polymer chain.

It is the structure of these side chains that influences the properties of

PLASTICS the polymer.

The molecular structure of the repeating unit can be fine-tuned to influence
specific properties in the polymer.
Plastic is material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-
synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and so can be molded into solid History
objects. The development of plastics has evolved from the use of natural plastic
Plasticity is the general property of all materials which can deform irreversibly materials (e.g., chewing gum, shellac) to the use of chemically modified, natural
without breaking but, in the class of moldable polymers, this occurs to such a degree materials (e.g., natural rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite) and finally to
that their actual name derives from this ability. completely synthetic molecules (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl chloride). Early
Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they often plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, which
contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived are organic polymers. In 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls,
from petrochemicals, but many are made from renewable materials such as bands, and figurines.[3] Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in
polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics from cotton linters. the Middle Ages. Materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by
The world's first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 treating milk-proteins (casein) with lye.
by Leo Baekeland who coined the term 'plastics'. Many chemists have contributed to In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution,
the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger who many materials were reported. The development of plastics also accelerated
has been called "the father of polymer chemistry" and Herman Mark, known as "the with Charles Goodyear's discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived
father of polymer physics". from natural rubber.
Parkesine (nitrocellulose) is considered the first man-made plastic. The plastic
Ethymology material was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was
The word plastic derives from the Greek word (plastikos) meaning "capable of unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London. Parkesine won a bronze
being shaped or molded" and, in turn, from (plastos) meaning "molded". medal at the 1862 World's fair in London. Parkesine was made from cellulose (the
The plasticity, or malleability, of the material during manufacture allows it to major component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid as a solvent. The output
be cast, pressed, or extruded into a variety of shapes, such as: films, fibers, plates, of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved
tubes, bottles, boxes, amongst many others. in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be
molded when heated. By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made
Structure to resemble ivory.
Most plastics contain organic polymers. The vast majority of In 1897, the Hanover, Germany mass printing press owner Wilhelm Krische was
these polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms, 'pure' or with the addition commissioned to develop an alternative to blackboards. The resultant horn-like
of: oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. The chains comprise many repeat units, formed plastic made from the milk protein casein was developed in cooperation with the
from monomers. Each polymer chain will have several thousand repeating units. Austrian chemist (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler (1846–1940). The final result was
The backbone is the part of the chain that is on the "main path", linking unsuitable for the original purpose. In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered
together a large number of repeat units. the means to insolubilize casein by immersion in formaldehyde, producing material
To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups "hang" marketed as galalith.
from this backbone. In reality, however, the "pendant units" are usually "hung" as part In the early 1900s, Bakelite, the first fully synthetic thermoset, was reported by
of the monomers, before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland by using phenol and formaldehyde.
 After World War I, improvements in chemical technology led to an explosion I. Physical and chemical structures.
in new forms of plastics, with mass production beginning in the 1940s and 1950s II. Preparation methods.
(around World War II) Among the earliest examples in the wave of new polymers III. Physical properties.
were polystyrene (PS), first produced by BASF in the 1930s,and polyvinyl IV. Applications.
chloride (PVC), first created in 1872 but commercially produced in the late 1920s. In
1923, Durite Plastics Inc. was the first manufacturer of phenol-furfural resins. In Classification According To Physical And Chemical Structures
1933, polyethylene was discovered by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) researchers 1. On the basis of functionality or degree of polymerization:
Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett. The functionality of a monomer or its degree of polymerization
In 1954, polypropylene was discovered by Giulio Natta and began to be determines the final polymer that will be formed due to the combination of
manufactured in 1957 the monomers. The number of reactive bonds or groups that are available for
In 1954, expanded polystyrene (used for building insulation, packaging, and coupling will determine whether the monomer will be mono-, bi-, tri-, or
cups) was invented by Dow Chemical. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)'s discovery is polyfunctional.
credited to employees of the Calico Printers' Association in the UK in 1941; it was 2. On the basis of chemical reactions:
licensed to DuPont for the USA and ICI otherwise, and as one of the few plastics Depending upon the basis on which monomers undergo chemical
appropriate as a replacement for glass in many circumstances, resulting in reactions to form polymers, polymers can be further subdivided.
widespread use for bottles in Europe.
Classification According to Preparation Methods:
POLYMER TECHNOLOGY Preparation methods for polymers may be roughly divided into two categories –
A. Condensation Polymerization Methods:
These methods are usually employed for low molecular weight
Definitions and Nomenclature
functional group reactions, where the stoichiometric proportions of the
Polymer:
reactions are fixed for the desired final products. During processing, solvent
Polymers are large chain molecules having a high molecular weight in the
addition may or may not be important. These reactants are usually mixed in a
range of 103 to 107.
batch reactor with controlled temperature and addition of catalysts. Vacuum
Monomer:
processing or Azeotropic Distillation may be employed to remove
A monomer is the single unit or the molecule which is repeated in the
condensation products such as H2O to obtain a higher degree of
polymer chain.
polymerization.
Thermosetting Polymer:
B. Addition Polymerization Methods:
They are polymers which, when heated, decompose, and hence, cannot be
These methods are carried out with controlled thermal and catalyst
reshaped.
conditions. They may be further classified as –
Thermoplastic Polymer:
i. Bulk Polymerization:
They can be melted repeatedly and casted into various shapes and
This mode of polymerization may be employed to obtain the
structures. They are soluble in solvents, but do not have appreciable thermal
purest form of polymer, and the greatest yield of polymer per unit
resistance properties. Vinyls, cellulose derivatives, polythene and polypropylene fall
volume may be obtained using this method. This method involves only
into the category of thermoplastic polymers.
the monomer molecule, an initiator and a chain transfer agent (if
necessary). In a large scale batch form, the process is to be run slowly
Polymer Classification
or incontinuous mode with large heat transfer area. Casting of objects
Polymers are generally classified on the basis of –
of various shapes may be accomplished using the Batch Bulk
 Polymerization. Using continuous bulk polymerization processes, derivatives, polythene and polypropylene fall into the category of
polystyrene and other thermoplastic compounds may be moulded. thermoplastic polymers.
ii. Solution Polymerization: B. Thermosetting:
An inert solvent is added to the reacting components in the There are some polymers which, when heated, decompose, and
reaction vessel in this process. The solvent enhances the heat hence, cannot be reshaped. Such polymers have a complex 3-D network
capacity, thereby reducing the viscosity and facilitating heat transfer. (cross-linked or branched) and are called Thermosetting Polymers. They are
Some of the solvent may be refluxed to remove heat from the reaction generally insoluble in solvents and have good heat resistance quality.
vessel. But, much of the reactor space is taken up by the solvent. Thermosetting polymers include phenol-formaldehyde, urea-aldehyde,
iii. Suspension Polymerization: silicones and allyls.
