An Intro To Python and Algorithms

An introduction to
Python & Algorithms
Marina von Steinkirch (bt3)

@bt3
Summer, 2013
“There’s nothing to fear but the fear itself.
That’s called recursion, and that would lead you to
infinite fear.”
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4
Contents
I Get your wings! 9

1 Oh Hay, Numbers! 11
1.1 Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Floats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4 The fraction Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5 The decimal Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6 Other Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 Some Fun Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.8 The NumPy Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2 Built-in Sequence Types 23

2.1 Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Tuples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3 Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4 Bytes and Byte Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.5 Further Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3 Collection Data Structures 49

3.1 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2 Dictionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3 Python’s collection Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.4 Further Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4 Python’s Structure and Modules 65

4.1 Control Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2 Modules in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.3 File Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5
6 CONTENTS
4.4 Error Handling in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.5 Special Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5 Object-Oriented Design 85
5.1 Classes and Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2 Principles of OOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.3 An Example of a Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.4 Python Design Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6 Advanced Topics 95
6.1 Multiprocessing and Threading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.2 Good Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.3 Unit Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
II Algorithms are Fun! 103

7 Asymptotic Analysis 105
7.1 Complexity Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.2 Recursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.3 Runtime in Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8 Abstract Data Structures 111

8.1 Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.2 Queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.3 Priority Queues and Heaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8.4 Linked Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.5 Hash Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.6 Additional Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9 Sorting 149
9.1 Quadratic Sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.2 Linear Sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.3 Loglinear Sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.4 Comparison Between Sorting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
CONTENTS 7
10 Searching 161
10.1 Unsorted Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
10.1.1 Sequential Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
10.1.2 Quick Select and Order Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
10.2 Sorted Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
10.2.1 Binary Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
11 Dynamic Programming 171

11.1 Memoization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
III Climbing some beautiful Graphs and Trees! 175

12 Introduction to Graphs 177
12.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
12.2 The Neighborhood Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
12.3 Connection to Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
13 Binary Trees 185

13.1 Binary Search Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
13.2 Self-Balancing BSTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
14 Traversing Trees 193

14.1 Depth-First Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
14.2 Breadth-First Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8 CONTENTS
Part I
Get your wings!
9
Chapter 1
Oh Hay, Numbers!
Numbers can be represented as an integer, a float, or a complex value.

Because humans have 10 fingers, we have learned to represent numbers as
decimals. Computers, however, are made of electrical states, so binary
representations are more suitable. That’s why the represent information
with bits. Additionally, representations that are multiples of 2 are equally
useful, such as hexadecimals and octals.
1.1 Integers
Python represents integers using the immutable int type. For immutable
objects there is no difference between a variable and an object reference.
The size of Python’s integers is limited by the machine memory (the
range depends on the C or Java built-in compiler), being at least 32-bit long
(4 bytes)1 .
To see how many bytes is hold in an integer, the int.bit length()
method is available (starting in Python 3.):
>>> (999).bit_length()
10
To cast a string to an integer (in some base) or to change the base of an

integer, we use int(s, base):
1
To have an idea of how much this means: 1K of disk memory has 1024 × 8 bits = 210
bytes.
11
12 CHAPTER 1. OH HAY, NUMBERS!
>>> s = ’11’
>>> d = int(s)
>>> print(d)
11
>>> b = int(s, 2)
>>> print(b)
3
The optional base argument must be an integer between 2 and 36 (inclu-

sive). If the string cannot be represented as the integer in the chosen base,
this method raises a ValueError exception.
1.2 Floats
Numbers with a fractional part are represented by the immutable type float.
When we use single precision, a 32-bit float is represented by: 1 bit for sign
(negative being 1, positive being 0), plus 23 bits for the significant digits
(or mantissa), plus 8 bits for the exponent.
Additionally, the exponent is represented using the biased notation, where
you add the number 127 to the original value2 .
Comparing Floats
Floats have a precision limit, which constantly causes them to be truncated
(that’s why we should never compare floats for equality!).
Equality tests should be done in terms of some predefined precision. A
simple example would be the following function:
>>> def a(x , y, places=7):
... return round(abs(x-y), places) == 0
Remarkably, similar approach is used by Python’s unittest module, with

the method assertAlmostEqual().
2
Biasing is done because exponents have to be signed values to be able to represent
tiny and huge values, but the usual representation makes comparison harder. To solve this
problem, the exponent is adjusted to be within an unsigned range suitable for comparison.
To learn more: http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/ eedwards/compsys/float
1.3. COMPLEX NUMBERS 13
Interestingly, there are several numbers that have an exact representation

in a decimal base but not in a binary base (for instance, the decimal 0.1).
Methods for Floats and Integers

In Python, the division operator / always returns a float. A floor divi-
sion (truncation) can be made with the operator //. A module (remainder)
operation is given by the operator %.
The method divmod(x,y) returns both the quotient and remainder when
dividing x by y:
>>> divmod(45,6)
(7, 3)
The method round(x, n) returns x rounded to n integral digits if n is a

negative int or returns x rounded to n decimal places if n is a positive int:
>>> round(100.96,-2)
100.0
>>> round(100.96,2)
100.96
The method as integer ratio() gives the integer fractional representa-

tion of a float:
>>> 2.75.as_integer_ratio()
(11, 4)
1.3 Complex Numbers

A complex data type is an immutable number that holds a pair of floats (for
example, z = 3 + 4j). Additional methods are available, such as: z.real,
z.imag, and z.conjugate().
Complex numbers are imported from the cmath module, which provides
complex number versions for most of the trigonometric and logarithmic func-
tions that are in the math module, plus some complex number-specific func-
tions such as: cmath.phase(), cmath.polar(), cmath.rect(), cmath.pi,
and cmath.e.
1.4 The fraction Module

Python has the fraction module to deal with parts of a fraction. The
following snippet shows the basics methods of this module:3
[testing_floats.py]
from fractions import Fraction
def rounding_floats(number1, places):

return round(number1, places)
def float_to_fractions(number):
return Fraction(number.as_integer_ratio())
def get_denominator(number1, number2):

a = Fraction(number1, number2)
return a.denominator
def get_numerator(number1, number2):

a = Fraction(number1, number2)
return a.numerator
def test_testing_floats(module_name=’this module’):

number1 = 1.25
number2 = 1
number3 = -1
number4 = 5/4
number6 = 6
assert(rounding_floats(number1, number2) == 1.2)
assert(rounding_floats(number1*10, number3) == 10)
assert(float_to_fractions(number1) == number4)
assert(get_denominator(number2, number6) == number6)
assert(get_numerator(number2, number6) == number2)
3
Every snippet shown in this book is available at https://github.com/bt3gl/Python-
and-Algorithms-and-Data-Structures.
1.5. THE DECIMAL MODULE 15
1.5 The decimal Module

To handle exact decimal floating-point numbers, Python includes an ad-
ditional immutable float type in the decimal library. This is an efficient
alternative to the rounding, equality, and subtraction problems that floats
come with:
>>> sum (0.1 for i in range(10)) == 1.0
False
>>> from decimal import Decimal
>>> sum (Decimal ("0.1") for i in range(10)) == Decimal("1.0")
True
While the math and cmath modules are not suitable for the decimal mod-
ule, it does have these functions built in, such as decimal.Decimal.exp(x).
1.6 Other Representations

The bin(i) method returns the binary representation of the int i:
>>> bin(999)
’0b1111100111’
The hex(i) method returns the hexadecimal representation of i:

>>> hex(999)
’0x3e7’
The oct(i) method returns the octal representation of i:

>>> oct(999)
’0o1747’
1.7 Some Fun Examples

Converting Between Different Bases
We can write our own functions to modify some number’s base. The snippet
below converts a number in any base smaller than 10 to the decimal base:
[convert_to_decimal.py]
def convert_to_decimal(number, base):

multiplier, result = 1, 0
while number > 0:
result += number%10*multiplier
multiplier *= base
number = number//10
return result
def test_convert_to_decimal():
number, base = 1001, 2
assert(convert_to_decimal(number, base) == 9)
In the previous example, by swapping all the occurrences of 10 with any

other base, we can create a function that converts from a decimal number to
another number (2 ≤ base ≤ 10):
[convert_from_decimal.py]
def convert_from_decimal(number, base):

multiplier, result = 1, 0
while number > 0:
result += number%base*multiplier
multiplier *= 10
number = number//base
return result
def test_convert_from_decimal():
number, base = 9, 2
assert(convert_from_decimal(number, base) == 1001)
If the base value is larger than 10 we must use non-numeric characters to

represent larger digits. We can let ‘A’ stand for 10, ‘B’ stand for 11 and so
on. The following code converts a number from a decimal base to any other
base (up to 20):
[convert_from_decimal_larger_bases.py]
def convert_from_decimal_larger_bases(number, base):

1.7. SOME FUN EXAMPLES 17
strings = "0123456789ABCDEFGHIJ"
result = ""
while number > 0:
digit = number%base
result = strings[digit] + result
number = number//base
return result
def test_convert_from_decimal_larger_bases():
number, base = 31, 16
assert(convert_from_decimal_larger_bases(number, base) == ’1F’)
Finally, the snippet below is a recursive general base-conversion:

[convert_dec_to_any_base_rec.py]
def convert_dec_to_any_base_rec(number, base):

convertString = ’012345679ABCDEF’
if number < base: return convertString[number]
else:
return convert_dec_to_any_base_rec(number//base, base) +
convertString[number%base]
def test_convert_dec_to_any_base_rec(module_name=’this module’):

number = 9
base = 2
assert(convert_dec_to_any_base_rec(number, base) == ’1001’)
Greatest Common Divisor

The following module calculates the greatest common divisor (gcd) be-
tween two given integers:
[finding_gcd.py]
def finding_gcd(a, b):

while(b != 0):
result = b
a, b = b, a % b
return result
def test_finding_gcd():
number1 = 21
number2 = 12
assert(finding_gcd(number1, number2) == 3)
test_finding_gcd()
The Random Module
The follow snippet runs some tests on the Python’s random module:
[testing_random.py]
import random
def testing_random():
’’’ testing the module random’’’
values = [1, 2, 3, 4]
print(random.choice(values))
print(random.sample(values, 2))
print(random.sample(values, 3))
’’’ shuffle in place ’’’

random.shuffle(values)
print(values)
’’’ create random integers ’’’

print(random.randint(0,10))
print(random.randint(0,10))
1.7. SOME FUN EXAMPLES 19
Fibonacci Sequences
The module below shows how to find the nth number in a Fibonacci sequence
in three different ways: (a) with a recursive O(2n ) runtime; (b) with an
iterative O(n2 ) runtime; and (c) using the generator propriety instead:
[fibonacci.py]
def fib_generator():
a, b = 0, 1
while True:
yield b
a, b = b, a+b
def fib(n):
’’’
>>> fib(2)
1
>>> fib(5)
5
>>> fib(7)
13
’’’
if n < 3:
return 1
a, b = 0, 1
count = 1
while count < n:
count += 1
a, b = b, a+b
return b
def fib_rec(n):
’’’
>>> fib_rec(2)
1
>>> fib_rec(5)
5
>>> fib_rec(7)
13
’’’
if n < 3:
return 1
return fib_rec(n - 1) + fib_rec(n - 2)
Primes
The following snippet includes functions to find if a number is prime, to give
the number’s primes factors, and to generate primes:
[primes.py]
import math
import random
def find_prime_factors(n):
’’’
>>> find_prime_factors(14)
[2, 7]
>>> find_prime_factors(19)
[]
’’’
divisors = [d for d in range(2, n//2 + 1) if n % d == 0]
primes = [d for d in divisors if is_prime(d)]
return primes
def is_prime(n):
for j in range(2, int(math.sqrt(n))):
if (n % j) == 0:
return False
return True
def generate_prime(number=3):
while 1:
p = random.randint(pow(2, number-2), pow(2, number-1)-1)
p = 2 * p + 1
if find_prime_factors(p):
return p
1.8. THE NUMPY PACKAGE 21
1.8 The NumPy Package

The NumPy package4 is an extension to the Python programming language,
adding support for large, multi-dimensional arrays and matrices, along with a
large library of high-level mathematical functions to operate on these arrays.
Arrays in NumPy can have any arbitrary dimension. They can be gener-
ated from a list or a tuple with the array-method, which transforms sequences
of sequences into two dimensional arrays:
>>> x = np.array( ((11,12,13), (21,22,23), (31,32,33)) )
>>> print x
[[11 12 13]
[21 22 23]
[31 32 33]]
The attribute ndim tells us the number of dimensions of an array:

>>> x = np.array( ((11,12,13), (21,22,23) ))
>>> x.ndim
2
Let’s see a full test example:

[testing_numpy.py]
import numpy as np
def testing_numpy():
ax = np.array([1,2,3])
ay = np.array([3,4,5])
print(ax)
print(ax*2)
print(ax+10)
print(np.sqrt(ax))
print(np.cos(ax))
print(ax-ay)
4
http://www.numpy.org
print(np.where(ax<2, ax, 10))
m = np.matrix([ax, ay, ax])

print(m)
print(m.T)
grid1 = np.zeros(shape=(10,10), dtype=float)

grid2 = np.ones(shape=(10,10), dtype=float)
print(grid1)
print(grid2)
print(grid1[1]+10)
print(grid2[:,2]*2)
NumPy arrays are also much more efficient than Python’s lists, as we can
see in the benchmark tests below:
[testing_numpy_speed.py]
import numpy
import time
def trad_version():
t1 = time.time()
X = range(10000000)
Y = range(10000000)
Z = []
for i in range(len(X)):
Z.append(X[i] + Y[i])
return time.time() - t1
def numpy_version():
t1 = time.time()
X = numpy.arange(10000000)
Y = numpy.arange(10000000)
Z = X + Y
return time.time() - t1
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
assert(trad_version() > 3.0)
assert(numpy_version() < 0.1)
Chapter 2
Built-in Sequence Types
In this chapter we will learn how Python represents sequence data types.
A sequence type is defined by having the following properties:
? membership operator (for example, the ability of using the keyword

in);
? a size method (given by the method len(seq));
? a slicing properties (for example, seq[:-1]); and
? iterability (data can be used inside loops).
Python has five built-in sequence types: strings, tuples, lists, byte
arrays, and bytes:1
>>> l = []
>>> type(l)
<type ’list’>
>>> s = ’’
>>> type(s)
<type ’str’>
>>> t = ()
>>> type(t)
<type ’tuple’>
>>> ba = bytearray(b’’)
1
A named tuple is also available in the standard library, under the collections
package.
23
24 CHAPTER 2. BUILT-IN SEQUENCE TYPES
>>> type(ba)
<type ’bytearray’>
>>> b = bytes([])
>>> type(byte)
<type ’type’>
Mutability
In Python, tuple, strings, and bytes are immutable, while lists and byte
arrays are mutable.
Immutable types are in general more efficient than mutable objects. In
addition, some collection data types2 can only be indexed by immutable data
types.
In Python, any variable is an object reference, so copying mutable objects
can be tricky. When you say a = b you are actually pointing a to where b
points to. For this reason, it’s important to understand the concept of deep
copying.
For instance, to make a deep copy of a list, we do:
>>> newList = myList[:]
>>> newList2 = list(myList2)
To make a deep copy of a set, we do:

>>> people = {"Buffy", "Angel", "Giles"}
>>> slayers = people.copy()
>>> slayers.discard("Giles")
>>> slayers.remove("Angel")
>>> slayers
{’Buffy’}
>>> people
{’Giles’, ’Buffy’, ’Angel’}
To make a deep copy of a dict, we do:

>>> newDict = myDict.copy()
To make a deep copy of some other object, we use the copy module:
2
Collection data types, such as sets and dictionaries, are reviewed in the next chapter.
2.1. STRINGS 25
>>> import copy

>>> newObj = copy.copy(myObj) # shallow copy
>>> newObj2 = copy.deepcopy(myObj2) # deep copy
The Slicing Operator

In Python’s sequence types, the slicing operator have the following syntax:
seq[start]
seq[start:end]
seq[start:end:step]
If we want to start counting from the right, we can represent the index
as negative:
>>> word = "Let us kill some vampires!"
>>> word[-1]
’!’
>>> word[-2]
’s’
>>> word[-2:]
’s!’
>>> word[:-2]
’Let us kill some vampire’
>>> word[-0]
’L’
2.1 Strings
In Python, every object has two output forms: while string forms are de-
signed to be human-readable, representational forms are designed to produce
an output that if fed to a Python interpreter, reproduces the represented ob-
ject.
Python represents strings, i.e. a sequence of characters, with the immutable
str type.
Unicode Strings
Python’s Unicode encoding is used to include special characters in strings
(for example, whitespaces). Additionally, starting from Python 3, all strings
are Unicode, not just plain bytes. The difference is that, while ASCII repre-
sentations are given by 8-bits, Unicode representations usually use 16-bits.
To create an Unicode string, we use the ‘u’ prefix:
>>> u’Goodbye\u0020World !’
’Goodbye World !’
In the example above, the escape sequence indicates the Unicode character
with the ordinal value 0x0020.
Methods for Strings

The join(list1) Method:
Joins all the strings in a list into one single string. While we could use +
to concatenate these strings, when a large volume of data is involved, this
becomes much less efficient:
>>> slayer = ["Buffy", "Anne", "Summers"]
>>> " ".join(slayer)
’Buffy Anne Summers’
>>> "-<>-".join(slayer)
’Buffy-<>-Anne-<>-Summers’
>>> "".join(slayer)
’BuffyAnneSummers’
join() can also be used with the built-in reversed() method:

>>> "".join(reversed(slayer))
’SummersAnneBuffy’
The rjust(width[, fillchar]) and ljust(width[, fillchar]) Meth-

ods:
Some formation (aligning) can be obtained with the methods rjust() (add
only at the end), ljust() (add only at the start):
2.1. STRINGS 27
>>> name = "Agent Mulder"

>>> name.rjust(50, ’-’)
’-----------------------------Agent Mulder’
The format() Method:

Used to format or add variable values to a string:
>>> "{0} {1}".format("I’m the One!", "I’m not")
"I’m the One! I’m not"
>>> "{who} turned {age} this year!".format(who="Buffy", age=17)
’She turned 88 this year’
>>> "The {who} was {0} last week".format(12, who="boy")
’Buffy turned 17 this year!’
Starting from Python 3.1, it is possible to omit field names:

>>> "{} {} {}".format("Python", "can", "count")
’Python can count’
This method allows three specifiers: s to force string form, r to force

representational form, and a to force representational form but only using
ASCII characters:
>>> import decimal
>>> "{0} {0!s} {0!r} {0!a}".format(decimal.Decimal("99.9"))
"99.9 99.9 Decimal(’99.9’) Decimal(’99.9’)"
String (Mapping) Unpacking

The mapping unpacking operator is ** and it produces a key-value list suit-
able for passing to a function. The local variables that are currently in scope
are available from the built-in locals() and this can be used to feed the
format() method:
>>> hero = "Buffy"
>>> number = 999
>>> "Element {number} is a {hero}".format(**locals())
’Element 999 is a Buffy’
The splitlines(f) Method:

Returns the list of lines produced by splitting the string on line terminators,
stripping the terminators unless f is True:
>>> slayers = "Buffy\nFaith"
>>> slayers.splitlines()
[’Buffy’, ’Faith’]
The split(t, n) Method:

Returns a list of strings splitting at most n times on string t. If n is not given,
it splits as many times as possible. If t is not given, it splits on whitespace:
>>> slayers = "Buffy*Slaying-Vamps*16"
>>> fields = slayers.split("*")
>>> fields
[’Buffy’, ’Slaying-Vamps’, ’16’]
>>> job = fields[1].split("-")
>>> job
[’Slaying’, ’Vamps’]
We can use split() to write our own method for erasing spaces from
strings:
>>> def erase_space_from_string(string):
... s1 = string.split(" ")
... s2 = "".join(s1)
... return s2
A similar method, rsplit(), splits the string from right to left.
The strip(’chars’) Method:

Returns a copy of the string with leading and trailing whitespace (or the
characters chars) removed:
>>> slayers = "Buffy and Faith999"
2.1. STRINGS 29
>>> slayers.strip("999")
’Buffy and Faith’
The program below uses strip() to list every word and the number of
the times they occur in alphabetical order for some file:3
[count_unique_words.py]
import string
import sys
def count_unique_word():
words = {} # create an empty dictionary
strip = string.whitespace + string.punctuation + string.digits
+ "\"’"
for filename in sys.argv[1:]:
with open(filename) as file:
for line in file:
for word in line.lower().split():
word = word.strip(strip)
if len(word) > 2:
words[word] = words.get(word,0) +1
for word in sorted(words):
print("’{0}’ occurs {1} times.".format(word, words[word]))
Similar methods are: lstrip(), which returns a copy of the string with
all whitespace at the beginning of the string stripped away; and rstrip(),
which returns a copy of the string with all whitespace at the end of the string
stripped away.
The swapcase(’chars’) Method:

