more rapid attack in industri- Individual differences in corrosion rates do exist
al environments. Metals and alloys that are more between alloys, but these differences are frequent- Environmental factors can cause this median
resistant to H2SO4, such as lead, aluminum, and ly less than the differences caused by environmen- thickness loss to vary by as much as 50% or
stainless steels, are less affected in the industrial tal factors. Thus, it becomes possible to classify the more in a few extreme cases. Figure 12 shows
environments. Copper forms a protective sulfate corrosion behavior of copper alloys in a marine the extent of this variation as a pair of dashed
patina and is therefore more resistant than nick- atmosphere into two general categories: those lines forming an envelope around the median.
el. As described below, copper also forms a basic alloys that corrode at a moderate rate and include Those environmental factors that tend to accel-
copper chloride film in seacoast environments. high-copper alloys, silicon bronze, and tin bronze erate metal loss include high humidity, high
The colors of different copper alloys are often and those alloys that corrode at a slower rate and temperatures (either ambient or due to solar
important in architectural applications, and color include brass, aluminum bronze, nickel silver, and radiation), proximity to the ocean, long times of
may be the primary criterion for selecting a spe- copper nickel. The average metal loss, d, of the for- wetness, and the presence of pollutants in the
cific alloy. After surface preparation, such as mer group can be approximated by d 0.1 t2/3; the atmosphere. The converse of these conditions
sanding or polishing, different copper alloys latter group can be approximated by d 0.1 t1/3. In would tend to retard metal loss.
vary in color from silver to yellow to gold to red- both equations, t is exposure time. These relation- Metallurgical factors can also affect metal
dish shades. Different alloys having the same ships are shown as solid lines in Fig. 12. loss. Within a given alloy family, those with a
higher alloy content tend to corrode at a lower range of soils. Results indicate that tough pitch A copper nuclear waste disposal container
rate. Surface finish also plays a role in that a coppers, deoxidized coppers, silicon bronzes, would be surrounded by a compacted claylike
highly polished metal will corrode slower than and low-zinc brasses behave essentially alike. material. This serves a dual purpose: first it acts as
one with a rougher surface. Finally, design Soils containing cinders with high concentra- a physical barrier, reducing the rate of transport of
details can affect corrosion behavior. For exam- tions of sulfides, chlorides, or hydrogen ions species to and from the container, and second it
ple, designs that allow the collection and stagna- (H) corrode these materials. In this type of provides some chemical buffering effects and
tion of rainwater will often exhibit wastage rates contaminated soil, the corrosion rates of cop- effectively increases the pH of the environment.
in the puddle areas that are more typical of those per-zinc alloys containing more than about 22% Both of these properties are beneficial in terms of
encountered in seawater immersions. Zn increase with zinc content. Corrosion gener- the corrosion resistance of copper.
Certain copper alloys are susceptible to vari- ally results from dezincification. In soils that The clay most likely to be used is a montmoril-
ous types of localized corrosion that can greatly contain only sulfides, corrosion rates of the cop- lonite clay, such as sodium bentonite. In the com-
affect their utility in a marine atmosphere. per-zinc alloys decrease with increasing zinc pacted form, this clay swells when wet and would
Brasses and nickel silvers containing more than content, and no dezincification occurs. effectively seal all cracks in the surrounding rock.
15% Zn can suffer from dealloying. The extent of Although not included in these tests, inhibited The low permeability of the clay ensures that there
this attack is greater on alloys that contain high- admiralty metals would offer significant resist- would be no mass flow of groundwater and that
er proportions of zinc. In addition, these same ance to dezincification. transport of dissolved species would occur by dif-
alloys are subject to SCC in the presence of small Electric cables that contain copper are often fusion only. The rate of diffusion in the clay is per-
quantities of NH3 or other gaseous pollutants. buried underground. One study investigated the haps 100 times slower than in free solution. This
Inhibited grades of these alloys are available that corrosion behavior of phosphorus-deoxidized slow rate of diffusion applies not only to the trans-
resist dealloying but are susceptible to SCC. copper (C12200) in four soil types: gravel, salt port of oxidants, such as dissolved oxygen (O2) or
Alloys containing large amounts of man- marsh, swamp, and clay (Ref 8). After three sulfide ions (S2), to the copper surface but also to
ganese tend to be somewhat prone to pitting in years of exposure, uniform corrosion rates were the diffusion of soluble corrosion products away
marine atmospheres, as are the cobalt-contain- found to vary between 1.3 and 8.8 m/yr (0.05 from the surface. The net effect is reduction in the
ing beryllium-coppers. A tendency toward inter- and 0.35 mil/yr). No pitting attack was observed. corrosion rate of copper compared with that in free
granular corrosion has been observed in silicon In general, the corrosion rate was highest for solution. One study suggests that under such con-
bronzes and aluminum brass, but its occurrence soils of lowest resistivity. ditions uniform corrosion of oxygen-free electron-
is somewhat sporadic. Underground Nuclear Waste Contain- ic copper (C10100) would only amount to 1.1 mm
On the whole, however, even under somewhat ment. The possibility of disposing of nuclear (43.4 mils) in 106 years (Ref 9). Experimental
adverse conditions, the average thickness losses waste in copper containers buried deep under- results indicate that the clay may reduce the corro-
for copper alloys in a marine atmosphere tend to ground has also been investigated. Except for the sion rate by about a factor of ten over that in bulk
be very slight, typically under 50 m (Fig. 12). mining and oil industries, underground construc- solution, although these results suggest a corro-
Thus, copper alloys can be safely specified for tion is usually limited to the first few tens of sion rate of about 1 m/yr (0.04 mils/yr) (Ref 10).
applications requiring long-term durability in a meters from the surface; an underground waste Naturally occurring saline waters are also
marine atmosphere. Design considerations for disposal vault would probably be located at a found deep underground. Although the composi-
the atmospheric use of copper alloys include depth of 500 to 1000 m (1640–3280 ft) in stable tion and concentration of these groundwaters
allowance for free drainage of structures, the bedrock. At these depths, the environment differs vary from site to site, the concentration of dis-
possibility of staining from runoff water, and the in several respects from that nearer the surface. solved species generally increases with depth
use of smooth or polished surfaces. With increasing depth, the natural groundwaters (Ref 11). Such groundwaters are encountered in
tend to become more saline and less oxidizing. In mines, during oil drilling, and in deep bore holes.
addition, the pressures exerted by hydrostatic and The waters have a complex composition, often
Corrosion in Soils and lithostatic forces become greater. These aspects being mixtures of sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca2),
Groundwater affect the design and corrosion behavior of any magnesium (Mg2), chloride (Cl), sulfate
metallic structure buried at such great depths. (SO42), and bicarbonate (HCO 3) ions as well as
Soils. Copper, zinc, lead, and iron are the met-
als most commonly used in underground con-
struction. Data compiled by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
formerly known as the National Bureau of
Standards (NBS), compare the behavior of these
materials in soils of the following four types:
well-aerated acid soils low in soluble salts (Cecil
clay loam,) poorly aerated soils (Lake Charles
clay), alkaline soils high in soluble salts (Docas
clay), and soils high in sulfides (Rifle peat).
Corrosion data as a function of time for cop-
per, iron, lead, and zinc exposed to these four
types of soil are given in Fig. 13. Copper exhibits
high resistance to corrosion by these soils, which
are representative of most soils found in the
United States. Where local soil conditions are
unusually corrosive, it may be necessary to use
some means of protection, such as cathodic pro-
tection, neutralizing backfill (limestone, for
example), protective coating, or wrapping.
For many years, NIST has conducted studies
on the corrosion of underground structures to
determine the specific behavior of metals and
alloys when exposed for long periods in a wide Fig. 13 Corrosion of copper, iron, lead, and zinc in four different soils

Table 8 Short-term corrosion rates of copper alloys in saline groundwaters stagnant or slowly moving brackish or slightly
Temperature Corrosion rate
acid waters. One the other hand, inhibited admi-
Alloy Type of groundwater
Oxygen
concentration, g/g °C °F m/yr mils/yr Ref
ralty metals and brasses containing 15% Zn or less
are highly resistant to dezincification and are used
C10100 Synthetic 55 g/L TDS(a) 0.1 150 300 15 0.6 (b)
6 150 300 340 13.4
very successfully in these waters. Inhibited yellow
Copper Brine A 306 g/L TDS 0.1 250 480 70 2.8 12 brasses are widely used in Europe and are gaining
600 250 480 1200 47.2 acceptance in North America. Alloy C68700
Seawater 35 g/L TDS 0.1 250 480 50 2 (arsenical aluminum brass, an inhibited 77Cu-
1750 250 480 5000 197
Cu-10Ni (C70600) Brine A 0.1 250 480 140 5.5 12
21Zn-2Al alloy) has been successfully used for
600 250 480 400 15.7 condenser and heat-exchanger tubes.
Seawater 0.1 250 480 70 2.8 Copper nickels generally have corrosion rates
1750 250 480 700 27.6 under 25 m/yr (1 mil/yr) in polluted water.
(a) TDS, total dissolved solids. (b) F. King and C.D. Litke, unpublished research, 1985
They are sometimes used to resist impingement
attack where severe velocity and entrained-air
conditions cannot be overcome by changes in
trace amounts of other ions. Iron minerals in the from these data that, in aerated solutions at least, operating conditions or equipment design.
bedrock react with dissolved oxygen in the the addition of nickel decreases the uniform cor- Copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronzes) also
groundwater and produce less oxidizing condi- rosion rate of copper. This is due to the forma- have excellent corrosion resistance, and for these
tions than are found in waters nearer the surface. tion of a more highly protective surface film. alloys the amount of dissolved oxygen in the
Groundwaters. The corrosion rate of copper The effects of salinity and temperature are water does not influence corrosion significantly.
in quiescent groundwaters tends to decrease with less well understood. In general, increasing the If CO2 is also present, the corrosion rate will
time. This is due to the formation of a protective total salinity of these groundwaters tends to increase (but not excessively), particularly at tem-
film, an example of which is shown in Fig. 14. increase their corrosiveness. However, it is not peratures above 60 °C (140 °F). Corrosion rates
The underlying layer consists of species from the clear whether this is due to the sum effect of all for silicon bronzes are similar to those for copper.
groundwater as well as copper. This layer is brit- the dissolved ions or of some of the species in Copper-Aluminum Alloys. The aluminum
tle and is extensively cracked, permitting contin- particular. In open systems it is difficult to dis- bronzes have been used in many waters, from
ued dissolution of copper ions into solution. In tinguish the effect of temperature from that of potable water to brackish water to seawater.
Fig. 14, some of these copper ions have precipi- dissolved oxygen, because the solubility of oxy- Softened waters are usually more corrosive to
tated on the underlying layer in the form of gen decreases with increasing temperature. The these materials than hard waters. Alloys C61300
cupric hydroxychloride [CuCl2·3(Cu(OH)2)] and combination of these two opposing effects can and C63200 are used on cooling tower hardware
copper oxide crystals. The corrosion layer is not lead to an apparent maximum in the corrosion in which the makeup water is sewage effluent.
truly passivating, and corrosion will continue, rate at some intermediate temperature. Aluminum bronzes resist oxidation and
although at a reduced rate. Consequently, it is important that the rates refer impingement corrosion because of the alu-
For both copper and copper alloys, corrosion to a constant dissolved-oxygen concentration minum in the surface film.
rate depends strongly on the amount of dis- when considering the effects of temperature.
solved oxygen present. The data in Table 8 illus- Steam and Steam Condensate
trate this point for both pure copper and Cu-
10Ni in various synthetic groundwaters. These Corrosion in Waters Steam. Copper and copper alloys resist attack
data are derived from experiments lasting from 2 by pure steam, but if much CO2, oxygen, or NH3
to 4 weeks; therefore, they include the high ini- Freshwater is present, the condensate is corrosive. Even
tial rates of corrosion and do not represent long- though wet steam at high velocities can cause
term corrosion rates. However, they do serve to Copper is used extensively for handling fresh- severe impingement attack, copper alloys are
show that deoxygenation of the solution results water. Copper tubing in the K-gage range with extensively used in condensers and heat
in at least an order of magnitude decrease in the flared fittings was designed for undergroundwa- exchangers. Copper alloys are also used for
short-term corrosion rate. It is also apparent ter service and, along with type L tubing, has feedwater heaters, although their use in such
now become standard for this application. The applications is somewhat limited because of
largest single application of copper tubing is for their rapid decline in strength and creep resist-
hot- and cold-water distribution lines in homes ance at moderately elevated temperatures.
and other buildings, although considerable Copper nickels are the preferred copper alloys
quantities are also used in heating lines (includ- for the higher temperatures and pressures.
ing radiant heating lines for homes), drain tubes, Use of copper in systems handling hot water
and fire safety systems. and steam is limited by the working pressures of
Copper. Minerals in water combine with dis- tubes and joints. For example, copper tubing of
solved CO2 and oxygen and react with copper to 6.4 to 25 mm (14–1 in.) nominal diameter joined
form a protective film. Therefore, the corrosion with 50Sn–50Pb solder can be used at tempera-
rate is low (5–25 m/yr, or 0.2–1.0 mil/yr) in tures to 120 °C (250 °F) and pressures to 585 kPa
most exposures. In distilled water or very soft (85 psi). The working pressure at this tempera-
water, protective films are less likely to form; ture in tubing of the same size can be increased
therefore, the corrosion rate may vary from less to 1380 kPa (200 psi) when the system is joined
than 2.5 to 125 m/yr (0.1–5 mils/yr) or more, with 95Sn-5Sb solder. When the joining material
depending on oxygen and CO2 contents. is a silver-base brazing alloy with a melting point
Copper-Zinc Alloys. The corrosion resistance above 540 °C (1000 °F), the working pressure at
of the brasses is good in unpolluted freshwater— 120 °C (250 °F) for tubing in this size range can
normally 2.5 to 25 m/yr (0.1–1.0 mil/yr). be increased to 2070 kPa (300 psi). A few copper
Fig. 14 Scanning electron micrograph of the corrosion Corrosion rates are somewhat higher in nonscal- alloys have shown a tendency to fail by SCC
product formed on C10100 in complex ground-
water at 150 °C (300 °F). A, underlying film containing cop-
ing water containing CO2 and oxygen. when they are highly stressed and exposed to
per, silicon, calcium, chlorine, and magnesium; B, crystals Uninhibited brasses of high zinc content (35–40% steam. Alpha aluminum bronzes that do not con-
of CuCl2·3(Cu(OH)2); C, crystals of CuO or Cu2O Zn) are subject to dezincification when used with tain tin are among the susceptible alloys.
Steam condensate that has been properly ing resistance. The corrosion rates of copper and tests was less than 127 m (5 mils) (Ref 17).
treated so that it is relatively free of nonconden- its alloys in relatively quiescent seawater are Chromium-modified copper-nickel alloys, devel-
sate gases, as in a power-generating station, is typically less than 50 m/yr (2 mils/yr). oped for resistance to high-velocity seawater, were
relatively noncorrosive to copper and copper In the laboratory and in service, copper-nickel evaluated in both low- and high-velocity condi-
alloys. Rates of attack in most such exposures alloys C70600, C71500, C72200, and C71640 tions. The quiescent and low-velocity performanc-
are less than 2.5 m/yr (0.1 mil/yr). Copper and exhibit excellent corrosion resistance in seawater. es of C72200, C70600, and C71500 were com-
its alloys are not attacked by condensate that Average corrosion rates for both C70600 and pared (Ref 18, 19); results showed uniform
contains a significant amount of oil, such as con- C71500 were shown to range from 2 to 12 m/yr corrosion (5–25 m/yr, or 0.2–1 mil/yr) on all
densate from a reciprocating steam engine. (0.08–0.5 mils/yr) (Ref 15). The long-term evalu- three alloys. The chromium-containing alloys,
Dissolved CO2, oxygen, or both significantly ations illustrated in Fig. 17 and 18 revealed corro- however, were slightly more susceptible to local-
increase the rate of attack. For example, conden- sion rates under 2.5 m/yr (0.1 mil/yr) for both ized attack in quiet seawater. Another study report-
sate with 4.6 ppm O, and 14 ppm CO2, and a pH alloys after 14 years of exposure to quiescent and ed that the pitting behavior of C72200 is influ-
of 5.5 at 68 °C (155 °F) caused an average pene- low-velocity seawater (Ref 16). Sixteen-year tests enced by the presence of iron and chromium in or
tration of 175 to 350 m/yr (6.9–13.8 mils/yr) confirmed this same low corrosion rate (Ref 17). out of solid solution (Ref 20). The fraction of iron
when in contact with C12200 (phosphorus-deoxi- Pitting Resistance. Alloys C70600 and plus chromium in solution in C72200 must be kept
dized copper), C14200) (arsenical copper), C71500 both display excellent resistance to pitting higher than 0.7 to avoid pitting corrosion.
C23000 (red brass), C44300 to C44500 (admiral- in seawater. The average depth of the 20 deepest Velocity Effects. The corrosion resistance of
ty metal), and C71000 (copper nickel, 20%). Steel pits in C71500 observed at the end of the 16-year copper alloys in flowing seawater depends on the
tested under the same conditions was penetrated at
about twice the rate given for the copper alloys
listed above, but tin-coated copper proved to be
much more resistant and was attacked at a rate of
less than 25 m/yr (1 mil/yr). To attain the optimal
service life in condensate systems, it is necessary
to ensure that the tubes are installed with enough
slope to allow proper drainage, to reduce the quan-
tity of corrosive agents (usually CO2 and oxygen)
at the source by mechanical or chemical treatment
of the feedwater, or to treat the steam chemically.
Modern power utility boiler feedwater treat-
ments commonly include the addition of organic
amines to inhibit the corrosion of iron components
of the system by scavenging oxygen and increas-
ing the pH of the feedwater. These chemicals, such
as morpholine, and hydrazine, decompose in serv-
ice to yield NH3, which can be quite corrosive
toward some copper alloys. In the main body of Fig. 15 Corrosion rates of copper alloys in aerated NH3 Fig. 16 Corrosion rates of copper alloys in deaerated
well-monitored operating condensers, oxygen and solutions. Test duration: 1000 h. Source: Ref 13 NH3 solutions. Test duration: 1000 h. Source:
NH3 levels are quite low, and corrosion is usually Ref 13
mild. More aggressive conditions exist in the air
removal section. Abnormal operating conditions, Table 9 Comparison of field and laboratory condensate corrosion of copper alloys
tube leakage, and shutdown-startup cycles may Data are weight loss measured after total exposure time, expressed as penetration rates.
also increase the corrosivity of the steam-side Corrosion rate, m/yr (mils/yr)
environment by raising the oxygen concentration.
Field tests(a) Laboratory tests
The corrosion resistance in laboratory tests of a
Alloy Plant A Plant B Plant C 0 ppm NH3 2 ppm NH3 20 ppm NH3
number of copper alloys and low-carbon steel in
both aerated (8–12 ppm O2) and deaerated C71500 0.2 (0.0083) 0.1 (0.004) 0.4 (0.0151) 0.3 (0.012) 0.05 (0.002) 0.025 (0.001)
C72200 0.4 (0.016) 0.4 (0.016) 0.38 (0.015) 0.61 (0.024) 0.2 (0.008) 0.18 (0.007)
(100–200 ppb O2) NH3 solutions are illustrated in C70600 0.48 (0.019) 0.36 (0.014) 0.46 (0.018) 1.3 (0.053) 1.1 (0.043) 0.94 (0.037)
Fig. 15 and 16. In these tests, NH3 enhanced the C44300 1.27 (0.05) 0.79 (0.031) 0.61 (0.024) 0.61 (0.024) 2.3 (0.09) 5.6 (0.22)
corrosion resistance of the copper-nickel alloys, A-285 6.2 (0.243) 10.4 (0.411) 2.6 (0.103) 38 (1.5) 8.3 (0.325) 4.6 (0.183)
modifying surface oxides by increasing nickel
(a) Two-year tests in hot wells at three plant sites (A, B, and C). Plant A, pH range of 8.8–9.7; typical pH of 9.1–9.3. Plant B, pH range of 9–10, typ-
content. Elevated oxygen levels are generally ical pH of 9.3–9.6. (b) Laboratory data extrapolated from 10 h tests in deaerated beakers. 0 ppm NH3 solution, pH 7; 2 ppm NH3 solution, pH 9.4;
more deleterious than elevated NH3 levels. 20 ppm NH3 solution, pH 10. Source: Ref 14
However, C71500 was minimally affected by the
elevated oxygen content. These laboratory data
correlate well with field corrosion data from oper-
ating power plants (Table 9).
Salt Water
An important use of copper alloys is in han-
dling seawater in ships and tidewater power sta-
tions. Copper itself, although fairly useful, is
usually less resistant to general corrosion than
C44300 to C44500, C61300, C68700, C70600,
or C71500. The superior performance of these
alloys results from the combination of insolubil- Fig. 17 Chronogravimetric curves for C70600 in quiet, Fig. 18 Chronogravimetric curves for C71500 in quiet,
ity in seawater, erosion resistance, and biofoul- flowing, and tidal seawater. Source: Ref 16 flowing, and tidal seawater. Source: Ref 16

growth and maintenance of a protective film or cial effects of 2% Fe and 2% Mn in a 70Cu-30Ni the C71640 and C72200 alloys as compared to
corrosion product layers. These alloys typically alloy (C71640) are shown in Fig. 20, which indi- C70600 and C71500. Some localized pitting
exhibit velocity-dependent corrosion rates. The cates that the C71640 and C72200 alloys are and/or crevice corrosion associated with the
more adherent and protective the film on a partic- markedly more resistant to erosion-corrosion nonmetallic blockage device was noted for
ular alloy, the higher its breakaway velocity (the than C70600 at velocities up to 9 m/s (30 ft/s). C71640 and C72200, with no such attack occur-
velocity at which there is a transition from low to The chromium-modified copper-nickel alloys ring for the C70600 and C71500 alloys.
high corrosion rate) and the greater its resistance also provide increased resistance to impingement Superior performance of the modified copper-
to impingement attack or erosion-corrosion. attack compared to Cu-Ni-Fe alloys. In jet nickel alloys C72200 and C71640 was also
Some of the earliest work on copper-nickel impingement tests (Ref 19) on several copper- observed under severely erosive conditions in
alloys demonstrated the beneficial effects of iron base alloys at impingement velocities as high as seawater containing entrained sand (Ref 23).
additions on seawater impingement resistance. 10 m/s (33 ft/s), no measurable impingement The combined results of laboratory impinge-
The graphical summary of the effects of iron attack was observed on alloys C72200 and ment studies and service performance have pro-
shown in Fig. 19 qualitatively illustrates the bal- C71900 at 4.6 m/s (15 ft/s) (Table 10). duced maximum acceptable design velocities for
ance between pitting resistance and impingement The behaviors of several copper-nickel alloys, condenser tube materials (Table 11). Erosion-
resistance that defines the optimal iron content including C71640 and C72200, have been char- corrosion was studied on the basis of fluid
for 90Cu-10Ni and 70Cu-30Ni at 1.5 and 0.5% acterized under conditions simulating partial dynamics (Ref 24–26). Instead of defining the
Fe, respectively. The effects of manganese level blockage of a condenser tube (Ref 22). In the critical velocity for a material, which is difficult
in association with iron in copper-nickel alloys one-year natural seawater tests, enhanced to relate to service conditions and which is spe-
are also addressed in Ref 21. The relative benefi- erosion-corrosion resistance was observed for cific to tubing diameter, the use of critical sur-
face shear stress was advocated. This shear
LIVE GRAPH stress in a dynamic fluid system is a measure of
Click here to view the force applied by the moving fluid to the sur-
face with which it interacts. It takes into account
the changes in fluid density and kinematic vis-
cosity with variations in temperature, specific
gravity, and hydrodynamic parameters. Values
of critical surface shear stress for several copper-
base alloys are shown in Table 12.
Galvanic Effects. In general, the copper-base
alloys are galvanically compatible with one
another in seawater. The copper-nickel alloys are
slightly cathodic (noble) to the nickel-free cop-
per-base alloys, but the small differences in cor-
rosion potential generally do not lead to serious
galvanic effects unless unusually adverse anod-
ic/cathodic area ratios are involved.
The data given in Table 13 demonstrate the
increased attack of less noble carbon steel cou-
Fig. 19 Corrosion resistance of copper-nickel alloys as a pled to copper-nickel alloys, the increased attack
function of iron content. Shaded areas indicate Fig. 20 Weight loss versus time curves for C70600,
optimal iron contents for good balance between pitting C71640, and C72200 exposed in seawater at Table 13 Galvanic couple data for
resistance and impingement resistance. Source: Ref 21 a velocity of 9 m/s (40 ft/s). Source: Ref 21
C70600 and C71500 with other materials
in flowing seawater
Table 10 Summary of jet impingement test data for several copper alloys at three velocities
Two-year exposures of equal area couples at a velocity
Test duration: 1–2 months; 10 to 26 °C (50 to 80 °F) seawater of 0.6 m/s (2 ft/s)
Impingement attack at velocity Corrosion rate
4.6 m/s (15 ft/s) 6.8 m/s (22 ft/s) 9.8 m/s (32 ft/s) Alloy m/yr mils/yr
Alloy mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr Uncoupled
C44300 1.8–4.8 71–189 (b) (b) (b) (b) C70600 31 1.2
C68700 0.36–3 14.2–118 (b) (b) (b) (b) C71500 20 0.8
C70600 0.12–2.16 4.7–85 0.36–1.56 14.2–61.4 1.56 61.4 C61400 43 1.7
C71500 0.12–1.08 4.7–42.5 0.36–6.84 14.2–269 1.68–2.04 66–80.3 Carbon steel 330 13
C71900 (a) (a) 0.12–0.36 4.7–14.2 1.08–1.44 42.5–56.7 Titanium 2 0.08
C72200 (a) (a) 0.12 4.7 (a) (a)
Coupled
(a) No attack. (b) Not tested. Source: Ref 19 C70600 25 1
C61400 43 1.7
Table 11 Accepted maximum tubular Table 12 Critical surface shear stress for C70600 3 0.12
Carbon steel 787 31
design velocities for some copper alloys copper-base alloys in seawater
Maximum design velocity Critical shear stress
C70600 208 8.2
Titanium 2 0.08
Alloy m/s ft/s
Alloy Pa psi
C12200 0.6–0.9 2–3 C12200 9.6 0.0014 C71500 18 0.7
C44300 1.2–1.8 4–6 C68700 19.2 0.028 C61400 64 2.5
C60800, C61300 2.7 9 C70600 43.1 0.0063
C68700 2.4 8 C71500 47.9 0.007 C71500 3 0.12
C65100, C85500 0.9 3 C72200 296.9 0.043 Carbon steel 711 28
C70600 3.0–3.6 10–12
C71500 4.5–4.6 14.8–5 C71500 107 4.2
C72200 9.0 30 Source: Ref 24 Titanium 2 0.08
on the copper-nickel alloys when coupled to more 29–34). From 60 to 107 °C (140–225 °F), tem- pollution standards has dramatically reduced pol-
noble titanium, and the general compatibility of perature may increase, decrease, or have no sig- lution in many harbors in recent years, accelerated
copper-nickel alloys with aluminum bronze. nificant effect on the corrosion rate of copper- attack of condenser tubes and seawater piping
Coupling copper-nickel alloys to less noble mate- nickel alloys. Lower corrosion rates for C70600 materials by polluted waters is still reported.
rials affords protection to the copper-nickel that over an intermediate temperature range were The attack of copper-containing materials by
effectively reduces its corrosion rate, thus inhibit- reported in seawater corrosion tests between 32 polluted seawater has been addressed in numerous
ing the natural fouling resistance of the alloy. and 107 °C (90 and 225 °F) with controlled sea- test programs. The primary causes of accelerated
Results of short-term galvanic couple tests water chemistry; bicarbonate alkalinity, dis- attack of copper-base alloys in polluted seawater
between C70600 and several cast copper-base solved oxygen, and pH were noted as critical fac- are (1) the action of sulfate-reducing bacteria,
and ferrous alloys are listed in Table 14. The cor- tors controlling corrosion (Ref 33). Other studies under anaerobic conditions (for example, in bot-
rosion rate of cast 70Cu-30Ni was unaffected by confirmed lower average corrosion rates at 40 °C tom muds or sediments), on the natural sulfates
coupling with an equal area of C70600, but (105 °F) than at lower temperatures (Ref 35). present in seawater and (2) the putrefaction of
some increased corrosion of other cast copper- The variation in results reported in the literature organic sulfur compounds from decaying plant
base alloys was noted. Corrosion rates of cast can perhaps be explained by variations in seawa- and animal matter within seawater systems during
stainless steels were reduced, with a resultant ter chemistry between test sites and/or control of periods of extended shutdown (Ref 40). Partial
increase in the corrosion of C70600. Gray iron operating conditions in desalination plants. putrefaction of organic sulfur compounds may
displayed with largest galvanic effect, while the Effect of Chlorine. Coastal power plants that
corrosion rates of Ni-Resist cast irons nominally use seawater as a coolant have long used chlorine
doubled. Although some caution should be exer- to control fouling and slime formation. The effect
cised in using absolute values from any short- of chlorination, both continuous and intermittent,
term tests, the relative degree of acceleration of on the corrosion of copper-nickel alloys was
corrosion from galvanic coupling was shown to studied (Ref 36, 37). Continuous chlorine addi-
be unaffected by extending some tests with Ni- tions increased the corrosion rate of C70600 by a
Resist/C70600 couples to 1 year. factor of two. Intermittent chlorination at a high-
Effect of Oxygen, Depth, and Tempera- er level controlled fouling, yet had no apparent
ture. The corrosion of copper and copper-base effect on corrosion rates. A net reduction was
alloys in clean seawater is cathodically con- noted in the corrosion rate of C71500 with con-
trolled by oxygen reduction, with H reduction tinuous and most intermittent chlorine additions.
being thermodynamically unfavorable. Dis- Seawater impingement tests were conducted
solved oxygen retards corrosion by the promo- on C70600, C71500, and C71640 with continu-
tion of a protective film on the copper alloy sur- ous additions of chlorine (and iron) (Ref 38).
face, but increases the rate of corrosion by Additions of 0.5 to 4.0 mg/L of chlorine caused
depolarizing cathodic sites and oxidizing Cu increased susceptibility to impingement attack LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
ions to more aggressive Cu2 ions. Other fac- on C70600 at a velocity of 9 m/s (30 ft/s).
tors, such as velocity, temperature, salinity, and Addition of chlorine up to 4.0 mg/L had little
ocean depth, affect the dissolved oxygen content effect on the impingement resistance of C71500.
of seawater, thus influencing the corrosion rate. Figure 21 summarizes the results of these tests.
In general, oxygen concentration decreases with
increasing salinity, temperature, and depth. Polluted Cooling Waters
These factors can vary with depth in a complex
manner and also vary from location to location Polluted cooling waters, particularly in coastal
in the oceans of the world (Ref 27). harbors and estuaries, reportedly cause numerous
Although cathodic control by oxygen reduction premature failures of power station and shipboard
suggests a strong dependence of corrosion rate on condensers using copper-base alloys, including
dissolved oxygen concentration, the growth of a the copper-nickels. During the early 1950s, pollut-
protective oxide film on copper-nickel alloys mined waters were identified as the most important
imizes the influence within the normally observed contributing factor in the failure of condenser
range of oxygen content found in seawater. Deep- tubes (Ref 39). Although enforcement of strict
ocean testing indicated that the corrosion rates of LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
copper and copper-nickel alloys do not change Table 14 Galvanic corrosion data for
significantly for dissolved oxygen contents C70600/cast alloy couples in seawater
between 1 and 6 mL/L of seawater and conse-
quently were not significantly affected by varia- 32-day tests of equal area couples in seawater at 10 °C
(50 °F). Velocity: 1.8 m/s (6 ft/s)
tions in depth of exposure (Ref 27).
Short-term laboratory tests indicated only a Galvanic effect(a)
small increase in corrosion rate with increasing Alloy C70600 Other alloy
temperature up to 30 °C (85 °F) (Ref 28). Long- C70600 1.0 …
term corrosion rate data from tests conducted at Cast 90Cu-10Ni 0.8 1.6
a coastal site near Panama (Ref 17) agree very Cast 70Cu-30Ni 0.9 1.0
85-5-5-5 (C83600) 0.9 1.5
well with long-term data for exposures in M Bronze (C92200) 0.7 1.8
Wrightsville Beach, NC (Ref 16), where the sea- ACI CN7M 1.5 0.6
sonal temperature variation is 5 to 30 °C ACI CF8M 1.2 0.1
(40–85 °F). Final steady-state corrosion rates at Gray iron 0.1 6.0
Ni-Resist type I(b) 0.4 2.1
both locations for C71500 ranged from 1 to 3 Ni-Resist type II 0.3 2.6
m/yr (0.04–0.12 mils/yr). Ni-Resist type D2 0.3 2.0
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Studies performed at higher temperatures rela-
tive to those in desalination plant environments (a) Ratio of weight loss in couple to weight loss of an uncoupled con- Fig. 21 Impingement attack versus chlorine levels for
trol specimen. (b) Ni-Resist couple tests at 29 °C (85 °F) three copper alloys. (a) C70600. (b) C71500. (c)
show considerable disagreement in results (Ref C71640
also result in the formation of organic sulfides, additions can result in a significant buildup of ance to marine fouling. This fouling resistance is
such as cystine or glutathione, which can cause scale on the tube surface. At high enough levels of usually associated with macrobiological fouling,
pitting of copper alloys in seawater (Ref 41). iron addition, sufficient sludge or precipitate may such as barnacles, mussels, and marine inverte-
Alloy C70600 has been found to be suscepti- develop to result in complete blockage of the heat- brates of corresponding size. Service experience
ble to sulfide-induced attack in aerated seawater exchanger tubes. At lower levels of iron addition, with shrimp trawlers and private yachts fabricated
containing sulfide concentrations as low as 0.01 a bulky deposit will develop on the tube surface with C70600 or C71500 hulls has demonstrated
mg/L (Ref 42). Another study has demonstrated that may also interfere with heat transfer. In a excellent resistance to hard-shell fouling and an
that, although the presence of 0.01 mg/L sulfide study of the increase in deposit formation and loss accompanying reduction in hull maintenance costs
in aerated seawater can accelerate corrosion of of heat transfer for aluminum brass in seawater (Ref 49). Copper-nickel alloys have also per-
copper-nickel alloys, the influence of seawater with both intermittent and continuous Fe2 ion formed successfully as seawater intake screens by
velocity is more significant (Ref 43). Figure 22 dosing, it was recommended that some considera- virtue of their mechanical strength, corrosion
shows the rate of accelerated corrosion for tion be given to a gradual reduction in dosing lev- resistance, and resistance to biofouling (Ref 50).
C70600 as a function of sulfide and velocity. els after the initial film formation (Ref 47). Research demonstrated that fouling was not
Inhibition of Corrosion. In some applica- Other preventive measures can be taken to min- observed on copper-nickel alloys containing
tions, the corrosion resistance of copper alloys is imize the deleterious effects of sulfides (Ref 80% or more copper and that only incipient foul-
further enhanced by adding iron to the seawater. 48–50). Elimination of decaying plant and animal ing was noted on the 70Cu-30Ni alloy (Ref 51,
This iron is introduced either through the addi- life from inlet pipes and channels can alleviate the 52). Other evaluations indicated approximately
tion of ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) or by direct oxi- effects of sulfate-reducing bacteria. Initial design equivalent fouling resistance for C70600 and
dation of a sacrificial iron anode either with or or operational procedures, such as eliminating C71500 in 14- and 5-year exposures, respective-
without an externally applied current. stagnant legs in a piping system or careful use of ly (Ref 16, 53). One investigation concluded that
The effectiveness of environmental iron addi- screening and filtration systems, can yield a valu- the fouling resistances of pure copper, C70600,
tions against sulfide corrosion of copper-nickel able return on investment. Aeration of the seawater, and C71500 were virtually identical (Ref 53).
alloys was evaluated (Ref 44, 45). Iron added con- such as by the use of cooling towers or cascading Studies of copper-nickel alloys found that
tinuously at a level of 0.2 mg/L by a stimulated systems, also helps to displace any dissolved some minimum copper solution rate from the
iron anode was effective against low-level (0.01 hydrogen sulfide (H2S). In one study, impingement corrosion process is required to prevent fouling
mg/L) sulfide corrosion of both C70600 and tests were performed on C71500 in seawater con- (Ref 52). It was not established whether the
C71500, although some attack was still observed. taining 10 mg/L cystine (an organic sulfur com- effect was due to toxicity of copper ions released
Corrosion, already actively proceeding, was sig- pound) and varying amounts of an inhibitor, sodi- from the metal surface or to a continual slough-
nificantly reduced, and the effects of additional um dimethyldithiocarbamate (Ref 50). The results ing off of corrosion produces. Fouling was min-
low-level sulfide exposure were nullified by fer- indicated a reduction in the depth of impingement imal on C71500 exposed for 14 years, during
rous ion (Fe2) treatment. Intermittent injection of attack. It was noted, however, that a 0.10% solution which time the corrosion rate approached 1.0
FeSO4 for 2 h per day at 1.0 to 5.0 mg/L was not would be cost prohibitive on a once-through basis, m/yr (0.04 mils/yr) (Ref 16). It was further
found effective against high sulfide levels (0.2 but would be cost effective if circulated through the demonstrated that copper ions released from a
mg/L), but was effective in reducing corrosion at shipboard piping system upon first flooding and bare C70600 surface offered no fouling protec-
lower sulfide levels (0.01–0.04 mg/L). Additional upon shutting down. It was further noted that tion to an adjacent painted surface (Ref 53). This
work demonstrated that continuous low-level inhibitor injection is necessary only when the cool- work concluded that the duplex nature of corro-
additions of FeSO4 could counteract sulfide-accel- ing water source is polluted estuarine seawater. sion products on copper alloy surfaces is respon-
erated corrosion of copper-nickel alloys (Fig. 23). sible for fouling resistance. The initial film
In the use of FeSO4 or stimulated iron anodes to Biofouling formed on copper alloys exposed to seawater is
counteract sulfide-induced corrosion, it should Cu2O. This inherently fouling-resistant material
also be considered that iron additions affect heat- Copper alloys, particularly the copper-nickels, subsequently oxidizes to CuCl2·3(Cu(OH)2),
exchanger efficiency. The continued use of iron have long been recognized for their inherent resist- which does not appear to be as toxic to marine
organisms. The CuCl2·3(Cu(OH)2) periodically
sloughs off from the material surface, carrying
with it many marine organisms that may have
attached. This reexposes the adherent, toxic
Cu2O film and renews fouling resistance.
Whatever the mechanism, the resistance to
fouling is a result of corrosion of the alloy. If this
is suppressed by galvanic effects or impressed
cathodic protection, fouling will not be prevented.
Fig. 23 Corrosion rates for C70600 exposed to seawa-

ter with additions of sulfide (0.05 mg/L) and/or
Fig. 22 Corrosion rates of C70600 as a function of seawater velocity and sulfide content Fe2 (0.01 mg/L) ions. Source: Ref 46
LIVE GRAPH
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Biofouling growth was studied on titanium and Inhibited aluminum brass (C68700) resists C63200 in wrought form and C95400, C95500,
C70600 at 27 °C (80 °F) and at various velocities the action of high-velocity salt and brackish and C95800 in cast form are extensively used in
(Ref 54). Results (Fig. 24) indicated that the major water and is commonly used for condenser salt water environments. They are used in Navy
fouling problem on titanium in the tests was silt tubes. The outstanding characteristic of C68700 seawater systems and submarine systems in
particles bound by organic growths, while C70600 is its high resistance to impingement attack. pumps, valves, heat exchangers, and structural
is fouled both by silt and corrosion products. Tubes of this alloy are frequently recommended components for mounting electronic gear and
Increasing velocity removes more of the silt and for use in marine and land power stations, in propulsion units and are even more widely used
binding organisms, but not the corrosion products. which cooling water velocities are high and in minesweepers, for which their nonmagnetic
Because titanium does not produce corrosion prod- inhibited admiralty metal tubes have failed characteristics are important. They are used in
ucts, the change in the fouling rate with increasing because of impingement attack. cast or wrought form for tube sheets and water
velocity was more dramatic. The behavior of Aluminum Bronzes. Tube sheets made of boxes in saltwater evaporators and in seawater
C70600 suggested the periodic sloughing off of C61300 and C63200 have been specified for cooling loops in fossil and nuclear power
portions of the fouling layer previously noted (Ref coastal power station condensers. Alloy C61300 plants. Corrosion rates are of the order of 10 to
53). At sufficient velocities (1.8 and 2.4 m/s, or 6 is also used for emergency raw seawater cooling 50 m/yr (0.4–2 mils/yr), depending on tem-
and 8 ft/s), macroorganisms did not adhere to the system piping in coastal nuclear power plants. perature and velocity, and generally decrease
C70600 surface, and heat transfer resistance was The aluminum bronzes of C61300, C63000, and with time. Temper annealing is particularly
due to corrosion products and entrapped particles.
Fouling rates decrease by a factor of ten on titani-
um with an increase in velocity from 0.6 to 2.4 m/s
(2–8 ft/s) and decrease by a factor of five on
C70600 for the same velocity range.
Other studies demonstrated the excellent resist-
ance to fouling and resulting retention of heat
transfer efficiency in natural seawater of the cop-
per alloys (Ref 55, 56). Figure 25 shows corro-
sion data for C70600 specimens. The relatively
infrequent sponge ball mechanical cleaning did
not increase corrosion of the C70600 compared to
uncleaned controls. Mechanical cleaning was
required much more frequently for the titanium in
order to maintain a given level of heat transfer
efficiency. Intermittent chlorination did increase
with initial corrosion rates, although the rates
were comparable to uncleaned controls after
approximately 90 days. By contrast, in other tests
in which excessive mechanical cleaning was used
in natural seawater, a significant acceleration of
corrosion occurred with daily sponge ball clean-
ing at a rate of 12 passes/h (Ref 57). LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Heat Exchangers and Condensers Fig. 24 Fouling rates of C70600 and titanium as a function of seawater velocity. Source: Ref 54
The selection of material for condenser and

heat-exchanger tubes necessitates a survey of
service conditions, an examination of tubes pre-
viously used and evaluation of its service life,
and a review of the type, form, and location of
corrosion experienced in the unit or in similar
units. Types of water and operating conditions
vary widely, and any estimate of probable tube
performance must be based on specific operating
factors. The tubes of the various alloys discussed
in this section provide satisfactory and economi-
cal performance for the services described.
Inhibited admiralty metal (C44300, C44400,
and C44500) has good corrosion resistance and is
extensively used for tubing in various services,
especially steam condensers cooled with fresh, salt,
or brackish water. Admiralty metal tubes are also
used for heat exchangers in oil refineries, in which
corrosion from sulfur compounds and contaminat-
ed water may be very severe, and for feedwater
heaters and heat-exchanger equipment as well as
other industrial processes. Admiralty metal tubes
are often used in equipment operating at tempera-
tures of 200 °C (400 °F) or higher. Small amounts
of phosphorus (0.02–0.06%) added to admiralty Fig. 25 Weight loss/corrosion data for C70600 cleaned by chlorinated sponge ball and sponge ball without chlori-
metal markedly increase dezincification resistance. nation. Rf, fouling resistance
LIVE GRAPH
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important in the cast forms of these alloys when tings now enables construction of a single-stack Factors that may accelerate corrosion vary
used in seawater. drain system in high-rise buildings instead of the from one plant to another, and it is advisable to
Copper nickel, 10% (C70600) exhibits two-stack system formerly used. conduct preliminary service or field tests under
excellent resistance to impingement attack; it actual operating conditions before purchasing
appears to be inferior only to copper nickel, 30%. large quantities of an alloy. Corrosion-accelerat-
It is also highly resistant to SCC. This alloy is
Corrosion in Acids ing factors can then be evaluated. Selection of
suitable for marine condenser tube installations Copper is widely employed for industrial the most suitable material for use in a chemical
in place of aluminum brass, especially where equipment used to handle acid solutions. A fairly process depends not only on corrosion resistance
higher water velocities are encountered. definite separation exists between those acids that but also on such factors as continuing availabili-
Copper nickel, 30% (C71500) has, in general, can be handled by copper and those that cannot. ty of the alloy in the desired form and size
the best resistance of any of the copper alloys to In general, copper alloys are successfully used (which should be ensured before any alloy is
impingement attack and to corrosion by most acids with nonoxidizing acids, such as CH3COOH, given serious consideration).
and waters. It is being used in increasing quantities H2SO4, HCI, and H3PO4, as long as the concen- The following corrosion data were obtained
under severely corrosive conditions for which tration of oxidizing agents, such as dissolved oxy- in tests made under various conditions for han-
service lives longer than those of other copper gen (air) and ferric (Fe3) or dichromate ions, is dling different acids and acid solutions.
alloys are desired. It is used by the U.S. Navy for low. Broadly speaking, a thoroughly agitated or Because of the variety of factors affecting all
most shipboard condensers and heat exchangers. stirred solution or one into which a stream of air chemical reactions, the values shown cannot be
Phosphorus-deoxidized coppers (C12000- has been bubbled approaches air saturation and is taken as absolute and should be considered
C12300) are extensively used in sugar refineries therefore not a suitable acid medium for copper. only as trends.
for condensers and evaporators. Deoxidized Acids that are oxidizing agents in themselves, Sulfuric Acid. Copper and copper-base alloys
copper and standard materials in the refrigera- such as HNO3; sulfurous (H2SO3); hot, concen- are not widely used in relatively pure H2SO4
tion industry and for transferring heat from trated H2SO4; and acids carrying such oxidizing because of the drastic effect of oxidizing condi-
steam to water or air because of their excellent agents at Fe3 salts, dichromate ions, or perman- tions. The resultant Cu2 ions also cause auto-
resistance to corrosion by freshwater and their ganate (MnO4 ) ions, cannot be handled in equip- catalytic corrosion.
high thermal conductivities. ment made of copper or its alloys. The corrosion rate of C65500 (3% silicon
Bimetal tubes are sometimes used to meet The corrosive action of a dilute (up to 1% acid) bronze) in H2SO4 indicates that this alloy can be
severe corrosion problems not handled ade- nonoxidizing acid on copper is relatively low; cor- successfully used with solutions of 3 to 70%
quately by tubes of a single metal or alloy. Two rosion rates are usually less than 6 g/m2/d (equiv- H2SO4 (by weight) at temperatures of 25 to
tubes of different alloys, one inside the other, alent penetration rate: 250 m/yr, or 10 mils/yr). 70 °C (75–160 °F). Laboratory test results are
form one integral tube. Copper may be the inner This is true only of oxidizing acids when the con- shown in Fig. 27.
or outer layer, depending on the application. centration does not exceed 0.01%. At such low Rate of attack by H2SO4 varies with concen-
Drain Tubes. Copper is used for waste and acid concentrations, aeration has little effect in tration (Table 15). The presence of copper or
vent lines in drains. The first such installations either oxidizing or nonoxidizing acids. iron salts in acid solutions accelerates the corro-
were made in the mid-1930s, and since then Nonoxidizing acids with near-zero aeration sion rate of copper (Table 16).
many municipalities have approved the use of have virtually no corrosive effect. Rates in 1.2 N Aluminum bronze C61300 (wrought), as
copper drain lines. Development of Sovent fit- H2SO4, HCI, and CH3COOH are less than 0.1 well as C95200 and C95800 (cast), are used
g/m2/d (4 m/yr, or 0.15 mils/yr) in the absence extensively in dilute (10–20%) H2SO4 service,
LIVE GRAPH particularly in steel-pickling acids. Because
Click here to view of air. Figure 26 shows the general effect of var-
ious concentrations of oxygen on the corrosion these alloys have good corrosion resistance
rate of copper in these acids. and high mechanical properties, thinner sec-
Except for HCI, nonoxidizing acids that con- tions can withstand the required loads. In gen-
tain as much air as is absorbed in quiet contact eral, the copper alloys are quite resistant to the
with the atmosphere are weakly corrosive. Rates environment, but when in contact with the
generally range from 0.5 to 6 g/m2/d (approxi- steel being pickled, they are galvanically pro-
mately 20–250 m/yr, or 0.8–10 mils/yr). tected and in turn accelerate the cleaning
Air-saturated solutions of nonoxidizing acids action of the acid on the steels. In time, the
are likely to be strongly corrosive, with corrosion iron salts are changed from Fe2 to Fe3 (oxi-
rates of 5 to 30 g/m2d (0.2–1.25 mm/yr, or 8–50 dizing) form, and there is increased corrosion;
mils/yr). This rate is higher for HCI. The actual therefore, filtering or elimination of the salts is
Fig. 26 Effect of oxygen on corrosion rates for copper
corrosion in any aerated acid depends on acid beneficial. Also, open tanks made of copper
in 1.2 N solutions of nonoxidizing acids. for this medium will have a higher corrosion
Specimens are immersed for 24 h at 24 °C (75 °F). Oxygen concentration, temperature, and other factors that
content of the solutions varied from test to test, depending are difficult to classify. Except in very dilute solu- rate at the liquid level line because of higher
on the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere above tions, oxidizing acids corrode copper rapidly— oxygen concentration. Hydrochloric acid
the solutions.
usually at rates above 50 g/m2/d (2.1 mm/yr, or 85 added to H2SO4 greatly increases the corrosion
mils/yr). The reaction is independent of aeration. rate of copper alloys compared to that in either
The corrosion rates for copper in three com- acid individually.
mon acids are compared below (temperature and Phosphoric Acid. Copper and copper alloys
aeration are not specified): are used in heat-exchanger tubes, pipes, and fit-
tings for handling H3PO4, although the corro-
Corrosion rate sion rates of some of these alloys may be com-
Acid g/m2/d mm/yr mils/yr paratively high. Laboratory tests were
32% HNO3 5700 240 9450 performed on eight groups of copper alloys in
Concentrated HCl 18 0.75 30 aerated and unaerated acid, with specimens at
17% H2SO4 2 0.1 4 the water line, in quiet immersion and totally
submerged. Acid concentrations ranged from 5
Fig. 27 Corrosion of C65500 in H2SO4 solutions.
Phosphoric, CH3COOH, tartaric, formic, oxalic, to 90%, and temperatures ranged from 20 to
Specimens were immersed for 48 h at the
indicated temperatures. The solution was not agitated or malic, and similar acids normally react compa- 85 °C (70–185 °F) except for the Cu-Al-Si alloy,
intentionally aerated. rably to H2SO4. which was tested only in 6.5% H3PO4 at 20 °C
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Table 15 Corrosion of copper alloys completely immersed in H2SO4 of various strengths rosion and the possibility of pitting. Low-copper
Average penetration for H2SO4 concentration of
alloys, such as C46400 (naval brass), appear to
form thin, adherent films of corrosion products.
30% 40% 50%
Copper, copper-silicon alloys, and other high-
Alloy m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr
copper alloys form more voluminous, porous
Exposure time 24–48 h, boiling at a pressure of 13.3 kPa (100 torr) films or scales beneath which roughened or pit-
C11000 670–700 26.4–27.6 487–700 19.2–27.6 660–792 26.0–31.2 ted surfaces are likely to be found.
C14200 640–670 25.2–26.4 487–548 19.2–21.6 610 24.0
C51000 640 25.2 395–457 15.6–18.0 915 36.0 The H3PO4 vapors that condense in electro-
C26000 … … … … … … static precipitators at about 120 °C (250 °F) are
Exposure time: 16–24 h, solution agitated noticeably more corrosive than solutions of pure
C11000 60–245 2.4–9.6 18–60 0.7–2.4 60 2.4 H3PO4 at the same or lower temperatures. The
C14200 92–335 3.6–13.2 nil nil 50–60 2.0–2.4 corrosion rates encountered in precipitators are
Average penetration for H2SO4 concentration of so high that copper alloy wires will not give sat-
60% 70% 80%
isfactory service as electrodes. The high rate of
Alloy m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr
corrosion is probably caused by an abundant
supply of oxygen.
Exposure time: 24–48 h, boiling at a pressure of 13.3 kPa (100 torr)
Although the corrosion rates of copper cool-
C11000 2195–2255 86.4–88.8 853–1067 33.6–42.0 39,630–166,420 1560–6552
C14200 2285–2377 90.0–93.6 945 37.2 67,310–527,300 650–20,760 ing tubes in H3PO4 condensation chambers are
C51000 2957–3385 116.4–133.2 945–1067 37.2–42.0 60,660–62,080 2388–2444 high (about 10 mm/yr, or 400 mils/yr), the rates
C26000 … … 580–793 22.8–31.2 72,850–206,050 2868–8112 are lower than those of some other materials.
Exposure time: 16–24 h, solution agitated Therefore, the use of copper tubes is feasible for
C11000 60–92 2.4–3.6 1830–2745 72.0–108.0 39,370–40,890 1550–1610 this application.
C14200 15–60 0.6–2.4 2135 84.0 39,370–50,550 1550–1990 The above discussion on the effect of H3PO4
on copper and its alloys emphasizes the value of
keeping service records. Such records are valu-
Table 16 Corrosion of copper in boiling 30% H2SO4 containing copper and iron salts able for anticipating repairs, making changes to
Average penetration Average penetration Average penetration minimize the effect of various factors, and
Copper, ppm m/yr mils/yr Iron, ppm m/yr mils/yr Iron and copper, ppm m/yr mils/yr selecting materials for replacement parts.
0 60 2.4 0 122 4.8 0 13 0.5 Hydrochloric acid is one of the most corro-
20 183 7.2 28 122 4.8 20Cu 28Fe 152 6.0 sive of the nonoxidizing acids when in contact
40 213 8.4 58 245 9.6 40Cu 56Fe 244 9.6 with copper and its alloys and is successfully
80 243 9.6 112 427 16.8 80Cu 112Fe 457 18.0 handled only in dilute concentrations. The rates
200 335 13.2 196 782 30.8 200Cu 196Fe 730 28.8
280 360 14.2 280 975 38.4 280Cu 280Fe 1005 39.6 for C65800 (silicon bronze) in HCl of various
360 427 16.8 364 1097 43.2 360Cu 364Fe 1250 49.2 concentrations are listed in Table 17. The corro-
440 457 18.0 447 1280 50.4 440Cu 447Fe 1525 60.0 sion rates for two nonstandard silicon bronzes
were about the same as those for C65800.
The corrosion rate of copper nickels in 2 N
(70 °F) with specimens at the water line and in In general, copper and copper alloys provide satis- HCl at 25 °C (75 °F) may range from 2.3 to 7.6
quiet immersion. Corrosion rates for the eight factory service in handling pure H3PO4 solutions mm/yr (90–300 mils/yr), depending on the
alloy groups were as follows: in various concentrations. The acid concentration degree of aeration and other factors. Specimens
seems to have less effect on the corrosion rate than of C71000 (copper nickel, 20%) in stagnant 1%
Corrosion rate
the amount of impurities. The impure H3PO4 pro- HCl solutions at room temperature corrode at a
Alloy type mm/yr mils/yr
duced by H2SO4 process may contain a markedly rate of 305 m/yr (12 mils/yr); in 10% HCl, 790
higher concentration of Fe3, SO42, sulfite m/yr (31 mils/yr).
Copper 0.55–3.7 22–148
Copper-zinc (70% Cu min) 0.13–7.0 5–280
(SO32), Cl, and fluoride (F) ions than acid pro- Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is less corrosive than
Copper-tin 0.025–1.30 1–52 duced by the electric furnace process. These ions HCl and can be successfully handled by C71500
Copper-nickel 0.025–0.63 1–25 increased the corrosion rate up to 150 times, (copper nickel, 30%), which has good resistance
Copper-silicon 0.13–0.93 5–37 which limits the service lives of copper alloys. to both aqueous and anhydrous HF. Unlike some
Cu-Al-Fe 0.13–0.25 5–10
Cu-Al-Si 0.28–2.4 11–97
Pure H3PO4 produced by the electric furnace other copper alloys, C71500 is not sensitive to
process contains only small quantities of impu- velocity effects. The data given in Table 18 were
rities and is therefore only slightly corrosive to generated from laboratory tests in conjunction
Table 17 Corrosion of C65800 totally copper and its alloys. Inhibited admiralty metals with the HF alkylation process in anhydrous acid.
submerged in HCl C44300, C44400, and C44500 are suggested for Acetic Acid and Acetic Anhydride
solutions of pure H3PO4. [(CH3CO)2O)]. Copper and copper alloys are
Size of specimens, 50 25 1.3 mm (2 1 0.050 in.);
surface condition, pickled; velocity of solution, natural
Accumulation of corrosion products on metal successfully used in commercial processes
convection; aeration, none; duration of test, 48 h surfaces may also increase both the rate of cor- involving exposure to CH3COOH and related
Corrosion rate
HCl concentration, wt% g/m2/d m/yr mils/yr
Table 18 Corrosion of wrought copper alloys in anhydrous HF
At 25 ˚C (75 ˚F)
Corrosion rate(a)
3 2.3 99 3.9
10 2.3 99 3.9 Temperature C51000 C44400 C71500
20 1.8 79 3.1 °C °F m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr
35 12.3 526 20.7
16–27 60–80 510 20 255 10 180 7
At 70 ˚C (160 ˚F) 27–38 80–100 480 18.8 480 18.8 … …
3 18.3 780 30.7 82–88 180–190 1525 60 510 20 255 10
10 13.7 508 20.0
20 23.8 102 40.1 (a) These values are representative of results on copper alloys having high copper content, such as copper, aluminum bronze, silicon bronze, and inhib-
35 160.8 6860 270.1 ited admiralty metal. Corrosion rates for C23000 are between those for C44400 and C51000.
Table 19 Corrosion of copper in CH3COOH-(CH3CO)2O mixtures Table 20 Corrosion of C11000 in iso-

Average penetration rate propyl ether-CH3COOH mixtures
Copper alloy Exposure time, h Test conditions m/yr mils/yr Concentration, % Average penetration rate
C11000 1115 CH3COOH-(CH3CO)2O-acetone mixture, 483 19.0 Isopropyl ether CH3COOH m/yr mils/yr
110 to 140 ˚C (230 to 285 ˚F) Exposed 72 h at 60–65 ˚C (140–150 ˚F)
2952 Same as above 66–70 2.6–2.8
C65500 1115 Same as above 213 8.4 93 7 40–50 1.6–2.0
2952 Same as above 70–90 2.7–3.6 85 15 18–20 0.7–0.8
C11000 1115 1:1 CH3COOH-(CH3CO)2O mixture, 120–533 4.7–21.0 Exposed 328 h at 20 ˚C (70 ˚F)
130 to 145 ˚C (265 to 295 ˚F) 93 7 100 4.0
C65500 1115 Same as above 166–236 4.6–9.3 85 15 13 0.5
C11000 865 95% CH3COOH-5% (CH3CO)2O, 97–116 3.8–4.4
liquid phase, 120 ˚C (250 ˚F)
C11000 coupled to 865 Same as above 102–216 4.0–8.5
type 316 stainless steel show fair resistance to HCOOH at any concen-
C11000 865 95% CH3COOH-5% (CH3CO)2O, 102–104 4.0–4.1 tration. The resistance to HCOOH depends on
vapor phase, 120 ˚C (250 ˚F) the presence or absence of oxygen or other oxi-
C11000 coupled to 865 Same as above 94–213 3.7–8.4 dizing agents. If free air or other oxidants are
type 316 stainless steel
C11000 2448 50:50 CH3COOH-(CH3CO)2O 150 ˚C (300 ˚F) 84–90 3.3–3.6 present, high corrosion rates will be encoun-
C11000 2448 Essentially pure CH3COOH 5 0.2 tered; if the acid is free of air and other oxidants,
copper will provide usable resistance to
Table 21 Corrosion of copper alloys in Table 22 Corrosion of copper and cop- HCOOH at all concentrations to the atmospher-
CH3COOH per-nickel by HCOOH ic boiling point and even at higher temperatures.
Table 22 shows typical corrosion rates for cop-
Exposure
Average penetration rate Laboratory tests in deaerated acid at atmospheric boiling per (C10300) and 90Cu-10Ni copper-nickel
m/yr temperature; test duration: 96 h
Alloy time, h mils/yr
(C70600) in various concentrations of HCOOH.
(CH3CO)2O Corrosion rate The anomalies in the data shown in Table 22,
Acid
C11000 2448(b) 60 2.4 concentration, Copper C10300 Copper-nickel C70600 such as the higher rate of attack in 50 and 70%
2448(c) 915–1100 36.0–43.2 % mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr HCOOH, are probably caused by incomplete
C65500 2448(b) 60 2.4
2448(c) 488–732 19.2–28.8 1.0 0.02 0.8 0.02 0.9 deaeration during laboratory tests, although
5.0 0.02 0.7 0.02 0.9 some increase in the rate of corrosion in interme-
90% CH3COOH(d) 10.0 0.02 0.6 0.02 0.7 diate acid strengths is to be expected because of
C11000, annealed 672 60 2.4 20.0 0.20 7.8 0.40 15.7
816 30 1.2 40.0 0.14 5.5 0.34 13.3 maximum dissociation in these concentrations.
C11000, cold worked 672 90 3.6 50.0 0.26 10.2 0.54 21.1 Propionic Acid (CH3CH2COOH). Copper
792 90 3.6 60.0 0.05 2.0 0.03 1.3 and copper alloys are excellent for handling all
Copper joint(e) 1512 183 7.2 70.0 0.76 30.0 0.76 30.0 concentrations of CH3CH2COOH. The data
4000 120 4.8 80.0 0.20 7.8 0.13 5.0
Copper joint(f) 1512 183 7.2 90.0 0.22 8.7 0.19 7.6 shown in Fig. 28 indicate attack on copper in
4000 120 4.8 boiling 100% CH3CH2COOH, but this is
45% CH3COOH(g) believed to be an anomaly caused by incomplete
C11000 1038 30 max 1.2 max
mils/yr). The rate was only 30 m/yr (1.2 deaeration of the solution. As with HCOOH and
C65500 1038 30 max 1.2 max mils/yr) for the middle and top columns. CH3COOH, copper and its alloys are satisfacto-
Copper joint(f) 1038 30 max 1.2 max In another field test, C11000 and C65500 ry only if the solutions are completely deaerated
25% CH3COOH(h) coupons were placed in an CH3COOH storage tank and do not contain other oxidizing agents.
C11000 432 274 10.8 at ambient temperature. The stored solution con- Other Organic Acids. Although acetic,
792 152 6.0 tained 27% CH3COOH, 1% butyl acetate, 70% formic, and propionic are the most common
H2O, and small amounts of acetates, aldehydes, and organic acids, there are literally hundreds of
(a) Test specimens were exposed in stills separating CH3COOH from
(CH3CO)2O. (b) Top of column. (c) Kettle. (d) Test specimens were other acids. During the 3984 h exposure, the speci- organic acids. Table 23 compares the corrosion
exposed in cycle feed lines at 30–50 ˚C (85–120 ˚F). (e) Joint brazed mens were immersed in the liquid phase 80% of the rates of copper, silicon bronze, plain carbon steel,
with BCuP-5 filler metal. (f) BAg filler metal. (g) Test specimens were
exposed in the CH3COOH recovery column, in which concentration of
time and were in the vapor phase 20% of the time. and austenitic stainless steels in several of the
the acetic acid was 45% max. (h) Test specimens were exposed to crude The C11000 specimens showed a corrosion rate of longer-chain aliphatic acids and aromatic acids
by-product CH3COOH (approximately 25% concentration) in pump 38 to 53 m/yr (1.5–2.1 mils/yr); the C65500 spec- and dicarboxylic acids. As these data show, cop-
suction line from storage tank.
imens, 30 to 45 m/yr (1.2–1.8 mils/yr). per and copper alloys exhibit good resistance to
The results of other field tests for C11000 and all of the higher molecular weight acids, even at
chemical compounds or in the manufacture of C65500 exposed in CH3COOH mixtures are elevated temperatures in the absence of oxidants.
this acid. One plant kept records concerning the given in Tables 19 to 21. Test conditions Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) can be successful-
corrosion rate of C11000 used in two different involved various temperatures, concentrations, ly handled by copper and copper alloys. Results
CH3COOH still systems. One still operated at exposure times, and locations in equipment, as of field tests for C11000 and C65500 are given
115 to 140 °C (240–285 °F) and handled a solu- well as the presence of other chemicals. in Tables 24 and 25.
tion containing 50% CH3COOH and about 50% In laboratory tests at room temperature, Fatty Acids. Under severe service conditions,
(CH3CO)2O, with some esters also present. C61300 and C62300 exhibited typical corrosion fatty acids attack copper alloys at somewhat
After operating for 663 h, the kettle showed an rates of 65 to 80 m/yr (2.5–3.2 mils/yr) in 10 to higher rates than other organic acids, such as
average penetration rate of 210 m/yr (8.4 40% CH3COOH. The copper-aluminum alloys CH3COOH or citric. Tests were conducted for
mils/yr). The rate was lower (60 m/yr, or 2.4 are suitable for use in CH3COOH and the range 400 h in a copper-lined wooden splitting tank
mils/yr) for the bottom column and was lower of aliphatic and aromatic organic acids. The containing a mixture of about 60% fatty acids,
yet (30 m/yr or 1.2 mils/yr) for the middle and addition of chlorine atoms to the organic mole- 39% H2O, and 1.17% H2SO4 heated to 100 °C
top columns. A second still operating at 60 to cule will not increase the tendency toward pit- (212 °F) and agitated violently with an open
140 °C (140–285 °F) contained a 70% solution ting or crevice corrosion. Alloy C61300 is exten- steam jet. Specimens of C71000 (copper nickel,
of CH3COOH, the remainder being anhydride, sively used for pressure and valve castings. 20%) showed a corrosion rate of 64 m/yr (2.6
esters, and ketones. After 1464 h, the kettle Formic Acid (HCOOH). Copper and copper mils/yr); specimens of C71500 (copper nickel,
showed a corrosion rate of 120 m/yr (4.8 alloys, except yellow brasses, which dezincify, 30%), 59 m/yr (2.4 mils/yr) when submerged
just below the liquid level in the tank. Similar

specimens submerged 150 mm (6 in.) from the
bottom of the tank showed corrosion rates of
178 and 185 m/yr (7.0 and 7.3 mils/yr) for
C71000 and C71500, respectively.
Oleic Acid. Copper and copper-zinc alloys
are highly resistant to attack by pure oleic acid.
However, oleic acid will attack these alloys when
air and water are present. Temperature also influ-
ences the rate of attack. Copper and several cop-
per alloys were tested in oleic acid at 25 °C
(75 °F); C51000 and C61300 corroded at less
than 50 m/yr (2 mils/yr) compared with about
500 m/yr (20 mils/yr) for C26000 and C65500.
Stearic acid, like all other fatty acids,
attacks copper and copper alloys when mois-
ture and air are present. Temperature and
impurities also influence the rate of attack.
Tests made at 25 to 100 °C (75–212 °F) in
stearic acid showed corrosion rates of C11000, LIVE GRAPH
C26000, and C65500 to be in the range of 500 Fig. 28 Corrosion of metals in CH3CH2COOH at boiling temperature Click here to view
to 1250 m/yr (20–50 mils/yr).
Tartaric Acid. Copper and its alloys corrode Table 23 Corrosion of metals in refined organic acids
rather slowly when exposed to various concen-
Corrosion rate
trations of tartaric acid, as indicated by the labo-
Type 304 Type 316
ratory test data given in Table 26. Steel Copper Silicon-bronze stainless steel stainless steel
Acid mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr
Butyric
Corrosion in Alkalis
Room temperature 0.15 6 0.05 2 0.05 2 0.02 1 0.02 1
Copper and its alloys resist alkaline solutions, 2-ethylbutyric

except those containing NH4OH or compounds Room temperature 0.18 7 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.02 1
150 ˚C (300 ˚F) 0.86 34 0.41 16 0.23 9 0.53 21 0.02 1
that hydrolyze to NH4OH or cyanides. Ammonium
hydroxide reacts with copper to form soluble com- 2-ethylhexoic
plex copper cations, but the cyanides react to form Room temperature 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.00 1 0.02 1
190 ˚C (375 ˚F) 1.27 50 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.20 8 0.02 1
soluble complex copper anions. The rate of attack
for copper-zinc alloys exposed to alkalies other Iso-octanoic
than those specified above is about 50 to 500 Room temperature 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.02 <1
190 ˚C (375 ˚F) 0.89 35 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.20 8 0.02 1
m/yr (2–20 mils/yr) at room temperature under
stagnant conditions, but is about 500 to 1750 Iso-decanic
m/yr (20–70 mils/yr) in aerated boiling solutions. Room temperature 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.02 1
190 ˚C (375 ˚F) 0.84 33 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.20 8 0.02 1
Alloy C71500 corrodes at less than 5 m/yr
(0.2 mil/yr) in 1 to 2 N NaOH solutions at room 2-methylpentanoic
temperature, and the degree of aeration usually Room temperature 0.02 1 0.08 3 0.10 4 0.02 1 0.02 1
150 ˚C (300 ˚F) 0.53 21 0.30 12 0.08 3 0.02 1 0.02 1
has no significant effect. This rate is two to three
times as great as the rate in boiling solutions. Pentanoic (valeric)
Copper-tin alloys (phosphor bronzes) corrode at Room temperature 0.05 2 0.05 2 0.05 2 0.02 1 0.02 1
114 ˚C (237 ˚F) 1.37 54 0.68 27 0.13 5 0.02 1 0.02 1
less than 250 m/yr (10 mils/yr) in 1 to 2 N
NaOH solutions at room temperature and are
apparently unaffected by aeration. Table 24 Corrosion of copper alloys in production of HCN
Copper and two grades of silicon bronze were Average penetration rate(a)
tested in a 50% NaOH solution at 60 °C (140 °F) Stripping still Top of HCN refining still Base of HCN stripping still Base of partial condenser
Exposure
for 4 weeks. The specimens were bright rolled Alloy time, h m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr
and degreased sheet measuring about 25 by 50 C11000 573 173–218 6.8–8.6 54–60 2.1–2.4 1033–1186 40.7–46.7 1534–14 170 60.4–558
by 1.3 mm (1 by 2 by 0.05 in.). The solution was 671 155–609 6.1–24.0 18–25 0.7–1.0 nil nil 478 18.8
exposed to air (no additional aeration), and C65500 573 229–244 9.06–9.6 18–25 0.7–1.0 777–1145 30.6–45.1 1138–5385 44.8–212
velocity was limited to natural convection. Alloy 671 137–503 5.4–19.8 … … 275 10.8 343 13.5
C11000 showed a corrosion rate of 1.7 g/m2/d (a) All data from separate specimens; differences at similar locations imply expected variability.
(70 m/yr, or 2.8 mils/yr); C65100, 1.5 g/m2/d
(63 m/yr, or 2.5 mils/yr); and C65500, 1.1
g/m2/d (47 m/yr, or 1.85 mils/yr). Table 25 Corrosion of C11000 and C65500 in HCN solutions
Ammonium Hydroxide. Strong NH4OH Average penetration rate
solutions attack copper and copper alloys rapid- Alloys Exposure time, h Test conditions m/yr mils/yr
ly, as compared with the rates of attack by metal-
C11000 3144 Ethylene cyanohydrin residues, 70 ˚C (160 ˚F) 5–35 0.2–1.4
lic hydroxides because of the formation of a sol- C11000 2232 Ethylene cyanohydrin residues, 30–90 ˚C (85–195 ˚F) 13 0.5
uble complex copper-ammonium compound. C65500 2232 Same as above 40 1.6
However, in some applications, the corrosion of C11000 1621 Cyanhohydrin stripping still products (kettle) 690 27
copper exposed to dilute solutions of NH4OH is C65500 1621 Same as above 35 1.4
low. For example, copper specimens submerged Ammonium hydroxide solutions also attack The nonoxidizing acid salts, such as the alums
in 0.01 N NH4OH solution at room temperature copper-zinc alloys. Alloys containing more than and certain metal chlorides (magnesium and cal-
for 1 week experienced weight loss of 1.5 15% Zn are susceptible to SCC when exposed to cium chlorides) that hydrolyze in water to pro-
m/m2/d (60 m/yr, or 2.5 mils/yr). NH4OH. The stress may be due to applied service duce an acidic pH, exhibit essentially the same
loads or to unrelieved residual stresses. In quies- behavior as dilute solutions of the corresponding
Table 26 Corrosion of copper alloys in cent 2 N NH4OH solutions at room temperature, acids. Corrosion rates generally range from 2.5
contact with tartaric acid at 25 °C (75 °F) copper-zinc alloys corrode at 1.8 to 6.6 mm/yr to 1500 m/yr (0.1–60 mils/yr) at room temper-
(70–260 mils/yr), copper-nickel alloys at 0.25 to ature, depending on the degree of aeration and
Corrosion rate
0.50 mm/yr (10–20 mils/yr), copper-tin alloys at the acidity. Table 28 lists test data for corrosion
m/yr
Acid concentration, % mils/yr
1.3 to 2.5 mm/yr (50–100 mils/yr), and copper sil- of copper in 30% calcium chloride (CaCl2)
C26000 and C23000 icon alloys at 0.75 to 5 mm/yr (30–200 mils/yr). refrigeration brine with and without inhibitors.
10 50 max 2 max Anhydrous NH3. Copper and its alloys are Neutral saline solutions can be successfully han-
30 500–1250 20–50
50 500–1250 20–50
suitable for handling anhydrous NH3 if the NH3 dled by copper alloys. Consequently, these alloys
100 50 max 2 max remains anhydrous and is not contaminated with are used in heat-exchanger and condenser equip-
C71000
water and oxygen. In one test conducted for ment exposed to seawater. Corrosion rates of cop-
5 25 max 1 max
1200 h, C11200 and C26000 each showed an per in NaCl brine are given in Table 29. These rates
average penetration of 5 m/yr (0.2 mil/yr) in are not necessarily the same as those in seawater.
C71300
contact with anhydrous NH3 at atmospheric Such alkaline salts as sodium silicate
2 40 1.6
temperature and pressure. Tests showed the rates (Na2SiO3), sodium phosphate (Na3PO4), and sodi-
of corrosion to be low in the presence of small um carbonate (Na2CO3) attack copper alloys at
Table 27 Corrosion of copper and brass amounts of water, but oxygen was probably low but different rates at room temperature. On the
in anhydrous NH3 excluded. Table 27 lists data on exposure for other hand, alkali cyanide is aggressive and
Average penetration rate(a) 1600 h. For any new installation, tests simulat- attacks copper alloys fairly rapidly because it
Liquid Vapor
ing the expected conditions are recommended. forms a soluble complex copper anion. Table 30
Alloy m/yr mils/yr m/yr mils/yr
provides specific corrosion rates.
Corrosion in Salts Oxidizing salts corrode copper and copper
Anhydrous NH3
alloys rapidly; therefore, copper metals should not
C11000 2.5 0.1 2.5 0.1
C26000 2.5 0.1 2.5 0.1 Copper metals are widely used in equipment be used with oxidizing saline solutions except
for handling saline solutions of various kinds, those that are very dilute. Aqueous sodium dichro-
Anhydrous NH3 plus 1% H2O(b)
particularly those that are nearly neutral. Among mate (Na2Cr2O7) solutions can be safely handled
C11000 2.5 0.1 2.5 0.1
C26000 2.5 0.1 2.5 0.1 these are the nitrates, sulfates, and chlorides of by copper alloys, but the presence of a highly ion-
sodium and potassium. Chlorides are usually ized acid, such as H2CrO4 or H2SO4, may increase
Anhydrous NH3 plus 2% H2O(b)
more corrosive than the other salts, especially in the corrosion rate several hundred times, because
C11000 2.5 0.1 2.5 0.1
C26000 5.0 0.2 2.5 0.1 strongly agitated, aerated solutions. the dichromate acts as an oxidizing agent in acidic
solutions. In one test, a copper-nickel corroded at
(a) Atmospheric temperature and pressure of 345–1035 kPa (50–150 Table 30 Corrosion of copper alloys in 2.5 to 250 m/yr (0.1–10 mils/yr) and a copper-tin
psi) for 1600 h exposure. Specimens were placed at the top and bottom
of 2-L bombs that were charged with NH3. Pressure varied throughout
alkaline saline solutions alloy (phosphor bronze) at 5 m (0.2 mil/yr) when
the test, depending on the temperature. Water was added to two of the Corrosion rate handling an aqueous Na2Cr2O7 solution. The rate
bombs before charging with NH3. (b) Any air present was probably increased 200 to 300 times for both metals when
Alloy family Common name m/yr mils/yr
depleted rapidly during initial stages of test.
Na2SiO3, Na3PO4, or Na2CO3 H2CrO4 was added to the solution. In solutions
Copper-zinc Brasses 50–125 2–5 containing Fe3, mercuric (Hg2), or stannic
Table 28 Corrosion of C11000 in 30% Copper-tin Phosphor bronzes 50 2 (Sn4) ions, a copper-nickel showed a corrosion
CaCl2 refrigeration brine Copper-nickel Copper nickels 2.5–40 0.1–1.5 rate of 27.4 mm/yr (1080 mils/yr), while copper-
Corrosion rate NaCN zinc and copper-tin alloys showed a still greater
Inhibitor m/yr mils/yr Copper-zinc Brasses 250–500 10–20 rate of 228 mm/yr (8980 mils/yr).
Copper-tin Phosphor bronzes 875 35 Salts of metals more noble than copper, such
None(a) 10 0.4 Copper-nickel Copper nickels 500–2500 20–100
K2Cr2O7(b) 6 0.23 as the nitrates of mercury and silver, corrode cop-
Aluminum foil(c) 119 4.7
Table 31 Corrosion of copper alloys in amine system service
(a) Exposed for 325 days at –12 ˚C (10 ˚F). (b) Exposed for 372 days,
cold. (c) Exposed for 50 days with slight agitation in brine with a pH of 9 Average penetration rate
Alloy Exposure time, h Test conditions m/yr mils/yr
C11000 1622 Coupons exposed in ethylenediamine refining still nil–180 nil–7