Inorder to control the enormous amount of heat release in Bulk C. Elastomers:
Polymerization, Suspension Polymerization method was developed. These are resistant solids which have considerable flexibility. They are
The reaction mass is dispersed as minute droplets of size 0.01 – 1 mm in composed of polymers with glass transition temperature below room
diameter in a continuous aqueous phase. temperature. One major difference between elastomers and plastics is that
iv. Emulsion Polymerization: the elastomer is in a liquid state, while plastics are in the glassy state. Examples
This is the most widely used method of polymerization. This of elastomers are Butadiene, Butadiene co – polymers and their derivatives,
process overcomes the difficulty of heat control and low degree of poly condensation products, silicones and thiokols.
polymerization. The organic reaction mass is emulsified with soap in a D. Fibers:
continuous aqueous phase. The dispersed particles are smaller in size These are solids which can form thread – like structures and have high
than in Suspension Polymerization ( ≤ 0.1 µm) . tensile strength. Examples of fibers are Polyamides, Polyesters, Polyurethanes,
v. Homogeneous Polymerization: Protein derivatives.
In case of homogeneous bulk polymerization, the feed is a gas,
liquid or solid monomer. No initiators or additives are used. For Classification According to Applications
homogeneous Solution polymerization, the monomer is completely On the basis of applications, polymers can be further classified as-
dissolved in a solvent. A. Adhesives:
vi. Heterogeneous Polymerization: Some polymers can be used for bonding. They are usually of the resin
In heterogeneous Emulsion polymerization, the monomer type and require some water resistance. Some common adhesives are
molecules are emulsified in aqueous media in the form of micelles. For Cellulose adhesives; which consist of cellulose derivatives dissolved in a
heterogeneous Suspension polymerization, the monomer is suspended solvent. Eg.Duco cement. Vinyls; these are rubber base type water-emulsified
in a n aqueous or other type of media as large droplets. latex adhesives. Apart from these, some cheap natural products such as
starch, dextrins, proteins and natural rubber may also be used for adhesive
Classification According to Physical Properties: formulations.
Polymers can also be classified according to physical properties as- B. Coatings and films:
A. Thermoplastic: A large bulk of the polymers produced are used for manufacturing
The polymers in this category are composed of monomers which are coatings and films. Free films of polyethylene and cellulosic types, protective
linear or have moderate branching. They can be melted repeatedly and and decorative coatings are the products of the polymer industry. Coatings
casted into various shapes and structures. They are soluble in solvents, but do can be manufactured by solvent evaporation followed by polymerization.
not have appreciable thermal resistance properties. Vinyl’s, cellulose Emulsion and casting or extrusion of free films by mechanical methods can
also produce coatings and films.
 C. Fibers: acronym PET is generally used in relation to packaging. Polyester makes up about
These are formed by extrusion or spinning of linear monomer molecules 18% of world polymer production and is the fourth-most-produced polymer;
into thin sections of diameter in the range of 10 – 50 microns. Fibers have polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are first, second
excellent tensile strength, creep and resilience. Fibers are extensively used in and third, respectively.
the textile industry. Cotton, wool etc. are the examples of some natural fibers. PET consists of polymerized units of the monomer ethylene terephthalate, with
repeating (C10H8O4)n units. PET is commonly recycled, and has the number "1" as its
TYPES OF PLASTIC recycling symbol. PET-based containers sometimes absorb odors and flavors from
foods and drinks that are stored inside of them. Because PET is an excellent water and
moisture barrier material, plastic bottles made from PET are widely used for soft drinks.
In many types of plastics, how many can we recycle? What are they made
For certain specialty bottles, such as those designated for beer containment, PET
of? Why do we need different kinds?
sandwiches an additional polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) layer to further reduce its oxygen
Plastic is an essential component of numerous consumer products, including
permeability. PET plastic is used to make many common household items like
water bottles and product containers. However, not every kind of plastic is the same.
beverage bottles, medicine jars, peanut butter jars, combs, bean bags, and rope.
In 1988, the Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI) established a classification system to
Recycled PETE is used to make tote bags, carpet, fiberfill material in winter clothing,
help consumers and recyclers properly recycle and dispose of each different type
and more.
based on its chemical makeup. Today, manufacturers follow a coding system and
In 2016, it was estimated that 56 million tons of PET are produced each year. While
place a number, or SPI code, on each plastic product, usually molded into the
most thermoplastics can, in principle, be recycled, PET bottle recycling is more
bottom. Although you should always verify the plastic classification number of each
practical than many other plastic applications because of the high value of the resin
product you use, especially if you plan on recycling it, this guide provides a basic
and the almost exclusive use of PET for widely used water and carbonated soft drink
outline of the different plastic types associated with each code number.
bottling.
General Types of Plastic
PET Packaging Recycling Process
1. Thermoplastic
PET bottles and thermoforms can be recycled by reclaimers to create washed
Thermoplastic defines as capable of softening or fusing when heated and of
recycled PET flake or PET pellets, known as rPET, that are used in a variety of
hardening again when cooled.
applications including: textiles, carpet fiber, strapping, sheet extrusion and new PET
2. Thermosetting
bottles. PET is valued for its good physical properties, safety for use with food and
Capable of becoming permanently rigid when heated or cured.
beverages, clarity and lack of color. The process steps used to recycle PET have been
developed to maintain these important performance attributes.
