STEAM PLANT

CALCULATIONS
MANUAL
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 21 . Controlling In-Plant Airborne Contaminants: Systems Design and
A Series of Textbooks and Reference Books Calculations, John D. Constance
22. CAD/CAM Systems Planning and Implementation, Charles S. Knox
&litor 23. Probabilistic Engineering Design: Principles anr! Applications,
James N. Siddall
L. L. Faulkner 24. Traction Drives: Selection and Application, Frederick W. Heilich Ill
CtJ/umbus Dlvlsion, BClltelle Memorilll /11.slitute and Eugene E. Shube
and Departmem of Mecluwir.:14/ Engineering 25. Finite Element Methods: An Introduction, Ronald L. Huston and
77,e Ohio State Universiry Chris E. Passerello
Columbus, Ohio 26. Mechanical Fastening of Plastics: An Engineering Handbook, Bray-
ton Lincoln, Kenneth J. Gomes, and James F. Braden
27. Lubrication in Practice: Second Edition, edited by W. S. Robertson
28. Principles of Automated Drafting, Daniel L. Ryan
1. Spring Designer's Handbook, Harold Carlson 29. Practical Seal Design, edited by Leonard J. Martini
2. Computer-Aided Graphics and Design, Daniel L. Ryan 30. Engineering Documentation for CAD/CAM Applications, Charles S.
3. Lubrication Fundamentals, J . George Wills Knox
4. Solar Engineering for Domestic Buildings, William A. Himmelman 31 . Design Dimensioning with Computer Graphics Applications,
5. Applied Engineering Mechanics: Statics and Dynamics, G. Booth- Jerome C. Lange
royd and C. Poli 32. Mechanism Analysis: Simplified Graphical and Analytical Tech-
6. Centrifugal Pump Clinic, Igor J. Karassik niques, Lyndon O. Barton
7. Computer-Aided Kinetics for Machine Design, Daniel L. Ryan 33. CAD/CAM Systems: Justification, Implementation, Productivity
8. Plastics Products Design Handbook, Part A: Materials and Compo- Measurement, Edward J. Preston, George W. Crawford, and Mark
nents; Part B: Processes and Design for Processes, edited by E. Coticchia
Edward Miller 34. Steam Plant Calculations Manual, V. Ganapathy
9. Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr. 35. Design Assurance for Engineers and Managers, John A . Burgess
10. Vibrations of Shells and Plates, Werner Soedel 36. Heat Transfer Fluids and Systems for Process and Energy Appli-
11 . Flat and Corrugated DiaphrBgm Design Handbook, Mario Di cations, Jasbir Singh
Giovanni 37. Potential Flows: Computer Graphic Solutions, Robert H. Kirchhoff
12. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design, Alexander Blake 38. Computer-Aided Graphics and Design: Second Edition, Daniel L.
13. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints, John Ryan
H. Bickford 39. Electronically Controlled Proportional Valves: Selection and Appli-
14. Optimal Engineering Design: Principles and Applications, James cation, Michael J. Tonyan, edited by Tobi Goldoftas
N. Siddall 40. Pressure Gauge Handbook, AMETEK, U.S. Gauge Division, edited
15. Spring Manufacturing Handbook, Harold Carlson by Philip W . Harland
16. Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications, edited 41 . Fabric Filtration for Combustion Sources: Fundamentals and Basic
by Lewis H. Bell Technology, R. P. Donovan
17. Gears and Their Vibration: A Basic Approach to Understanding 42. Design of Mechanical Joints, Alexander Blake
Gear Noise, J. Derek Smith 43. CAD/CAM Dictionary, Edward J. Preston, George w . Crawford,
18. Chains for Power Transmission and Material Handling: Design and and Mark E. Coticchia
Applications Handbook, American Chain Association 44. Machinery Adhesives for Locking, Retaining, and Sealing, Girard
19. Corrosion and Corrosion Protection Handbook, edited by Philip A . S. Haviland
Schwei12er 45 . Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application, Jon R.
20. Gear Drive Systems: Design and Application, Peter Lynwander Mancuso
46 . Shaft Alignment Handbook, John Piotrowski
 47. BASIC Programs for Steam Plant Engineers: Boilers, Combustion, 70. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints:
Fluid Flow, and Heat Transfer, V. Ganapathy Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, John H. Bickford
4 8. Solving Mechanical Design Problems with Computer Graphics, 7 1. High Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Marsbed H. Habla-
Jerome C. Lange nian
49 . Plastics Gearing: Selection and Application, Clifford E. Adams 72. Pressure Sensors: Selection and Application, Duane Tandeske
50. Clutches and Brakes: Design and Selection, William C. Orthwein 73. Zinc Handbook: Properties, Processing, and Use in Design, Frank
51. Transducers in Mechanical and Electronic Design, Harry L. Trietley Porter
52. Metallurgical Applications of Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate 74. Thermal Fatigue of Metals, Andrzej Weronski and Tadeuz Hejwow·
Phenomena, edited by Lawrence E. Murr, Karl P. Staudhammer, ski
and Marc A. Meyers 7 5. Classical and Modern Mechanisms for Engineers and Inventors,
53. Magnesium Products Design, Robert S. Busk Preben W. Jensen
54. How to Integrate CAD/CAM Systems: Management and Technol- 76. Handbook of Electronic Package Design, edited by Michael Pecht
ogy, William D. Engelke 77 . Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena in Materials, edited
55. Cam Design and Manufacture: Second Edition; with cam design by Marc A. Meyers, Lawrence E. Murr, and Karl P. Staudhammer
software tor the IBM PC and compatibles, disk included, Preben 78. Industrial Refrigeration: Principles, Design and Applications, P. C.
W . Jensen Koelet
56. Solid-State AC Motor Controls: Selection and Application, Sylves- 79. Applied Combustion, Eugene L. Keating
ter Campbell 80. Engine Oils and Automotive Lubrication, edited by Wilfried J. Bartz
57. Fundamentals of Robotics, David D. Ardayfio 81 . Mechanism Analysis: Simplified and Graphical Techniques, Second
58. Belt Selection and Application for Engineers, edited by Wallace D. Edition, Revised and Expanded, Lyndon 0. Barton
Erickson 82. Fundamental Fluid Mechanics for the Practicing Engineer, James
59. Developing Three-D,inensional CAD Software with the IBM PC, C. W. Murdock
Stan Wei 83. Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and De·
60. Organizing Data for CIM Applications, Charles S. Knox, w ith sign, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, P. K. Mallick
contributions by Thomas C. Boos, Ross S. Culverhouse, and Paul 84. Numerical Methods for Engineering Applications, Edward R.
F. Muchnicki Champion, Jr.
6 1 . Computer-Aided Simulation in Ra,'lway Dynamics, by Rao V. 85. Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Second Edition,
Dukkipati and Joseph R. Amyot Revised and Expanded, Earl Logan, Jr.
62 . Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and De- 86. Vibrations of Shells and Plates: Second Edition, Revised and Ex·
sign, P. K. Mallick panded, Werner Soedel
63. Photoelectric Sensors and Controls: Selection and Application, 87. Steam Plant Calculations Manual: Second Edition, Revised and Ex·
Scott M . Juds pended, V. Ganapathy
64. Finite Element Analysis with Personal Computers, Edward R. 88. Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications, Second
Champion, Jr., and J. M ichael Ensminger Edition, Revised and Expanded, Lewis H. Bell and Douglas H. Bell
65. Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technology, Applications: Second
Edition, Revised and Expanded, Dale Ensminger
66. Applied Finite Element Modeling: Practical Problem Solving for Addilional Volumes in Preparation
Engineers, Jeffrey M . Steele
67. Measurement and Instrumentation in Engineering: Principles and Finite Elements: Their Design and Performance, Richard H.
Basic Laboratory Experiments, Francis S. Tse and Ivan E. Morse MacNeal
68. Centrifugal Pump Clinic: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Igor J . Karassik Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Composites: Second Edi·
69. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design: Second Edition, tion, Revised and Expanded, Lawrence E. Nielsen and Robert F.
Revised and Expanded, A lexander Blake Landel
 Mecha11icnl .Engineering Software

Spring Design with an IBM PC, Al Dietrich

Mechanical Design Fa111.1re Analysis: With Fail1.1re Analysis System

Software for the IBM PC, David G. Ullman

STEAM PLANT
CALCULATIONS
MANUAL
5£COND £DITION1 R£VIS£D AND £XPAND£D

V. CANAPATHY

Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York•Basel•Hong Kong

Library of Conj?"ress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ganapathy, V.
Steam plant calculations manual / V. Ganapathy. - 2nd ed., rev.
and expanded. To my family-G. Shantha, G. Padma. G. Sivapriya
p. cm. - (Mechanical engineering ; 87)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8247-9147-9
I. Steam power-plants- Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.
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 Preface to the Second Edition

'Ille =ond edition of Steam Plara Calcula1io11s Manual is completely

revised. with 70 additional problems covering emissions, boiler effi-
c iency, heat transfer equipment design and perfonnance, circulation,
and various other aspects of steam plant~.
The first chapter contains a few new problems related to es1imating
deaeration s team quantity based on system water chemistry per ASME
and ABMA boiler waler guidelines. Examples illustrate the computa-
tion of s team purity and quality and their interrelationship. Conversion
between boiler horse power and steam production is also explained.
Because of regulations concerning NO, and CO, plant engineers
frequently have to compute emission of these pollutants i>r relate them
from mass units such as lb/h to ppm or vice versa. In Chapter 2 this
conversion is explained for both gas turbine exhaust and convent ional
fired boilers. Cogencration and combined cycle plants use heat recov-
ery steam generators (HRSGs) , which are often fired with auxiliary
fue l using the oxygen in the exhaust gase5. The relationship between
oxygen consumption and amount of fuel fired is derived and explained
with an example. Correlat ions for dew points of various acid gases.

V
Vi Pn. 'IHn' 10 lht· Sc. 'L'OllcJ Edmon

such as hydrochloric. sulfuric. and hydrobromic acid . arc cited and the Steam plant engincc,·s who found the firsi edition useful will find
effect of gas tempenuurc on tube metal tcmperarure i~ explained 10 the new edition packed solid with information and with several cnm-
illustrate the possibili1y of corrosion. The effect of excess air on plelely solved problems of prac1ical significance.
efficiency of different fuels is explained and simple equations arc
V. Gwwpathy
developed for compu1ing boile r efficiency.
Boiler circula1ion is explained in Chapter 3 and examples illustrate
its computation for both fire tube and water tube boilers. Importance of
steam quality and factors affecting departure from nucleate boi ling
(DNB) conditions arc explained. Dctcn11ina1ion of steam flow in blow-
off lines and flow in blow-down lines arc illus1ratcd with examples.
Over 45 addilional problems, covering various aspects of heal
transfer equipmenl design . are included in Chapter 4 . These include:
Effect of foul ing on lube wall 1empera1urc and dut y in lire tube and
water 1ube boilers
Computation of mlluntl convection heat transfer
Design and off-design performance and simplified design procedures
for fire tube and water tube boilers and air heaters
Simulation of HRSG design and off-design performance and u nder-
standing pinch and approach poin1s
Predic1ion of furnace heal transfer in both fired and unfi red (wa5le
heal) boilers and distribution of radiation to tube banks
Correlations for critical heal flux in both fire tubes and water tubes and
several more on C<1uipmen1 design
Several example.~ related to HRSGs explain the method of evaluating
alte rnati ve designs considering initial and operation costs. The effecl
of gas analysis and pressure on heat 1ransfcr is a lso explained. A few
examples illustrate the effect of wind velocity. casing emissivi1y on
heat losses, and casing temperature . The principle behind the use of
hot casing is explained. Consideralion of variables affecting HRSG
performance testing is explained with an example .
A few problems have been added in Chapter 5 10 explain the
imponance of ambienl temperature o n boile r fan siz ing and the effect
of fccdwater temperature on pump performance . Since gas turbines are
becoming the workhorses of the fu1urc. examples show 1he effect of
variables on the e ffic ie ncy o f a , implc Bryaton cycle, with and without
regcnera1ion.
 Preface to the First Eclition

Engineers connecled with the performance , operation , and mainle-

nance of steam power and process plants often have to perfnm, simple
and sometimes involved calcu la1ions related 10 boiler,. pumps , fans .
fuel& , combustion, nuid now, valve sclcc1ion. hc1111ransfcr, and ener-
gy utilization . These arc not 1hc roultnC. lengthy design calculations a
design office would pcrfom1, but rather simple calculalions done 10
realize 1hc following objcc1ive;:
To undcrMand the performance charnc1cris1ics or 1hc equipment
To check if the equipment is performing within predicted range of
parameters
To cvalua1c coM effectiveness of rrorx1sals
To utilize energy in an optimal manner
To specify equirmem for different service condi1ions
Plan I engineers of loday have to be more energy and cos1 conscious
lhan 1hey were a few yearn ago, when knowledge of cquipmcn1 und i1s
pcrfonnancc alone was adequalc . With lhe increasing cost of energy,
all aspects of energy u1ili.w1ion and economics of operation must be
con,idcn:d by plant e ngineers in their day-10-day work. Example., have
X 1...reracc to 1hc> First Edition Preface H> ch<.· Pirs1 Eclhion xi

been dispersed throughout this text to illu., trate the above-mentioned In Chapler 4 on heal transfer, several problems covering estimation
subjects. or heal transfer coefficients for flow over plain and finned tubes, flow
The book is divided into live chapters and is written in a qucstion- inside tubes, nonluminous radiation and prcdiclion of lhe perfonnancc
and-answer s tyle. This approach, it is fell, will be appealing to plant or heat transfer devices are illumated. A simple approach has been
engineers, who have little time to go into theory. used, and lengthy, routine mclhods are avoided. E.s1imation of perfor-
Chapter I deals with the general category of calculations such as mance or a given thickness of insulation and determining the optimum
conversion of mass-to-volume flow rates. energy utilization from boil- thickness or insulation using life cycle cosiing are also discu~~ed .
er blow-down and exhaust gases, ASME code calcu lations to figure The lasl chapter deals with pumps, fans, mid wrbines. Often plant
pipe size~ for external and internal pressure applications, life cycle engineers switch fans from one site lo another without considering
costing methods, and estimation of noise levels. A few examples aspects such as the ambient temperature or e levation on the fan perfor-
illustrate how gas leakage across dampers. its cost, and leakage rates mance. Based on motor curre nt readings. one can double-check wheth·
of steam through openings can be found. lmpo11ance of moisture in air er a fan or a pump is working well . Examples have been provided lo
and water dew point is also explained. Application of life cycle costing illustrate these points. Net positive suction head (NPSH) and power
to equipmenc selection is explained. Purchase of equipment based on requirements for centrifugal and reciprocating pumps are also covered.
initial cost may not be generally a good proposition . Cogcneration is an important lopic and several plants are using steam
Chapter 2 deals with fuels, combustion, and boiler or heater elTi- turbines for power generalion and process steam applicaiions. A few
ciency. Often, fuel analysis will not be available and plant e ngineers examples illustrate how the steam requirements and power generation
may be required 10 estimate the combustion air requirements, the can be evaluated.
excess air, or the boiler efficiency. A few examples illustrate how In alJ. over 125 examples covering practical aspects of equipment
these can be done. The dollar savings 1ha1 can be realized by reducing utilization and e nergy management are worked out, which should
the oxygen levels in the flue gas can also be estimaled. Engi neers are make lhis book a good companion for plant engineers, opcrnlors.
often confused between the efficiencies based <Jn higher and lower managers, and design engineers. ll would also be of interest to engi-
healing value of the fuel. Often furnaces are designed to bum a neers perparing for professional license examinations.
particular fuel and rnay be required to bum a dirrerem one later. The During the past se,•cral years, I have had the privilege or authoring
factors that arc to be considered in burner are also discussed. several ariicles in various magazines such as P/cu11 t:ngineering, Pow·
Chapter 3 deals with fluid tlow, sizing of tlow melers, and selection er Engineering, Cfu,mical Engineering, Hydrocar//011 Processing, and
of contro l and safety valves. Importance of permanent pressure drop in Oil and Gas Journal. Based on the interaction I have had with several
flow meters and ils cost is discussed , followed by examples on selec- readers. I felt that a book of this nature would be helpful 10 a large
tion of safely and control valves. Relieving capacity of a given safely c ross section or s team plant e ngineers and managers.
valve when used o n a different fluid and different pressure cond itions This being the first edit ion, lhcre are likely lo be a few errors and
is also discussed. Correction of orifice meter readings for d ifferent 1opics that have been missed. I shall be glad if the readers could bring
steam parameters is discussed, followed by pressure drop calculalions these to my anenl ion.
for fluids inside pipes, and flow over plain and finned lube bundles. Finally 1 would like 10 1hank the various journals and organizations
Knowledge of pressure drop also helps the plant engineer lo check that gave me permission to reproduce material from their publications.
whether or not fou ling has occurred. /1. large increase in gas pressure
drop across an cconomi£er LUbe bunclJe, for example, means that V. Ga11apathy
fouling could have taken place and cleaning cycles may have lo be
initiated.
 Contents