Table 29 Corrosion of C11000 in a NaCl C11000 1580 Aqueous ethylenediamine 25 1
brine refrigeration system C71500 1580 Same as above 75 3
C11000 806 Liquid vapor containing NH3 and mono-, di-, 760 30
Field test; 98 days at –15 ˚C (4 ˚F) and triethanolamines; 90–156 °C (195–315 °F)
Corrosion rate C65500 806 Same as above 790 31.2
C11000 1437 Liquid vapor containing NH3 and mono-, di-, 28 1.1
Location in equipment m/yr mils/yr
and triethanolamines; 180–195 °C (355–385 °F)
With Na2Cr2O7 inhibitor; pH 6.0 to 6.5 C65500 1437 Same as above 48 1.9
Brine tank for near main outlet 5 0.2 C11000 2622 Vapor phase of diethanolamine still containing mono-, di-, 28 1.1
Top of brine pump, high agitation 10 0.4 and triethanolamines; 180–195 °C (355–385 °F)
Inside cooler tube 15 0.6 C26000 887 Denuded monoethanolamine (20%) CO2 nil nil
Return line to storage tank 2.5 0.1 C26000 168 20% monoethanolamine (4 mol CO2 per mol MEA); 4550 179
Brine tank near agitator 2.5 0.1 coupled to 60 °C (140 °F)
carbon steel
Without inhibitor; pH 10.5 C44200 900 Lean solution of diethanolamine containing impurities 50 2
Open brine tank 160 6.3 C26000 1440 Rich solution of monoethanolamine 330 13
Brine cooler outlet, rapid flow 360 14.2 C11000 1440 Same as above Dissolved Dissolved
Cooler inlet 157 6.2 C26000 1440 Lean solution of monoethanolamine 3,000 118
Cooler outlet 250 9.8 C11000 1440 Same as above 11,500 454
per alloys rapidly, simultaneously plating out the Beer. Copper is extensively used in the brew- a 30-year period. Brazing with BAg (copper-sil-
noble metal on the copper surface. Temperature ing of beer. In one installation, the wall thick- ver) filler metals eliminates the possibility that
and acidity influence the rate of attack. A film of ness of copper kettles thinned from an original the alkaline compounds used for cleaning cop-
mercury on high-zinc brass (more than 15% Zn) thickness of 16 mm ( 58 in.) to 10 mm ( 38 in.) in per equipment will destroy joints by attacking
may cause intergranular cracking by liquid metal
embrittlement (LME) if the alloy is under tensile Table 32 Corrosion of copper alloys in ester solutions
stress, either residual or applied. Average penetration rate
Exposure
Alloy time, h Test conditions m/yr mils/yr
Corrosion in Organic Compounds Acetates
C11000 400 Alkenyl acetate plus H2SO4 6100 240
Copper and many of its alloys resist corrosive C65500 400 Same as above 3050 120
attack by most organic solvents and by organic 257 Allylidene diacetate; 110 °C (230 °F) 183–213 7.2–8.4
compounds, such as amines, alkanolamines, esters, C11000 240 Butyl acetate plus 1% H2SO4 1625–4090 64–161
glycols, ethers, ketones, alcohols, aldehydes, naph- C65500 240 Same as above 2870 113
C11000 2328 2-chloroallylidene diacetate 5 0.2
tha, and gasoline. Although the corrosion rates of C11000 250 Crude vinyl acetate; 110–150 °C (230–300 °F) 25 1.0
copper and copper alloys in pure alkanolamines C71500 250 Same as above 7.5–125 0.3–5
and amines are low, they can be significantly C11000 550 Ethyl acetate plus 1.0% H2SO4 483 19
increased if these compounds are contaminated C65500 550 Same as above 400 16
C11000 991 Ethyl acetate reaction mixture; liquid; 90 °C (195 °F) 550 21.6
with water, acids, alkalies, salts, or combinations C62300 991 Same as above 395 15.6
of these impurities, particularly at high tempera- C65500 991 Same as above 518 20.4
tures. Tables 31 to 37 list the results of corrosion C11000 991 Ethyl acetate reaction mixture; vapor; 90 °C (195 °F) 5 0.2
testing of copper and a limited but representative C62300 991 Same as above 15 0.6
C65500 991 Same as above 13 0.5
variety of copper alloys in contact with various C11000 2976 Ethyl acetoacetate 10 0.4
organic compounds under many conditions. C65500
Gasoline, naphtha, and other related hydrocar- Cold-worked 216 Isopropyl acetate 6700 264
bons in pure form will not attack copper or any of Annealed 216 Isopropyl acetate 6100 240
480 Isopropyl acetate process; liquid; 120 °C (250 °F) 300 12
the copper alloys. However, in the manufacture of C11000 519 Methylamyl acetate process; batch sill coils; 115 °C (240 °F) 500–685 22–27
hydrocarbon materials, process streams are likely C65500 519 Same as above 280–300 11–12
to be contaminated with one or more of such sub- C11000 519 Methylamyl acetate process; batch still down pipe; 115 °C (240 °F) 330 13
stances as water, sulfides, acids, and various organ- C65500 51 Same as above 300 12
C11000 1345 Methylamyl acetate process; batch still condenser; 30 °C (85 °F) 840–940 33–37
ic compounds. These contaminants attack copper C65500 1345 Same as above 1400–1575 55–62
and its alloys. Corrosion rates for C44300 and C63600 3312 Methylamyl acetate process; batch still coils; 95 °C (205 °F) 483 19
C71500 exposed to gasoline are low (Table 38), C51000 3312 Same as above 430–483 17–19
and these two alloys are successfully used in equip- C60800 3312 Same as above 330 13
C51000 3312 Methylamyl acetate process; batch still downpipe; 95 °C (205 °F) 380–483 15–19
ment for refining gasoline. Table 39 lists corrosion C63600 3312 Same as above 400–460 16–18
rates for copper and for alloys exposed to contam- C60800 3312 Same as above 280 11
inated naphtha in two different environments. C11000 217 Refined isopropenylacetate; 98 °C (210 °F) 60 2.4
Creosote. Copper and copper alloys are gener- 2784 Vinyl acetate, inhibited 2.5 0.1
C11000 250 Vinyl acetate, process; 150–190 °C (300–375 °F) 355–400 14–16
ally suitable for use with creosote, although cre- C71500 250 Same as above 685–1250 27–49
osote attacks some high-zinc brasses. Alloys C11000 768 Vinyl acetate process; batch still kettle 685–1170 27–46
C11000, C23000, C26000, C51000, and C65500 C65500 768 Same as above 150–483 6–19
typically corrode at rates less than 500 m/yr (20 C11000 864 Same as above 2290–3500 90–138
C65500 864 Same as above 660–2160 26–85
mils/yr) when exposed to creosote at 25 °C (75 °F).
Linseed Oil. Copper and its alloys are fairly Acrylates
resistant to corrosion by linseed oil. All of the C11000 240 Acidified sodium acrylate containing 5% H2SO4; 49 °C (120 °F) 945 37.2
254 Ethyl acrylate process; 130–150 °C (265–300 °F) 1220 48
alloys show some attack, but none exhibits cor- C65500 254 Same as above 430 16.8
rosion severe enough to make it unsuitable for C11000 240 Isopropyl ether solution of acrylic acid (18%); 49 °C (120 °F) 18 0.7
this application. Alloys C11000, C51000, and 240 Sodium acrylate solution containing 1% NaOH; 49 °C (120 °F) 5 0.2
C65000 showed corrosion rates less than 500 240 Washings from isopropyl ether solution of acrylic acid; 49 °C (120 °F) 210 8.3
240 Wet calcium acrylate 240 9.4
m/yr (20 mils/yr) in linseed oil at 25 °C 504 2-ethylhexylacrylate process, 95 °C (205 °F) 230–275 9.0–10.8
(75 °F). Alloy C26000 had a rate of 500 to 1250 C65500 504 Same as above 220–275 8.6–10.8
m/yr (20 to 50 mils/yr). C11000 566 2-ethylhexyl acrylate process; condensate tank; 30 °C (85 °F) 66–74 2.6–2.9
Benzol and Benzene. Alloys C11000, C51000 566 Same as above 60–86 2.4–3.4
C65500 566 Same as above 114–122 4.5–4.8
C23000, C26000, C51000, and C65500 tested in C11000 566 2-ethylhexyl acrylate process; 120 °C (250 °F) 236–239 9.3–9.4
these materials at 25 °C (75 °F) had corrosion C51000 566 Same as above 264 10.4
rates under 500 m/yr (20 mils/yr). C65500 566 Same as above 328–360 12.9–14.2
Sugar. Copper is successfully used for vacu-
um-pan heating coils, evaporators, and juice Benzoates
extractors in the manufacture of both cane and C11000 1680 Butyl benzoate nil nil
beet sugar. Inhibited admiralty metals, alu- 1296 Butyl benzoate process; circulating line; 40 °C (100 °F) 800–1025 31.4–40.4
C60800 1296 Same as above 1060 41.8
minum brass, aluminum bronzes, and copper C65500 1296 Same as above 843–1090 33.2–42.8
nickels are also used for tubes in juice heaters C23000 1296 Same as above 790–1085 31.2–42.7
and evaporators. Bimetal tubes of copper and C22000 1296 Same as above 900–985 35.6–38.8
steel have been used by manufacturers of beet C11000 1296 Butyl benzoate process; 40 °C (100 °F) 280 11.1
C65500 1296 Same as above 350–400 13.7–15.7
sugar to counteract SCC of copper tubes caused C11000 1296 Butyl benzoate process; batch still kettle; 185 °C (365 °F) 7.5–38 0.3–1.5
by NH3 from beets grown in fertilized soil. Table C65500 1296 Same as above 7.5–25 0.3–1.0
40 lists the results of tests conducted on copper C11000 1680 Methyl benzoate (refined) 2.5 0.1
and copper alloys in a beet-sugar refinery. C11000 1680 Methyl benzoate (copper-free) 7.5 0.3
tin-lead solders. Steam coils require more fre- good corrosion resistance, but C23000 (85Cu- when moisture is present. The rate of reaction
quent replacement than any other component in 15Zn) was completely destroyed. depends on the amount of moisture. Because
brewery equipment. They have service lives of Inhibited admiralty metals are also excellent some alloy steels are attacked by CO, the high-
15 to 20 years. The service lives of other copper alloys for use in heat exchangers and condensers pressure equipment used to handle this gas is
items exposed to process streams in a brewery that handle sulfur-bearing petroleum products often lined with copper or copper alloys.
range from 30 to 40 years. and use water as the coolant. Alloys C44300, Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). Gases containing SO2
Sulfur compounds free to react with copper, C44400, and C44500, which are inhibited toward attack copper in a manner similar to oxygen. The
such as H2S, sodium sulfide (Na2S), or potassi- dezincification by the addition of arsenic, anti- dry gas does not corrode copper or copper
um sulfide (K2S), form CuS. Reaction rates mony, or phosphorus to the basic 70Cu-29Zn- alloys, but the moist gas reacts to produce a mix-
depend on alloy composition; the alloys of high- 1Sn composition, offer good resistance to corro- ture of oxide and sulfide scale. Table 42 lists the
est resistance are those of high zinc content. sion from sulfur as well as excellent resistance to corrosion rates of some copper alloys in hot
Strip tensile specimens of seven copper alloys the water side of the heat exchanger. paper mill vapor that contains SO2.
were exposed in a fractionating tower in which Hydrogen Sulfide. Moist H2S gas reacts with
oil containing 1.4% S was being processed. The Corrosion in Gases copper and copper-zinc alloys to form CuS.
results of this accelerated test are given in Table Alloys containing more than 20% Zn have con-
41. These data show the suitability of the high- Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide siderably better resistance than lower-zinc alloys
er-zinc alloys for use with sulfur-bearing com- (CO) in dry forms are usually inert to copper or copper. Hot, wet H2S vapors corrode C26000,
pounds. Alloy C28000 (60Cu-40Zn) showed and its alloys, but some corrosion takes place C28000, or C44300 at a rate of only 50 to 75
m/yr (2–3 mils/yr), but the rate for C11000 and
Table 33 Corrosion of copper alloys in ethers C23000 under the same conditions is 1250 to
Average penetration rate 1625 m/yr (50–65 mils/yr).
Alloy Exposure time, h Test conditions m/yr mils/yr Halogen Gases. When they are dry, fluorine,
C11000 2784 -methylbenzyl ether, N2 atmosphere 2.5 max 0.1 max chlorine, bromine, and their hydrogen com-
C11000 2784 -methylbenzyl ether, air atmosphere 2.5 max 0.1 max pounds are not corrosive to copper and its alloys.
C11000 288 Recovered butyl ether nil nil However, they are aggressive when moisture is
C65500 288 Same as above 2.5 0.1 present. The corrosion rates of copper metals in
C11000 94 Dichloro ethyl ether residues, 80 °C (175 °F) 183–915 7.2–36
C65500 94 Same as above 61–245 2.4–9.6 wet hydrogen compounds are comparable to
C11000 71 Crude dichloro ethyl ether, 80 °C (175 °F) 2130–3050 84–120 those given for HF and HCI in Tables 17 and 18.
C65500 71 Same as above 1220–3050 48–120 Hydrogen. Copper and its alloys are not sus-
C11000 70 Dichloro ethyl ether, 80 °C (175 °F) 150 6 ceptible to attack by hydrogen unless they contain
C65500 70 Same as above 120 4.8
C11000 70 Dichloro ethyl ether, 100 °C (212 °F) 610 24 copper oxide. Tough pitch coppers, such as
C65500 70 Same as above 245 9.6 C11000, contain small quantities of Cu2O.
C11000 70 Dichloro ethyl ether, boiling 183 7.2 Deoxidized coppers with low residual deoxidizer
C65500 70 Same as above 213 8.4 contents—C12000, for example—may contain
Cu2O, but will contain less than the tough pitch
Table 34 Corrosion of copper alloys in ketones
coppers. These deoxidized coppers are not
Average penetration rate immune to hydrogen embrittlement. Deoxidized
Alloy Exposure time, h Test conditions m/yr mils/yr coppers with high residual deoxidizer contents,
C11000 138 Phenylxylol ketone mixture 41–43 1.6–1.7 however, are not susceptible to hydrogen embrit-
C65500 138 Same as above 76 3.0 tlement, because the oxygen is tied up in complex
C11000 163 Pentanedione mixture 46–91 1.8–3.6
C65500 163 Same as above 33–84 1.3–3.3
oxides that do not react appreciably with hydrogen.
C12000 43 Diethyl ketone, 30 °C (86 °F) nil nil When oxygen-bearing copper is heated in
C12000 42 Diethyl ketone, boiling nil–7.6 nil–0.3 hydrogen or hydrogen-bearing gases, the hydro-
C12000 43 Methyl n-propyl ketone, 30 °C (85 °F) nil nil gen diffuses into the metal and reacts with the
C12000 42 Methyl n-propyl ketone, boiling nil nil
C11000 216 Methylamyl ketone, boiling 2.5 0.1
oxide to form water, which is converted to high-
C11000 353 Methyl ethyl ketone, boiling 12.7 0.5 pressure steam if the temperature is above
C11000 409 Phenylxylol ketone containing NaOH 457–518 18–20.4 375 °C (705 °F). The steam produces fissures,
C65500 409 Same as above 701–823 27.6–32.4 which decrease the ductility of the metal. This
C11000 165 Acetone dispersion of cellulose acetate, 56 °C (135 °F) 10.2 0.4
C26000 165 Same as above 5.1 0.2
condition is generally known as hydrogen
embrittlement. Any degree of embrittlement can
Table 35 Corrosion of copper alloys in aldehydes lead to catastrophic failure and therefore should
be avoided; there is no safe depth of attack.
Average penetration rate
Figure 29 shows the depth of damage, or
m/yr
Alloy Exposure time, h Test conditions mils/yr
embrittlement, of C11000 after it has been heat-
C11000 49 Boiling 2-ethylbutyraldehyde 33 1.3
C11000 112 Boiling butyraldehyde 33 1.3
C11000 1752 2-hydroxyadipaldehyde 20–23 0.8–0.9
C11000 168 Diethyl acetal mixture, 45 °C (115 °F) 60–120 2.4–4.8
C65500 168 Same as above 90–150 3.6–6.0
C26000 168 Same as above 90–150 3.6–6.0
C11000 70 2–ethyl–3–propylacrolein, 98 °C (210 °F) 33 1.3
C11000 168 Diacetoxybutyraldehyde, 160 °C (320 °F) 230–240 9.0–9.4
C65500 168 Same as above 75 3.0
C51000 168 Same as above 18–20 0.7–0.8
C11000 540 Propionaldehyde 1420–1550 56.0–61.0
C11000 216 Propionaldehyde, 190 °C (375 °F) 610–1220 24.0–48.0
C11000 443 Butyladehyde 310 12.2
C51000 443 Same as above 360 14.2
C11000 2374 Same as above 165 6.5
C65500 2374 Same as above 20 0.8
C51000 2374 Same as above 10 0.4 Fig. 29 Hydrogen embrittlement of tough pitch coppers
heated in pure hydrogen at 600 °C (1100 °F)
ed in hydrogen at about 600 °C (1100 °F) for SCC of Copper Alloys in narrow range of pH values or a narrow range of
varying times. The reaction is especially impor- Specific Environments potentials. In many cases, the experimental data
tant when oxygen-containing copper is bright are limited to a single alloy, and it is not known
annealed in reducing atmospheres containing Properly selected copper alloys possess excel- if the environment is generally deleterious to
relatively small amounts of hydrogen (1–1.5%). lent resistance to SCC in many industrial and many copper alloys or to a restricted group of
Annealing of tough pitch coppers in such atmos- chemical environments; nevertheless, cracking alloys. Data are summarized below for environ-
pheres at temperatures much above 475 °C has been identified in a significant number of ments in which cracking has been recognized.
(900 °F) may lead to severe embrittlement, espe- environments. In some cases, the conditions for Additional information is available in the refer-
cially when annealing times are long. In fact, cracking are very limited and exist only within a ences cited in this section and in the article
tough pitch coppers should not be exposed to
hydrogen at any temperature if they will subse- Table 36 Corrosion of copper alloys in ethylene glycol solutions
quently be exposed to temperatures above Average penetration rate
370 °C (700 °F). Alloy Exposure time, h Test conditions m/yr mils/yr
When tough pitch coppers are welded or C11000 1344 Triethylene glycol solution, aerated; room temperature nil nil
brazed, the possibility of hydrogen embrittle- C11000 2560 Triethylene glycol air-conditioning system; 175 °C (345 °F) 40 1.6
ment must be anticipated, and hydrogen atmos- C26000 2560 Same as above 50 2.0
pheres must not be used. Where copper must be C11000 3320 Same as above 10 0.4
C26000 3320 Same as above 15 0.6
heated in hydrogen atmospheres, an oxygen-free C11000 8328 Same as above 25 1.0
copper or deoxidized copper with high residual C26000 8328 Same as above 35 1.4
deoxidizer content should be selected. No C11000 2880 Triethylene glycol air-conditioning system(a); 160 °C (320 °F) 7.5 0.3
hydrogen embrittlement problems have been C26000 2880 Same as above 7.5 0.3
C11000 5760 Same as above 2.5 0.1
encountered with these materials. C26000 5760 Same as above 2.5 0.1
Dry Oxygen. Copper and copper alloy tubing C51000 2880 Ethylene glycol solution(b) plus 0.03% H2SO4; 99 °C (210 °F) 7.5–10 0.3–0.4
is used to convey oxygen at room temperature, as C60800 2880 Same as above 2.5–7.5 0.1–0.3
in hospital oxygen service systems. When heated C63000 2880 Same as above 2.5–1 0.1–0.7
C65500 2880 Same as above 20–25 0.8–1.0
in air, copper develops a Cu2O film that exhibits C11000 2400 Ethylene glycol solution(b) plus 0.03–0.05% H2SO4; 580 23
a series of interference tints (temper colors) as it second run; 99 °C (210 °F)
increases in thickness. The colors associated with C61800 2400 Same as above 380 15
different oxide film thicknesses are: C70600 2400 Same as above 480 19
C71500 2400 Same as above 460 18
C11000 305 Glycol maleate, 79 °C (175 °F) 20 0.8
Color Film thickness, nm
(a) 87–95% glycol. (b) 15% glycol, 85% H2O
Dark brown 37–38
Very dark purple 45–46
Violet 48
Dark blue 50–52
Table 37 Corrosion of copper alloys in alcohols
Yellow 94–98 Average penetration rate
Orange 112–120 Alloy Exposure time, h Test conditions m/yr mils/yr
Red 124–126
C11000 503 Crude C-5 alcohols; 126–140 °C (260–285 °F) 7.5 0.3
C11000 210 Crude decyl alcohol; 175 ˚C (345 ˚F) 3–5 0.1–0.2
Black cupric oxide (CuO) forms over the Cu2O C11000 288 Primary decyl alcohol; 175 ˚C 15–45 0.6–1.8
C65500 288 Same as above 20–60 0.8–2.4
layer as the film thickness increases above the C44400 8160 Isopropanol and water; 118–145 °C (245–295 °F) 10–38 0.4–1.5
interference color range. C23000 8160 Same as above 10–56 0.4–2.2
Scaling results when copper is used at high C11000 8160 Same as above 8–75 0.3–3.0
temperatures in air or oxygen. At low tempera- C65500 8160 Same as above 10–63 0.4–2.5
C11000 264 Allyl alcohol; refluxed at 88 °C (190 °F) 25 1
tures (up to 100 °C, or 212 °F), the oxide film C11000 94 Methanol; boiling nil nil
increases in thickness logarithmically with time. C11000 46 Denaturing grade ethanol; boiling 25 1
Scaling rate increases irregularly with further C23000 165 2-ethyl–2-butyl–1,3 propanediol; 45 °C (115 °F) 5 0.2
increases in temperature and rises rapidly with
pressure up to 1.6 kPa (12 torr). Above 20 kPa Table 38 Corrosion of C44300 and C71500 exposed to gasoline in a refinery
(150 torr) the rate of increase is steady. Beyond Temperature Average penetration rate
the interference color range, the growth rate of Service condition(a) °C °F m/yr mils/yr
the oxide film is approximately defined by:
C44300
Straight-run (untreated)
W 2 kt (Eq 3) Tower liquid(b) 121 250 1270 min 50 min
Storage(c) 4–27 40–80 63 2.5
where W is weight gain (or increase in equiva- Distilled tops from straight-run gasoline(d) 35 95 1270 50
Cracked gasoline (top tray in tower)(e) 204 400 15 0.6
lent thickness) per unit area, t is time, and k is a Sweet gasoline vapor(f) 177 350 7.5 0.3
constant of proportionality. Values for k are
C71500
given in Table 43. Different investigators report
Straight-run (untreated)
different oxidation rates, but those given in Ref Tower liquid(b) 121 250 180 7
58 appear to be reliable. Storage(c) 4–27 40–80 180 7
Low concentrations of lead, oxygen, zinc, Distilled tops from straight-run gasoline(d) 35 95 1140 45
nickel, and phosphorus in copper have little Cracked gasoline (top tray in tower)(e) 204 400 200 8
Sweet gasoline vapor(f) 177 350 10 0.4
influence on oxidation rate. Silicon, magne- Aviation gasoline (top of column) 121 250 2.5 0.1
sium, beryllium, and aluminum form very thin
insulating (nonconductive) oxide films on (a) Gasoline or related hydrocarbons will not attack copper or its alloys. Attack depends on the type and amount of impurities in the gasoline, such
copper, which protect the metal surface and as water, sulfides, mercaptans, aliphatic acids, naphthenic acids, phenols, nitrogen bases, and dissolved gases. (b) 100 lb of H2S present per 1000 bbl
of gasoline. (c) 0.02–0.03 g H2S per liter of gasoline. (d) pH controlled by NH3 and HCl present. (f) Vacuum operation
retard oxidation.
“Stress-Corrosion Cracking” in this Handbook; most likely cause of the cracking was an amine • Visible corrosion is frequently associated
they should be consulted when selecting a cop- used as a water treatment chemical (Ref 62). with the effect, but the corrosion may often
per alloy for a specific application. Ammonia. All copper-base alloys can be be superficial.
Acetate Solution. Pure copper wire stressed made to crack in NH3 vapor, NH3 solutions, • Lacquer coatings do not offer complete pro-
beyond the yield strength was observed to crack ammonium ion (NH 4) solutions, and environ- tection against SCC.
in 0.05 N cupric acetate (Cu(C2H3O2)2) (Ref ments in which NH3 is a reaction product. The • Sufficient and continuous coatings of a metal,
59). Alloy C26000 is susceptible to cracking in rate at which cracks develop is critically depend- such as nickel, confer complete protection.
the same solution, and the cracking rate under ent on many variables, including stress level, • Highly stressed articles may be kept for years
slow strain rate conditions is a function of both specific alloy, oxygen concentration in the liq- in a clean air atmosphere without developing
pH and applied potential (Ref 60). uid, pH, NH3 or NH 4 concentration, copper ion cracks.
Amines. Alloy C26000 is susceptible to concentration, and potential. • Ammonia and ammonium NH 4 salts induce
cracking in solutions of methyl amine, ethyl Early work on the stress corrosion of brass in cracking.
amine, and butyl amine when dissolved copper NH3 provided the following summary of find- • Surface defects localize stresses do not
is present in the solution (Ref 61). Susceptibility ings (Ref 63): appear to contribute to the development of
is a maximum at a potential approximately cracks in the absence of an essential corrod-
• Stress-corrosion cracking occurs in a great
50 mV anodic from the rest potential. Tubing ing agent, such as NH3.
variety of brasses that differ widely in compo-
fabricated from C68700 exhibited cracks from • Severe corrosion and pitting do not of them-
sition, degree of purity, and microstructure.
the steam side of a condenser system after selves lead to cracking.
3048 h of service in a desalination plant. The • Cracking occurs only in objects that are sub-
jected to external or internal stresses. • Cracks often follow an intercrystalline path.
• Traces of NH3 in the environment are an
Table 39 Corrosion of copper alloys in important agent in inducing SCC in atmos-
contaminated naphtha pheric exposure.
Table 40 Corrosion of copper alloys in
Corrosion rate beet-sugar solution • Ammonia has a specific and selective action on
Alloy m/yr mils/yr the material in the grain boundaries of brass.
Decrease in tensile strength,
At 21 °C (70 °F)(a) %, for test rack number(a) • Cracking always begins in surface layers that
C23000 230 9 Alloy 1 2 3 4 are under tension.
C46400 50 2
C11000 0 4.0 3.5 0 • The behavior of copper alloy subjected to the
C28000 75 3
C44300 2.0 9.5 11.5 2.5 combined effect of tensile stress and NH3 is
C44200 200 8
C11000 1270 50
C44400 0 3.0 6.0 0 an index of susceptibility to SCC.
At 177 °C (350 °F)(b)
C44500
C71000
4.5
1.0
9.0
4.5
12.5
7.0
5.5
0
• Susceptibility to SCC diminished as the cop-
per content of the brass is increased.
C23000 2030 80 C71500 0 5.0 8.0 0
C46400 10 0.4 • Protracted heating of 70Cu-30Zn brass at
C28000 10 0.4 (a) Corrosion specimens (0.8 mm, or 0.032 in., thick strips) were 100 °C (212 °F) does not develop cracks and
C44200 200 8 exposed in contact with beet-sugar solution for 100 days in normal does not reduce the internal stress appreciably.
refinery operations. Test racks 1 and 4 were at the finishing pan con-
(a) The naphtha contained H2S, H2O, and HCl. (b) The naphtha containing Steffen’s filtrate; rack 2 was in the first-effect thin-juice evapo-
tained H2S, mercaptans, and naphthenic acids. rator; rack 3 was at the third body of the triple-effect evaporator. Table 44 provides a ranking of various copper
alloys according to their relative SCC suscepti-
bility in NH3 environments.
Table 41 Corrosion of selected copper alloys in cracked oil containing 1.4% S Atmosphere. Many natural environments
Loss in tensile strength(a),% contain pollutants that, in the presence of mois-
360 °C 315 °C 285 °C 255 °C ture, may cause stress-corrosion problems (Ref
Alloy type UNS No. Exposure time, days (680 °F) (600 °F) (545 °F) (490 °F)
64). Sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, and
Red brass, 85% C23000 27 100(b) 100(c) 100 100 NH3 are known to induce SCC of some copper
Muntz metal C28000 27 12(b) 7.5(d) 1 1.5
Naval brass C46400 24 … 1.5 0 2
alloys Chlorides may also cause problems.
Uninhibited admiralty metal … 27 13(b) 6(c) 3 2 Atmospheric-exposure test data are summa-
Antimonial admiralty metal C44400 27 16.5(b) 6(c) 4 2.5 rized in Table 45. In these tests, 150 by 13 mm
Aluminum brass … 24 … 7 16 10 (6 by 12 in.) U-bend samples were stressed in
Copper nickel, 30% C71500 24 … 100 100 57
Silicon bronze, 3% … 34 … 100 100 100
Table 44 Relative susceptibility to SCC of
(a) Specimens 0.8 13 mm (0.032 0.50 in.) in cross section were exposed at different locations within a high-pressure fractionating column, each some copper alloys in NH3
location having a characteristic average temperature. (b) 115-day exposure. (c) 26-day exposure. (d) Length of exposure unavailable
Alloy Susceptibility index(a)
C26000 1000
Table 42 Corrosion of copper alloys in C35300 1000
hot paper mill vapor containing SO2 C76200 300
Table 43 Values of rate constant for oxide C23000 200
Temperature 200–220 °C (390–430 °F); atmosphere, C77000 175
growth on unalloyed copper C66400 100
17–18% SO2 plus 1–2% O2; test duration, mainly 30
days, but some longer Temperature Rate constant k(a) C68800 75
°C °F Pure O2 Air
C63800 50
Weight loss, C75200 40
Alloy type UNS No. g/m2/d 400 750 4.4 10-8 … C51000 20
Bronze (90Cu-10Sn) … 22.0 500 950 4.4 10–7 … C11000 0
Aluminum bronze C61800 26.4 600 1100 3.24 10–6 … C15100 0
Phosphor bronze C51100 28.6 700 1300 1.6 10–5 8.03 10–6 C19400 0
Nickel silver, 75–20 C73200 35.6 800 1475 8.69 10–5 7.97 10–5 C65400 0
Phosphor bronze, 8% C C52100 39.4 900 1650 3.49 10–4 3.36 10–4 C70600 0
Silicon bronze C65800 50.2 950 1750 7.30 10–4 … C71500 0
Nickel silver, 55–18 C77000 63.8 1000 1850 1.78 10–3 1.35 10–3 C72200 0
Nickel silver, 65–18 C75200 67.4
Nickel bronze … 70.5 (a) For calculation of weight gain in g/m2 from Eq 3 when time is meas- (a) 0, essentially immune to SCC under normal service conditions;
(88.5 Cu-5Sn-5Ni-1.5Si) ured in seconds 1000, highly susceptible to SCC as typified by C26000
the long-transverse direction. The bend was bend test specimens exhibited intergranular ly under a 6 g load and a positive potential in
produced by bending around a 19 mm ( 34 in.) cracking (Ref 69). telephone equipment were observed to undergo
diam mandrel, and the legs of each specimen Formate Solutions. Brass is susceptible to SCC within two years (Ref 70). Laboratory tests
were held in nonconductive jigs during the test. SCC in sodium formate (NaCHO2) solutions at suggested that nitrate salts were the cause. The
The stress on the specimens was not deter- pHs exceeding 11 over a considerable range of phenomenon was duplicated in the laboratory by
mined. The stressed specimens were exposed in applied potentials (Ref 60). exposing the wires to such nitrate salts as zinc
two industrial locations in New Haven, CT, and Hydroxide Solutions. Brass exhibits nitrate (Zn(NO3)2), ammonium nitrate
Brooklyn, NY, and in one marine location at increased crack growth rates under slow strain (NH4NO3), calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2), and
Daytona Beach, FL. rate conditions when it is exposed to NaOH at cupric nitrate (Cu(NO3)2) at high humidity; a
Chlorate Solutions. Brass was observed to pHs of 12 and 13. The rate of crack growth is a potential was applied such that the wires were
crack intergranularly and transgranularly when function of the applied potential (Ref 60). anodic to the normal corrosion potential. The
immersed in 0.1 to 5 M sodium chlorate Mercury and Mercury Salt Solutions. wires were tested under a constant load of 386
(NaClO3) solutions at pHs from 3.5 to 9.5 when Stressed alloys and alloys with internal stress MPa (56 ksi). Cracking also occurred in the
subjected to slow straining (Ref 66). Crack crack readily when exposed to metallic mercury absence of an applied potential when the nitrate
velocities in 1 N NaClO3 at pH 6.5 were 107 or mercury salt solutions that deposit mercury concentration of the surface was high. Cracking
m/s at a crosshead speed of 104 cm/min (4 on the surface of the alloy. This high sensitivity did not occur in the presence of (NH4)2SO4 and
105 in./min) and 106 m/s at a crosshead speed to mercury is the basis of an industry test for the ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) salts. Wires of Cu-
of 103 cm/min (4 104 in./min). detection of internal stresses in which the alloy 20Ni did not crack under similar conditions.
Chloride Solutions. The service lives of cop- is immersed in a solution of mercurous nitrate. Nitrite Solutions. Copper, 99.9 and 99.996%
per alloys under cyclic stress are shorter in chlo- Cracking in mercury is the result of LME, not pure, exhibited transgranular cracking when sub-
ride solutions than in air. Slow strain rate exper- stress corrosion. It does not indicate the SCC jected to a strain rate of 106 s1 while immersed
iments have also shown that C26000 (Ref 67) susceptibility of an alloy. in 1 M sodium nitrite (NaNO2) at a pH of 8.2
and C44300 (Ref 68) have lower fracture stress- Nitrate Solutions. Transgranular cracking (Ref 71). The 99.9% Cu tested in solution
es in NaCl solutions when the metal is anodical- was observed on C44300 specimens immersed showed an ultimate tensile strength of 160 MPa
ly polarized. The changes in fracture stress are in naturally aerated 1 N sodium nitrate (NaNO3) (23 ksi) and 25% elongation, as opposed to the
insignificant relative to those in air in the at pH 8 and a potential of 0.15 V versus standard 196 MPa (28.5 ksi) and 55% elongation obtained
absence of an applied potential. hydrogen electrode (SHE). The fracture stress in air. Cracking in 1 M NaNO2 was also observed
Citrate Solutions. Alloy C72000 is sensitive relative to air was 0.34 (Ref 68). in C26000, admiralty brasses, and C70600.
to cracking in citrate solutions containing dis- Copper alloy (Cu-23Zn-12Ni) wires measur- Solder. In one investigation of the suscepti-
solved copper in the pH range of 7 to 11. The U- ing 0.6 mm (0.023 in.) in diameter and normal- bility to cracking of copper alloys by various
Table 45 SCC of wrought copper alloys in three atmospheres

Time to failure, years Crack morphology(a)
UNS No. Temper, % cold rolled New Haven, CT Brooklyn, NY Daytona Beach, FL New Haven, CT Brooklyn, NY Daytona Beach, FL
C11000 37 NF(b) 8.5 NF, 8.5 NF, 8.8 … … …

C19400 37 NF, 8.5 NF, 8.5 NF, 8.8 … … …
C19500 90 NF, 3.2 NF, 3.1 NF, 3.1 … … …
C23000 40 NF, 8.5 NF, 8.5 NF, 8.8 … … …
C26000 50 35–47 days 0–23 days NF, 2.7 I I …
C35300 50 51–136 days 70–104 days NF, 2.7 T+(I) T+(I) …
C40500 50 NF, 2.7 NT(c) NT … … …
C41100 50 NF, 2.7 NT NT … … …
C42200 37 NF, 8.5 NF, 8.5 NF, 8.8 … … …
C42500 50 NF, 2.7 NT NT … … …
C44300 10 NF, 2.7 NF, 2.7 NF, 2.7 … … …
40 51–95 days 41–70 days NF, 2.7 T T …
40% ordered(d) 51–67 days 33–49 days NF, 2.7 T T …
C51000 37 NF, 8.5 NF, 8.5 NF, 8.8 … … …
C52100 37 NF, 5.7 NF, 5.7 NF, 5.7 … … …
C61900 40%, 9% phase(e) NF, 8.5 NF, 8.5 NF, 8.8 … … …
40%, 95% phase NF, 8.5 NF, 8.5 NF, 8.8 … … …
C63800 50 NF, 5.7 NF, 5.7 NF, 5.7 … … …
C67200 annealed 0-30 days 0–134 days NF, 3.1 I I …
50 0-30 days 0–22 days 18–40 days I I I
C68700 10 517–540 days 2.3–NF 2.7 NF, 2.7 T T …
40 221–495 days 311–362 days NF, 2.7 T T …
40% ordered(d) 216–286 days 143–297 days NF, 2.7 T T …
C68800 10 NF, 2.7 NF, 2.7 NF, 2.7 … … …
40 4.7-NF 6.4 2.7-NF 6.4 NF, 6.4 T T …
40% ordered(d) NF, 2.7 NF, 2.7 NF, 2.7 … … …
C70600 50 NF, 2.2 NF, 2.3 NF, 2.2 … … …
C72500 40 NF, 2.2 NF, 2.3 NF, 2.2 … … …
C75200 annealed NF, 3.2 NF, 3.1 NF, 3.1 … … …
25 NF, 3.2 NF, 3.1 NF, 3.1 … … …
50 NF, 3.2 NF, 3.1 NF, 3.1 … … …
C76200 annealed 171–NF 3.2 672–NF 3.1 NF, 3.1 T T …
25 142–173 days 236–282 days NF, 3.1 T T …
50 142–270 days 236–282 days NF, 3.1 T T …
C76600 38 127–966 days 197–216 days 754-NF 8.8 T T T
C77000 annealed 731–1003 days 37–515 days NF, 3.1 T T …
38 137–490 days 196–518 days 596–1234 days T T T
50 153–337 days 489–540 days 692–970 days T T T
C78200 50 23–48 days 26–216 days 236–300 days T+(I) T+(I) T
(a) I, intergranular; T, transgranular. Parentheses indicate minor mode. (b) NF, no failures in time specified. (c) NT, not tested. (d) Heated at 205 °C (400 ° F) for 30 min. (e) Normal structure for this alloy. Source: Ref 65
solders, a U-shaped tube was coated with solder Service data for various copper alloys used as test methods can be found in Corrosion, Volume
at 400 °C (750 °F) and then immediately flat- condenser tubing are given in Ref 77. 13 of the ASM Handbook and in Ref 79 and 80.
tened between steel tools in a hand press (Ref Information on six different alloys used in fresh-
72). The sample was then examined for cracks. water and in seawater service is summarized in Aqueous Corrosion Testing
The data are given in Table 46. Table 47.
Sulfur Dioxide. Brass is susceptible to SCC An instance of the SCC of a Cu-7Al-2Si stud Static Corrosion Tests. Static tests are used
in moist air containing 0.05 to 0.5 vol% SO2. In from an extraction pump exposed to wet steam is to examine the corrosion behavior of copper
addition, pre-exposure of the brass to a solution discussed in Ref 78. Also in Ref 78 are examples alloys in both natural and artificial environ-
of benzotriazole inhibits the cracking (Ref 73). of SCC failures of copper alloys in marine serv- ments. For example, ASTM standard G 31,
Sulfate Solutions. Stress-corrosion cracking of ice. These include tubing, a lifeboat keel pin, “Standard Recommended Practice for
C26000 was observed in a solution of 1 N sodium brass bolts and screws, a brass propeller, a flood- Laboratory Immersion Corrosion Testing of
sulfate (Na2SO4) and 0.01 N H2SO4 when the ing valve, and aluminum bronze valve parts. Metals,” can be used to evaluate general corro-
alloy was polarized at a potential of 0.25 V versus Some of the failures were attributed to bird exc- sion, dealloying, and galvanic corrosion of cop-
SHE and subjected to a constant strain (Ref 74). reta that provided a source of NH3. per and copper alloys.
Sulfide Solutions. National Association of One specific procedure that has been applied
Corrosion Engineers (NACE) committee T-1F to copper alloys in closed-container tests is the
issued a report on the acceptability of various Protective Coatings determination of the partitioning of the major
materials for valves for production and pipeline alloying elements between the corrosion product
service (Ref 75). Bronze and other copper-base Copper metals resist corrosion in many envi- and the solution (Ref 13, 81). In this procedure,
alloys are generally not acceptable for highly ronments because they react with one or more the samples are exposed to the test solution for
stressed parts in sour service. Some nickel-cop- constituents of the environment upon initial some time period, after which the sample is
per alloys are considered satisfactory. exposure, thus forming an inert surface layer of removed and the solution filtered to remove any
Tungstate Solutions. Mild transgranular protective reaction products. In certain applica- particulate. The collected particulate is dissolved
cracking of C44300 was observed in 1 N sodium tions, the corrosion resistance of copper metals in an acidified solution and quantitatively ana-
tungstate (Na2WO4) at pH 9.4 and a corrosion may be increased by applying metallic or organ- lyzed for copper and other alloying elements of
potential of 0.080 V versus SHE. The fracture ic protective coatings. If the coating material is interest; a similar analysis is performed on the
stress relative to that in air was 0.89, and the able to resist corrosion adequately, service life filtered solution. The corrosion product is then
crack growth velocity was 2 109 m/s when a may depend on the impermeability, continuity, stripped from the copper alloy using an inhibit-
strain rate of 1.5 105 s1 was used (Ref 68). and adhesion to the basis metal of the coating. ed HCl solution and analyzed. The results indi-
Water. Several cases of the SCC of admiralty The electropotential relationship of the coating cate which alloying elements contribute to film
brass heat-exchanger tubing are documented in to the basis metal may be important, especially formation and whether the element is more
Ref 76. The environments in which such SCC with metallic coatings and at uncoated edges. prone to go into solution rather than into the
was observed included stagnant water, stagnant Tin, lead, and solder, used extensively as coat- film. In addition, the amount of copper that has
water contaminated with NH3, and water acci- ings, are ordinarily applied by hot dipping. entered solution and the amount that is actually
dentally contaminated with a nitrate. No cases Electroplating is also used. particulate that spalled off of the surface can be
were noted of SCC of the following alloys when Tin arrests corrosion caused by sulfur; it is determined. These data are of significance with
used in heat-exchanger service: C70600, most effective as a coating for copper wire and regard to heavy-metal ion contamination of
C71500, arsenical copper, C19400, and alu- cable insulated by rubber that contains sulfur. water sources.
minum bronze. Lead-coated copper is primarily used for roofing Dynamic Corrosion Tests. One of the major
applications, in which contact with flue gases or uses of copper alloy is the transport of aqueous
Table 46 Susceptibility of copper alloy other products that contain dilute H2SO4 is like- solutions; consequently, a significant number of
tubes to cracking by solder ly. Tin or lead coatings are sometimes applied to tests have been designed to examine the effects
copper intended for ordinary atmospheric expo- of dynamic conditions on the corrosion behavior
Solder applied at 400 °C (750 °F); specimens were sure, but this is done primarily for architectural of the materials in these environments. The tests,
immediately deformed and examined for cracks.
effect; the atmospheric-corrosion resistance of which range in complexity from simple recircu-
Alloy bare copper is excellent in rural, urban, marine, lating loops to jet impingement apparatus,
Solder 80Cu-20Ni 97Cu-3Zn 70Cu-30Zn and most industrial locations. examine the effects of such variables as flow
Lead Shattered Cracked Cracked Electroplated chromium is used for decora- rate, heat transfer conditions, and blockages, as
97.5Pb–2.5Ag Shattered Uncracked Cracked tion, for improvement of wear resistance, or for well as various solution conditions. Of the sys-
95Pb–5Sn Cracked Uncracked Cracked reflectivity. Because it is somewhat porous, it is tems developed, the flow loop is probably the
80Pb–20Sn Cracked Uncracked Uncracked
Grade B solder Cracked Uncracked Uncracked not effective for corrosion protection. Where most widely used test because it is easily con-
95Sn–5Sb Uncracked Uncracked Uncracked corrosion protection is important, electroplated structed, requiring only a pump, ducting, and
nickel is most often used as a protective coating valves, and can incorporate a wide variety of test
Source: Ref 72
under electroplated chromium. variables. Because of their simplicity, flow loops
Various organic coatings are applied to cop- can be constructed on-site and tapped into
per alloys to preserve a bright metallic appear- process flow systems so that the actual operating
Table 47 Experience with copper alloys in ance. These are discussed in the article “Surface environment can be used as the test environ-
condenser tubing service Engineering” in this Handbook. ment. Descriptions of test loops are available in
Medium Alloy Susceptibility to SCC Ref 24, 43, and 82 to 85.
Freshwater Admiralty brass Very susceptible Tubular samples are the most easily tested in
C70600 Resistant Corrosion Testing this system because they can be directly incor-
Arsenical copper Resistant porated into the loop. As with any other corro-
C19400 Low susceptibility
Seawater C70600 Resistant
As with other commonly used metallic mate- sion test, the tube samples must be separated by
C71500 Resistant rials, tests have been devised for determining the insulating connectors to avoid galvanic effects;
Arsenic-aluminum Susceptible resistance of copper and copper alloys to various tube union fittings of plastic or flexible plastic
brass bronze aqueous environments, atmospheric exposure, hose clamped to the tubes are generally ade-
Source: Ref 78
and SCC. Each of these are summarized in the quate. Flat samples can also be tested in flow
sections that follow. Additional information on loops by using special sample holders, such as
those described in ASTM D 2688 (Ref 86) and be mechanically tested to determine whether the consuming and tedious if continual monitoring
in Ref 24, 82, 83, and 87. mechanical properties have deteriorated with is required. An alternative is the use of a sul-
A major variable that affects the corrosion respect to a control sample. This type of testing, fide-specific ion electrode, which provides
behavior of copper alloys is solution velocity. however, is generally performed only on materi- accurate sulfide readings in substitute ocean
The effect of flow rate on copper alloys has been als that have not suffered from severe corrosion, water in much less time.
examined by placing various diameters of the which would obviously degrade the properties Another environment of interest is the fresh-
same tube material in series within a loop and of the material. water cooling tower environment typically
pumping the solution through the loop at a con- Other dynamic systems, in addition to flow found in power plant applications. A simulated
stant pump speed (Ref 83). Velocity effects have loops, have been developed primarily to evaluate cooling tower water environment has been
also been studied in a parallel flow system with the maximum flow rate that materials can with- developed based on the analysis of Ohio River
orifice size and header pressure controlled to stand before erosion-corrosion occurs (Ref 88). water for its major constituents and their con-
produce various velocities simultaneously (Ref An example of such a system is the jet impinge- centrations. The solution (Table 48) corresponds
24, 43). The effects of local velocity changes ment test (Ref 89). In this test, a high-velocity to a sixfold concentration of typical river water
and crevices, conditions that arise in power- stream of solution is sprayed onto the specimen chemistry, simulating the concentrating effect of
plant condenser tubes because of lodged debris, for some period of time, after which the depth of the cooling tower. Other cooling water solutions
have been examined by introducing artificial attack and the amount of surface area attacked have also been used (Ref 93).
blockages into tubes (Ref 82). The blockage are determined. Based on this evaluation, the rel-
reduces the cross section of the tube, increasing ative erosion-corrosion resistance of various Atmospheric Testing
local flow rate, and produces crevice corrosion materials can be ranked.
conditions where it contacts the tube. The spinning-disk test is used to define the Laboratory Testing. In a variety of applica-
Heat transfer effects have been studied by velocity that causes erosion in a material (Ref tions, such as electrical and architectural com-
running test tubes through small steam con- 89, 90), In this test, a disk of the material is ponents, the behavior of copper alloys when
densers to ovens and pumping the test solution immersed in the solution and rotated at a specif- fully immersed in solution is not relevant with
through the tubes. It should be noted that the ic rate around the disk axis perpendicular to the regard to their performance under various
conditions provided by this type of test are plane of the disk. At the conclusion of the test, atmospheric conditions. Constant humidity and
unlike those obtained when the bulk solution is the sample is examined to determine the dis- temperature chambers are used to evaluate the
heated before pumping it through the tubes. tance from the center of the disk, and therefore relative atmospheric behavior of the materials.
Heating the bulk solution may change the con- the velocity, at which erosion occurs. The design and typical test environments are
centration of components throughout the solu- One other test is used to examine the relative described in Ref 94 to 96. As with aqueous tests
tion, such as decreasing the oxygen concentra- resistance of various materials to erosion by under artificial conditions, the corrosion behav-
tion or promoting precipitation. Under heat entrained particles in solution (Ref 23). In this ior determined in these tests generally cannot be
transfer conditions, these changes may only test, silica sand of controlled size is introduced used to ensure the behavior of the material in the
occur locally, resulting in different corrosion to the solution in which L-shaped samples are actual service environment. This is the case pri-
behavior. Corrosion behavior can also be affect- mounted on the periphery of a rotating disk. marily because many variables in the service
ed by the temperature gradient that exists Although any solution can be used in these environment cannot be incorporated into the test
between the tube wall and the solution under dynamic test systems, most tests are conducted or are overlooked and because the environment
heat transfer conditions, which is much larger with seawater or freshwater. Natural waters, changes constantly. Such tests do, however, pro-
than that of a heated solution passing through a such as from the sea, rivers, or lakes, are used as vide approximate data and allow ranking of the
tube surrounded by ambient air. test solutions, but their use is generally restrict- test materials.
Loop tests are generally used to evaluate the ed by the location of the test facility. In addition, Evaluation of tested specimens involves typi-
corrosion rates of materials based on their the compositions of natural waters vary not only cal corrosion parameters, such as weight loss,
weight loss over a period of time. Test duration with location but also with time, making a stan- depth of pitting, and crevice corrosion. In addi-
depends in large measure on the aggressiveness dardized test procedure difficult. To circumvent tion, patina (oxide film formation) is evaluated
of the solution and the sample thickness. this problem for seawaters, substitute seawater with regard to color, continuity, and film tenaci-
However, for copper alloys in most aqueous (Ref 91) and a 3.4% NaCl solution have both ty. After the specimen has been cleaned, evi-
solutions, the test duration should be at least 120 been used. In general, these solutions are slight- dence of dealloying should also be sought by
days in order to ensure attainment of steady- ly more aggressive than natural seawaters; as a examination of a metallographic cross section or
state corrosion rates. result, predictions of corrosion lifetimes based by loss of mechanical properties (as compared to
When evaluating the samples that have been on data from these solutions are generally con- an untested control sample). In the Military
exposed to flowing systems, more than just the servative with respect to actual performance. Standard 853C Method 1009.4 for electronic
weight loss should be considered. Evidence of A significant amount of work has recently been materials, materials exposed to the salt fog test
erosion should be sought, especially at leading done on the behavior of copper alloys in sulfide- are evaluated to determine the amount of corro-
edges and obstructions, and the depth of erosion contaminated seawaters. An extensive bibliogra- sion over the surface and to determine whether
should be monitored with respect to time. phy is given in Ref 92. Sulfides are added to the pitting or corrosion contributed to failure of the
Evidence of pitting as a function of time should seawater by either bubbling H2S gas through the bend test. Materials are also evaluated with
be determined. Depth of crevice attack should be solution or adding a Na2S solution. In general, regard to the effect of the oxide film on solder-
noted in samples with crevices, for example, at sulfide concentrations of the order of 1 ppm are
clamp sites. With regard to crevice corrosion in sufficient to cause accelerated attack. For rapid Table 48 Composition of simulated cool-
copper alloys, the attack usually occurs adjacent corrosion to occur, the copper alloy must be ing tower water
to the contact site; therefore, the contact site will exposed to a solution that contains oxygen as well Concentration,
generally be at the original thickness and can be as sulfide or must be alternately exposed to sul- Component mg/L
used as a reference point when measuring the fide-bearing deaerated solutions, followed by CuO 700
depth of attack. exposure to sulfide-free aerated solutions. MgSO4(anhydrous) 693
Each alloy should also be examined for evi- Because of the transient nature of sulfides in NaCl 614
KCl 59
dence of dealloying. This can generally be deter- water, it is necessary to monitor the sulfide KNO3 24
mined by metallographic examination of the level in solution with time. Titration tech- Na2CO3 167
cross section to see of a copper-rich layer at the niques are available for measuring the sulfide SiO2·XH2O 21
sample surface is present. The material can also concentration, but these are generally time H2SO4 0.75 mL/L
ability and the corrosion resistance of the solder relative humidity and a constant NH3 gas con- promote SCC, but the absence of cracking is no
base metal. centration are maintained (Ref 98). assurance of immunity to SCC. Various methods
Other environmental tests are Military One of the simplest laboratory stress-corro- are used to assess the results when SCC is
Standard 202 Method 2080, in which candidate sion tests that provides a significant amount of observed. These include the area under the
materials are aged in the steam from boiling dis- information is the U-bend test, in which the stress-elongation curve, time to failure, crack
tilled water and then solder dipped to evaluate springback of the sample is measured over time velocity, and ratio of fracture stress in a medium
their solderability. Ammonium sulfide (NH4)2S) in the test solution. Two sample sets of each to fracture stress in air.
is used to determine the effectiveness of tarnish material are produced in a manner similar to that
inhibitors in protecting the material. In this test, described in Ref 99. One is placed in the test
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
the specimen is held for a short period of time solution, and the other remains in the room envi-
(usually 30 s) over an open beaker containing ronment as a control. A variety of test jigs are
(NH4)2S solution and then examined. If the sur- described in Ref 99; however, the legs of the jig This article was adapted from N.W. Polan et
face has become blackened, the protective layer must be compressed the same distance when the al., Corrosion of Copper and Copper Alloys,
is considered to be inadequate. sample is removed and then replaced in the jig. Corrosion, Vol 13, ASM Handbook, ASM
Field Testing. Atmospheric testing of copper A typical example of this jig is given in Ref 99. International, 1987, p 610–640. Figures 3, 4, 5,
alloys in natural environments is conducted to The samples are placed in the jig, removed, 7, and 8 were originally published in Corrosion:
evaluate the behavior of the materials in indus- and the springback between the legs measured; Understanding the Basics, J.R. Davis, Ed., ASM
trial, rural, and marine atmospheres. The proce- this is also done for the control samples. The International, 2000.
dure most widely used is given in Ref 97, which samples are reinserted in the test jig and placed
describes sample preparation, types of test racks, in the test solution. At periodic intervals, the REFERENCES
typical locations and orientation. This long-term samples are removed from the solution, taken
test may last up to 20 years or more and there- from the jig, and the springback distance 1. E. Mattsson, Electrochim Acta, Vol 3,
fore requires careful record keeping. between the legs remeasured. Similar measure- 1961, p 279
ments are made on the air control samples. The 2. U. Bertocci and E.N. Pugh, Proc. Ninth
Stress-Corrosion Testing test continues until either physical failure International Congress on Metallic
occurs—that is, if the sample breaks or if it no Corrosion (Toronto, Canada), Vol 1,
In the past several decades, the study of SCC longer has enough tension to hold it in the jig— National Research Council of Canada,
has been greatly accelerated, and the causes or some predetermined performance criteria are June 1984, p 144
and mechanisms for the behavior have been met, for example, 1000 h elapsed time or 3. H.L. Logan, J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand., Vol
addressed by materials scientists, physicists, springback reduction to 80% of its initial value. 48, 1952 p 99
chemists, metallurgists, and mechanical engi- At the conclusion of the test, the average change 4. H. Leidheiser, Jr. and R. Kissinger,
neers. Laboratory studies under controlled con- in percent springback for each material at each Corrosion, Vol 28, 1972, p 218
ditions have been expanded, ASTM has devel- time is determined, taking into account the loss 5. R.P.M. Procter and M. Islam, Corrosion,
oped standardized tests, and laboratories have in springback that occurred as a result of stress Vol 32, 1976, p 267
compared data. As a result, considerable quan- relaxation based on springback measurements of 6. N.W. Polan, J.M. Popplewell, and M.J.
titative information is now available in the lit- the air control samples. Pryor, J. Electrochem. Soc., Vol 126, 1979,
erature. In some cases, this information is A constant percent springback versus time p 1299
obtained with full knowledge of fracture indicates that the material is not susceptible to 7. A. Parthasarathi and N.W. Polan, Metall.
mechanics principles. The methods of generat- SCC in the test solution over that time period. A Trans. A, Vol 13A, 1982, p 2027
ing SCC data are numerous and, as described decrease in percent springback with time indi- 8. G.S. Haynes and R. Baboian, A
below, include both static and dynamic tests. cates the SCC has occurred. This should be ver- Comparative Study of the Corrosion
Additional information on tests used to evalu- ified by optical examination for cracking as Resistance of Cable Shielding Materials,
ate the susceptibility of copper alloys to SCC well as metallographic examination of the sam- Mater. Perform., Vol 18, 1979, p 45–56
can be found in the article “Stress-Corrosion ple to determine the mode of cracking. An 9. “Final Storage of Spent Nuclear Fuel,”
Cracking” in this Handbook. increase in percent springback indicates that the Publication KBS3, Swedish Nuclear Fuel
In the static tests, the sample is put under tension side of the sample dissolved at a faster Supply Company, 1983
tension by bending and restraining the sample or rate than the compressive side due to stress- 10. J.P. Simpson, “Experiments on Container
by mounting it in a tensile-testing machine. The assisted dissolution. Examination will reveal Materials for Swiss High-Level Waste
data thus generated include time to first crack, that the specimen has thinned and that failure Disposal Projects,” Part II, Technical
time to fracture, or time to relax to a certain frac- occurred because of overload, not cracking. Report 84-01, National Cooperative for
tion (for example, 50 or 80%) of the unrestrained This result indicates that the solution is too the Storage of Radioactive Waste, 1984
distance between the ends of the bent specimen. aggressive for SCC to occur and that another 11. S.K. Frape, P. Fritz, and R.H. McNutt,
The data generated in this fashion allow compar- solution should be used to compare stress-cor- Water-Rock Interaction and Chemistry of
ison among different alloys, among different pre- rosion behavior. Groundwaters From the Canadian Shield,
treatments, and among other experimental vari- Dynamic Tests. During the past decade, there Geochim, Cosmochin. Acta, Vol 48, 1984,
ables. The data are comparable within one data has been a major swing toward the use of dynam- p 1617–1627
set but yield no absolute information. ic tests, which yield values that can be quantita- 12. J.W. Braithwaite and M.A. Molecke,
Various NH3 environments are widely used to tively applied to the proposed mechanisms of Nuclear Waste Canister Corrosion Studies
test copper alloys, the most common being SCC. Primary among these is the slow strain rate Pertinent to Geologic Isolation, Nuc.
Mattsson’s solution of pH 4.0, 7.2, and 10. Two technique. The application of this technique to Chem. Waste Man., 1980, p 37–50
other NH3–base environments that produce very the understanding of SCC began in the early 13. N.W. Polan, G.P. Sheldon, and J.M.
aggressive stress-corrosion conditions are a 1960s (Ref 100). Excellent summaries of the Popplewell, “The Effect of NH3 and O2
NH3–0.5 M copper solution of pH 14, and a slow strain rate technique and its applications to Levels on the Corrosion Characteristics
moist NH3 test. The pH 14 solution is made by SCC are given in Ref 101 and 102. and Copper Release Rates of Copper Base
dissolving 3.18 g of copper powder in 1 L of This method uses tensile test specimens Condenser Tube Alloys Under Simulated
29.5% NH4OH solution (typical reagent- mounted in stiff-frame machines and strained at Steam Side Conditions,” Paper No. 81-
strength NH4OH). The moist NH3 test requires the rate of 107 to 105 s1 in the presence of a JPGC-Pwr-9, Joint ASME/IEEE Power
the construction of a chamber in which 100% specific environment. Strain rates in this range Generation Conference, Oct 1981
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Stress-Corrosion Cracking
STRESS-CORROSION CRACKING (SCC) environments that cause SCC of copper alloys brass specimen. Thus, the primary role of the
was first observed in copper-zinc (brass) alloys can be found in the article “Corrosion cupric complex ion appears to be as an oxidant
more than 90 years ago (Ref 1). The SCC fail- Behavior” in this Handbook. in solution that provides a cathodic reaction.
ures were reported in India, where they occurred Most research on SCC of copper-base alloys
in brass cartridge cases during the rainy season has been carried out in ammonia or variations of
(and were thus later characterized by the this environment. In the 1960s, Pugh and
descriptive term “season cracking”). The root Westwood (Ref 16) demonstrated that SCC of
cause of the failures was traced to the practice of brass would not occur under freely corroding
storing the cartridge cases in horse barns, where conditions in aqueous ammonia in the absence
they came in contact with ammonia vapors. A of dissolved copper, which forms a complex ion
further contributing factor was the cold-forming in solution. As the copper content of the ammo-
operation used to make the cases, which intro- nia increased, cracking became more severe, and
duced high residual tensile stresses. at some critical copper concentration an oxide
This example of season cracking conveniently film, or tarnish, formed (Fig. 2). Later work by
identifies the three primary factors associated Pugh and Green (Ref 17) demonstrated that
with SCC failure of copper-base alloys: a specif- cracking could be produced in copper-free
ic corrosive medium, a susceptible material, and ammonia solutions by anodically polarizing the
tensile stresses. These factors are often presented
graphically (Fig. 1) to demonstrate that all three
must be present simultaneously for SCC to occur.
This article is organized to feature these three
primary factors. First, those environments that
induce SCC in copper-base alloys are discussed,
along with cracking-related environmental fac-
tors such as potential, pH, and temperature. The
next section identifies SCC-susceptible copper-
base alloys and metallurgical factors that affect
SCC, such as microstructure, heat treatment, and
cold working. Attention is then focused on rele-
vant mechanical factors (for example, stress and
stress intensity). Testing methods are discussed,
as are techniques for the mitigation of SCC
(which generally involve elimination of one or
more of the three primary factors). Finally, the
fracture mechanisms associated with SCC of
copper-base alloys are briefly discussed. Fig. 2 Relationship between the concentration of
dissolved copper in 15 N aqueous ammonia
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of the three factors that and (a) rate of weight loss of unstressed specimens of cop-
must be present simultaneously for per and 70-30 brass and (b) time to failure (tF) for
Environmental Effects stress-corrosion cracking to (SCC) occur 70-30 brass. Source: Ref 16
Table 1 Environments reported to cause SCC of copper-base alloys

Effect of Environment Composition. Alloy Environment Ref
Aqueous ammonia is the principal environ-
-brass Deionized water 2
ment associated with SCC of copper-base 70-30 brass Sodium chlorate, NaClO3 3
alloys in service applications. Failures of Aluminum brass Acidic chloride 4
brasses occur most commonly in moist condi- Aluminum bronze Sodium fluoride, NaF 5
tions where ammonia, water, and oxygen are -brass Aliphatic amine 6
Ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4 7
present. At one time it was thought that ammo- Brass Mercury salts, e.g., HgNO3 8
nia or its derivatives were the only species Mattsson’s solution, (NH4)2SO4 CuSO4 9
responsible for SCC of copper-base alloys. Outdoor environment 10
More recently, other such environments have Sodium nitrite, NaNO2 11
Citrates and tartrates 12
been identified; Table 1 shows that cracking of Moist sulfur dioxide, SO2 13
various copper-base alloys can be caused by a Sulfate solution, SO4-2 14
variety of species, including sulfates, nitrates, Aqueous ammonia Various
nitrites, chloride-containing species, and even Yellow brass Sodium sulfate, Na2SO4, borate 15
Na2SO4 sodium sulfide, Na2S 15
pure water. Additional data on specific
LIVE GRAPH
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The chemistry/electrochemistry of the cop- reviewed in detail elsewhere (Ref 18, 19) and is Effect of Solution pH. The majority of
per-ammonia system has been studied extensive- summarized below. On a copper surface, the pri- research on pH effects on SCC of copper-base
ly and is reasonably well understood. It has been mary reduction reaction in aerated, copper-free alloys has been performed in ammonia-bearing
aqueous ammonia is oxygen reduction, and the environments referred to as “Mattsson’s solution.”
primary oxidation reaction is oxidation of cop- Relatively little research has been performed in
per to form cuprous complex ions: nonammoniacal environments. In the original
milestone work performed by Mattsson (Ref 9),
Cu 2NH3 → Cu(NH3)2 e the effect of pH on the SCC and film-forming
characteristics of Cu-37Zn was studied in ammo-
These ions react with oxygen to form cupric niacal copper sulfate solutions. The pH of the
complex ions: solutions was varied by adding the ammonia part-
ly as ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) and partly
2 Cu(NH3)2 12 O2 H2O 4 NH3 → as ammonium sulfate ((NH4)2SO4); sulfuric acid
2 Cu(NH3)42 2 OH was added to obtain the lowest pH solutions. All
solutions had 0.05 M Cu and 1 M NH3.
In oxygenated solutions, copper in solution The SCC tests were performed on U-bend
exists primarily as the cupric complex ion. The specimens machined from cold-rolled (half-
exchange current for cupric ion reduction is hard) brass sheet stock. Specimens were
much greater than that of oxygen reduction, and exposed in stoppered flasks under freely corrod-
thus cupric ion reduction is the dominant reac- ing conditions. Within the flasks was a small air
tion in copper-containing solutions. The overall space above the test solutions. Time to failure as
process is autocatalytic in that the corrosion reac- a function of pH is shown in Fig. 3, where it can
tion generates more cuprous ions in solution, be seen that a minimum existed at a pH of about
which subsequently form cupric ions, which in 7.2. A majority of the cracks were transgranular
turn accelerate the rate of corrosion. This process in the pH ranges of 3.9 to 5.7 and 7.8 to 11.2,
does not continue indefinitely, because the onset whereas cracking was primarily intergranular in
Fig. 3 Time to cracking as a function of the pH for
the pH range of 6.3 to 7.7. In the latter pH range,
brass in ammoniacal copper sulfate solutions of tarnishing, which occurs at some critical cop-
(Mattsson’s solutions). Note that the specimen tested at pH per ion content, leads to a decrease in the corro- a black surface film was found on the speci-
of 2 did not fail in 1000 h of testing. Source: Ref 9
sion rate, as shown in Fig. 2. On the other hand, mens. Mattsson measured the redox potential of
Fig. 2 also shows that the severity of cracking the solutions with a platinum electrode prior to
continues to increase with increasing copper con- testing and related the potential and pH of the
tent in the tarnishing range. solutions on a Pourbaix diagram for the copper-
Based on research on the chemistry of ammo- ammonia system (Fig. 4). The shaded zone in
nia solutions, it can be concluded that failures in Fig. 4 indicates the properties of the test solu-
the field occur under very aggressive conditions tions. The tarnish films on the specimens in the
in that the condensed layer of moisture can con- intermediate-pH range were found to be com-
tain very high copper-ion concentrations due to posed primarily of Cu2O by Mattsson (Ref 9)
the large ratio of metal surface area to solution and subsequently by Hoar and Booker (Ref 20)
volume. Oxygen access to the solution is also and by Johnson and Leja (Ref 12).
facilitated by the thin condensed layer, leading Later studies by Lahiri (Ref 21), Bhakta and
to rapid development of high concentrations of Lahiri (Ref 7), and Sparks and Scully (Ref 22)
the cupric complex ion. confirmed the pH effects on cracking susceptibil-
ity of brasses reported by Mattsson (Ref 9).
Takemoto and Hori (Ref 23) also reported a sim-
ilar dependence of cracking on pH for a Cu-4Ti
alloy. In the study by Sparks and Scully (Ref 22),
the research was extended to consider annealed
and cold worked 70-30 brass and higher-pH con-
centrated ammonia solutions. Testing was per-
formed on single-edge notched cantilever-beam
specimens initially loaded to a K value of 35
MPa m (32 ksi in .).Results, summorized in
Fig. 5, show that the high-pH concentrated solu-
tions also produced extensive cracking, with
cracking velocity increasing with increasing pH.
One difference in the results of the studies of
Mattsson (Ref 9) and Sparks and Scully (Ref 22)
was in the fracture mode. In the latter study,
cracking was primarily intergranular (with some
transgranular) at all but the highest pH values
tested, whereas Mattsson reported intergranular
cracking only at intermediate pH values.
Fig. 4 Potential/pH diagram for a system of copper and A limited amount of research on the effects of
a water solution with 1.0 g mol/L of ammonia pH on SCC of copper-base alloys has been per-
partly as ammonium sulfate and 0.05 g atom/L of dis- formed in nonammoniacal environments. Shih et
solved copper added as sulfate at 25 °C
al. (Ref 5) investigated the SCC of aluminum
(77 °F). Numbers refer to equations from Ref 9. The Fig. 5 Effect of pH on average stress-corrosion
bronze in sodium fluoride solutions with pHs of
shaded zone marks solution properties at the beginning of cracking velocity of brass specimens tested in
the tests. Source: Ref 9 two ammoniacal solutions. Source: Ref 22 8,10, and 12 and found the most severe cracking

Stress-Corrosion Cracking / 421
at pH 8. Torchio (Ref 24) and Torchio and CuSO4. The pH of the solution is varied by mode transition from intergranular to transgran-
Mazza (Ref 25) investigated the effect of pH on adding the ammonia partly as NH3 and partly as ular was observed with increasing applied anod-
SCC of aluminum brass in acidic chloride and (NH4)2SO4. Hoar and Booker (Ref 20) investigat- ic potential. The data in Fig. 9 also suggest that
sulfate solutions, respectively. In the former ed the effect of potential on time to failure of - the potential range over which cracking
study, cold worked U-bend specimens were brass wires in Mattsson’s solution of pH 7.2, occurred narrowed with decreasing copper con-
exposed in 1 M NaCl 0.25 M sodium citrate which is a tarnishing solution at the free corrosion tent of the solution, although the potential of
solutions with 0.5 to 1.5 g/L CuCl and pHs of 1 potential (0.15 to 0.25 V (standard hydrogen maximum cracking was unaffected.
to 6. Maximum susceptibility to SCC was electrode, or SHE)). They found that crack prop- Alvarez et al. (Ref 29), Gouda et al. (Ref 30),
observed between a pH of 3 and 4 and for the agation was accelerated by some anodic polariza- and Yu and Parkins (Ref 31) investigated the
highest copper content. tion (up to 50 mV) and retarded by greater anod- effect of potential on SCC of copper-base alloys
In the study by Torchio and Mazza (Ref 25), U- ic polarization or by cathodic polarization. in sodium nitrite solutions. All three studies
bend specimens were exposed to 0.1 M Surcar et al. (Ref 28) performed constant-load
Na2SO40.005 N Cl with varying CuSO4 con- tests on annealed Cu-30Zn specimens in
centrations and pHs. Results, summarized in Fig. Mattsson’s solutions of varying copper concen-
6, show that maximum cracking occurred at pH 3 tration as a function of applied potential. Results
at the highest CuSO4 concentration tested. An (Fig. 9) show behavior similar to that observed
interesting aspect of this study is that intergranu- by Hoar and Booker (Ref 20) and that in the
lar SCC, which occurred at pH values below 3, ammonia solutions, with maximum susceptibili-
was associated with nontarnishing conditions, ty at an anodic applied potential. A fracture-
while transgranular cracking occurred in tarnish-
ing solutions above pH 3. This behavior is oppo-
site to that observed in Mattsson’s and other
ammoniacal solutions, where intergranular SCC
is normally associated with tarnishing conditions.
Effect of Potential. Researchers have investi-
gated the effect of potential on the SCC of copper-
base alloys in ammoniacal environments as well
as in other environments that cause cracking. In
the former, studies have been performed both in
concentrated aqueous ammonia and in Mattsson’s
solution. Pugh and Green (Ref 17) studied the
effect of applied potential on the time to failure of
Cu-30Zn in copper-free 15 M aqueous ammonia.
The data, summarized in Fig. 7, show that crack-
ing susceptibility increased with increasing anod-
ic polarization, as did the dissolution rate of the
specimens. No cracking was observed at the free
corrosion potential. In these tests, the specimens
were tarnish free and the failure mode was trans-
granular. Based on this work, it was concluded Fig. 8 Effect of potential and stress intensity, K, on
crack velocity of -brass in 15 N aqueous
that the role of the cupric complex ion in solution, ammonia containing 6 g/L Cu. Source: Ref 27
which promotes SCC, is to anodically polarize
the specimen. Tong (Ref 26) observed similar
behavior for Cu-30Zn specimens tested under
constant-load conditions in a nontarnishing 1 M
ammonia solution containing added copper. In Fig. 6 Maximum crack depth as a function of pH and
these tests, the data exhibited maximum cracking CuSO4 content measured on U-bend specimens
exposed to 0.1 M Na2SO4 0.005 N Cl. Data to the left
susceptibility at an anodic overpotential of about of the curves refer to the CuSO4 molar concentration. Test
200mV, with failure times increasing with greater time 240 h. Source: Ref 25
levels of anodic polarization.
Kermani and Scully (Ref 27) studied the effect
of potential on the crack velocity of annealed Cu-
30Zn in a 15 N ammonia solution containing 6
g/L of copper, which is a tarnishing solution. The
tests were performed on notched cantilever-beam
specimens at three different stress-intensity lev-
els. Results (Fig. 8) are very similar to those
reported by Tong (Ref 26) for constant-load spec-
imens, with maximum susceptibility at an anodic
overpotential. The rapid decrease in the cracking
velocity at more noble potentials was attributed to
the onset of nontarnishing conditions. Cracking at
all potentials was transgranular.
Several researchers have investigated the effect
of applied potential on SCC of copper-base alloys Fig. 7 Effect of applied anodic potentials on the disso- Fig. 9 Effect of applied potential on the time to
lution rate and stress-corrosion life of Cu-30Zn fracture of -brass in Mattsson’s solutions of pH
in Mattsson’s solution. As previously described, in 15 M aqueous ammonia. Specimens were tarnish-free 7 containing 1 g mol/L NH4 and different compositions
Mattsson’s solution is an aqueous 1 M (NH4)2SO4 in all cases, and SCC failure was entirely transgranular. of dissolved copper. Stress 128 MPa (19 ksi). NC, no
solution containing dissolved copper added as Source: Ref 17 cracking. Source: Ref 28

found that anodic polarization from the free cor- tial. Yu and Parkins (Ref 31) also observed Cu-30Zn in Mattsson’s solution of pH 7.2.
rosion potential accelerated cracking, while Arrhenius behavior in slow-strain-rate tests per- Slow-strain-rate testing was performed over a
cathodic polarization retarded cracking. Both formed on Cu-30Zn in a sodium nitrite solution. temperature range of 25 to 50 °C (77 to 122 °F).
Alvarez et al. (Ref 29) and Yu and Parkins (Ref The tests were performed at –0.1 V (saturated It was found that at high crosshead speeds
31) observed some diminution of cracking at calomel electrode, or SCE) over a temperature (above 103 mm/min), cracking susceptibility
very noble potentials, which was attributed to range of 20 to 100 °C (68 to 212 °F) at a strain increased with increasing temperature; however,
excessive general corrosion of the specimen. rate of about 7 104/s. However, at a slower susceptibility decreased with increasing temper-
Data by Alvarez et al. for annealed yellow brass strain rate, non-Arrhenius-type behavior was ature at slower crosshead speeds. This behavior
tested by a slow-strain-rate technique in 1 M observed, with a maximum cracking velocity at was attributed to the interplay between the cor-
NaNO2 are presented in Fig. 10. In the tests, the an intermediate temperature (see Fig. 12). The rosion rate and the creep rate at the crack tip. In
free corrosion potential was about 0 V (normal behavior observed at the slower strain rate was any case, the findings are qualitatively similar to
hydrogen electrode, or NHE) and the fracture attributed to a change in the rate-controlling those of Yu and Parkins (Ref 31).
mode was transgranular. process over the temperature range studied.
The effect of potential on SCC of -brass also Takano (Ref 33) investigated the effects of
has been investigated in solutions of sodium crosshead speed and temperature on the SCC of Metallurgical Effects
chlorate (Ref 3), sodium sulfate (Ref 15), and
aliphatic amine (Ref 6). Shih et al. (Ref 5) stud- Effects of Alloy Composition. Most of the
ied the effect of potential on the SCC of alu- literature on SCC of copper-base alloys has been
minum bronze in sodium fluoride solutions. In concerned with copper-zinc alloys in ammonia-
all of these environments, anodic polarization of cal solutions. However, a number of other cop-
the material promoted cracking, while cathodic per-base alloys are susceptible to SCC (see
polarization retarded cracking. A significant dif- Table 2). In general, the susceptible alloys are
ference among the different alloy/environment solid-solution a-phase copper alloys containing
systems is in the behavior at the free corrosion other elements such as manganese, aluminum,
potential. For example, -brass readily cracked and even gold. The rate and path of failure
at the free corrosion potential in the aliphatic (intergranular or transgranular) depend on the
amine solution, while aluminum bronze cracked nature of the solute and the environment.
in the sodium fluoride solution only under anod- Several researchers have investigated the effect
ic polarization. Slight cracking was observed for of zinc content of binary copper-zinc alloys on
a brass in aqueous sodium chlorate at the free SCC susceptibility in ammoniacal solutions (e.g.,
corrosion potential; cracking was greatly accel- Ref 43, 44). Data from Ref 44, presented in Fig.
erated by anodic polarization. 13, show that susceptibility to SCC in constant-
Effect of Temperature. In general, the tem- load tests increased with increasing zinc content
perature dependence of SCC of copper-base for both tarnishing and nontarnishing solutions.
alloys appears to follow Arrhenius-type behav- These data also show that the fracture-mode was
ior. Data by Suzuki and Hisamatsu (Ref 32) for intergranular for tarnishing solutions, while a
pure copper and several copper-zinc alloys in a fracture-mode transition from intergranular to
dilute ammonium hydroxide solution over a transgranular occurred at approximately 15% Zn
temperature range of 40 to 70 °C (104 to 158 °F)
are given in Fig. 11. The tests were performed Fig. 11 Arrhenius plot of reciprocal of time-to-failure
(tF1) for specimens tested under constant load Table 2 Copper-base alloys that have
under constant load at the free corrosion poten- in 0.05 M NH4OH solution. Source: Ref 32 experienced SCC
LIVE GRAPH Alloy Environment Ref
Click here to view Pure copper Ammonia 32
Sodium nitrite 34
DHP copper Sodium nitrite 35
OFHC copper Sodium nitrite 35
Cu-Zn alloys Ammonia Many authors
Cu-10Mn Mattsson’s solution Many authors
Cu-5Zn-5Mn Mattsson’s solution 36
Cu-5Zn-10Mn Mattsson’s solution 36
Cu-20Zn-5Ni Mattsson’s solution 36
Aluminum brass Acidic chloride-citrate 37
Cu-2Be Ammonia 38
Cu-4Ti Ammonia 23
Cu-6Mn Ammonia 39
Cu-12Mn Ammonia 39
Cu-18Mn Ammonia 39
Cu-4Al Ammonia 39
Cu-8Al Ammonia 39
Cu-Au Aqua regia 40
FeCl3 40
Ammonia 40
Cu-Al Ammonia 41
Cu-Ga Ammonia 41
Cu-Ge Ammonia 41
Cu-Zn Ammonia 41
Water 2
Cu-Zn-Sn Water 2
-brass Water 2
Fig. 10 Effects of potential and strain rate on crack- Cusil (Cu-72Ag) Mattsson’s solution 42
velocity values measured for yellow brass in Fig. 12 Effects of temperature and strain rate on crack-
deaerated 1 M NaNO2 solution. Continuous lines show ing velocity of -brass in 1 M NaNO2. Also DHP, phosphorus-deoxidized, high residual phosphorus. OFHC,
the crack-velocity values predicted by fast-strain-rate shown is the maximum current density from rapid strain- oxygen-free high conductivity (copper)
experiments. Source: Ref 29 ing tests at different temperatures. Source: Ref 31

for the nontarnishing solutions. This transition Effects of Microstructure and Heat Treat- effects during SCC can be accounted for in
has been attributed to a change in the dislocation ment. Relatively little research has been devot- terms of their effects on flow stress. In the pH
structure as solute addition increases. ed to the effects of microstructure and heat treat- 5.9 and 6.8 solutions, the onset of cracking
While SCC susceptibility of copper-zinc alloys ment on SCC of copper-base alloys. This may occurred at plastic strains of about 7 and 4.5%,
increases monotonically with increasing zinc reflect the fact that extensive thermomechanical respectively, which were independent of grain
content, susceptibility appears to reach a maxi- processing is not normally performed on - size. In the pH 8 solution, the plastic strain nec-
mum with increasing alloy content for other - phase copper alloys for most engineering appli- essary for crack initiation increased with
phase copper alloys. Data showing the effect of cations (in contrast to low-alloy steels and alu- decreasing grain size. This behavior is reflected
aluminum and nickel on time to failure of binary minum alloys). Several researchers have studied by the largest slope in Fig. 16, compared to the
alloys in moist ammonia are given in Fig. 14. The the effect of grain size on cracking susceptibili- slopes observed for the lower-pH solutions or
copper-zinc alloys also are more susceptible to ty. Edmunds (Ref 47) evaluated the effect of for the Petch relationship.
SCC than the other binary alloys, as comparison grain size on time to failure of 70-30 brass spec- More rescently, Yu et al. (Ref 49) evaluated the
of the data in Fig. 13 and 14 demonstrates. imens exposed to moist ammonia vapor under effect of grain size of 70-30 brass on the initiation
The effects on SCC of minor alloy additions constant load. Results, shown in Fig. 15, indi- of SCC in a sodium nitrate solution by means of
to copper-zinc alloys also have been investigat- cate a monotonic decrease in time to failure with the slow-strain-rate technique. The findings were
ed. Syrett and Parkins (Ref 45) studied the increasing grain size. In a later study by Birley similar to those reported by Birley and Tromans
effects of tin and arsenic on the SCC of Cu-20Zn and Tromans (Ref 48), the effect of grain size on (Ref 48), with the stress for crack initiation fol-
alloys in Mattsson’s solutions of pH 7.3 and 11.3 the fracture stress of Cu-30Zn was evaluated by lowing a Petch-type relationship. The plastic
and found that additions of both elements slow-strain-rate testing in Mattsson’s solutions strain at crack initiation was about 1% and
increased cracking resistance. These tests, like of pH 5.9 to 8. It was found that the fracture increased slightly with decreasing grain size.
those described previously, were performed stress followed a Petch relationship: Popplewell et al. (Ref 50) investigated the
under freely corroding conditions. It also was effects of postforming heat treatments on the SCC
observed that the alloy additions promoted a f o KD1/2 susceptibility of cold-worked specimens of four
fracture-mode transition from intergranular to copper-base alloys (C23000, C61900, C63800,
transgranular. The results were attributed to the where f is fracture stress, o and K are con- and C68800) in moist ammonia and in Mattsson’s
effects of the solute on the passivation charac- stants, and D is grain size, as shown in Fig. 16. solution (pH 7.2). Short-term (30 min) heat treat-
teristics of the alloys, as opposed to a change in The authors thus concluded that grain-size ments were performed over a temperature range
their stacking-fault energy. On the other hand, of 120 to 315 °C (250 to 600 °F) on preformed
Torchio (Ref 24) found that additions of arsenic U-bend specimens, which were subsequently
and phosphorus to aluminum brass decreased stressed elastically (under constant deflection)
the SCC resistance of the alloy in an acidified and exposed to the cracking environments. This
citrate-chloride solution. The crack path was sequence of forming and heat treating was
transgranular in the presence of arsenic, in designed to simulate service conditions where a
agreement with the studies of Syrett and Parkins component is formed and stress-relieved. For red
(Ref 45), but was intergranular when only phos- brass alloy C23000 (85Cu-15Zn), the heat treat-
phorus was present. Thus, alloying effects in ments reduced cracking susceptibility by reduc-
copper-base alloys appear to be environment ing the residual stress. For the remaining three
specific. This conclusion greatly complicates alloys, SCC susceptibility of heat-treated speci-
alloy selection for SCC resistance. mens was influenced by competing processes:
A significant finding of of SCC research on stress relief, which reduced SCC susceptibility,
copper-base alloys over the past 20 years is that and ordering, which increased susceptibility. For
pure copper undergoes SCC (Ref 32, 34) (pure aluminum bronze alloy C63800 (95Cu-2.8Al-
copper was long thought to be immune to crack- 1.5Si-0.25Co) and alloy C68800 (73.5Cu-
ing). Cracking was transgranular and was 22.7Zn-3.4Al-0.4Co), optimum temperature
observed in sodium nitrite solutions. More ranges for heat treating were identified; for alu-
recently, Cassagne et al. (Ref 46) have reported minum bronze alloy C61900 (86.5Cu-4Fe-
transgranular SCC of pure copper in sodium 9.5Al), cracking susceptibility increased with
acetate solutions as well. increasing annealing temperature.
Fig. 13 Effects of zinc content on time to failure for Fig. 14 Effect of aluminum content (a) or nickel
specimens tested at 10% proof stress in content (b) on time to failure of copper-base Fig. 15 Effect of grain size on time to failure of 70-30
tarnishing and nontarnishing 15 N ammoniacal solutions alloys tested in tarnishing and nontarnishing 15 N aque- brass tested in moist ammonia vapor. Source:
containing 8 g/L Cu. DNF, did not fail. Source: Ref 44 ous ammonia containing 8 g/L Cu. Source: Ref 44 Ref 47