Common Types of Plastic
Discussion of PET recycling can be broken down into four separate process
1. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE)
segments:
Polyethylene terephthalate is the most
1. Create granulated flake
common thermoplastic polymer resin of the
2. Create washed flake
polyester family and is used in fibers for clothing,
3. Create melt filtered pellets
containers for liquids and foods, thermoforming
4. Create solid stated product
for manufacturing, and in combination with glass
fiber for engineering resins.
Process variations may be employed at different reclaimer locations.
The majority of the world's PET production is for synthetic fibers (in excess of 60%),
with bottle production accounting for about 30% of global demand. In the context
Process Segment 1: Create Granulated Flake
of textile applications, PET is referred to by its common name, polyester, whereas the
 Post-consumer PET wastes are being collected of local governments and
waste collection separately from other household waste. Bales of PET packaging are
broken open, sorted and granulated to create PET flake that facilitates separation of
PET from labels, closure materials, and other contents in the bale. Recall that bales of
PET will contain PET packaging, along with closures, labels, pump or spray dispensers,
and attachments such as handles or heat seal foils. There will be residual contents
from food and beverage containers in the packaging. There will also be non-PET
materials in the bale that were not removed at the MRF; examples include paper and
cardboard, plastic films, or metal cans.
PET reclaimers might employ bales of PET bottles only, thermoforms only, or
bales that contain a mixture of bottles and thermoforms.

Process Segment 3: Create Melt Filtered Pellets

Some rPET applications are better served by supply of PET pellets that have
higher bulk density and better conveying and feeding properties than PET flake. Melt
filtered pellets are commonly created through the following steps:
 Drying PET flake in a desiccant drier at about 150o C for about 4 hours
 Extruding the flake at 270o to 300o C
 Passing the melt through a metal screen filter to remove physical contamination
 Pelletizing the PET

Process Segment 2: Create Washed Flake Process Segment 4: Create Solid Stated Product
In this process segment, flake is washed and then materials that float in water An important property of PET is referred to as “IV” intrinsic viscosity. IV is a
are removed in the “float sink tank.” The elutriation process involves an air stream measure of the molecular weight of PET. Many PET buyers specify a specific value of
employed to remove materials such as fines and label residue from dry PET flake. IV for their application. Since melt processing will reduce the IV of PET, it is desirable
Screening removes any PET flake that is too big or too small to be desirable. It is to have a process that can raise IV to meet end user requirements.
common today to use a final auto-color sorter to evaluate the color of the dry flake Solid stating increases the IV of PET. There are cases where melt filtered pellets
and remove any off-colored material resulting from label residue or contamination. are solid stated to boost IV. There are other cases where washed flake can be solid
Washed flake can be the feedstock used in many postconsumer applications for stated prior to use. PET flake or pellets are subjected to high temperature, about 210
recycled PET, or rPET. A few examples of products produced from washed flake deg. C, under either vacuum or dry nitrogen for several hours. During this exposure,
include: PET sheet, fiber, or strapping. water is removed from the PET, and what chemists call a “polyester condensation
reaction” allows a build in molecular weight and IV. Further, the US FDA has strict
requirements for rPET that is used in food and beverage applications. Solid stating is
the most common method used to remove any contaminants that are of concern
with food and beverage applications and allow compliance with FDA requirements.

Global statistics
 Worldwide, approximately 7.5 million tons of PET were collected in 2011. This HDPE is resistant to many different solvents and has a wide variety of
gave 5.9 million tons of flake. In 2009 3.4 million tons were used to produce fibre, applications:
500,000 tons to produce bottles, 500,000 tons to produce APET sheet for  Bottle caps
thermoforming, 200,000 tons to produce strapping tape and 100,000 tons for  Chemical-resistant piping
miscellaneous applications.  Coax cable inner insulator
In 2008 the amount of post-consumer PET bottles collected for recycling and  Food storage containers
sold in the United States was approx. 1.45 billion pounds.  Fuel tanks for vehicles
In 2012, 81% of the PET bottles sold in Switzerland were recycled.  Corrosion protection for steel pipelines
Increasing energy prices may increase the volume of recycling PET bottles. In  Electrical and plumbing boxes
Europe, the EU Waste Framework Directive mandates that by 2020 there should be  Folding chairs and tables
50% recycling or reuse of plastics from household streams.  Piping for Water
In the United States the recycling rate for PET packaging was 31.2% in 2013,  Piping for Sewer
according to a report from The National Association for PET Container Resources  Plastic bags
(NAPCOR) and The Association of Postconsumer Plastic Recyclers (APR). A total of  Plastic bottles suitable both for recycling (such as milk jugs) or re-use
1,798 million pounds was collected and 475 million pounds of recycled PET used out HDPE is preferred by the pyrotechnics trade for mortars over steel or PVC
of a total of 5,764 million pounds of PET bottles. tubes, being more durable and safer. HDPE tends to rip or tear in a malfunction
instead of shattering and becoming shrapnel like the other materials.
2. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) Milk jugs and other hollow goods manufactured through blow molding are the
The SPI code of 2 identifies plastic made with most important application area for HDPE, accounting for one-third of worldwide
high-density polyethylene, or HDPE. It is a production, or more than 8 million tons. There is some evidence that this form of
polyethylene thermoplastic made from petroleum. recycling is less energy intensive than conventional recycling, which can involve a
It is sometimes called "alkathene" or "polythene" large embodied energy for transportation
when used for pipes. With a high strength-to-density Above all, China, where beverage bottles made from HDPE were first
ratio, HDPE is used in the production of plastic imported in 2005, is a growing market for rigid HDPE packaging, as a result of its
bottles, corrosion-resistant piping, geomembranes, and plastic lumber. High-Density improving standard of living. In India and other highly populated, emerging nations,
Polyethylene products are very safe and are not known to transmit any chemicals infrastructure expansion includes the deployment of pipes and cable insulation made
into foods or drinks. HDPE products are commonly recycled. Items made from this from HDPE. The material has benefited from discussions about possible health and
plastic include containers for milk, motor oil, shampoos and conditioners, soap bottles, environmental problems caused by PVC and Polycarbonate associated Bisphenol A,
detergents, and bleaches. It is never safe to reuse an HDPE bottle as a food or drink as well as its advantages over glass, metal, and cardboard.
container if it didn’t originally contain food or drink. Its chemical resistance properties
make it a good choice as container for household chemicals and detergents. 3. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
In 2007, the global HDPE market reached a volume of more than 30 million Polyvinyl chloride is the world's third-most widely
tons. According to the EPA, 12% of plastic bags and film were recycled in 2007. Of produced synthetic plastic polymer, after
course, we are looking to move toward a society of reusable bags versus using the polyethylene and polypropylene. Plastic labeled
plastic grocery store variety. with an SPI code of 3 is made with it.