The swapcase() method returns a copy of the string with uppercase char-
acters lowercased and vice-versa:
>>> slayers = "Buffy and Faith"
>>> slayers.swapcase()
’bUFFY AND fAITH’
3
A similar example is shown in the Default Dictionaries section.
Similar methods are:
? capitalize(): returns a copy of the string with only the first character
in uppercase;
? lower(): returns a copy of the original string, but with all characters
in lowercase;
? upper(): returns a copy of the original string, but with all characters
in uppercase.
The index(x) and find(x) Methods:

There are two methods to find the position of a string inside another string.
index(x) returns the index position of the substring x, or raises a ValueError
exception on failure. find(x) returns the index position of the substring x,
or -1 on failure:
>>> slayers = "Buffy and Faith"
>>> slayers.find("y")
4
>>> slayers.find("k")
-1
>>> slayers.index("k")
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: substring not found
>>> slayers.index("y")
4
Extensions of the previous methods are: rfind(string), which returns

the index within the string of the last (from the right) occurrence of ‘string’;
and rindex(string), which returns the index within the string of the last
(from the right) occurrence of ‘string’ (causing an error if it cannot be found).
The count(t, start, end) Method:

Returns the number of occurrences of the string t in the string s:
>>> slayer = "Buffy is Buffy is Buffy"
>>> slayer.count("Buffy", 0, -1)
2.2. TUPLES 31
2
>>> slayer.count("Buffy")
3
The replace(t, u, n) Method:

Returns a copy of the string with every (or a maximum of n if given) occur-
rences of string t replaced with string u:
>>> slayer = "Buffy is Buffy is Buffy"
>>> slayer.replace("Buffy", "who", 2)
’who is who is Buffy’
2.2 Tuples
A tuple is an Python immutable sequence type consisting of values separated
by commas:
>>> t1 = 1234, ’hello!’
>>> t1[0]
1234
>>> t1
(12345, ’hello!’)
>>> t2 = t2, (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) # nested
>>> u
((1234, ’hello!’), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
Where strings have a character at every position, tuples have an object

reference at each position. For this reason, it is possible to create tuples that
contain mutable objects, such as lists.
Empty tuples are constructed by an empty pair of parentheses, and tuples
with one item are constructed by following a value with a comma (it is not
sufficient to enclose a single value in parentheses):
>>> empty = ()
>>> t1 = ’hello’,
>>> len(empty)
0
>>> len(t1)
1
>>> t1
(’hello’,)
Methods for Tuples
The count(x) method counts how many times x appears in the tuple:
>>> t = 1, 5, 7, 8, 9, 4, 1, 4
>>> t.count(4)
2
The index(x) method returns the index position of the element x:

>>> t = 1, 5, 7
>>> t.index(5)
1
Tuple Unpacking
In Python, any iterable object can be unpacked using the sequence unpacking
operator, *. This operator can be used with two or more variables. In this
case, the items in the left-hand side of the assignment (which are preceded by
*) are assigned to the named variables, while the items left over are assigned
to the starred variable:
>>> x, *y = (1, 2, 3, 4)
>>> x
1
>>> y
[2, 3, 4]
2.3. LISTS 33
Named Tuples
Python’s package collections4 contains a sequence data type called named
tuple. These objects behave just like the built-in tuple, with the same
performance characteristics, but in addition they carry the ability to refer to
items by name. This allows the creation of aggregates of data items:
>>> import collections
>>> MonsterTuple = collections.namedtuple("Monsters","name age
power")
>>> MonsterTuple = (’Vampire’, 230, ’immortal’)
>>> MonsterTuple
(’Vampire’, 230, ’immortal’)
The first argument to collections.namedtuple is the name of the custom

tuple data type to be created. The second argument is a string of space-
separated names, one for each item that the custom tuple will take. The
first argument and the names in the second argument must be valid Python
identifiers:
[namedtuple_example.py]
from collections import namedtuple
def namedtuple_example():
>>> namedtuple_example()
slayer
’’’
sunnydale = namedtuple(’name’, [’job’, ’age’])
buffy = sunnydale(’slayer’, ’17’)
print(buffy.job)
2.3 Lists
In Computer Science, arrays are a very simple data structure where elements
are sequentially stored in continued memory, and linked lists are structures
4
We are going to explore collections in the following chapters.
where several separated nodes link to each other. Iterating over the contents
is equally efficient for both kinds, but directly accessing an element at a
given index has O(1) (complexity) runtime5 in an array, while it has O(n)
in a linked list with n nodes (you would have to transverse the list from the
beginning).
Additionally, in a linked list, once you know where you want to insert
something, insertion is O(1), no matter how many elements the list has. For
arrays, an insertion would have to move all elements that are to the right
of the insertion point or moving all the elements to a larger array if needed,
being then O(n).
In Python, the closest object to an array is a list, which is a dynamic
resizing array and it does not have anything to do with the formal concept
of linked lists. Linked lists are a very important abstract data structure (we
will see more about them in a following chapter) and it is fundamental to
understand what makes them different from arrays (or Python’s lists).
Lists in Python are created by comma-separated values, between square
brackets. Items in lists do not need to have all the same data type. Unlike
strings which are immutable, it is possible to change individual elements of
a list (lists are mutable):
>>> q = [2, 3]
>>> p = [1, q, 4]
>>> p[1].append("buffy")
>>> p
[1, [2, 3, ’buffy’], 4]
>>> q
[2, 3, ’buffy’]
>>> q
[2, 3, ’buffy’]
To insert items, lists perform best (O(1)) when items are added or re-
moved at the end, using the methods append() and pop(), respectively.
The worst performance (O(n)) occurs with operations that need to search
for items in the list, for example, using remove() or index(), or using in
for membership testing.6
5
The Big-O notation is a key to understand algorithms. We will learn it in the following
chapters. For now, keep in mine that O(1) O(n) O(n2 ), etc...
6
This explains why append() is so much more efficient than insert().
2.3. LISTS 35
If fast searching or membership testing is required, a collection type such

as a set or a dictionary may be a more suitable choice (as we will see in
the next chapter). Alternatively, lists can provide fast searching if they are
kept in order by being sorted (we will see searching methods that perform on
O(log n) for sorted sequences, particularly the binary search, in the following
chapters).
Methods for Lists

The append(x) Method:
Adds a new element at the end of the list. It is equivalent to list[len(list):]=
[x]:
>>> people = ["Buffy", "Faith"]
>>> people.append("Giles")
>>> people
[’Buffy’, ’Faith’, ’Giles’]
>>> people[len(people):] = ["Xander"]
>>> people
[’Buffy’, ’Faith’, ’Giles’, ’Xander’]
The extend(c) Method:

This method is used to extend the list by appending all the iterable items in
the given list. Equivalent to a[len(a):]=L or using +=:
>>> people.extend("Giles")
>>> people
[’Buffy’, ’Faith’, ’G’, ’i’, ’l’, ’e’, ’s’]
>>> people += "Willow"
>>> people
[’Buffy’, ’Faith’, ’G’, ’i’, ’l’, ’e’, ’s’, ’W’, ’i’, ’l’, ’l’,
’o’, ’w’]
>>> people += ["Xander"]
>>> people
[’Buffy’, ’Faith’, ’G’, ’i’, ’l’, ’e’, ’s’, ’W’, ’i’, ’l’, ’l’,
’o’, ’w’, ’Xander’]
The insert(i, x) Method:
Inserts an item in a given position i: the first argument is the index of the
element before which to insert:
>>> people.insert(1, "Xander")
>>> people
[’Buffy’, ’Xander’, ’Faith’]
The remove() Method:
Removes the first item from the list whose value is x. Raises a ValueError
exception if x is not found:
>>> people.remove("Buffy")
>>> people
[’Faith’]
>>> people.remove("Buffy")
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list
The pop() Method:
Removes the item at the given position in the list, and then returns it. If no
index is specified, pop() returns the last item in the list:
>>> people.pop()
’Faith’
>>> people
[’Buffy’]
2.3. LISTS 37
The del:
Deletes the object reference, not the content, i.e., it is a way to remove an
item from a list given its index instead of its value. This can also be used to
remove slices from a list:
>>> a = [-1, 4, 5, 7, 10]
>>> del a[0]
>>> a
[4, 5, 7, 10]
>>> del a[2:3]
>>> a
[4, 5, 10]
>>> del a # also used to delete entire variable
When an object reference is deleted and no other object refers to its data,
Python schedules the item to be garbage-collected.7
The index(x) Method:
Returns the index in the list of the first item whose value is x:
>>> people.index("Buffy")
0
The count(x) Method:
Returns the number of times x appears in the list:

>>> people = ["Buffy", "Faith", "Buffy"]
>>> people.count("Buffy")
2
7
Garbage is a memory occupied by objects that are no longer referenced and garbage
collection is a form of automatic memory management, freeing the memory occupied by
the garbage.
The sort() Method:

Sorts the items of the list, in place:
>>> people = ["Xander", "Faith", "Buffy"]
>>> people.sort()
>>> people
[’Buffy’, ’Faith’, ’Xander’]
The reverse() Method:

Reverses the elements of the list, in place:
>>> people = ["Xander", "Faith", "Buffy"]
>>> people.reverse()
>>> people
[’Buffy’, ’Faith’, ’Xander’]
List Unpacking
Uunpacking in lists is similar to tuples:
>>> first, *rest = [1,2,3,4,5]
>>> first
1
>>> rest
[2, 3, 4, 5]
Python also has a related concept named starred arguments, that can be
used as a passing argument for a function:
>>> def example_args(a, b, c):
... return a * b * c # here * is the multiplication operator
>>> L = [2, 3, 4]
>>> example_args(*L)
24
>>> example_args(2, *L[1:])
24
2.3. LISTS 39
List Comprehensions
A list comprehension is an expression and loop (with an optional condition)
enclosed in brackets:
[item for item in iterable]
[expression for item in iterable]
[expression for item in iterable if condition]
Below, some examples of list comprehensions:

>>> a = [y for y in range(1900, 1940) if y%4 == 0]
>>> a
[1900, 1904, 1908, 1912, 1916, 1920, 1924, 1928, 1932, 1936]
>>> b = [2**i for i in range(13)]
>>> b
[1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048, 4096]
>>> c = [x for x in a if x%2==0]
>>> c
[0, 4, 16, 36, 64]
>>> d = [str(round(355/113.0,i)) for i in range(1,6)]
>>> d
[’3.1’, ’3.14’, ’3.142’, ’3.1416’, ’3.14159’]
>>> words = ’Buffy is awesome and a vampire slayer’.split()
>>> e = [[w.upper(), w.lower(), len(w)] for w in words]
>>> for i in e:
... print(i)
[’BUFFY’, ’buffy’, 5]
[’IS’, ’is’, 2]
[’AWESOME’, ’awesome’, 7]
[’AND’, ’and’, 3]
[’A’, ’a’, 1]
[’VAMPIRE’, ’vampire’, 7]
[’SLAYER’, ’slayer’, 6]
List comprehensions should only be used for simple cases, when each
portion fits in one line (no multiple for clauses or filter expressions):
[Good]
result = []
for x in range(10):
for y in range(5):
if x * y > 10:
result.append((x, y))
for x in range(5):
for y in range(5):
if x != y:
for z in range(5):
if y != z:
yield (x, y, z)
return ((x, complicated_transform(x))

for x in long_generator_function(parameter)
if x is not None)
squares = [x * x for x in range(10)]
eat(jelly_bean for jelly_bean in jelly_beans

if jelly_bean.color == ’black’)
[Bad]
result = [(x, y) for x in range(10) for y in range(5) if x * y >
10]
return ((x, y, z)
for x in xrange(5)
for y in xrange(5)
if x != y
for z in xrange(5)
if y != z)
Runtime Analysis for Lists

To understand the performance of Python’s lists, we can benchmark some
lists’ methods.
In the snippet below, we use Python’s timeit module to create a Timer
object whose first parameter is what we want to time and the second param-
2.3. LISTS 41
eter is a statement to set up the test. The timeit module will time how long
it takes to execute the statement some number of times (one million times
by default).
When the test is done, the function returns the time as a floating point
value representing the total number of seconds:
[runtime_lists_with_timeit_module.py]
def test1():
l = []
for i in range(1000):
l = l + [i]
def test2():
l = []
for i in range(1000):
l.append(i)
def test3():
l = [i for i in range(1000)]
def test4():
l = list(range(1000))
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
import timeit
t1 = timeit.Timer("test1()", "from __main__ import test1")
print("concat ",t1.timeit(number=1000), "milliseconds")
print("append ",t2.timeit(number=1000), "milliseconds")
print("comprehension ",t3.timeit(number=1000), "milliseconds")
print("list range ",t4.timeit(number=1000), "milliseconds")
One of the results of this snippet was:

(’concat ’, 2.366791009902954, ’milliseconds’)
(’append ’, 0.16743111610412598, ’milliseconds’)
(’comprehension ’, 0.06446194648742676, ’milliseconds’)
(’list range ’, 0.021029949188232422, ’milliseconds’)
So we see the following pattern for lists:

Operation Big-O Efficiency
index [] O(1)
index assignment O(1)
append O(1)
pop() O(1)
pop(i) O(n)
insert(i,item) O(n)
del operator O(n)
iteration O(n)
contains (in) O(n)
get slice [x:y] O(k)
del slice O(n)
set slice O(n+k)
reverse O(n)
concatenate O(k)
sort O(n log n)
multiply O(nk)
2.4 Bytes and Byte Arrays

Python provides two data types for handling raw bytes: bytes which is
immutable, and bytearray, which is mutable. Both types hold a sequence
of zero or more unsigned 8-bits integers in the range 0 ... 255. The byte
type is very similar to the string type and the bytearray provides mutating
methods similar to lists.
Bits and Bitwise Operations

Bitwise operations can be very useful to manipulate numbers represented as
bits. For example, we can quickly compute 2x by the left-shifting operation:
1 x. We can also quickly verify whether a number is a power of 2 by
checking whether x&(x − 1) is 0 (if x is not an even power of 2, the highest
position of x with a 1 also has an 1 in x − 1, otherwise, x will be 100...0 and
x − 1 will be 011...1; add them together they return 0).
2.5. FURTHER EXAMPLES 43
2.5 Further Examples

Reversing Strings
Python makes it really simple to revert strings:
[reversing_strings.py]
def revert(string):
’’’
>>> s = ’hello’
>>> revert(s)
’olleh’
>>> revert(’’)
’’
’’’
return string[::-1]
def reverse_string_inplace(s):
’’’
>>> s = ’hello’
>>> reverse_string_inplace(s)
’olleh’
>>> reverse_string_inplace(’’)
’’
’’’
if s:
s = s[-1] + reverse_string_inplace(s[:-1])
return s
Reversing Words in a String, without Reversing the

Words
We want to invert the words in a string, without reverting the words. It
is important to remember that Python strings are immutable, so we might
want to convert the strings to lists in some cases.
There are many ways we can solve this problems. We can use Python’s
builtin methods for lists and strings, or we can work with pointers. In the
second case, the solution consists of two loops. The first loop will revert all
the characters utilizing two pointers. The second loop will search for spaces
and then revert the words.
Further caveats of this problems is that we can represent space as ’ ’ or
as Unicodes (u0020). We also might have to pay attention in the last word,
since it does not end with a space. Finally, an extension of this problem is
to look for symbols such as !?;-.":
[reversing_words.py]
def reversing_words(word):
"""
>>> reversing_words(’buffy is awesome’)
’awesome is buffy’
"""
new_word = []
words = word.split(’ ’)
for word in words[::-1]:
new_word.append(word)
return " ".join(new_word)
def reversing_words2(s):
"""
>>> reversing_words2(’buffy is awesome’)
"""
words = s.split()
return ’ ’.join(reversed(words))
def reversing_words3(s):
"""
>>> reversing_words(’buffy is awesome’)
"""
words = s.split(’ ’)
words.reverse()
return ’ ’.join(words)
Simple String Compression

[simple_str_compression.py]
from collections import Counter
def str_comp(s):
’’’
>>> s1 = ’aabcccccaaa’
>>> str_comp(s1)
’a2b1c5a3’
>>> str_comp(’’)
’’
’’’
count, last = 1, ’’
list_aux = []
for i, c in enumerate(s):
if last == c:
count += 1
else:
if i != 0:
list_aux.append(str(count))
list_aux.append(c)
count = 1
last = c
list_aux.append(str(count))
return ’’.join(list_aux)
String Permutation
[permutation.py]
def perm(str1):
’’’
>>> perm(’123’)
[’123’, ’132’, ’231’, ’213’, ’312’, ’321’]
’’’
if len(str1) < 2:
return str1
res = []
for i, c in enumerate(str1):
for cc in perm(str1[i+1:] + str1[:i]):
res.append(c + cc)
return res
String Combination
[combination.py]
def combinations(s):
’’’
>>> combinations(’abc’)
[’abc’, ’acb’, ’bac’, ’bca’, ’cab’, ’cba’]
>>> combinations(’’)
’’
’’’
if len(s) < 2:
return s
res = []
for i, c in enumerate(s):
res.append(c)
for j in combinations(s[:i] + s[i+1:]):
res.append(c + j)
return res
Palindrome
[palindrome.py]
from collections import defaultdict
def is_palindrome(array):
’’’
>>> is_palindrome(’subi no onibus’)
True
>>> is_palindrome(’helllo there’)
False
>>> is_palindrome(’h’)
True
>>> is_palindrome(’’)
True
’’’
array = array.strip(’ ’)
if len(array) < 2:
return True
if array[0] == array[-1]:
return is_palindrome(array[1:-1])
else:
return False
Chapter 3
Collection Data Structures
Differently from sequence structures, where the data can be ordered or sliced,
collection structures are containers that aggregates data without relating
them. They have the following proprieties:
? membership operator (for example, using in);
? a size method (given by len(seq)); and
? iterability (suitable for loops).
In Python, built-in collection types are given by sets and dicts. Addi-
tional collection types are found in the collections package, as we discuss
in end of this chapter.
3.1 Sets
A Set is an unordered collection data type that is iterable, mutable, and has
no duplicate elements. Sets are used for membership testing and eliminating
duplicate entries.
Since sets have O(1) insertion, the runtime of union is O(m + n). For
intersection, it is only necessary to transverse the smaller set, so the runtime
is O(n). 1
1
Python’s collection package has supporting for Ordered sets. This data type enforces
some predefined comparison for their members.
49
50 CHAPTER 3. COLLECTION DATA STRUCTURES
Frozen Sets
Frozen sets are immutable objects that only support methods and operators
that produce a result without affecting set to which they are applied.
Methods for Sets

The add(x) Method:
Adds the item x to set if it is not already in:
>>> people.add("Willow")
>>> people
{’Willow’, ’Giles’, ’Buffy’, ’Angel’}
The s.update(t) or s| = t Methods:

They both return a set s with elements added from t.
The s.union(t) or s|t Methods:

Perform union of the two sets.
The s.intersection(t) or s&t Methods:

Return a new set that has common items from the sets:
>>> people = {"Buffy", "Angel", "Giles", "Xander"}
>>> people.intersection({"Angel", "Giles", "Willow"})
{’Giles’, ’Angel’}
The s.difference(t) or s − t Methods:

Return a new set that has every item that is not in the second set:
>>> people = {"Buffy", "Angel", "Giles", "Xander"}
>>> vampires = {"Spike", "Angel", "Drusilia"}
>>> people.difference(vampires)
3.1. SETS 51
{’Xander’, ’Giles’, ’Buffy’}
The clear() Method:

Removes all the items in the set:
>>> people.clear()
>>> people
set()
The discard(x), remove(x), and pop() Methods:

discard(x) removes the item x from the set. remove(x) removes the item
x from the set or raises a KeyError exception if the element is not in the set.
pop() returns and removes a random item from the set or raises a KeyError
exception if the set is empty.
Sets with Lists and Dictionaries

You can cast a set from a list. The snippet below shows some of the available
set operations on lists:
[set_operations_with_lists.py]
def difference(l1):
""" return the list with duplicate elements removed """
return list(set(l1))
def intersection(l1, l2):

""" return the intersection of two lists """
return list(set(l1) & set(l2))
def union(l1, l2):

""" return the union of two lists """
return list(set(l1) | set(l2))
def test_sets_operations_with_lists():
l1 = [1,2,3,4,5,9,11,15]
l2 = [4,5,6,7,8]
l3 = []
assert(difference(l1) == [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 11, 15])
assert(difference(l2) == [8, 4, 5, 6, 7])
assert(intersection(l1, l2) == [4,5])
assert(union(l1, l2) == [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 15])
assert(difference(l3) == [])
assert(intersection(l3, l2) == l3)
assert(sorted(union(l3, l2)) == sorted(l2))
print(’Tests passed!’)
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
test_sets_operations_with_lists()
We can also use sets’ proprieties in dictionaries:2