Preface 10 the Second t:ditio11 \'

Preface to the First Edition ix

I. BASIC STEAM PLANT CALCULATIONS

2. FUELS, COMBUSTION, AND EFFICIENCY 53

OF SOLLERS AND HEATERS

3. FLUfD FLOW. VALVE SIZING. 105

AND PRESSURE DROP CALCULATIONS

4. HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT DESIGN 177

AND PERFORMANCE

5. FANS, PUMPS. AND STEAM TURBINES 353

Appendi.r Tables 391

xm
xiv c:cHm·rn...,

Bibliography 409

Glossm1· 413

C<>nwtrsion Factors 4 17

Index 423
l
Basic Steam Plant Calculations

1,0 I: Converting liquid fl<>w in lb/hr to gpm. and vice versa; relat-
ing density, specific gravity, and specific volume

1.02: Relating head of liquid or gas column to pressure: converting

feet of liquid to psi: relating inches of water column of ga., to
psi and feet of gas column

1.03: Est imating density of gases; relating molecular weight ,Uld

density; effect of elevation on gas density; simplified fom1ula
for density of a ir anti flue gases at sea level

1.04: Relating actual and s tandard cubic feet of gas per minute to
lb/hr

1.05: Computing density of gas mix:turc: relat ing mass to vol-

umetric flow: compu1ing velocity of gas in duct or pipe

1.06: Relating mass and linear velocities

2

1.07: Calculating velocity of wet and superheated steam in pipes; I. I9b: Est imating air flow through opening,
computing specific volume of wet steam; use or steam tables
1.20: Estimating leakage of gas across dampers; calculating energy
1.08: Relating boiler horsepower to steam output loss o f leakage flow: seal ing effic iency of dampers on area
and flow bas is
1.09: Calc uJating amount of moisture in air; relative humidity and
saturation vapor pressure 1.21: Economics o r waste heat recovery; annual cost of e nergy loss:
simple payback period calculation
I. JO: Water dew point of air and flue gases; partial pre~surc o f
water vapor 1.22: Life-cycle costing applied to equipment selection; interest a nd
escalation factors; capitalized and life-cycle cost
I. 11: E nergy absorbed by wet and s uperheated steam in boi lers:
enthalpy of wet and dry steam: use of steam tables; converting 1.23: Life-cycle co,ting applied to evaluation of heat recovery
MM Btu/hr ( million Btu/hr) to kilowaus systems

I. 12: Relating s team by volume, steam by weight, and steam quali- 1.24: Calcul ating thickness of boiler tubes to ASME Code: allow-
ty; relat ing circulation ratio and quality able stresses for various materials

I. 13a: Detem1ining steam quality using thronling calorimeter 1.25: Calculating maximum allowable working pressures for pipes

I. I 3b: Relating steam quality to steam purity l. 26: Sizing tubes subject to exte rnal pressure

1.14: Water required for desuperheating s team; energy balance in 1.27: On sound levels: OSHA permissible exposure levels
attemperators , desuperheaters
1.28: Adding decibels
I . 15: Water required for cooling gas s treams
1.29: Relating sound pressure and power levels
1. 16: Calculating steam volume after throttling process: use of
steam tables 1.30: Effect o f distance on noise level

1.17: Determining blowdown and s team for deaeration 1.31: Computing noise levels from e ngine ex haust

1.18: Calculating flash steam from boile r blowdown; economics of 1.32: Ho ldup time in steam drum
flash steam r~covery
1.01
I. I 9a: Esti mating leakage of s team through openings; effect of wet- Q: Convert 50.000 lb/hr of hot water at a pressure of IOOO psia and
ness of steam on leakage 39{)°F IO gpm .
 c;c_11h..1p,ul1y Bil~it Ste<.un Plan1 ('..alculmions

A: To conver1 from lb/hr co gpm, or vice versa. J'or any liquid, we Substiiuting for /l.P and s, we have
can use the following expressions: 150
H1 = 2.3 X = 431.2fl
0.8
W = 8 _!l ( 1)
I'

1.02h
r> = 62.4s = {2)
I'
Q: If a fan develops 8 in . WC (inches of water column) with a llue
where gas density of 0 .05 lb/cu ft, what 1s the head in feet of gas and
.,n psi.
'•)
W = flow. lb/hr
q = now, gpm (gallons per minute) A: Use the expressions
p = density of liquid, lb/cu ft
s = specific gravity of liquid H• = 144 A.P (4)
,, = specific volume of liquid. cu ft/lb P,
H. - 27.7 A.P (5)
For hot water we can obtain the specific volume from the steam
tables (sec the Appendix). v at I 000 psi a anti 390°F is 0. O185 cu where
ft/lb. Then, from Eq. (I).
H, = head, feel of gas
q = 50,000 X
0.0185
g = 115 6 gpm H •. = head. in. WC
p8 = gas <lcnsily, lb/cu fl
For water at temperatures of 40 to 100°F, for quick estimates we Combining Eq~. (4) and (5). we have
divide lb/hr by S(XJ to obtain gpm . For example. 50,()()() lb/hr of
8
water at 70°F would be JOO gpm. H = 144 X = 835 ft
• 27 .7 X 0.05
8
1.02a = 0.29 psi
27 .7
Q: Estimate the head in feet developed by a pump when it is
pumping oil with a specific gnivity of 0.8 through a differential
1.03
pressure of 150 psi.
Q: Estimate the density of air at 5000 fl elevation and 200°F.
A: Conversion from feet of liquid to psi, or vice versa, is needed in
pump calcu lations. The expression relating the variables is A: The density of any gas can be estimated from
p
(6)
If, = 144 A.P ,. = 2.3 (3) I', = 492 x MW X 359 X (460 , I). X 14 .7
s
where where
A.P = differential pressure, psi P = gas pressure, psia
H1 = head. feet of liquid MW = gas molecular weight (Table 1. 1)
 7

Table I.I Gas Molecular Weight, Table 1.2 Density Correcuon for Altitude

Gas MW Altitude (ft) Fac1or

Hydrogen ~.0 16 0 1.0

Oxygen 32.0 I()(JO 0.964
Nitrogen 28 .016 2000 0. 93()
Air 29.2 3000 0.896
Methane 16.04 4000 0.864
Ethane 30.07 5000 0.832
Propane ~4.09 6000 0.801
n-Butane 58. 12 7()()() 0.772
Ammonia 17.03 80()() 0 .743
Carbo n dioxide 44.0 1
Carbon monoxide 28.0J
Nitrous ox ide 44.02 dala on llue gas analysis. Eq . (7) also g ives a good C5iimate of
Nitric oxide 30.01
density.
Nitrogen dioxide 46.01
When siting fans. it is 1he usual prac1 icc to refer 10 70°F ant.I
S ulfur d ioxide 64.06
Sulfur trioxide 80.06 sea leve l as siandard conditions for air or n uc gas density
Water J8.02 calculations.

1.04a
I = gas temperature, °F Q: Wha1 is acfm (ac1ua l c ubic feet per min ute). and how docs ii
p, = gas density, lb/cu fr di ffer from ~cfn, (suu1dard cubic feet per minute)'!
The pressure of air decreases as Lhe elevation increases, as shown A: acfm is compu1ed using 1hc density of 1he gas a1g iven conditions
in Tahle 1.2. which gives the term (P/14.7) x MW of air = 29. of pressure and temperature. and sc fm is computed using Lhe gas
Substituting the various terms, we have density al 70°F and al sea level (standard conditions).
0.832 w
f>, = 29 X 492 X
359 X 660
= 0.05 lb/cu ft q = (f\)
60 P,
A simpli fied expression for air at atmospheric pressure and al where
1cmpera1ure I a l sea level 15
'I = \!as llow in acrm (at 70°F and SCll level. scfm and
40 ;crm arc equal: 1hcn q = W/4.5)
P, = 460 + I
(7)
p, = gas dcnsi1y in lb/cu rt (a1 standard conditions p,
For a gas mix1urc ~uch as Jluc gas. the molecul ar weigh! = 0.075 lb/cu fll
(MW) can be obwinct.l as t.liscussed in Q 1.05. In the absence of W = gas llow m lb/hr = 4.5q at standard condition,
8

1.04b where
Q: Convert 10.000 lb/hr of air 10 ~cfm. )'; volume fracLion of ga., i
MW. = molecular weight of gas i
J\: Using Eq. (6), it can be shown that ac P = 14. 7 and r = 70. for
air p, = 0.75 lb/cu ft. Hence, from E<:1. (8), Hence
MW = 0.75 X 28 + 0.02 X 32 + 0.15 X 44 + 0.08
10.000
q=
60 X 0.075
= 2222 scfm X 18 = 29.68
From Eq. (6) .
l.04C 492
Pe = 29.68 X = 0.05 lb/cu ft
Q: Conven 3000 scfm 10 acfm at 35 psia and 275°F. What is the 359 X 810
flow in lb/hr? The fluid is air. The gas velocity V,, can be obtained a, follows:
J\: Calcu late the density at the actual condit ions. w (9)
V. = 60 p,A
35
P, = 29 X 492 X
359 X 735 X 14.7
= 0.129 lbtcu fl
where
From the above, V, = veloci ty, fpm
W = 4.5 X 3000 = 13,500 lb/hr A = cross section. ft 2

Hence Hence
13,500 35.000
acfm = = 1744 cfm V. = 60 0.05 3
= 3888 fpm
60 X 0 . 129 X X

The normal range of air or flue gas velocities in ducts is 2000

1.05 10 4000 fpm. Equation (9) can also he used in estimating the
Q: In a process plant, 35,000 lb/hr of flue gas having a composition duct size.
N2 = 75%, 0 2 = 2%, CO2 = 15%, and 1-1 20 = 8%. al l by In the absence of flue gas analysis, we could have used Eq. (7)
volume, flows through a duct of cross section 3 fl 2 at a tcmpcrn- to esti mat~ the gas density .
turc of 350°F. Estimate the gas density and velocity. Since the
gas pressure is only a few inches of water column. for quick
estimates the gas pressure may be taken as atmospheric. 1.00
Q: A term that is frequently used by engineers to describe the gas
A: To compute the density of gas. we need I.he molernlar weight. flow rate across heating surfaces is gas mass velocity. How do
For a gai; mixture, molecular weight is calculated as follows:
we ronvert this to linear vclocuy? Convcn 5000 lb/ft' hr of hot
MW = I(MW; x y,) air flow at I 30°F and atmospheric pressure to fpm.
10 Gdtldpa1t1y nac.;i< Stearn l--"fan1 C<1ln1lcnirni.,, II

A: Use the expression Water: 3 lo 12 frs

G
Steam: I00 to 200 fps
V. = 60 P,
( JO)

where G is the gas mass velocity in lb/ft2 hr. Use Eq. (7) 10
l.071)
calculate p,. Q: Estimate the velocity or 70% quality steam in a 3-m. schedule
40 80 pipe when the flow is 45.000 lb/hr and steam pressure is
r, = 460 + 130
- 0.0678 lb/cu ft 1000 psia.

Hence A: We need to estimate the speci fic volume of wet steam.

5000 v = .n:. + (I - x)~,
\I
•= 60 X 0.0678
= 1230 fpm
where •x and v1 are specific volumes of saturated vapor and liquid
at the pressure in question , obtained from the steam tables. and
l.07a x is the steam quality (see Q 1. 12 for a discussion of x). From
the steam tables. at 1000 psia, •x = 0.4456 aml ''t = 0.0216 cu
Q: What is the velocity when 25,000 lb/hr of superheated steiun
ftllb. Hence the specific volume of wet steam is
at 800 psia and 900°F flows through a pipe of inner diameter
2.9 in.'? V = 0.7 X 0.4456 + 0.3 X 0.02 16 = 0.318 CU ft/lb
The pipe inner diameter d, from Table 1.3 is 2. 9 in. Hence , from
A: Use expression ( 11) to determine the velocity of any fluid inside
Eq. (11),
tubes, pipes. or cylindrical duels.
0.318
V = 0.05 X W X
V
(II)
V = 0.05 X 45,000 X
2.9'
= 85 fps
d2
where '
1.08
V = veloci ry, fps What is meant by boiler horsepower? How is it related to steam
v = specific volume of the fluid, cu ft/lb
Q:
generation at different steam parameters?
d, = inner diameter of pipe, in.
For steam, " can be obtained from the steam tables in the A: Packaged fire tube boiler.; are traditionally rated and purchased
Appendix. in terms of boiler horsepower (BHP). BHP refers to a steam
capacity of 34.5 lb/hr of steam at atmospheric pressure with
v = 0.9633 cu ft/lb
feedwater at 2 J 2°F. I lowever, a boiler plant operates at different
Hcnre pressures and with different feedwater temperatures. Hence con-
0.9633 version between BHP and steam generation become;, necessary.
V = 0.05 X 25,0()() X = 143 fps
2.9' 33.475 X BHP
W= ( 12)
The normal ranges of fluid velocities arc Ali
 IC

TalJI<' 1.3 Dimensions of Steel Pipe (IPS)

Surface per Ii near ft Weight
Nominal Flow area
( ft2trtJ
pipe size. Schedule per pipe per lin n
!PS (in .) OD l in. ) No. lD (in.) (in. l) OuLsidc inside (lb ,tecl)

½ 0.405 40' 0.269 0.058 0.1 06 0.070 0.25

so• 0.2 15 0.036 0.056 0.32
'/4 0.540 40' 0.364 0.104 0.141 0.095 0.43
so• 0.302 0.072 0.079 0.54
1/1 0.675 4-0' 0.493 0. 192 0. 177 0. 129 0.57
so• 0.423 0. 14 1 0.11 1 0.74
½ 0.840 40:1 ().622 0.304 0.220 0.1 63 0.85
So" O.S46 0.235 0.143 1.09
¾ 1.05 4011 0.824 0.534 0.275 0.216 1.13
so• 0.742 0.432 0.194 1.48
1.32 40" 1.049 0 .864 0.344 0.274 1.68
so• 0.957 0.7 18 0.250 2.17
I¼ 1.66 40' 1.380 1.50 0 .435 0.362 2.28
80b 1.278 1.28 0.335 3.00
11/z 1.90 40' 1.6 10 2.04 0.498 0.422 2.72 ~
..
so• 1.500 1.76 0.393 3.1>4
2 2.38 40' 2.067 3.35 0.622 0.542 3.66 ~
so• 1.939 2.95 0.508 5.03 ..,

2.469 4.79 0 .753 0.647 5.80 :;:,

2'1:! 2.88 40' OJ
so• 2.323 4.23 0.609 7.67 £.
,..,
40:i 3.068 7.38 0.917 0.80-l 7.58
3 3.50
so• 2.900 6.61 0.760
1.055
10.3
10 8
-§
'J.
,:

6
4.50

6.625
40"
so•
40'
4.026
3.826
6.065
12.7
11.5
28.9
1.178

1.734
1.002
1.590
15.0
19.0
..-
-0
s
so• 5.761 26 I 1.510 28.6 ~

50.0 2.258 2.090 28.6

8 8.625 4-0'
so•
40"
7.981
7.625
10.02
45.7
78.8 2.8 14
2.000
2.62
43 4
40.5
-i<"
10 10.75 ::
60 9.75 74.6 2.55 54.S
'7
12 12.75 30 12.09 115 3.338 3. 17 43.8
14.0 30 13.25 138 3 665 3.47 54.5
14
16 16.0 30 15.25 183 4.189 4.00 62.6
18.0 20' 17.25 234 4 .712 4.52 72.7
18
20.0 20 19.25 291 S.236 5.05 78.6
20
22.0 20" 21.25 355 5.747 5.56 l/4 0
22
24.0 20 23.25 425 6.28J 6.09 94.7
24
"Com111only known as 'it.lndanJ
''Commonly known a.s extra heavy
c Approximtne1~.
14 (l,ma1>mlty Basic S 1can1 Plan1 C<1lt uh·llion~ l ri

where dew point, so it is importam to know the amount ot water. vapor

W = steam flow, lb/hr in air or flue gas.
6.h = enthalpy absorbed by steam/water = (/,g - h,w)
+ BO x (h1 - h,,.) f.091)
where Q: Estimate the pounds of water vapor to pounds of dry air when the
h, = enthalpy of saturated steam at operating ~learn dry bulb temperature is 80°F and the relative humidity is 65%.
pressure, Btu/lb
A: Use the equation
h1 = enthalpy of saturated liquid, Btu/lb
h,,. = enthalpy of feedwater. Btu/lb
M = 0.622 X
Pw
( 13)
BO = blowdown fraction 14.7 - Pw
For example, if' a 500-BHP boiler generates saturated steam at where
125 psig with a 5% blowdown and with feedwater at 230°F, the M = lb water vapor/lb dry air
steam generation at 125 psig will be p •. = partial pressure of water vapor in air. psia
W = 500 X 33,475
= 16,714 lb/hr This may be estimated as the vol % of water vapor x total air
( 1193 - 198) + 0.05 X (325 - 198) pressure or as the product of relative humidity and the sarurated
where 1193. 198. and 325 are the enthalpies of saturated steam, vapor pressure (SVP). From the steam tables we note that at
feed water, and saturated liquid. respectively, obtained from 80°F, SVP = 0.5069 psia (at 212°F, SVP = 14.7 psia). Hence
ste,m1 tables. (Sec Appendix.) p., = 0.65 X 0.5069.
0.5069
M = 0.622 X 0.65 X = 0.0142
1.09a 14.7 - 0.65 X 0.5069