Scully (Ref 51) evaluated the effects of ed. It was found that phosphorus and arsenic tion is probably best exhibited by the work of
annealing and crosshead speed on the SCC of had a dominant effect on SCC susceptibility Erzurum and Yeh (Ref 53), who studied SCC of
70Cu-30Zn in an ammoniacal cupric sulfate but that the sensitization heat treatment free-cutting brass alloy C36000 (Cu-37Zn-3Pb).
solution of pH 6.8. The as-received material had increased susceptibility to cracking at a given This alloy contains some -phase in addition to
a Vickers hardness of 115 and a 0.1% proof alloy composition. The authors speculated that lead precipitates. Stress corrosion cracking test-
stress of 275 MPa (39.9 ksi), while the annealed the increased susceptibility may have resulted ing was performed in concentrated ammonia,
material had a Vickers hardness of 86 and a from ordering, as was concluded by preconcentrated with copper, using slow-strain-
proof stress of 205 MPa (29.7 ksi). The crack- Popplewell et al. (Ref 50). rate and constant-load techniques. In the slow-
ing velocity of the as-received material was Effect of Cold Work. It is well established strain-rate tests, SCC susceptibility increased in
found to be nearly an order of magnitude high- that residual stresses introduced into compo- the liquid phase but decreased in the vapor phase
er than that of the annealed material over a nents by cold forming can increase susceptibil- with increasing cold work. In the constant-load
broad range of crosshead speeds. This effect ity to SCC. The SCC failure of brass electrical tests, susceptibility to SCC decreased with
may not be attributable to residual stresses, connectors in an outdoor environment, reported increasing cold work for both vapor and liquid
because the material is plastically deformed in in Ref 10, is a good practical example of this exposures (see Fig. 17 and 18). With both test
slow-strain-rate testing. type of failure. The heads on the connectors techniques, cracking was transgranular and sus-
Mazza and Torchio (Ref 37) evaluated the were formed by cold forging, which led to ceptibility was greater in the vapor phase. The
effects of a sensitization heat treatment and the rapid failure in the field application. authors attributed the cold-work effect in the
phosphorus and arsenic content of an alu- Previously, Landgren and Mattsson (Ref 52) constant-load tests and in the slow-strain-rate
minum brass on SCC susceptibility in an had shown that cold-drawn Cu-37Zn cups tests in the vapor phase to the preferred orienta-
acidic chloride-citrate solution. The sensitiza- failed by SCC in a rural environment, whereas tion imparted during cold working. The contra-
tion heat treatment consisted of annealing 50% annealed cups did not fail in 10 years under dictory results found for the slow-strain-rate
cold-rolled sheet at 600 °C (1110 °F) for 15 similar exposure conditions. tests performed in the liquid phase were attrib-
min, then sensitizing the specimens at 350 °C The effect of cold work on residual stresses uted to a change in the rate-limiting step for
(660 °F) for 30 min. The heat treatment was described in the preceding paragraph should be cracking as a result of the less aggressive nature
optimized for sensitization by means of expo- distinguished from the effect of cold work on the of the test solution compared to the vapor.
sure tests performed on unstressed specimens inherent SCC susceptibility of copper-base Scully (Ref 51) reported results for slow-
in acidic synthetic seawater, followed by met- alloys. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to sepa- strain-rate tests on Cu-30Zn in an ammonia-
allographic examination for intergranular rate these two factors experimentally, which cal solution of pH 6.8 that were similar to
attack. The SCC tests were performed under may be one reason for the contradictory litera- those reported by Erzurum and Yeh (Ref 53).
constant load, and time to failure was record- ture on this subject. This problem of contradic- Over a broad range of strain rates, the as-
received material, which was cold worked,
exhibited higher cracking velocities than the
annealed material. The cracking mode was
transgranular.
Sircar et al. (Ref 6) studied the SCC of Cu-
32Zn in methyl amine solution containing dis-
solved copper over a range of potentials, using a
constant-load test technique. Results of the study,
summarized in Fig. 19, show that the annealed
material was more susceptible to cracking than
the cold-worked material, which is qualitatively
similar to results obtained by Erzurum and Yeh
(Ref 53) for concentrated ammoniacal solutions.
Figure 19 also reveals that the potential at maxi-
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 17 Effect of percent of cold work and phase (solu-

LIVE GRAPH tion and vapor) on elongation of alloy C36000
Click here to view in 15 N aqueous ammonia containing 6 g/L
Fig. 16 Effects of grain diameter and solution pH on the stress required to initiate cracking of -brass in Mattsson’s dissolved copper in slow-strain-rate tests (1.6 105/s).
solution in slow-strain-rate tests. Source: Ref 48 Source: Ref 53
mum susceptibility is somewhat more positive were tested under various constant loads, and Results, summarized in Fig. 22, show the clas-
for the cold-worked material. crack growth was measured optically. Results sical three stages of cracking: stage 1, at low
(Fig. 21) indicate a relationship of the form: values of stress intensity (low values of Pl),
where crack velocity is dependent upon stress
Mechanical and dl intensity; stage 2, where crack velocity is
2g l B K 2
Geometrical Effects dt independent of stress intensity; and stage 3,
where crack velocity is again stress-intensity
Effects of Stress and Stress Intensity. Over a wide range of crack velocities, where l is dependent. Note that Pl is proportional to K.
Several researchers have investigated the rela- one-half the crack length, g is the maximum In such a curve, KISCC is defined as the highest
tionship between engineering stress and time to applied gross cross-section stress, t is test time, value of K at which measurable cracking was
failure of copper-zinc alloys in ammoniacal and A and B are constants. This equation is valid not observed. In the study by Beavers (Ref 55),
environments. Typical data by Pugh et al. (Ref for slope 2 in Fig. 21. As indicated by the above crack branching occurred in stage 2. This is
44) are presented in Fig. 20. These data suggest equation, the parameter g l is proportional to typical and is attributed to the fact that the
that a threshold, below which cracking does not the stress intensity (K) at the crack tip. rate-limiting process is independent of stress
occur, is not present. However, the data do indi- Beavers (Ref 55) studied the effect of stress or stress intensity. The onset of stage 3 crack-
cate two distinct slopes. Hoar and Booker (Ref intensity on crack growth in annealed admiral- ing is associated with general yielding of the
20) have suggested that the change in slope ty brass in a 15 N tarnishing ammoniacal solu- specimen, which was the case in this study.
occurs at the flow stress of the material. tion. Testing was performed on single-edge Comparison of these results with those previ-
The total time to failure of a specimen, repre- notched tensile specimens under constant load. ously reported by McEvily and Bond (Ref 54)
sented y the data in Fig. 20, contains both initia- suggests that the data in Fig. 21 represent stage
tion and propagation stages of cracking. 3 cracking.
McEvily and Bond (Ref 54) studied the crack- Kermani and Scully (Ref 27) investigated
propagation stage of cold-rolled Cu-30Zn in crack growth in edge-notched cantilever-beam
Mattsson’s tarnishing solution of pH 7.2. Sheet specimens of Cu-30Zn in 15 N ammoniacal
specimens containing center through-notches solutions and observed behavior similar to that
reported by Beavers (Ref 55), although their
testing did not provide stage 1 data. It was found
that the crack-growth rates were a function of
solution composition and applied potential.
Typical data are presented in Fig. 23.
SCC Test Methods
Standard stress-corrosion test methods are

commonly used to study SCC of copper-base
alloys. These include constant-strain tech-
Fig. 20 Influence of engineering stress on time to fail- niques (employing C-ring, U-bend, and bent-
ure of 70-30 brass tested in tarnishing and
nontarnishing 15 N aqueous ammonia containing dis-
beam specimens), constant-load techniques,
solved copper. Source: Ref 44 slow-strain-rate techniques, and fracture-
mechanics techniques (see Table 3). Applicable
standards include:
• ASTM G 30, “Standard Practice for Making
Fig. 18 Effect of percent of cold work and phase (solu- and Using U-bend Stress-Corrosion Test
tion and vapor) on time to failure of -brass in
15 N aqueous ammonia containing 6 g/L dissolved copper Specimens”
in constant load tests at 50% of the yield strength. Source:
Ref 53
Fig. 22 Cracking velocity as a function of Pl, for

Fig. 19 Effect of potential and cold work on time to notched tensile specimens tested in tarnishing
failure of -brass in 2.2 g mol/L methyl Fig. 21 Rate of stress-corrosion crack propagation in 15 N aqueous ammonia. P, applied load: l, crack length.
amine at pH 12.5 tested under constant load. o.c., cold-rolled brass exposed to 0.05 M Different symbols indicate different specimens. Source:
open-circuit condition. Source: Ref 6 CuSO4 0.48 M (NH4)2SO4 (pH 7.25). Source: Ref 54 Ref 55
LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view Click here to view Click here to view Click here to view Click here to view
• ASTM G 38, “Standard Practice for Making aqueous solution containing 0.05 g-atom/L of accurate determination of the cause of failure.
and Using C-Ring Stress-Corrosion Test Cu2 and 1 g-mol/L of ammonium ion (NH4) Alternatively, unstressed control specimens can
Specimens” with a pH of 7.2. The copper is added as hydrat- be exposed to corrosive environments in order to
• ASTM G 39, “Standard Practice for ed copper sulfate, and the NH4 is added as a determine the extent to which stress-independent
Preparing and Using Bent-Beam Stress- mixture of ammonium hydroxide and ammoni- corrosion degrades mechanical properties.
Corrosion Test Specimens” um sulfate. The ratio of the latter two com- Other Testing Media (Ref 66). The most
• ASTM G 49, “Standard Practice for pounds is adjusted to achieve the desired pH. widely used SCC agent for copper and copper
Preparation and Use of Direct Tension Stress- Mattsson’s pH 7.2 solution is recommended alloys is ammonia (NH3). The NH4 ion does not
Corrosion Test Specimens” only for brasses (copper-zinc base alloys). This appear to cause cracking in a stable salt, such as
• ASTM G 58, “Standard Practice for test environment may give erroneous results for ammonium sulfate. Cracking will occur in a salt
Preparation of Stress-Corrosion Test other copper alloys and is not recommended. that dissociates (such as ammonium carbonate)
Specimens for Weldments” This is particularly true for alloys containing to form ammonia.
• ASTM G 129, “Standard Practice for Slow aluminum or nickel. The Cu(NH3)2x ion (x is usually 4 to 5) is
Strain Rate Testing to Evaluate the This test environment is believed to provide thought to be necessary to induce SCC in copper
Susceptibility of Metallic Materials to an accelerated ranking of the relative or absolute metals. Amine groups also cause cracking or are
Environmentally Assisted Cracking” degree of susceptibility to SCC for different easily converted to ammonia. Amines and sul-
brasses. The test environment correlates well famic acid also cause cracking. Dry ammonia
Specific standards for fracture-mechanics tech- with the corresponding service ranking in envi- does not cause SCC of brass, as demonstrated by
niques for SCC testing are not available, but the ronments that cause SCC, which may be due to the successful use of brass valves and gages on
test techniques used frequently follow the fol- the combined presence of traces of moisture and tanks of anhydrous ammonia.
lowing two standards: ammonia vapor. The extent to which the acceler- Stress-corrosion cracking of copper metals in
• ASTM E 399, “Standard Test Method for ated ranking correlates with the ranking ammonia will not occur in the absence of oxy-
Plane Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic obtained after long-term exposure to environ- gen or an oxidizing agent. Carbon dioxide is
Materials” ments containing corrodents other than ammo- also a requisite. Therefore, air rather than pure
• ASTM E 616, “Standard Terminology nia is not known. Such environments may be oxygen is necessary, and, as a practical matter,
Related to Fracture Testing” severe marine atmospheres (chloride), severe moisture is essential. When other factors are
industrial atmospheres (predominantly sulfur favorable, a very small amount of NH3 is suffi-
Test Environments dioxide), or superheated ammonia-free steam. cient to cause cracking. The controlling factor
It is currently not possible to specify a time may, therefore, be moisture, because cracking
A unique aspect of SCC testing of copper- to failure in Mattsson’s pH 7.2 solution that may appear to be caused by the presence of a
base alloys is the test environment. As described corresponds to a distinction between accept- condensed moisture film.
earlier in this article, Mattsson’s solution is able and unacceptable SCC behavior in brass Other than ammonia, the most effective
widely used as a testing medium as are other alloys. Such correlations must be determined agents for causing cracking are the fumes from
ammoniacal solutions. These and others are dis- on an individual basis. nitric acid or moist nitrogen dioxide. Sulfur
cussed in the following paragraphs. Mattsson’s pH 7.2 solution may also cause dioxide will also crack brass, but both maximum
Testing in Mattsson’s Solution. Procedures some stress-independent general and intergranu- and minimum concentration limits exist. The
for the preparation of Mattsson’s solution are lar corrosion of brasses. Therefore, SCC failure
described in ASTM G 37, “Standard Test may possibly be confused with mechanical fail- Table 3 Various techniques that have
Method for Use of Mattsson’s Solution of pH ure induced by corrosion-reduced net cross sec- been used for the study of SCC of copper-
7.2 to Evaluate the Stress-Corrosion Suscep- tion. This is most likely with small cross-section- base alloys
tibility of Copper-Zinc Alloys.” According to al specimens, high applied stress levels, long
ASTM G 37, a stressed test specimen must be exposure times, and SCC-resistant alloys. Careful Technique Alloy Ref
completely and continuously immersed in an metallographic examination is recommended for Three-point bend -brass 56
Aluminum bronze 57
C-rings -brass 58
Aluminum brass 4
Constant load C36000 brass 53
-brass 6,20,28,59
Cu-Mn 39
Cu-Al alloys 39
70-30 brass 16,60
Cu, Cu-Zn alloys 32
Constant strain Cu-Zn-Sn alloys 45
Fracture mechanics -brass 54,61
70-30 brass 22
Slow strain rate 70-30 brass and copper 31
Brass 8
C36000 brass 53
70-30 brass 51,62
Cu-30Zn 63
Admiralty brass 64
-brass 14
72-28 brass 3
Yellow brass 15
Cu-Ag eutectic 42
Cu-Zn-Sn alloys 45
Aluminum bronze 5
U-bend -brass 12
Cu-Zn 36
Cu-Zn-Mn 36
LIVE GRAPH Cu-Zn-Ni alloys 36
Click here to view Aluminum brass 4
70-30 brass 65
Fig. 23 Effect of stress intensity (K) and potential on crack velocity of -brass in aqueous 15 N ammonia containing
63-37 brass 9
6 g/L Cu. Source: Ref 27
reaction is slow. Alloy development studies have Beavers et al. (Ref 67), a measurable percentage on Faraday’s law, the observed cracking veloci-
been conducted with a moist ammoniacal test of the failures of copper-alloy condenser tubes in ties are consistent with a dissolution process.
atmosphere containing 80% air, 16% NH3, and the 1960s and 1970s occurred as a result of SCC. On the other hand, the originally proposed
4% water vapor at 35 °C (95 °F). However, none The air-removal section of the condenser is par- film-rupture mechanism was a transgranular
of these corrodents has received the attention ticularly prone to SCC as a result of the concen- mechanism, and the issue of crack mode has not
that ammonia has garnered. tration of oxygen and ammonia on the steam side been fully explained. It has been postulated that
Historically, immersion of a copper alloy of the condenser. The most common method for the grain-boundary repassivation is slow
product in a mercurous nitrate solution has been lessening the SCC is to use a more cracking- because of segregation, but the nature of the seg-
used to test for residual stresses. Because these resistant alloy, such as alloy C70600 (Cu-10Ni), regation has not been established. Moreover,
residual stresses are possible sources of failure for this section of the condenser. intergranular SCC of brass has been observed in
by SCC in other environments, some have It should be cautioned that mitigation of SCC nontarnishing solutions, where the presence of a
regarded this test as a stress-corrosion test. of copper-base alloys by means of modifying passive film has not been confirmed.
However, it is only an indirect method of identi- one of the three primary factors may not always Transgranular SCC. Over the past 25 years,
fying SCC tendencies and does not correlate to be as straightforward as the preceding discus- the mechanism of transgranular SCC in the
the presence of SCC as well as test methods sion implies. For example, Fig. 20 suggests that ammonia-brass system has received consider-
based on specific attack by ammonia. It does there is no threshold stress below which SCC able attention. Characteristics of this cracking
indicate, however, that mercury and other low- will not occur for 70–30 brass in aqueous mode that must be accounted for in the mecha-
melting liquid metals can cause embrittlement ammonia. Thus, reducing the stress on a compo- nism include its discontinuous nature, the cleav-
and failure due to cracking; that is, liquid metal nent may prolong its life but may not prevent agelike appearance of the fracture surfaces, and
embrittlement (LME). SCC from ultimately causing failure. Changing the observation that cracking can occur in the
to an alternate copper-base alloy may not be absence of anodic dissolution. Beavers and Pugh
fully effective in mitigating SCC in some very (Ref 72) demonstrated that cracking in admiral-
Mitigation of SCC aggressive cracking environments, since even ty brass occurs on parallel 110 planes and that
pure copper may be susceptible to cracking. For discrete pulses of acoustic emission are emitted
Successful mitigation of SCC of copper-base these situations, a “belt and suspenders” during the cracking process. Several researchers
alloys generally involves modifying one or more approach may be prudent, modifying two or have confirmed the presence of crack-arrest
of the three primary factors associated with more of the primary factors simultaneously. markings on the fracture surfaces, and Newman
SCC: material susceptibility, the specific corro- and Sieradzki (Ref 73) have observed discontin-
sive environment, and tensile stresses. These uous current transients during cracking. Bertocci
factors are shown graphically in Fig. 1. Cracking Mechanisms et al. (Ref 62) first reported that cracking could
Elimination of any one of these factors will mit- occur in the absence of anodic dissolution, and
igate SCC. In the example of the season crack- Much of the research into SCC of copper-base this was later confirmed by others.
ing of brass cartridge cases described in the alloys has focused on the mechanism of crack- The dissolution models such as the film-rup-
introductory section of this article, it was found ing, and a detailed discussion of this subject is ture mechanism described previously are not
that the source of the cracking environment beyond the scope of this article. Several bal- consistent with the above characteristics and
(ammonia) was the horses in the barns where the anced reviews on the topic have been written by are not considered applicable to transgranular
cartridge cases were stored. Storing them else- Pugh et al. (Ref 19, 44, 68) and are summarized SCC. Similarly, models based on adsorption of
where mitigated the problem. Another example here. The reader is referred to these articles for a specific chemical species at the crack tip are
where elimination of a cracking environment further details. generally thought to be continuous models and
helped to mitigate SCC involves copper refriger- The ammonia-brass system has dominated thus are not applicable. Other mechanisms that
ation tubing. Occasional SCC failures occurred mechanistic studies of SCC of copper-base have been proposed include hydrogen embrit-
in insulated copper tubing used in commercial alloys (e.g., Ref 69). Such studies generally have tlement, cleavage of a thick tarnish (tarnish
refrigeration systems. The root cause of the fail- been divided according to fracture mode: inter- rupture) or a dealloyed layer, and film-induced
ure was found to be ammonia, which was a by- granular and transgranular. There is no consen- cleavage (FIC). The tarnish-rupture model was
product of the manufacturing process for the sus as to whether these modes correspond to two discredited in the 1970s when it was shown
insulation. Limits were established for the different mechanisms or whether there is a com- that the thick tarnish does not extend to the
acceptable level of ammonia in the insulation, mon mechanism; Pugh and his coworkers favor crack tip. A model based on rupture of a deal-
and this appears to have lessened the problem. the former theory. loyed layer does not adequately explain trans-
In the example of season cracking, it was also Intergranular SCC. The characteristics of granular SCC of pure copper. More recently,
found that the cold-forming operation used to intergranular SCC are generally considered to be the hydrogen-embrittlement mechanism has
make the cartridge cases introduced high resid- consistent with the film-rupture mechanism pro- been shown to be improbable based on ther-
ual tensile stresses and that annealing the cases posed by Champion (Ref 70) and Logan (Ref modynamic considerations.
after forming also eliminated the problem. 71). According to this mechanism, the crack ini- The FIC mechanism was first proposed by
Another example of reducing residual stresses to tiates by film rupture as a result of plastic defor- Sieradzki and Newman (Ref 74). According to
mitigate SCC is described by Han et al. (Ref 10). mation at the crack tip. The crack propagates by this mechanism, the crack initiates and propa-
In this study, it was found that cold-worked localized anodic dissolution as repassivation is gates in a brittle film on the metal surface.
brass electrical connectors failed in an outdoor inhibited by further plastic deformation at the Traveling at a high velocity and on an orienta-
environment unless properly stress-relieved. A crack tip. The mechanism, as originally pro- tion favorable for cleavage, the crack propa-
mercurous nitrate solution is often used in indus- posed, is essentially continuous, with the key ele- gates some distance into the ductile metal prior
try as a quality-control test of copper-alloy arti- ments being the repassivation behavior and the to blunting. The major difference between this
cles for residual stresses. This environment pro- deformation behavior of the alloy/environment model and the tarnish-rupture model (or rup-
motes LME (from the mercury) if residual system. Characteristics of intergranular SCC of ture of a dealloyed layer) is the propagation of
tensile stresses are present. copper-zinc alloys that are consistent with the the crack into the ductile matrix. For the brass-
The third primary option for mitigating SCC is film-rupture mechanism include the association ammonia system, the brittle film is thought to
to change the alloy to one that is less susceptible of cracking with a thin passive layer at the crack be a copper-rich dealloyed layer. Newman et al.
to SCC in a given environment. An example of tip, the smooth nature of the intergranular frac- (Ref 75) demonstrated a key aspect of the
the application of this option is the SCC of brass ture surfaces, and the absence of acoustic emis- model when they showed that the presence of a
condenser tubes in power plants. As reported by sion during crack propagation. In addition, based dealloyed layer on a Cu-30Zn sample could
induce significant crack propagation (approxi- Ions on the Stress Corrosion Cracking 27. M. Kermani and J.C. Scully, Stress
mately 12 mm) in the bulk alloy. On the other Susceptibility of Admiralty Brass in Corrosion Crack Propagation in -Brass in
hand, dealloying of copper-base alloys occurs Nonammoniacal Aqueous Solutions, Stress 15N Ammoniacal Solutions, Corros. Sci.,
in systems where cracking has not been Corrosion Cracking—The slow strain Rate Vol 18 (No. 10), 1987, p 883–905
observed, such as chlorides. Thus, the film Technique, STP 665, G.M. Ugiansky and 28. S.C. Sircar et al., Mechanism of SCC of -
apparently must possess other characteristics J.H. Payer, Ed., ASTM, 1979, p 266 Brass in Mattsson’s Solution Under
for SCC to occur. Moreover, SCC of pure cop- 12. H.E. Johnson and J. Leja, Surface Chemical Potentiostatic Conditions, Corros. Sci., Vol
per suggests, at the least, that other types of Factors in the Stress-Corrosion Cracking of 12, 1972, p 217
films also may promote crack propagation in Alpha Brass, Corrosion, Vol 22 (No. 6), 29. M.G. Alvarez et al., Anodic Rate-
the ductile matrix, assuming the model is cor- 1966, p 178 Controlling Steps in Transgranular Stress
rect. Clearly, further research is needed to 13. R.G. Johnston, Sheet Metal Inst,, Vol 14, Corrosion Cracking of -Brass in NaNO2
resolve these issues. 1940, p 1197 Solutions, Corros. Sci., Vol 24 (No. 9),
14. H.W. Pickening and P.J. Byrne, Stress 1984, p 769
Corrosion of Alpha Brass in an Acid Sulfate 30. V.K. Gouda, S.M. Sayed, and H.A. El-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Solution, Corrosion, Vol 29 (No. 8), 1973, Sayed, Stress Corrosion Cracking Behavior
p 325 of Brass in Sodium Nitrite Solutions, Fourth
This article was adapted from: 15. M.G, Alvarez et al., Evaluation of Stress International Congress Metallic Corrosion,
Corrosion Cracking of Alpha-Brass in Non- National Research Council of Canada,
• J.A. Beavers, Stress-Corrosion Cracking of Ammoniac Environments, Corrosion, Vol 1984, p 153
Copper Alloys, Stress-Corrosion Cracking:
Materials Performance and Evaluation, R.H. 46 (No. 9), 1990, p 717 31. J. Yu and R.N. Parkins, Stress Corrosion
Jones, Ed., ASM International, 1992, 16. E.N. Pugh and A.R.C. Westwood, Complex Crack Propagation in -Brass and Copper
p 211–231 Ions and Stress-Corrosion Cracking in Exposed to Sodium Nitrite Solutions,
Alpha Brass, Philos. Mag., Vol 13 (No. Corros. Sci., Vol 27 (No. 2), 1987, p 159
• D.O. Sprowls, Evaluation of Stress-
121), 1966, p 167 32. Y. Suzuki and Y. Hisamatsu, Stress
Corrosion Cracking, Corrosion, Vol 13, ASM
Handbook, ASM International, 1987, 17. E.N. Pugh and J.A.S. Green, The Role of Corrosion Cracking of Pure Copper in
p 245–282 Cupric Complex Ions in the Dissolution and Dilute Ammoniacal Solutions, Corros. Sci.,
Stress-Corrosion Cracking of -Brass in Vol 21, 1981, p 353
Nontarnishing Aqueous Ammonia, Metall. 33. M. Takano, K. Teramoto, and T. Nakayama,
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Defining the Stress for Stress Corrosion Sherbini, The Inhibitive Effect of Propagation of Transgranular Stress-
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Ford, On the Relation Between Stress-Relief Ammoniacal Solutions, Corros. Sci., Vol 19 74. K. Sieradzki and R.C. Newman, Brittle
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Alloys, Corros. Sci., Vol 12, 1972, p 193 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Brass in 1985, p 95
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Cracks Under Constant Strain-Rate Condi- Detectable Anodic Dissolution, Corrosion, Sieradzki, Film-Induced Cleavage of -
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Effect of Temperature on Properties
THE EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE on formability and reasonable cost, make it the of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the
mechanical properties are addressed in this arti- best practical material for superconducting International Copper Association, Ltd. (ICA).
cle. Both low- and elevated-temperature proper- magnet applications. Corresponding interest in This study (Ref 7) also provides data on the
ty data are given. Information on the influence the cryogenic properties of copper-tin alloys is effects of cryogenic temperatures on physical
of temperature on the physical properties of based on a manufacturing process for niobium- properties, including electrical resistivity, ther-
coppers and copper alloys can be found in the tin-based superconductors (Ref 6). Continuous mal conductivity, thermal expansion, specific
final three articles of this Handbook covering filaments of superconducting Nb3Sn are formed heat, and magnetic susceptibility.
properties of pure copper, wrought copper and in situ by encapsulating pure niobium wires in a Tensile Properties. Data on the tensile prop-
copper alloys, and cast copper alloys. copper-tin bronze, then heating the composite erties of copper and copper alloys at subzero
to diffuse the tin from the bronze and react it temperatures are summarized in Table 1. Supple-
with niobium. mentary data on values of Young’s modulus for
Low-Temperature Properties Superconducting magnets operate under high copper and two copper-nickel alloys, obtained by
mechanical stresses, and superconducting wire ultrasonic testing, are plotted in Fig. 1.
Copper and copper alloys retain a high assemblies must resist these stresses to avoid Many copper alloys have good strength, duc-
degree of ductility and toughness at subzero distortion. Pure copper and copper-tin alloys can tility, and notch toughness, even at liquid-helium
temperatures (Ref 1–5). In fact, copper alloys be strengthened by cold work or combinations temperature. Some have been used for valves and
become stronger and more ductile as the tem- of cold work and solid solution strengthening, tubular fittings in cryogenic equipment. Both
perature goes down, and they retain excellent respectively, but there are practical limits to the spring cold drawn alloy C51000 (phosphor
impact resistance to 20 K (–253 °C, or degree of strengthening obtainable. Very high bronze A) and the beryllium copper alloy
–424 °F). These properties, combined with strengths can be gained through combinations of C17200 in the HT condition are spring alloys.
good thermal conductivity, led to the wide- cold work and age-hardening, and beryllium These alloys exhibit increases in yield strength
spread use of copper and copper alloys for heat coppers, in which this strengthening method is and Young’s modulus at very low temperatures,
exchangers and other components in cryogenic especially efficient, have also been specified for and thus their spring properties are better at cryo-
plants and in low-temperature processing and use in high-field magnets. Regardless of the genic temperatures than at room temperature.
storage equipment. A shortage of the skilled strengthening mechanism, high strength and Impact Strength. The impact energy for the
welders required for fabricating copper equip- high conductivity are difficult to achieve simul- fracturing of notched specimens (Table 2) also
ment and the development of brazed aluminum taneously, and a compromise between strength remains at high levels for many copper-base
equipment were factors that caused copper to and conductivity is usually necessary. materials at temperatures as low as 20 K
be replaced by aluminum for many of these Cryogenic properties of copper-base materials (–253 °C, or –423 °F). These data represent
applications. of interest to superconducting magnet designers average values from two or more tests on longi-
Current interest in the cryogenic properties of have been extensively analyzed under a program tudinal specimens of the wrought product.
copper stems from its use as a thermal and elec- sponsored jointly by the U.S. National Institute Selected impact data are plotted in Fig. 2.
trical stabilizer in superconducting multifila-
ment wires (see the article “Shape Memory Temperature, °C
Alloys and Composite Materials” in this −250 −200 −150 −100 −50 0
Handbook). Copper’s high thermal and electri-
cal conductivities, combined with its excellent In band—C12200, ann; C12200, CD; C44300, ann; C64700, aged;
C65500, ann; and C71500, ann
120 167
Temperature, °F
–400 –300 –200 –100 0
170
100 136
24 C17200, ann
Energy, ft · lbf
160
Young's modulus, 106 psi
C23000, ann
Young's modulus, GPa
23 80 108
Energy, J
Cu-30Ni
22
150
60 C61400, ann 81
Cu-10Ni 21
C51000, spring temper
140 20
Cu 40 54
130 19 C17200, 1/ 8 hard
C46400, ann C26000, 3/ 4 hard
18 20 27
120
–250 –200 –150 –100 –50 0
Temperature, °C 0
−400 −300 −200 −100 0 100
Temperature, °F
Fig. 1 Young’s modulus for copper and two copper-
nickel alloys as determined ultrasonically. Fig. 2 Impact energy for Charpy specimens from bar stock. All specimens were V-notch, except for alloy C17200,
Source: Ref 8 which was U-notch. See also Table 2. Source: Ref 9
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Effect of Temperature on Properties / 431
The fatigue properties of copper and copper decreases by 25% between room temperature 50 −452 to −457 °F
−452 °F
alloys also increase as the testing temperature is and 240 °C (464 °F). Similarly, the stress required 300
reduced to 20 K (–253 °C, or –423 °F) or 4 K for 1% creep deformation falls from 70 MPa (10 40
Maximum stress, MPa

−423 °F 250
Maximum stress, ksi

(–269 °C, or –452 °F). Data for small axial- ksi) at 100 °C (212 °F) to 55 MPa (8 ksi) at 210 °C −423 °F
loaded round-bar specimens are plotted in Fig. (410 °F), while the stress for rupture in 105 h 30 200
70 °F
3. Data for fatigue tests on flexure sheet speci- decreases from 155 MPa (22 ksi) at 90 °C −297 °F
150
mens are presented in Fig. 4. (194 °F) to 100 MPa (14.5 ksi) at 160 °C (320 °F) 20
(Ref 10). Copper alloys, including high-copper Bar specimens, axial load, 100
alloys—such as beryllium copper, oxide disper- 10 R = −1(R = min stress/max stress)
High-Temperature Properties sion strengthened copper, and chromium cop- C11000 (ETP copper) 50
C10200 (oxygen-free copper)
per—aluminum bronzes, and copper-nickels have 0 0
Copper and copper alloys are generally not suit- considerably higher elevated-temperature proper- 104 105 106 107
able for carrying sustained stresses for lengthy ties (see, for example, Fig. 5–7), but they cannot Fatigue life, cycles
periods of time at high temperatures (i.e., they do compete with heat-resistant alloys such as alloy
not exhibit high creep strengths or stress-rupture steels, stainless steels, and nickel-base alloys.
strengths). For example, as shown in Fig. 5, the Copper and copper alloys are used, however,
Fig. 3 Fatigue properties of annealed copper at low
tensile strength of phosphorus deoxidized copper in some applications involving moderate tem- temperatures. Source: Ref 9
Table 1 Typical low-temperature tensile properties of copper and copper alloys

Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength Notch tensile strength(a) Young’s modulus
Reduction in
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, % area, % MPa ksi GPa 106 psi
C10200, bar, O61 temper(b)

24 75 220 32.2 75 10.9 54 86 … … … …
–78 –108 270 39.0 80 11.6 53 84 … … … …
–196 –320 360 52.2 88 12.8 60 84 … … … …
–253 –423 420 60.7 90 13.1 69 83 … … … …
24 75 215 31.3 46 6.7 45 76 300 43.3 105 15.1
–78 –108 265 38.3 46 6.6 56 87 345 50.4 110 16.0
–196 –320 350 50.6 51 7.4 62 84 430 62.3 110 16.2
–253 –423 440 63.8 58 8.4 68 83 495 72.0 110 16.3
–269 –452 415 60.4 54 7.9 65 81 515 74.7 115 16.4
24 75 265 38.5 66 9.6 56 84 345 49.9 105 15.1
–78 –108 290 41.8 70 10.2 57 80 385 55.6 115 16.4
–196 –320 380 55.2 91 13.2 86 78 475 69.2 120 17.7
–253 –423 505 73.2 110 15.6 95 73 525 76.3 125 18.0
–269 –451 470 68.2 105 15.0 91 73 545 78.9 125 18.1
C26000, bar, H03 temper(c)
24 75 655 95.2 420 60.9 14 58 … … … …
–78 –108 695 101 445 64.3 17 62 … … … …
–196 –320 805 117 475 68.6 28 63 … … … …
–253 –423 910 132 505 73.4 32 58 … … … …
24 75 340 49.6 150 21.4 38 79 450 65.0 120 17.7
–78 –108 375 54.7 170 24.7 42 77 505 73.1 … …
–196 –320 495 72.0 170 24.8 50 77 600 87.2 135 19.5
–253 –423 570 82.5 210 30.2 50 73 670 97.1 … …
–269 –452 555 80.6 170 24.9 53 73 690 100 140 20.5
24 75 400 57.8 130 18.7 47 68 545 79.4 145 20.9
–78 –108 470 68.0 155 22.2 48 70 625 90.5 150 22.1
–196 –320 620 89.8 220 31.6 52 70 780 113 130 18.8
–253 –423 710 103 265 38.1 51 66 885 128 150 21.7
–269 –452 725 105 275 40.1 48 65 895 130 135 19.5
C51000, bar, H08 temper(d)
24 75 535 77.4 495 72.0 18 78 940 136 110 15.6
–78 –108 590 85.6 545 78.7 30 78 1010 147 115 16.5
–196 –320 725 105 615 89.2 34 67 1150 167 115 16.7
–253 –423 905 131 725 105 39 62 1280 185 115 16.5
–269 –452 800 116 690 100 34 58 1280 185 115 16.4
C17200 sheet, TD02 temper(e)
24 75 620 90 550 80 15 … … … 120 17.5
–78 –108 655 95 600 87 20 … … … 120 17.6
–196 –320 805 117 690 100 37 … … … 130 18.8
–253 –423 945 137 750 109 45 … … … 135 19.5
C17200 sheet, TH02 temper(f)
24 75 1320 191 1140 166 2.8 … … … 130 19
–253 –423 1640 238 1230 178 3.5 … … … 145 21
All alloys have a longitudinal base-metal orientation. (a) Kt 5. (b) Annealed. (c) 3/4 hard. (d) Spring temper. (e) Solution treated, cold worked to 1/2 hard. (f) Aged 2 h at 350 °C (600 °F). Source: Ref 1–5
peratures where high conductivity or good heat temperature mechanical property data for cop- strained solid), which can lead to service fail-
transfer characteristics are needed. The elevat- per and copper alloys. ures. Because of the wide variations in compo-
ed-temperature properties of importance for sition and processing among commercial cop-
these applications include resistance to stress Stress Relaxation in per alloys, resistance to stress relaxation varies
relaxation and thermal softening. Both of these Copper and Copper Alloys considerably. Of course, selection of an alloy
characteristics are discussed subsequently. for a given application is based not only on
Additional short-time elevated-temperature As mentioned previously, copper and copper stress-time-temperature response but also on
data, creep strength data, and stress-rupture alloys are used extensively in structural appli- such factors as cost, basic mechanical and
data for copper alloys can be found in the arti- cations in which they are subject to moderate- physical properties, operating temperature,
cle “Powder Metallurgy Copper and Copper ly elevated temperatures. Examples include service environment, and formability. For
Alloys” (see the discussion on oxide dispersion automotive radiators, solar heating panels, many applications, electrical conductivity is a
strengthened alloys) and in the data sheets communications cable, and electrical connec- primary consideration.
found in the articles “Properties of Wrought tors. At relatively low operating temperatures, Stress Relaxation Data. Unalloyed copper
Copper and Copper Alloys” and “Properties of these alloys can undergo stress relaxation C11000 (electrolytic tough pitch) is probably the
Cast Copper and Copper Alloys” in this (decrease in stress resulting from transforma- most inexpensive high-conductivity copper and
Handbook. Reference 10 also reviews high- tion of elastic strain into plastic strain in a con- is used extensively because of its ease of fabrica-
Table 2 Impact properties of copper and copper alloys at low temperatures

Test temperature Energy absorbed
Copper or Fracture
copper alloy number Common name Condition Type of specimen °C °F J ft · lbf area(a), %
C10200 Oxygen-free copper Annealed bar, 19 mm 1/2 thickness, V-notch Charpy 24 75 71.2 52.5 25
(0.75 in.) diam (HRH 86) –78 –108 77.3 57.0 25
–196 –320 88.8 65.5 25
–253 –423 86.1 63.5 25
C12200 Phosphorus deoxidized Annealed bar, 19 mm V-notch Charpy 24 75 150.5 111 20
copper, high residual (0.75 in.) diam –78 –108 151.8 112 20
phosphorus –196 –320 151.8 112 20
–250 –418 161.3 119 50
C12200 Phosphorus deoxidized Cold-drawn bar, 19 mm V-notch Charpy 24 75 151.8 112 10
copper, high residual (0.75 in.) diam –78 –108 151.8 112 10
phosphorus –196 –320 151.8 112 10
–250 –418 161.3 119 40
C17200 Beryllium copper Annealed bar, 19 mm U-notch Charpy 24 75 138.3 102 50
(0.75 in.) diam (HRB 95) –78 –108 133.5 98.5 50
–196 –320 117.3 86.5 75
C17200 Beryllium copper 1/2 hard-drawn bar, 19 mm U-notch Charpy 24 75 50.8 37.5 75
(0.75 in.) diam (HRB 95) –78 –108 54.2 40.0 75
–196 –320 46.8 34.5 100
C17200 Beryllium copper Annealed and tempered bar, 1/2 thickness, V-notch Charpy 24 75 7.5 5.5 100
13 mm (0.50 in.) diam –196 –320 6.4 4.7 100
–253 –423 6.8 5.0 100
C23000 Red brass 85% Annealed bar, 19 mm V-notch Charpy 24 75 130.2 96.0 95
(0.75 in.) diam –78 –108 112.0 82.6 95
–196 –320 106.4 78.5 95
–250 –418 102.4 75.5 95
C26000 Cartridge brass 70% 3/4 hard bar, 19 mm (0.75 in.) V-notch Charpy 24 75 21.0 15.5 100
(70-30 brass) diam (HRB 88) –78 –108 21.0 15.5 100
–196 –320 21.0 15.5 100
C44300 Admiralty arsenical Annealed bar, 19 mm V-notch Charpy 24 75 151.8 112 10
(0.75 in.) diam –78 –108 153.2 113 10
–196 –320 154.6 114 10
–250 –418 154.6 114 10
C46400 Naval brass Annealed bar, 19 mm V-notch Charpy 24 75 52.6 38.8 100
(0.75 in.) diam –78 –108 56.0 41.3 100
–196 –320 50.7 37.4 100
–250 –418 47.7 35.2 100
C51000 Phosphor bronze, 5% A Spring temper bar, 19 mm V-notch Charpy 24 75 143.7 106 95
(0.75 in.) diam –78 –108 111.4 82.2 95
–196 –320 73.9 54.5 95
–250 –418 69.3 51.1 95
C61400 Aluminum bronze D Annealed bar, 19 mm V-notch Charpy 24 75 149.1 110 95
(0.75 in.) diam –78 –108 134.6 99.3 95
–196 –320 96.9 71.5 95
–250 –418 90.2 66.5 95
C64700 Copper nickel silicon Aged bar, 19 mm V-notch Charpy 24 75 149.1 110 90
(0.75 in.) diam –78 –108 145.1 107 90
–196 –320 147.8 109 50
–250 –418 157.3 116 25
C65500 High-silicon bronze A Annealed bar, 19 mm V-notch Charpy 24 75 151.8 112 5
(0.75 in.) diam –78 –108 151.8 112 5
–196 –320 154.6 114 5
–250 –418 157.3 116 5
C71500 Copper-nickel, 30% Annealed bar, 19 mm V-notch Charpy 24 75 155.9 115 60
(0.75 in.) diam –78 –108 154.6 114 60
–196 –320 154.6 114 60
–250 –418 154.6 114 60
(a) If specimen did not separate into two pieces, the fracture area was less than 100%. Source: Ref 9
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
tion. The stress-relaxation behavior of this mate- behavior of high-conductivity copper can be Temperature, °F
rial is rather poor, as demonstrated in Fig. 8, in achieved by adding alloying elements that cause 400 800 1200 1400
800
which relaxed stress is plotted as a function of solid-solution strengthening, age hardening, or
time and temperature for 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) dispersion hardening (Ref 13). For example, Ni-Al bronze 100
Tensile strength, MPa

C11000 wire initially stressed in tension to 89 minute additions of silver significantly reduce 600
Tensile strength, ksi

70-30 80
MPa (13 ksi). Comparison of stress values at a stress relaxation in copper (Ref 14, 15). copper-nickel
given time for different temperatures illustrated Besides the strengthened high-conductivity 400
60
the very sharp dependence of stress relaxation on coppers for which stress-relaxation data are
temperature for this copper. At 93 °C (200 °F), given in Table 3, proprietary coppers strength- 90-10 copper-nickel 40
for example, no tension remains after 105 h (11.4 ened with small amounts of cadmium, chromi- 200
years), whereas 40% of the initial stress remains um, zirconium, or a combination of one or more 20
DHP-copper
after 40 years at room temperature. For C11000 of these elements have been found to have good 0 0
and for many other copper metals, stress relax- to superior stress-relaxation resistance (Ref 11). 0 200 400 600 800 1000
ation in a given time period is inversely propor- Processing variations that strengthen copper Temperature, °C
tional to absolute temperature (Ref 11). metals, even including internal oxidation, are
The stress-relaxation behavior of C10200 (oxy- almost always beneficial. Fig. 5 Tensile strengths of copper alloys over a range of
gen-free copper) is somewhat better than that of Lower-conductivity alloys, which are elevated temperatures. Source: Ref 10
C11000, as shown in Table 3, which also presents strengthened by alloy additions or precipitation
stress-relaxation data for many other high-conduc- hardening, exhibit improved resistance to stress LIVE GRAPH
tivity copper metals. (For compositions of these relaxation, compared to pure copper. The per- Click here to view
metals, see Table 4; basic mechanical properties formance of any particular material will be Temperature, °F
Stress for 1% creep strain, MPa
Stress for 1% creep strain, ksi

are given in Table 5.) A more extensive compari- dependent on its chemical composition, condi- 300
200 400 600 800
40
son of the mechanical behavior of C10200 and tion, and temperature at which it is tested. For
C11000 has been presented in Ref 12. materials that are strengthened by cold rolling, 30
200
Among the high-conductivity coppers, relax- several general comments can be made. First, 70-30 copper-nickel
ation is greatest in very-high-purity copper the amount of relaxation that will occur during a 20
(99.999%)—a material used mainly in given time at a certain temperature will increase 100
90-10 copper-nickel
research. Improvement in the stress-relaxation with increasing amounts of prior cold work. 10
0 DHP-copper
0
160 0 100 200 300 400 500
−423 °F Alloy C17200, beryllium copper, 1000 Temperature, °C
Maximum stress, MPa
0.078 in. sheet, condition 1/ 2 HT,

Maximum stress, ksi
120
191 ksi tensile strength
800
Fig. 6 Stress for 1% creep in 105 h for selected copper
−320 °F alloys. Source: Ref 10
−110 °F 600 LIVE GRAPH

80 Click here to view
70 °F 400 Temperature, °F
200 400 600 800 1000
40 0 400
Stress for rupture, MPa
160 50
Stress for rupture, ksi

Alloy C17200, beryllium copper, 90-10
−110 °F
Maximum stress, MPa
0.020 in. sheet, condition AT, 1000 300 copper-nickel 40

Maximum stress, ksi
178 ksi tensile strength 70-30 copper-nickel

−423 °F
120 800 200 30
−320 °F DHP-copper
20
600
100
80 10
70 °F 400 Ni-Al bronze
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
40 0
Temperature, °C
−423 °F Alloy C26000, 70-30 brass,

160 0.040 in. sheet, cold rolled and Fig. 7 Stress for rupture in 105 h for selected copper
alloys. Source: Ref 10
stress relieved, 95 ksi 1000
−320 °F tensile strength
LIVE GRAPH
Maximum stress, MPa
Maximum stress, ksi
120 800 Click here to view

−110 °F
600
80
400
70 °F
40
200
0 0
104 105 106 107
Fatigue life, cycles
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view Fig. 8 Tensile-stress-relaxation characteristics of
C11000. Data are for tinned 30 AWG (0.25 mm
Fig. 4 Low-temperature fatigue properties of copper alloy sheet specimens. R –1. Fatigue rate: 1800 cycles per diam) annealed ETP copper wire; initial elastic stress, 89
minute at 70, –110, and –320 °F; 3450 and 5175 cycles per minute at –423 °F. Source: Ref 9 MPa (13 ksi).
Table 3 Tensile-stress-relaxation data for selected types of copper wire

Temperature Initial stress Percent of initial stress remaining after:
Material Temper Length of test, h °C °F MPa ksi 10,000 h 40 years
0.25 mm (0.01 in.) diameter wire

C10200, tinned O61 10,000 27 80 41.0 5.95 72 55
10,000 27 80 61.5 8.92 70 53
10,000 27 80 82.0 11.9 69 50
2,850 121 250 82.0 11.9 15 0
2,850 149 300 82.0 11.9 6 0
C10200, tinned H04 10,000 27 80 79.9 11.6 82 68
8,600 66 150 88.9 12.9 78 68
9,300 93 200 88.9 12.9 67 42
2,850 121 250 88.9 12.9 55 37
2,850 149 300 88.9 12.9 42 18
10,000 27 80 160 23.2 80 68
8,600 66 150 160 23.2 69 57
9,300 93 200 160 23.2 59 43
2,850 121 250 160 23.2 40 14
2,850 149 300 160 23.2 22 0
C11000, tinned O61 10,000 23 73 44.8 6.5 60 41
9,300 66 150 44.8 6.5 47 22
9,700 93 200 44.8 6.5 32 3
2,850 121 250 44.8 6.5 12 0
2,850 149 300 44.8 6.5 12 0
10,000 23 73 88.9 12.9 60 38
9,300 66 150 88.9 12.9 30 6
9,700 93 200 88.9 12.9 20 0
2,850 121 250 88.9 12.9 8 0
2,850 149 300 88.9 12.9 8 0
C12000, tinned O61 10,000 27 80 52.4 7.6 86 80
10,000 27 80 77.9 11.3 85 79
10,000 27 80 104 15.1 84 78
C13400, tinned(a) H00 2,833 93 200 88.9 12.9 50 27
2,833 93 200 101 14.7 49 28
2,833 93 200 152 22.1 45 25
2,833 93 200 203 29.5 42 19
C13700, tinned(b) H00 9,700 23 73 88.9 12.9 88 83
9,300 66 150 88.9 12.9 78 67
9,700 93 200 88.9 12.9 70 52
2,850 121 250 88.9 12.9 51 27
2,760 149 300 88.9 12.9 41 8
9,700 23 73 136 19.7 86 81
9,300 66 150 136 19.7 77 64
9,700 93 200 136 19.7 67 48
2,850 121 250 136 19.7 42 19
2,760 149 300 136 19.7 28 0
C15000, tinned H04(c) 9,700 23 73 88.9 12.9 93 92
9,300 66 150 88.9 12.9 93 89
9,700 93 200 88.9 12.9 92 82
2,850 121 250 88.9 12.9 82 78
2,850 149 300 88.9 12.9 80 76
9,700 23 73 203 29.5 93 92
9,800 66 150 203 29.5 93 87
9,700 93 200 203 29.5 92 82
2,850 121 250 203 29.5 80 76
2,850 149 300 203 29.5 78 74
C15000, bare H04(c) 9,700 23 73 88.9 12.9 96 95
9,600 66 150 88.9 12.9 96 95
9,700 93 200 88.9 12.9 96 95
9,700 23 73 203 29.5 96 95
9,600 66 150 203 29.5 96 95
9,700 93 200 203 29.5 86 79
C15000, tinned H00 2,800 93 200 88.9 12.9 96 91
2,800 93 200 128 18.6 95 90
2,800 93 200 192 27.9 94 89
2,800 93 200 256 37.2 93 89
C15000, silver plated (d) 9,800 27 80 74.4 10.8 97.9 95
9,800 27 80 112 16.2 98.8 94
9,800 27 80 149 21.6 96.7 93
C16200, tinned H04(e) 9,700 23 73 88.9 12.9 97 94
9,700 66 150 88.9 12.9 93 92
9,700 93 200 88.9 12.9 92 87
2,800 121 250 88.9 12.9 79 71
2,800 149 300 88.9 12.9 62 40
9,700 23 73 226 32.8 95 92
9,700 66 150 226 32.8 91 88
(continued)
(a) Boron-deoxidized copper containing 0.027% Ag. (b) Boron-deoxidized copper containing 0.085% Ag. (c) In-process strand annealed. (d) Proprietary mill processing. (e) Batch annealed
Table 3 (continued)
Temperature Initial stress Percent of initial stress remaining after:
Material Temper Length of test, h °C °F MPa ksi 10,000 h 40 years
9,700 93 200 226 32.8 88 84

2,800 121 250 226 32.8 77 64
2,800 149 300 226 32.8 60 34
C16200, tinned H00 2,800 93 200 88.9 12.9 91 85
2,800 93 200 114 16.6 91 84
2,800 93 200 172 24.9 91 84
2,800 93 200 229 33.2 91 84
0.5 mm (0.02 in.) diameter wire
C10200 O61 22,600 27 80 58.6 8.5 81 71
22,600 27 80 75.8 11.0 81 71
22,600 27 80 86.2 12.5 81 71
22,600 27 80 103 15.0 79 70
22,600 27 80 110 16.0 78 67
C10200 H00 4,060 93 200 68.9 10.0 48 9
4,060 93 200 142 20.6 42 0
C11000 O61 35,000 27 80 34.5 5.0 60 43
35,000 27 80 68.9 10.0 55 39
C11000 O61 24,500 27 80 34.5 5.0 60 38
24,500 27 80 41.2 6.0 60 38
24,500 27 80 51.7 7.5 59 38
24,500 27 80 68.9 10.0 57 38
24,500 27 80 82.7 12.0 56 38
24,500 27 80 96.5 14.0 55 37
C11000 H00 4,100 93 200 68.9 10.0 35 6
4,100 93 200 121 17.5 23 0
C11600 H00 4,100 93 200 68.9 10.0 50 20
4,100 93 200 143 20.7 43 18
C13400 H00 4,100 93 200 68.9 10.0 53 27
4,100 93 200 148 21.4 38 14
C15500, bare H00 4,060 93 200 68.9 10.0 78 62
4,060 93 200 164 23.8 74 60
C16200 H00 4,100 93 200 68.9 10.0 88 82
4,100 93 200 158 22.9 80 69
(a) Boron-deoxidized copper containing 0.027% Ag. (b) Boron-deoxidized copper containing 0.085% Ag. (c) In-process strand annealed. (d) Proprietary mill processing. (e) Batch annealed
Table 5 Typical room-temperature mechanical properties of copper wire tested for stress
relaxation
Table 4 Chemical composition of copper Tensile strength Yield strength(a)
wire tested for stress relaxation Material Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation(b), %
Conductivity,
%IACS
Composition, %
0.25 mm (0.01 in.) diam
Material Ag Pb Fe Ni Others
C10200, tinned O61 250 36.3 160 23.2 24.6 99
0.25 mm (0.01 in.) diam C10200, tinned H04 271 39.3 228 33.1 2.3 99
C10200 0.002 … … … … C11000, tinned O61 254 36.9 147 21.3 30.0 99
C11000 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.001 … C12000, tinned O61 276 40.0 198 28.7 18.1 98
C12000 0.002 … … … … C13400, tinned H00 365 53.0 359 52.1 0.82 98
C13400 0.031 … 0.003 … 0.02 B, C13700, tinned H00 242 35.1 221 32.1 10.5 99
0.001 Si C15000, tinned H04 414 60.0 365 53.0 3.7 90
C13700 0.090 0.001 0.004 … 0.01 B, C15000, bare H04 … … … … … …
0.001 Si C15000, tinned H00 393 57.0 388 56.3 0.82 93
C15000 0.003 0.001 0.002 … 0.001 Mg, C15000, silver plated … 347 50.3 298 43.3 13.5 …
0.15 Zr C16200, tinned H04 473 68.6 404 58.6 6.6 85
C16200 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.005 0.75 Cd, C16200, tinned H00 403 58.5 395 57.3 0.91 85
0.01 Sn 0.05 mm (0.02 in.) diam
0.05 mm (0.02 in.) diam C10200, tinned O61 249 36.1 138 20.0 34.7 101
C10200 0.002 … … … … C10200, bare H00 278 40.3 261 37.8 11.1 101
C11000 0.001 … … … 0.0355 O C11000, tinned O61 239 34.7 … … 28.8 101
C13000 0.083 … 0.0029 0.0079 0.0310 O C11000, silver plated O61 233 33.8 … … 24.6 101
C13400 0.031 … 0.003 … 0.02 B, C11000, bare H00 280 40.6 245 35.5 11.7 101
0.001 Si C11600 H00 295 42.8 274 39.8 9.5 98
C15500 0.037 … … … 0.10 Mg, C13400 H00 258 37.5 240 34.8 9.4 98
0.063 P C15500, bare H00 367 53.2 332 48.1 1.9 93.8
C16200 0.003 0.005 … 0.005 0.97 Cd, C16200 H00 312 45.3 276 40.1 10.9 85
0.007 Sn,
0.07 Zn (a) 0.2% offset. (b) In 254 mm (10 in.)
Second, the performance of these materials may Since copper alloys are commonly used in elec- tests, such as in Table 6, serves as only a compar-
vary, depending on the orientation of the test trical and electronic connectors, some manufac- ative ranking of alloy performance because these
sample to the rolling direction. Finally, the per- turers have published data to assist in the design of tests are usually performed on flat samples cut
formance of heavily cold-rolled materials can be these items (Ref 18). A compilation of stress- from strip, rather than on finished parts. Other fac-
improved by stress-relief annealing (Ref 16, 17). relaxation data from these sources for some of the tors that might influence part performance include
Figures 9 and 10 illustrate these effects for more common alloys is given in Table 6. It is part geometry, deformation introduced during fab-
alloys C51000 and C72500. important to realize that the data from relaxation rication, and performance of other materials used
Fig. 10 Anisotropic stress-relaxation behavior in bend-

ing for highly cold-worked C72500 strip. Data
are for 89Cu-9Ni-2Sn alloy cold rolled 98.7% (reduction in
Fig. 9 Anisotropic stress-relaxation behavior in bending for highly cold-worked C51000 strip. Data are for 5% Sn area) to 0.25 mm (0.01 in.) and heat treated 2 h at 357 °C
phosphor bronze cold rolled 93% (reduction in area) to 0.25 mm (0.01 in.) and heat treated 2 h at 260 °C (675 °F). Points represented by circles are for stress relax-
(500 °F). Graphs at left are for stress relaxation transverse to the rolling direction; graphs at right, for stress relaxation ation parallel to the rolling direction; triangles, for relaxation
parallel to the rolling direction. Initial stresses: as rolled, parallel orientation, 607 MPa (88 ksi); as rolled, transverse at 45° to the rolling direction; squares, for relaxation trans-
orientation, 634 MPa (92 ksi); heat treated, parallel orientation, 641 MPa (93 ksi); heat treated, transverse orienta- verse to the rolling direction. Open points are for as-rolled
tion, 738 MPa (107 ksi) stock; solid points, for heat-treated stock. Initial stresses: as-
rolled, parallel orientation, 524 MPa (76 ksi); as rolled, 45°
orientation, 510 MPa (74 ksi); as-rolled, transverse orienta-
tion, 586 MPa (85 ksi); heat treated, parallel orientation, 669
MPa (97 ksi); heat treated, 45° orientation, 552 MPa (80 ksi);
heat treated, transverse orientation, 710 MPa (103 ksi)
Table 6 Typical stress-relaxation values for selected copper alloys
Percent of initial stress remaining after specified time at:
Room temperature 75 °C (170 °F) 105 °C (220 °F) 150 °C (300 °F) 200 °C (390 °F)
Alloy Temper 103 h 105 h 103 h 105 h 103 h 105 h 103 h 105 h 103 h 105 h
C15100 H02 97 95 … … 86 81 84 80 … …
H04 93 89 … … 80 76 … … … …
H06 94 92 … … 78 71 … … … …
C17200 AM … … … … 97(a) … … … 67 …
1/4 HM … … … … 97(a) … … … 67 …
1/2 HM … … … … 97(a) … … … 67 …
HM … … … … 98(a) … … … 68 …
SHM … … … … 98(a) … … … 68 …
XHM … … … … 98(a) … … … 69 …
XHMS … … … … 98(a) … … … 69 …
C17410 1/2 HT … … … … 85(a) … … … … …
HT … … … … 80(a) … 76 … … …
C19400 H02 95 93 … … 78 71 … … … …
C26000 H04 95 92 74 63 … … … … … …
H08 87 84 68 53 … … 36 … … …
C51000 H02 94 94 … … 89 81 … … … …
H08 95 93 90 81 75 62 44 … … …
C52100 H02 97 96 92 89 88 83 … … … …
H04 99 98 89 84 81 71 … … … …
H08 98 98 91 87 82 74 45 … … …
C63800 H03 89 84 75 66 … … … … … …
H06 87 81 69 56 … … … … … …
C65400 H02 … … … … 81 78 … … … …
H04 … … … … 76 69 … … … …
H08 … … … … 71 63 … … … …
C68800 H02 97 95 78 67 … … … … … …
H08 95 90 73 61 … … … … … …
C70250 TM00 98 98 97 96 91 83 80 65 … …
C72500 H02 … … … … 86 82 … … … …
H08 97 96 … … 83 76 74 … 61 …
(a) Data for C17200 and C17410 in the 105 °C (220 °F) column are actually for tests at 100 °C (212 °F). Source: Ref 18, 19
in the part (for example, plastic housings used in springs have performed adequately, provided relaxes according to behavior that varies with
electrical connectors). Testing of prototype parts is the ratio of nickel to phosphorus is at least 5 the plating system and bath used (Ref 22). If
the best way to assess overall performance. to 1 (Ref 20). (The nominal ratio for this alloy the board is repeatedly heated and cooled, the
Stress Relaxation in Mechanical Compo- is about 3.5:1.) For applications where lower electroplated copper alternately expands and
nents. A solderless wrapped connection such as electrical conductivity can be tolerated, relaxes during each heating cycle, and perma-
the one shown in Fig. 11, in which electrical C17500 (Cu-2.5Co-0.6Be) conductivity, 45% nent strain accumulates in the copper barrel
contact is made by wrapping a wire around a ter- IACS at 20 °C (68 °F), is a satisfactory alter- until the assembly fails by buckling or by low-
minal, is a typical application for high-conduc- native for temperatures up to 165 °C (330 °F). cycle fatigue.
tivity copper metals where stress relaxation is of Both C19000 and C17500 must be age hard-
concern. Typical operating temperatures can be ened after forming.
as high as 85 °C (185 °F); generally, conductiv- A typical application of the lower-conductivi- Thermal Softening in Electrical Coppers
ities higher than 98% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F) are ty, high-strength copper alloys is the pressure-
desirable. After the connection is made, it is type, split-beam connector shown in Fig 13. The The term thermal softening refers to a degra-
maintained by elastic stresses in the two mem- knife edges of the connector first cut through the dation of strength and/or hardness after exposure
bers. If the wire undergoes stress relaxation, insulation on the conductor and then must main- to elevated temperatures. It is of primary con-
electrical contact between the wire and the ter- tain electrical contact with it. Materials used for cern when using annealed high-conductivity
minal may be lost. connectors of this type, depending on operating coppers, which are soft and ductile materials.
The spring in the alarm fuse shown in Fig. stress and temperature, include some of the Thermal Softening Data. At temperatures
12 is a typical application for copper alloys phosphor bronzes, nickel silvers, copper-nickels, lower than those inducing recrystallization in
with room-temperature conductivities of 55 to beryllium-coppers, and some of the copper- commercial heat treatments, thermal softening
85% IACS. This spring conducts relatively nickel-tin alloys strengthened by spinodal can occur over extended periods. If resistance to
high electrical currents and also triggers an decomposition (Ref 21). softening at slightly elevated temperature is
alarm circuit if the fuse blows. To perform the Stress relaxation can produce mechanical or required, C11100 is often specified. This copper
latter function reliably, the spring must retain thermal ratcheting, which sometimes occurs in contains a small amount of cadmium, which
spring force for extended periods of time. But multilayer circuit boards, such as the one illus- raises the temperature at which recovery and
if the spring material undergoes stress relax- trated in Fig. 14. A multilayer board usually recrystallization occur. Oxygen-free copper,
ation, the device may fail to trigger the alarm consists of an epoxy-glass composite substrate electrolytic tough pitch copper, and fire-refined
when the fuse blows. C16200 (Cu-1Cd) has with several lands of electroplated copper and tough pitch copper are available as silver-bear-
been used successfully in spring-loaded alarm including a plated-through hole. When a leading coppers having specific minimum silver con-
fuses operating at temperatures below 95 °C wire is soldered into the plated-through hole, tents. The silver, which may be present as an
(200 °F). (This alloy has an electrical conduc- differential thermal expansion causes the hole impurity in anode copper or may be intentional-
tivity of 80 to 85% IACS at 20 °C, or 68 °F.) to expand more than the substrate, and a tensile ly alloyed to molten cathode copper, also
For higher operating temperatures up to stress is applied to the copper barrel. While at imparts resistance to softening to cold-worked
165 °C (330 °F), C19000 (Cu-Ni-P alloy) temperature, the stressed electroplated copper metal. Silver-bearing coppers and cadmium-
bearing coppers are used for applications such as
automotive radiators and electrical conductors
that must operate at temperatures above approx-
imately 200 °C (400 °F).
Adding small amounts of elements such as sil-
ver, cadmium, iron, cobalt, and zirconium to
deoxidized copper imparts resistance to soften-
ing at the times and temperatures encountered in
soldering operations, such as those used to join
components of automobile and truck radiators,
and those used in semiconductor packaging oper-
Fig. 11 Typical solderless wrapped connection. Wrap-
ations. Thermal and electrical conductivities and
ping tool is removed after connection is made.
room-temperature mechanical properties are
Fig. 12 Typical spring-type alarm fuse
unaffected by small additions of these elements.
Fig. 14 Cutaway view through a typical multilayer cir-

cuit board showing barrel-land construction
Fig. 13 Typical quick clip connection and a plated-through hole
Fig. 15 Softening characteristics of cadmium-bearing copper (C14300, represented by solid curves) and silver-bearing tough pitch copper (C11400, represented by dashed curves).
(a) Softening curves for material cold reduced 21% in area, from 0.1 to 0.075 mm (0.0038 to 0.0030 in.) in thickness. (b) Softening curves for material cold reduced 90%
in area, from 0.75 to 0.075 mm (0.0300 to 0.0030 in.) in thickness
Fig. 16 Softening resistance of lead frame materials at the upper temperature limit Fig. 17 Softening resistance of lead frame materials at an intermediate temperature
(500 °C, or 930 °F) level (350 °C, or 660 °F)
However, cadmium-copper and zirconium-cop- Figure 15 illustrates the softening characteris- line packages. During packaging and assembly,
per work harden at higher rates than either silver- tics of C14300 and C11400 as measured for lead frames may be subjected to temperatures up
bearing copper or electrolytic tough pitch copper. several temperatures and two tempers. As to 350 °C (660 °F) for several minutes and up to
Cold-rolled silver-bearing copper is used shown in Fig. 15(b), C14300 cold rolled to a 500 °C (930 °F) for several seconds. The leads
extensively for automobile radiator fins. tensile strength of 400 MPa (64 ksi) retains 91% must maintain good strength because they are
Usually such strip is only moderately cold strength after a typical core bake of 3 min at pressed into socket connectors, often by auto-
rolled because heavy cold rolling makes silver- 345 °C (650 °F). Silver-bearing copper C11400 mated assembly machines; softened leads col-
bearing copper more likely to soften during sol- given the same cold reduction retains only 60% lapse, causing spoilage. Copper alloys devel-
dering or baking operations. Some manufactur- tensile strength after the same baking schedule. oped for lead frames are discussed in the article
ers prefer cadmium-copper C14300 because it Another application in which softening resist- “Applications” in this Handbook.
can be severely cold rolled without making it ance is of paramount importance is lead frames Alloy C15100 (copper-zirconium), alloy
susceptible to softening during soldering. for electronic devices, such as plastic dual-in- C15500 (copper-silver-magnesium-phospho-
rus), alloy C19400 (copper-iron-phosphorus- Bronzes, ASTM Bulletin, Vol 240, Sept 13. A. Fox and J.J. Swisher, Superior Hook-
zinc), and alloy C19500 (copper-iron-cobalt-tin- 1959, p 47–50 Up Wires for Miniaturized Solderless
phosphorus) are popular for these applications 5. R.P. Reed and R.P. Mikesell, Low- Wrapped Connections, J. Inst. Met., Vol
because they have good conductivity, good Temperature (295 to 4 K) Mechanical 100, 1972, p 30
strength, and good softening resistance. Figures Properties of Selected Copper Alloys, J. 14. A. Fox, “The Creep and Stress Relaxation
16 and 17 compare the softening resistance of Mater., Vol 2 (No. 2), June 1976, p Behavior of Silver Bearing Copper Wire,”
these alloys with electrolytic copper C11000. 370–392 master’s thesis, New Jersey Institute of
6. D.B. Smathers, A15 Superconductors, Technology, 1972
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys 15. W.L. Finlay, Silver-Bearing Copper: A
and Special-Purpose Materials, Vol 2, ASM Compendium of the Origin, Characteristics,
Portions of this article were adapted from: Handbook, ASM International, 1990, p Uses and Future of Copper Containing 12 to
1060–1076 25 Ounces per Ton of Silver, Corinthian
• D.E. Tyler and W.T. Black, Introduction to 7. N.J. Simon, E.S. Drexler, and R.P. Reed, Editions, 1968
Copper and Copper Alloys, Properties and Properties of Copper and Copper Alloys at 16. A. Fox, The Effect of Extreme Cold Rolling
Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Special- Cryogenic Temperatures, NIST Monograph on the Stress Relaxation Characteristics of
Purpose Materials, Vol 2, ASM Handbook, 177, National Institute of Standards and CDA Copper Alloy 510 Strip, J. Mater., Vol
ASM International, 1990, p 216–240 Technology, U.S. Department of 6 (No. 2), June 1971, p 422–435
• Stress-Relaxation Characteristics of Copper Commerce, Feb 1992, p 20.1–20.15 17. A. Fox, Stress Relaxation and Fatigue of
and Copper Alloys, Properties and Selection: 8. H.M Ledbetter and W.F. Weston, “Low Two Electromechanical Spring Materials
Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose Temperature Elastic Properties of Some Strengthened by Thermomechanical
Materials, Vol 2, ASM Handbook, ASM Copper-Nickel Alloys,” Materials Research Processing, IEEE Trans. Parts, Mater.
International, 1990, p 258–264 for Superconducting Machinery-IV, Semi Packag., Vol PMP-7 (No. 1), March 1971, p
Annual Report, National Bureau of 34–47
REFERENCES Standards, 10 Oct 1975 18. O. Brass, Spring Designers Data Package,
9. “Low-Temperature Properties of Copper and 2nd ed., T.D. Hann and S.P. Zarlingo, Ed.
1. R.P. Reed, Low-Temperature Mechanical Copper Alloys,” Application Data Sheet 19. E.W. Filer and C.R. Scorey, Stress
Properties of Welded and Brazed Copper, 104/5, Copper Development Association Inc. Relaxation in Beryllium Copper Strip, in
Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, K.D. 10. C.H. Thornton, S. Harper, and J.E. Stress Relaxation Testing, STP 676,
Timmerhaus, Ed., Vol 14, Plenum Press, Bowers, A Critical Survey of Available American Society for Testing and Materials,
1969, p 83–87 High Temperature Mechanical Property 1979, p 89–111
2. K.A. Warren and R.P. Reed, Tensile and Data for Copper and Copper Alloys, 20. A. Fox and R.C. Stoffers, High
Impact Properties of Selected Materials International Copper Research Associa- Conductivity, High Strength Wire Springs
from 20° to 300 °K, National Bureau of tion, Dec 1983 for Fuse Applications, Electrical Contacts,
Standards Monograph 63, 28 June 1963 11. A. Fox, Stress-Relaxation Characteristics in 1977 Proceedings of the Annual Holm
3. G.W. Geil and N.L. Carwile, Tensile Tension of High-Strength, High Conducti- Conference on Electrical Contacts, p
Properties of Copper, Nickel, and Some vity Copper and High Copper Alloy Wires, 233–240
Copper-Nickel Alloys at Low J. Test. Eval., Vol 2 (No. 1), Jan 1974, p 21. J.T. Plewes, Spinodal Cu-Ni-Sn Alloys Are
Temperatures, NBS Circular 520, National 32–39 Strong and Superductile, Met. Prog., July
Bureau of Standards, 7 May 1952, p 12. W.R. Opie, P.W. Taubenblat, and Y.T. Hsu, 1974, p 46
67–96 A Fundamental Comparison of the 22. A. Fox, Mechanical Properties at Elevated
4. R.M. McClintock, D.A. VanGundy, and Mechanical Behavior of Oxygen-Free and Temperature of Cu Bath Electroplated
R.H. Kropschot, Low Temperature Tough Pitch Coppers, J. Inst. Met., Vol 98, Copper for Multilayer Boards, J. Test. Eval.,
Tensile Properties of Copper and Four 1970, p 245 Vol 4 (No. 1), Jan 1976, p 74–84
Fatigue Properties
COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS, when compared The brasses, nickel silvers, and bronzes cov- a second-phase nickel silicide that provides pre-
to other structural alloys, are not used extensively ered in this article are strengthened by cold cipitation hardening.
in applications involving cyclic stressing. The work, the exception being C70250, the copper- Beryllium Coppers. Commercial wrought
most common use of copper or copper alloys nickel-silicon-magnesium alloy, which is beryllium copper alloys contain from 0.2 to 2.0
under dynamic loading is in rotating electrical strengthened by combinations of cold work and wt% Be and 0.2 to 2.7 wt% Co (or up to 2.2
machinery used for power generation. This appli- precipitation hardening. The beryllium coppers wt% Ni), with the balance primarily copper.
cation involves commercially pure copper and are strengthened by cold work and/or precipita- Within this compositional band, two distinct
very dilute copper alloys, which are not covered tion hardening. The spinodally strengthened classes of commercial materials have been
in this article. The reader is referred to Ref 1 to 3 copper-nickel-tin alloy is cold worked and aged. developed: high-strength alloys and moderate-
for information on fatigue of copper. The temper designations used for the materials conductivity alloys.
One application of copper alloys requiring tested are listed in Table 2. These designations Wrought high-strength alloys (C17000 and
resistance to fracture after two or three highly are used throughout the text and figures. C17200) contain 1.6 to 2.0 wt% Be and nominal
stressed reverse bend cycles relates to the use of Because of their ability to be precipitation hard- 0.25 wt% Co. Wrought moderate-conductivity
lead frame in insertion mounted microelectronic ened, C70250 and beryllium copper alloys can alloys (C17500 and C17510) contain 0.2 to 0.7
devices. The “leadbend fatigue” test involves be tailored across a wide range of strength and wt% Be and nominal 2.5% Co (or 2 wt% Ni).
repeated 90 degree bending and straightening of conductivity combinations. Additional fatigue
the lead frame leads. The test was designed to data can be found in the articles “Properties of Table 1 Alloy designations and composi-
ensure that materials used for lead frames would Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys” and tions discussed in this article
not be susceptible to fracture if leads were “Properties of Cast Copper and Copper Alloys” UNS designation Nominal composition, %
straightened after inadvertent deformation dur- in this Handbook. C17200 1.9 Be, 0.25 Co
ing handling. This subject is covered in Ref 4 C17410 0.3 Be, 0.4 Co
C17510 0.4 Be, 1.8 Ni
and 5, which describe the test method, list many C26000 30 Zn
of the alloys used for lead frames, and provide Alloy Metallurgy and C51000 5.0 Sn, 0.2 P
comparative leadbend fatigue data. With the General Mechanical Properties C63800 2.8 Al, 1.8 Si, 0.4 Co
increasing use of surface-mounted devices, the C65400 3.1 Si, 1.6 Sn, 0.05 Cr
C68800 23 Zn, 3.4 Al, 0.4 Co
leadbend fatigue test and this property have Brasses. Both the standard cartridge brass C72050 3.2 Ni, 0.75 Si, 0.2 Mg
become less important. Copper alloys whose (C26000, 70Cu-30Zn) and the higher-strength C72900 15 Ni, 8 Sn
fatigue characteristics are covered in this article aluminum brass (C68800) offer excellent com- C76200 29 Zn, 12 Ni, 0.5 Mn
are used in applications involving repeated flex- binations of strength and formability and are
ing: springs used for contacts and connectors, widely used as spring materials. The microstruc- Table 2 Copper alloy temper designations
bellows, and Bourdon tubes. Alloys used for ture of C26000 is an all- solid solution. In addi- discussed in this article
these applications include the brasses, bronzes tion to a copper-zinc-aluminum solid solution,
(tin-, silicon-, aluminum-, and combinations C68800 contains a second-phase cobalt alu-
ASTM B 601
temper designation(a) Process(b)
thereof), and beryllium coppers. Copper-nickel- minide that acts as a grain refiner. O60 Soft annealed
tin spinodally hardened alloys are also used in Nickel-Silvers. The copper-nickel-zinc alloy H01 CW to quarter-hard
connectors and contacts. Flexural fatigue prop- C76200 is a nickel-modified brass. The nickel H02 CW to half-hard
erties of all these classes of alloys in strip form modification offers improved strength over con- H03 CW to three-quarter hard
are presented in this article. Heavier copper H04 CW to hard
ventional brasses. This family of alloys is used H06 CW to extra hard
alloy sections subjected to cyclic loading are in springs of all types. H08 CW to spring
largely confined to the beryllium coppers for Bronzes. Tin bronze (C51000) is one of the H10 CW to extra spring
applications such as aircraft landing gear bush- most widely used alloys for springs that require H14 CW to super spring
ings, races and rollers for rolling-element bear- TB00 ST
strength higher than standard brass. It is also TF00 ST age
ings, and oil and gas downhole hardware such as used for bellows and Bourdon tubes. It is essen- TD01 ST CW
antigalling thread-saver subs and instrument tially a single-phase alloy. TD02 ST CW
housings. Rotating-beam fatigue results are The silicon-aluminum-bronze alloy (C63800) TD04 ST CW
reported for beryllium copper alloy C17200. and the silicon-tin-bronze alloy (C65400) both TH01 ST CW age
TH02 ST CW age
The wrought alloy designations and nominal are used in a broad range of electronic and elec- TH04 ST CW age
compositions of alloys covered in this article are trical springs. The microstructure is a single- TM00 CW age (mill hardened)
given in Table 1. Copper alloys are classified by phase solid solution, with a coarse second-phase TM02 CW age (mill hardened)
the Unified Numbering System (UNS) designa- particulate (cobalt silicide in the case of C63800). TM03 CW age (mill hardened)
TM04 CW age (mill hardened)
tions, which identify alloy groups by major The nickel-silicon alloy C70250 has wide TM06 CW age (mill hardened)
alloying element. More detailed information on application in electrical and electronic springs. It TM08 CW age (mill hardened)
alloy designations can be found in the article combines moderately high conductivity and
(a) TD, TH, and TM tempers increase in number with increasing cold
“Standard Designations for Wrought and Cast formability with high strength. The alloy work. (b) CW, cold work; ST, solution treat
Copper and Copper Alloys” in this Handbook. microstructure consists of an a solid solution and
Fatigue Properties / 441
The leanest alloy is C17410, which contains less als. This method employs a fixed-cantilever, The required deflection is determined by
than 0.4 wt% Be and 0.6 wt% Co. constant-deflection machine. The tapered test using either the cantilever simple beam equation
Additional detailed information on the com- sample is held as a cantilever beam in a clamp at or measured with strain-gaged samples under
position, physical metallurgy, mechanical prop- one end and deflected near the opposite end of dynamic conditions. The maximum outer fiber
erties, and thermal treatments of beryllium cop- the apex of the tapered section. Testing was done bending stress is calculated by:
per alloys, including casting alloys and special in a Krouse machine, with the force applied to
tempers and alloys, can be found in Ref 6. the sample by a cam and rod linkage. A wide 6PL
S
Spinodal Alloys. The family of copper-nickel- range of bending load ratios can be applied with bd 2
tin alloys spinodally strengthened during aging is this method. Typically, load ratios are chosen where S is the desired bending stress, P is the
represented here by the highest-strength version, between R –1 and 0 to simulate reverse bend- applied load at the connecting pin (apex of the
the 15Ni-8Sn alloy C72900 used for connectors. ing and unidirectional bending, respectively. The sample triangle), L is the distance between the
Optimal strength and formability are obtained by test frequency is approximately 20 Hz. connecting pin and the point of stress, b is the
a combination of cold working followed by aging. Test samples were made from commercial specimen width at length L from the point of load
materials. Gages covered 0.20 to 0.38 mm application, and d is the specimen thickness.
(0.008 to 0.015 in.) for the beryllium coppers A load cell at the fixed end of the sample is
Fatigue Testing and spinodal alloys and 0.25 to 1.5 mm (0.010 to used to detect change in the sample loading
0.60 in.) for the remaining alloys. Samples of the resulting from a macroscopic crack initiation.
Strip. Bend fatigue testing of strip was per- as-rolled strip were milled to the required test The load cell information is relayed to a moni-
formed in conformance with the ASTM B 593 specimen geometry. The rolled surface was left toring circuit that determines the test completion
standard method for copper alloy spring materi- intact and the milled edges deburred. based on the failure criteria required.
Rotating Beam. Fatigue tests of materials rep-
resenting heavy section products made from rod,
bar, and plate were conducted by the rotating-
beam method following ASTM E 647 guidelines.
Fatigue Data
Strip
Nonaging Alloys. All flexural fatigue data
are reported as S-N curves, where S is the maxi-
mum stress in flexure and N is the number of
LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH cycles to failure. Failure is defined as complete
Fig. 2 S-N curves for C68800. Longitudinal loading, specimen fracture. Fatigue strength is defined
Fig. 1 S-N curves for C26000. Longitudinal loading,
R –1 here as the maximum stress without failure after
R –1
100 million cycles of reversed bending. Figures
1 to 6 present S-N curves for the solid-solution
(nonaging) strengthened alloys (with or without
a second-phase grain refiner). In general, fatigue
strength follows tensile strength monotonically,
but there are exceptions where fatigue strength is
relatively insensitive to temper and a few cases,
most notably C51000 but also C65400, where
crossovers occur. This behavior has been
observed before in tin-bronze alloys (Ref 7, 8).
For many copper alloy systems, transverse
tensile and yield strengths are substantially high-
er than longitudinal strengths, and this charac-
LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH teristic is reflected normally by higher trans-
Click here to view Click here to view verse fatigue strengths, as show in Fig. 6.
Fig. 3 S-N curves for C76200. Longitudinal loading, Fig. 4 S-N curves for C51000. Longitudinal loading,
Although transverse data are not shown for the
R –1 R –1
other alloys, similar behavior is observed. In