PVC comes in two basic forms: rigid (sometimes
Applications abbreviated as RPVC) and flexible. The rigid form of
PVC is used in construction for pipe and in profile applications such as doors and
windows. It is also used for bottles, other non-food packaging, and cards (such as  Clothing and furniture- PVC has become widely used in clothing, to either
bank or membership cards). It can be made softer and more flexible by the addition create a leather-like material or at times simply for the effect of PVC. PVC
of plasticizers, the most widely used being phthalates. In this form, it is also used in clothing is common in Goth, Punk, clothing fetish and alternative fashions.
plumbing, electrical cable insulation, imitation leather, signage, phonograph records, PVC is less expensive than rubber, leather, and latex which it is therefore used
inflatable products, and many applications where it replaces rubber. PVC is not often to simulate. PVC fabric is water-resistant, so it is used in coats, skiing
recycled and can be harmful if ingested. This kind of plastic should not come in equipment, shoes, jackets, aprons, and bags
contact with food items. Recycled PVC is used to make flooring, mobile home skirting,  Healthcare- the two main application areas for single-use medically
and other industrial-grade items. approved PVC compounds are flexible containers and tubing: containers
Pure polyvinyl chloride is a white, brittle solid. It is insoluble in alcohol but slightly used for blood and blood components, for urine collection or for ostomy
soluble in tetrahydrofuran. products and tubing used for blood taking and blood giving sets, catheters,
PVC has a chemical formula of (C2H3Cl)n. The polymers are linear and are strong. heart-lung bypass sets, hemodialysis sets etc. In Europe the consumption of
About 57% of the mass of PVC is chlorine. The presence of chloride groups gives the PVC for medical devices is approximately 85.000 tons every year. Almost one
polymer very different properties from the structurally related material polyethylene. third of plastic based medical devices are made from PVC. The reasons for
Applications using flexible PVC in these applications for over 50 years are numerous and
PVC's relatively low cost, biological and chemical resistance, and workability based on cost effectiveness linked to transparency, light weight, softness, tear
have resulted in it being used for a wide variety of applications. strength, kink resistance, suitability for sterilization and biocompatibility.
 Pipes- roughly half of the world's polyvinyl chloride resin manufactured
annually is used for producing pipes for municipal and industrial applications 4. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
 Electric cables- PVC is commonly used as the insulation on electrical cables Plastic marked with an SPI code of 4 is made
- PVC used for this purpose needs to be plasticized. with low-density polyethylene, or LDPE. It is a
 Unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (uPVC) for construction- an extensively used thermoplastic made from the monomer ethylene. It
in the building industry as a low-maintenance material, particularly in Ireland, was the first grade of polyethylene, produced in
the United Kingdom, in the United States and Canada. If no plasticizers are 1933 by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) using a
added, it is known as uPVC. In the USA and Canada it is known as vinyl, or vinyl high pressure process via free radical
siding. The material comes in a range of colors and finishes, including a photo- polymerization. Its manufacture employs the same method today. Despite
effect wood finish, and is used as a substitute for painted wood, mostly for competition from more modern polymers, LDPE continues to be an important plastic
window frames and sills when installing double glazing in new buildings, or to grade. In 2013 the worldwide LDPE market reached a volume of about US$33 billion.
replace older single-glazed windows. LDPE is not commonly recycled, but it is recyclable in certain areas. It tends to be both
 Signs- PVC is formed in flat sheets in a variety of thicknesses and colors. As flat durable and flexible. It also is not known to release harmful chemicals into objects in
sheets, PVC is often expanded to create voids in the interior of the material, contact with it, making it a safe choice for food storage. Plastic cling wrap, sandwich
providing additional thickness without additional weight and minimal extra bags, squeezable bottles, and plastic grocery bags all are made from LDPE. Recycled
cost. Sheets are cut using saw and rotary cutting equipment. Plasticized PVC LDPE is used to make garbage cans, lumber, furniture, and many other products seen
is also used to produce thin, colored, or clear, adhesive-backed films referred in and around the house.
to simply as vinyl. These films are typically cut on a computer-controlled plotter
(see Vinyl cutter) or printed in a wide-format printer. These sheets and films are Applications
used to produce a wide variety of commercial signage products, including Plastic cling wrap, sandwich bags, squeezable bottles, and plastic grocery bags
car body stripes and stickers. all are made from LDPE. Recycled LDPE is used to make garbage cans, lumber,
furniture, and many other products seen in and around the house.