Q: Why do we need to know the amount of moisture in air? Hence, if we needed 1000 lb of dry air for combustion, we wou ld
size the fan to deliver 1000 x 1.0142 = 1014.2 lb of atmo-
A: ln combustion calculations (Chapter 2) we estimate the quantity spheric air.
of dry air required to bum a given amount of fuel. In reality, the
atmospheric air is never dry; it consists of some mmsture. de- l.lOa
pending on the relative humidity and dry bulb temperature . To
Q: What is the water dew point of the flue gases discussed in
compute the partial pressure of water vapor in the llue gas, which
Ql.05?
is required for calculating nonluminous heat transfer, we need to
know the total quantity of water vapor in flue gases. a part of A: The partial pressure of water vapor when the vol % is 8 and total
which comes from combustion air. pressure is 14.7 psia will be
Also, when atmospheric air is compressed. the sarurated
vapor pressure (SVP) of water increases. and if the air i, cooled p,. = 0.08 x 14.7 = I. 19 psia
below the corresponding water dew poin1 temperature. water can From the steam tables. we note that the saturation temperarure
condense. The amount of moisture in air or gas fixes the water corresponding to I. I9 psia is l 07°F. This is also the water dew
 RdSi< SIC'tilll Pla111 Cdl( uldliOllS 17

point. If the gases are cooled below this 1cmpera1ure, water can where
condense, causing problems.
W = steam now, lb/hr
h, . It, = steam enthalpy and water emhalpy, Btu/lb
I.IOb Q duty. Btu/hr
Q: What i> the water dew point of compressed air when ambicm air
From the steam tables. h2 = 1425.3 Btu/lb and h1 = 224 Btu/lb.
at 80°F. 14.7 psia, and a relative humidity ot'65% is compressed
to 35 psia'? Q = 400.000 X ( 1425.3 - 224)
= 480.5 x 10• Btu/hr
A: Use the following expression to get the partial pressure of water
vapor after compression:
= 480.5 million Btu/hr (MM Btu/hr)

Using the fact that 3413 Btu/hr = I kW, we have

-P,p?- ( 14)
Q = 480.5 X
3413 X 103
= 14 1 MW
where
p., = partial pressure. psia
P = total pressure . psia
I.I lb
The subscripts I and 2 stand for initial and final conditions. From
Ql.09b, p., 1 = 0.65 X 0.5069 . Q: Estimate the energy absorbed by wet steam at 80% quality in a
boiler at 16()() psia when 1he feedwatcr cempera1ure is 250°F.
P..2 = 0.65 x 0.5069 x ,!\ = 0.784 psia
A: The enlhalpy of wet steam can be computed as follows:
From the steam tables. we note that corresponding to 0. 784 psia, h = xh, + (I - x)h1 (16)
the saturation tempcrnture is 93°F. This is also the dew point
after compression. Cooling the air to below 93°F would result in where his Lhc enthalpy in Btu/lb. The subscripls g andfsland for
its condensation. saturated vapor and liquid at the referenced pressure, obtained
from sa1ura1ed steam properties. xis the sleam quality fraction.
From the steam tables."• = 1163 Btu/ lb and h1 = 624 Btu/ lb
1.11a
at 1600 psia. The enthalpy of fecdwa1cr at 250°F is 226 Btu/ lb.
Q: Calculate the energy absorbed by steam in a boiler if 400,000
lb/hr of superheated s1~am at 1600 psia and 900°F is generated hi = 0.8 X 1163 + 0.2 X 624 = 1054 B1u/l b.
with feedwatcr at 250°F. What is the energy absorbed, in mega- h, = 226 Btu/ lb
waus? Q 1054 - 226 = 828 Btu/lb
J\: The energy absorbed is given by If steam tlow were 400.000 lb/hr. then
Q ~ W x (/,2 - h,) (neglecting blowdown) ( 15) Q = 400.000 X 828 = 331 X 106 = 331 MM Btu/hr
18 Cidllc.lpatl 1y na..'tlc s1e<.m1 Pl<..ml C::alndations

Thermometer
1.12
Q: How is the wetness in steam specified? How do we convert
steam by volume (SBV) to steam by weight?
Tube
··--~ Tube lnsvlatiOl'I

/\: A steam-waler mixture is described by the term quality. x, or

dryness fraction. x = 80% means that in I lb of wet steam. 0.8
lb is steam and 0.2 lb is water. To relate these 1wo terms, we use
the expression
100
SBV = I + f( 100 - x)/xJ X v11v.
(17)

where Steam Flow

v1, v, = specific volumes of saturated liquid and vapor. l

cu ft/lb
x = quality or dryness fraction
Fr·om the steam tables at 1000 psia. v1 = 0.0216 and vg Figure 1.1 Thro1Lling calorimeter.
= 0.4456 cu ft/lb.
SBV = JOO = 98.8%
I + ((100 - 80)/801 X 0.0216/0.4456 of s team . A sampling nozzle is located preferably in the vertical
Circulation ra1io (CR) is another term used by boiler engi- section of the saturnted steam line far from bends or fittings.
neers LO describe the steam quality generated. Steam enters the calorimeter through a throttling onficc and into
a well-insulated expansion chamber. Knowing that Lhrotlling is
I (I 8) an isoenthalpic process, we can rewrite Eq. ( 16) for enthalpy
CR = -
X balance as
A CR of 4 means that the steam quality is 0.25 or 25%; in other h., = h'" = x/r8 + (I - ,t)h1
words, I lb of Meam would have 0. 75 lb of steam and the
remainder water. where
h... h.,, h1. "• = enthalpies of steam. mixture. saturated
1.13a liquid, and saturated steam, respectively
x = steam quality fraction
Q: How is the quality of steam determined using a throttling calo-
rimeter'! The steam temperature after throttling is measured at aLmo-
spheric pressure, and then the enthalpy is obtained with the help
A: Tiirottling calorimeter (Fig. I. I) is widely used in low-pressure of steam tables. The steam is usually in superheated condition
steam boilers for detern1ining the moisture or wetness (quality) after throuling.
 (,.m,lp1.11hy BdSit :-il('ilrH l 'ltnH ( :..-1Jnll,IIU>l1.'-,

L, Xr\J\ 11 'l.E A: From an energy balance at·ross the dc,upcrhc.itcr, we get

A tnrotlling calonmcter measures a s1ca11 , temperature of 250°F W,h, + Wh1 = W;,h~ '19:1)
when connected 10 u bmkr operating m I00 p~ia. De1cm1ine the
Mcam quality. where
Solution. h , "' atmospheric pressure and at l50°F = I 168 8 IV,, \,\~ = steam nows be! ore and after desupcrhcatmg
Btu/lb from Meam wbles: h, = 1187 .2 and h1 = 298 5 Btu/lb W = water required
also from steam tables. Mcnee 1, 1. 1,2 = steam enthalpies before and after the process
1168.8 = 1187.21 + (I - 1)298.5 ir1 = enthalpy of waler

or Also, from mass bal,mcc,

x = 0.979 or 97.9% quality \½ = W,+W

Hence we can show that
J.131) It, - It,
W = Wz X
,,, - 11,
(19b)
Q: How i, Meam quality related 10 , team purity?
Neglecting the pressure drop across the desuperheater, we have
A: Steam purity refcn. to the impurities in wet steam in ppm. A from the s1cam tables: h 1 = 1403, h 2 = 1346, and h1 = 271, all
typical value in low-pressure boiler, would he I ppm of sol ids. in Btu/lb. Mcnee WIW1 = 0.05. That is. 5% of the final steam
However. qualuy refers lo the moisture 111 steam. llow is required for injection purposes.
The boiler drum maintains a cenain concentration of solids
depending on ABMA or ASME recommendation, m, disctL%cd
in Q 1.17. If UL 500 psig pressure the bmkr water concentration 1.15
1s 2500 ppm, and if steam should have 0.5 ppm solids. then the Q: How is 1he waler rcqu,rcmcnt for cooling a gas , trcam estimated'!
quality can be csl imaled as fol lows: Estimate the waler quantity required 10 cool I00.000 lb/hr of lluc
gas from 900°F 10 400°F. Whal is the final volume of 1hc ga~'!
0.5
% Moisture in steam
2500
x JOO = 0.02%
A: From an energy balance ii can be ~hown [I) that
or
4
Steam qual11y = 100 - 0.02 = 99.98% q = 5.39 X )() X (1 1 - 12)
w (20)
X
1.14
)()9() + 0.45 X (/! - 150)
where
Q: How do we esumatc 1he water required for dc,upcrhcaung
slcam? Su~rhcu1cd steam !II 700 p,ia and 800°1' must be cooled q = water required. gpm
to 700°F using a spray of water a1 300°1'. Estimate the quantity of 11. ,~ = iniual and final gas temrcrmurcs. °F
waler needed lo do this. W = gas now entering 1hc cooler, lbihr
 Basic S1c~n1 Pl<111t Calculations 23

Substitmion yields (total dissolved sol ids) of boiler water and the incoming maketll>'
q = 5.39 X 10- • X (9()() - 400) water. Figure 1.2 shows the scheme around a simple deaerator.
100,000 Note that there could be several condensate returns. This analysis
X does not consider venting of steam from the deaerator or the
1090 + 0.45 X {400 - 150)
heating of makeup using the blowdown water. These refinements
= 23 gpm can be done later to fine tune the results.
The final gas volume is given by the expression ABMA (American Boiler Manufacturers Association) and
J\SME provide guidelines on the TDS of boiler water as a
(460 + 12) X (
2
~J + 0.341) function of pressure (see Tables 1.4 and 1.5). The drum solids
concentration can be at or less than the value shown in these
The final volume is 43,000 acfm. tables. Plant water chemists usually set these values after review-
ing the complete plant c hemistry.
1.16 EXAMPLE
Q: In selecting silencers for vents or safety valves, we need to figure A boiler generates 50,000 lbibr of saturated steam at 300 psia,
the volume of steam after the throttling process . Estimate the out of which 10,000 lb/hr is taken for process and returns lo the
volume of steam when 60.000 lb/hr of superheated steam ai 650 deaerator as condensate at J80°F. The rest is consumed. Makeup
psia and 800"F is blown to the atmosphere in a safety valve. water enters the deaeramr al 70°F. and steam is available at 300
psia for deaeration. The deaerator operates at a pressure of 25
A: We have to find the final temperature of steam after throuling, psia. The blowdown has a total dissolved solids (TDS) of I 500
which may be considered an isoenthalpic process; that is. the ppm, and the makeup has JOO ppm TDS.
steam enlhalpy remains the same at 650 and I5 psia.
From the steam tables, at 650 psia and 800°F, h = 1402 Btu/
lb. At 15 psia (atmospheric conditions), the temperature corre- TO PfITESS
sponding lo an enthalpy of 1402 Btu/lb is 745°F. Again from the \
steam tables, at a pressure of 15 psia and a temperature of 745°F,
10.0!11)
the specific volume of steam is 48 cu fl/lb. The total volume of
steam is 60,000 x 48 = 2,880,000 cu fl/hr. 0

1.17
Q: How do we determine lhe steam required for deaeration and 0/\ BOILER
boiler blowdown water requirements?

A: Steam plant engineers have to frequently perform energy and

TO BLO ~ OOwN
mass balance calculations around the deaerator and boiler to
obtain the values of makeup water, blowdown. or dcacrntion PUMP B

steam flows. Boiler blowdown quantity dCflCtlds on the TDS Figure 1.2 Scheme of deaemtion system.
 ~

Table 1.4 Suggested Water QuaH1y Limi~,·

Boiler tyre; indm,trial w,11er tube. high du1y. primai) fuel tireJ. drum type
Ma.ketw waler pen:entugc: up to 101)',l, of feed,\'i.\11!-r
c.,nJthons: include,; , upcrhc~net, turbmt' dmc:-.s. or prucc~'i res1ric1io11 oo ~team puril>

01\1111op('rating 1)..107 2.08-3. 10 3.11-1.14 4, 1.>· S 17 5 18-6 21 b.22-6.8\1 ~ oo 10.34 IO.JS•I' 7Y

Prc~u.rt'h. MP.i lf1s1g> 10-300) (301-1,0J (451-600) {601-750> (7Sl-Y<M (QOI 1000> C 1001-15001 I 1'01 -20001
Fcc~~·a(cf
rn,~olvcd Ox.)gCn <mgtl 0 ~1 <O OJ <O.Ql! <UJ.>07 <(1.001 <0007 <O ()07 < 0007 <0.007
mcm,ure<.l before oxn•en
~~1wnJ!er ;iddi11onJ

Tmal ,mn I mg.IL Fe) :;O, l\10 :;o.oso sO.ll:lO S0025 S0020 so.020 ,;I) 010 $CQ.OIO
To1al cOppl.'r (ml,!IL Cu) ,:;:o,oso s0.025 <;0.020 :;0.020 s0.015 'SO.Ol5 ,:,Q OIO ·•.o.o 10
To1al hardne,;s (mg.II, C 1CO:d so.Joo 50.3{~) s o .200 so 200 ~O.ltKI s-0.050 n.J. n.d
pH range ca l5°C 7.5-10 Cl 7 S 10.0 7.5-W.O 7.5--ltlO 7.5 10.0 8.5-9.5 9.(1-~.6 9 0-0.6
( "hcmicals for preboiler '-)'S.lcm U-.c \''JOI) ,ok1lilC" all..almc maler1t1h,
PfOliX'Lmn
Non,..ol tuile TOC ring.IL C)' <I <I <0.5 < 0 ..5 <0.5 -A~ tow as rossible, < () 2
Otl) mailer (mglL) <I <I < 0.5 <0 . .5 <0.5 -A'> lo..., 3$ p0&sible. < l) · ! - - -

Boih:r walt;r
Sihca img•I. Si01 ) ..:: 150 :,90 ,;.j<) •01() S20 sS -sz .., I
Tora1 alkaJilht} (m~IL CaC(>i) <3501 <.300' <2501 <20(t <1501 < 1001 n ,., ,r n.s r
fr,;,.e hyJ.roxidc 11U,alin1t) (m.gtL 11,), n.s. ll ,$ n.:.. n.d.' nd 11.d.' n.d ,..
£
CaC0,)11 ~
v
Spec11lc C<)odUCtatlCt' (µ.mho/L'm) <3500' <3-000' 2500' <20(1()' < 1500' < IOOlr ::: I "iO ~ 11.XJ
(11 lS"C without ncu1raJi1a1jon §
·<

11
No vaJues given for s;uunued steam puriiy 1arge1 because steam purity achievable depends upon many variables. including boiler
water total alkahmty and specific conductance a.s well as design of boiler. steam drum 1mcmals. and opcmting condluons lSCc. w
;=;-
rooo1me i). Since boilers in this category require a relatively h.igh degree of steam purity, other opcrnung parameters must be set as
low ~11i- rtcccs..-..iuy 10 achieve this high purity for protection of the superheaters and turbines and/or 10 avc,id process contaounat.1on. '!:
r;
''With local heal fluxcS, >473.2 k.W/ nl (> 150,000 Btu/hr fi'!), UM! va1ues for 1he next higher pre::-sun: range. ;!:
c.Boilers below 6.2 1 MPa {900 psig) with large furnaces, l~1rge steum rele"~ spac:c, anti i111ernal chehml, (Xllymer, and/or an1ifoam
treatment can sometimes tolerate higher levels of fecdwate.r impuri1ics than tho~ in the cable imd t>liH ~chievc ,ldC<tUtilc de~i1ion ~
oomrol and s.1eam purity. Removal of lhcsc impurities by cxtemaJ pretreatment i~ illways a more positive solution Altcmauvc~ mu.sl ":1
be evaluated as to practkahty and economics in each case
'1Values in H1ble &s$1m1e the exi:-.teoce or a deaerator. 2
"Nonvo)atilc TOC is th.at organic carbon not intention.lily added as p.u'I or the water treatment 1·egi111e. 2
'Maximum toml alkahmty con&1Stcnt with ncceplablc: steam purity. I( necessary. should ovcnide conductance a~ blowdowo coniro1
;:
§'
parameter. tf makeup 1s dcnunerahzcd water at 4.14 MPa (600 psig) to 6.89 MPa (1000 psig), boiler water alkalinHy an<l ,1-,
conducrance should be 1ha1 ,n table for 6.90 10 10.34 MPa (1001 10 tSOO psig) range.
""Not detectable.. in 1hc:se cases refer., m free wdium or potassium hydroxide alkalinity. S<nne :-.mall variable ~,mount of total
alkalinity will be present and meH~umbfe with the assumOO. cong:ruen1 or CO()rdina1.ed f)h~pha1c 11H comrnl or \lolaolc U'eatmem
employed a1 these high pressure rnngcs.
._Minimum level of OH· alkalimty in boilers below 6.21 MPn (900 psig) must be individually ~pccified wilh rcgm1I tn lliilii::a ~oluhility
and olher componenlS of internal treatment.
'Maximum values often nm achievable without exceeding suggested maximum total aJkahnity \•aJue..,. especially in boilers below
6.21 MPa (900 psig) with >20% m:1keup of water whose 101al a1kalinity ii> >'20% ofTDS oa1urally c)r af1er pt'etre.atrnent with soda
hmc or sodium cycle ion-exchange softening. Ac1uaJ perrnissit>le conducrnnc,e values 10 achieve aoy desired ,,;team purny must be
cstabhshcd for each case by careful steam purity measurcmcnt.s Rclationshjp between conductance and sic.am puricy is afrec1c<l by
coo many vari:1bles co ullow tts. reduc.11on to a s1mple hsl of tabulalcd values..
Source: Ad,1,100 from ASME 1979 Con8ensu,.
n d ..... noc dc1cccable; n.s = not !!pccificd.