Fig. 5 S-N curves for C63800. Longitudinal loading, Fig. 6 S-N curves for C65400. Longitudinal and trans- Fig. 7 S-N curves for C70250. Longitudinal loading,
R –1 verse loading, R –1 R –1
general, low-stacking-fault-energy (SFE) alloys fatigue strength in reverse bending; however, modulus as shown in Fig. 16) of beryllium cop-
such as C68800 and C63800, as well as C65400, in contrast, the TH04 temper displays the per in strip form has resulted in the use of these
exhibit greater directionality, more so than the greatest fatigue strength in unidirectional alloys as blades in many different types of
beryllium coppers or C70250. bending (Fig. 10). switches, thermostatic controls, and electro-
The C70250 alloy data are shown in Fig. 7 C17410 is manufactured in two mill-hardened mechanical relays. A switch, for example a
for three tempers. At higher cycles, the temper strip tempers, designated by their manufacturer snap-acting type, undergoes a high flexural load
effect is minimal; at lower cycles, there is some as TH02 and TH04. Typical mill-hardened tem- with each cycle. The lifetime of the device is
temper dependence. pers are designated TMx. These alloys do not ultimately limited by the fatigue life of the
All of the curves shown in Fig. 1 to 7 repre- require additional aging by the customer. Figures switch or relay contact blade. The S-N curves
sent fatigue stresses at which 50% of the sam- 14 and 15 show the fatigue curves for these shown in Fig. 17 illustrate the fatigue behavior
ples would be expected to fail. The data should alloys. The lower-strength (TH02) temper gener- of beryllium-copper for two different values of
therefore be treated as representative and not be ally shows greater fatigue strength in reverse the stress ratio R. Switch action almost always
used for design purposes. Table 3 lists tensile bending than the higher-strength temper. This is involves unidirectional bending (R 0), and
properties and fatigue strengths for the alloys in contrast to the tensile strength/fatigue trend therefore a very large number of cycles can be
shown in Fig. 1 to 7. seen in C17200 alloys. The difference between sustained by even a miniaturized switch or relay
Beryllium Coppers: Heat-Treatable and the two tempers is diminished in unidirectional configuration. Switch designers often specify
Heat-Treated Alloys. Fatigue data shown here bending. Fatigue strengths around 550 MPa (80 beryllium copper in the heat treated condition to
for beryllium copper alloys are represented by a ksi) are achieved for unidirectional bending. In achieve the highest strength possible. If mill-
band, the lower bound determined by the lowest general, the reverse bending fatigue response of hardened alloys are used, it is common to choose
stress to cause failure and the upper bound deter- this alloy compares to the fatigue strength of the the highest-strength tempers (TM05 through
mined by regression analysis of failure data C17200 mill-hardened strip, but shows slightly TM08) when forming requirements are not
from four or more commercial lots of materials. reduced response unidirectionally. severe. Relay and thermostatic control users typ-
These upper bound curves are equivalent to the Edge condition can severely affect the fatigue ically select the high-conductivity alloys such as
50% failure curves shown in Fig. 1–7. response of strip products, particularly high- C17510 or C17410 because their current levels
Beryllium copper in the solution-annealed or strength alloys. Electrical and electronic spring are higher, and thermal management is critical in
cold-rolled condition prior to age hardening is contacts are usually manufactured by stamping, these applications.
referred to as being in the heat-treatable temper. slitting, electrodischarge machining, or chemi- Other types of devices also use the spring
Examples of the bending fatigue behavior of cally etching. Each of these operations can resilience and fatigue strength of beryllium cop-
C17200 strip heat-treatable tempers are shown impart some degree of damage to the affected per to advantage. Detectors for seismic, ultrason-
in Fig. 8. The effect of cold reduction, up to 37% edge. The effect of slit edges, simulating ic, or other types of vibratory energy, for exam-
for the TD04 temper, has only a small effect on stamped conditions, on fatigue response were ple, must have very high sensitivity to small
the fatigue response. addressed in Ref 9, which studied stamped ver- signals. Springs for these devices are produced in
Figure 9 demonstrates the effect of age hard- sus milled edge samples. The results confirmed foil thicknesses and are usually designed to have
ening to peak strength after cold work on that high-cycle fatigue is surface dependent in very high stiffness to vibration modes other than
fatigue behavior—about a 70 MPa (10 ksi) strip and that careful application of fatigue data those in the direction of greatest interest.
increase in fatigue strength. The differences to a design is critical. Spinodal Alloy. S-N data for alloy C72900 are
due to prior cold work become pronounced at Table 4 lists tensile and fatigue strengths of the shown in Fig. 18 for TM02, 04, and 06 tempers.
R 0 (unidirectional) stressing (Fig. 10). The beryllium copper alloys shown in Fig. 8 to 15. Fatigue strengths at 100 million cycles in reversed
benefit available for unidirectional stressing is Example 1: Strip Applications Requiring bending are in the range of 220 to 275 MPa (32
useful for switch designs that operate in unidi- High Fatigue Strength and Resilience. The to 40 ksi) for all three tempers. These curves
rectional bending. combination of high fatigue strength and represent averaged data comparable to S-N
The fatigue response for age hardened resilience (the ratio of yield strength to elastic curves in Fig. 1–7.
C17510 (TH04), the higher-conductivity alloy
with lower strength (Fig. 11), demonstrates that Table 3 Tensile and fatigue strengths of the copper alloys in Fig. 1 to 7
fatigue strengths achievable at this higher con-
0.2% yield strength Ultimate tensile strength
ductivity level are comparable to the higher- Fatigue strength
Alloy Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, % (108cycles)
strength beryllium copper C17200 in the solu-
tion-treated and cold-worked, unaged condition C26000 H01 310 45 421 61.1 33 18
H02 427 62 476 69 17 22
(see Fig. 8). H04 538 78 572 83 5 24
Beryllium Coppers: Mill-Hardened Strip. H08 641 93 676 98 2 26
Mill hardening consists of age hardening to a C51000 H04 581 84 597 86 8 35
specific strength level as part of the manufac- H08 712 103 732 106 3 34
H14 745 108 788 114 3 33
turing process. This process can reduce or C63800 O60 290 42 517 75 42 30
eliminate the need for age hardening after H02 614 89 696 101 13 32
component forming that is required for the H04 696 101 772 112 7 35
age-hardenable tempers. The data in Fig. 12 H06 765 111 834 121 4 36
H08 793 115 869 126 3 44
represent two mill-hardened tempers of C65400 H02L 568 82 657 95 18 29
C17200 strip. The TM04 temper is a medium- H02T 593 86 701 101 10 34
strength product (760 to 930 MPa, or 110 to H04L 746 108 832 120 4 24
135 ksi, yield strength); the TM08 temper H04T 731 106 866 125 3 31
H08L 846 122 934 135 3 37
offers the greatest strength available (1035 to H08T 859 124 991 143 2 50
1240 MPa, or 150 to 180 ksi, yield strength). C68800 O60 331 48 538 78 37 32
The TM08 temper shows greater stress to fail- H02 621 90 676 98 7 32
ure at high cycles than the TM04 temper. Both H06 731 106 814 118 2 32
H10 758 110 862 125 1 33
tempers show very little directionality at either C70250 TM00 568 82 712 103 15 33
load ratio, as illustrated by comparing Fig. 12 TM02 643 93 718 104 12 33
and 13. Compared to the heat-treated tempers C76200 H06 724 105 737 107 4 29
in Fig. 9, the TM08 temper displays the greater H08 772 112 786 114 3 32

Fig. 8 Bending fatigue curves for beryllium copper Fig. 9 Bending fatigue curves for heat-treated (peak-
Fig. 10 Bending fatigue curves for heat-treated (peak-
C17200 strip in the heat-treatable condition. aged) C17200 strip. Longitudinal loading, R –1 aged) C17200 strip. Longitudinal loading, R 0
Longitudinal loading, R –1

Fig. 11 Bending fatigue curves for C17510 TH04 strip. Fig. 12 Bending fatigue curves for C17200 TM04 and Fig. 13 Bending fatigue curves for C17200 TM04
Longitudinal and transverse loading, R –1 TM08 strip tempers. Longitudinal loading, and TM08 strip tempers. Transverse loading,
R 0 and –1 R 0 and –1
Heavy-Section Beryllium Copper

Rotating-beam S-N curves are shown in Fig.
19 for C17200 in age-hardened tempers TF00
and TH04. Generally speaking, the smaller the
diameter or size, the greater the fatigue strength.
This behavior is linked directly to the
microstructure, which will be discussed in the
following section.
LIVE GRAPH Structure, Processing, and

Click here to view Property Relationships
Fig. 14 Bending fatigue curves for C17410 TH02 strip. Fig. 15 Bending fatigue curves for C17410 TH04 strip.
Longitudinal and transverse loading, R = –1 Longitudinal and transverse loading, R –1
As noted earlier, fatigue strength for copper
alloys is usually defined as the stress sustain-
able without failure for 100 million cycles.
Table 4 Tensile and fatigue strengths of selected tempers of the beryllium copper alloys (For the average (50% failure) curves, this
in Fig. 8 to 15 actually means 50% will fail at this stress
level.) For this high-cycle condition, most of
0.2% yield strength Ultimate tensile strength
Fatigue strength the life is spent in crack nucleation, assuming
Alloy Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, % (108 cycles, R –1)
the component in question does not have
C17200 TD01 415–550 60–80 515–605 75–88 30–45 31–36 mechanical defects or other notches in the
TD02 515–655 75–95 585–690 85–100 12–30 32–38
TD04 620–795 90–115 690–825 100–120 2–18 35–39 high-stress area.
TH01 1035–1275 150–185 1205–1415 175–205 3–10 40–45 High SFE alloys exhibit fatigue crack nucle-
TH02 1105–1345 160–195 1275–1480 185–215 1–8 42–47 ation within persistent slip bands—markings
TH04 1140–1415 165–205 1310–1515 190–220 1–6 45–50 produced by cyclic microplastic deformation.
TM04 760–930 110–135 930–1035 135–150 9–20 45–52
TM08 1035–1240 150–180 1205–1310 175–190 3–12 50–60 This is not an apparent mode of crack nucleation
C17510 TH04 655–825 95–120 760–930 110–135 8–20 42–47 for low-SFE alloys. In general, cold work has a
C17410 TH02 550–690 80–100 655–790 95–115 10 (min) 45 more beneficial effect on fatigue strength of
TH04 690–825 100–120 760–895 110–130 7 (min) 45 low-SFE alloys versus copper and high-SFE
copper alloys. Reducing grain size generally

increases fatigue strength. This effect diminish-
es with increasing cold work.
Resistance to microplastic deformation and
enhancement of fatigue life can be produced
by precipitation hardening if the precipitate
phase is stable under cyclic loading. This is the
case for beryllium copper and copper-nickel-
tin precipitates.
Beryllium Coppers. Microstructure plays an
important role in the fatigue performance of
beryllium copper alloys. Age-hardened struc-
tures contain a mixture of metastable precipi-
tates within a copper alloy matrix. The
metastable precipitates dominate the deforma-
tion behavior of these alloys because of the
small size, high volume fraction, homogeneous
distribution, and high elastic strain contribution
within the copper matrix. Aging, therefore, sig-
nificantly affects fatigue behavior.
The high-strength C17200 alloys and C17410
contain a stable cobalt beryllide intermetallic,
and C17510 contains a nickel beryllide. These
beryllides are considerably larger than the pre-
cipitates and spaced sufficiently apart (i.e., long
mean free path) so they do not contribute signif- Fig. 16 The resilience (ratio of yield strength to elastic modulus) for two tempers of beryllium copper, several other
icantly to the fatigue performance. electronic component copper alloys, and one steel (precipitation hardening stainless steel S17400). This
property measures the ability of a spring to apply a high force from a relatively large deflection without taking a perma-
An overaged structure will generally result in nent set. The high ratio displayed by beryllium copper tempers means that they can grip the edge of a printed circuit
improved bending or rotating fatigue perform- board or a mating pin member with positive action, and this action will be retained through repeated insertion cycles.
ance. Even though overaging results in some- Source: Ref 6
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Fig. 18 S-N curve for C72900 in TM02, TM04, and

TM06 tempers. Longitudinal loading, R –1
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LIVE GRAPH
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Fig. 17 Fatigue behavior of beryllium copper strip according to the stress ratio R in unidirectional (R 0) and fully Fig. 19 Rotating-beam fatigue curves for C17200 TF00
reversed (R –1) bending. Source: Ref 6 and TH04 rod as a function of diameter
what lower strength, the net result is an improve- easily into the boundaries, resulting in a crack 6. J.C. Harkness, W.D. Spiegelberg, and W.R.
ment in fatigue life because overaging prolongs path “short circuit.” Nonetheless, the increase in Cribb, Beryllium Copper and Other
the crack nucleation stage. Overaging causes the crack propagation rate for overaged versus peak- Beryllium-Containing Alloys, Metals
precipitate/matrix orientation relationship to aged material does not alter the overall improved Handbook, 10th ed., Vol 2, Properties and
progress to form incoherent phase from the life associated with the overaged condition. Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Special-
metastable coherent Guinier-Preston zones. Purpose Materials, ASM International, 1990,
Conversely, the fatigue crack propagation p 403–427
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
behavior worsens as the alloys are overaged 7. G.R. Gohn, J.P. Guerard, and H.S. Freynik,
(Fig. 20). Deformation becomes highly localized This article was adapted from J. Crane, J.O. The Mechanical Properties of Wrought Phos-
at the grain boundaries as a result of the hetero- Ratka, and J.F. Breedis, Fatigue Properties of phor Bronze Alloys, STP 183, ASTM, 1956
geneous cellular reaction forming the equilibri- Copper Alloys, Fatigue and Fracture, Vol 19, 8. A. Fox, Reversed Bending Fatigue
um phase while creating adjacent regions ASM Handbook, ASM International, 1996, Characteristics of Copper Alloy 510 Strip, J.
within the grain boundaries of solute-depleted p 869–873. Example 1 was taken from Ref 6. Mater., Vol 5 (No. 2), 1970
copper. Dislocation pileups at the grain bound- 9. S.J. Schriver, J.O. Ratka, and W.D. Peregrim,
aries are not adequately blunted and propagate “Comparison of Fatigue Performance for
REFERENCES Beryllium Copper Alloys by Two Laboratory
Techniques,” Proc. ASM 3rd Conf. Electronic
1. C. Laird, Mechanisms and Theories of Packaging Materials and Processes and
Fatigue, Fatigue and Microstructure, Corrosion in Microelectronics, ASM
American Society for Metals, 1979, p 195 International, 1987
2. R. Wang, H. Mughrabi, S. McGovern, and M.
Rapp, Fatigue of Copper Single Crystals in
Vacuum and in Air, I: Persistent Slip Bands SELECTED REFERENCES
and Dislocation Microstructures, Mater. Sci.
Eng., Vol 65, 1984, p 219–233 • J. Crane and J. Winter, Copper: Properties
3. W. Hessler, H. Müllner, B. Weiss, and R. and Alloying, Encyclopedia of Materials
Stickler, Near Threshold Behavior of Science and Engineering, Pergamon Press,
Polycrystalline Copper, Met. Sci., Vol 15 (No. 1986, p 848–855
5), 1981, p 225–230 • J. Crane and J. Winter, Copper: Selection of
4. D. Mahulikar and T.D. Hann, “Factors Wrought Alloys, Encyclopedia of Materials
Affecting Lead Bend Fatigue in P-Dips,” pre- Science and Engineering, Pergamon Press,
sented at Microelectronic and Processing 1986, p 866–871
Engineers Conference, 13 Feb 1985, • H.A. Murray, I.J. Zatz, and J.O. Ratka,
(Sunnyvale, CA) Fracture Testing and Performance of
5. J. Crane, J.F. Breedis, and R.M. Fritzche, Beryllium Copper Alloy C17510, Cyclic
Lead Frame Materials, Electronic Materials Deformation, Fracture and Nondestructive
Fig. 20 Fatigue crack propagation rate of C17200 in
Handbook, Vol 1, Packaging, ASM Evaluation of Advanced Materials, Vol 2,
the overaged and underaged conditions.
Material aged to 760 MPa (110 ksi) yield strength International, 1989, p 483–492 STP 1184, ASTM, 1994, p 109–133
LIVE GRAPH
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Properties of Pure Copper
THE PROPERTY DATA presented in this arti- 0.36147 nm at 293 K (20 °C, or 68 °F) (Ref 4). recrystallized copper. This has been explained by
cle were measured on various coppers of purity Based on the value reported by Weast (Ref 2), the the presence of persistent subgrain boundaries.
equal to or exceeding those of electrolytic copper distance of nearest approach, or Burgers vector, The accepted value for the density of copper is
(99.90% Cu min) up to 99.999% Cu (a total in the [110] direction at 293 K is 0.255625 nm. 8.94 g/cm3 at 298 K (25 °C, or 77 °F). This den-
impurity content of less than 10 ppm). The orig- Slip Systems. In fcc metals such as copper, sity is slightly different from that used in electri-
inal references cited should be consulted if more the {111} octahedral planes and the 110
direc- cal standards, as described subsequently.
detailed information regarding purity levels or tions contain closest atomic packing and, there- Temperature also affects density values (Ref 2):
the method of characterizing purity is needed. fore, constitute the most active slip systems.
There are four independent (111) slip planes in °C g/cm3
the fcc unit cell. Each (111) plane contains three 20 8.93
Atomic and Electron Structures [110] directions; therefore, the copper lattice has Melting point 7.940
12 possible slip systems. Slip occurs when the 1100 7.924
Atomic Structure. Copper, with atomic 1200 7.846
shear stress in a slip direction in the slip plane 1300 7.764
number 29 and atomic weight 63.546, occupies reaches a critical value, cr. Room-temperature
the first position of subgroup IB in the periodic values of cr for copper single crystals of two See also Fig. 2.
chart of the elements (Fig. 1). Subgroup IB also degrees of purity are as follows (Ref 5):
includes silver and gold, and in fact, copper The volume change on freezing for pure
shares many characteristics with these other Purity, % cr copper equals 4.92% contraction.
noble metals as a result of its atomic and elec- 99.999 65
tron structure. 98.98 94
Electron Structure. The copper atom is com- Electrical Properties
posed of a positively charged nucleus containing Twinning. Face-centered metals such as cop-
29 protons and 34 to 36 neutrons surrounded by per undergo twinning; for example, they deform Electrical Conductivity. In 1913, the standard
29 electrons. The electrons are arranged in a by forming mirror-image orientations, across conductivity of pure annealed copper was fixed by
structure described by the notation {111} planes in the [112] direction. Twinning is a the International Electrotechnical Commission
1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1, which implies that the less important deformation mechanism in fcc (IEC) as that of an annealed copper wire 1 m long,
1s and 2s energy states contain two electrons metals than it is in body-centered cubic (bcc) or weighing 1 g and having a density of 8.89 g/cm3.
each, and the 3s state contains two electrons; the hexagonal close packed (hcp) metals, which have The wire exhibited a resistance of exactly 0.15328
2p states contain six electrons, and so forth. The less favorable slip systems; however, copper does . This value was assigned a volume conductivity
structure is essentially that of an argon atom core form annealing twins to accommodate deforma- of 100% of the International Annealed Copper
plus the filled 3d state and the one 4s electron; it tion arising from recrystallization following cold Standard, written 100% IACS (Ref 8).
is sometimes written as Ar3d104s1. The single work. Thus, the presence of annealing twins in Conductivity depends strongly on purity.
“outer shell” 4s electron is responsible for many the microstructure is evidence that the metal has Purity levels and processing techniques have
important physical properties of copper, includ- been mechanically deformed prior to annealing. improved considerably since the IACS was
ing its high electrical conductivity, its chemical Stacking Faults. The stacking fault energy of established, and a more precise value for densi-
stability, and its reddish color. In metallic crys- copper, that is, the energy associated with imper- ty has also been measured. However, the stan-
talline copper, as with other metals, the 4s elec- fectly positioned adjacent lattice planes, is dard value continues to be used in engineering
tron does not remain associated with any partic- approximately 40 erg/cm2. Stacking fault energy practice. Currently, the highest measured
ular atom but becomes part of the electron cloud is related to such deformation-related properties room-temperature (20 °C, or 68 °F) volume
that pervades the crystal lattice (Ref 1). as flow stress and strain hardening. It has been
The ionization potential of the 4s electron, shown by x-ray diffraction that the stacking fault Table 1 Effect of processing on the densi-
7.724 eV, is relatively low, and the “cuprous” energy of brass decreases with zinc content, and ties of pure copper at 20 °C (68 °F)
ion, Cu, is easily formed. The ionization poten- this is in agreement with the observation that State Density (), g/cm3
tial of the 3d state is only slightly higher, and alpha brass forms a greater number of mechani- Single crystal 8.95285
copper, therefore, also displays a “cupric” cal twins than copper. Melted and solidified in vacuum 8.94153
valence state, Cu2 (Ref 1–3). Commercial soft-drawn wire, 8.92426
annealed at 970 °C (1778 °F)
Density and Volume in vacuum for 12 h
Crystal Structure Change on Freezing Sample reduced 67.90% in cross 8.90526
section by drawing
Diameter reduced 96.81% 8.91187
Copper exhibits the face-centered cubic (fcc) The density of copper varies from 8.90 to 8.95 Sample annealed at 880 °C 8.93003
structure at all temperatures below the melting g/cm3, depending on the metal’s thermomechan- (1616 °F) in vacuum for 12 h
point (structure symbol: A1; space group: Fm3m; ical history (Table 1). Density initially decreases Sample annealed at 1035 °C 8.92763
Pearson symbol: cF4). Reported values for the with increasing degrees of cold work owing to (1895 °F) in vacuum for 12 h
lattice parameter include a 0.3615090 the generation of vacancies and dislocations. It Source: Ref 6
0.000004 nm at 25 °C (77 °F) (Ref 2), and a then increases to a value higher than that of
Properties of Pure Copper / 447
Fig. 1 Periodic table of the elements. Values in brackets indicate the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the radioactive element. Copper occupies the first position of subgroup IB.
conductivity for very pure copper is about “Introduction and Overview” and “Physical
103.6% IACS. Metallurgy: Heat Treatment, Structure, and
Current practically attainable conductivity Properties” in this Handbook.
values for electrolytic tough pitch and deoxi- The electrical resistivity of pure copper at
dized low residual phosphorus coppers stand at 20 °C (68 °F) is 16.730 n m. The temperature
about 101% IACS. Oxygen-free (OF) copper is coefficient at 20 °C (68 °F) is 0.068 n m. The
certified under ASTM B 170 to meet this as a pressure coefficient is –20.228 a m/Pa for the
minimum value. pressure range of 100 kPa to 9.8 GPa. The
Figures 3 and 4 show the effects of annealing increase in resistivity brought about by impuri-
and cold reduction on the electrical conductivities or secondary elements in solid solution is
ty of pure copper, respectively. Additional con- discussed in the articles “Introduction and
ductivity data for copper and its alloys can be Overview” and “Physical Metallurgy: Heat
found in various articles in this Handbook cov- Treatment, Structure, and Properties” in this
ering wrought and cast copper products. The Handbook. The effect of high temperature (in
decrease in electrical conductivity brought degrees Kelvin) on resistivity is shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 2 Variation of density with temperature for pure about by impurities or secondary elements in Electrical resistivities for low temperatures
copper. Source: Ref 7 solid solution is discussed in the articles measured in degrees Kelvin are:
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K n · m Thermal Properties LIVE GRAPH conductivity, a decrease in the thermal conduc-

250 14.0 Click here to view tivity of pure copper is brought on by the pres-
220 12.0 The thermal conductivity of pure copper at ence of impurities or secondary alloying ele-
200 10.6 27 °C (81 °F) is 398 W/m K. The effect of tem- ments in solid solution.
180 9.2 Other thermal properties of interest for
160 7.75 perature on thermal conductivity of pure copper
140 6.35 is shown in Table 2 and Fig. 6. As with electrical pure copper include:
120 4.90
100 3.50
• Melting point: 1084.88 °C (Ref 11)
90 2.80 • Boiling point: 2595 °C (Ref 12); 2567 °C
80 2.15 (Ref 2)
70 1.53 • Coefficient of thermal expansion: Linear,
60 0.95 16.5 m/m K at 20 °C (Ref 2). See also
50 0.50
40 0.22 Table 3. Volumetric, 49.5 106/K (Ref 9)
30 0.063 • Specific heat: 0.494 kJ/kg K at 2000 K;
25 0.025 0.386 kJ/kg K at 293 K; 0.255 kJ/kg K at
20 0.008 100 K (Ref 2). See also Fig. 6 and Table 4.
15 0.001
• Enthalpy, entropy: See Table 4.
• Latent heat of fusion: 205 kJ/kg (Ref 2);
Other electrical properties of interest for 204.9 kJ/kg (Ref 11); 206.8 kJ/kg (Ref 9)
pure copper include: • Latent heat of vaporization: 4729 kJ/kg (Ref
1); 4726 kJ/kg (Ref 9); 4793 kJ/kg (Ref 10)
• Thermoelectric potential versus platinum
(Ref 2, 9):
Table 2 Thermal conductivity of
°C mV pure copper
–200 –0.19 Temperature, K Conductivity, W/m · K
–100 0.37
0 0 0 0
100 0.76 1 2870
200 1.83 2 5730
300 3.15 3 8550
400 4.68 4 11300
500 6.41 5 13800
600 8.34 6 15400
700 10.47 7 17700
800 12.81 8 18900
900 15.37 9 19500
1000 18.16 10 19600
11 19300
12 18500
• Electrochemical equivalent: 0.3294 mg/C for 13
14
17600
16600
Cu2; 0.6588 mg/C for Cu 15 15600
• Electrolytic solution potential: All versus 16 14500
standard hydrogen electrode (Ref 2): Cu2 18 12400
e ↔ Cu, 0.158 V; Cu2 2e ↔ Cu, 20 10500
25 6800
0.3402 V; Cu e ↔ Cu, 0.522 V 30 4300
• Ionization potential: Cu(I), 7.724 eV; Cu(II), 35 2900
20.29 eV; Cu(III), 36.83 eV (Ref 2) 40 2050
• Hydrogen overvoltage: In 1 N H2SO4 a 45 1530
50 1220
b (log i), where is overvoltage in V, i is Fig. 3 Effect of annealing on the tensile strength, elonga- 60 850
current density in A/cm2, constant a is 0.80 V, tion, and electrical conductivity of pure copper. 70 670
and constant b is 0.115 V (Ref 10) 80 570
• Hall effect: Hall voltage, –5.24 104 V at 90 514
100 483
0.30 to 0.8116 T; Hall coefficient, –5.5 mV · 150 428
m/A · T (Ref 9) 200 413
• Electron emission: Secondary electron emis- 250 404
sion: 1.3 max secondary electron yield; 600 eV 273 401
300 398
primary electron energy for max yield; 200 eV 350 394
for E(I) crossover; 1500 eV for E(II) crossover 400 392
• Work function: 500 388
600 383
700 377
Method of 800 371
Work function, eV Conditions determination
900 364
4.5 1160–1200 K Thermionic 1000 357
4.6 1350 K Thermionic 1100 350
4.4 1100–1300 K Thermionic 1200 342
4.76 111
Photoelectric 1300 334(a)
4.86 111
Photoelectric 1373 160
5.61 110
Photoelectric 1773 172
4.60 … Contact potential 1973 176
4.51 … Contact potential 2273 177
Fig. 4 Effect of cold reduction on the electrical con-
Source: Ref 9 ductivity of pure copper wire. B & S, Brown and (a) Extrapolated value. Source: Ref 2, 9
Sharpe (wire gage numbers)
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• Recrystallization temperature: Depends on Table 3 Mean coefficient of linear ther-

several variables, including the time at mal expansion for pure copper
annealing temperature, chemical composi- Temperature, K Mean coefficient, m/m · K
tion, and the amount and type of plastic
2 0.0006
deformation (Ref 13). The inflection points 4 0.0025
of the curves shown in Fig. 3 indicate the 6 0.0074
recrystallization temperature for the anneal- 8 0.016
ing times/temperatures given. More detailed 10 0.030
12 0.052
information can be found in the article “Heat 14 0.083
Treating” in this Handbook. 16 0.128
• Vapor pressure: From Ref 2: 18 0.186
20 0.26
25 0.6
°C Pa 50 3.8
946 1.3 10–3 75 7.6
1035 1.3 10–2 100 10.5
1141 1.3 10–1 150 13.6
1273 1.3 200 15.2
1432 13 250 16.1
1628 130 293 16.7
1879 1330 350 17.3
2067 5.33 103 400 17.6
2207 1.33 104 500 18.3
2465 5.33 104 600 18.9
2595 1.01 105 700 19.6
2760 2.02 105 800 20.4
3010 5.07 105 1000 22.4
3500 1.01 106 1200 24.8
3640 2.02 106
3740 4.05 106 Source: Ref 2
Magnetic Properties strong interband optical transitions between filled

states at the upper part of the 3d band and empty
Magnetic susceptibility (!) is defined as the conduction-band 4s-like states. Copper alloys
ratio of induced magnetization to applied mag- range in color from the reddish pink of pure cop-
netic field, for example, ! M/H, where H is per to golden yellow and silvery white, depending
the applied magnetic field, and M is the magne- on alloy composition. The color of brasses ranges
tization. Each material has a characteristic mag- from reddish to pale yellow, depending on their
netic susceptibility, although the property varies zinc content. Thus, low zinc casting alloys are
somewhat with thermomechanical history. categorized as “red” or “semired” brasses, while
Copper is diamagnetic because its magnetic sus- high-zinc brasses are called yellow brasses.
ceptibility is negative. Data from several sources Beryllium coppers change from red to gold with
are listed in Table 5. increasing beryllium content, while copper-nick-
In commercial coppers and copper alloys, els are pink at low nickel concentrations and dis-
magnetic susceptibility is determined largely by tinctly silvery at higher nickel contents.
the iron contained as an impurity. In OF copper, Reflectivity and Emissivity. The reflectivity
the small amount of iron present in solid solu- of copper decreases continuously with wave-
tion has only a small effect on magnetic proper- length from the infrared through ultraviolet
ties. In electrolytic-tough-pitch (ETP) copper regions. For incandescent light, the spectral
containing about 200 ppm oxygen, the iron is reflection coefficient of copper is 0.63. Tables 6
present as Fe3O4, which has a much greater and 7 list indices of refraction, extinction coeffi-
effect on the magnetic properties than iron in Fig. 6 Effect of temperature on the specific heat and cients, and reflectance values (measured and cal-
solid solution. thermal conductivity of pure copper culated) for several types of copper surfaces.
Reflectance data for polished or electroplated
Magnetic permeability () is defined as the surfaces are as follows:
magnetic opacity of a material in a given mag-
netic field. It is expressed as B/H, where B Wavelength, m Reflectance(a), %
is the flux density and H is the applied magnetic 0.25 25.9
field or magnetizing force. It is the instantaneous 0.30 25.3
slope of the magnetization. For pure copper, is 0.35 27.5
0.40 30.0
very low. This is very useful because low per- 0.50 43.7
meability in the presence of magnetic fields 0.60 71.8
avoids energy losses in applications such as 0.70 83.1
electric motors and generators. 0.80 88.6
1.0 90.1
2.0 95.5
4.0 97.3
Optical Properties 6.0 98.0
8.0 98.3
Color. Copper is the only metallic element 10.0 98.4
except gold to have a natural color other than sil- 12.0 98.4
Fig. 5 Effect of high temperatures on the electrical very gray. The distinctive reddish color of copper (a) Data are for polished surfaces at close-to-normal incidence
resistivity of pure copper corresponds to the sharp onset in frequency of
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Table 4 Thermodynamic properties of copper

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Temperature, K Cp • J/kg • K HT – H0, J/kg (HT – H0 )/T, J/kg • K ST, J/kg • K – (GT – H0 ), J/kg GT – H0 )/T, J/kg • K
1 0.0117 0.00565 0.00565 0.0112 0.00552 0.0052

2 0.0278 0.0249 0.0124 0.0239 0.0228 0.0114
3 0.0530 0.0644 0.0214 0.0395 0.0543 0.0181
4 0.0916 0.0135 0.0338 0.0596 0.103 0.0258
5 0.148 0.253 0.0507 0.0859 0.176 0.0351
6 0.228 0.439 0.0733 0.120 0.277 0.0463
7 0.335 0.717 0.103 0.162 0.417 0.0596
8 0.474 1.120 0.140 0.216 0.606 0.0757
9 0.651 1.684 0.187 0.282 0.853 0.0947
10 0.873 2.439 0.244 0.360 1.174 0.117
11 1.14 3.446 0.313 0.456 1.57 0.144
12 1.47 4.752 0.395 0.570 2.09 0.175
13 1.87 6.405 0.493 0.703 3.51 0.209
14 2.34 8.513 0.607 0.858 2.72 0.250
15 2.89 11.11 0.741 1.039 4.45 0.297
16 3.54 14.32 0.895 1.245 5.59 0.349
17 4.30 18.22 1.072 1.481 6.96 0.409
18 5.16 22.94 1.275 1.747 8.56 0.475
19 6.14 28.58 1.504 2.061 10.46 0.551
20 7.27 35.28 1.763 2.392 12.68 0.634
25 15.15 89.75 3.59 4.80 30.17 1.21
30 26.64 192.8 6.42 8.51 62.87 2.09
35 41.51 361.8 10.34 13.71 117.8 3.37
40 58.86 612.0 15.30 20.36 202.4 5.07
45 77.55 952.7 21.17 28.36 323.7 7.19
50 96.84 1388 27.78 37.53 488.0 9.757
60 135.3 2549 42.50 58.60 965.9 16.10
70 170.9 4084 58.35 82.18 1668 23.83
80 202.2 5955 74.42 107.1 2614 32.67
90 229.1 8115 90.17 132.5 3811 42.35
100 251.9 10520 105.2 157.8 5264 52.64
110 271.0 13140 119.5 182.9 6968 63.34
120 287.2 15940 132.8 207.1 8918 74.32
130 300.9 18870 145.2 230.7 11110 85.43
140 312.7 21950 156.7 253.4 13530 96.62
150 322.7 25130 167.4 275.2 16180 107.8
160 331.3 28390 177.5 296.5 19030 118.9
180 345.3 35170 195.5 336.3 25370 140.9
200 356.1 41290 210.9 373.3 32460 162.2
220 364.6 49400 224.6 407.6 40270 183.1
240 371.4 56760 236.5 439.7 48750 203.2
260 376.7 64240 247.1 469.6 57850 222.5
273.15 379.7 69210 253.4 488.2 64140 234.8
280 381.1 71820 256.5 497.6 67530 241.1
298.15 384.6 78760 264.2 521.7 76780 257.5
300 384.9 79490 265.0 524.0 77740 259.2
0 0 0 0 0
Notes: C p is the specific heat at constant pressure conditions; H T is the enthalpy at absolute temperature; H 0 is enthalpy at 0 K and 1 atm; S T is the entropy at absolute temperature; G T is the free energy at absolute tempera-
ture; T is degrees Kelvin. Source: Ref 2
Table 5 Magnetic susceptibility of pure copper The unstable isotopes of copper include:
Temperature, °C !ⴛ 106, cgs Temperature, °C ! ⴛ 106, cgs Modes of Mean decay
Isotope Half-life decay(a) energy, MeV
–267 –0.0836(c) 18 –1.08(b)
–259 to –253 –1.22(b) 19 –0.0855(c) 58
Cu 3.20 s 8.569
–250 –0.0856(c) 20 –0.086(a) 59
Cu 82.0 0.4 s , EC 4.8
–242 –0.0863(c) 300 –0.085(a) 60
Cu 23.0 0.3 min , EC 6.12
–233 –0.0879(c) 600 –0.082(a) 61
Cu 3.41 h , EC 2.242
–211 –0.0873(c) 900 –0.079(a) 62
Cu 9.8 min , EC 3.939
–174 –0.0869(c) 1080 (solid) –0.077(a) 64
Cu 12.9 h 0.573
–171 –0.0867(c) 1080 –0.97(b) , EC 1.677
–65 –0.0863(c) 1090 –0.68(b) 66
Cu 5.10 0.02 min 2.633
–26 –0.0859(c) 1090 (liquid) –0.054(a) 67
Cu 61.88 0.11 h 0.576
68
Cu 30 s 4.6
(a) Ref 14. (b) Ref 15. (c) Ref 16. Source: Ref 17
(a) EC, electron capture
Other optical properties of interest for pure Nuclear Properties Nuclear Absorption Cross Section. The
copper include: absorption cross section of copper, , with
respect to low energy proton bombardment is
Isotopes. Copper has two stable isotopes:
10 –27 barns (1 barn 1 cm2). For high energy
• Nominal spectral emittance: 0.15 for pol- (134 4 MeV) protons, 725 68 barns.
ished Cu at " 655 nm and 1080 K Isotope Atomic weight Natural abundance, %
The absorption cross section for fast neutrons is
63
• Absorptive index: Coefficient of absorption 65
Cu
Cu
62.9298
64.9278
69.09
30.91
10 –24 barns, while for thermal neutrons, values
of solar radiation, 0.25 (Ref 2) of 3.63 and 3.8 barns have been reported (Ref 2).
Chemical Properties • Strain-hardening exponent: Annealed, 0.54 • Liquid surface tension: 99.99999% purity, in
(Ref 18) vacuum: 1.300 N/m at the melting point.
Corrosion Resistance. Copper is insoluble in • Elastic modulus: 99.999% purity, in N2: 1.341 N/m at 1100 °C;
both hot and cold water, slightly soluble in 1.338 N/m at 1150 °C; 1.335 N/m at 1200 °C.
hydrochloric acid and ammonium hydroxide, Tension, GPa Ref 99.997% purity, at the melting point: 1.355
and soluble in nitric acid and hot sulfuric acid 128 9 N/m in He or H2; 1.358 N/m in Ar; 1.352
(Ref 2). A more detailed account of the corro- 112 (cold drawn) 9 N/m in vacuum
125 (annealed) 18
sion resistance of coppers in a variety of envi- 129.8 11
• Coefficient of friction: See Table 9
ronments can be found in the article “Corrosion Shear, GPa Ref
• Velocity of sound: 4759 m/s for longitudinal
Behavior” in this Handbook. bulk waves; 3813 m/s for irrotational rod
46.8 9 waves; 2325 m/s for shear waves; 2171 m/s
46.4 (annealed) 18
48.3 11 for Rayleigh waves
Mechanical Properties Bulk, GPa Ref
140 9
Tensile Properties. Copper, particularly 137.8 11 Table 7 Optical properties of copper
when in the annealed state, is considered a soft Index of Extinction Reflectance
and ductile metal. Tensile properties for both Wavelength, m
annealed and cold-drawn copper are listed in • Elastic modulus along crystal axes: Tension: refraction coefficient (calculated)
100
, 68 GPa; 111
, 21 GPa. Shear: 100
, 77 Bulk copper
Table 8. Figure 3 shows the effects of annealing GPa (Ref 18) 0.3650 1.0719 2.0710 0.5004
times and temperatures on the tensile strength 0.4050 1.0769 2.2890 0.5491
and elongation of pure copper. The variation in • Specific damping capacity: Log decrement:
0.4360 1.0707 2.4610 0.5860
3.2 103 (Ref 9) 0.5000 1.0308 2.7843 0.6528
tensile properties of copper wire due to cold
reduction is illustrated in Fig. 7. Additional • Dynamic liquid viscosity: (Ref 2) 0.5500 0.7911 2.7177 0.7013
0.5780 0.3250 2.8923 0.8716
information on the tensile properties of com- 0.6000 0.1491 3.2867 0.9508
°C mPa · s
mercially pure coppers can be found throughout 0.6500 0.1074 3.9104 0.9740
this Handbook. 1085 3.36 0.7500 0.1034 4.8847 0.9835
1100 3.33 1.0000 0.1471 6.9334 0.9881
Other mechanical properties of interest 1150 3.22
for pure copper include: 1200 3.12
Single-crystal copper
0.4400 1.1070 2.5565 0.5965
• Hardness: Cold drawn, 37 HRB 0.4600 1.0942 2.6320 0.6131
• Poisson’s ratio: 0.308 calculated from elastic 0.4800
0.5000
1.0618
1.0836
2.7124
2.7684
0.6341
0.6390
modulus; annealed, 0.343 (Ref 11); cold 0.5200 1.0438 2.7784 0.6490
drawn, 0.364 (Ref 9) 0.5400 0.9324 2.7348 0.6674
0.5600 0.6470 2.7200 0.7440
0.5800 0.2805 2.9764 0.8931
Table 6 Normal-incidence reflectance of 0.6000 0.1360 3.3464 0.9565
0.6200 0.1040 3.6525 0.9714
freshly evaporated mirror-coating copper 0.6400 0.0972 4.0692 0.9798
Wavelength, m Reflectance, % 0.6600 0.0897 4.0692 0.9798
0.220 40.1 Evaporated copper

0.240 39.0 0.1025 1.05 0.70 0.098
0.260 35.5 0.1113 0.95 0.73 0.115
0.280 33.0 0.1215 0.95 0.78 0.137
0.300 33.6 0.1306 0.96 0.83 0.148
0.315 35.5 0.1392 1.00 0.91 0.165
0.320 36.3 0.1500 1.02 1.02 0.192
0.340 38.5 0.1603 0.98 1.04 0.219
0.360 41.5 0.1700 0.94 1.12 0.254
0.380 41.5 0.1800 0.90 1.21 0.296
0.400 47.5 0.1900 0.88 1.36 0.335
0.450 55.2 0.2000 0.94 1.51 0.378
0.500 60.0 0.500 0.88 2.42 0.625
0.550 66.9 0.600 0.186 2.980 0.928
0.600 93.3 0.700 0.150 4.049 0.966
0.650 96.6 0.800 0.170 4.840 0.973
0.700 97.5 0.900 0.190 5.569 0.977
0.750 97.9 1.000 0.197 6.272 0.981
0.800 98.1 1.35 0.45 7.81 0.971
0.850 98.3 1.69 0.58 9.96 0.977
0.900 98.4 2.28 0.82 13.0 0.981
0.950 98.4 3.00 1.22 17.1 0.984
1.0 98.5 3.4 1.53 20.3 0.985
1.5 98.5 3.97 1.94 23.1 0.986
2.0 98.6 4.87 2.86 28.9 0.987
3.0 98.6 5.0 2.92 27.45 0.985
4.0 98.7 5.8 3.71 34.6 0.988
5.0 98.7 7.00 5.25 40.7 0.988
6.0 98.7 7.3 5.79 43.2 0.988
7.0 98.7 8.35 7.28 49.2 0.988
8.0 98.8 9.6 9.76 57.2 0.988
9.0 98.8 10.25 11.0 60.6 0.988
10.0 98.9 10.8 12.6 64.3 0.988
15.0 99.0
LIVE GRAPH 12.25 15.5 71.9 0.989
Click here to view
Source: Ref 9 Fig. 7 Variation of tensile properties with amount of Source: Ref 9
cold reduction for pure copper wire
Table 8 Tensile properties of pure copper Table 9 Friction coefficient data for copper 7. J.S. Smart, Jr., Copper, Properties and
Selection of Metals, Vol 1, 8th ed., Metals
Yield strength Specimens tested in air at room temperature
Tensile at 0.5% extension, Handbook, T. Lyman, Ed., American
strength under load
Reduction
Material Friction Society for Metals, 1961, p 1203–1204
MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, % in area, % Fixed Moving Test
coefficient
8. J.H. Mendenhall, Ed., Understanding
Annealed condition
specimen specimen geometry(a) Static Kinetic Copper Alloys, Olin Brass, East Alton, IL,
209 30 33 4.8 60 92 Cu Co IS 0.44 … 1977, p 87
Cr IS 0.46 … 9. American Institute of Physics Handbook,
Cold-drawn condition Cu IS 0.55 …
344 50 333.4 48.4 14 88 Fe IS 0.50 …
3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, 1972
Ni IS 0.49 … 10. G.W.C. Kaye and T.H. Laby, Table of
Source: Ref 9 Zn IS 0.56 … Physical and Chemistry Constants, 14th
Alumina RPOF … 0.43 ed., Longman Group, 1973
Zirconia RPOF … 0.40
Cu, OFHC Steel, 4619 BOR … 0.82
11. P.B. Coates and J.W. Andrews, A Precise
Ag Cu IS 0.48 … Determination of the Freezing Point of
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Al, 6061-T6 Cu FOF 0.28 0.23 Copper, J. Phys. F, Met. Phys., Vol 8
Steel, 1032 Cu FOF 0.32 0.25 (No. 2), 1978
Portions of this article were adapted from: Steel, stainless, Cu FOF 0.23 0.21
type 304
12. K.K. Kelley, Bur. Mines Bull. 383, 1935
• A.W. Blackwood and J.E. Casteras, Copper, Teflon Cu FOF 0.13 0.11 13. C.R. Brooks, Chapter 1, Plastic Deformation
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys W Cu IS 0.41 … and Annealing, Heat Treatment, Structure
and Special-Purpose Materials, Vol 2, ASM Zn Cu IS 0.56 … and Properties of Nonferrous Alloys,
Handbook, ASM International, 1990, p American Society for Metals, 1982, p 1–73
(a) Test geometry codes: BOR, flat block pressed against the cylindrical
1110–1115 surface of a rotating ring; FOF, flat surface sliding on another flat sur- 14. H. Ehrenreich and H.R. Phillipp, Phys. Rev.,
• G. Joseph and K.J.A. Kundig, Ed., Chapter 2, face; IS, sliding down an inclined surface; RPOF, reciprocating pin on
flat. Source: Ref 19
Vol 128, 1962, p 1622–1629
Metallurgy and Properties, Copper: Its Trade, 15. P.B. Coates and J.W. Andrews, A Precise
Manufacture, Use, and Environmental Status, Determination of the Freezing Point of
International Copper Association, Ltd, and Copper, J. Phys. F, Met. Phys., Vol 8
ASM International, 1999, p 45–139 4. N.J. Simon, E.S. Drexler, and R.P. Reed, (No. 2), 1978
Properties of Copper and Copper Alloys 16. A. Butts, Magnetic Properties of Copper
REFERENCES at Cryogenic Temperatures, NIST and Copper Alloys, Copper, Reinhold
Monograph 177, National Institute of Publishing Co., 1954
1. M.W. Covington, B.R. Cooper, N.L. Standards and Technology, U.S. 17. A.R. Kaufmann and C. Starr, Magnetization
Church, and W.H. Dresher, Copper, Department of Commerce, Feb 1992, p of Copper-Nickel Alloys, Phys. Rev., Vol 59,
Encyclopedia of Applied Physics, Vol 4, 20.1–20.15 1941, p 690
VCH Verlagesgesellschaft, GmbH, 1992, 5. D. Hull, Introduction to Dislocations, 1st 18. W.J.M. Tegart, Elements of Mechanical
p 267–268 ed., Pergamon Press, 1965 Metallurgy, MacMillan, 1966
2. R.C. Weast, Ed., Handbook of Chemistry 6. B. Landolt-Bornstein, III, Technology, 19. P.J. Blau, Appendix: Static and Kinetic
and Physics, 55th ed., CRC Press, 1974 Classification, Value and Behavior of Friction Coefficients for Selected Materials,
3. D.W. Wakeman, The Physical Chemistry of Metallic Materials (Technik, Teil, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology,
Copper, Chapter 20, Copper, A. Butts, Ed., Stoffwerte, und Verhalten von metallischen Vol 18, ASM Handbook, ASM International,
Reinhold Publishing, 1954 Werkstoffen), Springer-Verlag, 1964 1992, p 70–75
Properties of Wrought Copper
and Copper Alloys*
C10100, C10200 Precautions in use. Avoid heating in oxidiz- Fabrication Characteristics

ing atmospheres.
Commercial Names Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cut-
Mechanical Properties ting brass)
Previous trade names. C10100: Oxygen-free Forgeability. 65% of C37700 (forging brass)
electronic copper. C10200: Oxygen-free copper Tensile properties. See Table 1, Fig. 1, and Fig. 2. Formability. Readily formed by a wide variety
Common name. Oxygen-free copper Shear strength. See Table 1. of hot and cold methods. Can be easily
Designations. C10100: OFE. C10200: OF Hardness. See Table 1. stamped, bent, coined, sheared, spun, upset,
Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 swaged, forged, roll threaded, and knurled
Specifications
psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi) Weldability. Can be readily soldered, brazed,
ASTM specifications for C10100. Flat products: Impact resistance. See Fig. 2. gas tungsten arc welded, gas metal arc weld-
B 48, B 133, B 152, B 187, B 272, B 432, F 68. Fatigue strength. See Table 1. ed, or upset welded. Its capacity for being
Pipe: B 42, B 188, F 68. Rod: B 12, B 49, B 133, Creep-rupture characteristics. See Tables 2 and 3. oxyfuel gas welded is fair. Shielded metal arc
B 187, F 68. Shapes: B 133, B 187, F 68. welding and most resistance welding methods
Tubing: B 372, B 68, B 75, B 188, B 280, F 68. Mass Characteristics are not recommended.
Wire: B 1, B 2, B 3, F 68 Annealing temperature. 375 to 650 °C (700 to
Density. 8.94 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
ASTM specifications for C10200. Flat products: B 1200 °F)
48, B 133, B 152, B 187, B 272, B 370, B 432. Thermal Properties Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400
Pipe: B 42, B 188. Rod: B 12, B 49, B 124, B 133, to 1600 °F)
Melting point. 1083 °C (1981 °F)
B 187. Tubing: B 68, B 75, B 88, B 111, B 188,
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.0
B 280, B 359, B 372, B 395, B 447. Wire: B 1, B
m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C C10300
2, B 3, B 33, B 47, B 116, B 189, B 246, B 286,
(68 to 212 °F); 17.3 m/m K (9.6 in./in.
B 298, B 355. Shapes: B 124, B 133, B 187 Commercial Names
°F) at 20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.7 m/m
Government specifications for C10100. Rod:
K (9.8 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to Common name. Oxygen-free extra-low-phos-
QQ-C-502
572 °F) phorus copper
Government specifications for C10200. Flat
Specific heat. 385 J/kg · K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) Designation. OFXLP
products: QQ-C-576. Rod and shapes: QQ-C-
at 20 °C (68 °F)
502. Tubing: WW-T-775. Wire: QQ-C-502, QQ-
Thermal conductivity. 391 W/m K (226 Btu/ft Specifications
W-343, MIL-W-3318
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
ASTM. Flat products: B 133, B 152, B 187, B
Chemical Composition 272, B 432. Pipe: B 42, B 188, B 302. Rod: B
Electrical Properties
Composition limits. C10100: 99.99 Cu min (there 12, B 133, B 187. Shapes: B 133, B 187.
are specific limits in ppm for 17 named elements; Electrical conductivity. Annealed: volumetric, Tubing: B 68, B 75, B 88, B 111, B 188, B
refer to ASTM B 170 or the Copper Development 101% IACS min at 20 °C (68 °F) 251, B 280, B 306, B 359, B 372, B 395, B 447
Association Standards Handbook). C10200: Electrical resistivity. 17.1 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
99.95 Cu Ag min Chemical Composition
Consequence of exceeding impurity limits. Chemical Properties
Composition limits. 99.95 Cu + Ag + P min,
C10100 and C10200 are high-conductivity elec- General corrosion behavior. Copper is 0.001 to 0.005 P, 0.05 max other (total)
trolytic coppers produced without use of metal cathodic to hydrogen in the electromotive
or metalloid deoxidizers. Excessive amounts of series and therefore is the cathode in galvan- Applications
impurities reduce conductivity. Excessive oxy- ic couples with other base metals such as
gen causes the metal to fail the ASTM B 170 iron, aluminum, magnesium, lead, tin, and Typical uses. Busbars, electrical conductors
bend test after being heated 30 min at 850 °C zinc. C10100 and C10200 have excellent and terminals, commutators, tubular busbars,
(1560 °F) in pure hydrogen. resistance to atmospheric corrosion and to clad products, waveguide tubing, thermostatic
corrosion by most waters, including brackish control tubing
Applications water and seawater. They have good resist-
Mechanical Properties
Typical uses. Busbars, waveguides, lead-in- ance to nonoxidizing acids but poor resist-
wire, anodes, vacuum seals, transistor compo- ance to oxidizing acids, moist ammonia, Tensile properties. See Table 4.
nents, glass-to-metal seals, coaxial cables, kly- moist halogens, sulfides, and solutions con- Shear strength. See Table 4.
strons, microwave tubes taining ammonium ions. Hardness. See Table 4.
*Reprinted from Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose Materials, Vol 2, ASM Handbook, 1990, p 265–345. The article was prepared for that Volume by Peter Robinson,
Olin Corporation.
Table 1 Typical mechanical properties of C10100 and C10200

Tensile strength Yield strength(a) Hardness Shear strength Fatigue strength(b)
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation in 50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HRB HR30T MPa ksi MPa ksi
Flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick

M20 235 34 69 10 45 45 … … 160 23 … …
OS025 235 34 76 11 45 45 … … 160 23 76 11
OS050 220 32 69 10 45 40 … … 150 22 … …
H00 250 36 195 28 30 60 10 25 170 25 … …
H01 260 38 205 30 25 70 25 36 170 25 … …
H02 240 42 250 36 14 84 40 50 180 26 90 13
H04 345 50 310 45 6 90 50 57 195 28 90 13
H08 380 55 345 50 4 94 60 63 200 29 95 14
H10 395 57 360 53 4 95 62 64 200 29 … …
M20 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22 … …
OS050 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22 … …
H00 250 36 195 28 40 60 10 … 170 25 … …
H01 260 38 205 30 35 70 25 … 170 25 … …
H04 345 50 310 45 12 90 50 … 195 28 … …
Flat products, 25 mm (1 in.) thick
H04 310 45 275 40 20 85 45 … 180 26 … …
Rod, 6 mm (0.25 in.) in diameter
H80 (40%) 380 55 345 50 10 94 80 … 200 29 … …
Rod, 25 mm (1 in.) in diameter
M20 220 32 69 10 55(c) 40 … … 150 22 … …
OS050 220 32 69 10 55(c) 40 … … 150 22 … …
H80 (35%) 330 48 305 44 16(d) 87 47 … 185 27 115 17
H80 (16%) 310 45 275 40 20 85 45 … 180 26 … …
Wire, 2 mm (0.08 in.) in diameter
OS050 240 35 … … 35(e) 45 … … 165 24 … …
H04 380 55 … … 1.5(f) … … … 200 29 … …
H08 455 66 … … 1.5(f) … … … 230 33 … …
Tubing, 25 mm (1 in.) outside diameter 1.65 mm (0.065 in.) wall thickness
OS025 235 34 76 11 45 45 … … 160 23 … …
OS050 220 32 69 10 45 40 … … 150 22 … …
H55 (15%) 275 40 220 32 25 77 35 45 180 26 … …
H80 (40%) 380 55 345 50 8 95 60 63 200 29 … …
Shapes, 13 mm (0.50 in.) in diameter
M20 220 32 69 10 50 45 … … 150 22 … …
M30 220 32 69 10 50 45 … … 150 22 … …
OS050 220 32 69 10 50 45 … … 150 22 … …
H80 (15%) 275 40 220 32 30 … 35 … 180 26 … …
(a) At 0.5% extension under load. (b) At 108 cycles. (c) 70% reduction in area. (d) 55% reduction in area. (e) Elongation in 254 mm (10 in.). (f) Elongation in 1500 mm (60 in.)
LIVE GRAPH
Fig. 1 Elevated-temperature tensile properties of C10100 or C10200 rod, H80 temper Click here to view
Properties of Wrought Coppers and Copper Alloys / 455
Table 2 Creep properties of C10100 and C10200

Stress(a) for creep rate of
Test temperature 10–6%/h 10–5%/h 10–4%/h 10–3%/h 10–2%/h 10–1%/h
Condition and grain size °C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi
OS025(b) 43 110 … … … … … … 170 25 185 27 200 29

120 250 … … … … … … 125 18 150 22 165 24
150 300 11 1.6 25 3.6 55 8.0 110 16 130 19 150 22
205 400 3 0.5 10 1.5 33 4.8 … … … … … …
260 500 0.7 0.1 3 0.4 12 1.x7 … … … … … …
370 700 … … … … … … … … 21 3.1 (40) (5.8)
480 900 … … … … … … … … 9.9 1.45 (23) (3.3)
Cold drawn 40%(c) 43 110 … … … … … … 310 45 330 48 … …
120 250 … … … … … … 240 35 270 39 (295) (43)
150 300 … … … … … … 200 29 235 34 250 36
370 700 … … … … … … 11 1.6 26 3.8 (39) (5.6)
480 900 … … … … … … … … 8.3 1.2 (17) (2.4)
650 1200 … … … … … … … … 3 0.5 6 0.9
Cold drawn 84%(d) 150 300 … … 55 8.0 89.6 13.0 … … … … … …
205 400 (4.5) (0.65) 12 1.7 35 5.0 … … … … … …
(a) Parentheses indicate extrapolated values. (b) Tensile strength, 220 MPa (31.9 ksi) at 21 °C (70 °F). (c) Tensile strength, 352 MPa (51.1 ksi) at 21 °C (70 °F). (d) Tensile strength, 376 MPa (54.5 ksi) at 21 °C (70 °F)
Table 3 Stress-rupture properties of C10100 and C10200

Stress(a) for rupture in
Test temperature 10 h 100 h 1000 h LIVE GRAPH
Temper or condition °C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi Click here to view
OS025(b) 150 300 … … 161 23.4 147 21.3
200 380 … … 130 18.9 106 15.3
Cold drawn 40%(c) 120 250 … … 272 39.4 (245) (35.6)
150 300 … … 241 35.0 (215) (31.2)
H80(d) 450 840 33 4.8 17 2.4 … …
650 1200 9.7 1.4 5.2 0.75 … …
(a) Parentheses indicate extrapolated values. (b) Tensile strength, 238 MPa (34.5 ksi) at 21 °C (70 °F). (c) Tensile strength, 352 MPa (51.1 ksi) at 21
°C (70 °F). (d) Tensile strength, 426 MPa (61.8 ksi) at 21 °C (70 °F)
Table 4 Typical mechanical properties of C10300

Tensile strength Yield strength(a) Hardness Shear strength
Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HRB HR30T MPa ksi

OS050 220 32 69 10 45 40 … … 150 22
OS025 235 34 76 11 45 45 … … 160 23
H00 250 36 195 28 30 60 10 25 170 25
H01 260 38 205 30 25 70 25 36 170 25
H02 290 42 250 36 14 84 40 50 180 26
H04 345 50 310 45 6 90 50 57 195 28
OS050 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22
H00 250 36 195 28 40 60 10 … 170 25
H04 345 50 310 45 12 90 50 … 195 28
M20 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22
H04 310 45 275 40 20 85 45 … 180 26
H80 (40%) 380 55 345 50 20 94 60 … 200 29
H80 (35%) 330 48 305 44 16 87 47 … 185 27
H80 (16%) 310 45 275 40 20 85 45 … 180 26
OS050 220 32 69 10 45 40 … … 150 22
OS025 235 34 76 11 45 45 … … 160 23
H80 (15%) 275 40 220 32 25 77 35 45 180 26
H80 (40%) 380 55 345 50 8 95 60 63 200 29
Pipe, 3/4 SPS
H80 (30%) 345 50 310 45 10 90 50 … 195 28
Shapes, 13 mm (0.50 in.) section size
OS050 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22
H80 (15%) 275 40 220 32 30 … 35 … 180 26
(a) At 0.5% extension under load Fig. 2 Low-temperature mechanical properties of

C10100 or C10200 bar
Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 Thermal Properties in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to 572 °F)
psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi) Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F)
Fatigue strength. 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick strip: Liquidus temperature. 1083 °C (1981 °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
OS025 temper, 76 MPa (11 ksi); H02 or H04 Solidus temperature. 1083 °C (1981 °F) Thermal conductivity. 386 W/m K (223
temper, 90 MPa (13 ksi) Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.0 Btu/ft h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68
Mass Characteristics to 212 °F); 17.3 m/m K (9.6 in./in. °F) at Electrical Properties
Density. 8.94 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) 20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.7 m/m K (9.8 Electrical conductivity. O61 temper: volumetric,
99% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
Table 5 Summary of ASTM and government specifications for C10400, C10500, and Electrical resistivity. 17.4 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
C10700
Fabrication Characteristics
Mill product C10400 C10500 C10700
ASTM numbers
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Flat products B 48, B 133, B 152, B 187, B 272 B 152, B 187, B 272 B 152, B 187, B 272
Annealing temperature. 375 to 650 °C (700 to
Pipe B 42, B 188 B 188 B 188 1200 °F)
Rod B 12, B 49, B 133, B 187 B 12, B 49, B 133, B 187 B 12, B 49, B 133, B 187 Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400
Shapes B 133, B 187 B 187 B 187 to 1600 °F)
Tube B 188 B 188 B 188
Wire B 1, B 2, B 3 B 1, B 2, B 3 B 1, B 2, B 3
Government numbers C10400, C10500, C10700
Flat products QQ-C-502, QQ-C-576 QQ-C-502, QQ-C-576 QQ-C-576
Rod QQ-C-502 QQ-C-502 QQ-C-502 Commercial Names
Shapes QQ-C-502, QQ-B-825 QQ-C-502 QQ-B-825, MIL-B-19231
Tube QQ-B-825 QQ-B-825 QQ-B-825
Trade name. AMSIL copper
Wire QQ-W-343, MIL-W-3318 QQ-W-343, MIL-W-3318 QQ-W-343, MIL-W-3318 Common name. Oxygen-free silver-copper
Specifications
Table 6 Typical mechanical properties of C10400, C10500, and C10700 ASTM. See Table 5.
Tensile strength Yield strength(a)
Elongation in
Hardness Shear strength Chemical Composition
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HRB HR30T MPa ksi
Composition limits. C10400: 99.95 Cu Ag
Flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick min, 0.027 Ag min. C10500: 99.95 Cu Ag
OS025 235 34 76 11 45 45 … … 160 23 min, 0.034 Ag min. C10700: 99.95 Cu Ag
H00 250 36 195 28 30 60 10 25 170 25
H01 260 38 205 30 25 70 25 36 170 25 min, 0.085 Ag min
H02 290 42 250 36 14 84 40 50 180 26
H04 345 50 310 45 6 90 50 57 195 28 Applications
H08 380 55 345 50 4 94 60 63 200 29 Typical uses. Busbars, conductivity wire, con-
H10 395 57 365 53 4 95 62 64 200 29
M20 235 34 69 10 45 45 … … 160 23 tacts, radio parts, windings, switches, commuta-
tor segments, automotive gaskets and radiators,
chemical plant equipment, printing rolls,
OS050 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22
H00 250 36 195 28 40 60 10 … 170 25 printed-circuit foil. Many uses are based on
H01 260 38 205 30 35 70 25 … 170 25 the good creep strength at elevated tempera-
H04 345 50 310 45 12 90 50 … 195 28 tures and the high softening temperature of
M20 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22 these alloys.
H04 310 45 275 40 20 85 45 … 180 26
H80 (40%) 380 55 345 50 10 94 60 … 200 29
OS050 220 32 69 10 55 40 … … 150 22
H80 (35%) 330 48 305 44 16 87 47 … 185 27
M20 220 32 69 10 55 40 … … 150 22
H80 (16%) 310 45 275 40 20 85 45 … 180 26
Wire, 2 mm (0.08 in.) in diameter
OS050 240 35 … … 35(b) … … … 165 24
H04 380 55 … … 1.5(c) … … … 200 29
H08 455 66 … … 1.5(c) … … … 230 33
Shapes, 13 mm (0.50 in.) section size
OS050 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22
H80 (15%) 275 40 220 32 30 … 35 … 180 26
M20 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22
M30 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22
Tubing, 25 mm (1.0 in.) diameter 1.65 mm (0.065 in.) wall thickness
OS050 220 32 69 10 45 40 … … 150 22
OS025 235 34 76 11 45 45 … … 160 23
H80 (15%) 275 40 220 32 25 77 35 45 180 26
H80 (50%) 380 55 345 50 8 95 60 62 200 29 Fig. 3 Softening characteristics of oxygen-free copper
containing various amounts of silver. Data are
(a) At 0.5% extension under load. (b) Elongation in 25 mm (10 in.). (c) Elongation in 1500 mm (60 in.) for copper wire cold worked 90% to a diameter of 2 mm
(0.08 in.) and then annealed 12 h at various temperatures.
LIVE GRAPH
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Mechanical Properties C10800 Mass Characteristics

Tensile properties. See Table 6 and Fig. 3. Density. 8.94 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Shear strength. See Table 6. Commercial Names
Hardness. See Table 6. Trade name. AMAX-LP copper Thermal Properties
Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 Common name. Oxygen-free low-phospho-
Liquidus temperature. 1083 °C (1981 °F)
psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi) rus copper
Solidus temperature. 1083 °C (1981 °F)
Mass Characteristics Specifications Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.0
ASTM. Flat products: B 113, B 152, B 187, B m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68
Density. 8.94 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) to 212 °F); 17.3 m/m K (9.6 in./in. °F) at
432. Pipe: B42, B 302. Rod: B 12, B 133.
Thermal Properties Shapes: B 133. Tubing: B 68, B 75, B 88, B 111, 20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.7 m/m K (9.8
B 188, B 251, B 280, B 306, B 357, B 360, B in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to 572 °F)
Liquidus temperature. 1083 °C (1981 °F) Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) at
Solidus temperature. 1083 °C (1981 °F) 372, B 395, B 447, B 543
20 °C (68 °F)
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.0 Chemical Composition Thermal conductivity. 350 W/m K (202 Btu/ft
m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68 Composition limits. 99.95 Cu Ag P min, h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
to 212 °F); 17.3 m/m K (9.6 in./in. °F) at 0.005 to 0.012 P
20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.7 m/m K (9.8 Electrical Properties
in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to 572 °F) Applications
Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) at Electrical conductivity. O61 temper: volumetric,
Typical uses. Refrigerator and air conditioner tub-
20 °C (68 °F) 92% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
ing and terminals, commutators, clad products,
Thermal conductivity. 388 W/m K (224 Btu/ft Electrical resistivity. 18.7 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
gas and burner lines and units, oil burner tubes,
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) condenser and heat exchanger tubes, pulp and Fabrication Characteristics
Electrical Properties paper lines, steam and water lines, tank gage lines,
plumbing pipe and tubing, thermostatic control Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Electrical conductivity. O61 temper: volumetric, tubing, plate for welded continuous casting molds, Annealing temperature. 375 to 650 °C (700 to
100% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F) tanks, kettles, rotating bands, and similar uses 1200 °F)
Electrical resistivity. 17.2 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400
Mechanical Properties to 1600 °F)
Fabrication Characteristics Tensile properties. See Table 7.
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Shear strength. See Table 7. C11000
Annealing temperature. 475 to 750 °C (900 to Hardness. See Table 7 99.95Cu-0.04O
1400 °F). See also Fig. 3. Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106
Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400 psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi) Commercial Names
to 1600 °F) Fatigue strength. See Table 7.
Common name. Electrolytic tough pitch copper
Table 7 Typical mechanical properties of C10800 Designation. ETP
Tensile Yield Shear Fatigue
strength strength(a)
Elongation
Hardness strength strength(b) Specifications
in 50 mm
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % HRF HRB HR30T MPa ksi MPa ksi AMS. Sheet and strip: 4500. Wire: 4701
Flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick ASME. Plate for locomotive fireboxes: SB11.
OS025 235 34 76 11 45 45 … … 160 23 76 11 Rod for locomotive staybolts: SB12
H00 250 36 195 28 30 60 10 25 170 25 … … ASTM: See Table 8.
H01 260 38 205 30 25 70 25 36 170 25 … …
H02 290 42 250 36 14 84 40 50 180 26 90 13
SAE. J463
H04 345 50 310 45 6 90 50 57 195 28 90 13 Government. Federal specifications: See Table
H08 380 55 345 50 4 94 60 63 200 29 97 14 8. Military specifications: Rod, MIL-C-12166;
Flat products, 6 mm (0.25 in.) thick wire, MIL-W-3318, MIL-W-6712
OS050 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22 … …
H00 250 36 195 28 40 60 10 … 170 25 … … Chemical Composition
H04 345 50 310 45 12 90 50 … 195 28 … …
M20 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22 … … Composition limits. 99.90 Cu min (silver count-
ed as copper)
H04 310 45 275 40 20 85 45 … 180 26 … …
Silver has little effect on mechanical and elec-
trical properties, but does raise the recrystal-
lization temperature and tends to produce a
H80 (40%) 380 55 345 50 20 94 60 … 200 29 … …
fine-grain copper.
Rod, 25 mm (1 in.) in diameter Iron, as present in commercial copper, has no
H80 (35%) 330 48 305 44 16 87 47 … 185 27 115 17 effect on mechanical properties, but even
Rod, 50 mm (2 in.) in diameter traces of iron can cause C11000 to be slight-
H80 (16%) 310 45 275 40 20 85 45 … 180 26 … … ly ferromagnetic.
Tubing, 25 mm (1 in.) outside diameter 1.65 mm (0.065 in.) wall thickness Sulfur causes spewing and unsoundness, and is
OS050 220 32 69 10 45 40 … … 150 22 … … kept below 0.003% in ordinary refinery practice.
OS025 235 34 76 11 45 45 … … 160 23 … … Selenium and tellurium are usually considered
H55 (15%) 275 40 220 32 25 77 35 45 180 26 … … undesirable impurities but may be added to
H80 (40%) 380 55 345 50 8 95 60 63 200 29 … …
improve machinability.
Pipe, 3/4 SPS Bismuth creates brittleness in amounts greater
H80 (30%) 345 50 310 45 10 90 50 … 195 28 … … than 0.001%.
(a) At 0.5% extension under load. (b) At 108 cycles
Lead should not be present in amounts greater
than 0.005% if the copper is to be hot rolled.
Cadmium is rarely present; its effect is to tough- monoxide is present in the reducing atmosphere, the metal. Up to a point, damping capacity
en copper without much loss in conductivity. embrittlement can be rapid. increases with increasing cold work; for exam-
Arsenic decreases the conductivity of copper ple, the damping capacity of 70-30 brass has
noticeably, although it is often added intention- Mechanical Properties been reported to increase for reductions up to
ally to copper not used in electrical service Tensile properties. See Table 9 and Fig. 4 to 8. 60%. When subjected to the same conditions,
because it increases the toughness and heat Shear strength. See Table 9. coppers have about three times the damping
resistance of the metal. Hardness. See Table 9 and Fig. 9. capacity of C21000 or C22000. A specific damp-
Antimony is sometimes added to the copper Poisson’s ratio. 0.33 ing capacity of 5 10 –5 has been recorded for
when a high recrystallization temperature Elastic modulus. O60 temper: tension, 115 GPa single-crystal annealed copper. Log decrement:
is desired. (17 106 psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi). O60 temper, 3.2; cold rolled (H) tempers, 5.0
Cold-worked (H) tempers: tension, 115 to 130 Coefficient of friction. Values given below apply
Applications GPa (17 106 to 19 106 psi); shear, 44 to 49 to any of the unalloyed coppers in contact with
GPa (6.4 106 to 7.1 106 psi) the indicated materials without lubrication of
Typical uses. Produced in all forms except Impact strength. See Table 10. any kind between the contacting surfaces:
pipe, and used for building fronts, down- Fatigue strength. See Table 9; values shown
spouts, flashing, gutters, roofing, screening, there are typical of all tough pitch, oxygen-free, Coefficient of friction
spouting, gaskets, radiators, busbars, electrical phosphorus-deoxidized and arsenical coppers. Opposing material Static Sliding
wire, stranded conductors, contacts, radio Copper does not exhibit an endurance limit Carbon steel 0.53 0.36
parts, switches, terminals, ball floats, butts, under fatigue loading and, on the average, will Cast iron 1.05 0.29
cotter pins, nails, rivets, soldering copper, fracture in fatigue at the stated number of cycles Glass 0.68 0.53
tacks, chemical process equipment, kettles, when subjected to an alternating stress equal to
pans, printing rolls, rotating bands, roadbed the corresponding fatigue strength (see Fig. 10). Mass Characteristics
expansion plates, vats Creep-rupture characteristics. See Table 11.
Precautions in use. C11000 is subject to embrit- Specific damping capacity. The damping capaci- Density. Solid: 8.89 g/cm3 (0.321 lb/in.3) at 20
tlement when heated to 370 °C (700 °F) or ty of coppers and brasses depends on the ampli- °C (68 °F); 8.32 g/cm3 (0.301 lb/in.3) at 1083 °C
above in a reducing atmosphere, as in annealing, tude and, in some instances, on the frequency of (1981 °F); see also Fig. 11. Liquid: 7.93 g/cm3
brazing, or welding. If hydrogen or carbon vibration; it is also affected by the condition of (0.286 lb/in.3) at 1083 °C (1981 °F)
Table 8 ASTM and federal specifications for C11000 Thermal Properties