[set_operations_dict.py]
from collections import OrderedDict
def set_operations_with_dict():
pairs = [(’a’, 1), (’b’,2), (’c’,3)]
d1 = OrderedDict(pairs)
print(d1) # (’a’, 1), (’b’, 2), (’c’, 3)
d2 = {’a’:1, ’c’:2, ’d’:3, ’e’:4}

print(d2) # {’a’: 1, ’c’: 2, ’e’: 4, ’d’: 3}
union = d1.keys() & d2.keys()

print(union) # {’a’, ’c’}
union_items = d1.items() & d2.items()

print(union_items) # {(’a’, 1)}
subtraction1 = d1.keys() - d2.keys()

print(subtraction1) # {’b’}
2
Sets properties can be used on the dict’s attributes items() and keys() attributes,
however values() do not support set operations.
3.2. DICTIONARIES 53
subtraction2 = d2.keys() - d1.keys()

print(subtraction2) # {’d’, ’e’}
subtraction_items = d1.items() - d2.items()

print(subtraction_items) # {(’b’, 2), (’c’, 3)}
’’’ we can remove keys from a dict doing: ’’’

d3 = {key:d2[key] for key in d2.keys() - {’c’, ’d’}}
print(d3) {’a’: 1, ’e’: 4}
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
set_operations_with_dict()
3.2 Dictionaries
Dictionaries in Python are implemented using hash tables3 . Hashing func-
tions assign integer values to an arbitrary object in constant time, which can
be used as an index into an array:
>>> hash(42)
42
>>> hash("hello")
355070280260770553
A dict is a collection mapping type that is iterable and supports the

membership operator in and the size function len(). When iterated, un-
ordered mapping types provide their items in an arbitrary order.
Accessing dictionaries has runtime O(1) so they are used to keep counts
of unique items (for example, counting the number of each unique word in a
file) and for fast membership test:
>>> tarantino = {}
>>> tarantino[’name’] = ’Quentin Tarantino’
>>> tarantino[’job’] = ’director’
>>> tarantino
3
A hash table is a data structure used to implement an associative array, a structure
that can map keys to values.
{’job’: ’director’, ’name’: ’Quentin Tarantino’}

>>>
>>> sunnydale = dict({"name":"Buffy", "age":16, "hobby":"slaying"})
>>> sunnydale
{’hobby’: ’slaying’, ’age’: 16, ’name’: ’Buffy’}
>>>
>>> sunnydale = dict(name="Giles", age=45, hobby="Watch")
>>> sunnydale
{’hobby’: ’Watch’, ’age’: 45, ’name’: ’Giles’}
>>>
>>> sunnydale = dict([("name", "Willow"), ("age",15), ("hobby",
"nerding")])
>>> sunnydale
{’hobby’: ’nerding’, ’age’: 15, ’name’: ’Willow’}
Methods for Dictionaries

The setdefault(key[, default]) Method:
The setdefault() method is used when we want to access a key in the
dictionary without being sure that this key exists (if we simply try to ac-
cess a non-existent key in a dictionary, we will get an exception). With
setdefault(), if key is in the dictionary, we get the value to it. If not, we
successfully insert the new key with the value of default:
[example_setdefault.py]
def usual_dict(dict_data):
newdata = {}
for k, v in dict_data:
if k in newdata:
newdata[k].append(v)
else:
newdata[k] = [v]
return newdata
def setdefault_dict(dict_data):
newdata = {}
3.2. DICTIONARIES 55
for k, v in dict_data:
newdata.setdefault(k, []).append(v)
return newdata
def test_setdef(module_name=’this module’):

dict_data = ((’key1’, ’value1’),
(’key1’, ’value2’),
(’key2’, ’value5’),)
print(usual_dict(dict_data))
print(setdefault_dict(dict_data))
The update([other]) Method:

Updates the dictionary with the key/value pairs from other, overwriting ex-
isting keys.
The get(key) Method:

Returns the key’s associated value or None if the key is not in the dictionary:
>>> sunnydale = dict(name="Xander", age=17, hobby="winning")
>>> sunnydale.get("hobby")
’winning’
The items(), values(), and keys() Methods:

The items(), keys(), and values() methods all return dictionary views. A
dictionary view is effectively a read-only iterable object that appears to hold
the dictionary’s items or keys or values:
>>> sunnydale = dict(name="Xander", age=17, hobby="winning")
>>> sunnydale.items()
dict_items([(’hobby’, ’winning’), (’age’, 17), (’name’, ’Xander’)])
>>> sunnydale.values()
dict_values([’winning’, 17, ’Xander’])
>>> sunnydale.keys()
dict_keys([’hobby’, ’age’, ’name’])
The pop() and popitem() Methods:

The pop() method removes an arbitrary item from the dictionary, return-
ing it. The popitem() method removes an arbitrary (key, value) from the
dictionary, also returning it.
The clear() Method:

Removes all the items in the dictionary:
>>> sunnydale.clear()
>>> sunnydale
{}
Runtime Analysis for Dictionaries

We can analyze Python’s dictionary performance by benchmarking some
available methods:
[runtime_dicts_with_timeit_module.py]
import timeit
import random
for i in range(10000,1000001,20000):
t = timeit.Timer("random.randrange(%d) in x"%i, "from __main__
import random,x")
x = list(range(i))
lst_time = t.timeit(number=1000)
x = {j:None for j in range(i)}
d_time = t.timeit(number=1000)
print("%d,%10.3f,%10.3f" % (i, lst_time, d_time))
We clearly see that the membership operation for lists is O(n) and for
dictionaries is O(1)):
10000, 0.192, 0.002
30000, 0.600, 0.002
50000, 1.000, 0.002
3.3. PYTHON’S COLLECTION DATA TYPES 57
70000, 1.348, 0.002

90000, 1.755, 0.002
110000, 2.194, 0.002
130000, 2.635, 0.002
150000, 2.951, 0.002
170000, 3.405, 0.002
190000, 3.743, 0.002
210000, 4.142, 0.002
230000, 4.577, 0.002
250000, 4.797, 0.002
270000, 5.371, 0.002
290000, 5.690, 0.002
310000, 5.977, 0.002
Iterating over Dictionaries

A loop over a dictionary iterates over its keys by default. The keys will
appear in an arbitrary order but we can use sorted() to iterate over the
items in a sorted way. This also works for the attributes keys(), values(),
and items():
>>> for key in sorted(dict.keys()):
... print key, dict[key]
Generators can be used to create a list of key-items for a dictionary:

def items_in_key_order(d):
for key in sorted(d):
yield key, d[key]
3.3 Python’s collection Data Types

Python’s collections module implements specialized container data types
providing high-performance alternatives to the general purpose built-in con-
tainers.
Default Dictionaries
Default dictionaries are an additional unordered mapping type provided
by Python’s collections.defaultdict. They have all the operators and
methods that a built-in dictionary has, but they also handle missing keys:
[example_defaultdict.py]
def defaultdict_example():
pairs = {(’a’, 1), (’b’,2), (’c’,3)}
d1 = {}
for key, value in pairs:
if key not in d1:
d1[key] = []
d1[key].append(value)
print(d1)
d2 = defaultdict(list)
print(d2)
Ordered Dictionaries
Ordered dictionaries are an ordered mapping type provided by Python’s
collections.OrderedDict. They have all the methods and properties of a
built-in dict, but in addition they store items in the insertion order:
[example_OrderedDict.py]
from collections import OrderedDict
pairs = [(’a’, 1), (’b’,2), (’c’,3)]

d1 = {}
if key not in d1:
d1[key] = []
3.3. PYTHON’S COLLECTION DATA TYPES 59
for key in d1:
print(key, d1[key])
d2 = OrderedDict(pairs)
for key in d2:
print(key, d2[key])
We can create ordered dictionaries incrementally:

>>> tasks = collections.OrderedDict()
>>> tasks[8031] = "Backup"
>>> tasks[4027] = "Scan Email"
>>> tasks[5733] = "Build System"
>>> tasks
OrderedDict([(8031, ’Backup’), (4027, ’Scan Email’), (5733, ’Build
System’)])
If we change a key value, the order is not changed. In addition, to move

an item to the end we should delete and re-insert it (or call popitem() to
remove and return the last key-value item).
In general, using an ordered dictionary to produce a sorted dictionary
makes sense only if we expect to iterate over the dictionary multiple times,
and if we do not expect to do any insertions (or very few).
Counter Dictionaries
A specialized Counter type (subclass for counting objects) is provided by
Python’s collections.Counter:
[example_Counter.py]
def Counter_example():
seq1 = [1, 2, 3, 5, 1, 2, 5, 5, 2, 5, 1, 4]
seq_counts = Counter(seq1)
print(seq_counts)
’’’ we can increment manually or use the update() method ’’’

seq2 = [1, 2, 3]
seq_counts.update(seq2)
print(seq_counts)
seq3 = [1, 4, 3]
for key in seq3:
seq_counts[key] += 1
print(seq_counts)
’’’ we can use set operations such as a-b or a+b ’’’

seq_counts_2 = Counter(seq3)
print(seq_counts_2)
print(seq_counts + seq_counts_2)
print(seq_counts - seq_counts_2)
3.4 Further Examples

Counting Frequency of Items
In the example below we use collections.Counter()’s most common() method
to find the top N recurring words in a sequence:
[find_top_N_recurring_words.py]
def find_top_N_recurring_words(seq, N):

dcounter = Counter()
for word in seq.split():
dcounter[word] += 1
return dcounter.most_common(N)
def test_find_top_N_recurring_words(module_name=’this module’):

seq = ’buffy angel monster xander a willow gg buffy the monster
super buffy angel’
N = 3
assert(find_top_N_recurring_words(seq, N) == [(’buffy’, 3),
(’monster’, 2), (’angel’, 2)])
s = ’Tests in {name} have {con}!’

print(s.format(name=module_name, con=’passed’))
Counting Frequency of Unique Words

The program below counts all the unique words in a file:
[count_unique_words.py]
import collections
import string
import sys
def count_unique_word():
words = collections.defaultdict(int)
strip = string.whitespace + string.punctuation + string.digits
+ "\"’"
for line in file:
for word in line.lower().split():
word = word.strip(strip)
if len(word) > 2:
words[word] = +1
for word in sorted(words):
print("’{0}’ occurs {1} times.".format(word, words[word]))
Anagrams
The following program finds whether two words are anagrams. Since sets do
not count occurrence, and sorting a list is O(n log n), hash tables can be a
good solution for this type of problem:
[anagram.py]
def is_anagram(s1, s2):

’’’
>>> is_anagram(’cat’, ’tac’)
True
>>> is_anagram(’cat’, ’hat’)
False
’’’
counter = Counter()
for c in s1:
counter[c] += 1
for c in s2:
counter[c] -= 1
for i in counter.values():
if i:
return False
return True
Sums of Paths
The following program uses two different dictionary containers to determine
the number of ways two dices can sum to a certain value:
[find_dice_probabilities.py]
from collections import Counter, defaultdict
def find_dice_probabilities(S, n_faces=6):

if S > 2*n_faces or S < 2:
return None
cdict = Counter()
ddict = defaultdict(list)
for dice1 in range(1, n_faces+1):

for dice2 in range(1, n_faces+1):
t = [dice1, dice2]
cdict[dice1+dice2] += 1
ddict[dice1+dice2].append( t)
return [cdict[S], ddict[S]]
def test_find_dice_probabilities(module_name=’this module’):

n_faces = 6
S = 5
results = find_dice_probabilities(S, n_faces)
print(results)
assert(results[0] == len(results[1]))
Finding and Deleting Duplicates

The program below uses dictionaries to find and delete all the duplicate
characters in a string:
[delete_duplicate_char_str.py]
def delete_unique(str1):
’’’
>>> delete_unique("Trust no one")
’on’
>>> delete_unique("Mulder?")
’’
’’’
str_strip = ’’.join(str1.split())
repeat = Counter()
for c in str_strip:
repeat[c] += 1
result = ’’
for c, count in repeat.items():
if count > 1:
result += c
return result
def removing_duplicates_seq(str1):
’’’
>>> delete_unique("Trust no one")
’on’
>>> delete_unique("Mulder?")
’’
’’’
seq = str1.split()
result = set()
for item in seq:
if item not in result:
#yield item
result.add(item)
return result
Chapter 4
Python’s Structure and

Modules
4.1 Control Flow
if
The if statement substitutes the switch or case statements in other lan-

guages:1
>>> x = int(input("Please enter a number: "))
>>> if x < 0:
... x = 0
... print "Negative changed to zero"
>>> elif x == 0:
... print "Zero"
>>> elif x == 1:
... print "Single"
>>> else:
... print "More"
1
Note that colons are used with else, elif, and in any other place where a suite is to
follow.
65
66 CHAPTER 4. PYTHON’S STRUCTURE AND MODULES
for
Python’s for statement iterates over the items of any sequence (e.g., a list
or a string), in the order that they appear in the sequence:
>>> a = ["buffy", "willow", "xander", "giles"]
>>> for i in range(len(a)):
... print(a[i])
buffy
willow
xander
giles
False and True in Python

False is defined by either the predefined constant False, the object None, or
by an empty sequence or collection (empty string ’ ’, list [], or tuple ()).
Anything else is True.
The Google Python Style guide sets the following rules for using implicit
False in Python:
? Never use == or != to compare singletons, such as the built-in variable

None. Use is or is not instead.
? Beware of writing if x when you mean if x is not None.
? Never compare a boolean variable to False using ==. Use if not x:

instead. If you need to distinguish False from None then chain the
expressions, such as if not x and x is not None.
? For sequences (strings, lists, tuples), use the fact that empty sequences
are False, so if not seq or if seq is preferable to if len(seq) or
if not len(seq).
? When handling integers, implicit False may involve more risk than
benefit, such as accidentally handling None as 0:
[Good]
if not users: print ’no users’
4.1. CONTROL FLOW 67
if foo == 0: self.handle_zero()
if i % 10 == 0: self.handle_multiple_of_ten()
[Bad]
if len(users) == 0: print ’no users’
if foo is not None and not foo: self.handle_zero()
if not i % 10: self.handle_multiple_of_ten()
yield vs. return

One great feature in Python is how it handles iterability. An iterator is a
container object that implements the iterator protocol and is based on two
methods: next, which returns the next item in the container, and iter
which returns the iterator itself.
In this context, yield comes in hand. The difference between yield and
return is that the former returns each value to the caller and then only
returns to the caller when all values to return have been exhausted, and the
latter causes the method to exit and return control to the caller.
The yield paradigm becomes important in the context of generators,
which are a powerful tool for creating iterators. Generators are like regular
functions but instead of returning a final value in the end, they use the
yield. Their values are extracted one at time by calling next () until a
StopIteration is raised:
>>> def f(a):
... while a:
... yield a.pop()
Generators should be considered when dealing with functions that return

sequences or create a loop. For example, the following program implements
a Fibonacci sequence using the iterator paradigm:
def fib_generator():
a, b = 0, 1
while True:
yield b
a, b = b, a+b
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
fib = fib_generator()
print(next(fib))
print(next(fib))
print(next(fib))
print(next(fib))
break vs. continue

The command break, breaks out of the smallest enclosing for or while loop,
and switches control to the statement following the innermost loop in which
the break statement appears.
Loop statements might have an else clause which is executed when the
loop terminates through exhaustion of the list (with for) or when the con-
dition becomes false (with while), but not when the loop is terminated by
a break statement.
The command continue continues with the next iteration of the loop, and
switches control to the start of the loop.
4.2 Modules in Python

Modules are defined using the built-in name def. When def is executed,
a function object is created together with its object reference. If we do not
define a return value, Python automatically returns None (like in C, we call
the function a procedure when it does not return a value).
Default Values in Modules

Whenever you create a module, remember that mutable objects should not
be used as default values in the function or method definition:
[Good]
def foo(a, b=None):
if b is None:
b = []
[Bad]
def foo(a, b=[]):
4.2. MODULES IN PYTHON 69
Activation Records
An activation record happens every time we invoke a method: information
is put in the stack to support invocation. Activation records process in the
following order:
1. the actual parameters of the method are pushed onto the stack,
2. the return address is pushed onto the stack,
3. the top-of-stack index is incremented by the total amount required by

the local variables within the method,
4. a jump to the method.
The process of unwinding an activation record happens in the following

order:
1. the top-of-stack index is decremented by the total amount of memory

consumed,
2. the returned address is popped off the stack,
3. the top-of-stack index is decremented by the total amount of memory

by the actual parameters.
Checking the Existence of a Module

To check the existence of a module, we casn use the flag -c:
$ python -c "import decimas"
File "<string>", line 1, in <module>
ImportError: No module named decimas
Packages
A package is a directory that contains a set of modules and a file called
init .py :
>>> import foldername.filemodulename
This is required to make Python treat the directories as containing pack-

ages, preventing directories with a common name (such as “string”) from
hiding valid modules that occur later on the module search path:
In the simplest case, init .py can be an empty file. It can also execute
initialization code for the package or set the all variable:
__all__ = ["file1", ...]
(with no .py in the end).

In this case, the statement:
from foldername import *
means importing every object in the module, except those whose names begin
with , or if the module has a global all variable, the list in it.
The name Variable

Whenever a module is imported, Python stores the module’s name in the
variable name .
If we run the .py file directly, Python sets name to main , and every
instruction following the below the statement:
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
is executed.
Byte-coded Compiled Modules

Byte-compiled code, in form of .pyc files, is used by the compiler to speed-up
the start-up time (load time).
When the Python interpreter is invoked with the -O flag, optimized code
is generated and stored in .pyo files (for example, assert statements are
removed). This also can be used to distribute a library of Python code in a
form that is moderately hard to reverse engineer it.
The sys Module

The variable sys.path is a list of strings that determines the interpreter’s
search path for modules. It is initialized to a default path taken from the
4.3. FILE HANDLING 71
environment variable PYTHONPATH, or from a built-in default. You can modify

it using list operations:
>>> import sys
>>> sys.path.append( /buffy/lib/ python )
The variables sys.ps1 and sys.ps2 define the strings used as primary
and secondary prompts. The variable sys.argv allows the recovering of the
arguments passed in the command line:
import sys
’’’ print command line arguments ’’’

for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
print arg
The built-in method dir() is used to find which names a module defines
and includes all types of names: variables, modules, functions:
>>> import sys
>>> dir(sys)
[ __name__ , argv , builtin_module_names , copyright ,
exit , maxint , modules , path , ps1 ,
ps2 , setprofile , settrace , stderr ,
stdin , stdout , version ]
dir() is useful to find all the methods or attributes of an object.
4.3 File Handling

File handling is very easy in Python. For instance, the snippet below reads
a file and remove any blank lines:
[remove_blank_lines.py]
import os
import sys
def read_data(filename):
lines = []
fh = None
try:
fh = open(filename)
for line in fh:
if line.strip():
lines.append(line)
except (IOError, OSError) as err:
print(err)
finally:
if fh is not None:
fh.close()
return lines
def write_data(lines, filename):

fh = None
try:
fh = open(filename, "w")
for line in lines:
fh.write(line)
except (EnvironmentError) as err:
print(err)
finally:
if fh is not None:
fh.close()
def remove_blank_lines():
if len(sys.argv) < 2:
print ("Usage: noblank.py infile1 [infile2...]")
lines = read_data(filename)
if lines:
write_data(lines, filename)
Methods for File Handling

The open(filename, mode) Method:
Returns a file object:

fin = open(filename, encoding="utf8")

fout = open(filename, "w", encoding="utf8")
The mode argument is optional and read will be assumed if it is omitted,

the other options are:
? r for reading,
? w for writing (an existing file with the same name will be erased),
? a for appending (any data written to the file is automatically added to
the end),
? and r+ for both reading and writing.
The read(size) Method:

Reads some quantity from the data and returns it as a string. Size is an
optional numeric argument and when it is omitted or negative, the entire
contents of the file will be read and returned. If the end of the file has been
reached, read() will return an empty string:
>>> f.read()
’This is the entire file.\n’
>>> f.read()
’ ’
The readline() Method:

Reads a single line from the file. A newline character is left at the end of the
string, and is only omitted on the last line of the file. This makes the return
value unambiguous.
The readlines() Method:

Return a list containing all the lines of data in the file. If given an optional
parameter size, it reads that many bytes from the file (and enough more to
complete a line), and returns the lines from that. This is often used to allow
efficient reading of a large file by lines, without having to load the entire file
in memory:
>>> f.readlines()
[’This is the first line of the file.\n’, ’Second line of the
file\n’]
The write() Method:

Writes the contents of a string to the file, returning None. Write bytes/bytear-
ray object to the file if opened in binary mode or a string object if opened
in text mode:
>>> f.write(’This is a test\n’)
The tell() and seek() Methods:

The tell() method returns an integer giving the file object’s current position
in the file, measured in bytes from the beginning of the file.
To change the file object’s position, use seek(offset, from-what). The
position is computed from adding offset to a reference point and the refer-
ence point is selected by the from-what argument. A from-what value of 0
measures from the beginning of the file, 1 uses the current file position, and
2 uses the end of the file as the reference point.
The close() Method:

Closes the file and free up any system resources taken up by the open file. It
returns True if the file is closed.
The input() Method:

Accepts input from the user. This function takes an optional string argument
(which will be printed in the console), then it will wait for the user to type
in a response and to finish by pressing Enter (or Return).
If the user does not type any text but just presses Enter, the function
returns an empty string; otherwise, it returns a string containing what the
user typed, without any line terminator.
>>> def get_int(msg):
... while True:
... try:
... i = int(input(msg))
... return i
... except ValueError as err:
... print(err)
>>> age = get_int("Enter your age: ")
The peek(n) Method:

Returns n bytes without moving the file pointer position.
The fileno() Method:

Returns the underlying file’s file descriptor (available only for file objects
that have file descriptors).
The shutil Package

This package is useful for manipulating files in the system. For example, the
following snippet gets a file and an extension from the command line and
produces a copy of this file with its extension changed to the given string:
[change_ext_file.py]
import os
import sys
import shutil
def change_file_ext():
print("Usage: change_ext.py filename.old_ext ’new_ext’")
sys.exit()
name = os.path.splitext(sys.argv[1])[0] + "." + sys.argv[2]
print (name)
try:
shutil.copyfile(sys.argv[1], name)
except OSError as err:
print (err)
The pickle Module

The pickle module can take almost any Python object (even some forms
of Python code!), and convert it to a string representation. This process is
called pickling. Reconstructing the object from the string representation is
called unpickling.
If you have an object x, and a file object f that has been opened for
writing, the simplest way to pickle the object takes only one line of code:
>>> pickle.dump(x, f)
Then, to unpickle this object:

>>> x = pickle.load(f)
Exporting Data with Pickle

The example below shows how to export serialized data with pickle:
[export_pickle.py]
import pickle
def export_pickle(data, filename=’test.dat’, compress=False):

fh = None
try:
if compress:
fh = gzip.open(filename, "wb") # write binary
else:
fh = open(filename, "wb") # compact binary pickle format
pickle.dump(data, fh, pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL)
except(EnvironmentError, pickle.PickingError) as err:

print("{0}: export error:
{1}".format(os.path.basename(sys.argv[0], err)))
return False
finally:
if fh is not None:
fh.close()
Reading Data with Pickle

The example below shows how to read a pickled data:
[import.py]
import pickle
def import_pickle(filename):
fh = None
try:
fh = open(filename, "rb")
mydict2 = pickle.load(fh)
return mydict2
except (EnvironmentError) as err:
print ("{0}: import error:
{0}".format(os.path.basename(sys.arg[0]), err))
return false
finally:
if fh is not None:
fh.close()
The struct Module

We can convert Python objects to and from suitable binary representation
using struct. This object can handle only strings with a specific length.
struct allows the creation of a function that takes a string and return a
byte object with an integer length count and a sequence of UTF-8 encoded
bytes.
Some methods are: struct.pack() (takes a struct format string and val-
ues and returns a byte object), struct.unpack() (takes a format and a byte
or bytearray object and returns a tuple of values), and struct.calcsize()
(takes a format and returns how many bytes the struct occupies):
>>> data = struct.pack("<2h", 11, -9)

>>> items = struct.unpack("<2h", data) # little endian
4.4 Error Handling in Python

There are two distinguishable kinds of errors when we compile a program in
Python: syntax errors (parsing errors) and exceptions (errors detected during
execution, not unconditionally fatal). While syntax errors will never allow
the program to be compiled, exceptions can only be detected in some cases
and for this reason they should be carefully handled.
Handling Exceptions
When an exception is raised and not handled, Python outputs a traceback
along with the exception’s error message. A traceback is a list of all the calls
made from the point where the unhandled exception occurred back to the
top of the call stack.
We can handle predictable exceptions with the try-except-finally
paradigm:
try:
try_suite
except exception1 as variable1:
exception_suite1
...
except exceptionN as variableN:
exception_suiteN
If the statements in the try block’s suite are all executed without raising
an exception, the except blocks are skipped. If an exception is raised inside
the try block, control is immediately passed to the suite corresponding to the
first matching exception. This means that any statements in the suite that
follow the one that caused the exception will not be executed:
while 1:
try:
x = int(raw_input("Please enter a number: "))
4.4. ERROR HANDLING IN PYTHON 79
break
except ValueError:
print "Oops! That was no valid number. Try again..."
The raise statement allows the programmer to force a specified exception

to occur:
import string
import sys
try:
f = open(’myfile.txt’)
s = f.readline()
i = int(string.strip(s))
except IOError, (errno, strerror):
print "I/O error(%s): %s" % (errno, strerror)
except ValueError:
print "Could not convert data to an integer."
except:
print "Unexpected error:", sys.exc_info()[0]
raise
We also can use else:

for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
try:
f = open(arg, ’r’)
except IOError:
print ’cannot open’, arg
else:
print arg, ’has’, len(f.readlines()), ’lines’
f.close()
The Google Python Style Guide for Exceptions

Exceptions must be used carefully and must follow certain conditions:
? Raise exceptions like this: raise MyException(’Error message’) or

raise MyException. Do not use the two-argument form.
? Modules or packages should define their own domain-specific base ex-

ception class, which should be inherit from the built-in Exception class.
The base exception for a module should be called Error.
class Error(Exception):
pass
? Never use catch-all except: statements, or catch Exception or StandardError,

unless you are re-raising the exception or in the outermost block in your
thread (and printing an error message).
? Minimize the amount of code in a try/except block. The larger the

body of the try, the more likely that an exception will be raised by
a line of code that you didn’t expect to raise an exception. In those
cases, the try/except block hides a real error.
? Use the finally clause to execute code whether or not an exception is

raised in the try block. This is often useful for clean-up, i.e., closing a
file.
? When capturing an exception, use as rather than a comma. For exam-

ple:
try:
raise Error
except Error as error:
pass
4.5 Special Methods

The range() Method
This method generates lists containing arithmetic progressions. It is useful
when you need to iterate over a sequence of numbers:
>>> range(10)
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
>>> range(4, 10)
[4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
>>> range(0, 10, 3)
4.5. SPECIAL METHODS 81
[0, 3, 6, 9]
The enumerate() Method

Returns a tuple with the item and the index values from an iterable. For
example, we can use enumerate to write our own grep function, which gets a
word and files from the command line and outputs where the word appears:
[grep_word_from_files.py]
import sys
def grep_word_from_files():
word = sys.argv[1]
for lino, line in enumerate(file, start=1):
if word in line:
print("{0}:{1}:{2:.40}".format(filename, lino,
line.rstrip()))
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
print("Usage: grep_word_from_files.py word infile1
[infile2...]")
sys.exit()
else:
grep_word_from_files()
The zip() Method

The zip function takes two or more sequences and creates a new sequence
of tuples where each tuple contains one element from each list:
>>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> b = [’a’, ’b’, ’c’, ’d’, ’e’]
>>> zip(a, b)
<zip object at 0xb72d65cc>

>>> list(zip(a,b))
[(1, ’a’), (2, ’b’), (3, ’c’), (4, ’d’), (5, ’e’)]
The filter(function, sequence) Method

This method returns a sequence consisting of items for which function (item)
is true:
>>> def f(x): return x % 2 != 0 and x % 3 != 0
>>> f(33)
False
>>> f(17)
True
>>> filter(f, range(2, 25))
[5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23]
The map(function, list) Function

It applies a function to every item of an iterable and then returns a list of
the results:
>>> def cube(x): return x*x*x
>>> map(cube, range(1, 11))
[1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, 1000]
>>> seq = range(8)
>>> def square(x): return x*x
>>> map(None, seq, map(square, seq))
[(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25), (6, 36), (7,
49)]
The lambda Function

The lambda function is a dynamic way of compacting functions inside the
code. For example, the function:
>>> def area(b, h):
... return 0.5 * b * h
4.5. SPECIAL METHODS 83
...
>>> area(5,4)
10.0
could be rather written as

>>> area = lambda b, h: 0.5 * b * h
>>> area(5, 4)
10.0
Chapter 5
Object-Oriented Design
Suppose we want to define an object in Python to represent a circle. We

could remember about Python’s collections module and create a named
tuple for our circle:
>>> circle = collections.namedtuple("Circle", "x y radius")
>>> circle
<class ’__main__.Circle’>
>>> circle = circle(13, 84, 9)
>>> circle
Circle(x=13, y=84, radius=9)
However, many things are missing here. First, there are no guarantees
that anyone who uses our circle data is not going to type an invalid input
value, such as a negative number for the radius. Second, how could we also
associate to our circle some operations that are proper from it, such as its
area or perimeter?
For the first problem, we can see that the inability to validate when cre-
ating an object is a really bad aspect of taking a purely procedural approach
in programming. Even if we decide to include many exceptions handling the
invalid inputs for our circles, we still would have a data container that is not
intrinsically made and validated for its real purpose. Imagine now if we had
chosen a list instead of the named tuple, how would we handle the fact that
lists have sorting properties?
It is clear that we need to create an object that has only the proprieties
that we expect it to have. In other words, we want to find a way to package
data and restrict its methods. That is what object-oriented programming
85
86 CHAPTER 5. OBJECT-ORIENTED DESIGN
allows you to do: to create your own custom data type.
5.1 Classes and Objects

Classes gather special predefined data and methods together. We use them
by creating instances:
class ClassName:
<statement-1>
.g
<statement-N>
>>> x = ClassName() # class instantiation
Class Instantiation
Class instantiation uses function notation to create objects in a known ini-

tial state. The instantiation operation creates an empty object which has
individuality1 .
When an object is created in Python, first the special method new ()
is called (the constructor) and then init () initializes it.
Attributes
Objects have attributes (methods and data) from their Classes. Method
attributes are functions whose first argument is the instance on which it is
called to operate (conventionally called self).
References to names in modules are attribute references: in the expression
modname.funcname, modname is a module object and funcname is one of
its attribute. Attributes may be read-only or writable. Writable attributes
may be deleted with the del statement.
1
Multiple names (in multiple scopes) can be bound to the same object (also know as
aliasing).
5.2. PRINCIPLES OF OOP 87
Namespaces
A namespace is a mapping from names to objects. Most namespaces are
currently implemented as Python dictionaries.
Examples of namespaces are: the set of built-in names, the global names
in a module, and the local names in a function invocation. The statements
executed by the top-level invocation of the interpreter, either reading from a
script file or interactively, are considered part of a module called main .
Scope
A scope is a textual region of a Python program where a namespace is di-
rectly accessible. Although scopes are determined statically, they are used
dynamically.
The global scope of a function defined in a module is the module’s names-
pace. When a class definition is entered, a new namespace is created, and
used as the local scope.
5.2 Principles of OOP

inheritance
Inheritance (or specialization) is the procedure of creating a new class that
inherits all the attributes from the super class (also called base class).
If a class inherits from no other base classes, we should explicitly inherit
it from Python’s highest class, object:
class OuterClass(object):
class InnerClass(object):
Inheritance is described as an is-a relationship.
Polymorphism
Functions in Python are virtual, so any method can be overridden in a sub-
class. Polymorphism is the principle where methods can be redefined inside
subclasses.
If we need to recover the superclass’s method, we call it using the built-in

super().
Aggregation
Aggregation (or composition) defines the process where a class includes one of
more instance variables that are from other classes. It is a has-a relationship.
5.3 An Example of a Class

The example below illustrates how we could write a circle data container
using the object-oriented design paradigm.
First, we create a class called Point with general data and methods at-
tributes:
[ShapeClass.py]
import math
class Point:
def __init__(self, x = 0, y = 0):
self.x = x # data attribute
self.y = y
def distance_from_origin(self): # method attribute

return math.hypot(self.x, self.y)
def __eq__(self, other):

return self.x == other.x and self.y == other.y
def __repr__(self):
return "point ({0.x!r}, {0.y!r})".format(self)
def __str__(self):
return "({0.x!r}, {0.y!r})".format(self)
Then we use inheritance to create a Circle subclass from it:

class Circle(Point):
5.3. AN EXAMPLE OF A CLASS 89
def __init__(self, radius, x=0, y=0):

super().__init__(x,y) # creates/initializes
self.radius = radius
def edge_distance_from_origin(self):
return abs(self.distance_from_origin() - self.radius)
def area(self):
return math.pi*(self.radius**2)
def circumference(self):
return 2*math.pi*self.radius
def __eq__(self, other): # avoid infinite recursion

return self.radius == other.radius and super().__eq__(other)
def __repr__(self):
return "circle ({0.radius!r}, {0.x!r})".format(self)
def __str__(self):
return repr(self)
Testing our class:

>>> import ShapeClass as shape
>>> a = shape.Point(3,4)
>>> a
point (3, 4)
>>> repr(a)
’point (3, 4)’
>>> str(a)
’(3, 4)’
>>> a.distance_from_origin()
5.0
>>> c = shape.Circle(3,2,1)
>>> c
circle (3, 2)
>>> repr(c)
’circle (3, 2)’
>>> str(c)
’circle (3, 2)’
>>> c.circumference()
18.84955592153876
>>> c. edge_distance_from_origin()
0.7639320225002102
5.4 Python Design Patterns

Design patterns are an attempt to bring a formal definition for correctly
designed structures to software engineering. There are many different design
patterns to solve distinct problems.
Decorator Pattern
Decorators (used with a @ notation) are a tool to elegantly specify some
transformation on functions and methods. The decorator pattern allows us
to wrap an object that provides core functionality with other objects that
alter that functionality.
With decorators, the snippet below:
class NiceClass(object):
def method(self):
method = my_decorator(method)
can be written as:

class NiceClass(object):
@my_decorator
def method(self):
Let’s look at a reals examples. For instance, a sum function that would
be otherwise written as:
[example_decorators.py]
def sum(func):
s = 0
for i in func():
5.4. PYTHON DESIGN PATTERNS 91
s += i
return s
def interate():
a = []
for i in range(10):
a.append(i)
return a
print sum(interate)
can be instead decorated:

@sum
def interate():
a = []
for i in range(10):
a.append(i)
return a
print interate
Another useful example is a logger decorator:

def logger(func):
def inner(*args): #1
print "Arguments were: {0}".format(args)
return func(*args)
return inner
@logger
def foo(x, y):
return x+y
print foo(1, 2)
Another example is a custom benchmarking function:

[do_benchmark.py]
import random
def benchmark(func):
import time
def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
t = time.clock()
res = func(*args, **kwargs)
print("\t%s" % func.__name__, time.clock()-t)
return res
return wrapper
@benchmark
def random_tree(n):
temp = [n for n in range(n)]
for i in range(n+1):
temp[random.choice(temp)] = random.choice(temp)
return temp
The most common decorators are @classmethod and @staticmethod, for

converting ordinary methods to class methods or static methods.
Observer Pattern
The observer pattern is useful when we want to have a core object that
maintains certain values, and then having some observers to create serialized
copies of that object.
This can be implemented by using the @properties decorator, placed
before our functions. This will control attribute access, for example, to make
an attribute to be read-only.
@property
def radius(self):
return self.__radius
Singleton Pattern
A class follows the singleton pattern if it allows exactly one instance of a
certain object to exist.
Since Python does not have private constructors, we use the new class
method to ensure that only one instance is ever created. For example, in the
5.4. PYTHON DESIGN PATTERNS 93
snippet below, the two objects are the same object (they are equal and are
in the same address):
>>> class SinEx:
... _sing = None
... def __new__(self, *args, **kwargs):
... if not self._sing:
... self._sing = super(SinEx, self).__new__(self, *args,
**kwargs)
... return self._sing
>>> x = SinEx()
>>> x
<__main__.SinEx object at 0xb72d680c>
>>> y = SinEx()
>>> x == y
True
>>> y
<__main__.SinEx object at 0xb72d680c>
Chapter 6
Advanced Topics
6.1 Multiprocessing and Threading

Each program in the operational system is a separate process. Each process
has one or more threads. If a process has several threads, they appear to run
simultaneously.
In a program, two approaches can be used to spread the workload:
Multiple processes Multiple processes have separate regions of memory

and can only communicate by special mechanisms. The processor loads
and saves a separate set of registers for each thread, which inconvenient
for communication and data sharing. In Python, multiple processes are
handled by the subprocess module.
Multiple threads Multiple threads in a single process have access to the
same memory. Threads share the process’s resources, including the
heap space. But each thread still has it own stack. In Python, threads
are handled with the threading module.
Although Python has a threading mechanism, it does not support true

parallel execution. However, it is possible is to use parallel processes, which
in modern operating systems are really efficient.
The subprocess Module

Used to create a pair of “parent-child” programs. The parent program is
started by the user and this in turn runs instances of the child program, each
95
96 CHAPTER 6. ADVANCED TOPICS
with different work to do. Child processing allows to take advantage of mul-
ticore processor, leaving concurrency issues to be handled by the operational
system.
The threading Module

Complexity arises when we want to separate threads. Since they share data,
we need to be careful with a policy for locks.
To create multiple threads the threading.thread() method passes a
callable object:
import threading
def worker(num):
"""thread worker function"""
print ’Worker: %s’ % num
return
threads = []
for i in range(5):
t = threading.Thread(target=worker, args=(i,))
threads.append(t)
t.start()
Additionally, we can use the queue.queue() class to handle all the locking
internally. This will serialize accesses, meaning that only one thread at time
has access to the data (FIFO).
Since the program will not terminate while there are running threads,
the ones that are finished will appear to be still running. The solution is
to transform threads into daemons. In this case, the program terminates as
soon as there is no daemon threads running.
Mutexes and Semaphores

A mutex is like a lock. Mutexes are used in parallel programming to ensure
that only one thread can access a shared resource at a time.
For example, say one thread is modifying an array. When it has gotten
halfway through the array, the processor switches to another thread. If we
6.2. GOOD PRACTICES 97
were not using mutexes, the thread could try to modify the array as well, at
the same time.
Conceptually, a mutex is an integer that starts at 1. Whenever a thread
needs to alter the array, it “locks” the mutex. This causes the thread to wait
until the number is positive and then decreases it by one. When the thread
is done modifying the array, it “unlocks” the mutex, causing the number to
increase by 1.
Semaphores are more general than mutexes. A semaphore’s integer may
start at a number greater than 1. The number at which a semaphore starts
is the number of threads that may access the resource at once. Semaphores
support “wait” and “signal” operations, which are analogous to the “lock”
and “unlock” operations of mutexes.
Deadlock and Spinlock

Deadlock is a problem that sometimes arises in parallel programming, when
two threads are stuck indefinitely. We can prevent deadlock if we assign an
order to our locks and require that locks will always be acquired in order
(this is a very general and a not precise approach).
Spinlock is a form of busy waiting, that can be useful for high-performance
computing (HPC) (when the entire system is dedicated to a single application
and exactly one thread per core). It takes less time than a semaphore.
6.2 Good Practices

Virtual Environments
The more projects you have, the more likely it is that you will be working
with different versions of Python itself, or at least different versions of Python
libraries. For this reason, we use virtual environments (virtualenvs or venvs).
Virtualenv
To create a virtual environment:
$ virtualenv venv
To begin using the virtual environment, it needs to be activated:

$ source venv/bin/activate
If you are done working in the virtual environment for the moment, you
can deactivate it:
$ deactivate
To delete a virtual environment, just delete its folder.
Virtualenvwrapper
Virtualenvwrapper provides some addtional commands and places all virtual
environments in one place:
$ pip install virtualenvwrapper
Then edit your .bashrc file:

export WORKON_HOME=$HOME/.virtualenvs
export PROJECT_HOME=$HOME/Devel
source /usr/local/bin/virtualenvwrapper.sh
To create a virtual environment:

$ mkvirtualenv test
To check if it is working:
$ which python
To work on a virtual environment:

$ workon test
Deactivating is still the same:

$ deactivate
To delete it:
$ rmvirtualenv test
6.2. GOOD PRACTICES 99
To check the configuration:

$ pip freeze
Other useful commands

lsvirtualenvList
cdvirtualenv
cdsitepackages
lssitepackages
Debugging
The Python debugger, pdb, can be found at http://pymotw.com/2/pdb/.
If you have some code in a source file and you want to debug it interac-
tively, you can run Python with the -i switch:
$ python -i example.py
It also can be used in the command line:

$ python3 -m pdb program.py
or added as a module as the first statement of the function we want to

examine:
import pdb
pdb.set_trace()
To perform the inspection, type: s for step, p for point, and n for next
line, list to see the next 10 lines, and help for help.
Profiling
If a program runs very slowly or consumes far more memory than expected,
the problem is most often due to our choice of algorithms or data structures
or due to some inefficient implementation:
? prefer tuples to list with read-only data;

? use generators rather than large lists or tuples to iteration;
? when creating large strings out of small strings, instead of concatenat-

ing the small, accumulate them all in a list and join the list of strings
in the end.
The cProfile Package:

This package provides a detailed breakdown of call times and can be used to
find performance bottlenecks.
import cProfile
cProfile.run(’main()’)
You can run it by typing:

$ python3 -m cProfile - o profile.day mymodule.py
$ python3 -m pstats
The timeit Package:

Used for timing small pieces of the code:
>>> import timeit
>>> timeit.timeit("x = 2 + 2")
0.034976959228515625
>>> timeit.timeit("x = sum(range(10))")
0.92387008666992188
> python -m timeit -s "import mymodule as m" "m.myfunction()"
6.3 Unit Testing

It is good practice to write tests for individual functions, classes, and meth-
ods, to ensure they behave to the expectations. Python’s standard library
provides two unit testing modules: doctest and unittest. There are also
third-party testing tools: nose and py.test.
6.3. UNIT TESTING 101
Test Nomenclature
Test fixtures: The code necessary to set up a test (for example, creating
an input file for testing and deleting afterwards).
Test cases: The basic unit of testing.
Test suites: The collection of test cases, created by the subclass unittest.testcase,
where each method has a name beginning with “test”.
Test runner: An object that executes one of more test suites.
doctest
Good for tests inside the modules and functions’ docstrings. To use it, we
add the following lines in the module:
if __name__ = "__main__"
import doctest
doctest.testmod()
unittest
unittest is the standard testing package in Python. To use it, the test files
should start with test :
import unittest
class BasicsTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
def test_find_name(self):
self.assertTrue(1 == 1)
self.assertFalse(1 == 2)
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
unittest.main()
Which we run with:

$ python -m unittest <filename>
A fundamental concept here is of test isolation, where every test gets a

new test object, failure does not stop tests, and test do not affect each other.
pytest
To install pytest, use:
$ pip install pytest
To use pytest we need to include a function that starts with test in a

file that starts with test:
def func(x):
return x + 1
def test_answer():
assert func(3) == 51
Running:
$ python -m pytest
Part II
Algorithms are Fun!
103
Chapter 7
Asymptotic Analysis
Asymptotic analysis is a method to describe the limiting behavior and the

performance of algorithms when applied to very large input datasets. To
understand why asymptotic analysis is important, suppose you have to sort
a billion of numbers (n = 109 )1 in some desktop computer. Suppose that
this computer has a CPU clock time of 1 GHz, which roughly means that
it executes 109 processor cycles (or operations) per second.2 Then, for an
algorithm that has a runtime of O(n2 ), it would take approximately one
billion of seconds to finish the sorting (in the worst case) which means one
entire year!
In the Fig. 7 we can visualize how asymptotic analysis works, where
several functions are plotted in terms of the number of inputs (n). We can see
that the number of operations for any polynomial or exponential algorithm
is unfeasible.
7.1 Complexity Classes

A complexity class is a set of problems with related complexity. A reduction
is a transformation of one problem into another which is at least as difficult
as the original one.
1
Remember that for memory gigabytes means 109 ∼ 10243 = 230 bytes and for storage
it means 10003 = 109 bytes. Also, integers usually take 2 or 4 bytes each. However, for
this example we are simplifying this by saying that a ‘number’ has 1 byte.
2
In this exercise we are not considering other factors that would make the processing
slower, such as RAM latency, copy cache operations, etc.
105
106 CHAPTER 7. ASYMPTOTIC ANALYSIS
Figure 7.1: Asymptotic behaviour of many classes of functions.
P
P is the complexity class of decision problems that can be solved on a deter-
ministic Turing machine in polynomial time (in the worst case). If we can
turn a problem into a decision problem, the result would belong to P.
NP
NP is the complexity class of decision problems that can be solved on a non-
deterministic Turing machine (NTM) in polynomial time. In other words, it
includes all decision problems whose yes instances can be solved in polyno-
mial time with the NTM.
A problem is called complete if all problems in the class are reduced to
it. The subclass called NP-complete (NPC) contains the hardest problems
in all of NP.
Any problem that is at least as hard (determined by polynomial-time
reduction) as any problem in NP, but that need not itself be in NP, is
called NP-hard. For example, finding the shortest route through a graph,
which is called the Travelling Salesman (or Salesrep) problem (TSP).
7.2. RECURSION 107
P=NP?
The class co-NP is the class of the complements of NP problems. For every
“yes” answer, we have the “no”, and vice versa. If NP is truly asymmetric,
then these two classes are different. Although, there is overlap between
them since all of P lies in their intersection. Moreover, both the yes and no
instances in P can be solved in polynomial time with an NTM.
What would happen if a NPC was found in a intersection of N and co-
NP? First, it would mean that all of NP would be inside co-NP, so we
would show NP = co-NP and the asymmetry would disappear. Second,
since all of P is in this intersection, P = NP. If P = NP, we could solve
any (decision) problem that had a practical (verifiable) solution.
However, it is (strongly) believed that NP and co-NP are different. For
instance, no polynomial solution to the problem of factoring numbers was
found, and this problem is in both NP and co-NP.
7.2 Recursion
In functions, the three laws of recursion are:
1. A recursive algorithm must have a base case.
2. A recursive algorithm must change its state and move toward the base
case.
3. A recursive algorithm must call itself, recursively.
For every recursive call, the recursive function has to allocate memory on
the stack for arguments, return address, and local variables, costing time to
push and pop these data onto the stack. Recursive algorithms take at least
O(n) space where n is the depth of the recursive call.
Recursion is very costly when there are duplicated calculations and/or
there are overlap among subproblems. In some cases this can cause the stack
to overflow. For this reason, where subproblems overlap, iterative solutions
might be a better approach. For example, in the case of the Fibonacci
series, the iterative solution runs on O(n) while the recursive solution runs
on exponential runtime.
Recursive Relations
To describe the running time of recursive functions, we use recursive relations:
T (n) = a · T (g(n)) + f (n),
where a represents the number of recursive calls, g(n) is the size of each
subproblem to be solved recursively, and f (n) is any extra work done in the
function. The following table shows examples of recursive relations:
T (n) = T (n − 1) + 1 O(n) Processing a sequence
T (n) = T (n − 1) + n O(n2 ) Handshake problem
T (n) = 2T (n − 1) + 1 O(2n ) Towers of Hanoi
T (n) = T (n/2) + 1 O(ln n) Binary search
T (n) = T (n/2) + n O(n) Randomized select
T (n) = 2T (n/2) + 1 O(n) Tree transversal
T (n) = 2T (n/2) + n O(n ln n) Sort by divide and conquer
Divide and Conquer Algorithms

Recurrences for the divide and conquer algorithms have the form:
T (n) = a · T (n/b) + f (n),
where we have a recursive calls, each with a percentage 1/b of the dataset.
Summing to this, the algorithm does f (n) of work. To reach the problem of
T(1) = 1 in the final instance (leaf, as we will learn when we study trees),
the height is defined as h = lnb n, Fig. 7.2.
7.3 Runtime in Functions

If an algorithm does not have any recursive calling, we only need to analyze
its data structures and flow blocks. In this case, complexities of code blocks
executed one after the other are just added and complexities of nested loops
are multiplied.
If an algorithm has recursive calls, we can use the recursive functions de-
fined in the previous section to find the runtime. When we write a recurrence
relation for a function, we must write two equations, one for the general case
and one for the base case (that should be O(1), so that T (1) = 1).
For instance, the algorithm to find the nth element in a Fibonacci sequence
( which is known as to be exponential):
7.3. RUNTIME IN FUNCTIONS 109
Figure 7.2: Tree illustrating divide and conquer recurrences.
[find_fibonacci_seq.py]
def find_fibonacci_seq_rec(n):
if n < 2: return n
return find_fibonacci_seq_rec(n - 1) +
find_fibonacci_seq_rec(n - 2)
There, g(n)s are n − 2 and n − 1, a is 2, and f (n) is 1, so the recursive

relation is
T (n) = 2T (n − 1) + 1.
Let us open this equation for each next recursion:
T (n) = 22 T (n − 2) + 2 → 2k T (n − k) + k...
We need to make sure that the function have O(1) in the base case, where
it is T (1) = 1, this means that n − k = 1 or k = n − 1. Plugging it back into
the equation gives:
T (n) = 2n−1 + n − 1 ∼ 2n . (7.3.1)

This proves that this algorithm is exponential! The same process can
be done for each recursive relation.
In conclusion, the following table shows the runtime results for several
known algorithms:
O(n2 ) quadratic insertion, selection sort

O(n ln n) loglinear algorithms breaking problem into smaller chunks
per invocation, and then sticking the results together,
quick and merge sort
O(n) linear iteration over a list
O(ln n) log algorithms breaking problem into smaller chunks
per invocation, searching a binary search tree
O(1) constant hash table lookup/modification
O(nk ) polynomial k-nested for loops over n
O(k n ) exponential producing every subset of n items
O(n!) factorial producing every ordering of n values
Chapter 8
Abstract Data Structures
An abstract data type (ADT) is a mathematical model for a certain class of

data structures that have similar behavior. Different classes of abstract data
types have many different but functionally equivalent data structures that
implement them.
Data structures can be classified as either contiguous (composed of single
slabs of memory) or linked (distinct chunks of memory bound together by
pointers). In Python, contiguously-allocated structures include strings, lists,
tuples, and dictionaries.
In the following sections we will learn how to write abstract data struc-
tures, whose can either use Python’s builtin contiguous structures or be made
of pointers.
8.1 Stacks
A stack is a linear data structure that can be accessed only at one of its ends
(which we refers as the top) for either storing or retrieving. You can think
of a stack as a huge pile of books on your desk.
Array access of elements in a stack is restricted since a stack is a last-
in-first-out (LIFO) structure. However, stacks have the following operations
running at O(1):
push: Insert an item at the top of the stack.
pop: Remove an item from the top of the stack.
111
112 CHAPTER 8. ABSTRACT DATA STRUCTURES
top/peek: Look up the element on the top.
empty/size: Check whether the stack is empty or return its size.
Stacks in Python can be implemented with lists and the methods append()
and pop():
[stack.py]
class Stack(object):
def __init__(self):
self.content = []
self.min_array = []
self.min = float(’inf’)
def push(self, value):

if value < self.min:
self.min = value
self.content.append(value)
self.min_array.append(self.min)
def pop(self):
if self.content:
value = self.content.pop()
self.min_array.pop()
if self.min_array:
self.min = self.min_array[-1]
return value
else:
return ’Empty List. ’
def find_min(self):
if self.min_array:
return self.min_array[-1]
else:
return ’No min value for empty list.’
def size(self):
return len(self.content)
def isEmpty(self):
8.1. STACKS 113
return not bool(self.content)
def peek(self):
if self.content:
return self.content[-1]
else:
print(’Stack is empty.’)
def __repr__(self):
return ’{}’.format(self.content)
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
q = Stack()
for i in range(15,20):
q.push(i)
for i in range(10,5,-1):
q.push(i)
for i in range(1, 13):
print q.pop(), q.find_min()
Another approach to implement a stack is by thinking of it as a container

of nodes (objects) following a LIFO order:
[linked_stack.py]
class Node(object):
def __init__(self, value=None, pointer=None):
self.value = value
self.pointer = pointer
class Stack(object):
def __init__(self):
self.head = None
def isEmpty(self):
return not bool(self.head)
def push(self, item):

self.head = Node(item, self.head)
def pop(self):
if self.head:
node = self.head
self.head = node.pointer
return node.value
else:
def peek(self):
if self.head:
return self.head.value
else:
def size(self):
node = self.head
count = 0
while node:
count +=1
node = node.pointer
return count
def _printList(self):
node = self.head
while node:
print(node.value)
node = node.pointer
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
stack = Stack()
print("Is the stack empty? ", stack.isEmpty())
print("Adding 0 to 10 in the stack...")
for i in range(10):
stack.push(i)
stack._printList()
print("Stack size: ", stack.size())
print("Stack peek : ", stack.peek())
print("Pop...", stack.pop())
print("Stack peek: ", stack.peek())
8.2. QUEUES 115
stack._printList()
Stacks are suitable for depth-first traversal algorithms in graphs, as we

will see in future chapters.
8.2 Queues
A queue, differently of a stack, is a structure where the first enqueued element
(at the back) will be the first one to be dequeued (when it is at the front),
being defined as a first-in-first-out (FIFO) structure. You can think of a
queue as a line of people waiting for a roller-coaster ride.
Array access of elements in queues is restricted and queues should have
the following operations running at O(1):
enqueue: Insert an item at the back of the queue.
dequeue: Remove an item from the front of the queue.
peek/front: Retrieve an item at the front of the queue without removing

it.
empty/size: Check whether the queue is empty or give its size.
Again, we can write a queue class with Python’s lists. However, this will
be very inefficient (because it uses the method insert()):
[queue_inefficient.py]
class Queue(object):
def __init__(self):
self.items = []
def isEmpty(self):
return not bool(self.items)
def enqueue(self, item):

self.items.insert(0, item)
def dequeue(self):
return self.items.pop()
def size(self):
return len(self.items)
def peek(self):
return self.items[-1]
def __repr__(self):
return ’{}’.format(self.items)
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
queue = Queue()
print("Is the queue empty? ", queue.isEmpty())
print("Adding 0 to 10 in the queue...")
for i in range(10):
queue.enqueue(i)
print("Queue size: ", queue.size())
print("Queue peek : ", queue.peek())
print("Dequeue...", queue.dequeue())
print("Queue peek: ", queue.peek())
print(queue)
A better way would write a queue using two stacks (two lists) instead of
one:
[queue.py]
class Queue(object):
def __init__(self):
self.in_stack = []
self.out_stack = []
def _transfer(self):
while self.in_stack:
self.out_stack.append(self.in_stack.pop())
def enqueue(self, item):

return self.in_stack.append(item)
8.2. QUEUES 117
def dequeue(self):
if not self.out_stack:
self._transfer()
if self.out_stack:
return self.out_stack.pop()
else:
return "Queue empty!"
def size(self):
return len(self.in_stack) + len(self.out_stack)
def peek(self):
self._transfer()
if self.out_stack:
return self.out_stack[-1]
else:
def __repr__(self):
self._transfer()
if self.out_stack:
return ’{}’.format(self.out_stack)
else:
def isEmpty(self):
return not (bool(self.in_stack) or bool(self.out_stack))
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
queue = Queue()
for i in range(10):
queue.enqueue(i)

print("Printing the queue...")

print(queue)
Another approach is to implement a queue as a container for nodes, as

we have done for stacks, but now the nodes are inserted and removed in a
FIFO order:
[linked_queue.py]
class Node(object):
self.value = value
self.pointer = None
class LinkedQueue(object):
def __init__(self):
self.head = None
self.tail = None
def isEmpty(self):
return not bool(self.head)
def dequeue(self):
if self.head:
value = self.head.value
self.head = self.head.pointer
return value
else:
print(’Queue is empty, cannot dequeue.’)
def enqueue(self, value):

node = Node(value)
if not self.head:
self.head = node
self.tail = node
else:
if self.tail:
8.2. QUEUES 119
self.tail.pointer = node
self.tail = node
def size(self):
node = self.head
num_nodes = 0
while node:
num_nodes += 1
node = node.pointer
return num_nodes
def peek(self):
return self.head.value
def _print(self):
node = self.head
while node:
print(node.value)
node = node.pointer
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
queue = LinkedQueue()
for i in range(10):
queue.enqueue(i)
queue._print()
queue._print()
Queues are necessary for breath-first traversal algorithms for graphs, as

we will see in future chapters.
Deques
A deque is a double-ended queue, which can roughly be seen as an union of
a stack and a queue.
Python has an efficient deque implementation, with fast appending and
popping from both ends:
>>> from collections import deque
>>> q = deque(["buffy", "xander", "willow"])
>>> q
deque([’buffy’, ’xander’, ’willow’])
>>> q.append("giles")
>>> q
deque([’buffy’, ’xander’, ’willow’, ’giles’])
>>> q.popleft()
’buffy’
>>> q.pop()
’giles’
>>> q
deque([’xander’, ’willow’])
>>> q.appendleft(’angel’)
>>> q
deque([’angel’, ’xander’, ’willow’])
Interestingly, deques in Python are based on a doubly linked list,1 not in

dynamic arrays. It means that operations such as inserting an item anywhere
are fast (O(1)), but arbitrary index accessing are slow (O(n)).
8.3 Priority Queues and Heaps

A priority queue is an abstract data type which is similar to a regular queue
or stack, but where each element has a priority associated with it. If two
elements have the same priority, they are served according to their order in
the queue. A sensible implementation of a priority queue is given by a heap
data structure.
1
Linked lists are another abstract data structure that we will learn about at the end
of this chapter. Doubly here means that their nodes have links to the next and to the
previous node.
8.3. PRIORITY QUEUES AND HEAPS 121
Heaps
Conceptually, a heap is a binary tree where each node is smaller (larger) than
its children. We will learn about trees in the next chapters but we should
already keep in mind that when modifications are made in a balanced tree,
we can repair its structure with O(logn) runtimes.
Heaps are generally useful for applications that repeatedly access the
smallest (largest) element in the list. A min-(max-)heap lets you to find the
smallest (largest) element in O(1) and to extract/add/replace it in O(ln n).
Python’s heapq Package

Python implements heaps with the heapq module, which provides functions
to insert and remove items while keeping the sequence as a heap.
We can use the heapq.heapify(x) method to transform a list into a
heap, in-place, and in O(n) time:
>>> l = [4, 6, 8, 1]
>>> heapq.heapify(l)
>>> l
[1, 4, 8, 6]
Once we have a heap, the heapq.heappush(heap, item) method is used

to push the item onto it:
>>> import heapq
>>> h = []
>>> heapq.heappush(h, (1, ’food’))
>>> heapq.heappush(h, (2, ’have fun’))
>>> heapq.heappush(h, (3, ’work’))
>>> heapq.heappush(h, (4, ’study’))
>>> h
[(1, ’food’), (2, ’have fun’), (3, ’work’), (4, ’study’)]
The method heapq.heappop(heap) is used to pop and return the smallest

item from the heap:
>>> l
[1, 4, 8, 6]
>>> heapq.heappop(l)
1
>>> l
[4, 6, 8]
The method heapq.heappushpop(heap, item) is used to push the item

on the heap, then it pops and returns the smallest item from the heap. In
a similar way, heapq.heapreplace(heap, item) will pop and return the
smallest item from the heap, and then push the new item. In any case, the
heap size does not change.
Several other operations are available with a heap proprieties. For ex-
ample heapq.merge(*iterables) will merge multiple sorted inputs into a
single sorted output (returning a iterator):
>>> for x in heapq.merge([1,3,5],[2,4,6]):
... print(x,end="\n")
...
1
2
3
4
5
6
Finally, the methods heapq.nlargest(n, iterable[, key]) and heapq.nsmallest(n,

iterable[, key]) will return a list with the n largest and smallest elements
from the dataset defined by iterable.
A Class for a Heap

The following code does that, implementing a max-heap class for a given list:
[heapify.py]
class Heapify(object):
def __init__(self, data=None):
self.data = data or []
for i in range(len(data)//2, -1, -1):
self.__max_heapify__(i)
def __repr__(self):
8.3. PRIORITY QUEUES AND HEAPS 123
return ’{}’.format(self.data)
def parent(self, i):

return i >> 1
def left_child(self, i):

return (i << 1) + 1
def right_child(self, i):

return (i << 1) + 2 # +2 instead of +1 because it’s
0-indexed.
def __max_heapify__(self, i):

largest = i
left = self.left_child(i)
right = self.right_child(i)
n = len(self.data)
largest = (left < n and self.data[left] > self.data[i]) and
left or i
largest = (right < n and self.data[right] >
self.data[largest]) and right or largest
if i is not largest:
self.data[i], self.data[largest] = self.data[largest],
self.data[i]
self.__max_heapify__(largest)
def extract_max(self):
n = len(self.data)
max_element = self.data[0]
self.data[0] = self.data[n - 1]
self.data = self.data[:n - 1]
self.__max_heapify__(0)
return max_element
def test_Heapify():
l1 = [3, 2, 5, 1, 7, 8, 2]
h = Heapify(l1)
assert(h.extract_max() == 8)
A Class for a Priority Queue
To conclude this section, the following example shows how to use the heapq
package to implement a priority queue class:
[PriorityQueueClass.py]
import heapq
class PriorityQueue(object):
def __init__(self):
self._queue = []
self._index = 0 # comparying same priority level
def push(self, item, priority):

heapq.heappush(self._queue, (-priority, self._index, item))
self._index += 1
def pop(self):
return heapq.heappop(self._queue)[-1]
class Item:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def __repr__(self):
return "Item({!r})".format(self.name)
def test_PriorityQueue():
’’’ push and pop are all O(logN) ’’’
q = PriorityQueue()
q.push(Item(’test1’), 1)
assert(str(q.pop()) == "Item(’test2’)")
8.4. LINKED LISTS 125
8.4 Linked Lists