Iv
u,
 Basic St('.-i-1111 Plan1 C~1I< ula1ion~ '27

Sol11tio11.This problem tlemonstrates the evaluation of two

O oo •n 1n -
important variables: tlcaeraiion steam and blowdown water re-
V',

-f....:-f999° 0
- V ' ; V';

~~
'"00 quirements.
N f"I N - - ,.... From mass balance around Lhe deacrator,
ciC ci Oci ci
10,000 + 0 + M = F = 50,000 + 8 (21)
From energy balance around the de aerator.
10,000 X 148 + 1202.8 X O + M X 38
= 209 X F = 209 X {50.000 + 8) (22)
From balance of solids concentration,
100 X M = 1500 X 8 (23)
~S;OO~M-- ~ ~ ~ In Eq. (22), 1202.8 is the enthalpy of steam used for deaera-
ci C: C:
tion , 209 the enthalpy of boiler fecdwater. 148 the enthalpy of
condensate return. and 38 that of makeup, all in Btu/lb. The
equation assumes that the amount of solids in returning conden-
sate and steam is negligible, which is true. Steam usually ha~ a
TDS of I ppm or less, and so does the condensate. Hence. for
practical purposes we can neglect it. The net solids enter the
system in the fonn of makeup water and leave as blowdown.
There are three unknowns, 0. M , and 8, and three equations.
From Eq. (21),
O + M = 40,000 + B (24)
substituting (23) into (24),
D + 40,000
158 - + H2 or
D + 148 - 40,000 (25)
From (22},
1,480,000 + 1202.SD + 38 X 158 - 209 X 50,000
+ 2098
Solving this equation, we have B = 2375 lb/hr, D = 6750 lb/hr,
M = 35,625 lb/hr, and F = 52.375 lb/hr. Considering venting
of steam from the deaerator to expel dissolved gases and the heat
losses, we may consume I to 3% higher s1cam quantity.
 c;ai1ap.-:1111,·
r- 0- O" 0-- II"! ("': 0; 0: ~
1.18
V, r-1 in
ir, r- ~ ~ 0 = \ rj

,...j '"1' ..0 t- DQ ~ ~ t" I

Q: How can the boiler blowdown be utilized '! A 60(). psia boiler
operates for 6000 hr annually and discharges 4000 lb/hr of
blowdown. If this is fla.~hc<l to steam at 100 psia . how much
\Q r-,: ~ 0 =
,..,-, a,. ~ . ,q- .,g "'! ":
t"I ~
N , - -: ~
v; -0 :.i0 ~ ~
tr: ~
M
...,.
~l
steam is generated? If' the COM of the blowdown system ,s $8000,
how long docs it tale to pay back'/ Assume that the cost of steam ..,. ...
is $2 per 1000 lb.
O': ~ 0- -
,,ci ¢0 0: =N
N
"'I
I"'\ ~
f"! 00 M
\f"i r-,
r-: °': - "!
~ 2: !'"'I ~ ::=l
"'
.....
-r-- .
-N!7'

A: To estimate the flash steam produced we may use the expression

It = xii, + (I - 1)h1 (26) r,,- Cl\ 0 =
.ON..C,...OC,..O,.~V"'I
.,-.i r'°) ..,; '° ~ ~ 2
f""'1 r-:OC!:~
l"'l ~ ~
where

II = enthalpy nf blowdown water at high pressure. .0

;J
~

Btu/lb C: 0
.....0 N

II,. h1 = enthalpies of saturated steam and wate r at the

flash pressure. Btu/lb
r<",Q'>(")~,.QV)lrl l'1 ('!~
x = fraction of steam that is generated at the lower O\QN("'")-,.t.1";,0¢00'\N~~~~j
pressure
From the s team tables. at 600 psia, h =
471.6. :md at I()() psia,
II, =
1187 and 111 = 298. all in Btu/lb. Using Eq. (26). we have
47 1.6 = 1187.r + ( I - x)298
or V'l
\r, ~

A' = 0. 195 "' - N l ° "I

About 20% of the initiu l blnwdown i, converted to flash s tea m,

the quantity being 0.2 x 4000 = 800 lb/hr This 800 lb/hr ol 0 ("I
-
V'!
.,,
""'

I 00-psia s team can b~ used for process. The resulting savings - N C'l

annually wil l be
6000 .....
= $9600
800 2
·--~
X X JOOQ 0 .,,

Simple payback will be 800019600 = 0.8 year or abou1 10

= -~-
0. ::, •

..." -
months.
Tables are available 1ha1 g ive the flash steam produced if the
ini1 ial and n11~h pressure~ are known. Table 1.6 is one such table
 11
30 <,rn 1c11 Mll t)

1.19a guns. and safety valves and leakage 1hrough hole~ in pressure
vessels. The expression 1hat relate., the vanablcs 1s 181
Q: Estimate the leakage of steam through a hole 1/8 in. in diameter
MW )o,
in a pressure vessel at 100 psia, the steam being in 11 saturntc<l W = 356 x AP x ( - T- (28)
condition.
where
A: The hourly loss of steam in lb/hr is given by 1.2]
w = now. lb/hr
AP = area of opening, in .2
W = 50 I + 0.00065(1 - ls:ul
(27) A
MW = molecular weight of a,r, 28.9
where 1' = absolute tempcramrc, R 0

p = relief or discharge pressure, psia

W = steam leakage, lb/hr
A = hole area, in. 2 Whal is the leakage air flow rrom a pressure vessel at 40 psia if
P = steam pressure. psia the hole is 0.25 in. in diameter'! Air is at 60°F.
r, ,,., = steam temperature and saturated steam 0.25
temperature, °F A = 3. 14 X 0.25 X = 0.049 in.2
4
If the steam is saturated, I=,,.,. Ifthc steam is wet with a steam
Hence.
quality of r, fraction, then the leakage now is obtained from Eq. 1
(27) divided by \Ix. Since the steam is saturnted (x = I), 189 )"
\V = 356 X 0.049 X 40 X ( ;;0 = 164 lb/hr
W = 50 X J. 14 X (gr
I '
X
4
I
X JOO = 61 lb/hr

If 1hc steam were ;upcrheated and at 900°F, then 120a

61 Q: Derive an expression for the leakage of ga~ across a damper.
W= I + 0.00065 X (900 544)
= 50 lb/hr slating the assumptions made.
544°F 1s the saturation tcmpcrnturc at 1000 psia. Ir the steam A: Most or the dampers used for i~olation of gas or air 111 duels arc
were wet with a quality of 80%. then not JOO% lcakproof. They have a certain percentage of leakage
61 area. which causes a now of gas acros~ the area . Considering the
W= = 68 lb/hr condi tions to be simi lar to 1ho,c of flow across an orifice. we
have
1.19h
p.--
?-8IIw- 7 (29)
Q: How is the discharge now of air from high rressure to atmo- - P,
spheric pressure determined'! where
1\: Critical now condi tions for air are found in several imlustnal v, = ga:.. velocity through the lea~age area. fps
applications such as now through soot blower nozzles, spray H1,· = diffcren1ial prcs,ure across the damper. in. WC
 .j .'
~

(111fldt)dChy 'I I

P, , p,. = den,ity of gm, and water, lb/cu fl lure. 1,, 1s the ambient tcmpcraiurc in °F 80°F wns assumed in
g = accclcraiion due lo grnvny. fllscc 1 this ca.se . The cosl of thi, leakage = 0.24 x 3 = $0. 721hr.
c. = coefficient of discharge. 0 .61
The gas now W tn lb/hr cnn be obtained frorn
1.20(.'
W = "', __!L
3600 p• A(IOO - •• JOO (30) Q: How ii. the scaling efficiency of a damper defined'/

where E is the sealing efficiency on an area basis (%). Most A: The scaling cfJ'icicncy of a damper i, defined on 1hc basis of the
dampers have an £ value of 95 to 99% . This J'igure is provided area of' cross section of the damper and also as a percentage ol
by the damper manufacturer. A is the duel cross section, ft1 . !low The lauer method of definition is a function of the actual
Substituting C,1 = 0.61 and p, = 40/(46<) + 1) inlO /29) and (30) gus now condi1 ion.
and simplifying. we have In Q I 20b, the damper had an efficiency of 99.5% on an arcu
basis. J\ssume 1hut the actual gas flow was 230,000 lb/hr. Then.
W = 2484A(IOO - £) j H,.
460 + I
(31) on a now basis, the efficiency would be
2040
where t is the gas or air lemperalurc, °F. JOO -
230.000
= 99. 12%

1.201) lf' the flow were I 15.0CX) lb/hr and the differcmial pressure were
maintained, the effic iency on an area basis would still he 99.5%.
Q: A boiler nue gas duct with a diameter of 5 ft ha, a damper whose while that on a flow basi, would be
scaling eflicicncy is 99.5%. It operates under a difforential
2040
pressure of 7 in. WC when closed. Gas iempcrarure is 540"F. I (JO -
115.000
= 98.24%
futimme lhc leakage across the damper. If energy costs $J/ MM
Btu. what is the hourly heat lo,s and the coM of leakage'! Plant engineers shou ld be awure of these two methods of
stating the efficiency of damper.,.
t\: Substirutc A = 3.14 x 5114.11,. = 7, 1 = 540. nod f:.' = 99.5
into Eq. (31 ). Then
7 1.21
5'
W = 2-184 X 3. 14 X X ( 100 - 99.5) X -,-~ Q: 50.C)()() lb/hr of' flue gas from a boiler exists at 800°F If ii waste
4 , J{)OO
= 2040 lb/hr hen1 recovery system is added to reduce n to 35o•F. how much
energy i;. saved'/ If energy cost\ $3/MM Btu and the plant
The hourly heat los, can be obtained from operates for 6000 hr/year, wh:1t i, the annuul !,Dvings'! If the cost
Q = WCp(t - t,.) = 204() x 0.26 X (5-10 - 80) of the heat recovery system is $115.000. wh.it is the simple
= 240,000 Btu/hr = 0.24 MM Btu/hr payback?
where C,, is the gas specific heat. Btu/lb °F. Values of 0.25 to i\: The energy savings Q = WC1,(I, - 11 ) • 11 and I, nre gas
0.28 can be used for quick estimates. depending on ga\ tempera- temperatures before and after installmion of th~ heal recovery
34 Cunapath)' Babic Steam Plcmt Cc.lie ula1inns

system. 0 P. c.
is the gas specific heat, Btu/lb °F. Use a value of where C, i, the cost of equipment. F is a factor that capitalizes
0.265 when the ga~ temperature is in the range 400 to 600°F. the operating co&t over the life of the equipment. It can be shown
[4.5] that
Q = 50.000 X 0.265 X (800 - 350) = 5 .85 X J06
= 5.85 MM Btu/hr + e )T
( +i
Annual savings = 5.85 x 6000 x 3 = $105,000 +ex _ ___ ..:._..:.__
F=
Hence
+i ( + e)
+ i
115,000
Simple payback = = I. l years. or 13 months The annual cost of operation is given by
105.000
C0 = PC,N (34)
where P is 1hc electric power consumed. kW.
1.22
Q: What is life-cycle costing? Two bids are received for a fan as P = l. 17 x io - • x qH,.. (35)
'TJ1
shown below. Which bid is better'! where
H.,. = head. in. WC
Bid I Bid 2 "'lr = efficiency, fraction
q = now, acfm
Flow (acfm) 10.000 10.000
Head (in. WC) Let us use the subscripts I and 2 for bids I and 2.
8 8
Efficiency l % ) 60 75 8
Total cost. fan and motor ($) 17.000 2 1.000 P, = 1.17 X 10 - 4 X 10,000 X
0.60
= 15.6 kW

8
P2 = l.17 X 10- 4 X 10,000 X
0.75
= 12.48 kW
A: Life-cycle costing is a methodology 01at computes the total cost
of owni ng and operating the equipment over its life. Several From Eq. (33), suhstilutinge = 0.08. i = 0. 13, and T = 15. we
financing methods and tax factors would make this a compl icated get F = 10.64. Calc ul ate Ca from Eq. (34):
evaluation. However. let us use a simple approach to illustrate
C.,1 = 15.6 X 8000 X 0.025 = $3120
the concept. To begin with, the following data should be ob-
tained. C,,2 = l 2 .48 X 8000 X O 025 = $2500
Cost of electricity. C,. = $0.25/kWh Using Eq. (32), calculate the life-cycle cost.
Annual period of operation. N = 8000 hr LCC 1 = 17,000 + 3 120 x 10.64 = $50,196
Life of equipment. T = 15 years LCC2 = 21.000 + 25()() X l O 64 = $47 .600
Interest rate. i = 0. 13 ( I3%)
Escalation rate, e = 0.08 (8%) We note !hat bid 2 has a lower LCC :md 1hus may be chosen.
However. we have to analyze other factors such as period of
If the annual cost of operation is C., the life-cycle cost (LCC) is operation. future cost o f energy. and so on, before deciding. If N
LCC = C, + C,,F (32) were lower. it is likely !hat bid l would be bcuer.
 (;a1,df>mhy 13.lo.;ic s 1e,11 11 Pliml calculation~

Hence, choosing equ ipment should noLbe based on lv on the I f. however. e nergy costs S3/MM Btu and Lhe plant work, for
initial investment but on an evalua11on of the life-cy;le cost. 2500 hr/year. capitali1,ed savings on bid I will by $465,000 and
especially as the cost of energy i, continually increa,ing. that of bid 2 = $665.000. T he difference of $200.000 is less
than the difference in inve,tment of $235.000. Hence under
these conditions. bid I is be11er.
l.23 Hence cost of energy and period of operation arc important
Q: A process kiln exits 50.000 Jh/hr of flue gas at 800°F. Two bids factors in arriving at the be.,t choice.
were received for heat recovery sy,tcm,, as follows:

1.24
Bid Bid 2
Q: Determine the thickness of the tubes required for a boiler super-
Gas Lemperaturc kaving 450 300 hcater. The material is SA 2 13 T 11: the metal tcrn peralllrc is
system. °F 900°F (see Q4. I6a for a d iscussion of metal temperature calcul a-
Investment . $ 2 15.000 450.000 tion). and the tube outerdimncter is J.75 in . The design pressure
is I000 psig.