Specification number Liquidus temperature. 1083 °C (1981 °F)
Product and condition ASTM Federal Solidus temperature. Eutectic point, 1065 °C
Flat products (1950 °F)
General requirements for copper and copper alloy plate, sheet, strip, and rolled bar B 248 … Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17
Sheet, strip, plate, and rolled bar B 152 QQ-C-576 m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68
Sheet, lead coated B 101 … to 212 °F); 17.3 m/m K (9.6 in./in. °F) at
Sheet and strip for building construction B 370 … 20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.7 m/m K (9.8
Strip and flat wire B 272 QQ-C-502
Foil, strip, and sheet for printed circuits B 451 … in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to 572 °F). See
also Fig. 12.
Rod, bar, and shapes
Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) at
General requirements for copper and copper alloy rod, bar, and shapes B 249 …
Rod, bar, and shapes B 133 QQ-C-502, QQ-C-576 20 °C (68 °F)
Rod, hot rolled B 49 … Enthalpy. See Fig. 12.
Rod, bar, and shapes for forging B 124 QQ-C-502 Latent heat of fusion. 205 kJ/kg
Busbars, rods, and shapes B 187 QQ-B-825 Thermal conductivity. 388 W/m K (224 Btu/ft
Wire h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F). For high conductivity
General requirements for copper and copper alloy wire B 250 … coppers, a values of 387 W/m K (223 Btu/ft h
Hard drawn B1 QQ-W-343 °F) is an adjusted value corresponding to an
Tinned B 246 …
Medium-hard drawn B2 QQ-W-343 electrical conductivity of 101% IACS:
Tinned B 246 …
Soft B3 QQ-W-343 Temperature Thermal conductivity
Lead alloy coated B 189 … K °C W/m · K Btu/ft · h · °F
Nickel coated B 355 …
Rectangular and square B 48, B 272 … 4.2 –268.8 300 170
Tinned B 33 … 20 –253 1300 750
Silver coated B 298 … 77 –196 550 318
Trolley B 47, B 116 … 194 –79 400 230
273 0 390 225
Conductors 373 100 380 220
Bunch stranded B 174 … 573 300 370 215
Concentric-lay stranded B 8, B 226, B496 … 973 700 300 170
Conductors for electronic equipment B 286, B 470 …
Rope-lay stranded B 172, B 173 …
Composite conductors (copper plus copper-clad steel) B 229 … Electrical Properties
Tubular products
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric: O60 temper:
Bus pipe and tube B 188 QQ-B-825
Pipe … WW-P-377 100 to 101.5% IACS; H14 temper, 97% IACS.
Welded copper tube B 477 … See also Fig. 13.
Miscellaneous Electrical resistivity. O60 temper: 17.00 to 17.24
Standard classification of coppers B 224 … n m; temperature coefficient, 0.00393/K at
Electrolytic Cu wirebars, cakes, slabs, billets, ingots, and ingot bars B5 … –100 to 200 °C (–148 to 392 °F) for 100% IACS
Anodes … QQ-A-673 material, 0.00397/K at –100 to 200 °C for 101%
Die forgings B 283 … IACS material. H14 temper: 1.78 n m; temper-
LIVE GRAPH
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Fig. 5 Variation of tensile properties with amount of

cold reduction by rolling for C11000 and simi-
lar coppers
ature coefficient, 0.00381/K at 0 to 100 °C (32 to

212 °F) for 97% IACS material. See also Fig. 13.
Thermoelectrical potential. See Fig. 14.
Electrochemical equivalent. Cu2, 0.329 mg/C;
Cu, 0.659 mg/C
Electrolytic solution potential. Cu2, –0.344 V
versus standard hydrogen electrode; Cu,
–0.470 V versus standard hydrogen electrode;
temperature coefficient, –0.01 mV/K at 20 to 50
°C (68 to 122 °F)
Hydrogen overvoltage. Approximately 0.23 V in
dilute sulfuric acid; specific value varies with
current density.
Hall effect. Hall coefficient, –52 pV m/A T
Optical Properties
Fig. 4 Variation of tensile properties and grain size of electrolytic tough pitch copper (C11000) and similar coppers
Color. Reddish metallic
Spectral reflectivity. 32.7% for " of 420 nm;
43.7% for " of 500 nm; 71.8% for " of 600 nm;
83.4% for " of 700 nm. See also Fig. 15 and 16.
LIVE GRAPH
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Fig. 6 Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of C11000 and similar coppers
LIVE GRAPH
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Fig. 8 Stress relaxation curves for C11000 and similar coppers. Data are for H80 temper wire, 2 mm (0.08 in.) in diam-
eter, and represent the time-temperature combination necessary to produce a 5% reduction in tensile strength.
Fig. 7 Low-temperature tensile properties of C11000

and similar coppers
Chemical Properties LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH

General corrosion behavior. Although many Fig. 10 Rotating-beam fatigue strength of C11000
factors influence the corrosion resistance of cop- Fig. 9 Variation of hardness with amount of cold reduc- wire, 2 mm (0.08 in.) in diameter, H80 temper
tion by rolling for C11000 and similar coppers
per under specific conditions of service, copper
is generally less subject to corrosion than other
engineering metals. Copper often is used where Alkalies: fused sodium or potassium hydroxide;
resistance to corrosion is of prime importance. concentrated or dilute caustic solutions
Sometimes, it is better to use a copper alloy Salt solutions: aluminum chloride, aluminum
rather than an unalloyed copper. sulfate, calcium chloride, copper sulfate, sodium
In general, copper resists nonoxidizing mineral carbonate, sodium nitrate, sodium sulfate, and
and organic acids, caustic solutions, saline solu- zinc sulfate
tions, and various natural waters or process Waters: all types of potable water, many
waters. It is suitable for underground service industrial and mine waters, seawater, and
because it resists soil corrosion. Copper is not brackish water
suitable for service in oxidizing acids such as LIVE GRAPH
nitric acid, and it is not recommended for use Fabrication Characteristics Click here to view
with ammonia, nitric acid, acid chromate solu- Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-
tions, ferric chloride, mercury salts, perchlo- cutting brass)
rates, or persulfates. Also, copper may corrode Forgeability. 65% of C37700 (forging brass)
in aerated nonoxidizing acids such as sulfuric or Formability. Excellent for cold working and Fig. 11 Variation of density with amount of cold
reduction by rolling for C11000 and similar
acetic acids, even though it is practically hot forming coppers. A, vacuum annealed 12 h at 880 °C (1615 °F)
immune to these acids in the complete absence Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing and and cold drawn. B, vacuum annealed 12 h at 970 °C
of air. resistance butt welding: good. Gas-shielded arc (1780 °F) and flat rolled. C, vacuum annealed 12 h at 995
Tough pitch copper is considered to be immune welding: fair. Oxyfuel gas, shielded metal-arc, °C (1825 °F) and cold drawn. D, hot rolled, vacuum
annealed 4 h at 600 °C (1110 °F), and drawn
to stress-corrosion cracking in ammonia and the resistance spot, and resistance seam welding:
other agents that induce season cracking of not recommended Common name. Anneal-resistant electro-
brasses. However, tough pitch copper is suscep- Annealing temperature. 475 to 750 °C (900 to lytic copper
tible to embrittlement in reducing atmosphere, 1400 °F). See also Fig. 4 and 17.
especially those containing hydrogen. Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400 to Specifications
Resistance to specific corroding agents. 1600 °F)
Depending on concentration and specific con- Typical softening temperature. 360 °C (675 °F) ASTM. See Table 12.
ditions of exposure, copper generally resists SAE. Bar, plate, sheet, strip: J461, J463
the following agents. Government: See Table 12.
Acids: mineral acids such as hydrochloric and C11100 Chemical Composition
sulfuric acids; organic acids such as acetic acid 99.95Cu-0.04O-0.01Cd
(including vinegar and acetates), carbolic acid, Composition limits. 99.90 Cu min. Limits on O
citric acid, formic acid, oxalic acid, and tartaric Commercial Names and Cd or other elements present to make this
acid; fatty acids; and acidic solutions containing copper anneal resistant are established by con-
sulfur, such as the sulfurous acid and sulfite Previous trade name. Electrolytic tough pitch ductivity tests and/or stress relaxation tests
solutions used in pulp mills copper, anneal resistant rather than by chemical analysis.
Table 9 Typical mechanical properties of C11000 Applications

Tensile
strength
Yield
strength(a)
Elongation
Hardness
Shear
strength
Fatigue
strength(b)
Typical uses. Produced mainly as wire for elec-
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi
in 50 mm
(2 in.), % HRF HRB HR30T MPa ksi MPa ksi
trical power transmission where resistance to
softening under overloads is desired
OS050 220 32 69 10 45 40 … … 150 22 … …
OS025 235 34 76 11 45 45 … … 160 23 76 11
H00 250 36 195 28 30 60 10 25 170 25 … …
H01 260 38 205 30 25 70 25 36 170 25 … … Typical tensile properties. Tensile strength, 455
H02 290 42 250 36 14 84 40 50 180 26 90 13 MPa (66 ksi); elongation, 1.5% in 150 cm (60 in.)
H04 345 50 310 45 6 90 50 57 195 28 90 13 Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106
H08 380 55 345 50 4 94 60 63 200 29 97 14 psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi)
H10 395 57 365 53 4 95 62 64 200 29 … …
M20 235 34 69 10 45 45 … … 160 23 … …
Mass Characteristics
OS050 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22 … … Density. 8.89 to 8.94 g/cm3 (0.321 to 0.323
H00 250 36 195 28 40 60 10 … 170 25 … …
H01 260 38 205 30 35 70 25 … 170 25 … …
lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
H04 345 50 310 45 12 90 50 … 195 28 … …
M20 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22 … … Thermal Properties
Flat products, 25 mm (1.0 in.) thick Liquidus temperature. 1085 °C (1980 °F)
H04 310 45 275 40 20 85 45 … 180 26 … … Solidus temperature. 1065 °C (1950 °F)
Rod, 6 mm (0.25 in.) diameter
H80 (40%) 380 55 345 50 10 94 60 … 200 29 … …
Rod, 25 mm (1.0 in.) diameter Table 10 Typical impact strength of
OS050 220 32 69 10 55 40 … … 150 22 … … C11000
H80 (35%) 330 48 305 44 16 87 47 … 185 27 115(c) Impact strength
17(c)
M20 220 32 69 10 55 40 … … 150 22 … … Product and condition J ft · lbf
Rod, 50 mm (2.0 in.) diameter Charpy V-notch

H80 (16%) 310 45 275 40 20 85 45 … 180 26 … … Hot rolled, annealed 96 71
Wire, 2 mm (0.08 in.) diameter Charpy keyhole-notch

OS050 240 35 … … 35(d) … … … 165 24 … … As-cast 11 8
H04 380 55 … … 1.5(e) … … … 200 29 … … As-hot rolled 43 32
H08 455 66 … … 1.5(e) … … … 230 33 … … Rod
Annealed 52 38
Tube, 25 mm (1.0 in.) diameter 3 1.65 mm (0.065 in.) wall thickness Commercial temper 35 26
OS050 220 32 69 10 45 40 … … 150 22 … … Izod
OS025 235 34 76 11 45 45 … … 160 23 … …
H55 (15%) 275 40 220 32 25 77 35 45 180 26 Rod
H80 (40%) 380 55 345 50 8 95 60 63 200 29 … … Annealed and drawn 30% 54 40
Drawn 30% 45 33
Shapes, 13 mm (0.50 in.) section size Plate
OS050 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22 … … As-hot rolled 52 38
H80 (15%) 275 40 220 32 30 … 35 … 180 26 … … Annealed 53(a) 39(a)
M20 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22 … … 39(b) 29(b)
M30 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22 … … Cold rolled 50% 26(a) 19(a)
12(b) 9(b)
(a) At 0.5% extension under load. (b) At 108cycles in a reversed bending test. (c) At 3 108 cycles in a rotating beam test. (d) Elongation in 250
mm (10 in.). (e) Elongation in 1500 mm (60 in.) (a) Parallel to rolling direction. (b) Transverse to rolling direction
LIVE GRAPH
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Fig. 12 Thermal expansion and enthalpy of C11000. (a) Total thermal expansion from –190 °C (–310 °F). (b) Enthalpy (heat content) above 0 °C (32 °F)
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.0 Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing Specifications
m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68 and resistance butt welding: good. Gas-
to 212 °F); 17.3 m/m K (9.6 in./in. °F) at shielded arc welding: fair. Oxyacetylene AMS. Soft wire (all alloys) and trolley wire
20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.7 m/m K (9.8 coated metal-arc and resistance spot and (C11300 only): 4701
in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to 572 °F) seam welding: not recommended ASME. Strip (C11300 only): SB152
Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) at Annealing temperature. 475 to 750 °C (900 to ASTM. See Table 13.
20 °C (68 °F) 1400 °F) SAE. Bar, sheet, strip (C11300, C11400, and
Thermal conductivity. 388 W/m K (224 Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400 C11600) and plate (C11300 and C11400): J463
Btu/ft h °F) to 1600 °F) Federal. See Table 13.
Typical softening temperature. 355 °C (675 °F) Military. Soft wire (all alloys) and trolley wire
Electrical Properties (C11300 only): MIL-W-3318. Commutator bar
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric: 100% IACS (11600 only): MIL-B-19231
C11300, C11400,
at 20 °C (68 °F)
Electrical resistivity. 17.2 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) C11500, C11600 Chemical Composition
99.96Cu Ag-0.4O Copper limits. 99.0 to 99.9 Cu
Fabrication Characteristics Oxygen limit. 0.04% O max
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Commercial Names Silver limits. C11300, 0.027 Ag max; C11400,
Forgeability. 65% of C37700 (forging brass) Previous trade name. Tough pitch copper 0.034 Ag max; C11500, 0.054 Ag max; C11600,
Formability. Excellent for cold working and hot with silver 0.085 Ag max. These coppers may be low-resist-
forming. Common processes include drawing, Common name. Silver-bearing tough pitch copper ance lake copper or electrolytic copper to which
stranding, and stamping. Designation. STP Ag has been intentionally added.
LIVE GRAPH
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Fig. 13 Electrical properties of copper. (a) Electrical conductivity as a function of amount of cold reduction by drawing. (b) Variation of electrical resistance with applied com-
pressive stress at 30 and 75 °C (86 and 167 °F). Resistance expressed as percent of no load value
Table 11 Creep properties of copper

Testing temperature Stress
Duration of Total Minimum creep
Temper ˚C ˚F MPa ksi test, h extension(a),% Intercept, % rate, % per 1000 h
Strip, 2.5 mm (0.10 in.) thick

OS030 130 265 55 8 2500 2.6 2.0 0.15
100 14.5 2600 10.0 7.6 1.2
140 20 170 29.8(b) … 39
175 345 55 8 2000 3.3 2.3 0.65
100 14.5 350 15(b) 8.0 6.3
H01 130 265 55 8 8250 0.20 0.15 0.01
100 14.5 8600 0.67 0.26 0.042 LIVE GRAPH
140 20 1750 2.4(b) 0.32 0.45 Click here to view
175 345 55 8 6850 1.14 0.14 0.088
100 14.5 1100 2.0 0.22 0.66
H02 130 265 55 8 7200 0.24 0.13 0.01
100 14.5 8600 1.02 0.25 0.054
140 20 4680 3.4(b) 0.36 0.27
175 345 55 8 1050 3.3(b) … 0.6
H06 130 265 55 8 8250 1.58 0.08 0.035
100 14.5 8700 7.31 0.16 0.055
140 20 4030 11(b) 0.24 0.17
Rod, 3.2 mm (0.13 in.) diameter
OS025 260 500 2.5 0.36 6000 0.08 0.016 0.011
4.1 0.60 6000 0.19 0.010 0.030
7.2 1.05 6500 0.64 0.113 0.080
13.8 2.0 6500 2.88 0.87 0.306
H08 205 400 7.2 1.05 6500 0.06 0.045 0.011
14.5 2.1 6500 0.20 0.112 0.012
28 4.05 6500 1.08 0.41 0.097
50 7.25 6500 5.42 2.47 0.44
Note: Values shown are typical for the tough pitch grades of copper. Oxygen-free, phosphorus-deoxidized, and arsenical coppers have marginally
greater resistance to creep deformation. (a) Total extension is initial extension (not given in table) plus intercept (column 8) plus the product of min-
imum creep rate (column 9) and duration (column 6). (b) Rupture test Fig. 14 Thermoelectric properties of copper with cold
junctions at 0 °C (32 °F)
Applications Thermal Properties Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400

Typical uses. All forms except pipe and tubing: Liquidus temperature. 1080 °C (1980 °F) to 1600 °F)
gaskets, radiators, busbars, conductivity wire, Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.7
contacts, radio parts, windings, switches, ter- m/m K (9.8 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
C12500, C12700, C12800,
minals, commutator segments, chemical to 572 °F) C12900, C13000
process equipment, printing rolls, clad metals, Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) at Commercial Names
printed circuit foil 20 °C (68 °F) Previous trade name. Fire-refined tough
Thermal conductivity. 388 W/m K (224 Btu/ft pitch copper (C12500); fire-refined tough
Mechanical Properties h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) pitch copper with silver (C12700, C12800,
Tensile properties. See Table 14. C12900, C13000)
Shear strength. See Table 14. Common name. Fire-refined copper
Hardness. See Table 14. Electrical conductivity. Volumetric: 100% IACS Designation. C12500; FRTP. Others: FRTSP
Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 at 20 °C (68 °F)
psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi) Electrical resistivity. 17.2 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Specifications
ASTM. Flat products: B 11, B 124, B 133, B 152,
Mass Characteristics Fabrication Characteristics B 272. Rod: B 12, B 124, B 133. Shapes: B 124,
Density. 8.89 to 8.94 g/cm3 (0.321 to 0.323 Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) B 133, B 216. Lake copper wirebar, cake, slab,
lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Forgeability. 65% of C37700 (forging brass) billet, and ingot: B 4
LIVE GRAPH Formability. Excellent for cold working and Government. MIL-W-3318
Click here to view hot forming
Chemical Composition
Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing
and resistance butt welding: good. Gas- Composition limits in ASTM B 216: 99.88 Cu
shielded arc welding: fair. Oxyacetylene Ag min (minimum Ag content may be specified
coated metal-arc and resistance spot and by agreement), 0.012 As max, 0.003 Sb max,
seam welding: not recommended 0.025 Se Te max, 0.05 Ni max, 0.003 Bi max,
Annealing temperature. 475 to 750 °C (900 to 0.004 Pb max
1400 °F) Consequence of exceeding impurity limits.
Bi and Pb can cause hot workability
LIVE GRAPH problems if composition limits are exceeded.
Click here to view
Se and Te greatly affect recrystallization and
grain growth.
Applications
Typical uses. Architectural: Building fronts,
downspouts, flashing, gutters, roofing,
screening, spouting. Automotive: gaskets,
radiators. Electrical: busbars, contacts, radio
parts, commutator segments, switches, termi-
nals. Miscellaneous: anodes, chemical
process equipment, kettles, pans, printing
rolls, rotating bands, roadbed expansion
Table 12 Specifications for C11100

Product Federal ASTM
Bar QQ-C-502, …
Fig. 15 Optical properties of C11000 and similar cop- QQ-C-576
pers at 21 °C (70 °F) Fig. 16 Emissivity of commercial coppers Bar, bus QQ-B-865 …
Pipe, bus QQ-B-825 …
Plate QQ-C-576 …
Rod QQ-B-502 B 49, B 133
Rod, bus QQ-B-825 …
Shapes QQ-C-502 …
Shapes, bus QQ-B-825 …
Sheet QQ-C-576 …
Strip QQ-C-502, …
QQ-C-576
Tubing, bus QQ-B-825 …
Wire, coated … B 246
With tin … B 334
With lead alloy … B 189
With nickel … B 355
With silver … B 298
Wire, flat QQ-C-502 …
Wire, hard drawn QQ-W-343 B1
Wire, medium- … B2
hard drawn
Wire, stranded … B 8, B 172, B 173,
B 174, B 226,
B 228, B 229,
B 286
Wire, rod … B 47
Fig. 17 Time-temperature relationships for annealing C11000 and similar coppers Wire, trolley … B 116
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
plates, vats. This copper is suitable for use Electrical Properties C14300, C14310
where the high conductivity and low anneal- 99.9Cu-0.1Cd; 99.8Cu-0.2Cd
ing temperature of electrolytic tough pitch Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 98% IACS
copper are not required. at 20 °C (68 °F), annealed Commercial Names
Precautions in use. This copper is subject to Electrical resistivity. 17.6 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
embrittlement when heated in a reducing Previous trade names. C14300: cadmium-cop-
atmosphere, as in annealing, brazing, or weld- per, deoxidized
ing at temperatures of 370 °C (700 °F) or Fabrication Characteristics
above. If hydrogen or carbon monoxide is Chemical Composition
present, embrittlement can be rapid. Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free- Copper. 99.8 to 99.9 Cu
cutting brass) Cadmium. C14300, 0.05 to 0.15 Cd; C14310,
Mechanical Properties Formability. Excellent for hot or cold forming 0.1 to 0.3 Cd
but should not be heated for forming or annealed
Tensile properties. See Table 15. in a reducing atmosphere Applications
Shear strength. See Table 15. Joining. Riveting: use copper rivets. Pressure
Hardness. See Table 15. welding: use Koldweld proprietary method. Typical uses. Rolled strip for anneal-resistant
Fatigue strength. Strip, OS025 temper, 76 MPa Soft solder with all grades of solder, commer- electrical applications: applications requiring
(11 ksi) cial solder fluxes, or rosin. Silver braze with thermal softening and embrittlement resistance,
all types of flame using copper-phosphorus, such as lead frames, contacts, terminals, solder-
Mass Characteristics silver, or copper-zinc (see ASTM B 260). coated and solder-fabricated parts. Furnace
Satisfactory fluxes are commercially available. brazed assemblies and welded components such
Density. 8.89 g/cm3 (0.321 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) as tube or cable wrap
Use gas-shielded arc welding processes with
Thermal Properties recommended filler metals, depending on
application. Other welding methods generally
Liquidus temperature. 1085 °C (1980 °F) are not recommended. Tensile properties. See Table 16.
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.8 Annealing temperature. 400 to 650 °C (750 to Shear strength. See Table 16.
m/m K (9.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68 1200 °F) Hardness. See Table 16.
to 212 °F); 17.4 m/m K (9.7 in./in. °F) at Hot-working temperature. 750 to 950 °C (1400 Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106
20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.7 m/m K (9.8 to 1750 °F) psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi)
in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to 572 °F)
Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) Table 14 Typical mechanical properties of C11300, C11400, C11500, and C11600
at 20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal conductivity. 377 W/m K (218 Btu/ft Tensile strength Yield strength(a)
Elongation in
Hardness Shear strength
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HRB HR30T MPa ksi

Table 13 Specifications for C11300, OS025 235 34 75 11 45 45 … … 160 23
C11400, C11500, and C11600 H00 250 36 195 28 30 60 10 25 170 25
H01 260 38 205 30 25 70 25 36 170 25
Product ASTM Federal H02 290 42 250 36 14 84 40 50 180 26
H04 345 50 310 45 6 90 50 57 195 28
Bar B 152(a) QQ-C-576(a),
H08 380 55 345 50 4 94 60 63 200 29
QQ-C-502(b)
H10 395 57 365 53 4 95 62 64 200 29
Bar, bus B 187(a) QQ-B-825(a)
M20 235 34 69 10 45 45 … … 160 23
Pipe, bus B 188(a) QQ-B-825(c)
Plate B 152(a) QQ-B-825(a) Flat products, 6 mm (0.25 in.) thick
Rod B 49(e) QQ-C-502(f) OS050 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22
Rod, bus B 187(a) QQ-B-825(f) H00 250 36 195 28 40 60 10 … 170 25
Shapes … QQ-C-502(f) H01 260 38 205 30 35 70 25 … 170 25
Shapes, bus B 187(a) QQ-B-825(f) H04 345 50 310 45 12 90 50 … 195 28
Sheet B 152(a) QQ-C-576(f) M20 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22
Sheet, clad B 506(a) QQ-C-502(c)
Strip B 152(a), QQ-C-502(b), Flat products, 25 mm (1.0 in.) thick
B 272(e) QQ-C-576(f) H04 310 45 275 40 20 85 45 … 180 26
Strip clad B 506(a) …
Tube, bus B 188(a) QQ-B-825(f)
Wire, coated with H80 (40%) 380 55 345 50 10 94 60 … 200 29
Tin B 246, … Rod, 25 mm (1.0 in.) diameter
B 334(e)
OS050 220 32 69 10 55 40 … … 150 22
Lead alloy B 189(e) …
H80 (35%) 330 48 305 44 16 87 47 … 185 27
Nickel B 355(e) …
M20 220 32 69 10 55 40 … … 150 22
Silver B 298(e) …
Wire, flat B 272(e) QQ-C-502(a) Rod, 51 mm (2.0 in.) diameter
Wire, hard drawn B 1(e) QQ-W-343(e) H80 (16%) 310 45 275 40 20 85 45 … 180 26
Wire, medium- B 2(e) QQ-W-343(e)
hard drawn Wire, 2 mm (0.08 in.) diameter
Wire, rod B 49(e) … OS050 240 35 … … 35(b) … … … 165 24
Wire, soft B 3(a), B 48(e) QQ-W-343(e) H04 380 55 … … 1.5(c) … … … 200 29
Wire, stranded B 8, B 172, … H08 455 66 … … 1.5(c) … … … 230 33
B 173, B 174,
Shapes, 13 mm (0.50 in.) diameter
B 226, B 228,
B 229, B 286(e) OS050 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22
Wire, trolley B 47, B 116(e) QQ-W-343(g) H80 (15%) 275 40 220 32 30 … 35 … 180 26
M20 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22
(a) C11300, C11400, and C11600. (b) C11600 only. (c) C11400 only. M30 220 32 69 10 50 40 … … 150 22
(d) C11300 and C11400. (e) C11300, C11400, C11500, and C11600. (f)
C11400 and C11600. (g) C11300 only (a) At 0.5% extension under load. (b) Elongation in 250 mm (10 in.). (c) Elongation in 1500 mm (60 in.)
Mass Characteristics C14500 Thermal Properties

Density. 8.94 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) 99.5Cu-0.5Te Liquidus temperature. 1075 °C (1967 °F)
Thermal Properties Commercial Names Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.1
Liquidus temperature. 1080 °C (1976 °F) Previous trade name. Phosphorus-deoxidized m/m K (9.5 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68
Solidus temperature. 1052 °C (1926 °F) tellurium-bearing copper to 212 °F); 17.4 m/m K (9.7 in./in. °F) at 20
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.0 Common name. Free-machining copper to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.8 m/m K (9.9
m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C Designation. DPTE in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to 572 °F)
(68 to 212 °F); 17.3 m/m K (9.6 in./in. Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) at
°F) at 20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.7 m/m Specifications 20 °C (68 °F)
K (9.8 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to ASTM. Flat products and rod: B 124, B 301, Thermal conductivity. 355 W/m K (205 Btu/ft
572 °F) Shapes: B 124, B 283 h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
20 °C (68 °F) Chemical Composition Electrical Properties
Thermal conductivity. C14300, 377 W/m K Composition limits. 99.90 Cu Ag Te min, Electrical conductivity. Volumetric: 93% IACS
(218 Btu/ft h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F); C14310, 0.004 to 0.012 P, 0.40 to 0.60 Te at 20 °C (68 °F)
343 W/m K (198 Btu/ft h °F) Electrical resistivity. 18.6 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
Applications
Electrical Properties Typical uses. Forgings and screw machine Fabrication Characteristics
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric: C14300, products requiring high conductivity, exten- Machinability. 85% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
96% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F); C14310, 85% IACS sive machining, corrosion resistance, copper Formability. Good capacity for being cold
at 20 °C (68 °F) color, or a combination of these qualities; worked, usually by drawing, rolling, or swaging.
Electrical resistivity. C14300, 18 n m at typical parts include electrical connectors, Excellent capacity for being hot formed, most
20 °C (68 °F); C14310, 20.3 n m at 20 °C motor parts, switch parts, plumbing fixtures, often by extrusion, forging, or rolling
(68 °F) soldering tips, welding-torch tips, transistor Weldability. Soldering or brazing: excel-
bases, and parts that are assembled by fur- lent. Arc welding, oxyfuel gas welding, and
Fabrication Characteristics nace brazing most resistance welding processes are
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Precautions in use. Carbide-tipped tools should not recommended.
Forgeability. 65% of C37700 (forging brass) be used for machining C14500. Annealing temperature. 425 to 650 °C (800 to
Formability. Excellent capacity for cold working 1200 °F)
Mechanical Properties Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400
and hot forming
Weldability. Soldering, brazing, and gas- Tensile properties. See Table 17. to 1600 °F)
shielded arc welding: excellent. Oxyacetylene Shear strength. See Table 17.
welding and resistance butt welding: good. Hardness. See Table 17. C14700
Coated metal arc and resistance seam and spot Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 99.6Cu-0.4S
welding: not recommended psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi)
Annealing temperature. 535 to 750 °C (1000 to Commercial Names
1400 °F) Mass Characteristics Previous trade name. Sulfur-bearing copper
Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400 Density. 8.94 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/in.3) at 20 °C Common name. Free-machining copper, sul-
to 1600 °F) (68 °F) fur copper
Table 15 Typical mechanical properties of C12500, C12700, C12800, C12900, and C13000
Yield strength
Tensile strength At 0.5% extension under load At 0.2% offset Hardness Shear strength
Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HRB H30T MPa ksi

OS025 235 34 76 11 … … 45 45 … … 160 23
H00 250 36 195 28 235 34 30 60 10 25 170 25
H02 290 42 250 36 270 39 14 84 40 50 180 26
H04 345 50 310 45 327 47.5 6 90 50 57 195 28
H08 380 55 345 50 360 52 4 94 60 63 200 29
H10 395 57 365 53 370 54 4 95 62 64 200 29
M20 235 34 69 10 … … 45 45 … … 160 23
Rod, 25 mm (1 in.) diameter
OS050 220 32 69 10 … … 55 40 … … 150 22
H80 (35%) 330 48 305 44 … … 16 87 47 … 185 27
M20 220 32 69 10 … … 55 40 … … 150 22
Wire, 2 mm (0.08 in.) diameter
OS050 240 35 … … … … 35(a) … … … 165 24
H04 380 55 … … … … 1.5(b) … … … 200 29
H08 455 66 … … … … 1.5(b) … … … 230 33
Shapes, 13 mm (0.50 in.) diameter
OS050 220 32 69 10 … … 50 40 … … 150 22
H80 (15%) 275 40 220 32 … … 30 … 35 … 180 26
M20 220 32 69 10 … … 50 40 … … 150 22
M30 220 32 69 10 … … 50 40 … … 150 22
(a) Elongation in 250 mm (10 in.). (b) Elongation in 1500 mm (60 in.)
Specifications C15000 Impact strength. See Table 19.

ASTM. Flat products and rod: B 301 99.85Cu-0.15Zr Creep-rupture characteristics. See Table 20 and
Fig. 19.
Chemical Composition Commercial Names
Composition limits. 0.20 to 0.50 S, 0.10 max Trade name. Amzirc Brand copper; N-4 alloy
other (total), bal Cu Ag Common name. Zirconium-copper Density. 8.89 g/cm3 (0.321 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Applications Chemical Composition Thermal Properties

Typical uses. Screw machine products and parts Composition limits. 99.95 Cu Ag Zr min, Liquidus temperature. 1080 °C (1976 °F)
requiring high conductivity, extensive machin- 0.13 to 0.20 Zr Solidus temperature. 980 °C (1796 °F)
ing, corrosion resistance, copper color, or a com- Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.9
bination of these properties; electrical connec- Applications m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C
tors, motors, and switch components; plumbing Typical uses. Stud bases for power transmitters (68 to 212 °F); 17.6 m/m K (9.8 in./in.
fittings; furnace-brazed articles; screws; solder- and rectifiers, switches and circuit breakers for °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to 572 °F); 20.2 m/m
ing coppers; rivets; and welding-torch tips high-temperature service, commutators, resist- K (11.2 in./in. °F) at 20 to 650 °C (68 to
ance welding tips and wheels, solderless 1200 °F)
Mechanical Properties wrapped connectors. Zirconium-copper is heat Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) at
Tensile properties. See Table 17, C14500. treatable and retains much of its room-tempera- 20 °C (68 °F)
Hardness. See Table 17, C14500. ture strength up to 450 °C (840 °F). Thermal conductivity. Solution-treated, cold-
Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 Precautions in use. During hot working, forging worked 84%, and aged material, 367 W/m K
psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi) should be discontinued if the temperature falls (212 Btu/ft h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
below 800 °C (1470 °F). The part must be
Mass Characteristics Electrical Properties
reheated to at least 900 °C (1650 °F) before
Density. 8.94 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) forging can be resumed. Electrical conductivity. Volumetric: 93% IACS
at 20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal Properties Mechanical Properties
LIVE GRAPH
Liquidus temperature. 1076 °C (1969 °F) Tensile properties. See Tables 18 and 19, and Click here to view
Solidus temperature. 1067 °C (1953 °F) Fig. 18.
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.0 Hardness. Rod, up to 16 mm (0.62 in.) in diam-
m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68 eter, TB04 or TH04 temper: 72 HRB. Wire: 6
to 212 °F); 17.3 m/m K (9.6 in./in. °F) at mm (0.25 in.) in diameter, OS025 temper, 40
20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.7 m/m K (9.8 HRB; 13 mm (0.50 in.) in diameter, H01 temper,
in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to 572 °F) 90 HRF
Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) at Elastic modulus. Tension, 129 GPa (18.7
20 °C (68 °F) 106 psi)
Thermal conductivity. 374 W/m K (216 Btu/ft Fatigue strength. TH04 temper: 180 MPa (26
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) ksi) at 108 cycles
Electrical Properties Table 16 Typical mechanical properties of
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric: O61 temper, C14300 and C14310
95% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F) Tensile Yield strength
Electrical resistivity. 18.1 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) strength at 0.2% offset
Elongation
in 50 mm
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), %
OS025 220 32 75 11 42
Machinability. 85% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) H04 310 45 275 40 14
Annealing temperature. 425 to 650 °C (800 to H08 350 51 330 48 7
1200 °F) H10 400 58 385 56 3
Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400 Note: Values for strip, 0.3 to 1 mm (0.01 to 0.04 in.) diameter
to 1600 °F)
Fig. 18 Short-time elevated-temperature tensile prop-
Table 17 Typical mechanical properties of C14500, C14700, and C18700 rod erties of C15000. Material was solution treated
15 min at 900 °C (1650 °F), quenched, cold worked, and
Tensile strength Yield strength(a) Shear strength aged. The TH03 temper material was cold worked 54%,
Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness, HRB MPa ksi then aged 1 h at 400 °C (750 °F); the TH08 temper materi-
al was cold worked 84%, then aged 1 h at 375 °C (705 °F).
6 mm (0.25 in.) diameter
H02 295 43 275 40 18 43 180 26
H04 365 53 340 49 10 54 200 29
13 mm (0.50 in.) diameter
OS015 230 33 76 11 46 43 HRF 150 22
H02 295 43 275 40 20 43 180 26
H04 330 48 305 44 15 48 185 27
25 mm (1 in.) diameter
OS050 220 32 69 10 50 40 HRF 150 22
H02 290 42 275 40 25 42 170 25
H04 330 48 305 44 20 48 185 27
LIVE GRAPH
50 mm (2 in.) diameter Click here to view
H02 290 42 270 39 35 42 170 25 Fig. 19 Stress-rupture properties of C15000, TH08
temper. Material was solution treated 1 h at
(a) At 0.5% extension under load 950 °C (1740 °F), quenched, cold worked 85%, and aged
1 h at 425 °C (795 °F).
Electrical resistivity. Solution-treated, cold- Table 18 Typical mechanical properties of C15000

worked 84%, and aged material, 18.6 n m at Cold work, % after
20 °C (68 °F) Section size
Solution
Tensile strength Yield strength(c)
Elongation in
mm in. treating(a) Aging(b) MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), %
Rod
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) 5 0.20 … 76 430 62 385 56 8
Formability. Excellent capacity for being cold 6 0.25 10(d) … 285 41 250 36 34
worked or hot formed. Most often fabricated by 9.5 0.37 80 44 470 68 440 64 11
13 0.50 56 47 460 67 435 63 15
swaging, bending, heading, or forging 16 0.62 61 31 440 64 430 62 15
Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing or 19 0.75 50 34 435 63 420 61 15
resistance butt welding: good. Other welding 22 0.87 48 52 430 62 415 60 15
processes are not recommended. 25 1.0 48 47 430 62 415 60 15
32 1.25 32 17 413 60 400 58 18
Heat treating. Solution treat 5 to 30 min at tem-
perature, then age 1 to 4 h. Aging time and tem- Wire
perature depend on section size and amount of 1 0.04 … 98(e) 525 76 495 72 1.5
2.3 0.09 … 62(e) 495 72 470 68 3
previous cold work. 0 … 200 29 40 6 54
Annealing temperature. 600 to 700 °C (1110 to … 0 205 30 90 13 49
1300 °F) 6 0.25 0(d)(f) … 255 37 75 11 50
Solution temperature. 900 to 925 °C (1650 to 13 0.50 30(d) … 365 53 340 49 23
1700 °F) (a) At 900 to 925 °C (1650 to 1695 °F). (b) For 1 h or more at 400 to 425 °C (750 to 795 °F). (c) At 0.5% extension under load. (d) Mill annealed.
Aging temperature. Aged only, 500 to 550 °C (e) Solution treated, cold worked the stated amount, then aged. (f) OS025 temper
(930 to 1020 °F); cold worked and aged, 375 to
475 °C (705 to 885 °F)
Hot-working temperature. 900 to 950 °C (1650
to 1740 °F)
Table 19 Typical low-temperature mechanical properties of C15000
C15100 Notched Impact
99.9Cu-0.1Zr Test temperature Tensile strength tensile strength(a) Yield strength(b)
Reduction
strength(d)
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation(c), % in area, % J ft · lbf
Commercial Names 22 72 445 64.5 673 97.6 411 59.6 16 62 121 89
–78 –108 463 67.2 711 103.1 423 61.3 20 66 142 105
Trade name. ZHC Copper –197 –323 534 77.4 775 112.4 453 65.7 26 71 155 114
–253 –423 587 85.2 820 119.0 458 66.4 37 72 155 114
Chemical Composition –269 –452 591 85.7 838 121.6 446 64.7 36 69 … …
Composition limits. 0.05 to 0.15 Zr, 0.005 Al Note: Data are for TH04 temper materials solution treated at 950 °C (1740 °F), cold worked 85 to 90%, and aged 1 h at 450 °C (840 °F).
max, 0.005 Mn max, 0.005 Fe max, 0.01 Al (a) For Kt of 5.0. (b) At 0.2% offset. (c) In 2 diameters. (d) Charpy V-notch, standard 10 mm (0.39 in.) square specimen
Mn Fe max, bal Cu
Applications
Typical uses. Lead frames for high-power elec-
tronic circuits, connectors, and switchblade
Table 20 Typical creep strength of C15000
jaws. Applications requiring high conductivity,
moderate strength, good bend formability, and Stress for 1% creep in
good stress relaxation resistance. Test temperature 1000 h 10,000 h 100,000 h
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi
Mechanical Properties TH01 temper (17% cold work)
Tensile properties. See Table 21. 300 570 277 40.2 241 35.0 208 30.2
Hardness. See Table 21. 350 660 217 31.5 166 24.0 185 26.8
400 750 150 21.7 123 17.9 102 14.8
Elastic modulus. 121 GPa (17.5 106 psi) 450 840 98 14.2 70 10.2 51 7.4
Fatigue strength. See Table 21. 500 930 88 12.7 39 5.6 16 2.3
600 1110 28 4.1 15 2.2 7.5 1.1
Mass Characteristics TH02 temper (43% cold work)
250 480 343 49.7 330 47.8 317 46.0
Density. 8.94 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) 300 570 325 47.2 297 43.1 272 39.5
350 660 247 35.8 212 30.7 181 26.2
Thermal Properties 400 750 176 25.6 142 20.6 114 16.5
450 840 100 14.5 74 10.7 51 7.4
Liquidus temperature. 1080 °C (1976 °F) 500 930 74 10.7 53 7.7 39 5.6
Solidus temperature. 1065 °C (1949 °F) at 0.05 600 1110 18 2.6 12 1.8 8.3 1.2
Zr; 966 °C (1771 °F) at 0.15 Zr TH04 temper (82% cold work)
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.7 250 480 321 46.5 312 45.2 303 44.0
m/m K (9.8 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 300 570 305 44.2 271 39.3 240 34.8
to 572 °F) 350 660 257 37.3 238 34.5 219 31.8
Thermal conductivity. 360 W/m K (208 Btu/ft 400 750 201 29.2 161 23.4 139 20.2
450 840 77 11.1 53 7.7 44 6.4
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) 500 930 63 9.2 41 6.0 28 4.0
600 1100 5.2 0.75 2.8 0.41 1.5 0.22
Electrical Properties 650 1200 3.0 0.44 1.7 0.25 1.0 0.14
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric at 20 °C (68 Note: Data are for materials solution treated, cold worked the indicated amount, then aged 1 h at 425 °C (795 °F).
°F): annealed, 95% IACS; rolled, 90% IACS
Electrical resistivity. At 20 °C (68 °F): annealed, Joining current-carrying springs, inorganic insulated
18.1 n m; rolled, 19.2 n m wire, thermocouple wire, lead wire, resistance
Weldability. Welding not recommended except
welding electrodes for aluminum, heat sinks
Fabrication Characteristics for resistance spot welding
Solderability. Excellent Mechanical Properties
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Brazing. Excellent
Formability. Excellent capacity for both cold Tensile properties. See Table 23.
and hot forming. Hardness. See Table 23.
C15710 Elastic modulus. Tension, 105 GPa (15 106 psi)
Weldability. Solderability: excellent. Brazing or
resistance butt welding: good. All other welding
99.8Cu-0.2Al2O3
processes are not recommended. Chemical Composition
Annealing temperature. 450 to 550 °C (840 to Density. 8.82 g/cm3 (0.319 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
1025 °F) Composition limits. 99.69 to 99.85 Cu, 0.15 to 0.25
Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400 Al2O3, 0.01 Fe max, 0.01 Pb max, 0.04 O max Thermal Properties
to 1600 °F). Liquidus temperature. 1080 °C (1980 °F)
Applications
C15500 Typical uses. Rolled strip, rolled flat wire, rod m/m K (10.8 in/in. °F) from 20 to 300 °C
99.75Cu-0.11Mg-0.06P and wire for electrical connectors, light-duty (68 to 572 °F)
Chemical Composition Table 21 Nominal mechanical properties of C15100 rolled strip

Composition limits. 99.75 Cu min, 0.027–0.10 Tensile strength Yield strength
Elongation in Hardness,
Fatigue strength(a)
Ag, 0.04–0.080 P, 0.08–0.13 Mg Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB MPa ksi
H01 295 43 240 35 22 32 … …

Applications H02 325 47 295 43 10 38 … …
H03 360 52 345 50 5 48 … …
Typical uses. High-conductivity light-duty J04 400 58 385 56 3 57 95 14
springs, electrical contacts, resistance welding H06 430 62 415 60 2 60 … …
H08 470 68 455 66 2 62 … …
electrodes, electrical fittings, clamps, connec-
tors, diaphragms, electronic components (a) At 108 cycles
Table 22 Mechanical properties of C15500 flat products
Tensile properties. See Table 22.
Yield strength
Hardness. See Table 22.
Elastic modulus. 115 GPa (17 106 psi) Tensile strength
At 0.5% extension
under load At 0.2% offset Hardness Fatigue strength
Modulus of rigidity. 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi) Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi
Elongation in
50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HRB MPa ksi
Fatigue strength. See Table 22.
Section size, 1.0 mm (0.040 in.) thick
Mass Characteristics Light anneal (O50) 275 40 125 18 123 17.8 34 70 … 103 15.0
Quarter hard (H01) 310 45 250 36 247 35.8 25 89 … … …
Density. 8.9 g/cm3 (0.322 lb/in.3) Half hard (H02) 365 53 325 47 324 47.0 13 92 … … …
Hard (H04) 425 62 393 57 394 57.2 5 97 … 162 23.5
Spring (H08) 460 67 450 65 462 67.0 4 100 … 155 22.5
Thermal Properties Extra spring (H10) 495 72 470 68 490 71.0 3 … 80 … …
Liquidus temperature. 1080 °C (1980 °F) Super spring 515 75 480 70 503 73.0 3 … 82 … …
Special spring 550 80 495 72 517 75.0 3 … 84 … …
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.7 Section size, 5.0 mm (0.200 in.) thick
m/m K (9.8 in./in. °F) from 20 to 300 °C Light anneal 275 40 125 18 122 17.7 40 70 … … …
Quarter hard 310 45 248 36 246 35.7 28 89 … … …
(68 to 570 °F)
Thermal conductivity. 345 W/m K (200 Btu/ft
h °F) Table 23 Typical mechanical properties of C15710
Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) at Yield strength at
20 °C (68 °F) Diameter
Amount of cold working
Tensile strength(a) 0.2% offset(a)
mm in. or temper designation MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB
Electrical Properties Rod
24 0.94 0% 325 47 270 39 20 60
Electrical conductivity. Annealed condition: 22 0.88 13% 345 50 330 48 18 65
90% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F) 19 0.75 39% 415 60 400 58 16 70
Electrical resistivity. Annealed condition after 16 0.63 56% 450 65 425 62 12 70
precipitation heat treatment: 1.92 cm at 20 10 0.38 82% 510 74 470 68 10 72
6 0.25 93% 530 77 485 70 10 74
°C (68 °F) O61 325 47 275 40 20 60
Fabrication Characteristics Wire

2 0.09 98.5% 565 82 540 78 … …
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) 1 0.05 99.5% 650 94 620 90 … …
Formability. Excellent capacity for cold working O61 325 47 275 40 … …
0.8 0.03 99.8% 685 99 650 94 … …
and hot forming 65% 455 66 420 61 … …
Hot Forgeability. 65% of C37700 (forging brass) 0.5 0.02 99.9% 725 105 690 100 … …
Annealing temperature. 485 to 540 °C (900 to 85% 475 69 450 65 … …
1000 °F) O61 345 50 290 42 … …
Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400 (a) Properties will vary, depending on extrusion ratio and temperature.
to 1600 °F)
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at heat sinks, circuit breaker parts, rotor bars, resist- Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good.
20 °C (68 °F) ance welding electrodes and wheels, and connec- Resistance butt welding: fair. Resistance spot
Thermal conductivity. 360 W/m K (208 Btu/ft tors. Parts requiring a combination of high strength and seam welding: poor. Oxyacetylene, gas-
h °F) and conductivity, particularly after exposure to shielded arc, and coated metal arc welding are
high manufacturing or operating temperatures not recommended.
Electrical Properties Annealing temperature. 650 to 925 °C (1200 to
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 90% IACS Mechanical Properties 1700 °F)
at 20 °C (68 °F) Tensile properties. See Table 24.
Electrical resistivity. 19.2 n m at 20 °C (68 Hardness. See Table 24. C15735
°F); temperature coefficient, 5.22 n m per K Elastic modulus. Tension, 113 GPa (16.4
at 20 °C (68 °F)
99.3Cu-0.7Al2O3
106 psi)
Fabrication Characteristics Mass Characteristics
Formability. Excellent for cold working; poor Composition limits. 99.19 to 99.35 Cu, 0.65 to 0.75
for hot forming Density. 8.81 g/cm3 (0.319 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Al2O3, 0.01 Fe max, 0.01 Pb max, 0.04 O max
Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good. Thermal Properties Applications
Resistance butt welding: fair. Resistance spot
and seam welding: poor. Oxyacetylene, gas Liquidus temperature. 1080 °C (1980 °F) Typical uses. Rod for resistance welding elec-
shielded arc, and coated metal arc welding are Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 19.6 trodes, circuit breakers, feed-through conduc-
not recommended. m/m K (10.9 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 tors, heat sinks, motor parts; parts requiring
Annealing temperature. 650 to 875 °C (1200 to to 572 °F) retention of high strength and conductivity after
1600 °F) Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at high-temperature exposure
20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal conductivity. 353 W/m K (204 Btu/ft Mechanical Properties
C15720
h °F) Tensile properties. See Table 25.
99.6Cu-0.4Al2O3 Hardness. See Table 25.
Chemical Composition Electrical Properties Elastic modulus. Tension, 123 GPa (17.8
Composition limits. 99.49 to 99.6 Cu, 0.35 to 0.45 Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 89% IACS 106 psi)
Al2O3, 0.01 Pb max, 0.01 Fe max, 0.04 O max at 20 °C (68 °F) Mass Characteristics
Electrical resistivity. 19.4 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
Applications Density. 8.80 g/cm3 (0.318 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Typical uses. Rolled and drawn strip, rolled flat Fabrication Characteristics
Thermal Properties
wire, drawn bar, rod, wire, and shapes for relay Formability. Excellent for cold working; poor
and switch springs, lead frames, contact supports, Liquidus temperature. 1080 °C (1980 °F)
for hot forming
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20
m/m K (11.1 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
Table 24 Typical mechanical properties of C15720 to 572 °F)
Tensile Yield strength at Specific heat. 420 J/kg K (0.10 Btu/lb °F) at
strength(a) 0.2% offset(a)
Elongation in Hardness, 20 °C (68 °F)
Size or temper designation MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB Thermal conductivity. 339 W/m K (196 Btu/ft
Flat products h °F)
0.76mm (0.03 in.) thick 91% 570 83 545 79 7 …
0.51 mm (0.02 in.) thick 95% 585 85 565 82 6 … Electrical Properties
0.25 mm (0.01 in.) thick 97% 605 88 580 84 5 …
0.152 mm (0.006 in.) thick 98% 615 89 585 85 3.5 … Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 85% IACS
O61 485 70 380 55 13 … at 20 °C (68 °F)
Rod Electrical resistivity. 20.3 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
24 mm (0.94 in.) diameter 0% 470 68 365 53 19 74
21 mm (0.81 in.) diameter 26% 495 72 470 68 16 77 Fabrication Characteristics
18 mm (0.72 in.) diameter 42% 510 74 485 70 14 78 Formability. Excellent for cold working; poor
16 mm (0.63 in.) diameter 56% 530 77 495 72 13 79
13 mm (0.50 in.) diameter 72% 540 78 505 73 11 79 for hot forming
10 mm (0.38 in.) diameter 82% 550 80 510 74 10 80 Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good.
76 mm (3.0 in.) diameter M30 525 76 510 74 13 78 Resistance butt welding: fair. Resistance spot
102 mm (4.0 in.) diameter M30 460 67 395 57 20 68 and seam welding: poor. Oxyacetylene, gas-
(a) Properties will vary, depending on extrusion ratio and temperature.
shielded arc, and coated metal arc welding are
not recommended.
Table 25 Typical mechanical properties of C15735 rod 1700 °F)
Tensile Yield strength at
Diameter
strength(a) 0.2% offset(a)
Elongation in Hardness, C16200
mm in. or temper designation MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB 99Cu-1Cd
24 0.94 0% 485 70 420 61 16 77
19 0.75 39% 550 80 540 78 13 80 Commercial Names
16 0.63 56% 585 85 565 82 10 83
64 2.5 M30 490 71 415 60 16 76 Previous Trade name. Cadmium-copper
76 3.0 M30 565 82 540 78 11 78
102 4.0 M30 515 75 485 70 13 75 Specifications
(a) Properties will vary, depending on extrusion ratio and temperature.
ASTM. Wire: B 9, B 105
SAE. J463
Chemical Composition SAE: J463 Poisson’s ratio. 0.30

Composition limits. 98.78 to 99.3 Cu, 0.7 to 1.2 Government: QQ-C-533 Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106
Cd, 0.02 Fe max Resistance Welding Manufacturers’ Association. psi); shear, 50 GPa (7.3 106 psi)
Class IV Fatigue strength. See Table 27.
Applications
Chemical Composition Mass Characteristics
Typical uses. Rolled strip, rod, and wire for trol-
ley wire, heating pad and electric blanket ele- Composition limits. 1.60 to 1.79 Be, 0.20 Ni + Density. 8.26 g/cm3 (0.298 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
ments, spring contacts, rail bands, high-strength Co min, 0.6 Ni Fe Co max, bal Cu Volume change on phase transformation. During
transmission lines, connectors, cable wrap, age hardening: 0.2% maximum decrease in
Applications length; 0.6% maximum increase in density
switch gear components, waveguide cavities
Typical uses. Bellows, Bourdon tubing;
Mechanical Properties diaphragms, fuse clips, fasteners, lock washers, Thermal Properties
Tensile properties. See Table 26. springs, switch and relay parts, electrical and Liquidus temperature. 980 °C (1800 °F)
Shear strength. Rod, 13 mm (0.50 in.) in diame- electronic components, retaining rings, roll pins, Solidus temperature. 865 °C (1590 °F)
ter: OS050 temper, 185 MPa (27 ksi); H04 tem- valves, pumps, spline shafts, rolling mill parts, Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.7
per, 385 MPa (56 ksi) welding equipment, nonsparking safety tools m/m K (9.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C
Hardness. See Table 26. Precautions in use. This material is a potential (68 to 212 °F); 17.0 m/m K (9.4 in./in.
Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 health hazard. Because it contains beryllium, ven- °F) at 20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.8 m/m
psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi) tilation must be provided for dry sectioning and K (9.9 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to
Fatigue strength. At 108 cycles for rod 13 mm grinding, machining, melting, welding, and any 572 °F)
(0.50 in.) in diameter: OS050 temper, 100 MPa other process that produces metal dust or fumes. Specific heat. 420 J/kg K (0.10 Btu/lb °F) at
(14.5 ksi); H04 temper, 205 MPa (30 ksi) 20 °C (68 °F)
Mechanical Properties Thermal conductivity. 118 W/m K (69 Btu/ft
Mass Characteristics Tensile properties. See Tables 27 and 28. h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F); 145 W/m K (84 Btu/ft
Density. 8.89 g/cm3 (0.321 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Hardness. See Tables 28 and 29. h °F) at 200 °C (392 °F)
Thermal Properties
Solidus temperature. 1030 °C (1886 °F) Tensile strength Yield strength(a)
Elongation in
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.0 Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness
m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68 Flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick
to 212 °F); 17.3 m/m K (9.6 in./in. °F) at OS025 anneal (0.025 mm grain size) 240 35 76 11 52 54 HRF
20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.7 m/m K (9.8 Hard 415 60 310 45 5 64 HRB
Spring 440 64 … … 3 73 HRB
in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to 572 °F) Extra spring 495 72 405 59 1 75 HRB
20 °C (68 °F)
OS050 anneal (0.050 mm grain size) 240 35 48 7 56 46 HRF
Thermal conductivity. 360 W/m K (208 OS025 anneal (0.025 mm grain size) 250 36 83 12 57 46 HRF
Btu/ft h °F) Half hard (25%) 400 58 310 45 12 65 HRB
Hard 505 73 474 68.7 9 73 HRB
Electrical Properties Wire, 0.25 mm (0.01 in.) diameter
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 90% IACS Drawn (>99%) 690 100 … … 1.0(b) …
at 20 °C (68 °F) Wire, 2 mm (0.08 in.) diameter
Electrical resistivity. 19.2 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) OS025 anneal (0.025 mm grain size) 260 38 83 12 50 …
Hard 485 70 380 55 6 …
Fabrication Characteristics Spring 550 80 455 66 2 …
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Drawn (>96%) 605 88 … … 1.5(b) …
Formability. Excellent for cold working; good (a) At 0.5% extension under load. (b) In 1.5 m (60 in.)
for hot forming
Weldability. Soldering and brazing: excellent.
Oxyfuel gas, gas shielded arc, and resistance butt Table 27 Typical mechanical properties and electrical conductivity of C17000 strip
welding: good. Shielded metal arc, resistance spot, Proportional limit Yield strength Fatigue
and resistance seam welding are not recommended. Tensile strength at 0.002% offset at 0.2% offset Elongation Electrical strength(a)
in 50 mm conductivity,
Annealing temperature. 425 to 750 °C (800 to Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % %IACS MPa ksi
1400 °F) TB00 410–540 60–78 100–140 15–20 190–370 28–53 35–60 17–19 190–230 28–33
Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400 TD01 520–610 75–88 280–410 40–60 310–520 45–75 10–35 16–18 200–235 29–34
to 1600 °F) TD02 590–690 85–100 380–480 55–70 450–620 65–90 5–25 15–17 220–260 32–38
TD04 690–825 100–120 480–590 70–85 550–760 80–110 2–8 15–17 240–270 35–39
TF00(b) 1030–1240 150–180 550–760 80–110 895–1140 130–165 4–10 22–25 240–270 35–39
C17000 TH01(c) 1100–1280 160–185 620–795 90–115 930–1170 135–170 3–6 22–25 250–280 36–41
TH02(c) 1170–1340 170–195 660–860 95–125 1000–1210 145–175 2–5 22–25 250–290 36–42
98Cu-1.7Be-0.3Co TH04(c) 1240–1380 180–200 690–930 100–135 1070–1240 155–180 1–4 22–25 260–310 38–45
TM00(d) 690–760 100–110 480–590 70–85 520–620 75–90 18–22 20–33 230–255 33–37
Commercial Names TM01(d) 760–825 110–120 520–660 75–95 620–760 90–110 15–19 20–33 230–260 34–38
Trade name. Berylco 165 TM02(d) 825–930 120–135 550–690 80–100 690–860 100–125 12–16 20–33 240–270 35–39
TM04(d) 930–1030 135–150 590–725 85–105 760–930 110–135 9–13 20–33 250–280 36–40
Common name. Beryllium-copper; 165 alloy TM06(d) 1030–1100 150–160 590–760 85–110 860–965 125–140 9–12 20–33 255–290 37–42
TM08(d) 1100–1210 160–795 620–175 90–115 965–1140 140–165 3–7 20–33 230–310 33–45
Specifications
(a) Rotating beam at 108 cycles. (b) Aged 3 h at 315 °C (1600 °F). (c) Aged 2 h at 315 °C (600 °F). (d) Proprietary mill heat treatment intended to
ASTM. Flat products: B 194. Rod, bars: B 196. produce the stated tensile properties
Forgings and extrusions: B 570
Electrical Properties Specifications Poisson’s ratio. 0.30

Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 15 to 33% AMS. Flat products: 4530, 4532, Rod, bar, and Elastic modulus. Tension, 125 to 130 GPa (18 to
IACS at 20 °C (68 °F), depending on heat treat- forgings: 4650. Wire: 4725 19 106 psi); shear, 50 GPa (7.3 106 psi)
ment. See also Tables 27 and 28. ASTM. Flat products: B 194 (C17200 only), B 196. Fatigue strength. Rotating beam: 380 to 480
Electrical resistivity. Typical, 76.8 n m at 20 Rod and bar: B 196. Wire: B 197 (C17200 only). MPa (55 to 70 ksi) at 107 cycles for both TF00
°C (68 °F), but varies with heat treatment Forgings and extrusions: B 570 (C17200 only) temper rod having a tensile strength of 1140 to
SAE. J463 (C17200) 1310 MPa (165 to 190 ksi) and TH04 temper rod
Chemical Properties Government. Strip: QQ-C-533 (C17200 only). having a tensile strength of 1280 to 1480 MPa
General corrosion behavior. Similar to that of Rod and bar: MIL-C-21657, QQ-C-530. Wire: (185 to 215 ksi). Reversed torsion: 170 to 275
other high-copper alloys and basically the same QQ-C-530 MPa (25 to 40 ksi). See also Table 33.
as that of pure copper Resistance Welding Manufacturers’ Association.
Structure
Resistance to specific corroding agents. Class IV
Essentially the same as that of C17200. See also Crystal structure. Alpha copper solid solution is
Table 30. Chemical Composition face-centered cubic, disordered. At 20 °C (68 °F),
Composition limits. 1.80 to 2.00 Be, 0.20 Ni the lattice parameter of the parent phase with
Fabrication Characteristics Co min, 0.6 Ni Co Fe max, 0.10 Pb max about 1.8% Be, homogenized at 815 °C (1500 °F),
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) (C17200) or 0.20 to 0.6 Pb (C17300), 0.5 max and quenched in water, is 0.3570 nm. The lattice
Formability. This alloy can be formed, drawn, other (total), bal Cu parameter decreases sharply with increasing
blanked, pierced, and machined in the unhard- Consequences of exceeding impurity limits. beryllium content. Age hardening begins with the
ened condition. Excessive P and Si decrease electrical conduc- formation of coherent Guinier-Preston (G-P)
Weldability. Soldering, brazing, gas-shielded arc tivity. Excessive Sn and Pb cause hot shortness. zones on {100} planes. The intermediate precipi-
welding, shielded metal arc welding, and resist- tate may be nucleated either from the G-P
ance spot welding: good. Resistance seam and Applications zones or discontinuously at the grain boundaries.
resistance butt welding: fair. Oxyfuel gas weld- Typical uses. C17200 and C17300 are used in In either case, it has a B2 superlattice structure, a
ing is not recommended. parts that are subject to severe forming condi- lattice parameter of 0.270 nm, and the orientation
Recrystallization temperature. 730 °C (1350 °F) tions but require high strength, anelasticity, and 13)⏐ (130), [110] [001]. The equilibrium
(1
Annealing temperature. Strip, thin rod, wire: fatigue and creep resistance (a wide variety of precipitate , which requires longer aging times
775 to 800 °C (1425 to 1475 °F) for 10 min, springs, flexible metal hose, Bourdon tubing, than are normally used commercially, is body-
water quench. Larger sections: 1 h for each 25 bellows, clips, washers, retaining rings); in parts centered cubic of the CsCl type with a B2 super-
mm (1 in.) of thickness that require high strength or wear resistance lattice structure, a lattice parameter of 0.270 nm,
Solution temperature. 760 to 790 °C (1400 to along with good electrical conductivity and/or and the orientation (1 11) (110),[110] [001].
1450 °F). All annealing of this material is a magnetic characteristics (navigational instru- Microstructure. Small, mainly spheroidal, uni-
solution treatment. ments, nonsparking safety tools, firing pins, formly dispersed (Cu,Co)Be beryllides (bluish
Aging temperature. 260 to 425 °C (500 to bushings, valves, pumps, shafts, rolling mill gray) in a matrix of equiaxed a copper. (Typical
800 °F). Maximum strength is obtained by parts); and in parts requiring high strength and grain size is 0.012 to 0.030 nm in wrought
aging 1 to 3 h at 315 to 345 °C (600 to 650 good corrosion resistance and electrical conduc- product.) There is a strong tendency to form
°F), depending on amount of cold work pre- tivity (electrochemical springs, diaphragms, mechanical and annealing twins. In the age-
ceding the aging treatment. contact bridges, bolts, screws). hardened condition, the matrix shows pro-
Hot-working temperature. 650 to 825 °C (1200 Precautions in use. Because this alloy contains nounced striations (the so-called tweed struc-
to 1500 °F) beryllium, it is a potential health hazard. ture) caused by G-P zone formation on {110}
Hot-shortness temperature. 845 °C (1550 °F) Adequate ventilation should be provided for dry planes. At long aging times (8 h), or high
sectioning, melting, grinding, machining, weld- aging temperatures (315 °C, or 600 °F),
C17200, C17300 ing, and any other fabrication or testing process there is a strong tendency to form continuous
that produces dust or fumes. bands of cellular precipitate at the grain bound-
Commercial Names aries and along twin boundaries.
Previous trade names. C17200: 25 alloy, alloy Mechanical Properties Conventional metallographic techniques may be
25. C17300: alloy M25 Tensile properties. See Tables 31 and 32. used. Dry sectioning and grinding should be
Common name. Beryllium-copper Hardness. See Tables 31 and 32. done in a ventilated area.
Table 28 Typical mechanical properties and electrical conductivities of C17000 rod, bar, plate, tubing, billets, and forgings
Electrical
Tensile strength Yield strength at 0.2% offset
Elongation in conductivity,
Product form Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness %IACS
Rod, bar, plate, tubing

All sizes
TB00 415–585 60–85 140–205 20–30 35–60 45–85 HRB 17–19
TF00(a) 1035–1240 150–180 860–1070 125–155 4–10 32–39 HRC 22–25
10 mm ( 3/8 in.) TD04 655–895 95–130 515–725 75–105 10–20 92–103 HRB 15–17
TH04(b) 1205–1380 175–200 930–1140 135–165 2–5 36–41 HRC 22–25
10–25 mm (–1 in.) TD04 620–825 90–120 515–725 75–105 10–20 91–102 HRB 15–17
TH04(b) 1170–1345 170–195 930–1140 135–165 2–5 35–40 HRC 22–25
25 mm ( 1 in.) TD04 585–795 85–115 515–725 75–105 10–20 88–101 HRB 15–17
TH04(b) 1140–1310 165–190 930–1140 135–165 2–5 34–39 HRC 22–25
Billet As-cast 515–585 75–85 275–345 40–50 15–30 80–85 HRB 16–22
Cast and aged(a) 655–690 95–100 485–515 70–75 10–25 18–25 HRC 18–23
TB00 415–515 60–75 170–205 25–30 25–45 65–75 HRB 13–18
TF00(a) 965–1170 140–170 725–930 105–135 1–4 30–38 HRC 18–25
Forgings TB00 415–585 60–85 140–205 20–30 35–60 45–85 HRB 17–19
TF00(a) 1035–1240 150–180 860–1070 125–155 4–10 32–39 HRC 22–25
(a) Aged 3 h at 350 °C (625 °F). (b) Aged 2 to 3 h at 330 °C (625 °F)
Table 29 Typical hardnesses of C17000 Table 30 Approximate corrosion resistance of C17000

strip
Good resistance(a) Fair resistance(b)
Standard Superficial
Temper HV Rockwell Rockwell Acetate solvents Hydrofluosilicic acid
Acetic acid, cold, unaerated Hydrogen peroxide
TB00 90–160 45–78 HRB 45–67 HR30T Alcohols Nitric acid, up to 0.1%
TD01 150–190 68–90 HRB 62–75 HR30T Ammonia, dry Phenol
TD02 185–225 88–96 HRB 74–79 HR30T Atmosphere, rural, industrial, marine Phosphoric acid, unaerated
TD04 200–260 96–102 HRB 79–83 HR30T Benzene Potassium hydroxide
TF00 320 min 33–38 HRC 55–58 HR30N Borax Sodium hydroxide
TH01 343 min 35–39 HRC 55–59 HR30N Boric acid Sodium hypochlorite
TH02 360 min 37–40 HRC 56–80 HR30N Brine Sodium peroxide
TH04 370 min 39–41 HRC 58–61 HR30N Butane Sodium sulfide
TM00 200–235 18–23 HRC 37–42 HR30N Carbon dioxide Sulfur
TM01 230–265 21–26 HRC 42–46 HR30N Carbon tetrachloride Sulfur chloride
TM02 260–295 25–30 HRC 46–50 HR30N Chlorine, dry Sulfuric acid, unaerated
TM04 290–325 30–35 HRC 50–54 HR30N Freon Zinc chloride
TM06 320–350 31–37 HRC 52–56 HR30N Gasoline
TM08 434–375 32–38 HRC 55–58 HR30N Hydrogen Poor resistance(c)
Nitrogen Acetic acid, hot
Oxalic acid Ammonia, moist
One of the common etchants for immersion Potassium chloride Ammonium hydroxide
Potassium sulfate Ammonium nitrate
etching is ammonium persulfate: 3 parts concen- Propane Bromine, aerated or hot
trated NH4OH, 1 part 3% H2O2, 2 parts 10% Rosin Chlorine, moist or warm
(NH4)2S2O3, and 7 to 10 parts H2O. This etchant Sodium bicarbonate Chromic acid
reveals general details of the microstructure. The Sodium chloride Ferric chloride
Sodium sulfate Ferric sulfate
matrix is stained blue to deep lavender, depend- Sulfur dioxide Fluorine, moist or warm
ing on the state of heat treatment, etchant con- Sulfur trioxide Hydrochloric acid, over 0.1%
centration, and etching time. The etchant should Water, fresh or salt Hydrocyanic acid
be freshly made. Hydrofluoric acid, concentrated
Fair resistance(b) Hydrogen sulfide, moist
A common etchant for swabbing is potassium Acetic acid, cold, aerated Lactic acid, hot or aerated
dichromate: K 2Cr 2 O7 , 1.5 g NaCl, 8 mL Acetic anhydride Mercuric chloride
H2SO4, and 100 mL H2O. This etchant empha- Acetylene Mercury
Ammonium chloride Mercury salts
sizes grain boundaries, particularly when Ammonium sulfate Nitric acid, over 0.1%
heavily decorated with discontinuous precipi- Aniline Phosphoric acid, aerated
tate. A very effective procedure for studying Bromine, dry Picric acid
grain boundaries and discontinuous precipita- Carbonic acid Potassium cyanide
Copper nitrate Silver chloride
tion is to first etch with ammonium persulfate, Ferrous chloride Sodium cyanide
then remove the stain with a single wipe of the Ferrous sulfate Stannic chloride
dichromate etchant. Fluorine, dry Sulfuric acid, aerated
Hydrochloric acid, up to 0.1% Sulfurous acid
Mass Characteristics Hydrofluoric acid, dilute Tartaric acid, hot or aerated
(a) 0.25 mm/year (0.01 in./year) penetration. (b) 0.025–2.5 mm/year (0.001–0.10 in./year) penetration. (c) 0.25 mm/year (0.01 in./year) penetration
Volume change on phase transformation. During
age hardening, there is a maximum decrease in Table 31 Tensile property ranges for C17200 and C17300 strip of various tempers
length of 0.2% and a maximum increase in den-
Proportional limit Yield strength
sity of 0.6%. Tensile strength at 0.002% offset at 0.2% offset
Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), %
Thermal Properties
TB00 415–540 60–78 105–140 15–20 195–380 28–55 35–60
Liquidus temperature. 980 °C (1800 °F) TD01 515–605 75–88 275–415 40–60 415–605 60–88 10–36
TD02 585–690 85–100 380–485 55–70 515–655 75–95 5–25
Solidus temperature. 865 °C (1590 °F) TD04 690–825 100–120 485–585 70–85 620–770 90–112 2–8
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.7 TF00(a) 1140–1310 165–190 690–860 100–125 965–1205 140–175 4–10
m/m K (9.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C TH01(b) 1205–1380 175–200 760–930 110–135 1035–1275 150–185 3–6
(68 to 212 °F); 17.0 m/m K (9.4 in./in. TH02(b) 1275–1450 185–210 825–1000 120–145 1105–1345 160–195 2–5
TH04(b) 1310–1480 190–215 860–1070 125–155 1140–1415 165–205 1–4
°F) at 20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.8 m/m TM00(c) 690–760 100–110 450–585 65–85 515–620 75–90 18–23
K (9.9 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to TM01(c) 760–825 110–120 515–655 75–95 620–760 90–110 15–20
572 °F) TM02(c) 825–930 120–135 585–725 85–105 690–860 100–125 12–18
Specific heat. 420 J/kg K (0.10 Btu/lb °F) at TM04(c) 930–1035 135–150 655–795 95–115 795–930 115–135 9–15
(c) 1035–1105 150–160 725–825 105–120 860–965 125–140 9–14
20 to 100 °C (68 to 212 °F) TM06(c) 1105–1205 160–175 760–860 110–125 1000–1170 145–170 4–10
Thermal conductivity. 105 to 130 W/m K (60 TM08(c) 1205–1310 175–190 795–895 115–130 1070–1240 155–180 3–9
to 75 Btu/ft h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F); 130 to
(a) Solution treated and aged 3 h at 315 °C (600 °F). (b) Cold rolled and aged 2 h at 315 °C (600 °F). (c) Proprietary mill treatment to produce the
133 W/m K (75 to 77 Btu/ft h °F) at 200 indicated tensile properties
°C (392 °F)
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 15 to 30% Chemical Properties Fabrication Characteristics
IACS at 20 °C (68 °F), depending on heat treat- General corrosion behavior. Similar to that of Machinability. C17200: 20% of C36000 (free-
ment. See also Tables 32 and 33. other high-copper alloys; basically the same as cutting brass). C17300: 50% of C36000. Both
Electrical resistivity. 57 to 115 n m at 20 °C that of pure copper alloys can be readily machined by all conven-
(68 °F), depending on heat treatment Resistance to specific corroding agents. See Table 34. tional methods. Specific machining parameters
depend on shapes, machining method, and tem- Precautions in use. Because this alloy con- C17500
per or condition of the metal. The leaded version tains beryllium, it is a potential health hazard. 97Cu-0.5Be-2.5Co
of this alloy, C17300, is especially intended for Adequate safety precautions are mandatory
machined parts. Other properties are unchanged for all melting, welding, grinding, and Commercial Names
by the addition of lead to enhance machinability. machining operations. Trade names. 10 alloy, alloy 10, Berylco 10
Recrystallization temperature. Approximately Common name. Low-beryllium copper
730 °C (1350 °F) Mechanical Properties
Annealing temperature. Strip, thin rod, and wire: Tensile properties. See Table 35. Specifications
760 to 790 °C (1400 to 1450 °F)/10 min/water Hardness. See Table 35. ASTM. Flat products: B 534. Rod, bar: B 441
quench. Larger sections: 1 h per inch or fraction Elastic modulus. 138 GPa (20.0 106 psi) SAE. J463
of an inch of cross section Fatigue strength. See Table 35. Government. Rod, bar: MIL-C-46087. Strip:
Solution temperature. 760 to 790 °C (1400 to MIL-C-81021
1450 °F). All annealing of this material is a solu- Mass Characteristics
Resistance Welding Manufacturers’ Association.
tion treatment. Density. 8.80 g/cm3 (0.318 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Class III
Aging temperature. 260 to 425 °C (500 to 800
°F). Maximum strength is obtained by aging Thermal Properties Chemical Composition
material 1 to 3 h at 315 to 345 °C (600 to 650 Liquidus temperature. 1065 °C (1950 °F) Composition limits. 0.40 to 0.7 Be, 2.4 to 2.7 Co,
°F), depending on the amount of cold work. Solidus temperature. 1025 °C (1875 °F) 0.10 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), bal Cu
Hot-working temperature. 650 to 800 °C (1200 Thermal conductivity. 233 W/m K (135 Btu/ft
to 1475 °F). C17300 cannot be hot rolled or h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Applications
forged, but it can be hot extruded. Typical uses. Strip, wire: fuse clips, fasteners,
Hot-shortness temperature. 845 °C (1550 °F) Electrical Properties springs, switch parts, electrical connectors, and
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 45% IACS conductors. Rod, plate: resistance spot welding
at 20 °C (68 °F) tips, seam welding discs, die casting plunger
C17410 Electrical resistivity. 38.2 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) tips, tooling for plastic molding
99.2Cu-0.3Be-0.5Co Precautions in use. Because this alloy contains
Fabrication Characteristics beryllium, it is a potential health hazard. Adequate
Chemical Composition Machinability. 25% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) safety precautions are mandatory for all melting,
Composition limits. 0.15 to 0.5 Be, 0.35 to 0.6 Formability. Excellent capacity for both cold welding, grinding, and machining operations.
Co, 0.2 Al max, 0.2 Si max, 0.2 Fe max, 99.5 and hot forming
min Cu Ag named elements Weldability. Solderability, brazing, or resist- Mechanical Properties
ance spot welding: good. Oxyacetylene weld- Tensile properties. See Table 36 and Fig. 20.
Applications ing is not recommended. Other welding Hardness. See Table 36.
Typical uses. Strip and wire: fuse clips, fasten- processes: fair Elastic modulus. Tension, 125 to 130 GPa (18 to
ers, springs, diaphragms, lead frames, switch Heat-treating temperature. 450 to 550 °C (840 19 106 psi)
parts, and electrical connectors. Rod and plate: to 1025 °F) Fatigue strength. Rod, TF00 temper (rotating-
resistance spot welding tips, die casting plunger Hot-working temperature. 650 to 925 °C (1200 beam tests): 275 to 310 MPa (40 to 45 ksi) at 107
tips, tooling for plastic molding to 1700 °F) cycles. Strip: see Table 36.
Table 32 Property ranges for various mill products of C17200 and C17300
Tensile strength Yield strength at 0.2% offset Electrical
Elongation in conductivity,
Temper Thickness or diameter MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness %IACS
Rod, bar, plate, and tubing