 LDPE is widely used for manufacturing various containers, dispensing bottles, wash The large number of end-use applications for polypropylene are often possible
bottles, tubing, plastic bags for computer components, and various molded because of the ability to tailor grades with specific molecular properties and additives
laboratory equipment. Its most common use is in plastic bags. Other products made during its manufacture. For example, antistatic additives can be added to help
from it include: polypropylene surfaces resist dust and dirt. Many physical finishing techniques can
 Trays and general purpose containers also be used on polypropylene, such as machining. Surface treatments can be
 Corrosion-resistant work surfaces- juice and milk cartons are made applied to polypropylene parts in order to promote adhesion of printing ink and
of liquid packaging board, a laminate of paperboard and LDPE (as the paints.
waterproof inner and outer layer), and often with of a layer of aluminum
foil (thus becoming aseptic packaging). Application
 Packaging for computer hardware, such as hard disk drives, screen cards, Plastic bottle caps often are made from PP as well. Among many other products,
and optical disc drives it is used to make packaging and labeling, textiles (e.g., ropes, thermal underwear
and carpets), stationery, plastic diapers, Tupperware, margarine containers, yogurt
5. Polypropylene (PP) boxes, syrup bottles, prescription bottles, plastic parts and reusable containers of
Consumers will find the SPI code of 5 on plastic items made with polypropylene, various types, laboratory equipment, loudspeakers, automotive components,
or PP. It is a thermoplastic polymer used in a wide and polymer banknotes, and some stadium cups. Recycled PP is used to make ice
variety of applications. It has a chemical formula of scrapers, rakes, battery cables, and similar items that need to be durable.
(C3H6)n. PP is rugged and unusually resistant to many
chemical solvents, bases and acids. PP can be 6. Polystyrene (PS)
recycled but is not accepted for recycling as Plastic marked with an SPI code of 6 is made with
commonly as PETE or HDPE. This type of plastic is polystyrene, also known as PS and most commonly
strong and can usually withstand higher known as Styrofoam. It is a synthetic aromatic polymer
temperatures. made from the monomer styrene. As a thermoplastic
Polypropylene has a relatively slippery "low energy surface" that means that many polymer, polystyrene is in a solid (glassy) state at room
common glues will not form adequate joints. Joining of polypropylene is often done temperature but flows if heated above about 100 °C, its glass transition temperature.
using welding processes. It has a chemical formula of (C8H8)n. It becomes rigid again when cooled. This
In 2013, the global market for polypropylene was about 55 million tonnes. temperature behavior is exploited for extrusion (as in Styrofoam) and also for molding
Polypropylene is the world's second-most widely produced synthetic plastic, after and vacuum forming, since it can be cast into molds with fine detail. Polystyrene can
polyethylene. be solid or foamed. General-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and rather brittle. It is
The manufacturing of Polypropylene is through melting process. Melting process an inexpensive resin per unit weight. It is a rather poor barrier to oxygen and water
of polypropylene can be achieved via extrusion and molding. Common extrusion vapor and has a relatively low melting point. Polystyrene is one of the most widely
methods include production of melt-blown and spun-bond fibers to form long rolls for used plastics, the scale of its production being several million tonnes per year.
future conversion into a wide range of useful products, such as face masks, filters, Polystyrene can be naturally transparent, but can be colored with colorants.
diapers and wipes. Polystyrene is very slow to biodegrade and is therefore a focus of controversy
The most common shaping technique is injection molding, which is used for parts among environmentalists. It is increasingly abundant as a form of litter in the outdoor
such as cups, cutlery, vials, caps, containers, housewares, and automotive parts such environment, particularly along shores and waterways, especially in its foam form,
as batteries. The related techniques of blow molding and injection-stretch blow and also in increasing quantities in the Pacific Ocean.
molding are also used, which involve both extrusion and molding.
Application Water absorption of polystyrene foams
Disposable coffee cups, plastic food boxes, plastic cutlery, packing foam, and Although it is a closed-cell foam, both expanded and extruded polystyrene are
packing peanuts are made from PS. Recycled PS is used to make many different kinds not entirely waterproof or vapor proof. In expanded polystyrene there are interstitial
of products, including insulation, license plate frames, and custom rulers. gaps between the expanded closed-cell pellets that form an open network of
 Sheet or molded polystyrene channels between the bonded pellets, and this network of gaps can become filled
Polystyrene (PS) is used for producing disposable plastic cutlery and dinnerware, with liquid water. If the water freezes into ice, it expands and can cause polystyrene
CD "jewel" cases, smoke detector housings, license plate frames, plastic model pellets to break off from the foam. Extruded polystyrene is also permeable by water
assembly kits, and many other objects where a rigid, economical plastic is desired. molecules and cannot be considered a vapor barrier.
Production methods include thermoforming (vacuum forming) and injection molding. Waterlogging commonly occurs over a long period of time in polystyrene foams
 Foams that are constantly exposed to high humidity or are continuously immersed in water,
Polystyrene foams are good thermal insulators and are therefore often used as such as in hot tub covers, in floating docks, as supplemental flotation under boat
building insulation materials, such as in insulating concrete forms and structural seats, and for below-grade exterior building insulation constantly exposed to
insulated panel building systems. Grey polystyrene foam, incorporating graphite has groundwater. Typically an exterior vapor barrier such as impermeable plastic
superior insulation properties. They are also used for non-weight-bearing architectural sheeting or a sprayed-on coating is necessary to prevent saturation.
structures (such as ornamental pillars). PS foams also exhibit good damping
properties, therefore it is used widely in packaging. The trademark Styrofoam by Dow Environmental Issues
Chemical Company is informally used (mainly US & Canada) for all foamed Since polystyrene is lightweight and easy to form into plastic materials, it also
polystyrene products, although strictly it should only be used for 'extruded closed-cell' breaks easily, making it more harmful to the environment. Beaches all over the world
polystyrene foams made by Dow Chemicals. are littered with pieces of polystyrene, endangering the health of marine animals.
 Expanded polystyrene (EPS)
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is a rigid and tough, closed-cell foam. It is usually Production
white and made of pre-expanded polystyrene beads. EPS is used for many Polystyrene foams are produced using blowing agents that form bubbles and
applications e.g. trays, plates, bowls and fish boxes. Other uses include molded sheets expand the foam. In expanded polystyrene, these are usually hydrocarbons such
for building insulation and packing material ("peanuts") for cushioning fragile items as pentane, which may pose a flammability hazard in manufacturing or storage of
inside boxes. Sheets are commonly packaged as rigid panels (size 4 by 8 or 2 by 8 newly manufactured material, but have relatively mild environmental impact.
feet in the United States), which are also known as "bead-board". Extruded polystyrene is usually made with hydrofluorocarbons (HFC-134a), which
Due to its technical properties such as low weight, rigidity, and formability, EPS have global warming potentials of approximately 1000–1300 times that of carbon
can be used in a wide range of different applications. Its market value is likely to rise dioxide.
to more than US$15 billion by 2020.