If the plant operates for 6000 hr/yr. and interest. escalation rates, A: Per ASME Boiler and f'ress!lre Vessel Code. Sec. I . 1980, p.
and Iife of p lant are as in Q I .22. evaluate rhc Iwo bids if e nergy 27. the following equation can be used 10 obrnin the th ickness or
costs $4/MM Bt u. the allowable pressure for tubes. (A tube is speci fied by the outer
diameter and minimum wall thickness, while a pi pe is specified
A: Let us calculate the capitalized savings and compare !hem with by the nominal diameter and average wall thickness.) Typical
the investments. For b id I: pipe and tube materials used in boiler applications are s hown in
Tables 1. 3 and 1.7.
Energy recovered = 50,000 x 0.25 x (800 - 450)
= 4.375 MM Btu/hr Pd + 0.005d +e (36)
/II, = 2S., + P
This energy is wonh
21,.. - 0 .0 ld - 2e (37)
4.375 X 4 = $)7.5/hr I' = S., X
d - (I,.. - 0.005d - e)
Annual ,avings = 6000 x 17.5 = $105,000
where
The capital ization factor from Q 1.22 is I0.64. Hence capitalized
sav ings (savings through the li fe of the plant) = !05.000 x ,.. = mini mum wall thickness. in.
10.64 = $ 1. 12 x 10\ A similar calculation for bid 2 shows that P = design pressure. psig
the capital ized savings will be $1 .6 x Hi<'. The difference in d = tube outer diameter, in .
capital ized &avings of S0.48 x JO°, or $480.000. exceeds the
e = factor that accounts for compensation in .crewed
d ifference in the investment of $235.000. Hence bid 2 is more wbcs, generally £Cro
attractive. S., = allowable stress, psi
 I I I I I I I I f""', I"",
<""i
°' I.I')
f"i ....: ("i
f\a"iic S 1e<1nl Plan1 CalcuJarlons

From Table 1.7, s. is 13,100. Sub,1i1uting into Eq. (36) yields

1000 X 1.75
I I I I I '° lw = + 0.005 X I. 75 = 0.073 in ,
N
2 X 13,100 + !000
The tube with the next higher thickness would he chosen. A
- - !f"l l/') II": 00 0 corrosion allowance, ir required, may be added to 1.,.
§ QI) ll"l ~ t""'; ~
ri N N N ....: r...: r--,: :.C
- v-:- --.:; -
~ ~

__·)r:
:.,
I
C Q: Determine the maximum pressure thac an SA 53 B carbon steel
?..,
pi pe of size 3 in . scheduJc 80 can be s ubjecced to at a metal
gi temperature of 550°F. Use a corrosion allowance of 0.02 in .
:;;
"8X By the ASME Code, Sec. I . 1980, p. 27. the formula for deter-
A:
0" mining allowable pressures or thickness of pipes, drums. and
""'e headers is

~ ,... =
Pd (38)
~

8. 2S E
0
+ 0.8P + C

'ii; c 90NNOOOCOv-,NO,.v;,-
Q.
~ 8 r-.:C\0:.Q('iiAV)("-t ,,.;t,-itl')'!:t where
x
~
00
------- -- E = ligarnenc efficiency, I for seamless pipes
ol,
c:: 0 0 -0· 0 000 0 - tr, - r- ,- c = corrosion allowance
~ _; d ~-.:i ~ V") r") I/"'; <,O .r, ~
:.5
:,
!--
----------- From Table 1.3, a 3-in. schedule 80 pipe has an outer diameter
of3.5 in. and a nominal wall thicknessof0.3 in. Considering the
~
;:,
g t-Nll"l-r>OOO~C'lt"'")OCf'- manufacturing tolerance of 12.5%, the minimum thickness avai l-
"
u.
.,;
<I)
---- -------
M..,.;
0'\ (',i ....: ~ -Ovi ,,.; -0 vi "tf'
able is 0.875 x 0.3 = 0.2625 in.
Substituting S,, = 15,000 psi (Table 1.7) and c = 0 .02 into
:,
.; Eq. (38). we have
> 3.51'
"'
"' 0.2625 = + 0.02
e
,;,
2 X 15.000 + 0.8P

"
:;; Solving for P, we have P = 2200 psig.
"
:?:
For alloy steels . the foctor 0.8 in the denominator would be
-N
.£ -N different. The ASME Code may be referred to for detai ls 16).
< Table 1.8 give~ the maximum aJJowablc pressure, for carbon
steel pipes up to a temperature of 650°F 17].
-"'
'"'
.:i
:.;
f-
40

Tahl<' 1.8 Maximum Allowable Pressure'

(;tHklf)t'"llh~ Ba.c...jt · S te.ml Plan1 Ciil(·,1l;11i<>ns
~·
2. When d,,lt < I0,A and 8 are determined rrom tables or charts
Nominal pipe as in QI . 25. for t10 1t <4 .A = I . ll(d.,11)1. Two values of
size 1in.) Schedule -10 Schedule 80 a llowable pre;~ures are !hen computed, namely. P,,, and P,,2 .
Schedule 160
114 4830 2. 167
6833 - 0.0833) X 8 and
112 3750 5235 6928
P,,, = ( d ,,It
I 2857 3947 5769 I - (tld0 )
1/2 2112 3000 -1329 d,,lr
2 1782 2575 4225
2 1/2 1948 2702 where S,, is the lesser of 2 times the max imum allowable
3749
3 1693 2394 3601 stress values at de;ign metal te mperawrc from the code
4 1435 2074 3370 stress tables or 1.8 times the yield strength of the material at
5 1258 1857 3191 design metal temperature. T hen the smaller of the P,,1 or P,, 1
6 1145 1796 3076 is used for I!,
8 1006 1587 2970 ~XAMPLE
"Based oo ic1llowable sLres..o, of 15.000 psi; corrosion aJlowance 1s zero. De te rmine the maximum allowable external pressure at 600°F for
Sollrre: Chemical Engmeering. July 25, 1()83. 120·in. SA 192 tubc-s of outer d iameter 2 in. and length 15 fl
used in fire tube boilers.
Solution.
1.2G
~ =
15 X 12
= 90 and
Q: How i, the max imum allowable externa l pressure for boiler tubes L 2.0
determined'! ti., 2
= 0.120
16.7
A: Accord ing to AS ME Code Sec. I. 1989, para PFT 5 1, 1hc exter- From Figure I . 3. factor A = 0.004. From Figure I .4, 8 =
nal pressures of tubes or pipes can he dc1e rmined as follows. 9500. Since d,Jt > 10.
I. For cylinders hav ing djt > 10 (9(. 48 9500
48 I?, = =4 X
3/16.7
= 758 psi
3(d.,lt)
~= (39)
3 (d/1)
where 127
F:, = maximum allowable external pressure, psi Q: What is a decibel'! How is it expressed?
A. 8 = factors obrninecl from i\SME Code. Sec. I, de-
pending on va lue; of d.,lt and Lid,,. where L.d,,. A: The decibel (dB) is the unit of me,1sure used in noise evaluation.
and t refer to tube length, external d iameter. h is a ratio (not an absolute value) or a sound level to a refere nce
and thickness. level and is stated as a sound pressure level (SPL) or a sound
 +2 Gd1\tlpii11ly

..• -.
I WOJ::>¥1

• I- ;1t- ~ti- ~. ,... _;'

r-; 1-,.0. f-l..l)
~; ~ L ....O 1-,.
0 .
~
; '
' t~·
"
~ .... ...
~ : ••.
0 ;- :- 7.. : ; . f- ; :: L- ;.
'· ;, '7

- . . -- - - - ..•
0 ~ ~ · i · ~· .... g. ~ 8 a. a • • •• ~-1- ;,.
• -
• ~

s ..
0
»

"•
"
•
0
,_ ~ ... -- ~-~

,_ ,.l!-1-§.~ §-~
~-~

•
\ ,_ .,_.! _ _
11
C

·~ll

!l! ..
• •
• ~
•
·- 1-!\
"
.
0 \ .-

8 •·;
E ' o ~ ·~.
·" I
0
•
;g

+
'
•

0 0

·. '
~

1
"
'
'
\ \
-~
•
..
:1~>r
\

.
,: <(
f, I\
\
' 'I \
"'<(
... ' \

·-~~ -.t,. I\ "

[\
\
~ \
'\ \

~
\
\

' \
...
\
1
\ \
•
"
"'
r-

..••• \
\ \ \

' :~
0
\ N
<(
~

'
I\ \ I\ \
\
" I\ \ , ., I\
I \ I\ I\{~~ • <
...,
'
' • . ' •J..... t
' • I t ,_,
.,,'
0
l
• • 'I .. , ..,
}

' J .'. ,..

,,·.. ' ~t
\
-
•
' .. ij "'t
..
FACTOR A " .. <
~

Figure t.:l Fncior A for use in external pressure cakulmion [9). ..- '"
~~

~
I\

\
..•
,... i:,; ~
•
.. '
I
- "
power level (PWL) . The reference level for SPL is 0.0002 µbar.
A human ear can delecl from about 20 dB to sound pressures
100,000 times higher, 120 dB.
I-

I- ...-. . .-
I I

... ...O O ....O• 0

O
'If" f::::;:::: " C:

...
I-
• • • -
oq.n"l!r: "• ij
Audihle frequencies are divided into octave bancls for analy-
sis. The center frequencies in hertz (HL) of the octave bands are
>-
I- ... .
t~~A~
• ..
~

31.5, 63. 125. 250. 500, 1000. 2000, 4000, and 8000 Hz. The
human ear is sensitive to frequencies between 500 and 3000 llz
and less sensiti ve to very high and low freque ncies . Al 1000 Hz,
...
>-
...
I-
-· w w w 1,1,1 11,1

"
•
"
for e xample, 90 c.18 is louder than it is at 500 Hz.
...
- N

The sound meter used in noise evaluation has three scales, A.

B. and C. which selectively discriminate agaim,1 low and high
..
frequencies. The A sca le (dBA ) is I.he most heavily weighted ij
 <,drlaJ>t11hy Ba~ic· S1<·,m\ I 1l,11H <:ah ul1:11io1l...

scale and approximates the human ear'; rc~ponsc lO no"c (500 10

1.28
6000 H.1). It is u.sed in industry ?nd m regulations regarding lhe
evaluation of 110,sc. Table I.9 gives typical dBA levels of vari- Q: How are decibels added'! A noise source ha., the following dB
ous no,se sources. and Table 1. 10 g i ves the permissible OSHA va lues at center frequencies:
(Occupational Safety and Health Act) noise exposure values.
H, 31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 ~000 SOIXl
Tal)IC' 1.9 rypical A-Weighted Sountl Lcvch
tlB 97 97 95 91 84 82 80 85 85
tlBA Source Perccpuon/hcanng
140 Jee engine at 25 ft Unbearable
What i, the overall noise leve l'!
130 High-pressure safely vent uc 25 rt Threshold of pain
120 L,ugc FD fan plenum areo Uncomfom,bly loud A: Decibel, are added logarithmically and not algcbr:,ically. 97 dB
11 0 8000-hp engine exhaust :u 25 fl plu, 97 <lB is not 194 dB but 100 dB.
100 CompresS(>r building Very loud
90 Boiler mum P = 10 Jog( 101' 111 " ~ 101' ,"" 1 1O''"'" ~ ... l
80 Pneumatic dri ll Loud = 101og(l0 97
+ 109 7 + 1095 + 10• 1 + 10••
70 Commerchll arcn
60 Nonual convcn;a1ion
+ 1081
+ 10• t 10 8
' + 10"'}
50 Average home Comfortable = 102 dB
40 Nighmme residen1 ial area
JO Broadcast scudio
20 Whisper Barely "udiblc
1.29
10 Q: What arc SPL and PWL'!
0 Threshold ol hcormg
A: SPL is sound pressure level. which is dependent on the distance
and environment and is easi ly measured with a sound-level
Tal>IC' I.lo Pcrm,s"ble Noise Exposures rOSHA) meter. SPL values shoulu be referred to distance. PWL is sound
Duracion per Sound level (dBA} power level and is a measure of the total acoustic power radiated
day (hr} (slow ro;pom,e) by a given source. It is defined as
8 <)()
PWL = 10 log
w
Tci" dB (40)
6 92
4 95 PWL ,~ a constant for a given source and is independent of the
3 97
2 environment. It cannot be measured directly but must be calcu-
100
I 112 102 lated . PWL can be roughly described as being equal to the wall
I 105 rati ng of a bu lb. Manufacturers or fans and ga, turbines publish
1/2 110 the volucs of PWL of 1hcir machines . While ,electing silencers
1/4 or le,, 115 fur Lhcsc equipment. PWL may be converted to SPL depending
on distance, and the a11enua1 ion desired at vuriuu, frequencie,
 <.iunapa1l1y Basic s1ean, Plan1 catculminn.~ 47

may be obtained. A silencer that gives the desired anenua1ion Tal)IC I.II Table of Noise Levels
can then be c hosen.
Frcq11ency (Hz.) 63 125 250 500 IK 2K 4K SK
12 130 134 136 136 132 130 131 133
2 PWL (XJ0- \V dl3)
1.30 (gas turbine\
Boiler artenuation (dB) -20 -20 20 -20 -20 -20 -20 - 20
Q: A sound level of l 20 dB is measured at a distance of 3 fl from a 3
Direcuvity (dB) 0 - I -2 -5 -8 -10 - 13 -16
source. Find the value at 100 fl. 4
Divergence (dB l -41 -41 -4 1 -41 - 41 -41 - -I I -4 1
5
6 Result""' 69 72 73 70 63 59 57 56
J\: The following formula relates the PW[. and SPL with distance: 7 A scale tdB) -25 - 16 -() -3 0 J -I
SPL = PWL - 20 log L + 2.5 dB 8 Net -14 56 64 67 63 60 5S 55
(41)
where 56 69 65 60
69 66.5
L = distance. ft
71
PWL is a constant for a given source. Hence
SPL + 20 log L = a constant
120 + 20 log 3 = SPL2 + 20 log 100
is s hown in Table I. 12. The divergence effect is given by 20 log
Hence L - 2.5. where L is the distance from the noise source.
SPL, = 89.5 dB Row 8 values are converted 10 dBA by adding the dB at
various frequencies. The final value is 7 1 dBA.
Thus we sec that SPL has decreased by 30 dB with a c hange from
3 ft to 100 ft. While selecting silencers. one should be aware of
the desired SPL at the desired distance. Neglecting the effect of 1.32
distance can lead to specifying a large and costly silencer. Q: How is the holdup or volume of water in boi ler drums estimated"?
A boiler generating 10,000 lb/hr of steam at 4()() psig has a 42-in.
1.31 drum 10 ft Jong with 2: I ellipsoidal ends. Find the duration
available between normal water level (NWL) and low-level
Q: How is the noise lcvd from exhaust of engine;, computed? cutoff (LLCO) if NWL is at 2 in. below drum centerline and
A: LLCO is 2 in. below NWL.
A gas turbine exhaust has the noise spectrum given in Table J .11
at various octave bands. The exhaust gases now through a heat A: The volume of the water in the drum must include the volume
recovery boiler mto a stack that is 100 ft high. Determine the due 10 the straight section plus the dished ends.
noise level 150 ft from the top of the stack (of diameter 60 in.) Volume in straight section. V., is given by
and in front of the boiler.
Assume that rhc boiler attenuation is 20 dB ar all octave V
,
=L X R2 X (-a-
57.3
- sin aX co~ (1)
bands. In order to anive at the noise level:, at the boiler front,
three correction, are required; (I) boiler allcnuation. (2) effect of where a is the angle shown in Figure 1.5. The volume. of li4uid
directivity. and (3) divergence at 150 ft. The effoct or directivity in each end is g iven by
 .,.. (fr.111..-11,a1l1y

I \
~
~
r- V1
+ + + + +
'"'t l"t -
~ ~ ~
,r, -
+ +
,. I -
~
R

•
• L
IN <,' --- - -- - -- - ~
('"I • - 0 0 •n ~ ,., - ~ <-:: o 2 .-.. ..,., - . '"'' -
; + + -1- - -
"1" ....

. 11111, =
Figure- 1.5 Partial volume of waler 111 boiler drull\ .