A linked list is a linear list of nodes, in general containing a value and a
pointer (a reference) to the next node (and sometimes to the previous node).
The last node in a linked list has a None reference.
An example of a node class is the following:
[node.py]
class Node(object):
self.value = value
def getData(self):
return self.value
def getNext(self):
return self.pointer
def setData(self, newdata):

self.value = newdata
def setNext(self, newpointer):

self.pointer = newpointer
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
L = Node("a", Node("b", Node("c", Node("d"))))
assert(L.pointer.pointer.value==’c’)
print(L.getData())
print(L.getNext().getData())
L.setData(’aa’)
L.setNext(Node(’e’))
print(L.getData())
print(L.getNext().getData())
We can write a LIFO linked list as a collection of these nodes:

[likedlist_fifo.py]
from node import Node

class LinkedListLIFO(object):
def __init__(self):
self.head = None
self.length = 0
# print each node’s value, starting from the head

node = self.head
while node:
print(node.value)
node = node.pointer
# delete a node, given the previous node

def _delete(self, prev, node):
self.length -= 1
if not prev:
else:
prev.pointer = node.pointer
# add a new node, pointing to the previous node

# in the head
def _add(self, value):
self.length += 1
self.head = Node(value, self.head)
# locate node with some index

def _find(self, index):
prev = None
node = self.head
i = 0
while node and i < index:
prev = node
node = node.pointer
i += 1
return node, prev, i
# locate node by value

def _find_by_value(self, value):
prev = None
node = self.head
found = 0
while node and not found:
if node.value == value:
found = True
else:
prev = node
node = node.pointer
return node, prev, found
# find and delete a node by index

def deleteNode(self, index):
node, prev, i = self._find(index)
if index == i:
self._delete(prev, node)
else:
print(’Node with index {} not found’.format(index))
# find and delete a node by value

def deleteNodeByValue(self, value):
node, prev, found = self._find_by_value(value)
if found:
self._delete(prev, node)
else:
print(’Node with value {} not found’.format(value))
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
ll = LinkedListLIFO()
ll._add(i)
print(’The list is:’)
ll._printList()
print(’The list after deleting node with index 2:’)
ll.deleteNode(2)
ll._printList()
print(’The list after deleting node with value 3:’)
ll.deleteNodeByValue(2)
ll._printList()
print(’The list after adding node with value 15’)
ll._add(15)
ll._printList()
print("The list after deleting everything...")
for i in range(ll.length-1, -1, -1):
ll.deleteNode(i)
ll._printList()
We can also write a class for a FIFO linked list:

[likedlist_fifo.py]
class LinkedListFIFO(object):
def __init__(self):
self.head = None
self.length = 0
self.tail = None # this is different from ll lifo

node = self.head
while node:
print(node.value)
node = node.pointer
# add a node in the first position

# read will never be changed again while not empty
def _addFirst(self, value):
self.length = 1
node = Node(value)
self.head = node
self.tail = node
# delete a node in the first position, ie

# when there is no previous node
def _deleteFirst(self):
self.length = 0
self.head = None
self.tail = None
print(’The list is empty.’)
# add a node in a position different from head,

# ie, in the end of the list
self.length += 1
node = Node(value)
if self.tail:
self.tail = node
# add nodes in general

def addNode(self, value):
if not self.head:
self._addFirst(value)
else:
self._add(value)

prev = None
node = self.head
i = 0
prev = node
node = node.pointer
i += 1
return node, prev, i
# delete nodes in general

if not self.head or not self.head.pointer:
self._deleteFirst()
else:
node, prev, i = self._find(index)
if i == index and node:
self.length -= 1
if i == 0 or not prev :
else:
prev.pointer = node.pointer
if not self.tail == node:
self.tail = prev
else:
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
ll = LinkedListFIFO()
ll.addNode(i)
print(’The list is:’)
ll._printList()
print(’The list after deleting node with index 2:’)
ll.deleteNode(2)
ll._printList()
ll._add(15)
ll._printList()
ll.deleteNode(i)
ll._printList()
Linked lists have a dynamic size at runtime and they are good for when
you have an unknown number of items to store.
Insertion is O(1) but deletion and searching can be O(n) because locating
an element in a linked list is slow and is it done by a sequential search. A
good trick to delete a i node at O(1) is copying the data from i + 1 to i and
then to deleting the i + 1 node.
Traversing a linked list backward or sorting it are both O(n2 ).
8.5 Hash Tables

A hash table is used to associate keys to values, so that each key is associated
with one or zero values. Insertion, removal, and lookup take O(1) time,
provided that the hash is random.
We can build a class for a hash table by implementing an array of hash
8.5. HASH TABLES 131
buckets. For example, if a hash value is 42, and there are 5 buckets, the mod
function is used to decide that the destination bucket is 2 (42 mod 5).
When two objects have the same hash value, we have a collision. One
way to deal with this is to have a linked list for each bucket. In the worst-
case scenario, each key hashes to the same bucket, so insertion, removal, and
lookup will take O(n) time.
[Hash_Table.py]
from linked_list_fifo import LinkedListFIFO
class HashTable(object):
def __init__(self, slots=10):
self.slots = slots
self.table = []
self.create_table()
def hash_key(self, value):

return hash(value)%self.slots
def create_table(self):
for i in range(self.slots):
self.table.append([])
def add_item(self, value):

key = self.hash_key(value)
self.table[key].append(value)
def print_table(self):
for key in range(len(self.table)):
print "Key is %s, value is %s." %(key, self.table[key])
def find_item(self, item):

pos = self.hash_key(item)
if item in self.table[pos]:
return True
else:
return False
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
dic = HashTable(5)
for i in range(1, 40, 2):
dic.add_item(i)
dic.print_table()
assert(dic.find_item(20) == False)
assert(dic.find_item(21) == True)
8.6. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 133
8.6 Additional Exercises

Stacks
Balancing Parenthesis in a String
The following example uses a stack to balance parenthesis in a string:
[balance_parenthesis_str.py]
from stack import Stack
def balance_par_str_with_stack(str1):
s = Stack()
balanced = True
index = 0
while index < len(str1) and balanced:
symbol = str1[index]
if symbol == "(":
s.push(symbol)
else:
if s.isEmpty():
balanced = False
else:
s.pop()
index += 1
if balanced and s.isEmpty():
return True
else:
return False
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
print(balance_par_str_with_stack(’((()))’))
print(balance_par_str_with_stack(’(()’))
Decimal to Binary
The following example uses a stack to transform a decimal number to binary
number:
[dec2bin_with_stack.py]
def dec2bin_with_stack(decnum):
s = Stack()
str_aux = ’’
while decnum > 0:
dig = decnum % 2
decnum = decnum//2
s.push(dig)
while not s.isEmpty():
str_aux += str(s.pop())
return str_aux
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
decnum = 9
assert(dec2bin_with_stack(decnum) == ’1001’)
Stack with a Constant Lookup

The following example implements a stack that has O(1) minimum lookup:
[stack_with_min.py]
class NodeWithMin(object):
def __init__(self, value=None, minimum=None):
self.value = value
self.minimum = minimum
class StackMin(Stack):
def __init__(self):
self.items = []
self.minimum = None

if self.isEmpty() or self.minimum > value:

self.minimum = value
self.items.append(NodeWithMin(value, self.minimum))
def peek(self):
return self.items[-1].value
def peekMinimum(self):
return self.items[-1].minimum
def pop(self):
item = self.items.pop()
if item:
if item.value == self.minimum:
self.minimum = self.peekMinimum()
return item.value
else:
print("Stack is empty.")
def __repr__(self):
aux = []
for i in self.items:
aux.append(i.value)
return ’{}’.format(aux)
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
stack = StackMin()
for i in range(10, 0, -1):
stack.push(i)
stack.push(i)
print(stack)
print("Stack size: ", stack.size())
print("Stack peek and peekMinimum : ", stack.peek(),
stack.peekMinimum())
print("Stack peek and peekMinimum : ", stack.peek(),
stack.peekMinimum())

print(stack)
Set of Stacks
The following example implements a set of stacks, creating a new stack when
the previous exceeds capacity. The push and pop methods are identical to a
single stack:
[set_of_stacks.py]
class SetOfStacks(Stack):
def __init__(self, capacity=4):
self.setofstacks = []
self.items = []
self.capacity = capacity

if self.size() >= self.capacity:
self.setofstacks.append(self.items)
self.items = []
self.items.append(value)
def pop(self):
value = self.items.pop()
if self.isEmpty() and self.setofstacks:
self.items = self.setofstacks.pop()
return value
def sizeStack(self):
return len(self.setofstacks)*self.capacity + self.size()
def __repr__(self):
aux = []
for s in self.setofstacks:
aux.extend(s)
aux.extend(self.items)
return ’{}’.format(aux)
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
capacity = 5
stack = SetOfStacks(capacity)
for i in range(10):
stack.push(i)
print(stack)
print("Stack size: ", stack.sizeStack())
print("Stack peek : ", stack.peek())
print("Stack peek: ", stack.peek())
print(stack)
Queues
Using a Queue to Model an Animal Shelter
[animal_shelter.py]
class Node(object):
def __init__(self, animalName=None, animalKind=None,
pointer=None):
self.animalName = animalName
self.animalKind = animalKind
self.timestamp = 0
class AnimalShelter(object):
def __init__(self):
self.headCat = None
self.headDog = None
self.tailCat = None
self.tailDog = None
self.animalNumber = 0
def enqueue(self, animalName, animalKind):

self.animalNumber += 1
newAnimal = Node(animalName, animalKind)
newAnimal.timestamp = self.animalNumber
if animalKind == ’cat’:
if not self.headCat:
self.headCat = newAnimal
if self.tailCat:
self.tailCat.pointer = newAnimal
self.tailCat = newAnimal
elif animalKind == ’dog’:

if not self.headDog:
self.headDog = newAnimal
if self.tailDog:
self.tailDog.pointer = newAnimal
self.tailDog = newAnimal
def dequeueDog(self):
if self.headDog:
newAnimal = self.headDog
self.headDog = newAnimal.pointer
return str(newAnimal.animalName)
else:
return ’No Dogs!’
def dequeueCat(self):
if self.headCat:
newAnimal = self.headCat
self.headCat = newAnimal.pointer
return str(newAnimal.animalName)
else:
return ’No Cats!’
def dequeueAny(self):
if self.headCat and not self.headDog:
return self.dequeueCat()
elif self.headDog and not self.headCat:

return self.dequeueDog()
elif self.headDog and self.headCat:
if self.headDog.timestamp < self.headCat.timestamp:
return self.dequeueDog()
else:
return self.dequeueCat()
else:
return (’No Animals!’)
def _print(self):
print("Cats:")
cats = self.headCat
while cats:
print(cats.animalName, cats.animalKind)
cats = cats.pointer
print("Dogs:")
dogs = self.headDog
while dogs:
print(dogs.animalName, dogs.animalKind)
dogs = dogs.pointer
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
qs = AnimalShelter()
qs.enqueue(’bob’, ’cat’)
qs.enqueue(’mia’, ’cat’)
qs.enqueue(’yoda’, ’dog’)
qs.enqueue(’wolf’, ’dog’)
qs._print()
print("Deque one dog and one cat...")
qs.dequeueDog()
qs.dequeueCat()
qs._print()
Priority Queues and Heaps

The example below uses Python’s heapq package to find the N largest and
smallest items in a sequence:
[find_N_largest_smallest_items_seq.py]
import heapq
def find_N_largest_items_seq(seq, N):

return heapq.nlargest(N,seq)
def find_N_smallest_items_seq(seq, N):

return heapq.nsmallest(N, seq)
def find_smallest_items_seq_heap(seq):
heapq.heapify(seq)
return heapq.heappop(seq)
def find_smallest_items_seq(seq):
return min(seq)
def find_N_smallest_items_seq_sorted(seq, N):

return sorted(seq)[:N]
def find_N_largest_items_seq_sorted(seq, N):

return sorted(seq)[len(seq)-N:]
def test_find_N_largest_smallest_items_seq(module_name=’this
module’):
seq = [1, 3, 2, 8, 6, 10, 9]
N = 3
assert(find_N_largest_items_seq(seq, N) == [10, 9, 8])
assert(find_N_largest_items_seq_sorted(seq, N) == [8, 9, 10])
assert(find_N_smallest_items_seq(seq, N) == [1,2,3])
assert(find_N_smallest_items_seq_sorted(seq, N) == [1,2,3])
assert(find_smallest_items_seq(seq) == 1)
assert(find_smallest_items_seq_heap(seq) == 1)
The following example uses Python’s heapq package to merge a two sorted
sequences with little overhead:
[merge_sorted_seqs.py]
import heapq
def merge_sorted_seqs(seq1, seq2):

result = []
for c in heapq.merge(seq1, seq2):
result.append(c)
return result
def test_merge_sorted_seq(module_name=’this module’):

seq1 = [1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10]
seq2 = [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9]
seq3 = seq1 + seq2
assert(merge_sorted_seq(seq1, seq2) == sorted(seq3))
Linked List
Find the kth Element from the End of a Linked List
[find_kth_from_the_end.py]

class LinkedListFIFO_find_kth(LinkedListFIFO):
def find_kth_to_last(self, k):

p1, p2 = self.head, self.head
i = 0
while p1:
if i > k:
try:
p2 = p2.pointer
except:
break
p1 = p1.pointer
i += 1
return p2.value
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
ll = LinkedListFIFO_find_kth()
ll.addNode(i)
print(’The Linked List:’)
print(ll._printList())
k = 3
k_from_last = ll.find_kth_to_last(k)
print("The %dth element to the last of the LL of size %d is %d"
%(k, ll.length, k_from_last))
Partitioning a Linked List in an Elements
This following function divides a linked list in a value, where everything

smaller than this value goes to the front, and everything large goes to the
back:
[part_linked_list.py]

def partList(ll, n):

more = LinkedListFIFO()
less = LinkedListFIFO()
node = ll.head
while node:
item = node.value
if item < n:
less.addNode(item)
elif item > n:
more.addNode(item)
node = node.pointer
less.addNode(n)
nodemore = more.head
while nodemore:
less.addNode(nodemore.value)
nodemore = nodemore.pointer
return less
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
l = [6, 7, 3, 4, 9, 5, 1, 2, 8]
for i in l:
ll.addNode(i)
print(’Before Part’)
ll._printList()
print(’After Part’)
newll = partList(ll, 6)
newll._printList()
A Doubled Linked List FIFO
The function below implements a double-linked list:

[doubled_linked_list_fifo.py]
class dNode(object):
def __init__(self, value=None, pointer=None, previous=None):
self.value = value
self.previous = previous
class dLinkList(LinkedListFIFO):
# print each node’s value, starting from tail

def printListInverse(self):
node = self.tail
while node:
print(node.value)
try:
node = node.previous
except:
break
# add a node in a position different from head,

# ie, in the end of the list
self.length += 1
node = dNode(value)
if self.tail:
node.previous = self.tail
self.tail = node
# delete a node in some position

def _delete(self, node):
self.length -= 1
node.previous.pointer = node.pointer
if not node.pointer:
self.tail = node.previous

node = self.head
i = 0
node = node.pointer
i += 1
return node, i
# delete nodes in general

if not self.head or not self.head.pointer:
self._deleteFirst()
else:
node, i = self._find(index)
if i == index:
self._delete(node)
else:
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
ll = dLinkList()
ll.addNode(i)
print(’Printing the list...’)
ll._printList()
print(’Now, printing the list inversely...’)
ll.printListInverse()
ll._add(15)
ll._printList()
ll.deleteNode(i)
ll._printList()
Summing Digits in in Linked Lists
Supposing two linked lists representing numbers, such that in each of their
nodes they carry one digit. The function below sums the two numbers that
these two linked lists represent, returning a third list representing the sum:
[sum_linked_list.py]

class LinkedListFIFOYield(LinkedListFIFO):
node = self.head
while node:
yield(node.value)
node = node.pointer
def sumlls(l1, l2):

lsum = LinkedListFIFOYield()
dig1 = l1.head
dig2 = l2.head
pointer = 0
while dig1 and dig2:

d1 = dig1.value
d2 = dig2.value
sum_d = d1 + d2 + pointer
if sum_d > 9:
pointer = sum_d//10
lsum.addNode(sum_d%10)
else:
lsum.addNode(sum_d)
pointer = 0
dig1 = dig1.pointer
dig2 = dig2.pointer
if dig1:
sum_d = pointer + dig1.value
if sum_d > 9:
else:
lsum.addNode(sum_d)
dig1 = dig1.pointer
if dig2:
sum_d = pointer + dig2.value
if sum_d > 9:
else:
lsum.addNode(sum_d)
dig2 = dig2.pointer
return lsum
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
l1 = LinkedListFIFOYield() # 2671
l1.addNode(1)
l1.addNode(7)
l1.addNode(6)
l1.addNode(2)
l2 = LinkedListFIFOYield() # 455
l2.addNode(5)
l2.addNode(5)
l2.addNode(4)
lsum = sumlls(l1, l2)
l = list(lsum._printList())
for i in reversed(l):
print i
Find a Circular Linked List
The function below implements a method to see whether a linked list is

circular, using two pointers with different paces:
[circular_linked_list.py]

class cicularLinkedListFIFO(LinkedListFIFO):
self.length += 1
node = Node(value, self.head)
if self.tail:
self.tail = node
def isCircularll(ll):
p1 = ll.head
p2 = ll.head
while p2:
try:
p1 = p1.pointer
p2 = p2.pointer.pointer
except:
break
if p1 == p2:
return True
return False
if __name__ == ’__main__’:
for i in range(10):
ll.addNode(i)
ll._printList()
print(isCircularll(ll))
lcirc = cicularLinkedListFIFO()
for i in range(10):
lcirc.addNode(i)
print(isCircularll(lcirc))
Chapter 9
Sorting
The simplest way to sort a group of items is to start by removing the smallest
item from the group, and putting it in the first position. Then removing the
next smallest item, and putting it as second, and so on.
This example is clearly an O(n2 ) algorithm. It is obvious that we need
better solutions! This is what this chapter is about. We are going to look at
many sorting algorithms and we analyze their features and runtimes.
But first some nomenclature. An in-place sort does not use any additional
memory to do the sorting (for example, swapping elements in an array). A
stable sort preserves the relative order of otherwise identical data elements
(for example, if two data elements have identical values, the one that was
ahead of the other stays ahead). In any comparison sort problem, a key is
the value (or values) that determines the sorting order. A comparison sort
requires only that there is a way to determine if a key is less than, equal
to, or greater than another key. Most sorting algorithms are comparison
sorts where the worst-case running time for such sorts can be no better than
O(n ln n).
9.1 Quadratic Sort

Insertion Sort
Insertion sort is a simple sorting algorithm with average and worst runtime
cases of O(n2 ). It sorts by repeatedly inserting the next unsorted element in
an initial sorted segment of the array.
149
150 CHAPTER 9. SORTING
For small data sets, it can be preferable to more advanced algorithms if

the list is already sorted (it is a good way to add new elements to a presorted
list):
[insertion_sort.py]
def insertion_sort(seq):
for i in range(1, len(seq)):
j = i
while j > 0 and seq[j-1] > seq[j]:
seq[j-1], seq[j] = seq[j], seq[j-1]
j -= 1
return seq
def insertion_sort_rec(seq, i = None):

if i == None:
i = len(seq) -1
if i == 0:
return i
insertion_sort_rec(seq, i-1)
j = i
while j > 0 and seq[j-i] > seq[j]:
seq[j-1], seq[j] = seq[j], seq[j-1]
j -= 1
return seq
Selection Sort
Selection sort is based on finding the smallest or largest element in a list
and exchanging it to the first, then finding the second, etc, until the end is
reached. Even when the list is sorted, it is O(n2 ) (and not stable):
[selection_sort.py]
def selection_sort(seq):
for i in range(len(seq) -1, 0, -1):
max_j = i
for j in range(max_j):
9.2. LINEAR SORT 151
if seq[j] > seq[max_j]:

max_j = j
seq[i], seq[max_j] = seq[max_j], seq[i]
return seq
A more sophisticated version of this algorithm is called quick select and

it is presented in the next chapter. Quick sort is used to find the kth element
of an array, and its median.
Gnome Sort
Gnome sort works by moving forward to find a misplaced value and then
moving backward to place it in the right position:
[gnome_sort.py]
def gnome_sort(seq):
i = 0
while i < len(seq):
if i ==0 or seq[i-1] <= seq[i]:
i += 1
else:
seq[i], seq[i-1] = seq[i-1], seq[i]
i -= 1
return seq
9.2 Linear Sort