 Extruded polystyrene foam Non-biodegradable
Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) consists of closed cells, offers improved surface Discarded polystyrene does not biodegrade for hundreds of years and is
roughness and higher stiffness and reduced thermal conductivity. Extruded resistant to photolysis.[38]
polystyrene material is also used in crafts and model building, in
particular architectural models. Because of the extrusion manufacturing process, XPS Litter
does not require facers to maintain its thermal or physical property performance. Thus, Animals do not recognize polystyrene foam as an artificial material and may
it makes a more uniform substitute for corrugated cardboard. even mistake it for food. Polystyrene foam blows in the wind and floats on water, due
to its specific gravity. It can have serious effects on the health of birds or marine
animals that swallow significant quantities.
Reducing Polycarbonates (PC) are a group of thermoplastic polymers
Restricting the use of foamed polystyrene takeout food packaging is a priority containing carbonate groups in their chemical structures. Polycarbonates used in
of many solid waste environmental organizations. Efforts have been made to find engineering are strong, tough materials, and some grades are optically transparent.
alternatives to polystyrene, especially foam in restaurant settings. The original impetus They are easily worked, molded, and thermoformed. Because of these properties,
was to eliminate chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), which was a former component of polycarbonates find many applications. Polycarbonates do not have a unique resin
foam. identification code (RIC) and are identified as "Other", 7 on the RIC list. Products made
from polycarbonate can contain the precursor monomer bisphenol A (BPA).
Recycling Polycarbonate is a durable material. Although it has high impact-resistance,
In general, polystyrene is not accepted in curbside collection recycling it has low scratch-resistance. Therefore, a hard coating is applied to
programs, and is not separated and recycled where it is accepted. In Germany, polycarbonate eyewear lenses and polycarbonate exterior automotive
polystyrene is collected, as a consequence of the packaging law requires components. The characteristics of polycarbonate compare to those of polymethyl
manufacturers to take responsibility for recycling or disposing of any packaging methacrylate (PMMA, acrylic), but polycarbonate is stronger and will hold up longer
material they sell. to extreme temperature. Polycarbonate is highly transparent to visible light, with
Most polystyrene products are currently not recycled due to the lack of better light transmission than many kinds of glass.
incentive to invest in the compactors and logistical systems required. Due to the low
density of polystyrene foam, it is not economical to collect. However, if the waste Applications
material goes through an initial compaction process, the material changes density  Electronic components
from typically 30 kg/m3 to 330 kg/m3 and becomes a recyclable commodity of high Polycarbonate is mainly used for electronic applications that capitalize on its
value for producers of recycled plastic pellets. Expanded polystyrene scrap can be collective safety features. Being a good electrical insulator and having heat-resistant
easily added to products such as EPS insulation sheets and other EPS materials for and flame-retardant properties, it is used in various products associated with
construction applications; many manufacturers cannot obtain sufficient scrap electrical and telecommunications hardware. It can also serve as a dielectric in high-
because of collection issues. When it is not used to make more EPS, foam scrap can stability capacitors. However, commercial manufacture of polycarbonate
be turned into products such as clothes hangers, park benches, flower pots, toys, capacitors mostly stopped after sole manufacturer Bayer AG stopped making
rulers, stapler bodies, seedling containers, picture frames, and architectural molding capacitor-grade polycarbonate film at the end of year 2000.
from recycled PS. Currently, around 100 tonnes of EPS are recycled every month in  Construction materials
the UK The second largest consumer of polycarbonates is the construction industry, e.g.
for domelights, flat or curved glazing, and sound walls, which all use extruded flat solid
Fire hazards or multiwall sheet, or corrugated sheet.
Like other organic compounds, polystyrene is flammable.  Data storage
A major application of polycarbonate is the production of Compact Discs, DVDs,
7. Miscellaneous Types of Plastic and Blu-ray Discs. These discs are produced by injection molding polycarbonate into
The SPI code of 7 is used to designate miscellaneous a mold cavity that has on one side a metal stamper containing a negative image of
types of plastic that are not defined by the other six codes. the disc data, while the other mold side is a mirrored surface.
Polycarbonate and polylactide are included in this  Automotive, aircraft, railway, and security components
category. Polycarbonate (PC) is an extremely common In the automotive industry, injection-molded polycarbonate can produce very
plastic in this category and is often associated with this smooth surfaces that make it well-suited for sputter deposition or evaporation
category. deposition of aluminum without the need for a base-coat. Decorative bezels and
optical reflectors are commonly made of polycarbonate. Due to its low weight and
high impact resistance, polycarbonate is the dominant material for making As more and more governments are restricting the use of glass in pubs and clubs
automotive headlamp lenses. However, automotive headlamps require outer surface due to the increased incidence of glassings, polycarbonate glasses are becoming
coatings because of its low scratch resistance and susceptibility to ultraviolet popular for serving alcohol because of their strength, durability, and glass-like feel.
degradation (yellowing). The use of polycarbonate in automotive applications is Other miscellaneous items include durable, lightweight luggage, MP3/digital
limited to low stress applications. Stress from fasteners, plastic welding and molding audio player cases, ocarinas, computer cases, fountain pens, riot shields, instrument
render polycarbonate susceptible to stress corrosion cracking when it comes in panels, tealight candle containers and blender jars. Many toys and hobby items are
contact with certain accelerants such as salt water and plastisol. It can be laminated made from polycarbonate parts, like fins, gyro mounts, and flybar locks in radio-
to make bullet-proof "glass", although "bullet-resistant" is more accurate for the thinner controlled helicopters, and transparent LEGO (ABS is used for opaque pieces).
windows, such as are used in bullet-resistant windows in automobiles. The thicker Standard Polycarbonate resins are not suitable for long term exposure to UV
barriers of transparent plastic used in teller's windows and barriers in banks are also radiation. To overcome this the primary resin can have UV Stabilisers added. These
polycarbonate. grades are sold as UV Stabilized Polycarbonate to Injection Moulding and Extrusion
 Niche applications companies. Other applications including Polycarbonate sheet may have the anti-UV
Polycarbonate, being a versatile material with attractive processing and physical layer added as a special coating or a coextrusion for enhanced weathering
properties, has attracted myriad smaller applications. The use of injection molded resistance.
drinking bottles, glasses and food containers is common, but the use of BPA in the Polycarbonate is also used as a printing substrate for nameplate and other forms
manufacture of polycarbonate has stirred serious controversy (see Potential hazards of industrial grade under printed products. The polycarbonate provides a barrier to
in food contact applications), leading to development and use of "BPA-free" plastics wear, the elements, and fading.
in various formulations.