~
-
e
+ + + +
~~~I -
~ ==
T
+ +
~ ~I
+
-
~
e O C : ~I ~I M -
I
-
I
~ = V, = 0.261 X H' X (3R - H)
whert·
0 -C
~ _.. + + +
V' --t l"I -
+ ._ 0
_,-
+ + +
f"' l"I -
+ C C ol
,-.. .,.,
,·
....,
1' - C O :. = H = s1raigh1 length of drum
! R = drum mdiu,
I
V"", f'-1
CO:=; C
In lh,s case. /1 = 120 in. and R = 2 1 in.
:: 0 0 I I
Lei us compulc 1{1 nnd V,1• the volume of lhc ,traigh1 section
and each end correspunding 10 the 19-in. level from the bonom
...
.!!
C: 11"1 1 V') -:t
~ . r + + ... o o
I"°! -
= f"'_, ~·-
+ + :: e C C
N
I -
1 ;-.;c.==:,:; of the drum.
<
2 Hence a = 84.5° und ~in a
cos ll = 21
- 0.09523.
0 ; 0 O : I C ~ ~ C O C 0
= 0.9954.
::• 1-~--'--r+-t-t-t-+-+-i-
:~ 1 +-+-~-+-+-+-t-f-+--f--+--+-l-l--l = J?() ~I ( 84.53 - 0.09523 X 0.9954)
V.1 - X 21X - X 57 .3
- ~0:=
11 = 73.051 cu in.
~C 2~ iB Ii'., = 0.261 x 19 x 19 x (3 x 2 1 - 19) = 4146cu in .
u v;-s I ' ;ti Hence total volume of liquid up LO 19-in . level= 73.051 + 2 X
1--.,--'--'--'--'-.,____,___,_+-'-'-.l--'-..L-L-f-L-.L.L-1.-1.-!L-'--1
.;;! c
~ = 4 146 = 81,343 cu in = 47.08 cu n.
8 - . ~

~, !s:,, . ~)d
Similarly, we can show that tl!Lul volume of waler up lo the
17-in. level = 34. 1 cu ft. Hence the difflm:ncc is 13 cu ft.
~ L
Spcci lic volume of water at 400 psig = 0.0193 cu fl/ lb
...., f.1 0 V
:3 ~ ~ ~
r~_-_
; ;_._ "'________,_~________
e________ _,__~ t
__J ~
Noniial evaporJtio11 rate = 10.000 x
0.0 1')3
60
= 3.2 cu fl/min
50 Gc111Hp,11hy Babic Sh ·am Planr C('llculdlion~ .-a

Hence the duration between the levels assuming that the water R Radius of drum. in .
supply ha,; been discontinued = 13/3.21 = 4 .05 rnin. RH Relative humidity
s Specific gravity
NOMENCLATURE s. Allowable stress, psi
2 SBV Steam by volume
A Area of opening, in. • or duct cross section.rt2
A.B factors used in Q 1. 26 SPL Sound pressure level
BO Blowdown, fraction SVP Saturated vapor pressure. psia
BHP Boiler horsepower Fluid temperature. °F
C Corrosion aJlowance, in. 1,. Minimum wall thickness of pipe or tube. in.
C, Initial investment, S T Life of plant. years
v Specific volume, cu ft: subscripts g and/ stand for saturated
c"
C,
Coefficiem of discharge
Cost of electricity, $/kWh vapor and liquid
cl, Specific heat, Btu/lb •r \{.. I:( Volume of drum e nds, straight section, cu in.
d Tube or outer diameter. in. V, Velocity of ga5
d, Tube or pipe inner diameter. in. IV Mass now. lb/ hr
e Escalation factor x Steam quality
E Sealing efficiency, %: ligament efficiency. fraction y Volume fraction
F Factor defined in Eq. (33) p Density , lb/cu ft: subscnpt I/ stands for gas
G Gas ma% velocity. lb/ft2 hr
It Enthalpy. Btu/lb
H Height of liquid colwnn. in. l{EFERENCES
h,, hf Enthalpy of saturated vapor and liquid. Btu/ lb J. V. Ganapathy. Detem1ining operating parameters ror hot exhaust gas
H, Head of gas column, ft cooling systems, P/11111 E11gi11eeri11g, Mar. 3, 1983. p. IK2.
H, Head of liquid, ft 2. V. Ganapathy. Nomograph estimates steam leakage and cost. /lea1i11g
HII, Differential pressure across damper, in. WC Piping and Air-Cmu/i1io11i11g, Nov. 1982, p. 101.
lmercsL rate 3. V. Ganapalhy, Quick estimates of damper leakage and cost energy loss.
L Distance, ft Oil and Gas Journal. Sept. 21. 1981, p. 124.
LCC Life-cycle cost, $ 4 . V. Ganapathy. Applied Hear Tra11:ifer, PennWell Books. Tulsa. Okla.,
M Moisture in air, lb/ Ib 1982. p. 186.
MW Molecular weight 5. Brown and Y,muck, Life C.)'cle Cos1111/!. birmom Press. Atlanta. Ga ..
1980. p. 188.
N Annual period of operation. hr
6. ASME. Boiler anti Pressure Vessel Code, Sec. 1. New York. 1980,
PW Partial pressure of water vapor, psia
p p. 119.
Gas pressure, psia: design pressure , psig 7. V. Ganapathy, Estimate maximum allowable pressures for steel piping ,
6./' Differential pressure, psi Chemiml E11gilleeri11g, July 25. 1983, p. 99.
PWL Sound power level 8. ASME. Boiler and Pre.min· Ve,sel Code, Sec. X, Div. I , Para. UG
q Volumetric flow. gpm or cfm 131, 1980.
Q Energy. Btu/hr 9. ASME. Bailer mu/ Pr,•ssure Vn,d C,"le. Sec. I. Pnra PFf 51, 1989.
 2
Fuels, Con1bustion, ancl Efficiency
of Boilers ancl I leaters

2.0 I: Estimatmg HHV (higher heaung value) and LHV (lower

heating v:il ue) of fue ls from ul1imate analysis: relating heat
inputs based on HHV and LHV; relating hoilcr cfficicncic,
based on HHV a nd LHV

2.02: Estimating HHV and LHV of fuel o il, if degree API is known

2.03: Calcu lating cost of fuels on MM Btu (million Btu) ba•is:

comparing electricity co,ts with that of fuels

2.04: Estimating annual fuel cost for power plants: relating hent
rates with efficiency of power plants

2.05: Detem1ining gas regulator ,c11ings for different fuel,

2.06: Correcting fuel now meter readings for operating fuel gas
pressure, and temperature,
 ~~
Cia1,ap;t1hy r-uels, corn1>us1ion. c:mcl Efficiency ot noilers ancl Mcaier~ . ).)

2.07: Determining energy. steam quantity. and electric heater ca- 2 . 18: Detennining S0 2 and S01 in flue gases in lb/MM Btu and in
pacity required for heating air ppm (volume)

2.08: Detem1ining energy, steam quamity, and electric heater ca- 2.19: Determining efficiency of boilers and beaten.: efficiency on
pacity required for heat ing fuel oi ls HHV basis: dry gas loss; loss due 10 moisture and combustion
of hydrogen; loss due to moisture in air; radiation loss; effi-
ciency on LHV basis; wet flue gas loss: re lating efficiencies
2.09: Combustion calcul ations from ullimate analysis of fuels; de-
o n HHV and LHV basis
termining wet and d ry air and flue gas quantit ies: volumetric
analysis of flue gas on wet and dry basis; partial pressures of
2 .20: Detennining efficiency of boilers and heaters on HHV and
water vapor and carbon dioxide in flue gas; molecular weight
and density of flue ga, LH V basis from flue gas analysis

2 .2 1: Loss due to CO formation

2. 10: Combustion calculations on MM Btu basis; detem1ining air
and flue gas quantities in the absence of fuel data 2.22: Simple formula for efficiency determination

2. 1I: Estimating excess air from flue gas CO 2 read ings 2 .23: Det.ermining radiation losses in boi lers and heaters if casing
temperature and wi nd ve locity arc known
2. 12: Estimating excess air from CO2 and 0 2 readings; estimating
excess air from 0 2 readings a lone 2 .24: Variation of heat losses and efficiency with boiler load

2.25a: Sulfur dew point of flue gases

2. l 3: Effect of reducing oxygen in flue gas; calculating flue gas
produced; calcu lating energy saved and reduction in fuel cost
2 . 25b: Computing acid dew points for various acid vapors

2 . 14: Effect of fuel heating values on air and flue gas produced in 2.25c: Effect of gas temperature on corrosion pote ntial
boilers
2.26a: Converting NO, and CO from lb/hrto ppm forturbineexhaust
2.15: Detennin ing combustion temperature of d ifferent fuels in the gases
absence of fue l analysis
2.26b: Converting NO., and CO from lb/hr to ppm for fired boilers
2 . 16a: Calculating ash concentration in flue gase&
2.27: Oxygen consumption versus fuel input ror gas turbine exhaust
2. 16b: Relating ash concentration between ,nass and volumetric units gases

2.17: Dctem1ining melting point of ash knowing ash am~ysis 2 .28: Relating heat rates of engine, to fuel com,umption
so Fuds, conlbu&1ion. ,md EfCic-i<·1W}' of 8oilcr~ ._111<1 I tc.:.11er~ 57

2.01 2.02a
Q: How are the HHV (higher heating value) and LHV (lower Q: How can we estimate the HHV and LHV of a l'ucl oil in the
heating value) of fuels estimated when the ultimate analysis is absence of its ultimate analysis·)
known?
A: General ly, the degree API of a fuel oi l will be known. and the
A: We can use the expressions [ I J following exprcs~ions can be used:
HHV = 17,887 + 57.5 X API 0
- 102.2 x %$ (4a)
HHV = 14,500 x C + 62,000 x (H2 - ~
2
)
LHV = HJ-IV - 91.23 X %H1 (4b)
+4000XS (I) where %H1 is the % hydrogen, by weight.
LHV = HHV - 9720 x H2 - 11 IOW (2) 2 122.5
0
(5)
API + 131.5
where Wis the fraction by weigh! of moisture in fuel, and C, H2,
0 2, and S are fractions by weight of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. where
and sulfur in the fuel. F = 24.50 for O s 0API s 9
ff a coal has C = 0.80, H2 = 0.003. 0 0 = 0.005, W F = 25.00 for 9 < 0API s 20
= 0.073, S = 0.006, and the rest ash, find its HHV and LHV. F = 25.20 for 20 < "API s 30
Substituting in Eqs. ( I) and (2), we have F = 25.45 for 30 < "API s 40

HHV = 14.500 X 0.80 + 62.000 x (o.003 - O.~S ) HHV and LHV arc in Btu/lb.

+ 4000 X 0.006 = 11,771 Btu/lb

2.021.)
LHV = 11.77 1 - 9720 X 0.003 - 1110 x 0.073
Q: Determine Lhe HHV .ind LHV of 30° API fuel oi l in Btu/gal and
= I J ,668 Btu/lb
in Btu/lb. Assume that %S is 0.5.
Fuel inputs to furnaces and boilers and efficiencies are often
specified without reference to the healing values, whether HHV A: From Eq. (4a).
or LHV , which is misleading. HHV = 17,887 + 57.5 X 30 - 102.2 X 0.5
If a burner has a capacity of Q MM Btu/hr (mi ll ion Btu/hr) on
an Hl-fV bru;is, its capacity on an LHV basis would be = 19,651 Btu/lb
LHV To calculate the density or specific gravity of fuel oils we can use
QLHV = QHHV X HHV (3a) the expression
141.5 141.5
Similarly, if 'YJHHV and TJt 11 v arc the efficiencies of a boiler on an s = 131.5 + API 0 = Dl.5 + 30
= 0876 (6)
HHV and an LHV basis. respectively. they are related a;; fol-
lows: Hence
'YJ1111v X HHV = 'YJuw X LHV (3b) Density = 0.876 X 8.335 = 7.3 lblgaJ
 ~,
~ C !.l
" -
Cl
~ C f-.J
.. C
;.J
?.- ~
0. . C 0,

-s:: -
(;;
0 -~ "'
,...,.
0
0
,.,, -W
... t:'.l :E: (') :c -l
!') z
:c
"
:, e-
2 3::
rio ~ r~
)> Q)
...
'T)

g
.00
-
0 ""
ln 3:: §· ::, O"
r ;c ~
!.,.,)
" 8? 0
v, fl Jg g ~ :i::
~ ":i::
(';, ()
-:: 0:, ::r V, 0 0:, ~ V,

0 0- :=
- co tr,·
§I~ -
N
N
.-.,
"' °' X -o:,
8:
:, .... C.
, <= m
J:l
< "'-·
~
aa.="l '<~
~ II ~[ [' II II II s· s-
;:;:;
~

x~
-,,,. 0
X

"E;:;;
X
p
~'!:.
-"
~

C:
<
V.·
5-
9.
0
~1N 0"'
0" ' V,
-
O"
~ ~
0
II ::r-
~
,_ . 6
v,· =; n
00
A U\
g
"'
0\
"' -
V,

'"'
~ t:c
~
c
0
g-
:,
"':=.·
=r ~
C: ~
~ " ~ er -
::r n 30
I;;
--
'<
Vl )> <. w
0 0
C: :c "'
\,.)
II
.,, n . "
0
0 -0
e:...::; X 0
a: :c II
8 " II
<
0
g
0
~ <" 0
~ ~ ~
::r " _, ,c
w :-
w ~

i,,
"c=;- 0
~ " '" '-"I:::: "° .g·
11 fl "~- "' 0
~
O
-:
::,
~ ~
- · - · C:
:, :,
00 -
II w VI C:
...
Vi ::
.,... "'
e: 2 Q':;
:s::
0:,
2' "'
- :I: n
:c ;(; X + N °' :i' V,

., s::
~ 0 V,
!!. !:.
~~
~· s::
:s:: 2. ~· 0:,
::r
"' 3:: < "' ;:;;·
\,)

,... -N
-i .
I.,)
0
X CT
-
:c ._, <io
<>

8~s::
::r
•
"'
V,
0:,
2'
,.., ;:::·
0
::r
2'
0 51:' II o
i: ~..;. "° ::r
n
V,
,:,o
o:,
0
v,
II
II w
,. -
II ~
;;· g ;;;·
Cl>

i... 8
V,
Oo € N
if
g On 00oc
8 "'
§:
V.

n O
0:,
:= ~
-if
V,
N :::
s
II
-sr.
co_
:,-
!!.
~~
g !"
_, ....
:,

~
~ "'
0 v,
vi ~
(i: ('J ::r v, O" ... 0:, ,..
~~ g ...
e 5- a' g ;:i E_ : .'
0:, "'n "'"'- <>C:- 5

- -"
0
(')

::l. -·
"•
- .
::
'<
.,
00

"'
"'
-
2'
"@_
[
:,
£,
0
0
=-
.....
- ...
N"O
V, (1>
"'
O" <..
-g
3-
'<

Tal)le 2.1 Typical Heat Contents of Various Oils

Sp. ir. .Sp. Sp. 1'cmr Uh
Typtc-al 60'F Gross Gro~s W1<:v- Nc1 Ne, heal h1!<1I CUtT. ft' ~O"F (;;
oi. 0
API 05.fi'CI lb/gal kg/m' 81u ' sat kcol lJitcr H 01u 1ial l..caJ lliter J1I 40"'F al JOO"F 1°/\Plt 1F) ~111,'gal co,
0 1.076 8.9(,<) 1.075 160.42(> 10.f,8 1 8.359 153.664 10.2.1 1 0.391 0.50-I 0 045 1.581
2 l.l)()(I 8.8:14 1,059 159.038 IU.589 8.601 152.183 I0, 133 0.39-l 0.508
• I.Q.1.1
l.l)l9
8. 7()J
H.577
I ,()j3
1.0028
157 .69!
156.38•
10.499
I0,412
8 836
9 .0f>I
150.752
149.368
I0,037
9.9-15
O.'.W7
0.400
0.512
0.516
-
0.0-18
-
1.529
18 .0
17,6
"
8 1.0 14 8.454 1.013 155.115 I0.32.R 9 .285 I-IB.028 9.856 0 403 0 .519 o.oso 1,51.1 17 .1
10 I 000 8 .335 1.000 153,88 1 10,24<l H).OQ 14(l.3SI 9.744 0 .406 0523 0.051 l.50'l 16. 7
12 09% ~.219 985 .0 152.681 IO. l o6 10.21 1-45.1 00 9.661 0.409 0.5~7 0.052 1.494 16.J
No 6
14 0 .973 8 106 971.5 151.515 10.088 10 .41 IJJ.888 9. 580 0 4 12 O. SJO 0 O!'iJ I .41~ 161
0 11
lb ll.959 7,'>% 958 .3 150J~O 10.013 10 .~ , 142,7 12 },50:!
1 0.4 1S 0.5)..1 U.05{l 1.463 15.8
18 () 9J~ 7,SS~ <MS.5 149.175 9.939 10.k() 141.572 9.426 0 417 0. 538 0 058 1.44R 15.5
'1\1 5
O Ii 20 0.934 7 785 933.0 148.200 9.867 10.99 140.466 9,J,3 0420 U. 5•11 o or,o l,,P.1 15.2
zz 0 .922 7 68) 9209 147 ,153 9,798 11 ..17 l39,251 IJ,27'.! 0.423 0 .545 O.Obl I ,J;!J 14.9
24 0.9 10 7.585 909.9 146.131 9.73() l 1.55 138.21 U 9,202 0 J26 Cl 548 I) (16J I ,Jll9 147
No . .i
1.39_; 14.)
26 0 .898 7 J88 897.5 145 ,138 9.664 11.n 137.198 9,135 0.428 0.552 0.065
OIi
2~ 0 .887 7.394 886.2 144,168 9.599 11.89 136.214 9.069 0.431 0.555 0 .067 1.381 ld.3
JO 0 876 7 .303 875 2 t43,223 9,536 12.06 135,2$8 9,006 0.434 O.S59 0.089 1.368 14.0
No 2
oal
12 0 .865 7.213 864.5 142,300 9 .475 12.47 134.163 8,933 0.436 0.562 o.on 1360 13.8