Count Sort
Count sort sorts integers with a small value range, counting occurrences
and using the cumulative counts to directly place the numbers in the result,
updating the counts as it goes.
There is a loglinear limit on how fast you can sort if all you know about
your data is that they are greater or less than each other. However, if you
can also count events, sort becomes linear in time, O(n + k):
[count_sort.py]
def count_sort_dict(a):
b, c = [], defaultdict(list)
for x in a:
c[x].append(x)
for k in range(min(c), max(c) + 1):
b.extend(c[k])
return b
If several values have the same key, they will have the original order with
respect with each other, so the algorithm is stable.
9.3 Loglinear Sort

The sort() and sorted() Methods
In Python, we would normally sort a list with list.sort(), which is an
in-place method. Additionally, any other iterable item can be sorted with
the function. They are both a very efficient implementation of the Python’s
timsort algorithm1 .
The sorted() function can also be customized though optional argu-
ments, for example: reverse=True; key=len; str.lower (treating upper-
case and lowercase the same); or even with a custom sorting function.
Merge Sort
Merge sort divides the list in half to create two unsorted lists. These two
unsorted lists are sorted and merged by continually calling the merge-sort
algorithm, until you get a list of size 1.
1
Timsort is a hybrid sorting algorithm, derived from merge sort and insertion sort, and
invented by Tim Peters for Python.
9.3. LOGLINEAR SORT 153
Merge sort is stable, as well as fast, for large data sets. However, since it
is not in-place, it requires much more memory than many other algorithms.
The space complexity is O(n) for arrays and O(ln n) for linked lists2 . The
best, average, and worst case times are all O(n ln n).
Merge sort is a good choice when the data set is too large to fit into the
memory. The subsets can be written to disk in separate files until they are
small enough to be sorted in memory. The merging is easy, as it involves
reading single elements at a time from each file and writing them to the final
file in the correct order:
[merge_sort.py]
def merge_sort(array):
’’’
>>> merge_sort([3 ,5, 1, 2, 10, 6])
[1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10]
’’’
if len(array) < 2:
return array
mid = len(array)//2
left = merge_sort(array[:mid])
right = merge_sort(array[mid:])
res = []
i, j = 0, 0
while i < len(left) and j < len(right):
if left[i] <= right[j]:
res.append(left[i])
i += 1
else:
res.append(right[j])
j += 1
if left[i:]:
res.extend(left[i:])
if right[j:]:
res.extend(right[j:])
return res
2
Never ever consider to sort a linked list!
Quick Sort
Quick sort works by choosing a pivot and partitioning the array so that the
elements that are smaller than the pivot go to the left, and elements that are
larger go to the right. Then, it recursively sorts these left and right parts.
The choice of the pivot value is a key to the performance. It can be shown
that always choosing the value in the middle of the set is the best choice
for already-sorted data and no worse than most other choices for random
unsorted data.
The wort case runtime is O(n2 ) in the rare cases when partitioning keeps
producing a region of n − 1 elements (when the pivot is the minimum or the
maximum value). The best case produces two n/2-sized lists, being O(n ln n).
This algorithm is not stable.
Here is an example of quick sort in Python:
[quick_sort.py]
def quick_sort(seq):
if len(seq) < 2: return seq
ipivot = len(seq)//2
pivot = seq[ipivot]
before = [x for i,x in enumerate(seq) if x <= pivot and i !=
ipivot]
after = [x for i,x in enumerate(seq) if x > pivot and i !=
ipivot]
return qs(before) + [pivot] + qs(after)
And here if we divide the algorithm into partition and sort:

def partition(seq):
pi,seq = seq[0],seq[1:]
lo = [x for x in seq if x <= pi]
hi = [x for x in seq if x > pi]
return lo, pi, hi
def quick_sort_divided(seq):
if len(seq) < 2: return seq
lo, pi, hi = partition(seq)
9.3. LOGLINEAR SORT 155
return quick_sort_divided(lo) + [pi] + quick_sort_divided(hi)
Heap Sort
Heap sort is similar to a selection sort, except that the unsorted region is a
heap, so finding the largest element n times results in a loglinear runtime.
In a heap, for every node other than the root, it has at least (at most)
the value of its parent. Thus, the smallest (largest) element is stored at the
root and the subtrees rooted at a node contain only larger (smaller) values
than does the node itself.
Although the insertion is only O(1), the performance of validating (the
heap order) is O(ln n). Searching (traversing) is O(n).
In Python, a heap sort can be implemented by pushing all values onto a
heap and then popping off the smallest values one at a time:
[heap_sort1.py]
import heapq
def heap_sort1(seq):
h = []
for value in seq:
heapq.heappush(h, value)
return [heapq.heappop(h) for i in range(len(h))]
9.4 Comparison Between Sorting Methods
Quadratic Sort
The following program implements a bubble sort, a very inefficient sorting
algorithm:
[bubble_sort.py]
def bubble_sort(seq):
size = len(seq) -1
for num in range(size, 0, -1):
for i in range(num):
if seq[i] > seq[i+1]:
temp = seq[i]
seq[i] = seq[i+1]
seq[i+1] = temp
return seq
Linear Sort
The example below shows a simple count sort for people ages:
[counting_sort.py]
def counting_sort_age(A):
oldestAge = 100
timesOfAge = [0]*oldestAge
ageCountSet = set()
B = []
for i in A:
timesOfAge[i] += 1
ageCountSet.add(i)
for j in ageCountSet:
count = timesOfAge[j]
while count > 0:
B.append(j)
count -= 1
return B
The example below uses quick sort to find the k largest elements in a
sequence:
[find_k_largest_seq_quicksort.py]
import random
def swap(A, x, y):

tmp = A[x]
A[x] = A[y]
A[y] = tmp
def qselect(A, k, left=None, right=None):

left = left or 0
right = right or len(A) - 1
pivot = random.randint(left, right)
pivotVal = A[pivot]
swap(A, pivot, right)
swapIndex, i = left, left
while i <= right - 1:

if A[i] < pivotVal:
swap(A, i, swapIndex)
swapIndex += 1
i += 1
swap(A, right, swapIndex)
rank = len(A) - swapIndex
if k == rank:
return A[swapIndex]
elif k < rank:
return qselect(A, k, left=swapIndex+1, right=right)
else:
return qselect(A, k, left=left, right=swapIndex-1)
def find_k_largest_seq_quickselect(seq, k):

kth_largest = qselect(seq, k)
result = []
for item in seq:
if item >= kth_largest:
result.append(item)
return result
Chapter 10
Searching
The most common searching algorithms are the sequential search and the
binary search. If an input array is not sorted, or the input elements are
accommodated by dynamic containers (such as linked lists), the search is
usually sequential. If the input is a sorted array, the binary search algorithm
is the best choice. If we are allowed to use auxiliary memory, a hash table
might help the search, with which a value can be located in O(1) time (with
a key).
10.1 Unsorted Arrays

10.1.1 Sequential Search
In the following example we illustrate the runtime of a sequential search for
items stored in a collection. If the item is present, the best case is O(1), the
average case is O(n/2), and the worst case is O(n). However, if the item is
not present, all three cases will be O(n):
[sequential_search.py]
def sequential_search(seq, n):

for item in seq:
if item == n:
return True
return False
159
160 CHAPTER 10. SEARCHING
Now, if we sort the sequence first, we can improve the sequential search
in the case when the item is not present to have the same runtimes as when
the item is present:
[ordered_sequential_search.py]
def ordered_sequential_search(seq, n):

item = 0
for item in seq:
if item > n:
break
if item == n:
return True
return False
10.1.2 Quick Select and Order Statistics

We can use an adapted version of quick sort to find the kth smallest
number in a list.
Such a number is called the kth order statistic and this search includes
the cases of finding the minimum, maximum, and median elements.
Quick select is O(n) in the worst case because we only look to one side
of the array in each iteration: O(n) = O(n) + O(n/2) + O(n/4)...
Sublinear performance is possible for structured data. For instance, we
can achieve O(1) for an array of sorted data.
[quick_select.py]
def quickSelect(seq, k):

len_seq = len(seq)
if len_seq < 2:
return seq
ipivot = len_seq // 2
pivot = seq[ipivot]
smallerList = [x for i,x in enumerate(seq) if x <= pivot and i
!= ipivot]
largerList = [x for i,x in enumerate(seq) if x > pivot and i !=
ipivot]
10.2. SORTED ARRAYS 161
# here the different part starts

m = len(smallerList)
if k == m:
return pivot
elif k < m:
return quickSelect(smallerList, k)
else:
return quickSelect(largerList, k-m-1)
In general, we can define the median as the the value that is bigger than
half of the array. This algorithm is important in the context of larger prob-
lems such as finding the nearest neighbor or the shortest path.
10.2 Sorted Arrays

10.2.1 Binary Search
A binary search finds the position of a specified input value (the key) within
a sorted array. The runtime is O(ln n):
In each step, the algorithm compares the search item with the middle
element of the array. If they match the item is returned. Otherwise, if the
item is smaller or larger, the process is repeated until exhaustion.
A recursive examples is the following:
[binary_search.py]
def binary_search(array, item, hi=None, lo=0):

’’’
>>> binary_search([2,3,5,6,8,10,15,23], 15)
6
>>> binary_search([2,3,5,6,8,10,15,23], 4)
False
>>> binary_search([1,3,4,5,7,8 ,10,12,23], 10)
6
>>> binary_search([1,3,4,5,7,8 ,10,12,23], 22)
False
’’’
hi = hi or len(array)
if hi < lo:
return False
mid = (hi + lo)//2
if item == array[mid]:
return mid
elif item < array[mid]:
return binary_search(array, item, hi=mid-1, lo=lo)
else:
return binary_search(array, item, hi=hi, lo=mid+1)
An iterative example is the following:

def binary_search_iter(array, item):
’’’
>>> binary_search_iter([2,3,5,6,8,10,15,23], 15)
6
>>> binary_search_iter([2,3,5,6,8,10,15,23], 4)
False
’’’
lo, hi = 0, len(array)
while lo < hi:
mid = (hi+lo)//2
if array[mid] == item:
return mid
elif array[mid] > item:
hi = mid
else:
lo=mid+1
return False
The bisect Module

Python’s built-in bisect() module is available for binary search in a sorted
sequence:
>>> from bisect import bisect
>>> list = [0, 3, 4, 5]
>>> bisect(list, 5)
4
10.2. SORTED ARRAYS 163
Note that the module returns the index after the key, which is where you
should place the new value. Other available functions are bisect right and
bisect left.

Searching in a Matrix
The following module searches an entry in a matrix where the rows and
columns are sorted. In this case, every row is increasingly sorted from left
to right, and every column is increasingly sorted from top to bottom. The
runtime is linear on O(m + n):
[search_entry_matrix.py]
def find_elem_matrix_bool(m1, value):

found = False
row = 0
col = len(m1[0]) - 1
while row < len(m1) and col >= 0:
if m1[row][col] == value:
found = True
break
elif m1[row][col] > value:
col-=1
else:
row+=1
return found
The following problem searches an element in a matrix where in every

row, the values increase from left to right (but the last number in a row is
smaller than the first number in the next row).
The naive brute force solution scans all numbers and costs O(mn). How-
ever, since the numbers are already sorted, the matrix can be viewed as an
1D sorted array and we can use a binary search algorithm with efficiency
O(lognm):
[searching_in_a_matrix.py]
import numpy
def searching_in_a_matrix(m1, value):

rows = len(m1)
cols = len(m1[0])
lo = 0
hi = rows*cols
while lo < hi:
mid = (lo + hi)//2
row = mid//cols
col = mid%cols
v = m1[row][col]
if v == value:
return True
elif v > value:
hi = mid
else:
lo = mid+1
return False
Unimodal Arrays
An array is unimodal if it is consisted of an increasing sequence followed by
a decreasing sequence.
The example below shows how to find the “locally maximum” of an array
using binary search:
[find_max_unimodal_array.py]
def find_max_unimodal_array(A):
if len(A) <= 2 :
return None
left = 0
right = len(A)-1
while right > left +1:
mid = (left + right)//2
if A[mid] > A[mid-1] and A[mid] > A[mid+1]:
return A[mid]
elif A[mid] > A[mid-1] and A[mid] < A[mid+1]:
left = mid
else:
right = mid
return None
Calculating Square Roots

The example below implements the square root of a number using binary
search:
[find_sqrt_bin_search.py]
def find_sqrt_bin_search(n, error=0.001):

lower = n < 1 and n or 1
upper = n < 1 and 1 or n
mid = lower + (upper - lower) / 2.0
square = mid * mid
while abs(square - n) > error:
if square < n:
lower = mid
else:
upper = mid
mid = lower + (upper - lower) / 2.0
square = mid * mid
return mid
Counting Frequency of Elements

The following example finds how many times a k element appears in a sorted
list. Since the array is sorted, binary search gives a O(logn) runtime:
[find_time_occurence_list.py]
from binary_search import binary_search
def find_time_occurrence_list(seq, k):

index_some_k = binary_serch(seq, k)
count = 1
sizet = len(seq)
for i in range(index_some_k+1, sizet): # go up
if seq[i] == k:
count +=1
else:
break
for i in range(index_some_k-1, -1, -1): # go down
if seq[i] == k:
count +=1
else:
break
return count
Intersection of Arrays
The snippet below shows three ways to perform the intersection of two sorted
arrays.
The simplest way is to use sets, however this will not preserve the order-
ing.
The second example uses an adaptation of the merge sort.
The third example is suitable when one of the arrays is much larger than
other. In this case, binary search is the best option:
[intersection_two_arrays.py]
def intersection_two_arrays_sets(seq1, seq2):

set1 = set(seq1)
set2 = set(seq2)
return set1.intersection(set2) #same as list(set1 & set2
def intersection_two_arrays_ms(seq1, seq2):

res = []
while seq1 and seq2:
if seq1[-1] == seq2[-1]:
res.append(seq1.pop())
seq2.pop()
elif seq1[-1] > seq2[-1]:
seq1.pop()
else:
seq2.pop()
res.reverse()
return res
from binary_search import binary_search

def intersection_two_arrays_bs(seq1, seq2):
if len(seq1) > len(seq2):
seq, key = seq1, seq2
else:
seq, key = seq2, seq1
intersec = []
for item in key:
if binary_search(seq, item):
intersec.append(item)
return intersec
Chapter 11
Dynamic Programming
Dynamic programming is used to simplify a complicated problem by breaking

it down into simpler subproblems with recursion. If a problem has an opti-
mal substructure and overlapping subproblems, it may be solved by dynamic
programming.
Optimal substructure means that the solution to a given optimization
problem can be obtained by a combination of optimal solutions to its sub-
problems.
When a problem has overlapping subproblems, these are solved once and
then their solutions are stored for future retrieval.
11.1 Memoization
Dynamically Solving the Fibonacci Series
High-level languages such as Python can implement the recursive formulation
directly, caching return values. Memoization is a method which for each call
made more than once (with the same arguments), the result is returned
directly from the cache.
For example, we can dynamically solve the exponential Fibonacci series.
For this, we use a memo function that uses nested scopes to give the wrapped
function memory:
[memo.py]
169
170 CHAPTER 11. DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING
from functools import wraps
def memo(func):
cache = {}
@wraps(func)
def wrap(*args):
if args not in cache:
cache[args] = func(*args)
return cache[args]
return wrap
>>> fibonacci = memo(fibonacci)

>>> fibonacci(130)
1066340417491710595814572169
We could even use the decorator directly in the function:

@memo
def fib(i):
if i < 2: return 1
return fib(i-1) + fib(i-2)
>>> fibonacci(130)
1066340417491710595814572169
Longest Increasing Subsequence

Another interesting application of memoization is the problem of finding the
longest increasing subsequence of a sequence.
A naive recursive solution gives a O(2n ) runtime. However, the iterative
solution can be solved in loglinear time using dynamic programming.
For instance, in the example below we benchmark both solutions with an
array with 40 elements. We find that the memoized version takes less than
one second to run, while the solution without dynamic programming, takes
over 120 seconds:
[memoized_longest_inc_subseq.py]
from itertools import combinations

from memo import memo
11.1. MEMOIZATION 171
def naive_longest_inc_subseq(seq):
for length in range(len(seq), 0, -1):
for sub in combinations(seq, length):
if list(sub) == sorted(sub):
return len(sub)
def memoized_longest_inc_subseq(seq):
@memo
def L(cur):
res = 1
for pre in range(cur):
if seq[pre] <= seq[cur]:
res = max(res, 1 + L(pre))
return res
return max(L(i) for i in range(len(seq)))
172 CHAPTER 11. DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING
Part III
Climbing some beautiful

Graphs and Trees!
173
Chapter 12
Introduction to Graphs
12.1 Basic Definitions

A graph is an abstract network, consisting of nodes (or vertices, V ) connected
by edges (or arcs, E).
A graph can be defined as a pair of sets, G = (V, E), where the node set
V is any finite set, and the edge set E is a set of node pairs.
For example, some graph can be simply represented by the node set V =
{a, b, c, d} and the edge set E = {{a, b}, {b, c}, {c, d}, {d, a}}.
Direction of a Graph
If a graph has no direction, it is referred as undirected. In this case, nodes

with an edge between them are adjacent and adjacent nodes are neighbors.
If the edges have a direction, the graph is directed (digraph). In this case,
the graph has leaves and the edges are no longer unordered. For instance, an
edge between nodes u and v is either an edge (u, v) from u to v, or an edge
(v, u) from v to u.
Additionally, in a digraph G, the function E(G) is a relation over V (G).
Subgraphs
A subgraph of G consists of a subset of V and E. A spanning subgraph

contains all the nodes of the original graph.
175
176 CHAPTER 12. INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS
Completeness of a Graph
If all the nodes in a graph are pairwise adjacent, the graph is called complete.
Degree in a Node
The number of undirected edges incident on a node is called degree. Zero-
degree graphs are called isolated.
For directed graphs, we can split this number into in-degree (incoming
edges/parents) and out-degree/children (outgoing edges).
Paths, Walks, and Cycle

A path in G is a subgraph where the edges connect the nodes in a sequence,
without revisiting any node. In a directed graph, a path has to follow the
directions of the edges.
A walk is an alternating sequence of nodes and edges that allows nodes
and edges to be visited multiple times.
A cycle is like a path except that the last edge links the last node to the
first.
Length of a Path
The length of a path or walk is the value given by its edge count.
Weight of an Edge
Associating weights with each edge in G gives us a weighted graph. The
weight of a path or cycle is the sum of its edge weights. So, for unweighted
graphs, it is simply the number of edges.
Planar Graphs
A graph that can be drawn on the plane without crossing edges is called
planar. This graph has regions, which are areas bounded by the edges.
Interestingly, the Euler’s formula for connected planar graphs says that
V − E + F = 2, where V, E, F are the number of nodes, edges, and regions,
respectively.
12.2. THE NEIGHBORHOOD FUNCTION 177
Graph Traversal
A traversal is a walk through all the connected components of a graph. The

main difference between graph traversals is the ordering of the to-do list
among the unvisited nodes that have been discovered.
Connected and Strongly Connected Components
An undirected graph is connected if there is a path from every node to every

other node. A directed graph is connected if its underlying undirected graph
is connected.
A connected component is a maximal subgraph that is connected. Con-
nected components can be found using traversal algorithms such as depth-first
searching (DFS) or breath-first searching (BFS), as we will see in following
chapters.
If there is a path from every node to every other node in a directed graph,
the graph is called strongly connected. A strongly connected component (SCC)
is a maximal subgraph that is strongly connected.
Trees and Forests
A forest is a cycle-free graph. A tree is an acyclic, connected, and directed

graph. A forest consists of one of more trees.
In a tree, any two nodes are connected by exactly one path. Adding any
new edge to it creates a cycle and removing any edge yields unconnected
components.
12.2 The Neighborhood Function

A graph’s neighborhood function, N (V ), is a container (or iterable object) of
all neighbors of V .
The most well-known data structures used to represent them are adjacent
lists and adjacent matrices.
Adjacent Lists
For each node in an adjacent list, we have access to a list (or set or container
or iterable) of its neighbor.
Supposing we have n nodes, each adjacent (or neighbor) list is just a list
of such numbers. We place the lists into a main list of size n, indexable by
the node numbers, where the order is usually arbitrary.
Using Sets as Adjacent Lists

We can use Python’s set type to implement adjacent lists:
>>> a,b,c,d,e,f = range(6) # nodes
>>> N = [{b,c,d,f}, {a,d,f}, {a,b,d,e}, {a,e}, {a,b,c}, {b,c,d,e}]
>>> b in N[a] # membership
True
>>> b in N[b] # membership
False
>>> len(N[f]) # degree
4
Using Lists as Adjacent Lists

We can also use Python’s lists to implement adjacent lists, which let you
efficiently iterate N (V ) over any node V . Replacing sets with lists makes
membership checking to be O(n).
If all that your algorithm does is iterating over neighbors, using list may
be preferential. However if the graph is dense (many edges), adjacent sets
are a better solution:
>>> N = [[b,c,d,f], [a,d,f], [a,b,d,e], [a,e], [a,b,c], [b,c,d,e]]
True
>>> b in N[b] # membership
False
4
12.2. THE NEIGHBORHOOD FUNCTION 179
Deleting objects from the middle of a Python list is O(n), but deleting
from the end is only O(1). If the order of neighbors is not important, you
can delete an arbitrary neighbor in O(1) time by swapping it in to the last
item in the list and then calling pop().
Using Dictionaries as Adjacent Lists

We can also use dictionaries as adjacent lists. In this case, the neighbors
would be the keys, and we are able to associate each of them with some
extra value, such as an edge weight:
>>> N = [{b:2,c:1,d:4,f:1}, {a:4,d:1,f:4}, {a:1,b:1,d:2,e:4},
{a:3,e:2}, {a:3,b:4,c:1}, {b:1,c:2,d:4,e:3}]
True
4
>>> N[a][b] # edge weight for (a,b)
2
A more flexible approach for node labels is to use dictionaries as a main

structure only. For instance, we can use a dictionary with adjacency sets:
>>> N = { ’a’:set(’bcdf’), ’b’:set(’adf’), ’c’:set(’abde’),
’d’:set(’ae’), ’e’:set(’abc’), ’f’:set(’bcde’)}
>>> ’b’ in N[’a’] # membership
True
>>> len(N[’f’]) # degree
4
Adjacent Matrices
In adjacent matrices, instead of listing all the neighbors for each node, we
have one row with one position for each possible neighbor, filled with True
and False values.
The simplest implementation of adjacent matrices is given by nested lists.
Note that the diagonal is always False:

>>> N = [[0,1,1,1,0,1], [1,0,0,1,0,1], [1,1,0,1,1,0],
[1,0,0,0,1,0], [1,1,1,0,0,0], [0,1,1,1,1,0]]
>>> N[a][b] # membership
1
>>> N[a][e]
0
>>> sum(N[f]) # degree
4
An adjacent matrix for an undirected graph will always be symmetric.