 Laboratory safety goggles Toxicity
Polycarbonate is commonly used in eye protection, as well as in other projectile- The problem with PC is bisphenol A (BPA), the synthetic backbone which
resistant viewing and lighting applications that would normally indicate the use readily breaks down and leaches from PC. For example, BPA leaching is a significant
of glass, but require much higher impact-resistance. Polycarbonate lenses also concern with PC epoxy-lined cans used for foods, especially oil-based and/or acidic
protect the eye from UV light. Many kinds of lenses are manufactured from foods, which will increase leaching. There is lots more information in our BPA section,
polycarbonate, including automotive headlamp lenses, lighting but in a nutshell... BPA is often described as a hormone or endocrine disuptor,
lenses, sunglass/eyeglass lenses, swimming goggles and SCUBA masks, and safety because it mimics human hormones, in particular the estrogen hormones, which are
glasses/goggles/visors including visors in sporting helmets/masks and police riot involved in normal cellular function, reproduction, development and behaviour.
gear(helmet visors, riot shields, etc.). Windscreens in small motorized vehicles are Peer-reviewed scientific studies have linked BPA to numerous health problems
commonly made of polycarbonate, such as for motorcycles, ATVs, golf carts, and including chromosome damage in female ovaries, decreased sperm production in
small planes and helicopters. males, early onset of puberty, various behavioural changes, altered immune function,
Typical products of sheet/film production include applications in advertisement sex reversal in frogs, impaired brain and neurological functions, cardiovascular system
(signs, displays, poster protection). But also applications as automotive safety glazing damage, adult-onset (Type II) diabetes, obesity, resistance to chemotherapy,
(ECE R 43). increased risk of breast cancer, prostate cancer, infertility, and metabolic disorders -
The light weight of polycarbonate as opposed to glass has led to development of - research into the impacts of BPA on human health is extensive and ongoing
electronic display screens that replace glass with polycarbonate, for use in mobile (PC1, PC2, PC3, PC4).
and portable devices. Such displays include newer e-ink and some LCD screens,
though CRT, plasma screen and other LCD technologies generally still require glass
for its higher melting temperature and its ability to be etched in finer detail.
Recycling Rate Dimensional Stability
Very low (PC). Not all municipalities include polycarbonate as readily Thermo-plastic types of plastics can be easily reshaped and reused. But in the
acceptable for their recycling programs. Recycled PC may be used to make plastic case of thermo-setting type plastics, it is not possible to reshape or remold the
material.
lumber.
Fire Resistance
The resistance to temperature or fire for varieties of plastics considerably varies
Alternatives depending upon the structure. Plastics made of cellulose acetate are burnt slowly.
Buy in glass and reuse those bottles/jars - mason jars are incredibly versatile. PVC made plastics do not catch fire easily. Plastics made of phenol formaldehyde
Use a glass or stainless steel reusable water bottle. Use a stainless steel water dispenser and urea formaldehyde are fire proof materials.
for large quantities of water or other liquids. If you must use the large blue PC bottles, Weight of Plastics
transfer the water to another container as soon as you bring it home. The Plastics have low specific gravity generally ranges from 1.3 to 1.4. So they
are light in weight and easily transportable to any place in a large quantity.
Melting Point
Suggestion for PC Generally plastics have very low melting point. Some plastics may melt at just
Avoid leaches bisphenol A (BPA), which is a known endocrine disruptor with 50oC. So, they cannot be used in the positions of high temperature. Thermo setting
numerous adverse health effects, including increased risk of cancers. type of plastics are having high melting point than thermo plastic type plastics.
However, thermo setting types are cannot used for recycling. To improve the heat
resistance of the plastics, glass fiber reinforcement is provided in its structure.
Humidity
PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS The plastics made up of cellulosic materials are affected by the presence of
moisture. The plastics made of poly vinyl chloride (PVC pipes) offers great resistance
Properties of Plastics as a Construction Material against moisture.
Each plastic material has its own peculiar properties to suit its particular uses. Weather Resistance
The success of plastic as an engineering material will depends up on the selection of Most of the plastics except some limited varieties are capable of resistance
variety of plastic. The following are the general properties of plastic. against weathering. But, major problem is plastics when the plastics are exposed to
sunlight, they are seriously affected by ultra violet rays and gets brittle. To prevent this,
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES plastics are incorporated by fillers and pigments which helps to absorb or reflect the
Strength UV rays to surface.
Practically we can say that plastic is a strong material but ideal section of Durability of Plastics
plastic which is useful for structural component is not designed yet. Generally by Plastics with sufficient surface hardness are having good durability.
reinforcing fibrous material into plastic improves its strength. If the strength to weight Sometimes, plastics may affected by termites and rodents especially in the case of
ratio of plastic is same as metals, then also we cannot give preference to plastics thermo-plastic types, however it is not a serious problem because of no nutrition
because of various reasons like, heavy cost, creep failure may occur, poor stiffness values in plastic.
and sensitive against temperature. Finishing
Ductility of Plastics Any type of finishing treatment van be given to the plastics. Mass production
Ductile nature of plastic is very low. When tensile stress are acting on plastic of plastic particles with uniformity of surface finish is done by having technical control
member they may fail without any prior indication. during manufacturing.
Fixing
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Fixing of plastic materials is so easy. We can bolt, drill or glued to fix plastic
Appearance of Plastics material position.