3-1 0.855 7.126 854.I IJl.400 9.415 1!.63 133,259 8,873 (1.439 ().j.(1(1 (i.(17,1 l.'.'-47 13.6
36 0 845 7,041 8439 IJ0,521 Q,3)6 1278 1'2.180 R,81-1 (J,.J.12 !U6'J O.ll76 1.33.J 13.4
38 0 S35 6.958 833.9 139,664 9.299 12.93 131.524 S.757 0.-144 0511 0.079 l.32 l 13.l
No l
<)I I 40 0 825 b .877 824.2 138.8~6 9.2.t3 13 07 130.689 8.702 0 447 0 .576 0 ,082 I , 11)\) ll I
42 0 816 6 798 81.J 7 138.()07 9. 189 - - - 0.450 0579 0.085 - 13.il
44 O.SOa 6.720 805.4 137.207 9.136 - - - 0 ..!52 0 .582 0 088 12.~
Source; Adaplcd from Ref. 2.
 ·1· ' . u1(1 FffldL·n< v of Boil<. •r; •u1d t leau: r!"S bl
(50 Cm 1apa1hv Fut'I~. comI RI~ 101 . c -

and the rumace 1s us

. ·cd to ovcrcomc the now resistance accord-
11y is cos1lier than gas. This example serves 10 illus!J'ate the
conversion of unils and does nol imply lhal !his situation will ing to the .:quation
prevail in all region;. KW' (7)
t,p = ~
p
2.04 where
Q: Estimate the annual fuel cos! for a 300-MW coal-fired power t,p = pressure differential. p,i
plant ir 1he overall efficiency i~ 40% and the fuel cost is S l . 1/ K = a constant. _ . . . .
5,. (, is the gas spcc11ic gravity.
MM Bm. The plani operates for 6000 hr/year. p = gas d ens1ty - 0 · 07 , · ·
s = I for air)
t\: Power planls have efficiencies in the range 35 to 42%. Another I~ = fuel Dow rate in lb/hr = now in scfh x 0 .075s
way of expressing this is lo use 1hc term heat rare. defined as
Let !he subscripts I and 2 denote namral gas ,md propane,
3413
Hca1 ralc = efficiency. in fraction
Btu/kWh respectively.
20 X to<• X 0.075 X 0.6
In this case it is 3413/0.4 = 8530 Btu/ kWh. ~ = 1050
Annual fuel cosl = l 000 x megawatt X heal rate X ( hr/ 20 X l0
6
X 0 .075 X 1.5
year) x cost of fuel in SIMM Blu W,,, = 2300
p1 = 0 .075 X l.5. Hence.
= [OOQ X J(l() X 8530 X 6()()0 t,P1 = 4. p1 = 0.075 X 0 .6. and

_I_.I from &t, (7),

X 10•_ -- ·>
"'16.. 9 X
101'
(23(l0f
b.P1 Wj,P,
= Wj? P, =
4
=
0.6
( 1050)-
X
1.5
The fuel wst for any 01her type of power plam could be found in t!,./\ o.P,
a similar fashion. Heat rates are provided by power planl sup-
or
pliers.
6.P, = 2.08 psig
2.05
Hcnc;, if the gas pressure is sci at about 2 psig, we can o_btain
same duty. The calculation assume., that !he back pressure has
l~:
Q: A 20-MM Btu/hr burner was firing nutural gru. of HHV = 1050
not changed.
Blu/scf with a specific gravity oi'0.6. If ii is now required to burn
propane having HHV = 2300 Btu/scf with a specific gravily of
1.5. and if the gas prc,sure 10 the burner was sci at 4 psig earlier 2 .06
for the same duty, es1ima1e the new gas pressure. Assume that Q: Gas llow measurement using displacement meters indicates actu-
the gas temperature in both cases is 60°F. al c ubic feet of gas con,umcd. However. gas is billed . generally.
'IL reference conditions of 60•F and 14.65 psia (4 oz). Hence gas
J\: The heat input 10 the burner is specified on an HHV ba,is. The n ow has to be corrected t'or acmal pres,ure and temperature.
fuel now rate would be Q/ HHV, where Qi;, the duty in Btu/hr.
Plant engineers shou ld be aware of this convcrsmn.
The gas pressure differential between the gas pressure regulator
 62
.-=uels, comhw,tion. and E.fflclenc-y or Boil<·r~ r;lnd 11<:>il h:r~

In a gas-fired boiler plan1. 1()()() cu fr of gas per hour wa, c, = specific hear of air, Btu/lb °F
measured. gas conditions being 60 psig and 80°F. ff the gas has, ATI = 1.empera1ure nse,
• ·F
higher calorific value of 1050 Btu/scf. what is rhc cos1 of fuc
consumed if energy cost~ $4/ MM B1u? CP may be taken as 0. 25 for the specified temperature range.
Q = 75,000 x 0.25 x (225 - 90) = 2.53 x 10• Brufhr
A: The fuel consumpcion at standard conditions is found as follows.
Using the conversion fac1or 34 13 81u = I kWh , we have
\,: = ~,f!i X
(8) 10''
where
Q = 2.53 X - -
34 13
= 74 1 kW

V.. V,, = fuel consumption, standard and actual, cu fUhr A 750-kW heater or the next higher size cou ld be chosen.
T, = reference temperature of 520°R If steam is used, the quanlity can be cs1i111atcd by dividing Q
T,, = actual temperature, 0 R in Btu/hr by 1he la1cnt heat obtained from the steam !ables (see
P,, P. = standard and actual pressures, psia the Appendix). At 200 psia . the latent heat is 843 Bm/lh. Hence
10•
V, = 100 X (30 + 14.22) X 520 Steam required = 2.55 X
843
= 3046 lb/hr
14.65 X 540
= 29()() scfh
Hence
2.08
Energy used = 2900 X 1050 = 3.05 MM Btu/hr Q: Estimate the steam required at 25 psig to heat 20 gpm of 15° API
Cost of fuel = 3.05 X 4 = $ 12.2/hr fuel oil from 40°F to I80°F. lf an electric heater is used, what
Ir pressure and temperature corrections are not used, the should be its capacity?
displacement meter reading can lead to wrong fuel consumprion
data. A: Table 2.2 gives the heat comcnt of fuel oils i1~ ~tu/gal (21. At
180°F. enlhalpy is 529 Btu/gal, and at 40°F 1t 1s 26 Btu/gal.
2.07 Hence the energy absorbed by Lhe fuel oil is

Q: Estimate the energy in Btu/hr and in kilowatts for heating 75,000 Q = 60 x (529 - 26) = 0.6
20 x X 106 B1u/hr
lb/hr of air from 90°F to 225°F. What is Lhe steam quantity 10•
= 0.6 X - - = 175 kW
required if 200 psia saturated sceam is used co accomplish the 3413
ducy noted above? Whal si7,c of elcc1ric heater would be used'!
Laten1 heat of s tc<1m (from the sleam tables) is 934 Btu/lb al 25
A: The energy required co heat the air can be expressed as psig or 40 psi a. Hence

Q = \V,,C0 AT (9) 10"

Steam required = 0.6 X
934
= 646 lb/hr
where
Lf an e leclric heater 1s used. ii> capacity wilJ be a minimum of
Q = duty, Btu/hr J 75 kW. Allowing for radialion losses, we may choose a 200·
iv,, = air now, lb/hr kW healer.
 <..i,1na1)a1h~· r-ucls. Corllhl lSlinll . ...ind 1-.mdenc~, ot Uoil<'rS ;:md neater~
G4-

In Lhc absence of information on fuel o il enthalpy, use "

TUl)IC" 2.2 Heat Conieni (B1u/gal ) of Various Oils' specific gravity of 0. 9 and a specific heat of 0.5 Bm/lb °F. Hence
Grnvi1y. 0 AP1 :01 60°F t 15.6' C) thi: duty "~II be
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Specific gravity. 60°Ft6Crf. 09 X .05 X (180 - 40)
Tomp. Q = 20 X 60 X 62.40 X
7.48
<·r> 1.0000 0. 9659 0. 9340 0. 9042 0 H762 0. 8498 0.8251 08017

32 0 0 0 0 () () 0 0 = 0.63 x 10• Btu/hr

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (7.48 is the conversion factor from cubic feet to gallons.)
<,O 95 93 92 90 89 87 86 85
965
100 237 233 226 222 21<1 215 2.09a
l()(i5 !062
310 305 300 295 290 286 281 Q: Natural gas having CH 4 = 83.-1%. C 21-l0 = 15.8/Jf, and N 2
120
1116 I Ll2 = 0.8% by volume is fired in a boiler. Assuming 15% excess
140 384 378 37 1 166 360 355 349 air. 70°F ambient. and 80% relative humidity, perform detailed
1169 1164 combustion calculaLions and determine lluc gas analysis.
160 460 453 445 438 431 425 4 18
1236 1223 1217 t\: From C hapter I we know that air at 70°F and 80'!! RH has a
180 538 529 520 5 1I 503 488 moisture content of 0.0 12 lb/lb dry air. Table 2.3 can be used to
1293 1278 1272 figure air requirements o f viirious fuels. For example. we see that
200 6 17 607 5'16 587 577 569 560
1327 CH, requires 9.53 mol o f air per mole of CH 4 • ,ind C2H0 requires
1371 L352 1335
220 697 686 674 663 652 (>43 633 16.68 mol.
1434 t.412 1393 1384 Let us base our calculations on I00 mol of fuel. The theoreti-
240 779 766 751 74 1 729 718 707 cal dry air required will be
1498 U74 1452 1442
862 833 820 807 795 783
83.4 x 9.53 + 16.68 X 15.8 = 105!1.3 mol
260
1563 1537 1513 1502 Consideri ng 15% excess,
300 103-l 1017 999 968 954 939
1699 1668 1639 162(, Actual dry air = 1.15 x 105l\.3 = 1217 mol
400 1489 1463 1439 14 16 1393 1372 1352 1333 Exce.,s air = 0. 15 x 105S.3 = 158.7 mol
2088 2064 2041 2018 1997 1977 1958 Excess 0 1 = I 58.7 x 0.12 = 33.3 mol
SIX} 1981 1947 1914 1884 1854 1826 1799 1774 Excess N! = 1217 x 0.79 = 96 1 mol
2497 2464 2434 2404 2.176 2349 2324
600 25 11 2467 2426 2387 2350 231 4 2281 2248 (Air contains 2 1%, by volume 0 1 • :ind lhc rest is N2 . )
2942 2901 2862 2825 2789 2756 2723 0.012
71)0 3078 3025 2974 2927 2881 2837 2796 2756 Moisture in air = 1217 x 29 X = 23 .5 mol
18
3478 3425 3374 3327 3281 3237 3196 3156
3683 3619 3559 3502 3-147 3395 3:\45 :1297 (We mul uplie<l ,no lcs of air by 29 to get its weight, and then the
4008 3944 3884 3827 3772 3720 3670 3622 water quantity was divided by 18 to get moles o f water.)
11
V>llueh ul regula( lypc a.re for liquid; bold valuett arc for "apor Table 2.3 can also be used tog.ct the moles of CO!, H20 . .ind
o, (31,
 (5(j ()7
Gi1n u1,a1hy Fltf'ls. r.c,mbusrio11. and Efnc·icncy of Boil<·r~ and • 1ca1rr:,;.

Table 2.3 C1m1bus1ioo Constanrs

Hc.u ot ll'llnhu)lkln' tu II per cu II 1,f i:1<r11bu)I.Cbk Lh r,er th uf l'm!lbu,t1bk Ul)'-'mnetiml
tiff« 1.1'1

~·
kcqu111:d R,:qu,ml
Sr gr ""' of
M,)I c,, fl Bw p« cu r, Uh1 per fti fur ,llfflhu.lotivn fl11,: IH \IJUCl1' lur ~'\--.nlh111;1ion 1-111c rro,,i,c:1,
w,• Lb"'' 1ur -
co. ~-
~1rn1111'1101t
Nu. Subuanct Fomnd11 Cu ft" "'ll,' co Au 11:0 -
- - "'"" "'°"' "'" (Oro.,. Nee' o, N Air tl;O N~ 0
' (

I Ca,0011 C 121)1
- - - 1.i,(l'JJ•
f,l.()91•
- I-882 - - l 604 K.Mi.J 11 ~27
"""' fl. &>l o.un
2 ll)dtojl'll H, Z-Olt, o.om.,21 187 72) 1)06'>.W J2~ 0 :r:s o bl. It() ~l.~J :? JS:? - 10 1.881 1 9J1 ZI> JOl JL).&ol - ii: ?l7 :?b.4(>7 11111 ..
l t4Yg<fl
.;.Nttroto11111m>
0
N:
J?.000 O 08.itil
:?~.01,, 0.00'4J9'
11 IIICJ110'3
H44S O.'J7W
-
-3:?J.K -
-
- -
"'- - -
- I
- -
-
-
-
- -
-
-
, C.uboo muniu.:le co 28 01 007.$().1 IH06 0%12 '2U< ~.,.n ·U-11 O"i ' 11-;cJ 2.J.11:? - I.Sh2
I) U.371 I ..-.1 l.4?1 I S'tl 1900 "(l.t~
6 Cnm.'ln diC'lxtdr co. .UOI n II i(l IL54$ l.5232 - - - - - - - - - - -
r•r11Il""m ..-it'.\" C,.H:.,:
7 M¢tl111ne
8£1balic
9 l'rup:mc
c.:1-,.
c,...
lo.OJI
1,() 1Jo7
00+24;.\
0 (M«l:?'1'"
?"UtlS
ll.4SS'
0 ..5541 IOIJ 2
I CJ.li<!.12'" 1792 ,...,
lit\! 2).879
2.?,.ll()
21.'i:itl
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3.5
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ss "" :?l.31~ 1?,t,CCO

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I? 11·f'c111ate c,11.
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t·ui,ibu~i,1111 Ost>nffl<.'. suai,vll a•kl Oi11nmi-"· J<1«lrwlio1i [.11,f111•rri1111', p tbJ. March 19n. and o~oornc. S1lm.1lfl:. #Id Flo)cl:,
"C'akttl.Jled from 1110r11x- 11,ciJ!hts i••<n in Jo..11,,d ,of lff~ ,t,n,.,.11·.1tt CA,mrt:al S<i<H"" _ h:hnu.ry l'.1)1 ..._,"!lion.al Butt3lol or Smnd:u-d,. Re..o:111\11 J'oper 109
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the lcnC1wo- d._.\·1:11~ fn:,m lbe 1!,111 l.t.w) Wb,..,r the "'OClhcu.'llll ol np.1n,,\,n 11111, nm 11.,..,ul,1bk, 11:¥ :1ua111"1N ,·tluo: WM 1nl:cn 0, (l()"t \IJ'ld ~) 1n Hs rn-1...-.iitt, ill "h1(h ta\Ct 1h11 ~1111,1,Cj an· , helln'lkal 1WIC;j r iven for c:1sc of n.kul4ol1tin of MJ"' ptut>li:1t15 L11.kr
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V\llwn,: a( th,: ll'IOlti w:1~ 1~kcll 11'o :?2 +I t~ htcc~.
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•Coovctt«i ~ 1111.'an Riu pc, Jb (11180\lf the bc-111 per lh ,..,, w111n hum JJ 1021?'1'1 fo.,m dJU b} Frc.J::nck O K~,ini. ~uonal tN110flid (h1rcau or SU:nd:ml~. kP I IJI
ltafl'.IU of Stmdnrd,. h.'<l'-'r (Ir Apnl 10. 19J7 c>-tt1,'( 11i 1101cd Srnirt·~ Jtq_,nn11t<I fro1n Fwl Fl,11.' Cut<>. 1941 cditl<ll'I. w...ncs) iif A11Xni.llft (M.<, ,.\,'<""U1Kln
hi<
(1,rlll.JIMII I\' Fuel~. < oml>u~llon, ,111<1 l·:fn<'it:'ll(} ol 1-\olk·r.., ,mtl I lc·,1wr...

CO" = I 83.4 + " x 15.8 = 115 mol

X
2.001)
H10 =2 x 83 ..J -t 3 x 15 8 -1 23.5 = 237.7 mol
0, = 33.J rnol Q: Por the case slutcd 111 Q2.09a, estimate the panwl pr..:ssurc ol
N, = 961 + 0.8 = 961 .8 mol water vapor, p •. umJ of carbon c.Jioxide, p, . in the lluc gas . Alw
c,cimacc the dcn,icy of nue g,L, at 300°F.
The total moles of nuc ga, produced ,s 115 + 237.7 + J3.3
+ 961.8 = 347.lL Hence A: The partial pressure, of water varor and carhon dioxide arc
11 5 imponant in the detcm,imuion of nonluminous heac transfer
%CO!=
1347.8 X 100 = 8.5 coefficients
Similarly. volume of water vapor
p•. =
total nuc gas volume
= 0 . 177 atm = 2.6 rsia
%H20 = 17.7,
I', = volume of carbon dioxide = O.OBS atm = 1.27 psia
The analysis above 1s on a wc1 basis. On :, dry nue ga, ba,is. total flue gas volume
%CO2 = 8 .5 x -100- =:.__
100
- 17.7
= 10.3% To estimate the g:is density. its molecular weight must be ob·
wined (see Q I .05).
Similarly.
MW r (MW, X I'; )
%0! = 3.091. %Nz = 86.7% 28 X 71.3 + 18 X 17.7 + 32 X 2.5 +44 X 8.5
= 100
To obrnin 11;,,,. "'w•• "•r· and "'w,.. we need the ucnsicy of the fuel
or lhe molecular wcighc. which is = 27 7
l
- - X (X1 4 X 16 + [ .~.k ,; ) 0 + 0.8 X 181 IR 1(1 Hence, from Eq. (6).
1(1()
14.7
= 29 P, = 27. 7 X 492 X = ().05 lb/cu ft
1\.u 1.2 17
l(Jo x I X1
= llJ.29 lb ~lry ,ur,Jb fuel 359 X 760 X 14.7