To add weight to adjacent matrices, we can replace True and False by
values. In this case, non-existent edges can be represented by infinite weights
(float(’inf’), or None, -1, or very large values):
>>> _ = float(’inf’) # nodes
>>> N = [[_,2,1,4,_,1], [4,_,_,1,_,4], [1,1,_,2,4,_],
[3,_,_,_,2,_], [3,4,1,_,_,_], [1,2,_,4,3,_]]
>>> N[a][b] < _ # membership
True
>>> sum(1 for w in N[f] if w < _) # degree
4
Looking up an edge in an adjacent matrix is O(1) while iterating over a

node’s neighbor is O(n).
12.3 Connection to Trees

While in a graph there may be multiple references to any given node, in a
tree each node (data element) is referenced only by at most one other node,
the parent node.
The root node is the node that has no parent. The nodes referenced by a
parent node are called children.
A tree is said to be full and complete if all of its leaves are at the bottom
and all of the non-leaf nodes have exactly two children.
12.3. CONNECTION TO TREES 181
Height or Depth of a Tree

The height of a tree is the length of the path from the root to the deepest
node in the tree (it is the maximum level of any node in this tree).
If the height of a tree is represented as the log of the number of leaves,
the integer number from the log will, redundantly, be also called depth.
Level or Depth of a Node

The level of a node is the length of path from the root to this node.
Representing Trees
The simplest way of representing a tree is by a nested lists:
>>> T = [’a’, [’b’, [’d’, ’f’]], [’c’, [’e’, ’g’]]]
>>> T[0]
’a’
>>> T[1][0]
’b’
>>> T[1][1][0]
’d’
>>> T[1][1][1]
’f’
>>> T[2][0]
’c’
>>> T[2][1][1]
’g’
However, this becomes very hard to handle if we simply add a couple more
branches. The best solution is representing trees as a collection of nodes.
Let us start with a simple example, where we define a simple tree class
with an attribute for value, another for a children (or ‘next’), and a method
for printing the result:
[tree.py]
class SimpleTree(object):
def __init__(self, value=None, children = None):
self.value = value
self.children = children
if self.children == None:
self.children = []
def __repr__(self, level=0):

ret = "\t"*level+repr(self.value)+"\n"
for child in self.children:
ret += child.__repr__(level+1)
return ret
def main():
"""
’a’
’b’
’d’
’e’
’c’
’h’
’g’
"""
st = SimpleTree(’a’, [SimpleTree(’b’, [SimpleTree(’d’),
SimpleTree(’e’)] ), SimpleTree(’c’, [SimpleTree(’h’),
SimpleTree(’g’)]) ])
print(st)
In the next chapter we will learn how to improve this class, including
many features and methods that a tree can hold.
Chapter 13
Binary Trees
Binary trees are tree data structures where each node has at most two child
nodes: the left and the right. Child nodes may contain references to their
parents. The root of a tree (the ancestor of all nodes) can exist either inside
or outside the tree.
The degree of every node is at most two. Supposing that an arbitrary
rooted tree has m internal nodes and each internal node has exactly two
children, if the tree has n leaves, the degree of the tree is n − 1:
2m = n + m − 1 → m = n − 1,
i.e a tree with n nodes has exactly n − 1 branches or degree.
Representing Binary Trees

A natural way to represent binary trees is with a collection of nodes.
A node in a binary tree should carry attributes for the item’s value and
pointers for left and right children. It also should have methods such as
search and add:
[binary_tree.py]
class Node(object):
def __init__(self, item=None,):
self.item = item
self.left = None
183
184 CHAPTER 13. BINARY TREES
Figure 13.1: The height (h) and width (number of leaves) of a (perfectly
balanced) binary tree.
self.right = None
def __repr__(self):
return ’{}’.format(self.item)

new_node = Node(value)
if not self.item:
self.item = new_node
elif not self.left:
self.left = new_node
elif not self.right:
self.right = new_node
else:
self.left = self.left._add(value)
return self
def _search(self, value):

if self.item == value:
return True # or self
found = False
if self.left:
found = self.left._search(value)
185
if self.right:
found = found or self.right._search(value)
return found
def _isLeaf(self):
return not self.right and not self.left
A binary tree can be represented as a class that holds nodes. It should

have an attribute for root and methods such as tree-printing:
class BT(object):
def __init__(self):
self.root = None
def add(self, value):

if not self.root:
self.root = Node(value)
else:
self.root._add(value)
def printPreorder(self):
current = self.root
nodes, stack = [], []
while stack or current:
if current:
nodes.append(current.item)
stack.append(current)
current = current.left
else:
current = stack.pop()
current = current.right
print nodes
def search(self, value):

if self.root:
return self.root._search(value)
13.1 Binary Search Trees

A binary search tree (BST) is a binary tree that keeps items in a sorted order.
For a BST to be valid, each node’s value should be greater than any element
in the leftmost subtree and smaller than any element in rightmost subtree.
Additionally, there must be no duplicate nodes.
If the binary search tree is balanced, the following operations are O(ln n):
(i) finding a node with a given value (lookup), (ii) finding a node with max-
imum or minimum value, and (iii) insertion or deletion of a node.
Representing Binary Search Trees

The following snippet implements a node class for a binary search tree. The
main difference from a simple binary tree is when we insert a new node or
search for some node’s value:
[binary_search_tree.py]
class Node(object):
(...)
new_node = Node(value)
if not self.item:
self.item = new_node
else:
if value > self.item:
self.right = self.right and self.right._add(value)
or new_node
elif value < self.item:
self.left = self.left and self.left._add(value) or
new_node
else:
print("BSTs do not support repeated items.")
return self
def _search(self, value):

if self.item == value:
return True # or self
elif self.left and value < self.item:
return self.left._search(value)
13.2. SELF-BALANCING BSTS 187
elif self.right and value > self.item:

return self.right._search(value)
else:
return False
13.2 Self-Balancing BSTs

A balanced tree is a tree where the differences of the height of every subtree
is at most equal to 1. A self-balancing binary search tree is any node-based
binary search tree that automatically keeps itself balanced.
By applying a balance condition we ensure that the worst case runtime
of common tree operations will be at most O(ln n).
A balancing factor can be attributed to each internal node in a tree,
being the difference between the heights of the left and right subtrees. There
are many balancing methods for trees, but they are usually based on two
operations:
? Node splitting (and merging): nodes are not allowed to have more than
two children, so when a node become overfull it splits into two subnodes.
? Node rotations: process of switching edges. If x is the parent of y, we
make y the parent of x and x must take over one of the children of y.
AVL Trees
An AVL tree is a binary search tree with a self-balancing condition where the
difference between the height of the left and right subtrees cannot be more
than one.
To implement an AVL tree, we can start by adding a self-balancing
method to our BST classes, called every time we add a new node to the
tree. The method works by continuously checking the height of the tree,
which is added as a new attribute.
Red-black Trees
Red-black trees are an evolution of a binary search trees that aim to keep the
tree balanced without affecting the complexity of the primitive operations.
This is done by coloring each node in the tree with either red or black
and preserving a set of properties that guarantees that the deepest path in
the tree is not longer than twice the shortest one.
Red-black trees have the following properties:
? Every node is colored with either red or black.
? All leaf (nil) nodes are colored with black; if a node’s child is missing
then we will assume that it has a nil child in that place and this nil
child is always colored black.
? Both children of a red node must be black nodes.
? Every path from a node n to a descendant leaf has the same number
of black nodes (not counting node n). We call this number the black
height of n.
Binary Heaps
Binary heaps are complete balanced binary trees. The heap property makes
it easier to maintain the structure, i.e., the balance of the tree.
In a heap, there is no need to modify the tree structure by splitting or
rotating nodes: the only operations needed is swapping (both parents and
child nodes).
In a binary heap, considering a node at index i, we have that:
i−1
? the parent index is 2
,
? the left child index is 2i + 1,
? the right child index is 2i + 2.


Check BST’s Largest Item
[check_largest_item.py]
def largest(node):
if node.right:
return largest(node.right)
return node.item
Check if the Tree is Balanced
[check_if_balanced.py]
def isBalanced(node, left=0, right=0):

if not node:
return (left - right) < 2
return isBalanced(node.left, left+1, right) and \

isBalanced(node.right, left, right+1)
Check if Tree is BST
[check_if_bst.py]
def isBST(node, min_node=float("-infinity"),

maxVal=float("infinity")):
if not node:
return True
if not min_node <= node.item <= maxVal:

return False
return isBST(node.left, min_node, node.item) and \

isBST(node.right, node.item, maxVal)
Chapter 14
Traversing Trees
Traversals are algorithms used to visit the objects (nodes) in some connected
structure, such as a tree or a graph. Traversal problems can be either visiting
every node or visiting only some specific nodes.
14.1 Depth-First Search

Depth-first traversals, or depth-first search (DFS), are algorithms that first
traverse the structure’s by its depth.
DFS are usually implemented with LIFO structures such as stacks, so
discovered nodes are tracked. Differently from tree, DFS needs to have a
structure to mark the visited nodes when traversing graphs (otherwise they
might be stuck in an infinite loop). The runtime is O(number of reachable
Figure 14.1: Binary tree traversals: preorder, inorder, postorder, and breath-
first search.
191
192 CHAPTER 14. TRAVERSING TREES
nodes + total number of outgoing edges from these nodes) = O(V + E).
DFS comes in three flavors, depending on when you print (or save) the
current node’s value:
Preorder: Visit a node before traversing subtrees (root → left → right):

def preorder(root):
if root != 0:
yield root.value
preorder(root.left)
preorder(root.right)
Postorder: Visit a node after traversing all subtrees (left → right → root):
def postorder(root):
if root != 0:
postorder(root.left)
postorder(root.right)
yield root.value
Inorder: Visit a node after traversing its left subtree but before the right
subtree (left → root → right):
def inorder(root):
if root != 0:
inorder(root.left)
yield root.value
inorder(root.right)
14.2 Breadth-First Search

Breadth-first traversals, or breath-first search (BFS), are algorithms that yield
the values of all nodes of a particular depth before going to any deeper node.
14.2. BREADTH-FIRST SEARCH 193
Problems that employ BFSs usually are used to find the fewest number
of steps (or the shortest path) needed to reach a certain end point from the
starting point.
Traditionally, BFSs are implemented using a list to store the values of
the visited nodes and then a FIFO queue to store those nodes that have yet
to be visited. The total runtime is also O(V + E).
An example of a BFS algorithm is the following:
[transversal.py]
from collections import deque
def BFT(tree):
current = tree.root
nodes = []
queue = deque()
queue.append(current)
while queue:
current = queue.popleft()
nodes.append(current.item)
if current.left:
queue.append(current.left)
if current.right:
queue.append(current.right)
return nodes
194 CHAPTER 14. TRAVERSING TREES

Ancestor in a BST
The example below finds the lowest level common ancestor of two nodes in
a binary search tree from an inoder list:
[check_ancestor.py]
from binary_search_tree import BST, Node

from transversal import inorder
def find_ancestor(path, low_value, high_value):
while path:
current_value = path[0]
if current_value < low_value:

try:
path = path[2:]
except:
return current_value
elif current_value > high_value:

try:
path = path[1:]
except:
elif low_value <= current_value <= high_value:

if __name__ == ’__main__’:
bst = BST()
l = [10, 5, 6, 3, 8, 2, 1, 11, 9, 4]
for i in l:
bst.add(i)
nodes = inorder(bst.root)
print ’Inorder: ’, nodes
print ’Ancestor for 3, 11:’, find_ancestor(nodes, 3, 11)
Index
-c, 67 collections
defaultdict, 56
add(), 48 namedtuple, 83
adjacent OrderedDict, 56
lists, 178 comprehensions, 37
matrices, 179 continue, 66
algorithms count(), 28, 30, 35
travelling salesman, 104 cProfile, 98
all, 68
append(), 33 daemons, 94
array debugging, 97
unimodal, 164 decimal, 13, 25
arrays, 31 decorators, 88, 169
as, 78 del, 35, 84
assert, 10 DFS, 113, 177, 191
asymptotic analysis, 103 dictionaries, 51, 179
difference(), 48
BFS, 117, 177, 192 discard(), 49
big O, 103 docstrings, 99
bin, 13 doctest, 99
binary search, 161, 162 dynamic programming, 169
bisect(), 162
break, 66 enumerate(), 79
bytearray, 40 exceptions, 10, 76
bytes, 40 EnvironmentError, 74, 75
KeyError, 49
cache, 169 PickingError, 74
class, 78, 85 StandardError, 78
clear(), 49, 54 unpickingError, 75
close(), 72 ValueError, 28, 34
cmath, 11 extend(), 33
195
196 INDEX
FIFO, 94, 193 keys(), 53

fileno(), 73
filter(), 80 lambda, 80
finally, 78 lists, 31
find(), 28 adjacent, 177
format(), 25, 27, 79 linked, 123, 151
functools, 169 little endian, 75
ljust(), 24
garbage collection, 35
generators, 65, 98 map, 80
get(), 27, 53 median, 160
graphs, 175 memoization, 169
complete, 176
connected, 177 namespace, 85
degree, 176 None, 64, 66, 75
direction, 175 nose, 98
isolated, 176 NP, 104
neighbors, 177 NP-hard, 104
subgraph, 175 NPC, 104
weight, 176, 179
oct, 13
forests, 177
open(), 70
gzip, 74
os, 75
hash, 51
heap, 118, 153 P, 104
binary, 188 P=NP, 105
heapq, 119 pack(), 76
heappop(), 119 packing, 25, 30, 36
height, 106, 187 peek(), 73
hex, 13 pickle, 74
pop(), 32, 34, 49, 54, 179
index(), 28, 30, 35 popitem(), 54
init, 67 prime numbers, 18
input(), 72 profiling, 97
insert(), 34, 64 properties, 90
intersection(), 48 pyc, 68
items(), 53 pyo, 68
join(), 98 queues, 113, 193

INDEX 197
raise, 77 test
range(), 78 unit, 98
raw bytes, 40 unittest, 10
read(), 71 threading, 93, 94
readline(), 71 timeit, 38, 98
readlines(), 71 traceback, 76
recursive relations, 106 Trees
remove(), 34, 49 red-black, 187
replace(), 29 trees, 177
reverse(), 36 AVL, 187
rjust(), 24 binary, 183
BST, 186
seek(), 72 rotation, 187
series try, 72–75, 78
fibonacci, 169 tuples, 29
sets, 47, 178 named, 31
shutil, 73
singletons, 64 unicode, 24, 75
slicing, 23, 64 union, 47
sort(), 36 union(), 48
sorted(), 55, 150 unittest, 10
sorting update(), 48
gnome, 149 values(), 53
heap, 153
insertion, 147 write(), 72
quick, 152
quick, 160 yield, 55, 65
split(), 26, 27 zip(), 79
splitlines(), 26
stack, 105
stacks, 67, 76, 109
strings, 23, 27
strip(), 26, 79
struct, 75
subprocess, 93
sys, 68
tell(), 72
198 INDEX
Bibliography
Websites:
[Interactive Python] http://interactivepython.org
[Google Style Guide] http://google-styleguide.code.com/svn/trunk/pyguide.html
[The git Repository for this book] https://github.com/mariwahl/Python-

and-Algorithms-and-Data-Structures
[Big-O Sheet] http://bigocheatsheet.com/
Books:
[Cracking the Coding Interview] Gayle Laakmann McDowell, 2013
[Learn Python The Hard Way] Zed A. Shaw, 2010
[The Algorithm Design Manual] S.S. Skiena, 2008
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An Intro To Python and Algorithms

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An introduction to

Python & Algorithms

Marina von Steinkirch (bt3)

Any of the above conditions can be waived if you get my permission.

I Get your wings! 9

2 Built-in Sequence Types 23

3 Collection Data Structures 49

4 Python’s Structure and Modules 65

4.4 Error Handling in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

II Algorithms are Fun! 103

8 Abstract Data Structures 111

11 Dynamic Programming 171

III Climbing some beautiful Graphs and Trees! 175

13 Binary Trees 185

14 Traversing Trees 193

Get your wings!

Numbers can be represented as an integer, a float, or a complex value.

To cast a string to an integer (in some base) or to change the base of an

The optional base argument must be an integer between 2 and 36 (inclu-

Remarkably, similar approach is used by Python’s unittest module, with

Interestingly, there are several numbers that have an exact representation

Methods for Floats and Integers

The method round(x, n) returns x rounded to n integral digits if n is a

The method as integer ratio() gives the integer fractional representa-

1.3 Complex Numbers

1.4 The fraction Module

from fractions import Fraction

def rounding_floats(number1, places):

def get_denominator(number1, number2):

def get_numerator(number1, number2):

def test_testing_floats(module_name=’this module’):

1.5 The decimal Module

1.6 Other Representations

The hex(i) method returns the hexadecimal representation of i:

The oct(i) method returns the octal representation of i:

1.7 Some Fun Examples

def convert_to_decimal(number, base):

In the previous example, by swapping all the occurrences of 10 with any

def convert_from_decimal(number, base):

If the base value is larger than 10 we must use non-numeric characters to

def convert_from_decimal_larger_bases(number, base):

Finally, the snippet below is a recursive general base-conversion:

def convert_dec_to_any_base_rec(number, base):

def test_convert_dec_to_any_base_rec(module_name=’this module’):

Greatest Common Divisor

def finding_gcd(a, b):

The Random Module

’’’ shuffle in place ’’’

’’’ create random integers ’’’

1.8 The NumPy Package

The attribute ndim tells us the number of dimensions of an array:

Let’s see a full test example:

print(np.where(ax<2, ax, 10))

m = np.matrix([ax, ay, ax])

grid1 = np.zeros(shape=(10,10), dtype=float)

Built-in Sequence Types

? membership operator (for example, the ability of using the keyword

? a size method (given by the method len(seq));

? a slicing properties (for example, seq[:-1]); and