In the market there are so many types of models of plastics are available such Maintenance
as transparent, colored etc. suitable pigments are added in the process of Maintaining of plastics are so simple. Because they do not need any surface
manufacturing of plastic material to get these different properties. So, these will give finishing coats or paints etc.
good appearance to the structure and makes it attractive.
Recycling of Plastics Insulation
Disposal of plastics in the environment causes severe pollution. But it is not a Polyurethane spray is frequently used for insulation when constructing green
serious problem because of its recycling property. We can use plastic waste disposal or low energy buildings. Rigid polyurethane foam is known for its high thermal
conveniently to produce drainage pipes, fencing, hand rails, carpets, benches etc. resistance which promotes temperature consistency. Polyurethane foam is also
popular because it is lightweight, chemical resistant, and flame retardant. Due to its
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES closed cell nature, polyurethane insulation performs as an air barrier, resulting in
Chemical Resistance of Plastics significant energy savings.
Plastics offer great resistance against chemicals and solvents. Chemical
composition of plastics during manufacturing will decide the degree of chemical Wall
resistance. Most of the plastics available in the market offer great corrosion resistance. A structural insulated panel (SIP) is a sandwich of expanded polystyrene
So, corrosive metals are replaced by plastic in the case of water carrying pipes, etc. amidst two slim layers of oriented strand board. This type of pre-fab, composite wall
board can be transferred to the work place easily for a particular task and provide
OTHERS good support to columns and other associated essentials during renovation.
Electric Insulation
Plastics are good electric insulators. So they are used as linings for electric Pipes
cables and for electronics tools. Commonly made up of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), CPVC, acrylonitrile
Optical Property butadiene styrene (ABS) or polyethylene, plastic pipes are flexible and very light in
There are so many types of plastics. Some plastics are transparent which weight, making them easy to install. All of these plastic materials are also highly
allows light in its original direction and some are translucent nothing but semi- chemical and water resistant, making them suitable for many extreme environments.
transparent which allows light but changes light rays direction.
Sound Absorption Windows
By the saturation of phenolic resins, we can produce acoustic boards. These Polycarbonate is used to manufacture building windows. This plastic material
acoustic boards are sound absorbents and provide sound insulation. Generally, for is strong, clear and very light in weight. Polycarbonate windows are considered more
theatres, seminar halls this type of acoustic ceilings are used. burglar-proof than regular glass windows. Two plastics materials, vinyl and fiberglass,
Thermal Property are used commonly in the production of window frames. Fiberglass is extremely
The thermal conductivity of plastics is very low and is similar to wood. So, strong while vinyl is quite durable and also inexpensive.
foamed and expanded plastics are used as thermal insulators.
Doors
Some construction projects use doors made from a stiff polyurethane foam
core with a fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) coating. The sandwich structure of these
USE OF PLASTICS IN DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE CONSTRUCTION
doors makes them incredibly strong.
INDUSTRY
Roofing
Flooring Reflective light colored roofing membranes made of vinyl or thermoplastic
Plastic materials like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene are used to olefin (TPO) blends are key energy saving applications especially for commercial
make flooring less prone to wear and tear. It also decreases the sound pollution level buildings in southern climes. Studies have shown that the surface temperature of a
and can be cleaned easily. light covered roof compared to a darker one could be as much as much lower.

Roofing Insulation
To protect the outer surface of the roof from damage, two layers of different Whether it is spray polyurethane foam (SPF) in the attic or rigid foam polyiso
plastic materials are required. The upper part is made of colored thermoplastic olefin board on the roof, polyurethane based systems offer durability, energy savings and
or vinyl while the lower part consists of polyurethane foam which consumes less moisture control. When used for retrofit situations, they also help reduce the amount
energy and keeps the interior of a house cooler. of building waste sent to landfills.
 In walls, behind walls and under floors, the use of polystyrene foams can Plastic House Wrap
provide significant energy efficiency. For example, rigid extruded polystyrene (XPS) is The advent of plastic house wrap technology has reduced the infiltration of
a builder favorite because it can be installed easily and effectively. Structural outside air into the average home by 10-50%, helping to drastically reduce the energy
insulated panels (SIPs) made with expanded polystyrene (EPS) can help homeowners required to heat or cool the home. These plastic films have helped reduce
save hundreds of dollars annually on heating and cooling bills. Savings vary by greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. by as much as 120 to 600 million tons of CO 2 since
material and products. 1980 (assuming that all homes built since 1980 have some form of plastic barrier).

Wall Coverings
Vinyl based wall coverings are commonly used for durable, easy-to-clean
hospitality and health care facilities. Vinyl requires only half as much energy to
manufacture as the same amount of paper wall coverings.

Windows
Plastics rival traditional materials for window glazing. For example,
polycarbonate—a material also used in eyeglasses—is used as panes. These clear,
lightweight, shatter-resistant plastic products have low thermal conductivity, which
can help to reduce heating and cooling costs.
Vinyl window frames are inherently energy efficient and save the U.S. nearly 2
trillion thermal units of energy per year, helping reduce the greenhouse gas emissions
associated with energy generation—all the while cutting maintenance time,
materials and costs.

Piping
Plastic pipe and fittings are easy to install, durable and will not rust or corrode
over time. Several types of plastics are used for piping depending on the properties
and performance required. Whether they are polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) they each offer excellent
fusion integrity when joined properly helping to eliminate potential leak points where
water could be wasted.
In home building, flexible blue and red cross-linked polyethylene piping (PEX)
is becoming builders’ favorite for hot and cold water delivery all managed and
hooked into a central and effective manifold system. This is due to its flexibility,
lightness, and ease of installation—allowing multiple feed lines throughout a house,
which allows hot water to arrive more quickly to a sink or shower. This can significantly
save water.

Decks, Fences and Railings

“Lumber” planks and rails made from recycled plastics or plastic-wood
composites are carefully engineered to same dimensions so warpage and knots are
virtually eliminated. They can outlast traditional materials, often require less
maintenance, and are resistant to peeling, cracking, splintering or fading.