TB00 All sizes 415–585 60–85 140–205 20–30 35–60 45–85 HRB 17–19
TD04 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 655–900 95–130 515–725 75–105 10–20 92–103 HRB 15–17
9.5–25 mm (3/8–1 in.) 620–825 90–120 515–725 75–105 10–20 91–102 HRB 15–17
25 mm (1 in.) 585–790 85–115 515–725 75–105 10–20 88–102 HRB 15–17
TF00(a) All sizes 1140–1310 165–190 1000–1210 145–175 3–10 36–40 HRC 22–25
TH04(b) 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 1280–1480 185–215 1140–1380 165–200 2–5 39–45 HRC 22–25
9.5–25 mm (3/8–1 in.) 1240–1450 180–210 1140–1380 165–200 2–5 38–44 HRC 22–25
25 mm (1 in.) 1210–1410 175–205 1030–1340 150–194 2–5 37–43 HRC 22–25
Wire
TB00 All sizes 400–540 58–78 140–240 20–35 35–55 … 17–19
TD04 2 mm (0.08 in.) 895–1070 130–155 760–930 110–135 2–8 … 15–17
2–9.5 mm (0.08–0.38 in.) 655–900 95–130 515–725 75–105 10–35 … 15–17
9.5 mm (0.38 in.) 620–825 90–120 515–725 75–105 10–35 … 15–17
TF00(a) All sizes 1140–1310 165–190 1000–1210 145–175 3–8 … 22–25
TH04(c) 2 mm (0.08 in.) 1310–1590 190–230 1240–1410 180–205 1–3 … 22–25
TH04(d) 2–9.5 mm (0.08–0.38 in.) 1280–1480 185–215 1210–1380 175–200 2–5 … 22–25
9.5 mm (0.38 in.) 1240–1450 180–210 1140–1380 165–200 2–5 … 22–25
Billets
As cast … 515–585 75–85 275–345 40–50 15–30 80–85 HRB 16–22
Cast and aged(a) … 725–760 105–110 515–550 75–80 10–20 20–25 HRC 18–23
TB00 … 415–515 60–75 170–205 25–30 25–45 65–75 HRB 13–18
TF00(a) … 1070–1210 155–175 860–1030 125–150 1–3 36–42 HRC 18–25
Forgings
TB00 … 415–585 60–85 140–205 20–30 35–60 45–85 HRB 17–19
TF00(a) … 1140–1310 165–190 1000–1210 145–175 3–10 36–41 HRC 22–25
(a) Aged 3 h at 330 °C (625 °F). (b) Aged 2 to 3 h at 330 °C (625 °F). (c) Aged 1 h at 330 °C (625 °F). (d) Aged 11/2 to 3 h at 330 °C (625 °F)
Table 33 Hardness, conductivity, and fatigue strength for C17200 and C17300 strip of Structure
various tempers Crystal structure. The Cu solid solution is face-
Hardness
Electrical conductivity,
Fatigue strength(a) centered cubic. The beryllide, (Cu,Co)Be, is
Temper HV HRC HR30N %IACS MPa ksi ordered body-centered cubic of the CsCl (B2) type.
TB00 90–160 45–78 HRB 45–67 HR30T 17–19 205–240 30–35 Microstructure. Alpha copper with beryllium in
TD01 150–190 68–90 HRB 62–75 HR30T 16–18 215–250 31–36 solid solution and with (Cu,Co)Be beryllide
TD02 185–225 88–96 HRB 74–79 HR30T 15–17 220–260 32–38 inclusions. The appearance of the matrix of the
TD04 200–260 96–102 HRB 79–83 HR30T 15–17 240–270 35–39
TF00 343 min 31–41 56–61 22–25 240–260 35–38 beryllides depends on the extent of deformation
TH01 370 min 38–42 58–63 22–25 240–270 35–39 and the state of heat treatment.
TH02 380 min 39–44 59–65 22–25 270–295 39–43 In the cast condition, the matrix is essentially
TH04 385 min 40–45 60–65 22–25 285–315 41–46 like pure copper; the beryllides, which are blue-
TM00 200–235 18–23 37–42 20–28 230–255 33–37
TM01 230–265 21–26 42–47 20–28 235–260 34–38 gray, are large and sharply angular in the grain
TM02 260–295 25–30 45–51 20–28 240–295 35–43 boundaries and small with Widmanstätten orien-
TM04 290–325 30–35 50–55 20–28 260–310 38–45 tation within the grains. When such cast shapes
(b) 320–350 31–37 52–56 20–28 260–310 38–45 are annealed, the cored appearance is reduced
TM06 343–375 32–38 55–58 20–28 260–310 38–45
TM08 370–400 33–42 56–63 20–28 275–330 40–48 slightly, and the matrix becomes slightly cleaner
as small amounts of the beryllides are dissolved.
(a) Proprietary mill heat treatment to produce tensile strength of 1030–1100 MPa (150 to 160 ksi). (b) In reversed bending at 108 cycles. As the cast product is reduced by either hot or
cold working, the beryllides are broken up and
uniformly distributed.
Table 34 Approximate corrosion resistance of C17200 and C17300 For such products as strip or rod, the microstruc-
ture is fine-grain equiaxed a copper with small,
Good resistance(a) Fair resistance(b)
mainly spherical, uniformly dispersed beryl-
Acetate solvents Hydrofluosilicic acid
Acetic acid, cold, unaerated Hydrogen peroxide
lides. For all products types, there is little differ-
Alcohols Nitric acid, up to 0.1% ence in microstructure between the annealed and
Ammonia, dry Phenol the aged conditions.
Atmosphere, rural, industrial, marine Phosphoric acid, unaerated Metallography is by ordinary metallographic
Benzene Potassium hydroxide
Borax
techniques, except that grinding must be
Sodium hydroxide
Boric acid Sodium hypochlorite
performed in a vented area, and all other
Brine Sodium peroxide appropriate OSHA requirements should be
Butane Sodium sulfide strictly observed.
Carbon dioxide Sulfur
Carbon tetrachloride Sulfur chloride
Chlorine, dry
Sulfuric acid, unaerated
Freon Zinc chloride Density. 8.75 g/cm3 (0.316 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Gasoline Volume change on phase transformation. Slight
Hydrogen Poor resistance(c)
Nitrogen Acetic acid, hot contraction during age hardening; exact amount
Oxalic acid Ammonia, moist depends on starting condition of material and on
Potassium chloride Ammonium hydroxide time and temperature of aging.
Potassium sulfate Ammonium nitrate
Propane Bromine, aerated or hot Thermal Properties
Rosin Chlorine, moist or warm
Sodium bicarbonate Chromic acid Liquidus temperature. 1070 °C (1955 °F)
Sodium chloride Ferric chloride Solidus temperature. 1030 °C (1885 °F)
Sodium sulfate Ferric sulfate
Sulfur dioxide Fluorine, moist or warm Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.6
Sulfur trioxide Hydrochloric acid, over 0.1% m/m K (9.8 in./in. °F) at 20 to 200 °C (68
Water, fresh or salt Hydrocyanic acid to 392 °F)
Hydrofluoric acid, concentrated Specific heat. 420 J/kg K (0.10 Btu/lb °F) at
Fair resistance(b)
Hydrogen sulfide, moist
Acetic acid, cold, aerated Lactic acid, hot or aerated 20 °C (68 °F)
Acetic anhydride Mercuric chloride
Acetylene Mercury Electrical Properties
Ammonium chloride Mercury salts
Ammonium sulfate Nitric acid, over 0.1%
Electrical conductivity. See Table 36.
Aniline Phosphoric acid, aerated Electrical resistivity. 29 to 86 n m at 20 °C
Bromine, dry Picric acid (68 °F), depending on heat treatment
Carbonic acid Potassium cyanide
Copper nitrate Silver chloride Chemical Properties
Ferrous chloride Sodium cyanide
Ferrous sulfate Stannic chloride General corrosion behavior. Comparable to that
Fluorine, dry Sulfuric acid, aerated of other high-copper alloys. May tarnish in
Hydrochloric acid, up to 0.1% Sulfurous acid
Hydrofluoric acid, dilute humid or sulfur-bearing atmospheres
(a) 0.25 mm/year (0.01 in./year) attack. (b) 0.025–2.54 mm/year (0.001–0.10 in./year) attack. (c) 0.25 mm/year (0.01 in./year) attack Fabrication Characteristics
Machinability. Readily machinable by all com-
mon methods. Recommended machining con-
Table 35 Nominal mechanical properties of mill-hardened C17410 strip ditions depend greatly on the shape of the part,
on the heat treatment of material, and on the
Elongation in
Fatigue strength
type of machining operation.
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness, HRB MPa ksi
Because this alloy contains beryllium, OSHA
1/2
HT 725 105 620 90 15 95 … … requirements must be strictly observed.
HT 830 120 760 110 12 95 min 300 43 Normally, these requirements include flooding
and/or special ventilation to prevent personnel

from inhaling or ingesting metal dust.
Annealing temperature. All annealing of this
alloy is a solution treatment.
Solution temperature. Strip, rod, bar, tubing,
wire: 10 min at 900 to 955 °C (1650 to 1750 °F),
water quench. Large sections: 1 h per inch or
fraction of an inch at 900 to 925 °C (1650 to
1700 °F), water quench
Aging temperature. For maximum strength: 3 to
6 h at 425 °C (800 °F), depending on the degree
of cold work. Commercial practice: 2 to 3 h at
470 to 495 °C (875 to 925 °F) to provide a com-
bination of high strength and electrical conduc-
tivity. Cooling rate after aging is not critical.
See also Fig. 20.
to 1700 °F)
Hot-shortness temperature. 980 °C (1800 °F)
C17600
Commercial Names
Previous Trade name. 50 alloy, alloy 50
Common name. Beryllium-copper
Specifications
SAE. J463 (CA176)
Resistance Welding Manufacturers’ Association.
Class III
Composition limits. 99.5 Cu Be additives
min, 0.25 to 0.50 Be, 1.40 to 1.70 Co, 0.90 to
1.10 Ag, 1.40 Co Ni min, 1.90 Co Ni
Fe max
Applications
Typical uses. A high-conductivity alloy designed LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
especially for resistance welding electrodes for
Fig. 20 Aging curves for C17500. (a) TB00 temper. (b) TD02 temper
spot, seam, flash, and projection welding meth-
ods; electrical connectors, clips
Precautions in use. Ventilation should be used
during melting, welding, grinding, and all
machining operations.
Table 36 Typical mechanical properties and electrical conductivity of C17500

Proportional limit Yield strength
Elongation Electrical
Tensile strength at 0.002% offset at 0.2% offset Fatigue strength(a)
in 50 mm Hardness, conductivity,
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % HRB %IACS MPa ksi
Strip
TB00 240–380 35–55 69–140 10–20 140–205 20–30 20–35 28–50 20–30 … …
H04 485–585 70–85 240–450 35–65 380–550 55–80 3–10 70–80 20–30 205 30
TF00 690–825 100–120 380–515 55–75 550–690 80–100 10–20 92–100 45–60 205 30
TH04 760–895 110–130 485–655 70–95 690–825 100–120 8–15 98–102 50–60 240 35
HTR(b) 825–1035 120–150 550–760 80–110 760–965 110–140 1–4 98–103 45–60 240–260 35–38
HTC(c) 515–585 75–85 205–415 30–60 345–515 50–75 8–15 79–88 60 min 205–240 30–35
Rod, bar, plate, tubing
TB00 240–380 35–55 … … 140–205 20–30 20–35 20–50 20–30 … …
H04 450–550 65–80 … … 380–515 55–75 10–15 60–80 20–30 … …
TF00 690–825 100–120 … … 550–690 80–100 10–25 92–100 45–60 … …
TH04 760–895 110–130 … … 690–825 100–120 10–20 95–102 50–60 … …
Forged products
TB00 240–380 35–55 … … 140–205 20–30 20–35 20–50 20–30 … …
TF00 690–825 100–120 … … 550–690 80–100 10–25 92–100 45–60 … …
(a) Reversed bending at 108 cycles. (b) Proprietary mill hardening for maximum strength. (c) Proprietary mill hardening for maximum electrical conductivity
Mechanical Properties C18100 Electrical Properties

Tensile properties. See Table 37. 99Cu-0.8Cr-0.16Zr-0.04Mg Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 80% IACS
Hardness. See Table 37. at 20 °C (68 °F), annealed
Elastic modulus. Tension, 125 to 130 GPa (18 to Electrical resistivity. 21.7 n m at 20 °C (68
19 106 psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi) Composition limits. 0.4 to 1.2 Cr, 0.05 to 0.3 Zr, °F), annealed
0.03 to 0.6 Mg
Structure
Applications Formability. Excellent capacity for both cold
Crystal structure. Alpha copper solid solution Typical uses. Resistance welding electrodes and and hot forming
is face-centered cubic; the beryllide, wheels, switches, circuit breakers, high-temper- Weldability. Solderability, excellent; brazing and
(Cu,Co)Be, is ordered body-centered cubic of ature wire, semiconductor bases, heat sinks, and gas-shielded arc welding, good; butt resistance
the CsCl (B2) type. continuous castings molds welding, fair. Oxyacetylene, spot, and seam
Microstructure. Matrix of copper; large and resistance welding are not recommended.
sharply angular blue-gray beryllide inclusions in Mechanical Properties Annealing temperature. 600 to 700 °C (1110 to
grain boundaries of cast product, smaller Tensile properties. See Table 38. 1300 °F)
Widmanstätten beryllides within the grain. In Hardness. See Table 38. Heat-treating temperatures. Solution treatment:
wrought products with large amounts of defor- Elastic modulus. 125 GPa (18.2 106 psi) 900 to 975 °C (1650 to 1790 °F) for 1 h. Aging
mation, the beryllides are small, mainly spheri- treatment: 400 to 500 °C (750 to 930 °F) for 1 h
cal, and uniformly distributed. Mass Characteristics Hot-working temperature. 790 to 925 °C (1450
Metallography is by conventional techniques. to 1700 °F)
For dry grinding, ventilation should be provided. Density. 8.88 g/cm3 (0.319 lb/in.3) at 20 °C
Some common etchants for immersion etching (68 °F)
are 3 parts concentrated NH4OH, 1 part 3% C18200, C18400, C18500
Thermal Properties
H2O2, 2 parts 10% (NH4)2S2O3, and 7 to 10 99Cu-1Cr
parts H2O. Common etchants for swabbing are 3 Liquidus temperature. 1075 °C (1967 °F)
Thermal conductivity. 324 W/m K (187 Btu/ft Commercial Names
g K2Cr2O7, 1.5 g NaCl, 8 mL H2SO4, and 100
mL H2O. h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Previous Trade name. CA182, CA184, CA185;
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.7 Chrome Copper 999 (C18200)
Mass Characteristics m/m K (9.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C Common name. Chromium-copper
(68 to 212 °F); 18.4 m/m K (10.2 in./in.
Density. 8.75 g/cm3 (0.316 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) °F) at 20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 19.3 m/m Specifications
K (10.7 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to ASTM. Wire: F 9
Thermal Properties 572 °F) SAE. J463 (C18400 only)
Solidus temperature. 1031 °C (1855 °F) Table 37 Typical mechanical properties and electrical conductivity of C17600 heat treat-
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.7 ed to various tempers
m/m K (9.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 200 °C (68
to 392 °F) Elongation in Hardness, Electrical
Temper(a) MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB conductivity, %IACS
20 °C (68 °F) Rod, bar, wire, tubing, plate
Thermal conductivity. 215 to 245 W/m K (125 TB00 240–380 35–55 140–205 20–30 20–35 20–50 20–30
H04 450–550 65–80 380–515 55–75 10–15 60–80 20–30
to 140 Btu/ft h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) TF00 690–825 100–120 550–690 80–100 10–25 92–100 45–60
TH04 760–900 110–130 690–825 100–120 10–20 95–102 50–60
Electrical properties Billet
Electrical conductivity. See Table 37. As–cast 310–415 45–60 105–240 15–35 15–25 60–65 32–37
Cast and aged 415–515 60–75 205–380 30–55 10–20 65–90 40–50
Electrical resistivity. 28.7 to 86.2 n m at TB00 275–345 40–50 69–115 10–17 20–40 10–45 22–28
20 °C (68 °F), depending strongly on TF00 655–760 95–110 515–550 75–80 3–15 92–100 50–60
heat treatment Forged products
TB00 240–380 35–55 140–205 20–30 20–35 25–45 20–30
Fabrication Characteristics TF00 690–825 100–120 550–690 80–100 10–25 92–100 50–60
Machinability. Readily machinable by all con- (a) For TB00 temper: solution treat strip, bar, rod, and tubing 10 min at 900 to 955 °C (1650 to 1750 °F) and water quench; solution treat thicker prod-
ventional methods ucts such as billet 1 h for each 25 mm (1 in.) of thickness or fraction thereof at 900 to 925 °C (1650 to 1700 °F) and water quench. For aging cast bil-
lets or producing TF00 temper, age 3 h at 470 to 500 °C (875 to 925 °F). For producing TH04 temper, age 2 h at 470 to 500 °C (875 to 925 °F).
Annealing temperature. For strip, wire, rod, and
bar, 900 to 950 °C (1650 to 1750 °F)/10
min/water quench. For larger sections, anneal 1 Table 38 Nominal mechanical properties of C18100 strip and wire
h per inch or fraction of an inch at 900 to 925 °C
(1650 to 1700 °F) and water quench. Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness, HRB
Solution temperature. All annealing for this
alloy is solution treatment. Strip
Aging temperature. Maximum strength is Cold worked (40% reduction) 460 67 430 62 6 …
Cold worked (40% reduction), aged 495 72 455 66 10 …
obtained by 3 to 6 h at 425 °C (800 °F).
Commercial practice is to age material 2 to 3 h Wire
at 480 °C (900 °F) to obtain a combination of Cold worked (60% reduction) 480 70 435 63 6 …
Cold worked (60% reduction), aged 515 75 470 68 11 80
high strength and electrical conductivity. Cold worked (75% reduction) 495 72 455 66 5 …
Hot-working temperature. 750 to 925 °C (1400 Cold worked (75% reduction), aged 550 80 475 69 12 …
to 1700 °F) Cold worked (90% reduction) 500 73 455 66 4 …
Hot-shortness temperature. 975 °C (1800 °F) Cold worked (90% reduction), aged 585 85 515 75 13 …
Government. Bar, forgings, rod, strip: MIL-C- Mechanical Properties Electrical resistivity. TH04 temper: 21.6 n
19311 (C18400, C18500) m at 20 °C (68 °F)
Hardness. See Table 39. Fabrication Characteristics
Elastic modulus. Tension, 130 GPa (19 106
Composition limits of C18200. 0.6 to 1.2 Cr, psi); shear, 50 GPa (7.2 106 psi) Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
0.10 Fe max, 0.10 Si max, 0.05 Pb max, 0.5 max Formability. Suited for hot working by extru-
other (total), bal Cu Ag Mass Characteristics sion, rolling, and forging (subsequent solution
Composition limits of C18400. 0.40 to 1.2 Cr, treatment required) and for cold working (in
Density. 8.89 g/cm3 (0.321 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) soft, solution-annealed, or suitable drawn tem-
0.7 Zn max, 0.15 Fe max, 0.10 Si max, 0.05 P
max, 0.05 Li max, 0.005 As max, 0.005 Ca max, per) by drawing, rolling, impacting, heading,
Thermal Properties bending, or swaging
0.2 max other (total), bal Cu Ag
Composition limits of C18500. 0.40 to 1.0 Cr, Liquidus temperature. 1075 °C (1965 °F) Weldability. Welding and brazing temperatures
0.08 to 0.12 Ag, 0.04 P max, 0.04 Li max, 0.015 Solidus temperature. 1070 °C (1960 °F) lower the properties developed by heat treat-
Pb max, bal Cu Ag Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.6 ment; such processes normally are applied to
m/m K (9.8 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68 material in the soft condition, followed by nec-
Applications to 212 °F) essary heat treatment. Soldering: good. Oxyfuel
Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) at gas, shielded metal arc, resistance spot, and
Typical uses. Applications requiring excellent resistance seam welding are not recommended.
20 °C (68 °F)
cold workability and good hot workability Solution treatment. 980 to 1000 °C (1800 to
Thermal conductivity. TB00 temper: 171 W/m
coupled with medium-to-high conductivity. 1850 °F) for 10 to 30 min, water quench
K (99 Btu/ft h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F). TH04
Uses include resistance welding electrodes, Aging temperature. 425 to 500 °C (800 to 930 °F)
temper: 324 W/m K (187 Btu/ft h °F) at
seam welding wheels, switch gears, electrode for 2 to 4 h
20 °C (68 °F)
holder jaws, cable connectors, current-carry- Hot-working temperature. 800 to 925 °C (1500
ing arms and shafts, circuit breaker parts, to 1700 °F)
molds, spot welding tips, flash welding elec-
trodes, electrical and thermal conductors Electrical conductivity. Volumetric. TB00 tem-
requiring more strength than that provided by per: 40% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F). TH04 temper: C18700
unalloyed coppers, and switch contacts. 80% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F) 99Cu-1Pb
Commercial Names
Table 39 Typical mechanical properties of C18200, C18400, and C18500
Previous Trade name. Leaded copper
Elongation in Common name. Free-machining copper
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness, HRB
Flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick Specifications

TB00 235 34 130 19 40 16 ASTM. Flat products, rod: B 301
TF00(b) 350 51 250 36 22 59
TD04 365 53 350 51 6 66 SAE. Rod: J463
TH04(c) 460 67 405 59 14 79
Plate, 50 mm (2.0 in.) thick
TF00 400 58 290 42 25 70 Composition limits. 0.8 to 1.5 Pb, 0.10 max
Plate, 75 mm (3.0 in.) thick
other (total), bal Cu. Oxygen-free grades or
TF00 385 56 275 40 30 68
grades containing deoxidizers such as P, B, or Li
may be specified.
Rod: 4 mm (0.156 in.) diameter
TD08 510 74 505 73 5 … Applications
TH08 595 86 530 77 14 …
Typical uses. Electrical connectors, motor parts,
TB00 310 45 97 14 40 …
switch parts, and screw machine parts requiring
TF00(b) 485 70 380 55 21 70 high conductivity
TD04 395 57 385 56 11 65 Precautions in use. Unless specifically deoxi-
TH04(c) 530 77 450 65 16 82 dized, this copper is subject to embrittlement
TH03, cold 530 77 460 67 19 83
worked 6%
when heated in a reducing atmosphere (as in
annealing or brazing) at temperatures of 350 °C
(660 °F) or higher. If hydrogen or carbon
TF00 495 72 450 65 18 80
monoxide is present, embrittlement can be rapid.
TF00 485 70 450 65 18 75 Mechanical Properties
Rod, 75 mm (3.0 in.) diameter Tensile properties. See Tables 17 and 40.
TF00 450 65 380 55 18 70 Shear strength. See Tables 17 and 40.
Rod, 100 mm (4.0 in.) diameter Hardness. See Tables 17 and 40.
TF00 380 55 295 43 25 68 Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106
Tube, 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) outside diameter 2.4 mm (0.094 in.) wall thickness psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi)
O60 275 40 105 15 50 59 HRF
Tube, 31.8 mm (11/4 in.) outside diameter 5.4 mm (0.212 in.) wall thickness
TD04 405 59 395 57 21 67 Density. 8.94 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
TH04, cold- 475 69 435 63 26 84
worked 28% Thermal Properties
(a) At 0.5% extension under load. (b) Aged 3 h at 500 °C (930 °F). (c) Aged 3 h at 450 °C (840 °F)
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.6 Electrical Properties Thermal Properties

m/m K (9.8 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Electrical conductivity. Strip, 60% IACS at 20 Liquidus temperature. 1082 °C (1980 °F)
to 572 °F) °C (68 °F); tubing, 50% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F) Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.9
Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) at Electrical resistivity. Strip, 28.8 n m at 20 °C m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
20 °C (68 °F) (68 °F); tubing, 34.5 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) to 572 °F)
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Fabrication Characteristics Electrical Properties
Electrical Properties Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 80% IACS
Forgeability. 65% of C37700 (forging brass) at 20 °C (68 °F), annealed
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 96% IACS Weldability. Soldering, brazing, and gas-shield- Electrical resistivity. 21.6 n m at 20 °C (68
at 20 °C (68 °F) ed arc welding: excellent. Oxyacetylene weld- °F), annealed
Electrical resistivity. 17.9 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) ing: good. Coated metal arc and resistance seam,
spot, and butt welding are not recommended. Fabrication Characteristics
Annealing temperature. 700 to 815 °C (1300 Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Machinability. 85% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) to 1500 °F) Formability. Excellent capacity for both cold
Formability. Good for cold working; poor for Hot-working temperature. 825 to 950 °C (1500 and hot forming
hot forming to 1750 °F) Weldability. Soldering, brazing, and coated
Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good. metal arc welding: excellent. Butt, resistance
Most arc, gas, and resistance welding processes and oxyacetylene welding: good. Gas-shielded
are not recommended. C19210 arc, spot, and seam resistance welding are not
Annealing temperature. 425 to 650 °C (800 to 99.87Cu-0.1Fe-0.03P recommended.
1200 °F) Annealing temperature. 450 to 550 °C (840 to
Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C Chemical Composition 1020 °F)
(1400 to 1600 °F) Hot-working temperature. 700 to 900 °C (1300
Composition limits. 0.05 to 0.15 Fe, 0.025 to
0.04 P, bal Cu to 1650 °F)
C19200 Hot forgeability rating. 65% of C37700 (forg-
98.97Cu-1.0Fe-0.03P Applications ing brass)
Specifications Typical uses. Air conditioner and heat

exchanger tubing, lead frames, electrical con- C19400
ASTM. Tubing: B 111, B 359, B 395, B 469 nectors and terminals Cu-2.35Fe-0.03P-0.12Zn
Chemical Composition Mechanical Properties Commercial Names
Composition limits. 98.7 to 99.19 Cu, 0.8 to 1.2 Tensile properties. See Table 42. Previous trade name. High-strength modified
Fe, 0.01 to 0.04 P Elastic modulus. 125 GPa (18.2 106 psi) copper, HSM copper
Applications Mass Characteristics Specifications
Typical uses. Rolled strip and tubing for air Density. 8.94 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) ASME. Welded tubing: SB543
conditioning and heat exchanger tubing, appli-
cations requiring resistance to softening and
stress corrosion, automotive hydraulic brake Table 40 Typical mechanical properties of C18700 rod, H04 temper
lines, cable wrap, circuit breaker components, Diameter Tensile strength Yield strength
Shear strength
contact springs, electrical connectors and termi- mm in. MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB MPa ksi
nals, eyelets, flexible hose, fuse clips, gaskets, 6 0.25 415 60 380 55 10 55 200 32
gift hollowware, lead frames 13 0.50 380 55 345 50 11 50 205 30
19 0.75 365 53 330 48 12 50 200 29
Mechanical Properties 25 1.0 350 51 315 46 14 50 195 28

Hardness. See Table 41. Table 41 Typical mechanical properties of C19200
Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 Yield strength
psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi)
At 0.5% extension
Tensile strength under load At 0.2% offset
Mass Characteristics Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB
Density. 8.87 g/cm3 (0.320 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Strip, 1 mm (0.04 in.) diameter
O60 310 45 … … 140 min 20 min 25 min 38
Thermal Properties O82 395 57 … … 305 44 20 55
H02 395 57 … … 305 44 9 55
Liquidus temperature. 1084 °C (1983 °F) H04 450 65 … … 415 60 7 72
Solidus temperature. 1078 °C (1973 °F) H06 485 70 … … 460 67 3 75
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.2 H08 510 74 … … 490 71 2 min 76
m/m K (9.0 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68 H10 530 77 … … 510 74 2 min 77
to 212 °F) Tubing, 48 mm (1.88 in.) outside diameter 3 mm (0.12 in.) wall thickness
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at O50 290 42 160 23 150 22 30 …
20 °C (68 °F) O60 255 37 83 12 76 11 40 …
H80 (40%) 385 56 360 52 360 52 7 …
Thermal conductivity. Strip, 251 W/m K (145
Btu/ft h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F); tubing, 216 W/m Tubing, 5 mm (0.19 in.) outside diameter 0.8 mm (0.03 in.) wall thickness
K (125 Btu/ft h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) H55 290 42 215 31 205 30 35 …
ASTM. Flat products: B 465. Welded tubing: B denser tubes; semiconductor lead frames, and Thermal conductivity. 260 W/m K (150 Btu/ft
543, B 586 cable shielding h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Chemical Composition Mechanical Properties Electrical Properties
Composition limits. 2.1 to 2.6 Fe, 0.05 to 0.20 Tensile properties. See Tables 43, 44, 45, and 46. Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, at 20 °C
Zn, 0.015 to 0.15 P, 0.03 Pb max, 0.03 Sn max, Hardness. See Table 43. (68 °F). O60 temper: 40% IACS nominal. H14
0.15 max other (total), bal Cu Elastic modulus. Tension, 121 GPa (17.5 106 temper: 50% IACS min. All other tempers:
psi); shear, 45.5 GPa (6.6 106 psi) 65% IACS nominal, 60% IACS min. In O50,
Applications Charpy impact strength. Plate, O61 temper: lon- O80, and H02 tempers, 75% IACS min con-
Typical uses. Applications requiring excellent gitudinal, 144 J (106 ft lbf) at –196 °C (–320 ductivity may be available depending on mill
hot and cold workability as well as high °F); transverse, 99 J (73 ft lbf) at –196 °C processing restrictions.
strength and conductivity. Specific uses (–320 °F) Electrical resistivity. At 20 °C (68 °F). O60
include circuit breaker components; contact Fatigue strength. See Table 43. temper: 43.1 n m nominal. H14 temper:
springs; electrical clamps, springs, and termi- Creep and stress-rupture properties. See Table 45. 34.5 n m max. All other tempers: 26.6 n
nals; flexible hose; fuse clips; gaskets; gift hol- m nominal; may be only 23.0 n m max
lowware; plug contacts; rivets; welded con- under certain circumstances
Table 42 Nominal tensile properties of Magnetic Properties
Thermal Properties
C19210 sheet Magnetic permeability. 1.1
Tensile Yield
strength strength
Elongation
in 50 mm
Solidus temperature. 1080 °C (1980 °F) Chemical Properties
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.3
m/m K (9.0 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 General corrosion behavior. Very corrosion
H01 345 50 330 48 13
H02 390 57 385 56 6 to 572 °F) resistant and essentially immune to stress-
H04 440 64 435 63 4 Specific heat. 385 J/kg K (0.092 Btu/lb °F) at corrosion cracking
H08 490 71 480 70 2 20 °C (68 °F)
Table 43 Typical mechanical properties of C19400 Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-
Tensile Yield strength Fatigue cutting brass)
strength at 0.2% offset
Elongation in
Hardness strength(a) Formability. Suited to forming by blanking,
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB HR30T MPa ksi coining, coppersmithing, drawing, bending,
Flat products, 0.64 mm (0.025 in.) thick heading and upsetting, hot forging and press-
O60 310 45 150 max 22 max 29 min 38 … 110 16 ing, piercing and punching, roll threading and
O50 345 50 160 23 28 45 … … … knurling, shearing, spinning, squeezing, and
O82 400 58 255 37 15 … … … …
stamping
Flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick Weldability. Joining by soldering, brazing, and
H02 400 58 315(b) 46(b) 18 68 66 … … gas tungsten arc welding: excellent
H04 450 65 380 55 7 73 69 145 21
H06 485 70 465 67.5 3 74 71 … … Annealing temperature. See Table 46.
H08 505 73 486 70.5 3 75 72 148 21.5
H10 530 77 507 73.5 2 max 77 74 141 20.5 C19500
H14 550 min 80 min 530 min 77 min 2 max … >73 … …
97Cu-1.5Fe-0.1P-0.8Co-0.6Sn
O60 310 45 165 24 28 38 … … … Commercial Names
O50 345 50 205 30 16 45 … … …
WM02 400 58 365 53 9 61 60 … … Trade name. Strescon
WM04 450 65 435 63 4 73 66 … …
WM06 485 70 465 67.5 3 74 68 … … Chemical Composition
WM08 505 73 486 70.5 2 75 69 … …
WM10 525 76 505 73 1 76 69 … … Composition limits. 1.3 to 1.7 Fe, 0.6 to 1.0 Co,
H55 (15%) 400 58 380 55 9 61 60 … …
H80 (35%) 470 68 455 66 2 73 66 … …
0.08 to 0.12 P, 0.40 to 0.7 Sn, 0.20 Zn max, 0.02
Al max, 0.02 Pb max, 0.05 max other (each),
(a) At 108 cycles as determined by the rotating-beam test. (b) At 0.5% extension under load 0.10 max other (total), bal Cu
Table 45 Typical elevated-temperature properties of annealed C19400 strip

Table 44 Typical room-temperature and Test Yield strength at Creep strength, Stress-rupture
low-temperature (cryogenic) properties of temperature Tensile strength, min 0.2% offset, min min(a) stress, min(b)
C19400 ˚C ˚F MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi
Tensile Yield strength Ambient 341 49.5 150 22.0 … … … …

Elongation
strength at 0.2% offset 65 150 324 47.0 144 20.9 … … … …
in 50 mm
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % 95 200 313 45.4 144 20.9 … … … …
120 250 300 43.5 144 20.9 190 27.6 … …
Room-temperature properties 150 300 289 41.9 139 20.2 171 24.8 171 24.9
O61 325 47 170 25 28 175 350 276 40.1 135 19.6 143 20.8 148 21.4
H02 405 59 360 52 15 205 400 266 38.6 131 19.0 124 18.0 125 18.1
H04 455 66 405 59 10 230 450 253 36.8 131 19.0 110 16.0 105 15.2
260 500 235 34.1 127 18.4 96 13.9 82 11.9
Cryogenic properties: –196 ˚C (–320 ˚F)
290 550 219 31.8 123 17.8 84 12.2 65 9.4
O61 475 69 195 28 38 315 600 203 29.5 116 16.8 74 10.8 47 6.8
H02 570 83 425 62 30
H04 615 89 485 70 23 (a) Stress causing secondary creep of 0.01% per 1000 h in a 10,000-h test. (b) Stress causing rupture in 100,000 h (extrapolated from 10,000 h)
Applications Table 46 Annealing response of C19400 strip

Typical uses. Electrical springs, sockets, termi- Yield strength
Electrical
Annealing temperature Tensile strength at 0.2% offset
nals, connectors, clips, and other current-carry- Elongation in conductivity,
˚C ˚F MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % %IACS
ing parts requiring strength and exceptional soft-
ening resistance. Applications requiring H04 temper
excellent hot and cold workability, high 100 212 460 67 450 65 3 66
205 400 450 65 435 63 5 67
strength, and high conductivity 315 600 440 64 415 60 9 68
370 700 415 60 385 56 12 68
Mechanical Properties 425 800 415 60 360 52 14 72
480 900 400 59 345 50 16 71
Tensile properties. See Table 47. 540 1000 385 56 310 45 17 64(a)
Hardness. See Table 47. 595 1100 350 51 220 32 23 52
Elastic modulus. Tension, 119 GPa (17.3 106 psi) 650 1200 315 46 140 20 33 51
705 1300 310 45 115 17 34 49
760 1400 305 44 110 16 36 48
Mass Characteristics 815 1500 305 44 110 16 36 48
Density. 8.92 g/cm3 (0.322 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) H10 temper
100 212 510 74 490 71 3 65
Thermal Properties 205 400 495 72 460 67 5 66
315 600 485 70 415 60 8 67
Liquidus temperature. 1090 °C (1995 °F) 370 700 330 48 170 25 25 71
Solidus temperature. 1085 °C (1985 °F) 425 800 325 47 145 21 27 74
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.9 480 900 315 46 140 20 28 69
540 1000 315 46 140 20 31 64(a)
m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 595 1100 310 45 130 19 33 58
to 572 °F) 650 1200 305 44 130 19 34 52
Thermal conductivity. 199 W/m K (115 Btu/ft 705 1300 295 43 115 17 34 49
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) 760 1400 290 42 110 16 35 48
815 1500 285 41 105 15 35 48
Electrical Properties (a) Conductivity may be restored to about 70% IACS by holding at 500 °C (925 °F) for 1 h.
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 50% IACS
at 20 °C (68 °F), annealed Table 47 Typical mechanical properties of C19500
Elongation in
Fabrication Characteristics Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness, HRB
O61 360 min 52 min 170 min 25 min 25 min …

Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) O50 520–590 75–85 395–530 57–77 11–17 81–89
Formability. Suited to forming by bending, coin- H02 565–620 82–90 505–605 73–88 3–13 85–88
ing, drawing, and stamping H08 605–670 88–97 585–650 85–94 2–5 87–90
H10 670 min 97 min 650 min 94 min 2 max 90 min
C19520
97.97Cu-0.75Fe-1.25Sn-0.03P C19700 Table 48 Nominal mechanical properties
99.15Cu-0.6Fe-0.2P-0.05Mg of C19520 strip
Chemical Composition Chemical Composition Tensile strength
Elongation
in 50 mm
Composition limits. 0.5 to 1.5 Fe, 0.5 to 1.5 Sn, Composition limits. 0.3 to 1.2 Fe, 0.1 to 0.4 P,
Temper MPa ksi (2 in.), % Hardness, HV
0.01 to 0.35 P, 96.6 Cu min 0.01 to 0.2 Mg, 0.2 max each Sn and Zn, 0.05 H01 415 60 20 125
H02 440 64 10 140
max each Co, Mn, Ni, and Pb, 99.8 min Cu H04 460 67 4 150
Applications named elements H06 515 75 2 160
Typical uses. Lead frames H08 585 85 … 170
Applications H10 640 93 … 180
H12 660 96 min … 190 min
Mechanical Properties Typical uses. Electrical and electronic connectors,
Tensile properties. See Table 48. circuit breaker components, fuse clips, cable
Hardness. See Table 48. shielding, and lead frames. Generally suited to °F) at 20 to 200 °C (68 to 392 °F); 17.3 m/m
Elastic modulus. 117 GPa (17 106 psi) applications requiring excellent formability com- K (9.6 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to
bined with high strength and conductivity 572 °F)
Mass Characteristics Thermal conductivity. 320 W/m K (185 Btu/ft
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Density. 8.8 g/cm3 (0.318 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Tensile properties. See Table 49.
Thermal Properties Hardness. See Table 49. Electrical Properties
Elastic modulus. 121 GPa (17.5 106 psi)
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.7 Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 80% IACS
m/m K (9.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C Mass Characteristics at 20 °C (68 °F)
(68 to 572 °F) Density. 8.83 g/cm3 (0.319 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Electrical resistivity. 21.6 n m at 20 °C
Thermal conductivity. 173 W/m K (100 Btu/ft (68 °F)
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Thermal Properties
Liquidus temperature. 1086 °C (1987 °F) Fabrication Characteristics
Electrical Properties Solidus temperature. 1069 °C (1956 °F) Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 40% IACS Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 15.8 Formability. Excellent capacity for both cold
at 20 °C (68 °F) m/m K (8.8 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C and hot forming
Electrical resistivity. 49.3 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) (68 to 212 °F); 16.8 m/m K (9.3 in./in. Weldability. Soldering and brazing: excellent
Annealing temperature. 450 to 600 °C (840 to Specifications Effect of zinc content on properties. See Fig. 21.
1110 °F) ASTM. Rolled bar, plate, sheet, and strip: B 36.
Hot-working temperature. 750 to 950 °C (1400 Applications
Wire: B 134 Typical uses. Coins, medals, tokens, bullet jack-
to 1740 °F) SAE. J463 ets, firing-pin supports, shells, fuse caps and
Government. Wire: QQ-W-321. Sheet and strip: primers, emblems, jewelry plaques, base for
C21000 MIL-C-21768 gold plate, base for vitreous enamel
95Cu-5Zn Chemical Composition Mechanical Properties
Commercial Names Composition limits. 94.0 to 96.0 Cu, 0.05 Pb Tensile properties. See Table 50 and Fig. 22.
Previous trade name. Gilding metal, 95%; CA210 max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn Shear strength. See Table 50.
Table 49 Nominal mechanical properties of C19700 strip Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106
Elongation in psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi)
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness, HRB Velocity of sound. 3.78 km/s at 20 °C (68 °F)
H02 380 55 315 46 10 68
H04 450 65 415 60 6 70 Structure
H06 480 70 470 68 3 73 Crystal structure. Face-centered cubic alpha;
H08 500 73 490 71 2 75 lattice parameter, 0.3627 nm
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
LIVE GRAPH
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Fig. 21 Variation of properties with zinc content for wrought copper-zinc alloys LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view Click here to view LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Minimum interatomic distance. 0.2564 nm Consequence of exceeding impurity limits. See Minimum interatomic distance. 0.257 nm
general statement for brasses under C26000.
Mass Characteristics Effect of zinc content on properties. See Fig. 21. Mass Characteristics
Density. 8.86 g/cm3 (0.320 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Density. 8.80 g/cm3 (0.318 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Applications
Thermal Properties Typical uses. Architectural: etching bronze, Thermal Properties
Liquidus temperature. 1065 °C (1950 °F) grillwork, screen cloth, weather stripping.
Solidus temperature. 1050 °C (1920 °F) Hardware: escutcheons, kickplates, line clamps, Liquidus temperature. 1045 °C (1910 °F)
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18 marine hardware, rivets, screws, screw shells. Solidus temperature. 1020 °C (1870 °F)
m/m K (10 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Munitions: primer caps, rotating bands. Boiling point. About 1400 °C (2550 °F) at 101
to 572 °F) Miscellaneous: compacts, lipstick cases, cos- kPa (1 atm)
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at tume jewelry, ornamental trim, screen wire, base Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18.4
20 °C (68 °F) for vitreous enamel, waveguides m/m K (10.2 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
Thermal conductivity. 234 W/m K (135 Btu/ft to 572 °F), cold rolled
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Mechanical Properties Specific heat. 376 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
20 °C (68 °F)
Tensile properties. See Table 51 and Fig. 23
Electrical Properties Thermal conductivity. 189 W/m K (109 Btu/ft
Shear strength. See Table 51.
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 56% IACS h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
at 20 °C (68 °F), annealed Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106
Electrical resistivity. 31 n m at 20 °C (68 °F), Electrical Properties
annealed; temperature coefficient, 0.0231 n Fatigue strength. Spring temper flat product 1.0 Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 44% IACS
m per K at 20 °C (68 °F). Liquid phase: 244 n mm (0.40 in.) thick: 145 MPa (21 ksi) at 15 at 20 °C (68 °F), annealed
m at 1100 °C (2010 °F), 266 n m at 1300 °C 106 cycles; hard wire 2.0 mm (0.080 in.) in Electrical resistivity. 39.1 n m at 20 °C (68 °F).
(2370 °F) diameter: 160 MPa (23 ksi) at 108 cycles Liquid phase, 272 n m at 1100 °C (2012 °F).
Velocity of sound. 3720 m/s (12,200 ft/s) at 20 Temperature coefficient, 0.00186 n m per K at
Magnetic Properties 20 °C (68 °F)
°C (68 °F)
Magnetic susceptibility. –1.0 106 to –12.5
106 (SI units) Structure Magnetic Properties
Optical Properties Crystal structure. Face-centered cubic ; lattice Magnetic susceptibility. –0.086 106 to –1.00
parameter, 0.364 nm 106 (cgs units)
Spectral reflectance. 90% for " 578 nm
Fabrication Characteristics Table 50 Typical mechanical properties of C21000
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Tensile strength Yield strength(a)
Elongation
in 50 mm
Recrystallization temperature. 370 °C (700 °F) Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % HRB HR30T MPa ksi
for 50% reduction and 0.015 to 0.070 mm initial OS050 anneal 235 34 69 10 45 46 HRF … … …
grain size. See Fig. 22. (0.050 mm grain size)
Annealing temperature. 425 to 800 °C (800 to OS035 anneal 240 35 76 11 45 52 HRF 4 195 28
1450 °F) (0.035 mm grain size)
OS015 anneal 260 38 97 14 42 60 HRF 15 205 30
Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400 (0.015 mm grain size)
to 1600 °F) Quarter hard 290 42 220 32 25 38 44 220 32
Half hard 330 48 275 40 12 52 54 235 34
Hard 385 56 345 50 5 64 60 255 37
C22000 Extra hard 420 61 380 55 4 70 64 270 39
Spring 440 64 400 58 4 73 66 275 40
90Cu-10Zn
Note: Values for flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick. At 0.5% extension under load
Commercial Names
Previous Trade name. Commercial bronze, 90%;
CA220
Specifications
ASTM. Rolled bar, plate, and sheet: B 36. Strip:
B 36 and B 130. Cups, bullet jacket: B 131.
Tube, rectangular waveguide: B 372. Seamless
tube: B 135. Wire: B 134
SAE. Rolled bar, plate, sheet, strip, and seamless
tube: J463 (CA220)
Government. Wire: QQ-W-321; MIL-W-6712.
Bands, projectile rotating: MIL-B-18907.
Blanks, rotating band for projectiles: MIL-B-
20292. Cups, bullet jacket: MIL-C-3383. Sheet
and strip: MIL-C-21768. Tube, rectangular
waveguide: MIL-W-85. Seamless tube for
microwave use: MIL-T-52069
Composition limits. 89.0 to 91.0 Cu, 0.05 Pb Fig. 22 Variation of tensile strength with annealing temperature for C21000. Data are for 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick
ready-to-finish strip that was cold rolled 50% then annealed 1 h at the indicated temperature.
max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn Recrystallization temperature, 370 °C (700 °F) for initial grain sizes of 0.015 to 0.070 mm
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fabrication Characteristics C22600 Applications

87.5Cu-12.5Zn Typical uses. Architectural: angles, channels.
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free- Hardware: chain, eyelets, fasteners, slide fasten-
cutting brass) Commercial Names ers. Novelties: compacts, costume jewelry,
Recrystallization temperature. 370 °C (700 °F) Previous trade name. Jewelry bronze, 8712 %; emblems, etched articles, lipstick containers,
for 37% reduction and 0.050 mm (0.002 in.) ini- CA226 plaques, base for gold plate
tial grain size. See Fig. 23. Common name. Jewelry bronze
Annealing temperature. 425 to 800 °C (800 to Mechanical Properties
1450 °F) Chemical Composition
Tensile properties. See Table 52 and Fig. 24.
Hot-working temperature. 750 to 875 °C (1400 Composition limits. 86.0 to 89.0 Cu, 0.05 Pb Shear strength. See Table 52.
to 1600 °F) max, 0.005 Fe max, bal Zn Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106
Elongation
in 50 mm
Hardness Shear strength Density. 8.78 g/cm3 (0.317 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % HRF HR30T MPa ksi
Flat products, 1 mm (0.040 in.) thick Thermal Properties

OS050 255 37 69 10 45 53 6 195 28 Liquidus temperature. 1035 °C (1895 °F)
OS035 260 38 83 12 45 57 12 205 30 Solidus temperature. 1005 °C (1840 °F)
OS025 270 39 97 14 44 60 16 215 31
OS015 280 41 105 15 42 65 26 220 32
H01 310 45 240 35 25 42 HRB 44 230 33 m/m K (10.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
H02 360 52 310 45 11 58 HRB 56 240 35 to 572 °F)
H04 420 61 370 54 5 70 HRB 63 260 38 Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
H06 460 67 400 58 4 75 HRB 67 275 40
H08 495 72 425 62 3 78 HRB 69 290 42
20 °C (68 °F)
M20 270 39 97 14 44 60 … 215 31 Thermal conductivity. 173 W/m K (100 Btu/ft
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
OS035 260 38 83 12 50 57 … 205 30 Electrical Properties
H02 360 52 310 45 15 58 HRB … 240 35
M20 255 37 69 10 45 53 … 195 28 Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 40% IACS
Wire, 2 mm (0.080 in.) diameter at 20 °C (68 °F), annealed
OS035 275 40 … … 50 … … 205 30 Electrical resistivity. 43 n m at 20 °C (68 °F),
OS015 290 42 … … 48 … … 220 32 annealed
H00 305 44 … … 27 … … 230 33
H01 345 50 … … 13 … … 235 34 Fabrication Characteristics
H02 415 60 … … 6 … … 255 37
H04 510 74 … … 4 … … 290 42 Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
H06 570 83 … … 3 … … … … Recrystallization temperature. About 330 °C
H08 620 90 … … 3 … … … … (625 °F) for 1 mm (0.04 in.) strip rolled six
Tubing, 25 mm (1 in.) outside diameter 1.65 mm (0.065 in.) wall thickness Brown and Sharpe numbers hard from a 0.035
OS025 260 38 83 12 50 57 12 … … mm (0.001 in.) grain size. See also Fig. 24.
H80(b) 415 60 365 53 6 69 HRB 62 … … Annealing temperature. 425 to 750 °C (800 to
Rod, 12.7 mm (0.500 in.) diameter 1400 °F)
OS035 275 40 … … 50 55 … 220 32 Hot-working temperature. 750 to 900 °C (1400
H00 310 45 … … 25 42 HRB … 230 33 to 1650 °F)
(a) At 0.5% extension under load. (b) Drawn 35%
C23000
85Cu-15Zn
Commercial Names
Previous trade name. Red brass, 85%; CA230
Common name. Red brass
Specifications
ASME. Pipe: SB43. Condenser tubing: SB111.
Finned tubing: SB359. U-bend tubing: SB395
ASTM. Plate, sheet, strip, hot-rolled bar: B 36.
Pipe: B 43. Condenser tubing: B 111. Finned
tubing: B 359. Seamless tubing: B 135. U-bend
tubing: B 395. Wire: B 134
SAE. Sheet, strip, seamless tube: J463 (CA230)
Government. Bar, forgings, rod, shapes, strip:
QQ-B-626. Plate, sheet, strip, hot-rolled bar:
QQ-B-613. Pipe: WW-P-351. Seamless tubing:
WW-T-791; MIL-T-20168. Wire: QQ-W-321
Fig. 23 Variation of tensile strength and grain size with annealing temperature for C22000. Data are for rod less
Composition limits. 84.0 to 86.0 Cu, 0.06 Pb
than 25 mm (1 in.) in diameter that was cold drawn to a 37% reduction in area and then annealed 1 h at
the indicated temperature. Grain size before annealing was 0.050 mm. max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Consequence of exceeding impurity limits. See badges, compacts, costume jewelry, dials, etched Fatigue strength. Rod, H00 temper, 140 MPa
general statement for cartridge brass (C26000). articles, lipstick containers, nameplates, tags (20 ksi) at 300 106 cycles
Effect of zinc on properties. See Fig. 21. Creep-rupture characteristics. See Fig. 27.
Mechanical Properties Velocity of sound. 3660 m/s (12,000 ft/s) at 20 °C
Applications Tensile properties. See Table 53 and Fig. 25. (68 °F)
Typical uses. Architectural: etching parts, trim, Shear strength. See Table 53.
weather strip. Electrical: conduit, screw shells, Hardness. See Table 53. Mass Characteristics
sockets. Hardware: eyelets, fasteners, fire extin- Impact strength. Izod: cast, 45 J (33 ft lbf); cast Density. 8.75 g/cm3 (0.316 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
guishers. Industrial: condenser and heat exchang- and annealed, 43 J (32 ft lbf). Charpy keyhole:
er tubes, flexible hose, pickling crates, pump annealed rod, 69 J (51 ft lbf). See also Fig. 26. Thermal Properties
lines, radiator cores. Plumbing: plumbing pipe, Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 Liquidus temperature. 1025 °C (1880 °F)
J-bends, service lines, traps. Miscellaneous: psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi) Solidus temperature. 990 °C (1810 °F)

Elongation
Tensile strength Yield strength(a) Shear strength
in 50 mm
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % Hardness MPa ksi

OS050 270 39 76 11 46 55 HRF 200 29
OS035 275 40 90 13 45 59 HRF 205 30
OS025 290 42 105 15 44 64 HRF 215 31
OS015 305 44 110 16 42 68 HRF 220 32
H01 325 47 255 37 25 47 HRB 235 34
H02 370 54 325 47 12 61 HRB 250 36
H04 455 66 385 56 5 73 HRB 275 40
H06 495 72 415 60 4 78 HRB 290 42
H08 545 79 425 62 4 82 HRB 305 44
OS050 275 40 90 13 44 … 200 29
OS035 285 41 105 15 42 … 205 30
OS025 295 43 115 17 40 … 215 31
OS015 310 45 125 18 38 … 220 32
H00 325 47 240 35 26 … 235 34
H01 385 56 360 52 12 … 250 36
H02 470 68 415 60 7 70 HRB 275 40
H04 570 83 440 64 5 … … …
H06 615 89 450 65 4 … … …
H08 670 97 455 66 3 … … …
(a) At 0.5% extension under load

Fig. 24 Annealing characteristics of C22600. Data are
for jewelry bronze strip with an initial grain size
of 0.035 mm that was cold rolled 50% to a thickness of 1
mm (0.04 in.) and annealed 1 h at various temperatures. Table 53 Typical mechanical properties of C23000
Elongation
LIVE GRAPH Tensile strength Yield strength(a)
in 50 mm
Click here to view Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % HRF HR30T MPa ksi

OS070 270 39 69 10 48 56 10 215 31
OS050 275 40 83 12 47 59 14 215 31
OS035 285 41 97 14 46 63 22 215 31
OS025 295 43 110 16 44 66 28 220 32
OS015 310 45 125 18 42 71 38 230 33
H01 345 50 270 39 25 55 HRB 54 240 35
H02 395 57 340 49 12 65 HRB 60 255 37
H04 485 70 395 57 5 77 HRB 68 290 42
H06 540 78 420 61 4 83 HRB 72 305 44
H08 580 84 435 63 3 86 HRB 74 315 46
OS035 285 41 … … 48 … … 215 31
OS025 295 43 … … … … … 220 32
OS015 310 45 … … … … … 230 33
H00 345 50 … … 25 … … 240 35
H01 405 59 … … 11 … … 260 38
H02 495 72 … … 8 … … 295 43
H04 605 88 … … 6 … … 330 48
H08 725 105 … … … … … 370 54
Tubing, 25 mm (1.0 in.) outside diameter 1.65 mm (0.065 in.) wall thickness
OS050 275 40 83 12 55 60 15 … …
OS015 305 44 125 18 45 71 38 … …
H55 (15%) 345 50 275 40 30 55 HRB 54 … …
H80 (35%) 485 70 365 53 8 77 HRB 68 … …
Pipe, 19 mm (0.75 in.) SPS
OS015 305 44 125 18 45 71 … … …
Fig. 25 Annealing characteristics of C23000. Data
are for 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick red brass sheet, (a) At 0.5% extension under load
H06 temper, annealed 1 h at various temperatures.
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18.7 Magnetic Properties Chemical Composition

m/m K (10.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Magnetic susceptibility. Approximately –1.00 Composition limits. 78.5 to 81.5 Cu, 0.05 Pb
to 572 °F), cold rolled 106 (cgs units) max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Effect of zinc content on properties. See Fig. 21.
20 °C (68 °F) Fabrication Characteristics
Thermal conductivity. 159 W/m K (92 Btu/ft Applications
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Machinability. 30% of C26000 (free-cutting brass)
Recrystallization temperature. About 350 °C Typical uses. Ornamental metal work, medal-
Electrical Properties (660 °F) for 1 mm (0.04 in.) sheet rolled six lions, spandrels, electrical battery caps, bellows
Brown and Sharpe numbers hard with a 50% and musical instruments, clock dials, flexible
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 37% IACS hose, pump lines, tokens
at 20 °C (68 °F), annealed reduction and 0.035 mm (0.001 in.) initial
Electrical resistivity. 47 n m at 20 °C (68 °F), grain size Mechanical Properties
annealed. Liquid: 299 n m at 1100 °C Annealing temperature. 425 to 725 °C (800 to
1350 °F). See also Fig. 25. Tensile properties. See Table 54 and Fig. 28.
(2012 °F); 304 n m at 1200 °C (2192 °F). Shear strength. See Table 54.
Temperature coefficient, 0.0016/°C at 20 °C (68 °F) Hot-working temperature. 800 to 900 °C (1450
to 1650 °F) Hardness. See Table 54.
LIVE GRAPH Elastic modulus. Tension, 110 GPa (16 106
Click here to view psi); shear, 40 GPa (6 106 psi)
C24000 Fatigue strength. 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick strip, H08
80Cu-20Zn temper: 165 MPa (24 ksi) at 20 106 cycles
Commercial Names Structure

Trade name. Low brass, 80%; CA240 Crystal structure. Face-centered cubic ; lattice
Common name. Low brass parameter, 0.366 nm
Minimum interatomic distance. 0.259 nm
Specifications Mass Characteristics
ASTM. Flat products: B 36. Wire: B 134 Density. 8.67 g/cm3 (0.313 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
SAE. Sheet, strip: J463 (CA240) Solidification shrinkage. 5 to 6%
Government. Finished-edge bar and strip, forg-
Fig. 26 Impact strength of C23000. Charpy keyhole
ings, rod, shapes: QQ-B-626. Rolled bar, plate, Thermal Properties
specimens were machined from O61 temper
material, then tested at the indicated temperatures. Impact sheet, strip: QQ-B-613. Wire: QQ-W-321. Liquidus temperature. 1000 °C (1830 °F)
strengths represent energy absorbed without fracture. Brazing alloy wire: QQ-B-650 Solidus temperature. 965 °C (1770 °F)
m/m K (10.6 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
to 572 °F)
20 °C (68 °F)
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, O61 temper:
32% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
Electrical resistivity. O61 temper: 54 n m at 20
°C (68 °F). Liquid: 330 n m at 1000 °C (1830
°F); 338 n m at 1200 °C (2190 °F). Temperature
coefficient, 0.00154/°C at 20 °C (68 °F)
Magnetic Properties
Magnetic susceptibility. Approximately –1.00
106 (cgs units)
Recrystallization temperature. About 400 °C
(750 °F) for 37% reduction and 0.060 mm initial
grain size
1300 °F). See also Fig. 28.
to 1650 °F)
C26000
70Cu-30Zn
Commercial Names
Fig. 27 Minimum creep rates for C23000 wire. Data are for red brass wire, 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) in diameter, that Previous trade name. Cartridge brass, 70%;
was cold drawn to size, then tested in the as-drawn or annealed condition. CA260
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Common name. Cartridge brass, 70-30 brass, Izod: O61 temper, 89 J (66 ft lbf) for notched Thermal Properties
spinning brass, spring brass, extra-quality brass round specimen Liquidus temperature. 955 °C (1750 °F)
Creep-rupture properties. See Fig. 32. Solidus temperature. 915 °C (1680 °F)
Specifications Velocity of sound. 3660 m/s (12,000 ft/s) at 20 Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. Cold-rolled
AMS. Flat products: 4505, 4507. Tube: 4555 °C (68 °F) stock: 19.9 m/m K (11.1 in./in. °F) at 20 to
ASTM. Flat products: B 19, B 36, B 569. Cups 300 °C (68 to 572 °F). Equation for 20 to 300 °C:
for cartridge cases: B 129. Tube: B 135, B 587. Structure
Lt L0[1 (17.75t 0.00653t2) 106], where t
Wire: B 134 Crystal structure. Face-centered cubic; lattice is temperature difference from 20 °C
SAE. J463 parameter, 0.3684 nm Specific heat. 375 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
Government. Flat products: QQ-B-613, QQ-B- Minimum interatomic distance. 0.2605 nm 20 °C (68 °F)
626, MIL-C-50. Rod, bar, shapes, forgings: Microstructure. Single-phase usually with Thermal conductivity. 120 W/m K (70 Btu/ft
QQ-B-626. Tube: MIL-T-6945, MIL-T-20219. extensive pattern of annealing twins h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Wire: QQ-W-321, QQ-B-650. Shim stock, lam- Damping capacity. See Fig. 33.
inated: MIL-S-22499. Cups for cartridge cases: Electrical Properties
MIL-C-10375 Mass Characteristics Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, O61 temper,
Chemical Composition Density. 8.53 g/cm3 (0.308 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) 28% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
Composition limits. 68.5 to 71.5 Cu, 0.07 Pb
max, 0.05 Fe max, 0.15 max other (total), bal Zn Table 54 Typical mechanical properties of C24000
Effect of zinc on properties. See Fig. 21.
Lead should be kept under 0.01% for hot rolling, Tensile strength Yield strength(a) Elongation
in 50 mm
although additions of lead up to 4% improve Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % HRF HR30T MPa ksi
machinability in material processed by extrusion Flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick
and cold working. Lead lowers room-tempera- OS070 290 42 83 12 52 57 8 … …
ture ductility in brass and leads to hot shortness OS050 305 44 97 14 50 61 16 220 32
at temperatures above 315 °C (600 °F). OS035 315 46 105 15 48 66 28 … …
OS025 330 48 115 17 47 69 32 … …
Aluminum at levels as high as 2% has no adverse OS015 345 50 140 20 46 75 42 230 33
effect on hot or cold working. However, anneal- H01 365 53 275 40 30 55 HRB 54 250 36
ing and grain size are affected. H02 420 61 345 50 18 70 HRB 64 270 39
Arsenic does not affect hot or cold working, but H04 510 74 405 59 7 82 HRB 71 295 43
H08 625 91 450 65 3 91 HRB 77 330 48
it tends to refine the grain size, thereby lowering
ductility. Wire, 2 mm (0.08 in.) diameter
Cadmium. The effects of cadmium are not uni- OS050 305 44 … … 55 … … 220 32
OS035 315 46 … … 50 … … … …
versally agreed upon; some claim as much as OS015 345 50 … … 47 … … 230 33
0.10% has little effect, others maintain that it H00 385 56 … … 27 … … 255 37
should be kept below 0.05%. H01 470 68 … … 12 … … 290 42
Chromium affects temperature of anneal and H02 565 82 … … 8 … … 325 47
H04 740 107 … … 5 … … 365 53
grain size. This condition is aggravated when H06 800 116 … … 4 … … … …
iron is present. H08 860 125 … … 3 … … 415 60
Iron chiefly affects annealing and magnetic
properties. (a) At 0.5% extension under load
Nickel restrains grain growth.

Phosphorus has no adverse effect up to 0.04%; it
does, however, restrain grain growth, increase ten-
sile strength, and lower ductility to some extent.
Applications
Typical uses. Architectural: grillwork. Auto-
motive: radiator cores and tanks. Electrical: bead
chain, flashlight shells, reflectors, lamp fixtures,
socket shells, screw shells. Hardware: eyelets, fas-
teners, pins, hinges, kickplates, locks, rivets,
springs, stampings, tubes, etched articles. Muni-
tions: ammunition components, particularly car-
tridge cases. Plumbing: accessories, fittings. Indus-
trial: pump and power cylinders, cylinder liners
Precautions in use. Highly susceptible season
cracking in ammoniacal environments
Tensile properties. See Tables 55 and 56 and Fig.
29, 30, and 31.
Hardness. See Table 55 and Fig. 31.
psi); shear, 40 GPa (6 106 psi) LIVE GRAPH
Fatigue strength. See Table 55. Click here to view
Impact strength. Charpy V-notch: O61 temper, Fig. 28 Tensile strength and grain size versus annealing temperature for C24000, annealed from H02 temper. Data
are for low brass with an initial grain size of 0.060 mm that was cold drawn 37% to a diameter of less than
60 J (44 ft lbf); M20 temper, 19 J (14 ft lbf); 25 mm (1 in.) and annealed 1 h at the indicated temperature.

Elongation
Tensile strength Yield strength(a) Hardness Shear strength Fatigue strength(b)
in 50 mm
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % HRF HR30T MPa ksi MPa ksi

OS100 300 44 75 11 68 54 11 215 31 90 13
OS070 315 46 95 14 65 58 15 220 32 90 13
OS050 325 47 105 15 62 64 26 230 33 … …
OS035 340 49 115 17 57 68 31 235 34 95 14
OS025 350 51 130 19 55 72 36 235 34 … …
OS015 365 53 150 22 54 78 43 240 35 105 15
H01 370 54 275 40 43 55 HRB 54 250 36 … …
H02 425 62 360 52 23 70 HRB 65 275 40 125 18
H04 525 76 435 63 8 82 HRB 73 305 44 145 21
H06 595 86 450 65 5 83 HRB 76 315 46 … …
H08 650 94 … … 3 91 HRB 77 330 48 160 23
H10 680 99 … … 3 93 HRB 78 … … … …
OS050 330 48 110 16 64 … … 230 33 … …
OS035 345 50 125 18 60 … … 235 34 … …
OS025 360 52 145 21 58 … … 240 35 … …
OS015 370 54 160 23 58 … … 250 36 … …
H00 400 58 315 46 35 … … 260 38 … …
H01 485 70 395 57 20 … … 290 42 … …
H06 855 124 … … 4 … … … … … …
H08 895 130 … … 3 … … 415 60 150 22
Tube, 25 mm (1 in.) outside diameter 1.6 mm (0.065 in.) wall thickness
OS050 325 47 105 15 65 64 26 … … … …
OS025 360 52 140 20 55 75 40 … … … …
H80 540 78 440 64 8 82 HRB 73 … … … …
OS050 330 48 110 16 65 65 … 235 34 … …
H00 380 55 275 40 48 60 HRB … 260 38 … …
H02 480 70 360 52 30 80 HRB … 290 42 22(c) 150(c)
(a) At 0.5% extension under load. (b) Reverse bending, at 108 cycles. (c) Reverse bending, at 5 107 cycles
Table 56 Typical tensile properties of

cold-rolled and annealed C26000 sheet
Tensile strength
Direction in sheet MPa ksi Elongation, %
Parallel to RD 330 48 59
40° to RD 305 44 66
90° to RD 325 47 61
Note: Approximate values for material given a ready-to-finish anneal at

400 °C (750 °F), then cold rolled 70% and annealed 1 h at 575 °C (1070
°F). RD, rolling direction
may undergo dezincification in stagnant or slow-

ly moving salt solutions, brackish water, or
mildly acidic solutions. Susceptible to stress-
corrosion cracking (season cracking), especially
in ammoniacal environments
LIVE GRAPH Formability. Excellent for cold working and
Click here to view forming; fair for hot forming. Directionality in
Fig. 29 Tensile strength and grain size as a function of annealing temperature for C26000 rod. Data are for cartridge brass is more readily developed with high zinc
brass rod less than 25 mm (1 in.) in diameter that was cold drawn 50% (from starting material having a grain content, such as in C26000 and higher-zinc brass-
size of 0.045 mm), then annealed 1 h at the indicated temperature.
es. Earing usually occurs 45° to the direction of
rolling and is aggravated by heavy final reduc-
Electrical resistivity. O61 temper, 62 n m at magnetic form, which is converted to a ferromag- tions, low ready-to-finish annealing temperatures,
20 °C (68 °F), temperature coefficient, 0.092 n netic structure on subsequent cold working. and high finish annealing temperatures.
m per K at 20 °C (68 °F) Magnetic susceptibility. –8 108 to –16 Weldability. Soldering and brazing: excellent.
Hall coefficient. 25 pV m/A T 108 (mks units); susceptibility in a brasses Oxyfuel gas, resistance spot, and resistance butt
decreases with increasing zinc content. welding: good. Gas metal arc welding: fair.
Magnetic Properties Other welding processes are not recommended.
Iron in excess of 0.03% can precipitate from Chemical Properties Recrystallization temperature. About 300 °C
C26000 during suitable low-temperature anneals. General corrosion behavior. Resists corrosion in (575 °F) for 0.045 mm initial grain size and a
Precipitation is slow and occurs chiefly in a non- a wide variety of waters and chemical solutions; cold reduction of 50%
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 30 Low-temperature tensile properties of C26000

rod, O61 temper
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view

1400 °F)
to 1550 °F)
C26800, C27000 Fig. 32 Minimum creep rates for C26000

65Cu-35Zn
Commercial Names
Previous Trade name. C26800: Yellow brass,
66%. C27000: Yellow brass, 65%
Common name. Yellow brass
Specifications
AMS. Wire: 4710, 4712
Fig. 31 Typical distribution of tensile properties and
ASTM. Flat products: B 36 (C26800). Tube: B hardness for C26000 strip, H01 temper. Data LIVE GRAP
135 (C27000), B 587 (C26800 and C27000). are for cartridge brass strip 0.5 to 1 mm (0.020 to 0.040 Click here to v
Wire: B 134 in.) thick. Fig. 33 Damping capacity of annealed C26000
SAE. J463
Government. Flat products: QQ-B-613, Bar, rod, Mechanical Properties Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.3
forgings, shapes: QQ-B-626. Wire: QQ-W-321, m/m K (11.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
MIL-W-6712 Tensile properties. See Table 57.
Shear strength. See Table 57. to 572 °F)
Hardness. See Table 57. Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
Chemical Composition 20 °C (68 °F)
Composition limits of C26800. 64.0 to 68.5 Cu, Elastic modulus. Tension, 105 GPa (15 106
0.15 Pb max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn psi); shear, 35 GPa (5 106 psi)
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Composition limits of C27000. 63.0 to 68.5 Cu, Fatigue strength. Rotating beam tests. At 108
0.10 Pb max, 0.07 Fe max, bal Zn cycles, for strip 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick: OS070
Effect of zinc on properties. See Fig. 21. temper, 83 MPa (12 ksi); H04 temper, 97 MPa
(14 ksi); H08 temper, 140 MPa (20 ksi) Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 27% IACS
Applications at 20 °C (68 °F), annealed
Typical uses. Architectural grillwork, radiator
Mass Characteristics Electrical resistivity. 64 n m at 20 °C
cores and tanks, reflectors, flashlight shells, lamp Density. 8.47 g/cm3 (0.306 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) (68 °F), annealed
fixtures, screw shells, socket shells, bead chain,
Thermal Properties Structure
chain, eyelets, fasteners, grommets, kickplates,
push plates, stencils, plumbing accessories, sink Liquidus temperature. 930 °C (1710 °F) Crystal structure. Face-centered cubic
strainers, wire, pins, rivets, screws, springs Solidus temperature. 905 °C (1660 °F) Microstructure. Single-phase
Fabrication Characteristics Government. Flat products: QQ-B-613. Bar, rod, Mechanical Properties
Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) forgings, shapes: QQ-B-626. Seamless tubing: Tensile properties. See Table 58 and Fig. 34 and 35.
Recrystallization temperature. About 290 °C (550 WW-T-791 Shear strength. See Table 58.
°F) for strip cold rolled 50% to 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick- Chemical Composition Hardness. See Table 58.
ness and having an initial grain size of 0.035 mm Elastic modulus. Tension, 105 GPa (15 106
Maximum cold reduction between anneals. 90% Composition limits. 59.0 to 63.0 Cu, 0.30 Pb psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106 psi)
Annealing temperature. 425 to 700 °C (800 to max, 0.07 Fe max, bal Zn
1300 °F) Effect of zinc on properties. See Fig. 21. Mass Characteristics
Hot-working temperature. 700 to 820 °C (1300 Applications Density. 8.39 g/cm3 (0.303 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
to 1500 °F)
Typical uses. Decoration, as architectural Thermal Properties
panel sheets; structural, as heavy plates; bolt- Liquidus temperature. 905 °C (1660 °F)
C28000 ing and valve stems; tubing for heat exchang- Solidus temperature. 900 °C (1650 °F)
60Cu-40Zn ers; brazing rod (for copper alloys and cast Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.8
iron); hot forgings m/m K (11.6 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
Commercial Names Precautions in use. C28000 has poor cold- to 572 °F)
Previous Trade name. Muntz metal, 60%; drawing and forming properties in comparison Specific heat. 375 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
CA280 with those of higher-copper alloys, but it has 20 °C (68 °F)
Common name. Muntz metal excellent hot-working properties. It is the Thermal conductivity. 123 W/m K (71 Btu/ft
strongest of the copper-zinc alloys but is less h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Specifications ductile than higher-copper alloys. It is subject
ASME. Condenser tubing: SB111 to dezincification and stress-corrosion crack- Electrical Properties
ASTM. Tubing: B 111, B 135 ing under certain conditions. Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 28% IACS
at 20 °C (68 °F)
Table 57 Typical mechanical properties of C26800 and C27000 Electrical resistivity. 61.6 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
Elongation
in 50 mm
Hardness Shear strength Structure
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % HRF HR30T MPa ksi Microstructure. Two phase: face-centered cubic
Flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick plus body-centered cubic . Beta phase
OS070 315 46 97 14 65 58 15 220 32
OS050 325 47 105 15 62 64 26 230 33
OS035 340 49 115 17 57 68 31 235 34
OS025 350 51 130 19 55 72 36 240 35
OS015 365 53 150 22 54 78 43 250 36
H01 370 54 275 40 43 55 HRB 54 250 36
H02 420 61 345 50 23 70 HRB 65 275 40
H04 510 74 415 60 8 80 HRB 70 295 43
H06 585 85 425 62 5 87 HRB 74 310 45
H08 625 91 425 62 3 90 HRB 76 325 47
H10 675 98 435 63 3 91 HRB 77 … …
OS050 330 48 110 16 65(b) 65 … 235 34
H00 (6%) 380 55 275 40 48(c) … 55 … 36
OS050 330 48 110 16 64 … … 230 33
OS035 345 50 125 18 60 … … 235 34
OS025 360 52 145 21 58 … … 240 35
OS015 370 54 160 23 55 … … 250 36
H00 400 58 315 46 35 … … 260 38
H01 485 70 395 57 20 … … 290 42
H02 605 88 420 61 15 … … … …
H04 760 110 … … 8 … … 380 55
H06 825 120 … … 4 … … … …
H08 885 128 … … 3 … … 415 60
(a) At 0.5% extension under load. (b) 75% reduction in area

Elongation
in 50 mm
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % Hardness, HRF MPa ksi

M20 370 54 145 21 45 85 275 40
O61 370 54 145 21 45 80 275 40
H00 415 60 240 35 30 55 HRB 290 42
H02 485 70 345 50 10 75 HRB 305 44
M30 360 52 140 20 52 78 270 39
O61 370 54 145 21 50 80 275 40 Fig. 34 Typical mechanical properties of extruded
H01 495 72 345 50 25 78 310 45 and drawn C28000. Data are for Muntz
metal rod less than 25 mm (1 in.) in diameter that was
(a) 0.5% extension under load extruded and then cold drawn to various percentages
of reduction in area.
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
appears lemon yellow when etched with ammo- Chemical Composition Electrical Properties
nia peroxide; it is dark when etched with ferric Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 42% IACS
Composition limits. 87.5 to 90.5 Cu, 1.3 to 2.5
chloride. In grain size determination, the beta at 20 °C (68 °F)
Pb, 0.10 Fe max, 0.7 Ni max, 0.5 max other
phase should be ignored. Electrical resistivity. 41 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
(total), bal Zn
Optical Properties Optical Properties
Applications
Color. Reddish compared to C26000 (70-30 car- Color. Rich bronze
tridge brass). C28000 is used as a good match to Typical uses. Screws, screw machine parts, pick-
the color of C23000 (85-15 red brass). ling racks and fixtures, electrical plug-type con- Fabrication Characteristics
nectors, builders’ hardware
Chemical Properties Machinability. 80% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Mechanical Properties Formability. Cold working, good; hot forming,
General corrosion behavior. Generally good; poor
similar to copper except as noted below Tensile properties. Rod, typical. O61 temper: Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good.
Resistance to specific corroding agents. Better tensile strength, 255 MPa (37 ksi); yield Resistance butt welding: fair. All other welding
resistance to sulfur-bearing compounds than that strength, 83 MPa (12 ksi) at 0.5% extension processes are not recommended.
of higher-copper alloys under load; elongation, 45% in 50 mm (2 in.); Annealing temperature. 425 to 650 °C (800 to
reduction in area, 70%. H02 temper: tensile 1200 °F)
Fabrication Characteristics strength, 360 MPa (52 ksi); yield strength, 310
Machinability. 40% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) MPa (45 ksi); elongation, 18%; reduction in
area, 60%
C31600
Forgeability. 90% of C37700 (forging brass)
Formability. Fair capacity for cold working; Shear strength. Rod, typical: O61 temper, 165 89Cu-8.1Zn-1.9Pb-1Ni
excellent capacity for hot forming MPa (24 ksi); H02 temper, 205 MPa (30 ksi) Commercial Names
Weldability. Soldering or brazing: excellent. Hardness. O61 temper, 55 HRF; H02 temper, 58
Previous trade name. Leaded commercial
Oxyfuel gas welding, resistance spot welding, or HRB; H04 temper, 61 to 65 HRB
bronze-nickel bearing; CA316
resistance butt welding: good. Gas-shielded arc Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106
welding: fair psi); shear, 45 GPa (6.4 106 psi) Specifications
Annealing temperature. 425 to 600 °C (800 to ASTM. B 140
1100 °F). See also Fig. 35. Mass Characteristics
Hot-working temperature. 625 to 800 °C (1150 Density. 8.83 g/cm3 (0.319 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Chemical Composition
to 1450 °F) Composition limits. 87.5 to 90.5 Cu, 1.3 to 2.5
Thermal Properties Pb, 0.7 to 1.2 Ni, 0.1 Fe max, 0.04 to 0.10 P, 0.5
C31400 Liquidus temperature. 1040 °C (1900 °F) max other (total), bal Zn
89Cu-9.1Zn-1.9Pb Solidus temperature. 1010 °C (1850 °F)
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18.4 Applications
Commercial Names m/m K (10.2 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Typical uses. Electrical connectors, fasteners,
Previous trade name. Leaded commercial to 572 °F) hardware, nuts, screws, screw machine parts.
bronze; CA314 Specific heat. 375 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Most commonly used as rod or drawn bar
20 °C (68 °F)
Specifications Thermal conductivity. 180 W/m K (104 Btu/ft Mechanical Properties
ASTM. B 140 h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Tensile properties. See Table 59.
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Fig. 35 Annealing curves for C28000. Data are for Muntz metal rod less than 25 mm (1 in.) in diameter that was extruded, cold drawn 30%, and annealed 1 h at various temperatures.
Hardness. See Table 59. C33000 Thermal Properties

Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 psi) 66Cu-33.5Zn-0.5Pb Liquidus temperature. 940 °C (1720 °F)
Mass Characteristics Solidus temperature. 905 °C (1660 °F)
Commercial Names Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.2
Density. 8.86 g/cm3 (0.320 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Previous trade name. Low-leaded brass (tube) m/m K (11.2 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
Common name. High brass; yellow brass to 572 °F)
Thermal Properties
Liquidus temperature. 1040 °C (1900 °F) Specifications
20 °C (68 °F)
Solidus temperature. 1010 °C (1850 °F) AMS. 4555 Thermal conductivity. 115 W/m K (67 Btu/ft
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18.4 ASTM. B 135 h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
m/m K (10.2 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 SAE. J463
to 572 °F) Government. WW-T-791, MIL-T-46072 Electrical Properties
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, O61 temper,
20 °C (68 °F) Chemical Composition
26% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal conductivity. 140 W/m K (81 Btu/ft Composition limits. 65 to 68 Cu, 0.2 to 0.8 Pb, Electrical resistivity. 66 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) 0.07 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), bal Zn. For
tubing with an outside diameter greater than 125 Fabrication Characteristics
Electrical Properties mm (5 in.), Pb content may be less than 0.2%. Machinability. 60% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 32% IACS Formability. Cold working, excellent; hot form-
at 20 °C (68 °F) Applications
ing, poor
Electrical resistivity. 54 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Typical uses. General-purpose use where some Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good.
degree of machinability is required together with Oxyfuel gas, gas-shielded arc, resistance spot,
Optical Properties moderate cold-working properties; for example, and resistance butt welding: fair. All other weld-
Color. Rich bronze primers for munitions. Plumbing: J-bends, pump ing processes are not recommended.
lines, trap lines Recrystallization temperature. 290 °C (550 °F)
Mechanical Properties Annealing temperature. 425 to 650 °C (800 to
Machinability. 80% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) 1200 °F)
Formability. Cold working: good. Hot forming: Tensile properties. See Table 60.
poor Hardness. See Table 60.
Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good. Elastic modulus. Tension, 105 GPa (15 106 C33200
Resistance butt welding: fair. All other welding psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106 psi) 66Cu-32.4Zn-1.6Pb
processes are not recommended.
Annealing temperature. 425 to 650 °C (800 to Mass Characteristics Commercial Names
1200 °F) Density. 8.50 g/cm3 (0.31 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Previous trade name. High-leaded brass (tube)
Common name. Free-cutting tube brass
Elongation
Specifications
in 50 mm
(2 in.), % Hardness, HRB MPa ksi
AMS. 4558
ASTM. B 135
Drawn bar, 6 mm (0.25 in.) diameter
Government. MIL-T-46072
H04 435 63 385 56 12 70 … …
Rod, 13 mm (0.50 in.) diameter Chemical Composition
H04 460 67 405 59 13 72 275 40 Composition limits. 65.0 to 68.0 Cu, 1.3 to 2.0
Rod, 25 mm (1 in.) diameter Pb, 0.07 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), bal Zn
OS050 255 37 83 12 45 55 HRF 165 24
H04 450 65 395 57 15 70 270 39 Applications
(a) 0.5% extension under load
Typical uses. General-purpose screw machine
products
Table 60 Typical mechanical properties of C33000 tubing Mechanical Properties

Tensile strength Yield strength(a) Hardness Tensile properties. See Table 61 and Fig. 36.
Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HRB HR30T Hardness. See Table 61 and Fig. 36.
OS050 325 47 105 15 60 64 … 26
OS025 360 52 135 20 50 75 … 36 psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106 psi)
H58 450 65 345 50 32 100 70 66
H80 515 75 415 60 7 … 85 76 Mass Characteristics
Note: Values for tubing, 25 mm (1.0 in.) outside diameter 1.65 mm (0.065 in.) wall thickness. (a) 0.5% extension under load
Thermal Properties
Table 61 Typical mechanical properties of C33200 tubing Liquidus temperature. 930 °C (1710 °F)
Tensile strength Yield strength(a) Hardness Solidus temperature. 900 °C (1650 °F)
Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HRB HR30T Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.3
OS050 325 47 105 15 60 64 … 26
m/m K (11.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
OS025 360 52 135 20 50 75 … 36 to 572 °F)
H58 450 65 345 50 32 100 70 66 Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
H80 515 75 415 60 7 … 85 76 20 °C (68 °F)
Note: Values for tubing, 25 mm (1.0 in.) outside diameter ; 1.65 mm (0.065 in.) wall thickness. (a) 0.5% extension under load
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Electrical Properties Thermal conductivity. 115 W/m K (67 Btu/ft Mass Characteristics
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric. O61 temper, h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Density. 8.47 g/cm3 (0.306 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
26% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F) Electrical Properties
Electrical resistivity. 66 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Thermal Properties
Fabrication Characteristics at 20 °C (68 °F) Liquidus temperature. 925 °C (1700 °F)
Electrical resistivity. 66 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Solidus temperature. 885 °C (1630 °F)
Machinability. 80% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.3
Formability. Cold working, fair; hot forming, Fabrication Characteristics m/m K (11.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
poor to 572 °F)
Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good. Machinability. 60% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Formability. Cold working, good; hot forming, Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
Resistance butt welding: fair. All other welding 20 °C (68 °F)
processes are not recommended. poor. Commonly fabricated by blanking, drawing,
machining, piercing, punching, and stamping Thermal conductivity. 115 W/m K (67 Btu/ft
Recrystallization temperature. 288 °C (550 °F) h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Annealing temperature. 425 to 650 °C (800 to Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing:
1200 °F) good. Oxyfuel gas, gas-shielded arc, resistance Electrical Properties
spot, and resistance butt welding: fair. Shielded
metal arc and resistance seam welding are not Electrical conductivity. Volumetric. O61 temper,
C33500 recommended. 26% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
65Cu-34.5Zn-0.5Pb Annealing temperature. 425 to 700 °C (800 to Electrical resistivity. 66 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
1300 °F)
Commercial Names Fabrication Characteristics
Previous trade name. Low-leaded brass Machinability. 60% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
C34000 Formability. Cold working, good; hot
Specifications 65Cu-34Zn-1Pb forming, poor
ASTM. Flat products: B 121. Rod: B 453 Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good.
Government. Flat products: QQ-B-613. Bar, Commercial Names Resistance butt welding: fair. All other welding
forgings, rod, shapes, strip: QQ-B-626 Previous trade name. Medium-leaded brass, processes are not recommended.
64.5% Recrystallization temperature. 288 °C (550 °F)
Chemical Composition Annealing temperature. 425 to 650 °C (800 to
Composition limits. 62.5 to 66.5 Cu, 0.3 to 0.8 Specifications 1200 °F)
Pb, 0.1 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), bal Zn ASTM. Flat products: B 121. Rod: B 453 LIVE GRAPH
Government. Flat products: QQ-B-613. Bar, Click here to view
Applications forgings, rod, shapes, strip: QQ-B-626
Typical uses. Hardware such as butts and hinges;
watch backs Chemical Composition
Mechanical Properties Pb, 0.10 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), bal Zn
Shear strength. See Table 62. Applications
Hardness. See Table 62. Typical uses. Flat products: butts, dials, engrav-
Elastic modulus. Tension, 105 GPa (15 106 ings, gears, instrument plates, nuts, or drawn
psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106 psi) shells, all involving piercing, threading, or
machining. Rod, bar, and wire: couplings, free-
Mass Characteristics machining screws and rivets, gears, nuts, tire
Density. 8.47 g/cm3 (0.306 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) valve stems, screw machine products involving
severe knurling and roll threading or moderate
Thermal Properties cold heading, flaring, spinning, or swaging
Solidus temperature. 900 °C (1650 °F) Mechanical Properties
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.3 Tensile properties. See Table 63.
m/m K (11.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Shear strength. See Table 63.
to 572 °F) Hardness. See Table 63.
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Elastic modulus. Tension, 105 GPa (15 106 Fig. 36 Typical mechanical properties of cold drawn
20 °C (68 °F) psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106 psi) C33200 copper alloy tubing

Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HR30T MPa ksi
OS070 315 46 97 14 65 58 15 220 32

OS050 325 47 105 15 62 64 26 … …
OS035 340 49 115 17 57 68 31 235 34
OS025 350 51 130 19 55 72 36 … …
H01 370 54 275 40 43 55 HRB 54 250 36
H02 420 61 345 50 23 70 HRB 65 275 40
H04 510 74 415 60 8 80 HRB 69 295 43
H06 580 84 … … … 86 HRB 74 … …
Note: Values for flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick. (a) 0.5% extension under load
C34200 plates. Rod: gears, pinions, valve stems, auto- Electrical Properties
64.5Cu-33.5Zn-2Pb matic screw machine parts that need more severe Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, O61 temper,
cold working than can be tolerated with free-cut- 26% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
C35300 ting brass (for example, processes such as knurl- Electrical resistivity. 66 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
62Cu-36.2Zn-1.8Pb ing and moderate staking)
Commercial Names Mechanical Properties
Previous trade name. High-leaded brass Tensile properties. See Table 64. Formability. Cold working, fair; hot forming,
Common name. Clock brass, engraver’s brass, Hardness. See Table 64. poor
heavy-leaded brass Elastic modulus. Tension, 105 GPa (15 106 Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good.
psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106 psi) Resistance butt welding: fair. All other welding
Specifications
Structure processes are not recommended.
ASTM. Flat products: B 121. Rod: B 453 Recrystallization temperature. 320 °C (600 °F)
SAE. J463 Crystal structure. Face-centered cubic Annealing temperature. 425 to 600 °C (800 to
UNS number. C34200, C35300 Microstructure. Two phase, and lead 1100 °F). See also Fig. 37.
Government. Flat products: QQ-B-613. Bar, Hot-working temperature. 785 to 815 °C (1445
forgings, rod, shapes, strip: QQ-B-626 Mass Characteristics
to 1500 °F)
Composition limits of C34200. 62.5 to 66.5 Cu, Thermal Properties C34900
1.5 to 2.5 Pb, 0.1 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), Liquidus temperature. 910 °C (1670 °F) 62Cu-37.5Zn-0.3Pb
bal Zn Solidus temperature. 885 °C (1630 °F)
Composition limits of C35300. 59.0 to 64.5 Cu, Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.3 Chemical Composition
1.3 to 2.3 Pb, 0.1 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), m/m K (11.3 min./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Composition limits. 61.0 to 64.0 Cu, 0.1 to 0.5
bal Zn to 572 °F) Pb, 0.1 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), bal Zn
Applications 20 °C (68 °F) Applications
Typical uses. Flat products: gears, wheels, nuts, Thermal conductivity. 115 W/m K (67 Btu/ft Typical uses. Building hardware, drilled and
plates for clocks, keys, bearing cages, engraver’s h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) tapped rivets, plumbing goods, saw nuts, and

Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB HR30T MPa ksi

OS035 340 49 115 17 54 68 HRF 31 225 33
OS025 350 51 130 19 53 72 HRF 36 235 34
H01 370 54 275 40 41 55 54 250 36
H02 420 61 345 50 21 70 63 275 40
H04 510 74 415 60 7 80 70 295 43
H06 585 85 425 62 5 87 73 310 45
OS025 345 50 135 20 60 70 HRF … 235 34
H03 380 55 290 42 40 60 … 250 36
H02 435 63 330 48 30 68 … 275 40
OS025 345 50 … … 50 … … 235 34
H00 400 58 … … 30 … … 260 38
H01 485 70 … … 13 … … 290 42
H02 605 88 … … 7 … … 315 46
(a) 0.5% extension under load

Elongation in

OS015 370 54 165 24 45 78 HRF 41 255 37
OS025 360 52 140 20 48 76 HRF 37 250 36
OS035 340 49 115 17 52 68 HRF 32 235 34
OS050 325 47 105 15 55 66 HRF 28 225 33
H01 370 54 275 40 38 55 54 250 36
H02 420 61 345 50 20 70 63 275 40
H04 510 74 415 60 7 80 71 295 43
H06 585 85 425 62 5 87 75 310 45
O50 325 47 125 18 59(b) 66 HRF … … …
H55 400 58 270 39 28(c) 65 … … …
H02 450 65 310 45 23(d) 72 … … …
(a) 0.5% extension under load. (b) Reduction in area 65%. (c) Reduction in area 50%. (d) Reduction in area 35%
parts requiring moderate cold working com- and butt welding: fair. Shielded metal arc and Hardness. See Table 66.
bined with some machining resistance seam welding are not recommended. Elastic modulus. Tension, 105 GPa (15 106
Annealing temperature. 425 to 650 °C (800 to psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106 psi)
Mechanical Properties 1200 °F)
Tensile properties. See Table 65. Hot-working temperature. 675 to 800 °C (1250 Mass Characteristics
Shear strength. See Table 65. to 1450 °F) Density. 8.47 g/cm3 (0.306 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Elastic modulus. Tension, 105 GPa (15 106 Thermal Properties
C35000
psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106 psi) 62.5Cu-36.4Zn-1.1Pb Liquidus temperature. 915 °C (1680 °F)
Mass Characteristics Commercial Names Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.3
Density. 8.44 g/cm3 (0.305 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Previous trade name. Medium-leaded brass, 62% m/m K (11.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
Thermal Properties to 572 °F)
Specifications
Solidus temperature. 895 °C (1640 °F) ASTM. Flat products: B 121. Rod: B 453
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.3 SAE. J463
m/m K (11.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Government. Flat products: QQ-B-613. Bar,
to 572 °F) forgings, rod, shapes, strip: QQ-B-626
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Chemical Composition
20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal conductivity. 115 W/m K (67 Btu/ft Composition limits. 59.0 to 64.0 Cu, 0.8 to 1.4
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Pb, 0.1 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), bal Zn
Electrical Properties Applications

Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 26% IACS Typical uses. Bearing cages, book dies, clock
at 20 °C (68 °F) plates, engraving plates, gears, hinges, hose cou-
Electrical resistivity. 66 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) plings, keys, lock parts, lock tumblers, meter
parts, sink strainers, strike plates, templates,
Fabrication Characteristics nuts, type characters, washers, wear plates
Formability. Cold working, good; hot forming, poor Mechanical Properties
Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good. Tensile properties. See Table 66.
Oxyfuel gas, gas-shielded arc, and resistance spot Shear strength. See Table 66.

Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness MPa ksi

OS035 365 53 165 24 50 75 HRF 235 34
H01 385 56 290 42 42 70 HRB 250 36
OS015 380 55 150 22 48 70 HRF 240 35
H01 470 68 380 55 19 72 HRB 285 410
OS050 330 48 110 16 72 67 HRF 220 32
Fig. 37 Annealing behavior of C34200. Curves are
(a) At 0.5% extension under load for 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick strip cold rolled
from OS035 temper starting stock.
LIVE GRAPH
Table 66 Typical mechanical properties of C35000 Click here to view
Yield strength
Tensile strength 0.5% extension under load 0.2% offset Hardness Shear strength
Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB HR30T MPa ksi

OS050 310 45 90 13 90 13 57 61 HRF … … …
OS035 325 47 110 16 110 16 54 67 HRF … … …
OS025 330 48 135 20 135 20 50 70 HRF … … …
OS015 350 51 170 25 170 25 46 74 HRF 52 … …
H01 370 54 220 32 235 34 43 66 60 … …
H02 415 60 310 45 310 45 29 75 68 … …
H03 460 67 365 53 380 55 17 80 71 … …
H04 505 73 415 60 415 60 10 86 75 … …
H06 580 84 450 65 475 69 5
OS050 330 48 110 16 … … 56 65 HRF 25 235 34
OS015 380 55 170 25 … … 46 85 HRF 50 250 36
H01 400 58 305 44 … … 42 60 57 260 38
H02 485 70 360 52 … … 22 80 70 290 42
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Mechanical Properties Common name. Free-turning brass, free-cutting
20 °C (68 °F) Tensile properties. See Table 67. yellow brass, high-leaded brass
Thermal conductivity. 115 W/m K (67 Btu/ft Hardness. See Table 67.
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Specifications
psi); shear, 37 GPa (5.3 106 psi) AMS. 4610
ASTM. B 16
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 26% IACS Mass Characteristics SAE. J463
at 20 °C (68 °F) Density. 8.5 g/cm3 (0.307 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Government. Flat products: QQ-B-613. Bar,
Electrical resistivity. 66 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) forgings, rod, shapes, strip: QQ-B-626
Thermal Properties
Fabrication Characteristics Chemical Composition
Machinability. 70% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Solidus temperature. 885 °C (1630 °F) Composition limits. 60.0 to 63.0 Cu, 2.5 to 3.7
Forgeability. 50% of C37700 (forging brass) Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.5 Pb, 0.35 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), bal Zn
Formability. Fair for cold working and hot forming m/m K (11.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good. to 572 °F) Applications
Resistance butt welding: fair. All other welding Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
processes are not recommended. Typical uses. Hardware: gears, pinions. Industrial:
20 °C (68 °F) automatic high-speed screw machine parts
Annealing temperature. 425 to 600 °C (800 to Thermal conductivity. 115 W/m K (67 Btu/ft
1100 °F) h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Mechanical Properties
to 1500 °F) Electrical Properties Tensile properties. See Table 68 and Fig. 38.
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, O61 temper,
26% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
C35600 psi); shear, 37 GPa (5.3 106 psi)
Electrical resistivity. 66 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
62Cu-35.5Zn-2.5Pb Fatigue strength. Rotating-beam tests on 90 mm
Fabrication Characteristics (0.350 in.) diam specimens taken from 50 mm (2
in.) diam rod. H02 temper (cold drawn 15%):
Commercial Names Machinability. 100% of C36000 (free-cutting
140 MPa (20 ksi) at 108 cycles; 97 MPa (14 ksi)
Previous trade name. Extra-high-leaded brass brass)
at 3 108 cycles
Formability. Cold working, poor; hot forming, fair
Specifications Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good. Structure
ASTM. Flat products: B 121. Rod: B 453 Resistance butt welding: fair. All other welding
processes are not recommended. Microstructure. Generally three phase: , ,
Government. Flat products: QQ-B-613. Bar, rod,
Annealing temperature. 425 to 600 °C (800 to and lead
shapes, strip: QQ-B-626
1100 °F)
Chemical Composition Hot-working temperature. 700 to 800 °C (1300
Composition limits. 59.0 to 64.5 Cu, 2.0 to 3.0 to 1450 °F) Density. 8.5 g/cm3 (0.307 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Pb, 0.1 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), bal Zn
Thermal Properties
C36000
Applications Liquidus temperature. 900 °C (1660 °F)
61.5Cu-35.5Zn-3Pb
Typical uses. Hardware: clock plates and nuts, Solidus temperature. 885 °C (1630 °F)
clock and watch backs, clock gears and wheels. Commercial Names Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.5
Industrial: channel plate Previous trade name. Free-cutting brass m/m K (11.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
to 572 °F)
Table 67 Typical mechanical properties of 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick C35600 sheet and strip Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
Tensile strength Yield strength(a) Hardness
20 °C (68 °F)
Elongation in
50 mm (2 in.), % HRB HR30T
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
OS035 340 49 115 17 50 68 HRF 31
H01 370 54 275 40 35 55 54
H02 420 61 345 50 20 70 65
H04 510 74 415 60 7 80 69 Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, O61 temper,
26% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
Fig. 38 Annealing curves for C36000. Data are for free-cutting brass rod, cold drawn 30% to 19 mm (0.75 in.) in diameter from M30 temper (as-extruded) starting stock, then
annealed 1 h at temperature
Fabrication Characteristics Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.8 Specifications

Machinability. 100%. This is the standard mate- m/m K (11.6 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 ASTM. Tube: B 135
rial against which the machining qualities of all to 572 °F) Government. Flat products: QQ-B-613. Bar, forg-
other copper alloys are judged. Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at ings, rod, strip: QQ-B-626. Tube: MIL-T-46072
Formability. Cold working, poor; hot forming, fair 20 °C (68 °F)
Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good. Thermal conductivity. 123 W/m K (71 Btu/ft Chemical Composition
Resistance butt welding: fair. All other welding h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Composition limits. 59.0 to 62.0 Cu, 0.9 to 1.4
processes are not recommended. Electrical Properties Pb, 0.15 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), bal Zn
Recrystallization temperature. 330 °C (625 °F)
Annealing temperature. 425 to 600 °C (800 to Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, O61 temper: Applications
1100 °F). See also Fig. 38. 28% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F) Typical uses. Automatic screw machine parts
Hot-working temperature. 700 to 800 °C (1300 Electrical resistivity. 62 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
to 1450 °F) Mechanical Properties
Chemical Properties
General corrosion behavior. Good resistance to Hardness. See Table 69.
C36500, C36600, C36700, C36800 corrosion in both fresh and salt water. C36500 is Elastic modulus. Tension, 105 GPa (15 106
60Cu-39.4Zn-0.6Pb the uninhibited alloy and is subject to dezincifi- psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106 psi)
cation; the inhibited alloys each contain 0.02 to
Commercial Names 0.10% of an inhibitor element (As, Sb, or P), Mass Characteristics
Previous trade name. C36500, uninhibited leaded which imparts high resistance to dezincification. Density. 8.41 g/cm3 (0.304 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Muntz metal; C36600, arsenical leaded Muntz
metal; C36700, antimonial leaded Muntz metal; Fabrication Characteristics Thermal Properties
C36800, phosphorized leaded Muntz metal Machinability. 60% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Liquidus temperature. 900 °C (1650 °F)
Common name. Leaded Muntz metal; inhibited Formability. Cold working, fair; hot working, Solidus temperature. 885 °C (1630 °F)
leaded Muntz metal excellent Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.8
Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good. m/m K (11.6 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
Specifications Oxyfuel gas, gas-shielded arc, and resistance to 572 °F)
ASME. Plate, condenser tube: SB171 butt welding: fair. All other welding processes Specific heat. 375 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
ASTM. Plate, condenser tube: B 171. Plate, clad: are not recommended. 20 °C (68 °F)
B 432 Annealing temperature. 425 to 600 °C (800 to Thermal conductivity. 120 W/m K (69 Btu/ft
1100 °F) h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Chemical Composition Hot-working temperature. 625 to 800 °C (1150
Composition limits. 58.0 to 61.0 Cu, 0.4 to 0.9 to 1450 °F) Electrical Properties
Pb, 0.15 Fe max, 0.25 Sn max; As, Sb, or P (see Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, O61 temper:
below); 0.1 max other (total), bal Zn C37000 27% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
Antimony or phosphorus limits. C36500, none 60Cu-39Zn-1Pb Electrical resistivity. 63.9 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
specified; C36600, 0.02 to 0.1 As; C36700, 0.02
to 0.1 Sb; C36800, 0.02 to 0.1 P Commercial Names Fabrication Characteristics
Applications Previous trade name. Free-cutting Muntz metal Machinability. 70% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Typical uses. Main tube sheets for condensers
and heat exchangers; support sheets; baffles
Elongation in Reduction in Hardness,
Mechanical Properties Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % area, % HRB MPa ksi
Tensile properties. 25 mm (1 in.) plate, M20 Rod, 6 mm, (0.25 in.) diameter
temper: tensile strength, 370 MPa (54 ksi); yield H02(b) 470 68 360 52 18 48 80 260 38
strength (0.5% extension), 140 MPa (20 ksi); Rod, 25 mm (1 in.) diameter
elongation, 45% in 50 mm (2 in.) O61 340 49 125 18 53 58 68 HRF 205 30
Shear strength. M20 temper: 275 MPa (40 ksi) H02(c) 400 58 310 45 25 50 78 235 34
Hardness. M20 temper: 80 HRF Rod, 50 mm (2 in.) diameter
Elastic modulus. Tension, 105 GPa (15 106 H02(d) 380 55 305 44 32 52 75 220 32
psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106 psi) Shapes
Structure M30 340 49 125 18 50 … 68 HRF 205 30
H01(e) 385 56 310 45 20 … 62 230 33
Crystal structure. Face-centered cubic
Microstructure. Alpha and with undissolved (a) 0.5% extension under load. (b) Cold drawn 25%. (c) Cold drawn 20%. (d) Cold drawn 18%. (e) Cold drawn 15%
lead. Beta phase appears lemon yellow with

ammonia peroxide etch; it may be darkened with Table 69 Typical mechanical properties of C37000
ferric chloride etch. Lead appears as insoluble
gray particles randomly distributed throughout Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB HR30T
the structure.
Tube, 38 mm (1.5 in.) outside diameter 3 mm (0.125 in.) wall thickness
Mass Characteristics O50 370 54 140 20 40 80 HRF 43
H80(b) 550 80 415 60 6 85 74
Tube, 50 mm (2 in.) outside diameter 6 mm (0.25 in.) wall thickness
Thermal Properties H80(c) 485 70 310 45 10 75 67
Liquidus temperature. 900 °C (1650 °F) (a) At 0.5% extension under load. (b) Cold drawn 35%. (c) Cold drawn 25%
Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good. Elastic modulus. Tension, 105 GPa (15 106 Forgeability. 100%. This is the standard materi-
Resistance butt welding: fair. All other welding psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106psi) al against which the forging qualities of all other
processes are not recommended. copper alloys are judged.
Annealing temperature. 425 to 600 °C (800 to Structure Formability. Cold working, poor; hot forming,
1100 °F) Crystal structure. Face-centered cubic excellent
Hot-working temperature. 625 to 800 °C (1150 Microstructure. Two phase: and , with undis- Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good.
to 1450 °F) solved lead. Beta phase appears lemon yellow Resistance butt welding: fair. All other welding
with ammonia peroxide etch. Ferric chloride processes are not recommended.
C37700 darkens phase. Lead appears as gray particles. Annealing temperature. 425 to 600 °C (800 to
1100 °F). See also Fig. 40.
60Cu-38Zn-2Pb Mass Characteristics Hot-working temperature. 650 to 825 °C (1200
Density. 8.44 g/cm3 (0.305 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) to 1500 °F)
Commercial Names
Previous trade name. Forging brass Thermal Properties
Liquidus temperature. 895 °C (1640 °F) C38500
Specifications 57Cu-40Zn-3Pb
AMS. Die forgings, forging rod: 4614 Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.7
ASME. Die forgings: SB283 m/m K (11.5 in./in °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Commercial Names
ASTM. Bar, forging, rod, shapes: B 124. Die to 572 °F) Previous trade name. Architectural bronze
forgings: B 283 Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
SAE. Die forgings: J463 20 °C (68 °F) Specifications
Government. QQ-B-626. Die forgings: MIL-C- Thermal conductivity. 120 W/m K (69 Btu/ft ASTM. Shapes: B 455
13351 h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Chemical Composition Electrical Properties Composition limits. 55.0 to 60.0 Cu, 2.0 to 3.8
Composition limits. 58.0 to 62.0 Cu, 1.5 to 2.5 Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 27% IACS Pb, 0.35 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), bal Zn
Pb, 0.3 Fe max, 0.5 max other (total), bal Zn at 20 °C (68 °F)
Electrical resistivity. 64 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Applications
Applications
Typical uses. Architectural: extrusions, store-
Typical uses. Forgings and pressings of all kinds Magnetic Properties
fronts, thresholds, and trim. Hardware: butts,
Magnetic susceptibility. Nonmagnetic hinges, and lock bodies. Industrial: forgings
Tensile properties. M30 temper: tensile strength, Optical Properties Mechanical Properties
360 MPa (52 ksi); yield strength (0.5% exten- Color. Golden hue compared to yellow of Tensile properties. M30 temper: tensile strength,
sion), 140 MPa (20 ksi); elongation, 45% in 50 C26000 (cartridge brass) 415 MPa (60 ksi); yield strength (0.5% extension),
mm (2 in.). See Fig. 39 and 40. 140 MPa (20 ksi); elongation, 30% in 50 mm
Hardness. M30 temper: 78 HRF. See also Fig. Fabrication Characteristics
(2 in.)
39 and 40. Machinability. 80% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Shear strength. M30 temper: 240 MPa (35 ksi)
LIVE GRAPH Hardness. M30 temper: 65 HRB
Click here to view Elastic modulus. Tension, 97 GPa (14 106
Thermal Properties
m/m K (11.6 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
to 572 °F)
20 °C (68 °F)
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
28% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
Electric resistivity. 62 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
Formability. Cold working, poor; hot forming,
Fig. 39 Typical mechanical properties of extruded and excellent
drawn C37700. Data are for forging brass rod Fig. 40 Annealing curves for C37700. Typical data
Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good.
less than 25 mm (1 in.) in diameter that was extruded, are for forging brass rod less than 25 mm (1
then cold drawn to various percentages of reduction in in.) in diameter that was extruded, cold drawn 18%, and Resistance butt welding: fair. All other welding
area. annealed 1 h at various temperatures. processes are not recommended.
Annealing temperature. 425 to 600 °C (800 to Thermal conductivity. 165 W/m K (95 Btu/ft Shear strength. See Table 71.
1100 °F) h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Hardness. See Table 71.
Hot-working temperature. 625 to 725 °C (1150 Elastic modulus. Tension: hard, 110 GPa (16
to 1350 °F) Electrical Properties 106 psi); shear, 41 GPa (6 106 psi)
C40500 at 20 °C (68 °F) Mass Characteristics
95Cu-4Zn-1Sn Electrical resistivity. 42 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Density. 8.86 g/cm3 (0.320 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Commercial Names Fabrication Characteristics Thermal Properties
Trade name. High-conductivity bronze Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Common name. Penny bronze Formability. Excellent for cold working; good
for hot forming
Specifications Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18.2
Weldability. Soldering and brazing: excellent.
m/m K (10.1 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
ASTM. B 591 Gas-shielded arc and resistance spot and butt
to 572 °F)
welding: good. Oxyacetylene and resistance
Chemical Composition Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
seam welding: fair. Coated metal arc welding is
20 °C (68 °F)
Composition limits. 94 to 96 Cu, 0.7 to 1.3 Sn, not recommended.
0.05 Pb max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn Annealing temperature. 510 to 670 °C (950 to
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
1240 °F)
Applications Hot-working temperature. 830 to 890 °C (1525 Electrical Properties
Typical uses. Meter clips, terminals, fuse clips, to 1635 °F)
contact springs, relay springs, washers from Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 37% IACS
rolled strip, rolled bar, sheet C40800 at 20 °C (68 °F)
95Cu-2Sn-3Zn Electrical resistivity. 46.6 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
Tensile properties. See Table 70. Specifications Fabrication Characteristics
Shear strength. See Table 70. ASTM. Flat products: B 591 Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Hardness. See Table 70. Formability. Excellent for cold working; fair for
Elastic modulus. Tension: hard, 110 GPa (16 Chemical Composition hot forming
106 psi); annealed, 125 GPa (18 106 psi) Composition limits. 94 to 96 Cu, 1.8 to 2.2 Sn, Weldability. Soldering and brazing: excellent.
0.05 Pb max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn Oxyacetylene, gas-shielded arc, and resistance
Mass Characteristics butt welding: good. Resistance spot and seam
Density. 8.83 g/cm3 (0.319 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Applications welding are not recommended.
Typical uses. Rolled strip for electrical connectors Annealing temperature. 450 to 675 °C (850 to
Thermal Properties 1250 °F)
Liquidus temperature. 1060 °C (1940 °F) Mechanical Properties Hot-working temperature. 830 to 890 °C (1525
Solidus temperature. 1025 °C (1875 °F) Tensile properties. See Table 71. to 1635 °F)

Yield strength
Elongation in

OS035 270 39 83 12 69 10 49 55 HRF 10 215 31
OS025 280 41 83 12 76 11 48 58 HRF 13 230 33
OS015 290 42 90 13 97 14 47 64 HRF 24 230 33
H01 325 47 250 36 250 36 30 46 47 240 35
H02 360 52 295 43 345 50 15 60 56 255 37
H03 400 58 340 49 385 56 12 67 62 260 38
H04 440 64 380 55 425 62 10 72 65 270 39
H06 475 69 415 60 460 67 7 76 69 280 41
H08 510 74 435 63 495 72 4 79 71 295 43
H10 540 78 485 70 525 76 3 82 72 310 45

Yield strength
Elongation in
OS035 290 42 90 13 … … 43 60 HRF 22 230 33

OS025 305 44 97 14 … … 43 65 HRF 26 235 34
OS015 310 45 105 15 … … 42 69 HRF 31 235 34
H01 345 50 270 39 310 45 24 50 54 250 36
H02 370 54 315 46 380 55 12 65 62 260 38
H03 425 62 360 52 415 60 6 72 67 280 41
H04 460 67 395 57 485 70 5 76 70 295 43
H06 505 73 420 61 540 78 4 82 73 310 45
H08 545 79 455 66 565 82 3 85 77 330 48
H10 545 min 79 min 515 75 580 84 3 84 min 75 min 340 49
Note: Values for flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick

C41100 Thermal Properties Hot-working temperature. 830 to 890 °C (1525

91Cu-8.5Zn-0.5Sn Liquidus temperature. 1040 °C (1905 °F) to 1635 °F)
Commercial Names
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18
Previous trade name. Lubaloy m/m K (10 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68 C41500
Specifications to 212 °F) 91Cu-7.2Zn-1.8Sn
ASTM. Flat products: B 508, B 591. Wire: B 105 h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Specifications
Chemical Composition Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at ASTM. B 591
20 °C (68 °F)
Composition limits. 89 to 93 Cu, 0.3 to 0.7 Sn,
0.1 Pb max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn Electrical Properties
Applications Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 32% IACS 0.1 Pb max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn
Typical uses. Rolled strip; rolled bar, rod, and at 20 °C (68 °F)
sheet for bushings, bearing sleeves, thrust wash- Electrical resistivity. 54 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Applications
ers, terminals, connectors, flexible metal hose, Typical uses. Rolled strip for spring applications
Fabrication Characteristics for electrical switches
and electrical conductors
Mechanical Properties Formability. Excellent for cold working; good Mechanical Properties
Tensile properties. See Table 72. for hot forming Tensile properties. See Table 73.
Hardness. See Table 72. Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Gas-shielded Hardness. See Table 73.
Elastic modulus. Tension: hard, 115 GPa (16.7 arc welding and resistance butt welding: good. Elastic modulus. Tension: hard, 110 GPa (16
106 psi); annealed, 125 GPa (18 106 psi). Brazing, oxyacetylene, and resistance spot weld- 106 psi); annealed, 125 GPa (18 106 psi).
Shear, 46 GPa (6.7 106 psi) ing: fair. Coated metal arc and resistance seam Shear, 46 GPa (6.7 106 psi)
welding are not recommended.
Mass Characteristics Annealing temperature. 500 to 700 °C (930 to Mass Characteristics
Density. 8.80 g/cm3 (0.318 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) 1290 °F) Density. 8.80 g/cm3 (0.318 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)

Yield strength
Elongation in

OS050 260 38 76 11 62 9 44 58 HRF … 220 32
OS035 270 39 76 11 83 12 43 60 HRF … 230 33
OS025 280 41 83 12 97 14 41 68 HRF … … …
OS015 290 42 83 12 105 15 40 71 HRF … 235 34
H01 330 48 260 38 280 41 23 52 58 … …
H02 380 55 325 47 365 53 14 62 60 250 36
H03 415 60 360 52 400 58 6 70 66 … …
H04 455 66 380 55 440 64 5 76 69 275 40
H06 495 72 415 60 485 70 4 78 71 … …
H08 540 78 485 70 515 75 3 81 72 … …
H10 550 80 495 72 525 76 2 83 73 … …
H80 (70%) 560 81 … … … … 2(a) … … … …
H80 (95%) 705 102 … … … … 1(b) … … … …
H80 (98.7%) 730 106 … … … … 0.9(b) … … … …
(a) Elongation in 254 mm (10 in.). (b) Elongation in 1500 mm (60 in.)

Yield strength
Tensile strength At 0.5% extension under load At 0.2% offset Hardness Fatigue strength
Elongation in
OS035 315 46 115 17 125 18 44 64 HRF 24 240 35

OS025 … … … … … … … 68 HRF 29 … …
OS015 345 50 180 26 185 27 42 74 HRF 36 250 36
H01 345 50 280 41 … … 28 62 58 … …
H02 385 56 365 53 370 54 16 74 65 280 41
H03 435 63 … … … … … 78 68 290 42
H04 485 70 450 65 455 66 5 83 72 305 44
H06 525 76 490 71 515 75 4 86 73 305 44
H08 560 81 505 73 570 83 3 90 75 345 50
H10 560 min 81 min 515 75 605 88 2 89 min 74 min 360 52

Thermal Properties Applications Applications

Liquidus temperature. 1032 °C (1890 °F) Typical uses. Electrical connectors Typical uses. Rolled strip, rolled bar and sheet for
Solidus temperature. 1010 °C (1850 °F) sash chains, terminals, fuse clips, spring washers,
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18.6 Mechanical Properties contact springs, and electrical connectors
m/m K (10.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Tensile properties. See Table 74.
to 572 °F) Hardness. See Table 74. Mechanical Properties
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Elastic modulus. Tension, 125 GPa (18 106 psi) Tensile properties. See Table 75.
20 °C (68 °F) Hardness. See Table 75.
Thermal conductivity. 123 W/m K (71 Btu/ft Mass Characteristics Elastic modulus. Tension: hard, 110 GPa (16
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Density. 8.80 g/cm3 (0.318 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) 106 psi); annealed, 125 GPa (18 106 psi)
Electrical Properties Thermal Properties Mass Characteristic
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 28% IACS Liquidus temperature. 1025 °C (1880 °F) Density. 8.80 g/cm3 (0.318 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
at 20 °C (68 °F) Solidus temperature. 1000 °C (1830 °F)
Electrical resistivity. 62 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18.7 Thermal Properties
m/m K (10.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Liquidus temperature. 1040 °C (1905 °F)
Fabrication Characteristics to 572 °F) Solidus temperature. 1020 °C (1870 °F)
Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Thermal conductivity. 100 W/m K (58 Btu/ft Thermal conductivity. 130 W/m K (75 Btu/ft
Formability. Excellent for cold working; fair for h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
hot forming
Weldability. Soldering and brazing: excellent. Electrical Properties Electrical Properties
Oxyacetylene, gas-shielded arc, and resistance Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 22% IACS Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 31% IACS
butt welding: good. Resistance spot welding: at 20 °C (68 °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
fair. Coated metal arc and resistance seam weld- Electrical resistivity. 78 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Electrical resistivity. 55 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
ing are not recommended.
Annealing temperature. 400 to 705 °C (750 to Fabrication Characteristics Fabrication Characteristics
1300 °F) Annealing temperature. 480 to 680 °C (900 to Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Hot-working temperature. 730 to 845 °C (1350 1250 °F) Formability. Excellent for cold working, good
to 1550 °F) for hot forming
C42200 Weldability. Soldering and gas-shielded arc weld-
87.5Cu-11.4Zn-1.1Sn ing: excellent. Resistance spot and butt welding:
C41900 good. Resistance seam welding and brazing: fair.
90.5Cu-4.35Zn-5.15Sn Commercial Names Oxyacetylene welding is not recommended.
Previous trade name. Lubronze Annealing temperature. 500 to 675 °C (930 to
Commercial Names 1250 °F)
Previous trade name. CA419 Specifications Hot-working temperature. 830 to 890 °C (1525
Common name. Tin brass ASTM. B 591 to 1635 °F)
Chemical Composition Chemical Composition C42500

Composition limits. 89 to 92 Cu, 4.8 to 5.5 Sn, Composition limits. 86.0 to 89.0 Cu, 0.8 to 1.4 Sn, 88.5Cu-9.5Zn-2Sn
0.10 Pb max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn 0.35 P max, 0.05 Pb max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn
Specifications
Table 74 Typical mechanical properties of C41900 strip ASTM. B 591
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB Chemical Composition
O61 340 49 130 19 42 67 HRF Composition limits. 87 to 90 Cu, 1.5 to 3.0 Sn,
H01 400 58 315 46 25 64 0.35 P max, 0.05 Pb max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn
H02 470 68 395 57 14 73
H03 515 75 450 65 5 78 Applications
H04 565 82 510 74 4 87
H06 640 93 530 77 3 92 Typical uses. Rolled strip, rolled bar and sheet
H08 705 102 550 80 2 95 for electrical switch springs, terminals, connec-
tors, fuse clips, pen clips, and weather stripping
Yield strength
Tensile strength At 0.5% extension under load At 0.2% offset Hardness
Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB HR30T
OS035 295 43 105 15 97 14 46 65 HRF 27

OS025 305 44 110 16 105 15 45 70 HRF 31
OS015 315 46 115 17 130 19 44 75 HRF 40
H01 360 52 275 40 270 39 30 56 54
H02 415 60 350 51 395 57 12 70 64
H03 455 66 380 55 440 64 6 77 68
H04 505 73 450 65 485 70 4 81 70
H06 550 80 470 68 525 76 3 84 72
H08 600 87 505 73 560 81 2 87 73
H10 605 min 88 min 515 75 580 84 2 86 min 74 min

Mechanical Properties Applications Chemical Composition

Tensile properties. See Table 76. Typical uses. Rolled strip and sheet for electri- Composition limits. 84 to 87 Cu, 0.4 to 1.0 Sn,
Hardness. See Table 76. cal switches, springs, fuse and pen clips, and 0.05 Pb max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn
Elastic modulus. Tension: hard, 110 GPa (16 weather stripping
106 psi); annealed, 125 GPa (18 106 psi) Applications
Typical uses. Rolled strip for electrical uses:
Mass Characteristics Tensile properties. See Table 77. switch parts, blades, relay springs, contacts
Density. 8.78 g/cm3 (0.317 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Hardness. See Table 77.
Elastic modulus. Tension, 110 GPa (16 106 Mechanical Properties
Thermal Properties psi); shear, 119 GPa (17.3 106 psi)
Liquidus temperature. 1030 °C (1890 °F) Mass Characteristics Shear strength. See Table 78.
Solidus temperature. 1010 °C (1850 °F) Hardness. See Table 78.
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18.4 Elastic modulus. Tension: hard, 110 GPa (16
m/m K (10.2 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68 Thermal Properties 106 psi); annealed, 40 GPa (6 106 psi)
to 212 °F)
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Liquidus temperature. 1025 °C (1877 °F) Mass Characteristics
20 °C (68 °F) Solidus temperature. 1000 °C (1832 °F)
Thermal conductivity. 120 W/m K (69 Btu/ft Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18.4 Density. 8.75 g/cm3 (0.316 lb/in.3) at 20 °C
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) m/m K (10.2 in./in. °F) at 20 to 100 °C (68 (68 °F)
to 212 °F)
Electrical Properties Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Thermal Properties
20 °C (68 °F) Liquidus temperature. 1020 °C (1870 °F)
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 28% IACS Thermal conductivity. 119 W/m K (69 Btu/ft
at 20 °C (68 °F) Solidus temperature. 990 °C (1810 °F)
h °F)
Electrical resistivity. 62 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18.9
Electrical Properties m/m K (10.5 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
Fabrication Characteristics to 572 °F)
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 27% IACS Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb h °F)
Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Formability. Excellent for cold working; fair for at 20 °C (68 °F)
hot forming Thermal conductivity. 137 W/m K (79 Btu/ft
Weldability. Soldering and brazing: excellent. Fabrication Characteristics h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Oxyacetylene, gas-shielded arc and resistance butt Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
welding: good. Coated metal arc and resistance Electrical Properties
Formability. Excellent for cold working; good
spot and seam welding are not recommended. for hot forming Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 31% IACS
Annealing temperature. 425 to 700 °C (800 to Weldability. Soldering and brazing: excellent. at 20 °C (68 °F)
1300 °F) Oxyacetylene, gas-shielded arc, and resistance Electrical resistivity. 56 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
Hot-working temperature. 790 to 840 °C (1455 butt welding: good. Resistance spot welding:
to 1545 °F) fair. Coated metal arc and resistance seam weld- Fabrication Characteristics
ing are not recommended.
C43000 Formability. Excellent for cold working; fair for
1300 °F)
87Cu-10.8Zn-2.2Sn Hot-working temperature. 790 to 840 °C (1455 hot forming
to 1545 °F) Weldability. Soldering and brazing: excellent.
Specifications Oxyacetylene, gas-shielded arc, and resistance
spot and butt welding: good. Resistance seam
ASTM. Flat products: B 591 C43400 welding is not recommended.
85Cu-14.3Zn-0.7Sn Annealing temperature. 425 to 675 °C (800 to
Chemical Composition 1250 °F)
Composition limits. 84 to 87 Cu, 1.7 to 2.7 Sn, Specifications Hot-working temperature. 815 to 870 °C (1500
0.10 Pb max, 0.05 Fe max, bal Zn ASTM. Flat products: B 591 to 1600 °F)

Yield strength
Tensile strength At 0.5% extension under load At 0.2% offset Hardness
Elongation in
OS035 310 45 125 18 105 15 49 70 HRF 32

OS025 315 46 125 18 125 18 48 72 HRF 36
OS015 325 47 135 20 130 19 47 79 HRF 45
H01 370 54 310 45 315 46 35 60 56
H02 435 63 345 50 405 59 20 75 68
H03 470 68 395 57 450 65 15 80 70
H04 525 76 435 63 505 73 9 86 73
H06 565 82 485 70 545 79 7 90 74
H08 615 89 515 75 585 85 4 92 76
H10 635 min 92 min 525 76 615 89 2 92 min 76 min

C43500 Thermal Properties C44300, C44400, C44500

81Cu-18.1Zn-0.9Sn Liquidus temperature. 1005 °C (1840 °F) 71Cu-28Zn-1Sn
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 19.4 Commercial Names
Chemical Composition m/m K (10.8 in./in. °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Previous trade names. C44300, arsenical admi-
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at ralty metal; C44400, antimonial admiralty
20 °C (68 °F) metal; C44500, phosphorized admiralty metal
0.1 Pb max, 0.05 Fe max, 0.15 max other
Common names. Inhibited admiralty metal;
(total), bal Zn Electrical Properties admiralty brass
Applications Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 28% IACS Specifications
at 20 °C (68 °F)
Typical uses. Rolled strip and tubing for ASME. Condenser plate: SB171. Tubing:
Electrical resistivity. 62 n m at 20 °C
Bourdon tubing and musical instruments SB111, SB359, SB395, SB543
(68 °F)
ASTM. Condenser plate: B 171. Tubing: B 111,
Mechanical Properties B 359, B 395, B 543
Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Chemical Composition
Formability. Excellent for cold working; good Composition limits. 70.0 to 73.0 Cu, 0.07 Pb
for hot forming max, 0.06 Fe max, 0.9 to 1.2 Sn (or 0.8 to 1.2 Sn
psi); shear, 40 GPa (6 106 psi)
Weldability. Soldering and brazing: excellent. for flat-rolled products); As, Sb, or P (see
Oxyacetylene and resistance spot and butt weld- below); bal Zn
ing: good. Gas-shielded metal arc welding: fair. Arsenic, antimony, or phosphorus limits.
Density. 8.66 g/cm3 (0.313 lb/in.3) at 20 °C Coated metal arc and resistance seam welding C44300, 0.02 to 0.10 As; C44400, 0.02 to 0.10
(68 °F) are not recommended. Sb, C44500, 0.02 to 0.10 P
Applications
Typical uses. Condenser, distiller, and heat
Elongation in
50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HRB HR30T
exchanger tubes, ferrules, strainers, condenser
tube plates
OS035 315 46 125 18 55 69 30 …
OS025 … … … … … 72 34 …
Precautions in use. These three alloys are sus-
OS015 … … … … … 77 39 … ceptible to stress-corrosion cracking. Whenever
H01 365 53 275 40 44 … 57 57 possible, they should be used in the annealed
H02 425 62 380 55 25 … 73 65 condition. Where fabrication results in residual
H03 495 72 450 65 13 … 79 69
H04 540 78 460 67 10 … 84 73
stresses, a suitable stress-relieving heat treat-
H06 605 88 485 70 5 … 81 75 ment should be applied.
H08 650 94 495 72 4 … 91 77
H10 620 min 90 min 505 73 3 … 90 min 75 min Mechanical Properties
Note: Values for flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick. (a) At 0.5% extension under load
Tensile properties. See Table 80 and Fig. 41.

Elongation in
OS035 310 45 105 15 49 64 HRF 22 250 36

OS025 315 46 110 16 48 65 HRF 26 255 37
OS015 330 48 115 17 47 70 HRF 30 255 37
H01 360 52 280 41 28 54 55 275 40
H02 405 59 350 51 18 66 63 290 42
H03 470 68 405 59 10 73 68 310 45
H04 510 74 460 67 7 80 71 340 49
H06 580 84 490 71 5 83 74 360 52
H08 620 90 510 74 4 86 76 370 54
H10 605 min 88 min 515 75 3 84 min 74 min 385 56

Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HR30T MPa ksi

OS025 340 49 125 18 46 70 31 250 36
H02 450 65 370 54 16 72 HRB … 286 41.5
H04 550 80 470 68 7 85 HRB … 310 45
OS035 315 46 110 16 46 69 40 … …
H80 (35%) 515 75 415 60 10 … … … …

Elastic modulus. Tension, 110 GPa (16 106 velocities above 1.8 m/s (6 ft/s) give rise to Gas-shielded arc welding: fair. Shielded metal
psi); shear, 40 GPa (6 106 psi) impingement attack. A different inhibitor is added arc welding and resistance seam welding are
Impact strength. See Table 81. to each alloy to protect against dezincification. not recommended.
Fatigue strength. 115 to 125 MPa (17 to 18 ksi) Recrystallization temperature. 300 °C (572 °F)
at 107 cycles Fabrication Characteristics for 1 mm (0.04 in.) strip cold rolled hard (50%
Creep-rupture characteristics. See Table 82. Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) reduction) from a grain size of 0.015 mm. See
Formability. Excellent for cold working; fair for also Fig. 41.
hot forming Annealing temperature. 425 to 600 °C (800 to
Density. 8.53 g/cm3 (0.308 lb/in.3) at 20 °C Weldability. Soft soldering: excellent. Silver 1100 °F)
(68 °F) alloy brazing, oxyfuel gas welding, resistance Hot-working temperature. 650 to 800 °C (1200
spot welding, and flash welding: good. to 1450 °F)
Thermal Properties
Solidus temperature. 900 °C (1650 °F) Table 80 Typical mechanical properties of C44300, C44400, and C44500
m/m K (11.2 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Tensile strength Yield strength(a)
Elongation in
Hardness
to 572 °F) Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HR15T HR30T
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/ft °F) at Tubing, 25 mm (1 in.) outside diameter 1.65 (0.065 in.) wall thickness
20 °C (68 °F) OS025 365 53 152 22 65 75 … 37
H01 434 63 … … 45 … 86.5 …
Thermal conductivity. 110 W/m K (64 Btu/ft H02 503 73 … … 29 … 90 78
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) H03 565 82 … … 15 … 90 81
H04 669 97 … … 4 … 93 84
Electrical Properties Plate, 25 mm (1 in.) diameter
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 25% IACS M20 330 48 124 18 65 70 … …
at 20 °C (68 °F) Strip, 1 mm (0.04 in.) diameter
Electrical resistivity. 69 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) O60 (0.080 mm) 310 45 90 13 69 59 9 20
O60 (0.015 mm) 330 48 97 14 62 60 9 20
Chemical Properties H04 607 88 496 72 4 109 90 76
General corrosion behavior. Good resistance to (a) At 0.5% extension under load. Apparent elastic limit (tubing), 125 MPa (18 ksi)
salt and fresh waters at low velocities. Water

Fig. 41 Variation of properties and grain size with annealing temperature for C44300, C44400, or C44500. Data for inhibited admiralty metal tubing (71Cu-28Zn–1Sn), cold
drawn 50% and annealed 1 h at temperature
Table 81 Typical Charpy impact strength Table 82 Typical creep data for C44300, C44400, or C44500
data for C44300, C44400, or C44500 Stress required to produce designated creep in 1000 h
Test temperature Impact strength Temperature Nil(a) 0.01% 0.10% 1.00%
°C °F J ft · lbf °C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi
20 68 82.4 60.8 205 400 69 10 90 13 117 17 130 19
3 38 82.2 60.6 315 600 (b) (b) 6.9 1.0 13.4 1.95 26 3.8
–18 0 79.7 58.8 425 800 (b) (b) 0.37 0.054 1.1 0.16 3.4 0.5
–30 –25 82.4 60.8
–50 –60 79.9 58.9 Note: Values for rod, hot rolled to 22.2 mm (0.875 in.), then cold drawn to 19.0 mm (0.750 in.). (a) No measurable flow. (b) Nearly zero
–80 –110 83.4 61.5
–115 –175 80.3 59.2
Table 83 Typical mechanical properties of C46400, C46500, C46600, or C46700
Note: Annealed specimens, cut from 19 mm (0.75 in.) diam rod into
keyhole-notch bars. Values are averages of data from three tests Tensile strength Yield strength(a) Shear strength
(specimens did not fracture). Tensile strength at 20 °C (68 °F), 320 Elongation in Reduction Hardness,
MPa (46.5 ksi); yield strength, 92 MPa (13.3 ksi); elongation, 83.5%; Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % in area, % HRB MPa ksi
hardness, 64 HRF Flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick
O50 427 62 207 30 40 … 60 283 41
H01 483 70 400 58 17 … 75 296 43
C46400, C46500, C46600, C46700 Flat products, 6 mm (0.25 in.) thick
60Cu-39.2Zn-0.8Sn O60 400 58 172 25 49 … 56 275 40
O50 414 60 193 28 45 … 58 283 41
Commercial Names Flat products, 25 mm (1.0 in.) thick
M20 379 55 172 25 50 … 55 275 40
Previous trade names. C46400, uninhibited
Rod and bar, 6 mm (0.25 in.) diameter
naval brass; C46500, arsenical naval brass;
C46600, antimonial naval brass; C46700, phos- O60 400 58 186 27 45 60 56 275 40
O50 434 63 207 30 40 55 60 290 42
phorized naval brass H01 (10%) 482 70 331 48 25 50 80 296 43
Common names. Naval brass; inhibited naval brass H02 (20%) 552 80 393 57 20 45 85 310 45
Specifications O60 393 57 172 25 47 60 55 275 40
AMS. Bar and rod (C46400 only): 4611, 4612 O50 434 63 207 30 40 55 60 290 42
H01 (8%) 476 69 317 46 27 50 78 296 43
ASME. Condenser plate: SB171 H02 (20%) 517 75 365 53 20 45 82 303 44
ASTM. Bar, rod, and shapes (C46400 only): B
21, B 124, Forgings (C46400 only): B 283.
Condenser plate: B 171 O60 386 56 172 25 47 60 55 275 40
O50 427 62 193 28 43 55 60 290 42
SAE. Bar, rod, and shapes (C46400 only): J461, H01 (8%) 462 67 276 40 35 50 75 296 43
J463
Government. QQ-B-626. Bar, rod, shapes, forg-
ings, and wire (C46400 only): QQ-B-637. Bar H80 (35%) 607 88 455 66 18 40 95 … …
O61 427 62 207 30 45 … 25 … …
and flat products (C46400 only): QQ-B-639.
Tubing (C46400 only): MIL-T-6945 Extruded shapes
M30 400 58 170 25 40 … … 275 40
Composition limits. 59.0 to 62.0 Cu; 0.50 to 1.0
Sn; 0.20 Pb max; 0.10 Fe max; As, Sb, or P (see
below); bal Zn Structure Chemical Properties
Arsenic, antimony, or phosphorus limits. C46400, Crystal structure. Face-centered-cubic and General corrosion behavior. Good resistance to
none specified; C46500, 0.02 to 0.10 As; C46600, body-centered-cubic corrosion in both fresh and salt water; different
0.02 to 0.10 Sb; C46700, 0.02 to 0.10 P Microstructure. Generally two phases: and inhibitor elements are added to C46500, C46600,
and C46700 to protect against dezincification.
Applications Mass Characteristics
Density. 8.41 g/cm3 (0.304 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Fabrication Characteristics
Typical uses. Condenser plates, welding rod,
marine hardware, propeller shafts, valve stems, Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Thermal Properties Forgeability. 90% of C37700 (forging brass)
airplane turnbuckle barrels, balls, nuts, bolts,
rivets, fittings Liquidus temperature. 900 °C (1650 °F) Formability. Excellent for hot forming; fair for
Solidus temperature. 885 °C (1630 °F) cold forming
Mechanical Properties Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 21.2 Weldability. Soft soldering and silver alloy braz-
m/m K (11.8 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 ing: excellent. Oxyfuel gas welding, resistance
Tensile properties. See Table 83 and Fig. 42. to 572 °F) spot welding, and flash welding: good. Gas-
Shear strength. See Table 83. Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at shielded arc welding and resistance seam welding:
Hardness. See Table 83. 20 °C (68 °F) fair. Shielded arc welding is not recommended.
Elastic modulus. Tension, 100 GPa (15 106 Thermal conductivity. 116 W/m K (67 Btu/ft Recrystallization temperature. About 350 °C
psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106 psi) h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) (660 °F) for 19 mm (0.75 in.) diam rod cold
Impact strength. 43 J (32 ft lbf) at 21 °C (70 drawn 30%. See also Fig. 42.
°F) for Charpy keyhole specimens 10 mm (0.4 Electrical Properties Annealing temperature. 425 to 600 °C (800 to
in.) square machined from annealed plate 13 Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 26% IACS 1100 °F)
mm (0.5 in.) thick; plate hardness, 96 HRF at 20 °C (68 °F), annealed Maximum cold reduction between anneals. 30%
Fatigue strength. 100 MPa (15 ksi) at 3 108 Electrical resistivity. 66.3 n m at 20 °C (68 Hot-working temperature. 650 to 825 °C (1200
cycles °F), annealed to 1500 °F)

Fig. 42 Variation of strength, ductility, and grain size with annealing temperature for C46400, C46500, C46600, or C46700. Data for 19 mm (0.75 in.) diam naval brass rod (60Cu-
39.2Zn–0.8Sn), cold drawn 30% and annealed 1 h at temperature. Grain size before cold drawing, 0.025 mm
C48200 Table 84 Typical mechanical properties of C48200

60.5Cu-38Zn-0.8Sn-0.7Pb Tensile strength Yield strength(a)
Shear strength
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB MPa ksi
Commercial Names
Previous trade names. Naval brass, medium O60 395 57 170 25 40 55 260 38
leaded; CA482 O50 435 63 205 30 35 60 270 39
Common name. Leaded naval brass H01 (8%) 475 69 315 46 20 78 275 40
H02 (20%) 515 75 365 53 15 82 285 41
Specifications Rod, 51 mm (2.0 in.) diameter
ASTM. Rod, bar, and shapes: B 21 (CA482), B O60 385 56 170 25 40 55 260 38
O50 425 62 195 28 37 60 270 39
124 (C48200) H01 (8%) 460 67 275 40 30 75 275 40
Government. QQ-B-626. Bar, rod, shapes, forg- H02 (15%) 485 70 360 52 17 78 285 41
ings, and wire: QQ-B-637. Bar and plate: QQ-B- Rod, 76 mm (3.0 in.) diameter
639 H01 (4%) 435 63 230 33 43 78 275 40
Chemical Composition Bar, 10 mm (0.38 in.) diameter
M30 435 63 230 33 34 60 270 39
Pb; 0.10 Fe max, 0.50 to 1.0 Sn, bal Zn Bar, 38 mm (1.5 in.) diameter
H01 455 66 275 40 32 75 275 40
Applications
Typical uses. Marine hardware, screw machine
products, valve stems
Thermal conductivity. 116 W/m K (67 Btu/ft Annealing temperature. 425 to 600 °C (800 to
Mechanical Properties h °F) 1100 °F)
Tensile properties. See Table 84. Electrical Properties to 1400 °F)
Shear strength. See Table 84. Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 26% IACS
Hardness. See Table 84. at 20 °C (68 °F)
Elastic modulus. Tension, 100 GPa (15 106 C48500
Electrical resistivity. 66.3 n m at 20 °C (68
psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106 psi) 60Cu-37.5Zn-1.8Pb-0.7Sn
°F), annealed
Structure Chemical Properties Commercial Names
Microstructure. Generally three phases: , , General corrosion behavior. Good resistance to Previous trade names. High-leaded naval brass;
and lead seawater and marine atmospheres CA485
Common name. Leaded naval brass
Mass Characteristics Fabrication Characteristics
Density. 8.44 g/cm3 (0.305 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Specifications
Forgeability. 90% of C37700 (forging brass) ASTM. Rod, bar, and shapes: B 21 (CA482), B
Thermal Properties Formability. Good for hot working; poor for 124 (C48500). Forgings: B 283 (CA485)
Liquidus temperature. 900 °C (1650 °F) cold working Government. QQ-B-626. Bar, rod, shapes, forg-
Solidus temperature. 885 °C (1625 °F) Weldability. Soft soldering: excellent. Silver ings, and wire: QQ-B-637. Bar and plate prod-
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 21.2 alloy brazing: good. Flash welding: fair. Oxyfuel ucts: QQ-B-639
m/m K (11.8 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 gas welding, arc welding, and most resistance
to 572 °F) welding processes are not recommended. Chemical Composition
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Recrystallization temperature. About 360 °C (680 Composition limits. 59.0 to 62.0 Cu, 1.3 to 2.2
20 °C (68 °F) °F) for 19 mm (0.75 in.) diam rod cold drawn 30% Pb; 0.10 Fe max, 0.50 to 1.0 Sn, bal Zn
Applications resistance welding processes are not recom- Chemical Composition

Typical uses. Marine hardware, screw-machine mended. Composition limits. 1.0 to 1.7 Sn; 0.05 Pb max;
products, valve stems Recrystallization temperature. About 360 °C 0.10 Fe max; 0.30 Zn max; 0.35 P max; bal Cu;
(680 °F) for 19 mm (0.75 in.) diam rod cold 99.5 Cu Sn P min
Mechanical Properties drawn 30%. See also Fig. 43.
Annealing temperature. 425 to 600 °C (800 to Applications
1100 °F) Typical uses. Electrical contacts, flexible hose,
Maximum cold reduction between anneals. 20% pole line hardware
Hot working temperature. 650 to 760 °C (1200
Elastic modulus. Tension, 100 GPa (15 106 Mechanical Properties
to 1400 °F)
Structure C50500 Hardness. See Table 86.
98.7Cu-1.3Sn Elastic modulus. Tension, 117 GPa (17 106
Microstructure. Generally three phases: , , psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi)
and lead Commercial Names Fatigue strength. See Table 86.
Mass Characteristics Previous names. Phosphor bronze, 1.25% E;
CA505 Mass Characteristics
Density. 8.44 g/cm3 (0.305 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Common name. Phosphor bronze (1.25% Sn) Density. 8.89 g/cm3 (0.321 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal Properties Specifications Thermal Properties
Liquidus temperature. 900 °C (1650 °F) ASTM. Strip: B 105. Wire: B 105 Liquidus temperature. 1075 °C (1970 °F)
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 21.2 Table 85 Typical mechanical properties of C48500
m/m K (11.8 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Tensile strength Yield strength(a) Shear strength
to 572 °F) Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB MPa ksi
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at O60 393 57 172 25 40 55 248 36
20 °C (68 °F) H01 (8%) 476 69 317 46 20 78 269 39
Thermal conductivity. 116 W/m K (67 Btu/ft H02 (20%) 517 75 365 53 15 82 276 40
h °F)
Note: Values for rod, 25 mm (1.0 in.) diameter. (a) At 0.5% extension under load.
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 26% IACS Table 86 Typical mechanical properties of C50500
at 20 °C (68 °F) Tensile strength Yield strength(a) Fatigue strength(b)
Electrical resistivity. 66.3 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Temper
Grain
size, mm MPa ksi MPa ksi
Elongation in
50 mm (2 in.), %
Hardness,
HRB MPa ksi
Chemical Properties OS035 0.035 276 40 76 11 47.0 … 114 16.5

OS075 0.015 290 42 90 13 47.0 … 121 17.5
General corrosion behavior. Good resistance to H02 0.035 365 53 352 51 12.0 59.0 162 23.5
seawater and marine atmospheres 0.015 372 54 359 52 13.0 60.0 172 25
H04 0.035 421 61 414 60 5.0 67.0 179 26
Fabrication Characteristics 0.015 441 64 434 63 5.0 69.0 190 27.5
H06 0.035 462 67 455 66 3.0 73.0 172 25
Machinability. 70% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) 0.015 483 70 476 69 3.0 75.0 193 28
Forgeability. 90% of C37700 (forging brass) H08 0.035 483 70 476 69 3.0 76.0 197 28.5
0.015 510 74 503 73 3.0 78.0 203 29
Formability. Good for hot working; poor for H10 0.035 510 74 503 73 3.0 79.0 197 28.5
cold working 0.015 524 76 517 75 3.0 80.0 210 30.5
Weldability. Soft soldering: excellent. Silver
Note: Values for flat products 1 mm (0.040 in.) thick. Data in this table were interpolated from ASTM STP 1. (a) At 0.2% offset. (b) At 108 cycles of
alloy brazing: good. Flash welding: fair. fully reversed stress
Oxyfuel gas welding, arc welding, and most
Fig. 43 Variation of strength, ductility, and grain size with annealing temperature for C48500. Data for 19 mm (0.75 in.) diam high-leaded naval brass (60Cu-37.5Zn–1.8Pb–0.7Sn)
rod that was cold drawn 30% and annealed 1 h at temperature. Grain size before cold drawing, 0.025 mm
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Solidus temperature. 1035 °C (1900 °F) C51000 Thermal Properties

Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.8 94.8Cu-5Sn-0.2P Liquidus temperature. 1060 °C (1945 °F)
m/m K (9.9 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Solidus temperature. 975 °C (1785 °F)
to 572 °F) Commercial Names
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Previous trade names. Phosphor bronze, 5% A m/m K (9.9 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
20 °C (68 °F) to 572 °F)
Thermal conductivity. 208 W/m K (120 Btu/ft Specifications
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F)
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) AMS. Flat products: 4510. Bar, rod, tubing: Thermal conductivity. 84 W/m K (48.4 Btu/ft
4625. Wire: 4720 h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Electrical Properties ASTM. Flat products: B 100, B 103. Bar: B 103,
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 48% IACS B 139. Rod, shapes: B 139. Wire: B 159 Electrical Properties
at 20 °C (68 °F) SAE. J463 Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 20% IACS
Electrical resistivity. 36 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Government. Flat products, bar, shapes: QQ-B- at 20 °C (68 °F)
750. Rod: QQ-B-750, MIL-B-13501.Bearings: Electrical resistivity. 87 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
Fabrication Characteristics MIL-B-13501. Wire: QQ-B-750, QQ-W-321,
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) MIL-W-6712 Fabrication Characteristics
Formability. Cold: excellent. Hot: good. Common- Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
ly fabricated by blanking, forming, bending, head- Chemical Composition
Composition limits. 93.6 to 95.6 Cu, 4.2 to 5.8 Formability. Excellent capacity for cold working
ing, upsetting, shearing, squeezing, and swaging by blanking, drawing, forming, bending, roll
Weldability. Flash welding, soldering, and braz- Sn, 0.03 to 0.35 P, 0.05 Pb max, 0.1 Fe max, 0.3
Zn max threading, knurling, shearing, and stamping.
ing: excellent. Gas metal arc welding: good. Poor capacity for hot forming
Oxyfuel gas welding and shielded metal arc weld- Applications Weldability. Soldering, brazing, and resistance
ing: fair. Other processes are not recommended. butt welding: excellent. Gas metal arc and resist-
Annealing temperature. 475 to 650 °C (900 to Typical uses. Architectural: bridge bearing
plates. Hardware: beater bars, bellows, Bourdon ance spot welding: good. Oxyfuel gas, shielded
1200 °F) metal arc, and resistance seam welding: fair
Hot-working temperature. 800 to 875 °C (1450 tubing, clutch disks, cotter pins, diaphragms,
fuse clips, fasteners, lock washers, sleeve bush- Annealing temperature. 475 to 675 °C (900 to
to 1600 °F) 1250 °F)
ings, springs, switch parts, truss wire, wire
C50710 brushes. Industrial: chemical hardware, perforat-
ed sheets, textile machinery, welding rods C51100
97.7Cu-2.0Sn-0.3Ni 95.6Cu-4.2Sn-0.2P
Chemical Composition Specifications
Composition limits. 1.7 to 2.3 Sn, 0.1 to 0.4 Ni, Hardness. See Table 88. ASTM. Flat products: B 100, B 103
0.35 P max Elastic modulus. Tension, 110 GPa (16 106
psi); shear, 41 GPa (6 106 psi) Chemical Composition
Applications
Fatigue structure. At 108 cycles. Flat products: Composition limits. 94.5 to 96.3 Cu, 3.5 to 4.9
Typical uses. Lead frames Sn, 0.003 to 0.35 P, 0.05 Pb max, 0.1 Fe max,
H04 temper, 170 MPa (25 ksi); H08 temper, 150
Mechanical Properties MPa (22 ksi). Wire: H04 temper, 185 MPa (27 0.3 Zn max
ksi); H06 temper, 205 MPa (30 ksi)
Tensile properties. See Table 87. Applications
Hardness. See Table 87. Mass Characteristics Typical uses. Architectural: bridge bearing
Elastic modulus. 113 GPa (16.4 106 psi) Density. 8.86 g/cm3 (0.320 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) plates. Hardware: beater bars, bellows, clutch
Elongation in
Thermal Properties Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness, HRB
Liquidus temperature. 1065 °C (1950 °F) Flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick
Solidus temperature. 995 °C (1820 °F) OS050 325 47 130 19 64 26
OS035 340 49 140 20 58 28
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.0 OS025 345 50 145 21 52 30
m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) from 20 to 550 °C OS015 365 53 150 22 50 34
(68 to 1025 °F) H02 470 68 380 55 28 78
Thermal conductivity. 154 W/m K (89 Btu/ft H04 560 81 515 75 10 87
H06 535 92 550 80 6 93
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) H08 690 100 … … 4 95
H10 740 107 … … 3 97
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 30% IACS H02 515 75 450 65 25 80
at 20 °C (68 °F)
H02 480 70 400 58 25 78
Table 87 Nominal mechanical properties Wire, 2 mm (0.08 in.) diameter
of C50710 strip OS035 345 50 140 20 58 …
H01 470 68 415 60 24 …
Elongation H02 585 85 550 80 8 …
Tensile strength H04 760 110 … … 5 …
in 50 mm Hardness,
Temper MPa ksi (2 in.), % HV H06 895 130 … … 3 …
H02 455 66 25 150 H08 965 140 … … 2 …
H04 540 78 11 168
H06 585 85 9 185
disks, connectors, diaphragms, fuse clips, fas- ers, sleeve bushings, springs, switch parts, Fabrication Characteristics
teners, lock washers, sleeve bushings, springs, truss wire, wire brushes. Industrial: chemical Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
switch parts, terminals. Industrial: chemical hardware, perforated sheets, textile machinery, Formability. Good capacity for cold working by
hardware, perforated sheets, textile machinery welding rods blanking, drawing, forming, bending, shearing,
Mechanical Properties Mechanical Properties and stamping. Poor capacity for hot forming
Weldability. Soldering, brazing, and resistance
Tensile properties. See Table 89. Tensile properties. See Table 90. butt welding: excellent. Gas metal arc and resist-
Hardness. See Table 89. Hardness. See Table 90. ance spot welding: good. Oxyfuel gas, shielded
Elastic modulus. Tension, 110 GPa (16 106 Elastic modulus. Tension, 110 GPa (16 106 metal arc, and resistance seam welding: fair
psi); shear, 41 GPa (6 106 psi) psi); shear, 41 GPa (6 106 psi) Annealing temperature. 475 to 675 °C (900 to
Fatigue strength. Strip, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick, 1250 °F)
Mass Characteristics H04 temper: 150 MPa (22 ksi) at 108 cycles
Mass Characteristics C52400
Thermal Properties Density. 8.8 g/cm3 (0.318 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) 90Cu-10Sn
Liquidus temperature. 1060 °C (1945 °F) Commercial Names
Thermal Properties
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.8 Liquidus temperature. 1025 °C (1880 °F) Previous trade name. Phosphor bronze, 10% D
m/m K (9.9 in./in °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Solidus temperature. 880 °C (1620 °F)
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18.2 Specifications
to 572 °F)
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at m/m K (10.1 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 ASTM. Flat products: B 103. Bar: B 103, B 139.
20 °C (68 °F) to 572 °F) Rod, shapes: B 139. Wire: B 159
Thermal conductivity. 84 W/m K (48.4 Btu/ft Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Government. Flat products, wire: QQ-B-750
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) 20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal conductivity. 62 W/m K (36 Btu/ft h Chemical Composition
Electrical Properties °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Composition limits. 88.3 to 90.07 Cu, 9.0 to 11.0
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 20% IACS Sn, 0.03 to 0.35 P, 0.05 Pb max, 0.1 Fe max, 0.2
Electrical Properties Zn max
at 20 °C (68 °F)
Electrical resistivity. 87 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 13% IACS
at 20 °C (68 °F) Applications
Fabrication Characteristics Electrical resistivity. 133 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Typical uses. Heavy bars and plates for severe
Table 89 Typical mechanical properties of 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick C51100 strip
Formability. Excellent capacity for cold working
by blanking, drawing, forming, bending, roll Yield strength
Tensile strength at 0.2% offset Hardness
threading, knurling, shearing, and stamping. Elongation in
Poor capacity for hot forming
Weldability. Soldering, brazing, and resistance OS050 315 46 110 16 48 70 HRF …
OS035 330 48 130 19 47 73 HRF …
butt welding: excellent. Gas metal arc and OS025 345 50 145 21 46 75 HRF …
resistance spot welding: good. Oxyfuel gas, OS015 350 51 160 23 46 76 HRF …
shielded metal arc, and resistance seam weld- H01 380 55 295 43 36 48 45
ing: fair H02 425 62 385 56 19 70 65
H03 510 74 495 72 11 84 72
Annealing temperature. 475 to 675 °C (900 to H04 550 80 530 77 7 86 74
1250 °F) H06 635 92 615 89 4 91 78
H08 675 98 655 95 3 93 79
H10 710 103 675 98 2 95 80
C52100
92Cu-8Sn Table 90 Typical mechanical properties of C52100
Commercial Names Tensile strength Yield strength(a)
Elongation in
Hardness
Previous trade names. Phosphor bronze, 8% C Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HRB HR30T

Specifications OS050 380 55 … … 70 75 … …
ASTM. Flat products: B 103. Bar: B 103, B 139. OS035 400 58 … … 65 80 … …
OS025 415 60 165 24 63 82 50 …
Rod, shapes: B 139. Wire: B 159 OS015 425 62 … … 60 85 … …
SAE. J463 H02 525 76 380 55 32 … 84 73
Government. MIL-E-23765 H04 640 93 495 72 10 … 93 78
H06 730 106 550 80 4 … 96 80
Chemical Composition H08 770 112 … … 3 … 98 81
H10 825 120 … … 2 … 100 82
Composition limits. 90.5 to 92.8 Cu, 7.0 to 9.0 Rod, 13 mm (0.5 in.) diameter
Sn, 0.03 to 0.35 P, 0.05 Pb max, 0.1 Fe max, 0.2 H02 550 80 450 65 33 … 85 …
Zn max
Applications OS035 415 60 165 24 65 … … …
H01 560 81 … … … … … …
Typical uses. For more severe service condi- H02 725 105 … … … … … …
tions than C51000. Architectural: bridge bear- H04 895 130 … … … … … …
ing plates. Hardware: beater bars, bellows. H06 965 140 … … … … … …
Bourdon tubing, clutch disks, cotter pins, (a) At 0.5% extension under load.
diaphragms, fuse clips, fasteners, lock wash-
compression requiring good wear and corrosion Electrical Properties Hardness. See Table 92.
resistance; bridge and expansion plates and fit- Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 11% IACS Elastic modulus. Tension, 103 GPa (15 106
tings; and articles requiring extra spring qualities at 20 °C (68 °F) psi); shear, 39 GPa (5.6 106 psi)
and optimum resiliency, particularly in fatigue Electrical resistivity. 157 n m at 20 °C (68 Mass Characteristics
Mechanical Properties °F)
Tensile properties. Tensile strength and elonga- Fabrication Characteristics
tion, See Table 91. Yield strength, typical, Thermal Properties
OS035 temper: 195 MPa (28 ksi) at 0.5% exten- Formability. Good capacity for cold working by Liquidus temperature. 1000 °C (1830 °F)
sion under load blanking, forming, bending, and shearing. Poor Solidus temperature. 930 °C (1700 °F)
Hardness. See Table 91. capacity for hot forming Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.3
Elastic modulus. Tension, 110 GPa (16 106 Weldability. Soldering, brazing, and resistance m/m K (9.6 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
psi); shear, 41 GPa (6 106 psi) butt welding: excellent. Gas metal arc and resist- to 572 °F)
ance spot welding: good. Oxyfuel gas, shielded Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
Mass Characteristics 20 °C (68 °F)
metal arc, and resistance seam welding: fair
Density. 8.78 g/cm3 (0.317 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Annealing temperature. 475 to 675 °C (900 to Thermal conductivity. 87 W/m K (50 Btu/ft h
1250 °F) °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal Properties
Liquidus temperature. 1000 °C (1830 °F) Electrical properties
C54400
Solidus temperature. 845 °C (1550 °F) 88Cu-4Pb-4Sn-4Zn Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 19% IACS
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18.4 at 20 °C (68 °F)
m/m K (10.2 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Commercial Names Electrical resistivity. 91 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
to 572 °F) Previous trade name. Phosphor bronze B-2
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Fabrication Characteristics
Common names. Free-cutting phosphor bronze;
20 °C (68 °F) 444 bronze; bearing bronze Machinability. 80% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Thermal conductivity. 50 W/m K (29 Btu/ft h Formability. Good cold working characteristics;
°F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Specifications commonly fabricated by machining, shearing,
AMS. Strip 4520 blanking, drawing, forming, bending. Hot work-
Table 91 Typical mechanical properties of ASTM. B 103, B 139 ing and hot forming are not recommended.
C52400 SAE. J463. Bearing alloy: J460 (791) Weldability. Soldering: excellent. Brazing: good.
Government. Bar and rod: QQ-B-750 Flash welding: fair. Other welding processes are
Elongation
Tensile strength
in 50 mm Hardness, not recommended.
Temper MPa ksi (2 in.), % HRB Chemical Composition
Flat products, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick Composition limits. 3.5 to 4.5 Pb, 3.5 to 4.5 Sn, C60600
OS035 455 66 68 55 1.5 to 4.5 Zn, 0.10 Fe max, 0.01 to 0.50 P, bal
H02 570 83 32 92 Cu; 99.5 Cu Pb Sn Zn P min
95Cu-5Al
H04 690 100 13 97
H06 795 115 7 100 Commercial Names
Applications
H08 840 122 4 101
H10 885 128 3 103 Typical uses. Bearings (sleeve and thrust), bush- Previous trade name. Aluminum bronze A;
ings, gears, pinions, screw machine products, CA606
shafts, thrust washers, valve parts Common names. Aluminum bronze, 5%
OS035 455 66 70 …
H01 640 93 … … Specifications
H02 815 118 … … Mechanical Properties
H04 1013 147 … … Tensile properties. See Table 92. ASTM. Flat products: B 169
Government. Bar, rod, forgings, shapes: QQ-C-
Table 92 Typical mechanical properties of C54400 645. Sheet and plate: QQ-C-450. Strip: QQ-C-
450, QQ-C-465
Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness, HRB Chemical Composition
Sheet and strip, 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick
OS050 315 46 … … 48 70 HRF
OS035 330 48 … … 47 73 HRF
Al, 0.50 Fe max, 0.50 max other (total)
OS025 345 50 … … 46 75 HRF Consequence of exceeding impurity limits.
OS015 350 51 … … 46 76 HRF Excessive amounts of Pb, Zn, and P will cause
H02 425 62 370 54 19 70 hot shortness and difficulties in welding.
H04 550 80 510 74 7 86
H06 635 92 … … 4 91 Applications
H08 675 98 550 80 3 93
H10 710 103 … … 2 95 Typical uses. Produced as sheet, strip, and rolled
Flat products, 8 mm (0.38 in.) thick bar; used to make fasteners, deep drawn “gold”
H04 415 60 310 45 20 70 decoration, and parts requiring corrosion resistance
Precautions in use. Not suitable for use in oxi-
H04 380 55 240 35 25 …
dizing acids
Rod, 13 mm (0.50 in.) diameter Mechanical Properties
H04 515 75 435 63 15 83
Tensile properties. Typical data for 13 mm (0.5
Rod, 25 mm (1.0 in.) diameter in.) thick plate. Tensile strength: O61 temper,
H04 470 68 395 57 20 80 310 MPa (45 ksi); H04 temper, 415 MPa (60
ksi). Yield strength: O60 temper, 115 MPa (17
ksi); H04 temper, 165 MPa (24 ksi). Elongation:
O60 temper, 40% in 50 mm (2 in.); H04 temper, Specifications metal salts such as ferric chloride are generally
25% in 50 mm (2 in.) ASME. Tubing: SB111, SB359, SB395 corrosive to C60800.
Hardness. O60 temper, 42 HRB; H04 temper, 55 ASTM. Tubing: B 111, B 359, B 395
HRB Fabrication Characteristics
Poisson’s ratio. 0.326 Chemical Composition Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting
Elastic modulus. Tension, 121 GPa (17.5 106 Composition limits. 92.5 to 94.8 Cu, 5.0 to 6.5 brass). Tends to form tough, stringy chips. Good
psi); shear, 46 GPa (6.6 106 psi) Al, 0.02 to 0.35 As, 0.10 Pb max, 0.10 Fe max lubrication and cooling essential for good finish-
Fatigue strength. Rotating beam, 169 MPa (24.5 Consequence of exceeding impurity limits. es. Carbide or tool steel cutters may be used.
ksi) at 108 cycles Excessive amounts of Pb, Zn, and P will cause Formability. Good for cold working; fair for hot
difficulties in welding and hot working. forming.
Structure Weldability. Arc and resistance welding: good.
Microstructure. Alpha structure, face-centered Applications Brazing: fair. Soldering and oxyfuel gas welding
cubic Typical uses. Produced as seamless tubing and are not recommended.
ferrule stock for heat exchanger tubes, condens- Recrystallization temperature. 350 °C (660 °F)
Mass Characteristics at 44% reduction and 0.075 mm (0.003 in.) ini-
er tubes, and other applications requiring corro-
Density. 8.17 g/cm3 (0.295 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) sion-resistant seamless tubing tial grain size
Volume change on freezing. Approximately Precautions in use. Not suitable for use in oxi- Annealing temperature. 550 to 650 °C (1020 to
1.6% contraction dizing acids. 1200 °F)
Thermal Properties Mechanical Properties to 1610 °F)
Liquidus temperature. 1065 °C (1945 °F) Tensile properties. Typical for OS025 temper
Solidus temperature. 1050 °C (1920 °F) tubing, 25 mm (1.0 in.) outside diameter 1.65 C61000
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18 mm (0.065 in.) wall thickness: tensile strength, 92Cu-8Al
m/m K (10 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 415 MPa (60 ksi); yield strength (0.5% exten-
to 572 °F) sion under load), 185 MPa (27 ksi); elongation, Commercial Names
Specific heat. 375 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at 55% in 50 mm (2 in.) Common name. 8% aluminum bronze
20 °C (68 °F) Hardness. OS025 temper: 77 HRF
Thermal conductivity. 79.5 W/m K (45.9 Btu/ft Poisson’s ratio. 0.325 Specifications
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Elastic modulus. Tension, 121 GPa (17.5 106 ASME. SB169
psi); shear, 46 GPa (6.6 106 psi) ASTM. B 169
Government. QQ-C-450; MIL-E-23765
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 17% IACS Structure
at 20 °C (68 °F) Microstructure. Alpha structure, face-centered Chemical Composition
Electrical resistivity. 100 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) cubic Composition limits. 6.0 to 8.5 Al, 0.50 Fe max,
0.02 Pb max, 0.20 Zn max, 0.10 Si max, 0.50
Magnetic Properties Mass Characteristics max other (total), bal Cu
Magnetic permeability. 1.01 Density. 8.17 g/cm3 (0.295 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Volume change on freezing. Approximately Applications
Chemical Properties
1.6% contraction Typical uses. Produced as rod or wire and used
General corrosion resistance. See C61400. to make bolts, shafts, tire rods, and pump parts.
Resistance to specific agents. Has been used in Thermal Properties Also used as a welded overlay on steel to
sulfuric acid pickling applications where oxygen Liquidus temperature. 1065 °C (1945 °F) improve surface wear resistance
content is low. Has been used for anhydrous Solidus temperature. 1050 °C (1920 °F)
NH4OH, but the presence of moisture leads to Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18 Mechanical Properties
season cracking. Not suitable for use with nitric m/m K (10 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Tensile properties. Typical data for rod, 25 mm
acid. Oxidizing salts such as chromates and to 572 °F) (1 in.) in diameter. O60 temper: tensile strength
metal salts such as ferric chloride are generally Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at 480 MPa (70 ksi); yield strength (0.5% exten-
corrosive to C60600. 20 °C (68 °F) sion under load), 205 MPa (30 ksi); elongation,
Thermal conductivity. 79.5 W/m K (45.9 Btu/ft 65% in 50 mm (2 in.). H04 temper: tensile
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) strength, 550 MPa (80 ksi); yield strength, 380
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting MPa (55 ksi); elongation, 25%
brass). Tends to form tough, stringy chips. Good Electrical Properties Hardness. O60 temper: 60 HRB. H04 temper:
lubrication and cooling essential for good finish. Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 17% IACS 85 HRB
Carbide or tool steel cutters may be used. at 20 °C (68 °F) Elastic modulus. Tension, 117 GPa (17 106
Recrystallization temperature. 350 °C (660 °F) Electrical resistivity. 100 n m at 20 °C (68 psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi)
at 44% reduction and 0.075 mm (0.003 in.) ini- °F)
tial grain size Mass Characteristics
Annealing temperature. 550 to 650 °C (1020 to Magnetic Properties Density. 7.78 g/cm3 (0.281 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
1200 °F) Magnetic permeability. 1.01
Hot-working temperature. 815 to 870 °C (1500 Thermal Properties
to 1600 °F) Chemical Properties Liquidus temperature. 1040 °C (1905 °F)
General corrosion resistance. See C61400. Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.9
C60800 Resistance to specific agents. Has been used in m/m K (9.9 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
95Cu-5Al sulfuric acid pickling applications where oxygen to 572 °F)
content is low. Has been used for anhydrous Specific heat. 375 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
Commercial Names NH4OH, but the presence of moisture leads to 20 °C (68 °F)
Previous trade name. 5% aluminum bronze season cracking. Not suitable for use with nitric Thermal conductivity. 69 W/m K (40 Btu/ft h
Common name. Aluminum bronze, 5% acid. Oxidizing salts such as chromates and °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Electrical Properties ers, tube sheets, heat exchanger tubes, acid- Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.2
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 15% IACS resistant piping, columns, water boxes, and cor- m/m K (9.0 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
at 20 °C (68 °F) rosion-resistant vessels to 572 °F)
Electrical resistivity. 115 n m at 20 °C (68 Precautions in use. Not suitable for use in oxi- Specific heat. 375 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
°F) dizing acids 20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal conductivity. 56.5 W/m K (32.7 Btu/ft
Fabrication Characteristics Mechanical Properties h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F); temperature coeffi-
Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Tensile properties. Typical data for 13 mm (0.50 cient, 0.12 W/m K per K at 20 °C (68 °F)
Forgeability. 70% of C37700 (forging brass) in.) thick plate. Tensile strength: O60 temper,
540 MPa (78 ksi); H04 temper, 585 MPa (85 Electrical Properties
Formability. Good capacity for being hot formed
or cold worked. Common fabrication processes ksi). Yield strength (0.5% extension): O60 tem- Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 12% IACS
include blanking, drawing, forming, bending, per, 240 MPa (35 ksi); H04 temper, 400 MPa (58 at 20 °C (68 °F)
cold heading, and roll threading. ksi). Elongation: O60 temper, 42% in 50 mm (2 Electrical resistivity. 144 n m at 20 °C (68
Weldability. Arc welding, resistance spot welding, in.); H04 temper, 35% in 50 mm (2 in.). °F)
and resistance butt welding: good. Soldering and Reduction in area: O60 temper, 32%; H04 tem-
per, 25%. See also Table 93. Magnetic Properties
resistance seam welding: fair. Brazing and oxyfu-
el gas welding are not recommended. Compressive properties. Typical data for 13 mm Magnetic permeability. 1.16
Annealing temperature. 600 to 675 °C (1100 to (0.50 in.) thick plate. Compressive strength, ulti-
mate: O60 temper, 825 MPa (120 ksi); H04 tem- Chemical Properties
1250 °F)
Hot-working temperature. 760 to 875 °C (1400 per, 860 MPa (125 ksi) General corrosion resistance. See C61400.
to 1600 °F) Hardness. O60 temper, 82 HRB; H04 temper, 91 Resistance to specific agents. C61300 is very
HRB. See also Table 93. resistant to neutral and nonoxidizing salts. It has
C61300 Poisson’s ratio. 0.312 given extended service in potash solutions of
Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 psi); potassium chloride, sodium chloride, magne-
90Cu-7Al-2.7Fe-0.3Sn sium chloride, and calcium chloride. The alloy
shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi). See also Table 93.
Commercial Names Impact strength. Charpy keyhole, 81 to 88 J (60 resists nonoxidizing mineral acids and has been
Common name. Aluminum bronze, 7% to 65 ft lbf) at –30 to 150 °C (–20 to 300 °F); used successfully for tanks containing hydroflu-
Izod, 54 to 66 J (40 to 49 ft lbf) at –30 to 150 oric acid in glass-etching applications. In organ-
Specifications °C (–20 to 300 °F). See also Fig. 44. ic acid service, it has been used to make acetic
Government. Flat products: QQ-C-450 Fatigue strength. Reverse bending, 180 MPa (26 acid distillation columns.
ksi) at 108 cycles C61300 is highly resistant to dealloying and to
Chemical Composition season cracking in steam and in hot oxidizing
Structure aqueous solutions and vapors. The presence of
Al, 0.02 to 0.50 Sn, 2.0 to 3.0 Fe, 0.10 Mn max, Microstructure. Alpha structure, single phase, tin in 7% aluminum bronze (C61300 contains
0.15 Ni ( Co) max, 0.01 Pb max, 0.05 Zn max, with iron-rich precipitates 0.3% Sn, C61400 does not contain Sn) evidently
0.05 max other renders the alloy immune to stress-corrosion
Consequence of exceeding impurity limits. Mass Characteristics cracking in these environments. Like many cop-
Excessive amounts of Pb, Zn, P, or Si will cause Density. 7.89 g/cm3 (0.285 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) per alloys, C61300 is susceptible to season
hot shortness, which can lead to problems dur- Volume change on freezing. Approximately cracking in moist ammonia and mercurous
ing hot working or welding. 1.8% contraction nitrate solutions. However, it is highly resistant
to season cracking in anhydrous ammonia, espe-
Applications Thermal Properties cially when the moisture content is below 500
Typical uses. Produced as rod, bar, sheet, plate, Liquidus temperature. 1045 °C (1915 °F) ppm and the temperature is below 85 °C (180
seamless tubing and pipe, welded pipe, fasten- Solidus temperature. 1040 °C (1905 °F) °F).
Because of its high resistance to corrosion in salt
Table 93 Typical mechanical properties of C61300 and C61400 rod at various tempera- water, C61300 has been specified for a wide
tures variety of components for marine and desalting
plant service. Typical uses of C61300 include
Modulus of
Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength(a) elasticity tube sheets for condensers in both nuclear and
Elongation in Reduction in Hardness,
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % area, % GPa 106 psi HB(b) fossil fuel power stations, cooling tower transfer
Cold finished
piping, seawater piping for secondary cooling
–182 –295 718 104.1 397 57.6 50 49 156 22.7 186
systems in nuclear power plants, and piping for
–60 –75 611 88.6 335 48.7 45 55 149 21.6 170 geothermal heat transfer systems.
–29 –20 606 87.9 339 49.2 44 58 172 25.0 162
20 70 590 85.5 318 46.1 42 59 126 18.3 157 Fabrication Characteristics
204 400 532 77.2 298 43.3 35 32 128 18.5 144
316 600 432 62.6 271 39.3 22 24 88 12.8 137
Machinability. Fair to poor, with chips tending
427 800 170 24.6 105 15.2 52 41 48 6.9 83 to be stringy and gummy. Good lubrication and
538 1000 88 12.8 71 10.3 27 26 45 6.6 49 cooling are essential. Tool steel cutters: rough-
Annealed ing speed, 90 m/min (300 ft/min) with a feed of
–182 –295 707 102.6 347 50.3 52 51 139 20.2 185 0.3 mm/rev (0.011 in./rev); finishing speed, 350
–60 –75 610 88.4 305 44.3 47 57 176.5 25.6 162 m/min (1150 ft/min) with a feed of 0.3 mm/rev
–29 –20 600 87.1 303 43.9 44 56 172 24.9 161 (0.011 in./rev)
20 70 583 84.6 288 41.8 45 56 136.5 19.8 155
204 400 522 75.7 276 40.1 34 32 130 18.8 142
Forgeability. 50% of C37700 (forging brass)
316 600 427 62.0 256 37.1 30 27 81 11.7 134 Formability. Good for cold working and hot
427 800 174 25.3 123 17.8 60 55 67 9.7 84 forming
538 1000 92 13.3 68 9.9 36 33 45 6.5 50 Weldability. Arc and resistance welding: good.
(a) At 0.5% extension under load. (b) 3000 kg (6615 lb) load
Brazing: fair. Soldering and oxyfuel gas welding
are not recommended.
Recrystallization temperature. 785 to 870 °C Compressive properties. Compressive strength, Resistance tends to decrease with increasing
(1450 to 1600 °F) ultimate: O60 temper, 825 MPa (120 ksi); H04 concentration of dissolved oxygen or oxidizing
Annealing temperature. 600 to 875 °C (1125 to temper, 860 MPa (125 ksi) agents, particularly as temperatures increase
1600 °F) Hardness. O60 temper, 80 to 84 HRB; H04 tem- above 55 °C (130 °F). Aluminum bronzes are
Hot-working temperature. 800 to 925 °C (1450 per, 84 to 91 HRB. See also Table 94. generally suited for service in alkalies, neutral
to 1700 °F) Poisson’s ratio. 0.312 salts, nonoxidizing acid salts, and many organic
Hot-shortness temperature. 1010 °C (1850 °F) Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 psi); acids and compounds. Oxidizing acids, oxidiz-
shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi). See also Table 94. ing salts, and heavy-metal salts are corrosive.
C61400 Impact strength. Charpy keyhole, 81 to 88 J (60 Aluminum bronzes resist waters, whether
to 65 ft lbf); Izod, 54 to 61 J (40 to 45 ft lbf). potable water, brackish water, or seawater.
91Cu-7Al-2Fe See also Fig. 44. Softened water tends to be more corrosive than
Commercial Names Fatigue strength. Reverse bending, 180 MPa (26 hard water. Aluminum bronzes resist dealloying,
ksi) at 108 cycles but to different degrees depending on alloy com-
Previous trade name. Aluminum bronze D position. In general, corrosion resistance is
Common name. Aluminum bronze, 7% Structure influenced most by solution concentration, aera-
Microstructure. Alpha solid solution with pre- tion, temperature, velocity, and the type and
Specifications
cipitates of iron-rich phase amount of any impurities in the solution.
ASME. Flat products: SB169, SB171. Bar, rod, Like many other copper alloys, the aluminum
shapes: SB150 Mass Characteristics bronzes are susceptible to stress-corrosion
ASTM. Flat products: B 169, B 171. Bar, rod, Density. 7.89 g/cm3 (0.285 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) cracking in moist ammonia and mercury com-
shapes: B 150 Volume change on freezing. Approximately pounds. When stress levels are high, they may
SAE. J463 1.8% expansion also be susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking
Government. Flat products: QQ-C-450, QQ-C- in purified steam or in steam containing acidic
465. Bar, rod, shapes, forgings: QQ-C-465. Flat Thermal Properties or salt vapors.
wire: QQ-C-465 Liquidus temperature. 1045 °C (1915 °F) Resistance to specific agents. C61400 has been
Solidus temperature. 1040 °C (1905 °F) used successfully to contain mineral acids, alka-
Chemical Composition lies such as sodium or potassium hydroxide,
Composition limits. 88.0 to 92.5 Cu, 6.0 to 8.0 m/m K (9.0 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 neutral salts such as sodium chloride, and organ-
Al, 1.5 to 3.5 Fe, 1.0 Mn max, 0.20 Zn max, 0.01 to 572 °F) ic acids such as acetic, lactic, or oxalic acid.
Pb max, 0.015 P max, 0.5 max other (total) Specific heat. 375 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at C61400 resists anhydrous ammonia, but precau-
Consequence of exceeding impurity limits. 20 °C (68 °F) tions must be taken to exclude moisture and thus
Excessive amounts of Pb, Zn, Si, or P will cause Thermal conductivity. 56.5 W/m K (32.6 Btu/ft avoid season cracking. Similarly, this alloy
hot shortness and cracking during hot working h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F); temperature coeffi- resists anhydrous chlorinated hydrocarbons such
and welding. cient, 0.12 W/m K per K at 20 °C (68 °F) as carbon tetrachloride, but the presence of
moisture makes those chemicals corrosive.
Applications Electrical Properties
Typical uses. Produced as seamless tubing, weld- Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 14% IACS
ed and seamless pipe, sheet, plate, rod, and bar for at 20 °C (68 °F) Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting
condenser and heat exchanger tubes, fasteners, Electrical resistivity. 123 n m at 20 °C (68 brass). Tendency to form continuous, stringy
tube sheets, and corrosion-resistant vessels °F) chips. Good lubrication and cooling essential.
Precautions in use. Not suitable for use in oxi- Tool steel or carbide cutters may be used.
dizing acids. Susceptible to stress-corrosion Magnetic Properties Typical conditions, using tool steel cutters:
cracking in moist ammonia or in steam environ- Magnetic permeability. 1.16 roughing speed, 90 m/min (300 ft/min) with a
ments, especially when stress levels are high feed of 0.3 mm/rev (0.011 in./rev); finishing
Chemical Properties speed, 350 m/min (1150 ft/min) with a feed of
Mechanical Properties General corrosion behavior. The aluminum 0.3 mm/rev (0.011 in./rev)
Tensile properties. See Tables 93 and 94. bronzes resist nonoxidizing mineral acids such
Shear strength. See Table 94. as sulfuric, hydrochloric, and phosphoric acid.

Elongation in
Size MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % MPa ksi
Flat products, O60 temper

3 mm (0.12 in.) thick 565 82 310 45 40 310 45
8 mm (0.31 in.) thick 550 80 275 40 40 290 42
13 mm (0.50 in.) thick 535 78 240 35 42 275 40
25 mm (1.00 in.) thick 525 76 230 33 45 275 40
Flat products, H04 temper
3 mm (0.12 in.) thick 615 89 415 60 32 … …
8 mm (0.31 in.) thick 585 85 400 58 35 … …
13 mm (0.50 in.) thick 550 80 370 54 38 … …
25 mm (1.00 in.) thick 535 78 310 45 40 … …
Rod, H04 temper
13 mm (0.50 in.) diameter 585 85 310 45 35 330 48
25 mm (1.00 in.) diameter 565 82 275 40 35 310 45
51 mm (2.00 in.) diameter 550 80 240 35 35 275 40
(a) At 0.5% extension under load Fig. 44 Variation in Charpy V-notch impact strength
with temperature for C61300 and C61400
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Formability. Fair for cold working; good for Mechanical Properties Fabrication Characteristics
hot forming Tensile properties. See Table 95. Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Weldability. Gas-shielded arc, coated metal arc, Hardness. See Table 95. Forgeability. 50% of C37700 (forging brass)
and resistance welding: good. Brazing: fair. Elastic modulus. Tension, 112 GPa (16.6 106 psi) Formability. Suitable for forming by bending,
Soldering, oxyacetylene, and carbon arc welding Fatigue strength. See Table 95. drawing, deep drawing, forging, extrusion,
are not recommended. blanking, and stamping; only slight direction-
Recrystallization temperature. 785 to 870 °C Mass Characteristics ality in bending. Good for cold working and
(1450 to 1600 °F) Density. 7.65 g/cm3 (0.278 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) hot forming
Annealing temperature. 600 to 900 °C (1125 to Weldability. Gas-shielded arc welding, shielded
1650 °F) Thermal Properties metal arc welding, and resistance welding:
Hot-working temperature. 800 to 925 °C (1450 Liquidus temperature. 1040 °C (1904 °F) excellent. Soldering and brazing: easily done
to 1700 °F) Solidus temperature. 1030 °C (1890 °F) using mildly aggressive fluxes. Oxyfuel gas
Hot-shortness temperature. 1010 °C (1850 °F) Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.8 welding is not recommended.
m/m K (9.3 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Annealing temperature. 620 to 675 °C (1150 to
C61500 to 572 °F) 1250 °F)
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Aging temperature. Order strengthening, 300 °C
90Cu-8Al-2Ni 20 °C (68 °F) (575 °F) for 1 h
Commercial Names Thermal conductivity. 58 W/m K (33.6 Btu/ft Hot-working temperature. 815 to 870 °C (1500
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) to 1600 °F)
Previous trade name. Lusterloy
Chemical Composition C62300
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 12.6% IACS
Composition limits. 89.0 to 90.5 Cu, 7.7 to 8.3 at 20 °C (68 °F)
87Cu-10Al-3Fe
Al, 1.8 to 2.2 Ni, 0.015 Pb max Electrical resistivity. 137 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Commercial Names
Applications Optical Properties Common name. Aluminum bronze, 9%
Typical uses. Hardware, decorative metal trim, Color. Gold Specifications
interior furnishings, giftware, springs, fasteners
Chemical Properties ASME. Bar, rod, shapes: SB150
architectural panels and structural
ASTM. Bar, rod, shapes: B 150. Forgings: B 283
sections, deep drawn articles, tarnish-resistant General corrosion behavior. Excellent; similar
SAE. J463
articles to that of other aluminum bronzes
Government. Forgings: MIL-B-16166
Table 95 Typical mechanical properties of 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick C61500 sheet and strip Chemical Composition
Tensile strength
Yield strength
at 0.2% offset
Fatigue strength
at 108 cycles
Composition limits. 82.2 to 89.5 Cu, 8.5 to
Elongation in
50 mm (2 in.), %
Hardness,
HR30T MPa ksi
11.0 Al, 2.0 to 4.0 Fe, 1.0 Ni ( Co) max, 0.6
Sn max, 0.50 Mn max, 0.25 Si max, 0.5 max
O60 485 70 150 22 55 42 … …
O50 585 85 345 50 36 70 260 38
other (total)
H02 725 105 515 75 15 81 … … Consequence of exceeding impurity limits. An
H04 860 125 620 90 5 83 … … excessive amount of Pb will cause hot shortness,
H06 930 135 690 100 4 84 270 39 and excessive Si will cause the alloy to lose duc-
H08 965 140 725 105 3 84.5 … …
HR06(a) 1000 145 965 140 1 86.5 275 40
tility. Excessive Al will reduce ductility and cor-
rosion resistance.
(a) Cold worked 50%, then stress relieved for 1 h at 300 °C (570 °F)
Applications
Typical uses. Produced as rod and bar for bear-
Table 96 Typical mechanical properties of C62300 rod at various temperatures
ings, bushings, bolts, nuts, gears, valve guides,
Modulus pump rods, cams, and applications requiring
of elasticity
Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength(a) in tension corrosion resistance
Elongation in Reduction Hardness,
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % in area, % GPa 106 psi HB(b) Precautions in use. Not suitable for use in oxi-
Cold finished
dizing acids
–182 –295 778 112.8 390 56.5 37 41 127 18.4 193 Mechanical Properties
–60 –75 682 98.9 340 49.3 34 41 108 15.7 170
–29 –20 663 96.2 326 47.3 34 44 114 16.5 168 Tensile properties. Typical. Tensile strength, 605
20 70 652 94.5 320 46.4 34 44 111 16.1 165 MPa (88 ksi); yield strength, 305 MPa (44 ksi);
204 400 550 79.8 296 43.0 22 22 114 16.5 152
316 600 465 67.5 296 43.0 10 13 85 12.4 148
elongation, 15% in 50 mm (2 in.); reduction in
427 800 196 28.5 138 20.0 32 33 54 7.9 98 area, 15%. See Table 96.
538 1000 103 15.0 92 13.3 18 29 41 5.9 54 Compressive properties. See Table 97.
Annealed Hardness. 89 HRB. See Table 96.
–182 –295 762 110.5 377 54.7 35 38 125 18.1 195 Poisson’s ratio. 0.328
–60 –75 664 96.3 330 47.9 33 39 121 17.5 171 Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106
–29 –20 647 93.8 323 46.9 31 38 124 18.0 168 psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi). See also
20 70 620 90.0 294 42.6 32 39 120 17.4 161
204 400 534 77.5 302 43.8 20 21 138 20.0 151
Table 96.
316 600 448 65.0 288 41.8 10 13 79 11.5 146 Impact strength. Charpy V-notch, 25 to 40 J (18
427 800 210 30.5 153 22.2 46 39 73 10.6 97 to 30 ft lbf); Izod, 43 to 47 J (32 to 35 ft lbf).
538 1000 94 13.6 84 12.2 27 32 51 7.4 46 See also Fig. 45.
Fatigue strength. Reverse bending, 200 MPa (29
ksi) at 108 cycles
Structure Forgeability. 75% of C37700 (forging brass) Impact strength. Charpy keyhole, 15 J (11 ft
Microstructure. Duplex structure of face-cen- Formability. Good for cold working and hot lbf) at –23 to 27 °C (–10 to 80 °F); Izod, 23 J (17
tered-cubic plus metastable body-centered- forming ft lbf) at –23 to 27 °C (–10 to 80 °F)
cubic with iron-rich precipitates Weldability. Gas-shielded arc, shielded metal Fatigue strength. Reverse bending, 235 MPa (34
arc, and all types of resistance welding: good. ksi) at 108 cycles
Mass Characteristics Brazing: fair. Soldering and oxyfuel gas welding
Density. 7.65 g/cm3 (0.276 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) are not recommended. Structure
Volume change on freezing. Approximately 2% Annealing temperature. 600 to 650 °C (1110 to Microstructure. Duplex-structure plus meta-
expansion 1200 °F) stable phases and iron-rich precipitates
Thermal Properties to 1600 °F) Mass Characteristics
Liquidus temperature. 1045 °C (1915 °F) Hot shortness temperature. 1010 °C (1850 °F) Density. 7.45 g/cm3 (0.269 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Solidus temperature. 1040 °C (1905 °F) Volume change on freezing. Approximately 2%
Phase transformation temperature. Eutectoid C62400 contraction
transformation, 563 to 570 °C (1045 to 1055 °F) 86Cu-11Al-3Fe
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.2 Thermal Properties
m/m K (9.0 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Commercial Names Liquidus temperature. 1040 °C (1900 °F)
to 572 °F) Solidus temperature. 1025 °C (1880 °F)
Common name. Aluminum bronze, 11%
Specific heat. 375 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Phase transformation temperature. Eutectoid,
20 °C (68 °F) Specifications 560 to 570 °C (1045 to 1055 °F)
Thermal conductivity. 54.4 W/m K (31.4 Btu/ft Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.5
h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F); temperature coeffi- SAE. J463
m/m K (9.2 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
cient, 0.12 W/m K per K at 20 °C (68 °F) Chemical Composition to 572 °F)
Electrical Properties Composition limits. 82.8 to 88.0 Cu, 10.0 to 11.5 Specific heat. 375 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
Al, 2.0 to 4.5 Fe, 0.30 Mn max, 0.25 Si max, 20 °C (68 °F)
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 12% IACS Thermal conductivity. 58.6 W/m K (33.9
at 20 °C (68 °F) 0.20 Sn max, 0.5 max other (total)
Consequence of exceeding impurity limits. Btu/ft h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F); temperature
Electrical resistivity. 144 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) coefficient, 0.12 W/m K per K at 20 °C
Excessive amounts of Si and Al decrease ductility
Magnetic Properties (68 °F)
Applications
Magnetic permeability. 1.17 Electrical Properties
Typical uses. Produced as rod and bar for gears,
Chemical Properties wear plates, cams, bushings, nuts, drift pins, Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 12% IACS
General corrosion behavior. See C61400. and tie rods at 20 °C (68 °F)
Resistance to specific agents. C62300 resists Precautions in use. May lose ductility upon Electrical resistivity. 144 n m at 20 °C
nonoxidizing mineral acids, but hydrochloric prolonged heating in range from 370 to 565 °C (68 °F)
acid is more corrosive than other nonoxidizing (700 to 1050 °F). Not suitable for use in oxi-
Magnetic Properties
mineral acids. C62300 resists dealloying, but to dizing acids
a lesser extent than C61300 or C61400. Like Magnetic permeability. 1.34
other aluminum bronzes, C62300 is not suitable Mechanical Properties
Tensile properties. Typical data for 50 mm (2 in.) Chemical Properties
for use in an oxidizing acid such as nitric acid.
diam round rod (half hard). Tensile strength, 655 General corrosion behavior. See C61400.
Fabrication Characteristics MPa (95 ksi); yield strength (0.5% extension), 330 Resistance to specific agents. C62400 resists
Machinability. Fair, with good surface finish MPa (48 ksi); elongation, 14% in 50 mm (2 in.); nonoxidizing mineral acids, but hydrochloric
possible. Carbide or tool steel cutters may be reduction in area, 11% acid is more corrosive than other nonoxidizing
used. Typical conditions using tool steel cutters: Compressive properties. See Table 98. mineral acids. C62400 is susceptible to deal-
roughing speed, 107 m/min (350 ft/min) with a Hardness. 92 HRB loying, but proper heat treatment increases
feed of 0.3 mm/rev (0.011 in./rev); finishing Poisson’s ratio. 0.318 resistance to this type of corrosion. Like other
speed, 350 m/min (1150 ft/min) with a feed of Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 aluminum bronzes, C62400 is not suitable for
0.15 mm/rev (0.006 in./rev) psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi) use in an oxidizing acid such as nitric acid.
Table 97 Typical compressive properties for C62300 rod, H50 temper

Compressive strength at permanent set of
0.1% 1% 10% 20%
Rod diameter MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi

25 mm (
1 in.) 360 52 485 70 825 120 965 140
25–50 mm (1–2 in.) 345 50 450 65 675 98 930 135
50–75 mm (2–3 in.) 315 46 415 60 620 90 895 130
Table 98 Typical compressive properties for C62400 rod, H50 temper

Compressive strength at permanent set of
Ultimate compressive
0.1% 1% 10% strength
Rod diameter MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi

25 mm (
1 in.) 290 42 470 68 885 128 1140 165
25–50 mm (1–2 in.) 220 32 400 58 825 120 1090 158
Fig. 45 Variation in Charpy V-notch impact strength
50–75 mm (2–3 in.) 175 25 330 48 795 115 1090 158
with temperature for C62300
LIVE GRAPH
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Fabrication Characteristics Mechanical Properties Chemical Properties

Machinability. 50% of C36000 (free-cutting Tensile properties. Typical M30 and O61 tempers: General corrosion behavior. Adequate corrosion
brass); chips break readily. Carbide or tool steel tensile strength, 690 MPa (100 ksi); yield strength resistance to ambient moisture and industrial
cutters may be used. Typical conditions using (0.5% extension), 380 MPa (55 ksi); elongation, atmospheres. C62500 is rarely used for its cor-
tool steel cutters: roughing speed, 90 m/min 1% in 50 mm (2 in.); reduction in area, 1% rosion characteristics in strongly corrosive envi-
(300 ft/min) with a feed of 0.3 mm/rev (0.011 Compressive properties. Compressive strength, ronments. General corrosion characteristics are
in./rev); finishing speed, 290 m/min (950 ft/min) 450 MPa (65 ksi) at a permanent set of 0.1%; inferior to those of C62400 and C62300.
with a feed of 0.1 mm/rev (0.004 in./rev). Using 880 MPa (128 ksi) at a permanent set of 1%
carbide cutters with 2.3 to 6.4 mm (0.09 to 0.25 Hardness. 27 HRC Fabrication Characteristics
in.) cut: roughing speed, 53 m/min (175 ft/min) Poisson’s ratio. 0.312 Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
with a feed of 0.3 mm/rev (0.011 in./rev); finish- Elastic modulus. Tension, 110 GPa (16 106 Formability. Not recommended for cold work-
ing speed, 38 to 45 m/min (125 to 150 ft/min) psi); shear, 42.3 GPa (6.13 106 psi) ing; excellent for hot forming
with a feed of 0.3 mm/rev (0.011 in./rev) Impact strength. Izod or Charpy keyhole, 3 J (2 Weldability. Gas-shielded arc and shielded metal
Weldability. Similar to that of C62300 ft lbf) at –18 to 100 °C (0 to 212 °F) arc welding: good. Brazing and resistance weld-
Annealing temperature. 600 to 700 °C (1110 to Fatigue strength. Rod, M30 temper: 460 MPa ing: fair. Oxyfuel gas welding and soldering are
1300 °F) (67 ksi) at 108 cycles not recommended.
Hot-working temperature. 760 to 925 °C (1400 Annealing temperature. 600 to 650 °C (1100 to
to 1700 °F) Structure 1200 °F)
Microstructure. Primarily body-centered-cubic Hot-working temperature. 745 to 850 °C (1375
C62500 metastable phase with small crystals of to 1550 °F)
ordered close-packed hexagonal phase
82.7Cu-4.3Fe-13Al
Magnetic Properties C63000
Commercial Names 82Cu-10Al-5Ni-3Fe
Magnetic permeability. 1.2
Trade name. Ampco 21, Wearite 4-13
Mass Characteristics Commercial Names
Chemical Composition Density. 7.21 g/cm3 (0.260 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Previous trade name. Aluminum bronze E
Compositions limits. 12.5 to 13.5 Al, 3.5 to 5.0 Common name. Nickel-aluminum bronze
Fe, 2.0 Mn max, 0.5 max other (total), bal Cu Thermal Properties
Specifications
Consequence of exceeding impurity limits. Liquidus temperature. 1052 °C (1925 °F)
Possibility of hot shortness, reduced wear resist- Solidus temperature. 1047 °C (1917 °F) AMS. Bar, shapes: 4640
ance, increased spalling tendency, and lower Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.2 ASME. Bar, rod, shapes: SB150. Condenser tube
strength when elements such as Pb, Zn, P, and Si m/m K (9.0 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 plate: SB171
are present in more than trace quantities to 572 °F) ASTM. Bar, rod, shapes: B 124, B 150. Conden-
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at ser tube plate: B 171. Forgings: B 283
Applications 20 °C (68 °F) SAE. J463
Typical uses. Guide bushings, wear strips, cams, Thermal conductivity. 38.9 W/m K (22.5 Btu/ft Government. Flat products, rod, shapes: QQ-C-
sheet metal forming dies, forming rolls h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F); temperature coeffi- 465. Forgings: QQ-C-465, MIL-B-16166
Precautions in use. Low ductility and impact cient, 0.093 W/m K per K at –100 to 150 °C Chemical Composition
resistance make it advisable to provide ade- (–150 to 300 °F)
quate structural support for components made Composition limits. 78.0 to 85.0 Cu, 9.0 to 11.0
of C62500 that will be subjected to shock Electrical Properties Al, 2.0 to 4.0 Fe, 4.0 to 5.5 Ni ( Co), 1.5 Mn
loads or high stress. Corrosion resistance is Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 10% IACS max, 0.30 Zn max, 0.25 Si max, 0.20 Sn max,
inferior to that of aluminum bronzes contain- at 20 °C (68 °F) 0.5 max other (total)
ing less aluminum. Electrical resistivity. 172 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Consequence of exceeding impurity limits.
Excessive amounts of Zn, Sn, and Pb will cause
Table 99 Typical mechanical properties of C63000 rod at various temperatures cracking during hot working and joining.
Excessive Si will result in machining difficulties.
Modulus
Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength(a) of elasticity
Elongation in Reduction Hardness, Applications
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % in area, % GPa 106 psi HB(b)
Cold finished
Typical uses. Produced as rod, bar, and forgings
–182 –295 845 122.5 469 68.1 8 10 128 18.5 238
for nuts, bolts, shafting, pump parts, valve seats,
–60 –75 774 112.3 443 64.3 26 28 131 19.0 216 faucet balls, gears, cams, structural members,
–29 –20 784 113.7 463 67.1 24 29 132 19.1 209 and tube sheets for condensers in power stations
20 70 776 112.5 407 59.1 20 21 117 16.9 200 and desalting units
204 400 694 100.7 403 58.5 13 15 136 19.7 188
316 600 582 84.4 373 54.1 8 9 85 12.3 181
Precautions in use. Not suitable for use in oxi-
427 800 245 35.5 166 24.1 51 56 57 8.2 98 dizing acids
538 1000 107 15.5 88 12.8 41 59 44 6.4 47
Annealed
–182 –295 867 125.8 431 62.5 12 12 130 18.8 235 Tensile properties. Typical data for 25 mm (1
–60 –75 784 113.7 379 54.9 24 26 123 17.9 212 in.) diam round rod, HR50 temper: tensile
–29 –20 781 113.3 384 55.7 23 23 139 20.1 209 strength, 760 MPa (110 ksi); yield strength, 470
20 70 766 111.1 370 53.6 21 21 125 18.1 200
204 400 706 102.4 348 50.4 16 15 107 15.5 189
MPa (68 ksi); elongation, 10% in 50 mm (2 in.);
316 600 605 87.7 337 48.9 10 11 110 15.9 176 reduction in area, 10%. See also Table 99.
427 800 232 33.7 158 22.9 41 46 64 9.3 101 Compressive properties. HR50 temper. Com-
538 1000 95 13.7 78 11.3 39 46 48 7.0 50 pressive strength, ultimate: 1035 MPa (150 ksi)
Hardness. HR50 temper: 94 HRB. See also
Table 99.
Poisson’s ratio. 0.328 Carbide or tool steel cutters may be used, and Structure
Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 good lubrication and cooling are essential.
Microstructure. Features , , and metastable
psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi). See also Typical conditions using tool steel cutters:
phases in various structures, depending on heat
Table 99. roughing speed, 75 m/min (250 ft/min) with a
treatment and/or thermal history and composi-
Impact strength. Charpy V-notch, 16 to 21 J (12 feed of 0.3 mm/rev (0.011 in./rev); finishing
tion. Normally, plus - lamellar structure
to 15 ft lbf) at 20 °C (68 °F). See also Fig. 46. speed, 290 m/min (950 ft/min) with a feed of
with or without areas of phase
Fatigue strength. Reverse bending, 255 MPa (37 0.1 mm/rev (0.004 in./rev). Using carbide
ksi) at 108 cycles cutters: roughing speed, 53 m/min (175 Mass Characteristics
ft/min) with a feed of 0.3 mm/rev (0.011
Structure in./rev); finishing speed, 38 m/min (125 Density. 7.64 g/cm3 (0.276 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Microstructure. Features , , and metastable ft/min) with a feed of 0.3 mm/rev (0.011 Volume change on freezing. Approximately 2%
phases in various structures, depending on heat in./rev) contraction
treatment and/or thermal history and composi- Forgeability. 75% of C37700 (forging brass)
tion. Normally, plus - lamellar structure Formability. Poor for cold working; good for hot Thermal Properties
with areas of forming Liquidus temperature. 1060 °C (1940 °F)
Weldability. Gas-shielded arc, coated metal arc Solidus temperature. 1040 °C (1905 °F)
Mass Characteristics and spot, seam, and butt resistance welding: Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.2
Density. 7.58 g/cm3 (0.274 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) good. Brazing: fair. Soldering and oxyacetylene m/m K (9.0 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
Volume change on freezing. Approximately 2% welding are not recommended. to 572 °F)
contraction Annealing temperature. 600 to 700 °C (1100 to Specific heat. 439 J/kg K (0.105 Btu/lb °F) at
1300 °F) 20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal Properties Hot-working temperature. 800 to 925 °C (1450 Thermal conductivity. 36 W/m K (21 Btu/ft h
Liquidus temperature. 1055 °C (1930 °F) to 1700 °F) °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.2 Electrical Properties
m/m K (9.0 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
C63200
82Cu-9Al-5Ni-4Fe Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 7% IACS at
to 572 °F) 20 °C (68 °F)
Specific heat. 375 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at Electrical resistivity. 246 n m at 20 °C (68
20 °C (68 °F) Commercial Names
°F)
Thermal conductivity. 37.7 W/m K (21.8 Common name. Nickel-aluminum bronze
Btu/ft h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F); temperature Magnetic Properties
coefficient, 0.09 W/m K per K at 20 °C Chemical Composition
(68 °F) Magnetic permeability. 1.04
Electrical Properties Al, 3.0 to 5.0 Fe, 4.0 to 5.5 Ni ( Co), 3.5 Mn Fabrication Characteristics
max, 0.10 Si max, 0.02 Pb max, 0.5 max other Machinability. Fair. Tendency to form stringy
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 9% IACS at (total)
20 °C (68 °F) chips and to gall makes good lubrication and
Iron content shall not exceed Ni content. cooling essential. Tool steel or carbide cutters
Electrical resistivity. 192 n m at 20 °C Consequence of exceeding impurity limits.
(68 °F) may be used. Good finish and fine thread tap-
Excessive Pb and Si will cause hot shortness in ping possible. Typical conditions using tool
Magnetic Properties weld joints. Excessive Mn will reduce corro- steel cutters: roughing speed, 75 m/min (250
sion resistance. ft/min) with a feed of 0.3 mm/rev (0.011
Magnetic permeability. 1.05
in./rev); finishing speed, 290 m/min (950
Chemical Properties Applications
ft/min) with a feed of 0.1 mm/rev (0.004
General corrosion behavior. See C61400. Typical uses. Produced as rod, bar, and forgings in./rev). Using carbide cutters: roughing speed,
for nuts, bolting, shafts, pump parts, propellers, 53 m/min (175 ft/min) with a feed of 0.3
Fabrication Characteristics and miscellaneous uses for corrosion- and spark- mm/rev (0.011 in./rev); finishing speed, 38
Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting resistant parts for industrial, marine, and subma- m/min (125 ft/min) with a feed of 0.3 mm/rev
brass), with breaking to slightly stringy chips. rine applications (0.011 in./rev)
Precautions in use. Not suitable for use in oxi- Annealing temperature. 705 to 880 °C (1300 to
LIVE GRAPH dizing acids 1615 °F)
Click here to view
Mechanical Properties to 1700 °F)
Tensile properties. Depending on amount of cold
work or heat treatment. Tensile strength, 640 to C63600
725 MPa (93 to 105 ksi); yield strength, 330 to
380 MPa (48 to 55 ksi); elongation, 18% in 50
95.5Cu-3.5Al-1.0Si
mm (2 in.); reduction in area, 18% Chemical Composition
Compressive properties. Compressive strength,
ultimate: 760 MPa (110 ksi) Composition limits. 93.5 to 96.3 Cu, 3.0 to 4.0
Hardness. 92 to 97 HRB Al, 0.7 to 1.3 Si, 0.50 Zn max, 0.20 Sn max, 0.15
Poisson’s ratio. 0.320 Ni max, 0.15 Fe max, 0.05 Pb max
psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi) Applications
Impact strength. Charpy V-notch, 23 to 27 J (17 Typical uses. Rod and wire for components for
to 20 ft lbf) at –29 to 20 °C (–20 to 78 °F); pole line hardware; cold-headed nuts for wire
Fig. 46 Variation in Charpy V-notch impact strength Charpy keyhole, 13 to 16 J (10 to 12 ft lbf) at and cable connectors; bolts; screw machine
with temperature for C63000 –29 to 20 °C (–20 to 78 °F) products
Mechanical Properties Electrical Properties C63800

Tensile properties. See Table 100. Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 12% IACS 95Cu-2.8Al-1.8Si-0.40Co
Hardness. See Table 100. at 20 °C (68 °F)
Elastic modulus. Tension, 110 GPa (16 106 psi) Commercial Names
Trade name. Coronze
Density. 8.33 g/cm3 (0.301 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Chemical Composition
Thermal Properties Composition limits. 2.5 to 3.1 Al, 1.5 to 2.1 Si,
Formability. Excellent for cold working; fair for
0.25 to 0.55 Co, 0.80 Zn max, 0.10 Ni max, 0.05
Liquidus temperature. 1035 °C (1890 °F) hot forming
Pb max, 0.10 Fe max, 0.10 Mn max, bal Cu
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.2 Weldability. Gas-shielded arc, shielded metal arc,
m/m K (9.4 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 and resistance welding: fair. Soldering, brazing, Applications
to 572 °F) and oxyfuel gas welding are not recommended.
Typical uses. Springs, switch parts, contacts, relay
Thermal conductivity. 57 W/m K (33 Btu/ft h Hot-working temperature. 760 to 875 °C (1400
springs, glass sealing, and porcelain enameling
°F) at 20 °C (68 °F) to 1600 °F)
Tensile properties. See Table 101 and Fig. 47
Diameter Tensile strength
Elongation in and 48.
mm in. Temper MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness, HRB
Rod Poisson’s ratio. 0.312
16 0.63 O61 415 60 64 … Elastic modulus. Tension, 117 GPa (16.7 106
14 0.56 H01 510 74 31 …
psi)
Wire
10 0.40 O61 415 60 67 … Mass Characteristics
11 0.42 H00 (7%) 470 68 52 71
12 0.49 H01 (21%) 580 84 29 84 Density. 8.28 g/cm3 (0.299 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal Properties
Table 101 Typical mechanical properties of C63800 sheet and strip
Elongation in
Hardness Solidus temperature. 1000 °C (1830 °F)
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB HR30T Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.1
O61 565 82 385 56 33 … 74 m/m K (9.5 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
H01 660 96 565 82 17 94 78 to 572 °F)
H02 730 106 640 93 10 97 80
H03 765 111 680 99 8 98 81
H04 825 120 750 109 5 99 82 20 °C (68 °F)
H06 855 124 780 113 4 100 82 Thermal conductivity. 42 W/m K (24 Btu/ft h
H08 895 130 800 116 3 100 83 °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
H10 895 min 130 min 820 min 119 min 2 max 100 min 83 min
at 20 °C (68 °F), annealed
Electrical resistivity. 174 n m at 20 °C (68 °F),
annealed
Chemical Properties
General corrosion behavior. C63800 is more
resistant to stress corrosion than the nickel sil-
vers, approaching the performance of the highly
resistant phosphor bronzes. This alloy is far
superior to most other copper alloys in resist-
ance to crevice corrosion. At elevated tempera-
ture, the oxidation resistance of C63800 is excel-
lent. For example, after heating in air for 2 h, the
film thickness on C83800 was 7 nm (0.26 in.)
at 450 °C (840 °F), 12 nm (0.47 in.) at 600 °C
(1100 °F), and 24 nm (0.94 in.) at 700 °C
(1300 °F). On the basis of weight gain after heat-
ing 2 to 24 h in air at temperatures of 600 to 800
°C (1100 to 1300 °F), C63800 was consistently
superior to Nickel 270, Nichrome (80Ni-20Cr),
type 301 stainless steel, Incoloy 800 (ASTM B
408), and C60600. The superiority of C63800
was especially evident at 800 °C (1300 °F).
Formability. Suitable for blanking, drawing,
Fig. 48 Anneal resistance of C63800 strip, H08 tem-
bending, shearing, and stamping. Excellent for
Fig. 47 Typical short-time tensile properties of per. Typical room-temperature tensile proper-
C63800, H02 temper ties for material annealed 1 h at various temperatures cold working and hot forming
Weldability. Soft soldering utilizing standard Weldability. Soldering, brazing, gas-shielded Solidus temperature. 955 °C (1755 °F)
fluxes is normally employed. Brazing, gas- arc, resistance spot, and resistance butt welding: Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.5
shielded arc welding, and all forms of resistance excellent. Oxyfuel gas and resistance seam m/m K (9.7 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
welding are also commonly used. welding: good. Shielded metal arc welding: fair to 572 °F)
Annealing temperature. 400 to 600 °C (750 to Annealing temperature. 475 to 675 °C (900 to Thermal conductivity. 36 W/m K (21 Btu/ft h
1100 °F). See also Fig. 48. 1250 °F) °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
to 1600 °F) Electrical Properties
C65100 Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 7% IACS at
98.5Cu-1.5Si C65400 20 °C (68 °F)
95.4Cu-3.0Si-1.5Sn-0.1Cr Electrical resistivity. 246 n m at 20 °C (68
Commercial Names
°F)
Previous trade name. Low-silicon bronze B Chemical Composition
Common name. Low-silicon bronze Fabrication Characteristics
Composition limits. 2.7 to 3.4 Si, 1.2 to 1.9 Sn,
0.01 to 0.12 Cr, 0.5 Zn max, 0.05 Pb max, bal Cu Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Specifications
Formability. Excellent capacity for both cold
ASME. Bar, rod, shapes: SB98. Tubular prod- Applications working and hot forming
ucts: SB315 Weldability. Soldering and brazing: good. All
Typical uses. Applications where high strength
ASTM. Flat products: B 97. Bar, rod, shapes: B forms of resistance welding and gas-shielded arc
and good formability combined with good
98. Tubular products: B 315. Wire: B 99 welding: excellent. Coated metal arc welding: fair
stress relaxation resistance is required. Specific
Government. QQ-C-591 Annealing temperature. 400 to 600 °C (750 to
uses include contact springs, connectors, and
wiring devices. 1100 °F)
Composition limits. 0.8 to 2.0 Si, 0.05 Pb max, Mechanical Properties C65500
0.8 Fe max, 1.5 Zn max, 0.7 Mn max, bal Cu
Tensile properties. See Table 103. 97Cu-3Si
Applications Hardness. See Table 103.
Elastic modulus. 117 GPa (17.0 106 psi) Commercial Names
Typical uses. Aircraft: hydraulic pressure lines. Previous trade name. High-silicon bronze A
Fatigue strength. See Table 103.
Hardware: anchor screws, bolts, cable clamps, Common name. High-silicon bronze
cap screws, machine screws, marine hardware, Mass Characteristics
nuts, pole line hardware, rivets, U-bolts. Specifications
Industrial: electrical conduits, heat exchanger
AMS. Bar, rod: 4615. Tubing: 4665
tubes, welding rod Thermal Properties ASME. Flat products: SB96. Bar, rod, shapes:
Mechanical Properties Liquidus temperature. 1020 °C (1865 °F) SB98. Tubular products: SB315
Tensile properties. See Table 102. Table 102 Typical mechanical properties of C65100
Hardness. See Table 102. Tensile strength Yield strength(a)
Elongation in
Shear strength
Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106 Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness MPa ksi
psi); shear, 44 GPa (6.4 106 psi) Rod, 25 mm (1 in.) thick

Fatigue strength. Reverse bending, H04 temper, OS035 275 40 105 15 50 55 HRF … …
H04 (36%) 485 70 380 55 15 80 HRB 310 45
170 MPa (25 ksi) at 108 cycles; H06 temper, 195 H06 (50%) 620 90 460 67 12 90 HRB 345 50
MPa (28 ksi) at 108 cycles
Mass Characteristics H00 380 55 275 40 40 … 250 36
H01 450 65 345 50 25 … 275 40
Density. 8.75 g/cm3 (0.316 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) H02 550 80 435 63 15 … 310 45
H04 690 100 485 70 11 … 345 50
Thermal Properties H06 725 105 490 71 10 … 365 53
Liquidus temperature. 1060 °C (1940 °F) Wire, 11 mm (0.44 in.) diameter
Solidus temperature. 1030 °C (1890 °F) H00 (21%) 435 63 … … 30 … … …
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18 H02 (37%) 550 80 … … 20 … … …
H04 (60%) 655 95 … … 12 … … …
m/m K (9.9 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
to 572 °F) Tubing, 25 mm (1.0 in.) outside diameter 1.65 mm (0.065 in.) wall thickness
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at OS015 310 45 140 20 55 68 HRF … …
H80 (35%) 450 65 275 40 20 75 HRB … …
20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal conductivity. 57 W/m K (33 Btu/ft h (a) At 0.5% extension under load
°F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Electrical Properties Table 103 Nominal mechanical properties of C65400 strip
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 12% IACS Fatigue strength
at 108 cycles
at 20 °C (68 °F) Tensile strength Yield strength
Elongation in
Electrical resistivity. 144 n m at 20 °C (68 Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness, HRB MPa ksi
°F) H01 570 83 415 60 30 82 … …

H02 655 95 585 85 20 92 … …
Fabrication Characteristics H03 725 105 635 92 13 95 … …
H04 790 115 700 102 6 97 235 34
Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) H06 825 120 760 110 5 99 … …
Formability. Excellent for cold working and hot H08 890 129 815 118 3 100 255 37
forming H10 930 135 860 125 2 101 … …
ASTM. Flat products: B 96, B 97, B 100. Bar, Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at tors, terminals, and similar parts for electronic
rod, shapes: B 98, B 124. Forgings: B 283. 20 °C (68 °F) and electromechanical assemblies
Tubular products: B 315. Wire: B 99 Thermal conductivity. 36 W/m K (21 Btu/ft h
SAE. J463 °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) Mechanical Properties
Government. QQ-C-591. Tubing: MIL-T-8231 Tensile properties. See Table 105.
Electrical Properties Elastic modulus. Tension, 112 GPa (16.3 106
Chemical Composition Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 7% IACS at psi)
Composition limits. 2.8 to 3.8 Si, 0.5 Pb max, 20 °C (68 °F) Fatigue strength. Reverse bending, O60 temper,
0.8 Fe max, 1.5 Zn max, 1.5 Mn max, 0.6 Ni Electrical resistivity. 246 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) 165 MPa (24 ksi) at 108 cycles; H04 temper, 185
max, bal Cu MPa (27 ksi) at 108 cycles
Applications Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) Mass Characteristics
Typical uses. Aircraft: hydraulic pressure lines. Forgeability. 40% of C37700 (forging brass) Density. 8.74 g/cm3 (0.317 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Hardware: bolts, burrs, butts, clamps, cotter Formability. Excellent for cold working and hot
Thermal Properties
pins, hinges, marine hardware, nails, nuts, pole forming
line hardware, screws. Industrial: bearing plates, Weldability. Brazing, gas-shielded arc, and all Liquidus temperature. 1055 °C (1930 °F)
bushings, cable, channels, chemical equipment, forms of resistance welding: excellent. Solidus temperature. 1035 °C (1895 °F)
heat exchanger tubes, kettles, piston rings, tanks, Soldering and oxyfuel gas welding: good. Thermal conductivity. 116 W/m K (67 Btu/ft
rivets, screen cloth and wire, screen plates, Shielded metal arc welding: fair h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
shafting. Marine: propeller shafts Annealing temperature. 475 to 700 °C (900 to Electrical Properties
1300 °F)
Mechanical Properties Hot-working temperature. 700 to 875 °C (1300 Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, O61 temper:
Tensile properties. See Table 104. to 1600 °F) 30% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
Shear strength. See Table 104. Electrical resistivity. O61 temper: 57.5 n m at
Hardness. See Table 104. C66400 20 °C (68 °F)
Elastic modulus. Tension, 105 GPa (15 106 86.5Cu-1.5Fe-0.5Co-11.5Zn
C68800
Fatigue strength. Reverse bending, H04 temper, Commercial Names 73.5Cu-22.7Zn-3.4Al-0.4Co
200 MPa (29 ksi) at 108 cycles; H08 temper, 205 Previous trade name. Cobron Commercial Names
MPa (30 ksi) at 108 cycles
Chemical Composition Trade name. Alcoloy
Mass Characteristics Composition limits. 1.3 to 1.7 Fe, 0.30 to 0.70 Co, Specifications
Density. 8.53 g/cm3 (0.308 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) 11.0 to 12.0 Zn, 0.05 Sn max, 0.05 Ni max, 0.05 ASTM. Flat products: B 592
Al max, 0.05 Mn max, 0.05 Si max, 0.05 Ag max,
Thermal Properties 0.02 P max, 0.015 Pb max, bal Cu. Note: The Fe Chemical Composition
Liquidus temperature. 1025 °C (1880 °F) Co content shall be 1.8 to 2.0 (total). Composition limits. 72.3 to 74.7 Cu, 3.0 to 3.8
Solidus temperature. 970 °C (1780 °F) Al, 0.25 to 0.55 Co, 0.05 Pb max, 0.05 Fe max,
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18 Applications
0.010 max other (total), bal Zn (25.1 to 27.1 Al
m/m K (10 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Typical uses. Spring washers, switchblades, fuse Zn)
to 572 °F) clips, contact springs, socket contacts, connec-
Applications
Table 104 Typical mechanical properties of C65500 Typical uses. Springs, switches, contacts, relays,
Elongation in
Shear strength terminals, plug receptacles, connectors
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness, HRB MPa ksi
OS070 385 56 145 21 63 40 290 42 Tensile properties. See Tables 106 and 107.
OS035 415 60 170 25 60 62 295 43 Hardness. See Table 106.
OS015 435 63 205 30 55 66 310 45 Elastic modulus. Tension, 116 GPa (16.8 106
H01 470 68 240 35 30 75 325 47
H02 540 78 310 45 17 87 345 50
psi)
H04 650 94 400 58 8 93 390 57
H06 715 104 415 60 6 96 415 60
H08 760 110 427 62 4 97 435 63 Density. 8.20 g/cm3 (0.296 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal Properties
OS050 400 58 150 22 60 60 295 43
H02 (20%) 540 78 310 45 35 85 360 52 Liquidus temperature. 965 °C (1765 °F)
H04 (36%) 635 92 380 55 22 90 400 58
H06 (50%) 745 108 415 60 13 95 425 62 Table 105 Typical mechanical properties
Wire, 2 mm (0.08 in.) diameter of C66400
OS035 415 60 170 25 60 … 295 43
Tensile Yield strength
H00 485 70 275 40 35 … 330 48 strength at 0.2% offset
Elongation
H01 550 80 330 48 20 … 360 52 in 50 mm
H02 675 98 395 57 8 … 400 58 Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), %
H04 860 125 450 65 5 … 450 65 O60 435 63 310 45 25
H08 (80%) 1000 145 485 70 3 … 485 70 H01 495 72 455 66 13
Tubing, 25 mm (1.0 in.) outside diameter 1.65 mm (0.065 in.) wall thickness H02 545 79 525 76 7
H03 570 83 560 81 6
OS050 395 57 … … 70 45 … … H04 605 88 585 85 5
H80 (35%) 640 93 … … 22 92 … … H06 650 94 615 89 4
H08 670 97 635 92 3
H10 690 100 640 93 3
Solidus temperature. 950 °C (1740 °F) Applications Electrical Properties

Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18 Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, O61 temper:
Typical uses. Electrical component parts, con-
m/m K (10 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 18% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
tacts, connectors, switches, relays, springs, high-
to 572 °F) Electrical resistivity. O61 temper: 96 n m
strength shells
20 °C (68 °F) Mechanical Properties Chemical Properties
Thermal conductivity. 69 W/m K (40 Btu/ft h
Tensile properties. See Table 108. General corrosion behavior. Significantly better
°F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Hardness. See Table 108. corrosion performance than C26000, both in uni-
Electrical Properties Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (16.7 106 form corrosion rate and stress-corrosion resistance
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric: O61 temper: psi) Fabrication Characteristics
18% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F); H08 temper, 16.6%
IACS at 20 °C (68 °F) Mass Characteristics Formability. Behavior in blanking, drawing,
Electrical resistivity. O61 temper, 96 n m at forming, bending, stamping, and other cold
Density. 8.19 g/cm3 (0.296 lb/in.3) at 20 °C
20 °C (68 °F); H08 temper, 104 n m forming operations is similar to that of C26000,
(68 °F)
but with lower directionality in bending of
Magnetic Properties Thermal Properties cold-worked tempers. Excellent for cold work-
Magnetic permeability. 1.003 ing and hot forming
Liquidus temperature. 960 °C (1760 °F) Weldability. Resistance welding: good.
Chemical Properties Solidus temperature. 950 °C (1745 °F) Soldering and brazing: fair, provided that
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 18 active flux is used. Oxyfuel gas and arc weld-
General corrosion behavior. C68800 is more
m/m K (10 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 ing are not recommended.
resistant than C26000 to both corrosion and
stress-corrosion cracking. to 572 °F) Annealing temperature. 400 to 600 °C (750 to
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at 1100 °F); stress relief anneal, 225 °C (435 °F)
Fabrication Characteristics 20 °C (68 °F) for 1 h
Formability. Suitable for blanking, drawing, Thermal conductivity. 40 W/m K (23 Btu/ft h Hot-working temperature. 790 to 840 °C (1450
bending, shearing, and stamping. Bending char- °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) to 1550 °F)
acteristics are nearly nondirectional for all
annealed and rolled tempers. Excellent for cold Table 106 Typical mechanical properties of 1 mm (0.04 in.) thick C68800 strip
working and hot forming
Tensile strength Yield strength at 0.2% offset Hardness
Weldability. Can be joined by soft soldering Elongation in
when mildly activated commercial fluxes are
used and exhibits substantially better tarnish O60(a) 565 82 365 53 35 78 69
O50 615 89 475 69 30 … …
resistance than most other copper alloys. Can H01 650 94 525 76 20 90.5 78
also be joined by brazing and resistance welding H02 725 105 635 92 9 95 81
Annealing temperature. 400 to 600 °C (750 to H04 780 113 705 102 5 97 82.5
1100 °F) H06 825 120 750 109 3 98 83
H08 885 128 785 114 2 99 83.5
Order strengthening. When heated to 220 °C H10 895 min 130 min 805 min 117 min 2 max 99 max 84 min
(425 °F), temper-rolled C68800 undergoes an
ordering reaction that increases strength (see (a) Annealed C68800 usually has a very fine grain size (0.010 mm or less).
Table 107) and decrease ductility. Because this
decrease in ductility would adversely affect
Table 107 Typical mechanical properties of C68800 after low-temperature thermal treat-
formability, parts should be order strengthened
ment
after forming. Specific times and temperatures
for thermal treatment may vary, depending on As-rolled Stabilization treated(a)
cold-worked temper. Susceptibility to stress-cor- Yield strength Yield strength

Tensile strength at 0.2% offset Tensile strength at 0.2% offset
rosion cracking increases dramatically with an
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi
increase in the degree of ordering.
Stabilization treatment. Stabilization treatment H02(b) 695 101 640 93 725 105 690 100
H04 750 109 670 97 780 113 740 107
is performed when enhanced stress relaxation H06 840 122 760 110 910 132 895 130
is desired. This treatment causes little change H08 890 129 785 114 960 139 925 134
in the 0.2% offset yield strength. Temperature H10 895 min 130 min 805 min 117 min 965 140 945 137
and time of the treatment vary, depending on
(a) Heated 1 h at 205 to 230 °C (400 to 445 °F). (b) Stabilization treatment is not effective on H00 or H01 temper material.
cold-worked temper; the ranges are 280 to 320
°C (535 to 610 °F) and 10 min to 2 h, respec-
tively. To gain the maximum benefit from a Table 108 Typical mechanical properties of C69000
stabilization treatment, parts should be stabi- Yield strength
lized after forming. There is no increase in Tensile strength at 0.2% offset Hardness
Elongation in
stress-corrosion susceptibility as a result of Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRB HR30T
this treatment. OS025 565 82 360 52 35 … 69
H01 650 94 525 76 19.5 90.5 …
C69000 H02 715 105 635 92 9 95 …
H04 780 113 700 102 4.5 97 …
73.3Cu-22.7Zn-3.4Al-0.6Ni H06 825 120 750 109 2.5 98 …
H08 870 126 785 114 1.5 96 …
Chemical Composition H10 895 min 130 min 805 117 2 max 99 min …
Composition limits. 72 to 74.5 Cu, 3.3 to 3.5 EHT(a) 930 135 875 127 1 … 84.5
Al, 0.50 to 0.70 Ni, 0.05 Fe max, 0.025 Pb (a) Cold rolled 50% and stress relief annealed 1 h at 220 °C (425 °F)
max, bal Zn
Table 109 Typical mechanical properties of copper alloy C69400 rod C70400
Yield strength (0.5% 92.4Cu-5.5Ni-1.5Fe-0.6Mn
Section size Tensile strength extension under load)
Elongation in
Temper mm in. MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % Hardness, HRB Specifications
O60 13 0.5 621 90 310 45 20 85 ASTM. Pipe: B 466. Tubing: B 111, B 359, B
25 1.0 586 85 296 43 25 85
51 2.0 550 80 276 40 25 85
395, B 466, B 543
H00 19 0.75 689 100 393 57 21 95
Annealing temperature. 425 to 650 °C (800 to Composition limits. 91.2 Cu min, 4.8 to 6.2 Ni, 1.3
Table 110 Nominal tensile properties of to 1.7 Fe, 0.3 to 0.8 Mn, 1.0 Zn max, 0.05 Pb max
C70250 strip 1200 °F)
Tensile Yield
Hot-working temperature. 650 to 875 °C (1200 Applications
strength strength
Elongation to 1600 °F)
in 50 mm Typical uses. Rolled strip, sheet, and tubing for
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), %
industrial uses; condensers, condenser plates,
TM00 585 85 655 95 6 C70250 evaporator and heat exchanger tubes, ferrules,
TM04 690 100 730 106 2
95.4Cu-3.0Ni-0.6Si-0.1Mg saltwater piping, lithium bromide absorption sys-
tem tubing, shipboard condenser intake systems
C69400 Chemical Composition
81.5Cu-14.5Zn-4Si Mechanical Properties
Composition limits. 2.2 to 4.2 Ni, 0.25 to 1.2
Si, 0.05 to 0.3 Mg, 1.0 Zn max, 0.05 Pb max, Tensile properties. See Table 111.
Commercial Names
0.1 Mn max, 0.2 Fe max, 99.5 Cu named Hardness. See Table 111.
Previous trade name. Silicon red brass, CA694 elements min Elastic modulus. Tension, 115 GPa (17 106
Specifications Applications
ASTM. Rod B 371 (CA694) Typical uses. Applications where high strength
Chemical Composition and good formability combined with good stress Density. 8.94 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
relaxation resistance and moderate conductivity
Composition limits. 80.0 to 83.0 Cu, 0.30 Pb are required. Specific uses include contact Thermal Properties
max, 0.20 Fe max, 3.5 to 4.5 Si, bal Zn springs, connectors, and lead frames. Liquidus temperature. 1125 °C (2050 °F)
Applications Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.5 m/m
Mechanical Properties K (9.7 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 to 572 °F)
Typical uses. Valve stems requiring a combina- Tensile properties. See Table 110. Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
tion of corrosion resistance and high strength; Elastic modulus. 131 GPa (19.0 106 psi) 20 °C (68 °F)
forged or screw-machined parts Thermal conductivity. 64 W/m K (37 Btu/ft h
Mass Characteristics °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Tensile properties. See Table 109. Electrical Properties
Hardness. See Table 109. Thermal Properties Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 14% IACS
Elastic modulus. Tension, 110 GPa (16 106 psi)
Liquidus temperature. 1095 °C (2003 °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Mass Characteristics Solidus temperature. 1075 °C (1967 °F) Electrical resistivity. 120 n m at 20 °C (68 °F)
Density. 8.19 g/cm3 (0.296 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) Fabrication Characteristics
m/m K (9.8 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
Thermal Properties to 572 °F) Machinability. 20% of C36000 (free-cutting brass)
Thermal conductivity. 147 to 190 W/m K (85 to Formability. Excellent for cold working; good
110 Btu/ft h °F) at 20 °C (68 °F) for hot forming
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 20.2 Weldability. Soldering, brazing, and gas-shielded
Electrical Properties arc welding: excellent. Coated metal arc and
m/m K (11.2 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
to 572 °F) Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 35 to 40% resistance spot, seam, and butt welding: good.
Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at IACS at 20 °C (68 °F) Oxyacetylene welding: fair
20 °C (68 °F) Electrical resistivity. 43.1 to 49.3 n m at Annealing temperature. 565 to 815 °C (1050 to
Thermal conductivity. 26 W/m K (15 Btu/ft h 20 °C (68 °F) 1500 °F)
°F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Electrical Properties Yield strength
Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 6.2% IACS At 0.5% extension

Tensile strength under load At 0.2% offset Hardness
at 20 °C (68 °F) Elongation in
Strip
Fabrication Characteristics O61 260 38 83 12 … … 41 8 …
H01 350 51 … … 275 40 21 54 57
Machinability. 30% of C36000 (free-cutting brass) H02 395 57 … … 380 55 11 67 65
Forgeability. 80% of C37700 (forging brass) H04 440 64 … … 435 63 5 72 68
Formability. Excellent capacity for being hot H06 485 70 … … 475 69 3 75 69
formed; poor for being cold formed H08 530 77 … … 525 76 2 min 76 min 70 min
Weldability. Soft soldering and silver alloy braz- Tubing, 25 mm (1.0 in.) outside diameter 1.65 mm (0.065 in.) wall thickness
ing: excellent. Oxyfuel gas welding and resistance OS015 285 41 97 14 … … 46 58 HRF …
welding: good. Arc welding is not recommended. H55 330 48 250 36 … … 18 67 HRF …
Hot-working temperature. 815 to 950 °C (1500 Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 17.1 Chemical Composition
to 1750 °F) m/m K (9.5 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68 Composition limits. 0.05 Pb max, 1.00 Fe max,
to 572 °F) 1.00 Zn max, 19 to 23 Ni, 1.00 Mn max, 0.5 max
C70600 Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at other (total), bal Cu
90Cu-10Ni 20 °C (68 °F)
Thermal conductivity. 40 W/m K (23 Btu/ft h Applications
Commercial Names °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Typical uses. Communication relays, condensers,
Previous trade names. Copper-nickel, 10%; Electrical Properties condenser plates, electrical springs, evaporator
CA706 and heat exchanger tubes, ferrules, resistors
Common name. 90-10 cupronickel Electrical conductivity. Volumetric, 9.1% IACS
Electrical resistivity. 190 n m at 20 °C (68 °F) Mechanical Properties
Specifications
Optical Properties Tensile properties. See Table 112.
ASME. Flat products: SB171, SB402. Pipe: Fatigue strength. Tubing, H55 temper: 138 MPa
Color. Pink-silver
SB466, SB467. Tubing: SB111, SB359, SB395, (20 ksi) at 108 cycles
SB466, SB467, SB543 Chemical Properties Elastic modulus. Tension, 140 GPa (20 106
ASTM. Flat products: B 122, B 171, B 402, B psi); shear, 52 GPa (7.5 106 psi)
Resistance to specific agents. Excellent resist-
432. Pipe: B 466, B 467. Rod: B 151. Tubing: B
ance to seawater
111, B 359, B 395, B 466, B 467, B 543, B 552 Mass Characteristics
SAE. Plate and tubing: J463 Fabrication Characteristics Density. 8.94 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Government. Bar, flat products, forgings, rod:
MIL-C-15726 E(2). Tubing: MIL-T-16420 J(3), Thermal Properties
Formability. Good capacity for being both cold
MIL-T-1368 C(2), MIL-T-23520 A(4).
worked and hot formed Liquidus temperature. 1200 °C (2190 °F)
Condenser tubing: MIL-T-15005 F
Weldability. Soldering, brazing, gas-shielded Solidus temperature. 1150 °C (2100 °F)
Chemical Composition arc, and resistance butt welding: excellent. Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 16.4
Shielded metal arc and resistance spot and seam m/m K (9.1 in./in. °F) at 20 to 300 °C (68
Composition limits. 0.05 Pb max, 1 to 1.8 Fe, 1.0 welding: good. Oxyfuel gas welding: fair
Zn max, 9 to 11 Ni, 1.0 Mn max, 0.5 max other to 572 °F)
Annealing temperature. 600 to 825 °C (1100 to Specific heat. 380 J/kg K (0.09 Btu/lb °F) at
(total), bal Cu 1500 °F) 20 °C (68 °F)
Applications Hot-working temperature. 850 to 950 °C (1550 Thermal conductivity. 36 W/m K (21 Btu/ft h
to 1750 °F) °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Typical uses. Condensers, condenser plates, dis-
tiller tubes, evaporator and heat exchanger tubes,
ferrules, saltwater piping, boat hulls C71000
80Cu-20Ni
Tensile properties. See Table 112 and Fig. 49. Commercial Names
Elastic modulus. Tension, 140 GPa (20 106 Previous trade names. Copper-nickel, 20%;
psi); shear, 52 GPa (7.5 106 psi) CA710
Fatigue strength. Tubing, H55 temper: 138 MPa Common name. 80-20 cupronickel
(20 ksi) at 108 cycles
Specifications
Mass Characteristics ASME. Pipe: SB466, SB467. Tubing: SB111,
Density. 8.94 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 °F) SB359, SB395, SB466, SB467
ASTM. Bar and flat products: B 122. Pipe: B
Thermal Properties 466, B 467. Tubing: B 111, B 359, B 395, B 466,
Liquidus temperature. 1150 °C (2100 °F) B 467. Wire: B 206
Solidus temperature. 1100 °C (2010 °F) SAE. Bar, flat products, and tubing: J463
Table 112 Typical mechanical properties of C70600 and C71000

Yield strength
0.5% extension
Tensile strength under load 0.2% offset Hardness
Elongation in
Temper MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi 50 mm (2 in.), % HRF HRB

OS050 350 51 90 13 90 13 35 72 25
OS035 358 52 98 14 98 14 35 73 27
OS025 365 53 110 16 110 16 35 75 30
H01 415 60 330 48 338 49 20 92 58
H02 468 68 425 62 435 63 8 100 75
H04 518 75 490 71 500 72 5 … 80
H06 540 78 518 75 525 76 4 … 82
H08 565 82 540 78 545 79 3 … 84
H10 585 85 540 78 545 79 3 … 86
OS025 338 49 125 18 … … 40 72 25 Fig. 49 Mechanical properties of cold drawn C70600
H55 468 68 430 62 … … 14 … 76 tubing. Data for variation in mechanical prop-
Wire, 2 mm (0.080 in.) diameter erties with amount of cold reduction for tubing with a
diameter of 60 mm (238 in.) and a wall thickness of 4.8
H10 655 95 585 85 … … 5 … …
mm (316 in.) wall
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Electrical Properties Hot-working temperature. 875 to 1050 °C (1600 Government. Bar, flat products, forgings, rod,
to 1900 °F) wire: MIL-C-15726. Tubing: MIL-T-15005,
MIL-T-16420, MIL-T-22214
6.5% IACS at 20 °C (68 °F)
Electrical resistivity. O61 temper: 265 n m at C71500 Chemical Composition
20 °C (68 °F) 70Cu-30Ni Composition limits. 0.05 Pb max, 0.4 to 0.7 Fe,
Optical Properties 1.0 Zn max, 29 to 33 Ni, 1.0 Mn max, 0.5 max
Commercial Names other (total), bal Cu
Color. Pale si

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®

ASM Specialty Handbook

Copper and Copper Alloys

Prepared under the direction of the

ASM International Staff

First printing, August 2001

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publications Data

Printed in the United States of America

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Nonstructural Applications of Copper and Copper Alloy

Introduction and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Copper-Base Brush Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Tensile strength, ksi (MPa) Electrical conductivity, %IACS

LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH

2FeS(l) 2SiO2(s) + 3O2(g)

The converter slag contains some copper (1 to

Matte Slag Matte Settler Air

Fig. 5 Cutaway view of a horizontal side-blown Peirce-Smith converter for produc-

Table 2 Chemical compositions of wrought coppers and copper alloys

C12300 … … 99.90 … … … … 0.015–0.040 … …

C15715 99.62 0.13–0.17 0.01 0.01 0.12–0.19 …

Copper Previous trade Other named

C16200 Cadmium copper bal(p) 0.02 … … … … … … … 0.7–1.2Cd

C19200 98.5 min(t) 0.8–1.2 … 0.20 … … 0.01–0.04 …

C21000 Gilding, 95% 94.0–96.0(t) 0.03 0.05 bal …

C31200 … 87.5–90.5(v) 0.7–1.2 0.10 bal 0.25Ni

C34500 … 62.0–65.0(v) 1.5–2.5 0.15 bal …

C60800 bal 0.10 0.10 … … 5.0–6.5 … … … 0.02–0.35As

C64700 … bal 0.10 0.10 … 0.50 … 0.40–0.8 1.6–2.2 …

C66300 … 84.5–87.5 0.05 1.4–2.4 1.5–3.0 bal … … … … 0.35P, 0.20Co

Table 3 Chemical compositions of cast coppers and copper alloys

C81400 bal 0.02–0.10 … … … … … … … … 0.6–1.0

C83300 92.0–94.0 1.0–2.0 1.0–2.0 2.0–6.0 … … … … … … … …

C86100 66.0–68.0 0.20 0.20 bal 2.0–4.0 … 4.5–5.5 2.5–5.0 …

C87300 94.0min … 0.20 0.25 0.20 … 3.5–4.5 0.8–1.5 … … … …

C95200 86.0(l) … 2.5–4.0 … 8.5–9.5 … … … … … …

C98200 bal(a) 0.6–2.0 21.0–27.0 … 0.50 0.10 0.7 0.50 0.50

Cold-worked tempers(a) Cold worked and stress-relieved tempers

Annealed tempers(d) Mill-hardened tempers(f)

Solution-treated temper Solution-treated and spinodal-heat-treated temper

Copper 001–999 A 001–049A

(a) Letter as appropriate for the material group

Coppers High-alloy coppers

Source: Copper Development Association

High-alloy coppers Special copper-zinc alloys

Source: Copper Development Association

High-conductivity coppers Copper-tin-phosphorus alloys

Source: Copper Development Association

Fig. 2 The copper-oxygen phase diagram. See text for details.

Fig. 7 Microstructure of a wrought tough pitch copper

this copper can be used where extensive cold

Table 4 Drawability of pure copper and

High- 0 (O) 2.20

Fig. 10 The copper-zinc phase diagram. See text for details.

100 30% Zn 700

Tensile strength, MPa

Tensile strength, ksi

Pure copper . . electrolytic tough pitch 15% Zn . . . red brass

Fig. 17 The ordered (superlattice) phase for the

Fig. 28 Effect of cooling rate from the region on the

upon cooling rapidly little forms. However,

ciently high to completely suppress any for-