23 5 < IH TI1e gas pressure w:is assumed lo be 14. 7 psia. In the absence ol
19 :! 1) I
18 J X Im
= IQ.51 lh Wel ihrtlh fud llue gas analysii., we can obtam the density a, discussed in
Ql .03.
11 .' x .W + 1J.] x ., 2 t- 961 >< 28
1810 IX Ch dry, ga,Jlh lud 40
P, -
760
= 0 .052 lb/cu fc
11, >< 44 -'- JU > 11 I 137.7 x 18 4 961 X x 28
IR10
2.IOa
20 ~o lh wet ga,,'Jh flJ(.'f
Q: Discu,s the basi, for the million Bill method of combustion
This procedure can be usc(l wht·n the fuel analysis 1s given. More
calcukttions.
often. plam enginccn, will be required co perform c,tirnatc~ of :11r
for combustion without a fuel onalysis. In ,uch ,icuation,. 1hc A: Each fuel such :" natural gas, coul, or oil requires u certain
MM Beu basis of co01bu>1io11 and calculatinn, will come 111 nrnoun1 of stoichiometric air p..:r MM Btu fired (on an HHV
h;mdy. Thi, i, di,cusscd in Q2. 10.
basi,). Thi~ 4u,mci1y docs not vary much with 1he fuel analysis
70
FtK·ls, Cornbu<.;tion.• 11\d Eflldcncv of B<lilt·r~ c:11,tl 11<.·~1tt'..(h 71
a_nd hence has become a ".aluablc method or evaluating combus-
Table- 2.4 Combu>tion Cons1an1 A For Fuels
11on air and nuc gas quant1L1es produced when Juel gas analysis"
not available. No. Fuel A
For solid fuels such as coal and oil. the dry stoichiometric ,rrr Blast rumacc gas 575
I
wa. in lb/ lb fuel can be obtained from
2 Bagasse 650
3 Carbon monoxide gas 670
iv., = 11.53 X C + 34.34 X (Hz - ~2 ) + 4.29 X S 4 Refinery and orl gas 720
5 NaLurnl ga~ 730
where C. H2 , 0 2 , and S arc carbon, hydrogen. oxygen. and 6 Furnace oil and lignite 745-750
sulfur in the fuel in fntction by weight. 7 Bituminou, coals 760
For gaseous fuels. 11·.," is given by 8 A111hracitc 780
9 Coke 800
"'oo = 2.47 X CO + 34.34 X H 2 + 17.27 X CHJ
+ 13.3 X C2Hi + 14.8 1 X C1H4
+ 16. 12 X C2H1, - 4.32 X 0 2
EXAlvU 'LE I Fuel 'Jr Vol MW Col 2 x col 3 %-Wt
Let us compute the amount of air required per MM Btu fired for CH, 83.4 16 1334.4 72 .89
fuel oil. C = 0.875. H = 0.125. and API = 28. 0 C2H0 15.8 30 474 25.89
So/11rio11. From (4a). N, 0.8 28 22.4 1.22
HHV = 17.887 -t 57.5 X 28 - 102.2 x 0
= 19.497 Btu/lb
Let us compute the a,r required in lb/lb fuel.
Amount or air in lb/lb fuel from the above equation b rrom Table 2.3,
"'•• = 11.53 X 0.875 + 34.34 X 0.125 = 14.38 lb/ lb Air required = 17.265 x 0.7289 + 16.119 x 0.2589
fuel = 16.75 lb/lb fuel
I MM Btu ofruel fired requires (I x 101')/19,497 = 51.28 lb of HHV of fuel = 0.7289 x 23.876 + 0.2589 X 22.320
fuel. Hence, from the above. 51.28 lb of fuel require, = 23.181 Btu/lb
51.28 x 14.38 = 737 Jh of dry air where 23.876 and 22.320 are HHV of mcth,me and ethane from
Table 2.4 ,hows a r.inge or 735 10 750. To this must be added Table 2.3.
execs, air: the effect of moisture in the air should also he The amount or fuel equivaleni to I MM Btu wou ld be
considered. (I x 106 )/23.181 = 43.llb.wh1chrcquires43. I x 16.75=
EX,\MPLE 2 722 lb of air. or I MM Btu fired would need 722 lb of dry air;
this b close to the value indicated in Table 2.4.
Let us La~e the ca:.<! of natural giLs wrth the following analy,is: Let us take the case of I00% methane and ,ee how much air it
methane = 83.4%. ethane = 15.8%. and nitrogen = 0.8'k. needs for combustion. From Table 2.3. air rnqurrcd per lb of
Solwio11. Convening this to percent weight busi,. we have methane is 17.265 lb. and its heating value is 23.S79 Btu/lb. Jn
72 Gc:u 1apo1hy t=u<·ls. C<>11\.11u~1inn, ,uni Erficicnt y of Boll<'r.,,, <11Hl I Jearer's 7:1

this case I MM Btu is equivalcm to (I x J0'')/23,879 = 41 .88 air in Jb/lb fuel. the volume of combustion air in cu fVlb fuel, the
lb or fuel, which requires 41.88 X 17.265 = 723 lb of dry air. flue gas produced in lb/lb fuel, and the flue gas volume in cu fVlb
Taking the case of propane, I lb requires 15. 703 lb of air. I fuel.
MM Btu equals I x I 06/21,661 = 46. 17 lb of fuel. This would
require 46. I 7 X 15. 703 = 725 lb of air. A: Since the fuel analysis is not known. let us use the MM Btu
Thus for al l fossil fuels we can come up wiLh a good estimate meLhod. From Table 2.4. A = 760 for coal. I MM Bw requires
of theoretical dry air per MM Btu fired on an HHV basis, and gas 760 x 2 . 15 = 950 lb of dry air. At 80% humidity and 80°F. air
analysis doc~ not affect this value significantly. TI1e amount of contains 0.0 I 8 lb of moisture per pound of air (Chapter I).
air per MM Btu is termed A and is shown in Table 2.4 for variou, Hence the wet air required per MM Btu fired is 950 X I .018 lb.
fuels. Also, I MM Btu fired equals 106/9500 = 105 lb of coal. Hence

2.101) "'•• = dry air. lb/lb fuel = ~~~ = 9.05

Q: A fired heater is firing natural gas at an input of 75 MM Btu/hr 1.018
on an HHV basis. Determine the dry combustion air required at = wet air, lb/lb fuel = 950 x
950
= 9.21
JO% excess air and the amount of flue gas produced if the HHV 492
of fuel is 20,000 Btu/lb. Pa = density of air at 80°F = 29 X
359 X 540
/\: From Table 2.4, A is 730 lb/MM Btu. Hence the total air 0.0736 lb/cu ft (sec Ch. I, Q. 1.03)
required is
Hence
W., = 75 X I . I X 730 = 60.200 lb/hr
9.21
The flue ga.s produced is Volume of air = 0.0736
= 125 cu fVlb fuel

10• 40
w, = w,, + w, = 6(),200 + = 60,250 lb/hr p, = density of llue gas =
760
= 0.0526 lb/cu ft
20.000
These values can be converted to volume at any temperature wdg = dry flue gas in lb/lb f·uel = 950 + 105 = 10 .05
105
using the procedure described in Chapter I •
The MM Btu method is quite accurate for engineering pur- .
Volume of flue gm,. cu ft/lb l'uel -- 10.05 = 191
0.0526
pose, such as fan selection and sizing of ducts and air and gas
systems. Its advantage is that fuel analysis need not be known.
which is generally the case in power and process plant~. The 2.11
efficiency or heaters and boilers can also be estimated using the Q: Is there a way to figure the excess air from flue gas CO2
MM Btu method of combustion calculations. readings?
2.IOC A: Yes . A good estimate of excess air£ in percent can be obtained
Q: A coal-fired boiler is firing coal of HHY = 9500 lltu/ lb at 25% from the cc1uarion
excess air. If ambient conditions are 80°F. relative humidity
80%. and nue ga.~ temperature 300°F, estimate the combustion E = 100 X [(K,1%C02) - II ( lOa)
 7-1- c;a11a1,i11hy Fut-.Js. con1bus1ion. and Erridc:-ncy of noil<'r., and I tcutcrs 75

Tal>lc 2S K, Factors for Fuels Tal)IC 2.6 Conslllnl K 2 Used in Eq ( IOc)

Fuel type K, Fuel K,
Bituminous coals 18.6 Carbon 100
Coke 20.5 Hydrogen 80
Oil 15.5 Carbon monoxide 121
Refinery gas and gas oil 13.4 Sulfur 100
Natural gas 12.5 Methane 90
Blast furnace gas 25.5 Oil 945
Coal 97
Source: Ref. I,
Bl ast furnace gas 223
Coke oven gas 89.3

Source: Ref. I.
%CO: is the percent of the carbon d iox idc in dry flue gas by
volume, and K, is a constant depending on the type of fuel, as
seen in Table 2.5. For example, if %CO2 = 15 in flue gas in a
coal-fired boiler, then for bituminous coal (K 1 = 18.6),
E = K2 X
21 - 02
(IOc)

1 where K2 is a constant that depends on the type of fuel (sec Table

E = 100 X ( : / - ') = 24%
2 6).

2.12 2.13
Q: Discuss the significance of %CO2 and %02 in flue gases. Q: In a natural gas boiler of capacity 50 MM Btu/hr (I-fl IV basis),
the oxygen level in the flue gas is reduced from 3.0% to 2.0%.
,\: Excess air levels in flue ga.s can be estimated if the %CO2 and What is the annual savings in operating costs if fuel costs $4/
%02 in dry flue gas by volume is known. The higher the excess MM Btu? The HHV of the fuel is 19.000 Btu/lb. The exit gas
air, the higher the flue gas quantity and the greater the losses. temperature is 500°F, aad rhe ambient tempcrarure is 80°F.
Plant engineers should control excess air levels to help control
plant operating cosrs. The cost o f operation with high excess air A: The original excess air is 90 X 3/(21 - 3) = 15% (sec 02.12).
is discussed in Q2. 13. The excess air is now
A formula that is widely u;cd to figure the excess air is I l J 2.0
E = 90 X = 9 .47%
E = 100 x 02 - C0/2 ( !Ob)
21 - 2
0.264 X N2 - (0, - C0/2) With l 5% excess. the approximate air required (sec Q2.10a) is
where Oz, CO, and N2 arc the oxygen. carbon monoxide. and 50 X 746 X I. I5 = 42.895 lb/hr.
nitrogen in dry flue g,is. vol %, and £ is the excess air. "k. 106
Another formula that is quire accurate is [I] Flue gas = 42.895 + 50 x 19,000
= 45.256 1b/hr
 Fud!-t, <:01nhu~1io11. c.111(1 F.ffit le11C\' of Uoilt'r!', ocUlCI I lt·,11<'r..., 77
ib

With 9.47~ excess air. Cmtl I Coal~

Air required = 50 x 746 X 1.0947 = 40.832 lb/hr
Fuel H H V. Btu/lb 11.400 9800
10'' 87 102
Flue gas produced = 40,832 + 50 x Fuel fired per MM
19,000 Btu ( 101'/HHV)
950 760 1.25 950
= 43.463
lb/hr Air required per MM 760 X 1.25 X

Btu (25% excess

Reduction m heat loss = (45.526 - 43.463! x 0.25
air)
X (500 - 80) = 0.22 MM Btu/hr Flue gas. lb 1037 1052
Ratio of 11ue gas I 1.015
This is cquivuJcnt lo an annuahavings of 0.22 x 4 x 300 x 24
= $6336. (We assumed 300 days of oreratiun a )'ear.) This
could be a significant saving~ considering the life of the plant
Hence plant engineers should operate the plant realizing the combust ion air temperature (due to higher moisture in the fuel),
implications of high excess air and high ex it gas 1cmpcru111rc. ash concentration. and fouling characteristics or the new fuel. If
Oxygen leveb can be continuou, ly monitored and recorded and a difforcnt type of fuel is going to be used. say oil. this will be a
hooked up 10 wmbust ion air ,yMcms in order 10 operate the plant major chunge, anti the fuel-handling sy,tcm burners and furnace
111orc cfficicn1 ly. (11 may be noted that exit gas temperature will design will have to be reviewed. The gas temperature profiles
also be reduced if excess air is reduced. The calculation above will change owing to radiation characteristics. and ahsorption of
indicate, the minimum ,aving, that can be reali£cd.) surfaces ; uch as superhcatcrs and economizers will be affected.
A discussion with th~ boiler design engineer., will help.

2.14
2.IS
Q: Fuels arc often in1erchanged in boiler plants because of relative What " meaat by combustion tcrnperaturc of fue1,·1 I low 1s it
Q:
availabil ity and economics. It is desirable, then. to analyze the
estimated'/
effect on the performance on the system. Discus, the implica-
tions of burning coal of 9800 Btu/lb in a boiler originally in- /\: The adiabatic combustion temperature b the maximum tempera·
tended for 11 ,400-Btu/lb coal. turc that can be attained by the products of combu,t,on of fuel
,,nd air However. because of Llissociation and rJdiation losses,
i\: Let us assume that the duty docs not change and that the effi- this maximum is never attained. faumauon of temperature after
ciency of the unit is not altered. However, the fuel quamity will dis,ociation involves solving sevcra.l equations. For purposes of
change. Combustion air required. being a funcuon of MM Btu estimation. we may decrease the adiabauc comhusuon tempera-
fired. will not change. blll the llue gas produced will incrt•asc ture by 3 10 5% to obtain the actm1l rnmbw;tion temperature.
Lei us prepare a table. From energy balance it can be shown that
We can use the same fan,. as the variation in flue ga, pro·
Juced is not signilicam 10 warran1 higher ga, prc,surc drops. We LHV + Atr x HHV x C,., X (1,, 80)i l0''
( II l
must look into Olher aspects, \uch as the necessity of higher I, = (I - <jf w,h/100 + tllY x HHV/ 10") X (,,,
78 Gdf1cl1Jc:.tllly Fuels, cornbublion. and Efficien<y uf floil(·r~ <.lll<l llt·c.u er~ 7!1

where
EXAMPLE
LHV. HHV = lower and higher calorific value of fuel. If coals of HHV = 11.000 Btu/lb having 11 % ash arc fired ,n a
Btu/lb boiler with 25% excess air and the flue gas temperature is 850°R,
A = theoretical air required per million Btu detem1inc the ash concentration.
fired , lb Solution. Substituting into Eq. (12a). we have
a = excess air factor = I + £/100 240,000 X 0.11
10 • r,. = tempcrnture of air and combustion tempera- c. = 850 X (7 .6 X 10 6 X 11,000 X 125 + I - 0 . 11)
ture . °F
C,,,,, CJ>, = specific heats of air and products of com-
= 2. 75 grnmstcu ft
bustion, Btu/lb °F
For example, for fuel oil with combustion air at 300°F, LHV = 2.16b
17,000 Btu/lb, HHV = 18,000 Btu/lb. c:, = 1.15, and A = 745
Q: How do you convert the ash concentration in the flue gas in %
(see Table 2.4). We have
weight to grains/ad' or grains/scf/
17.000 + 745 l.15 X 18,000 X 0.25 X (3(X) - 80)/lif
X
I
•~ (I+ 745 X l.15 X 18,()()()/ 10") X 0.32 A: Flue gases from incineration plants or solid fuel boilers conrnin
= 3400•r <lust or ash, and often these components arc expressed in mass
units such as lb/hr or '*
by weight while engineers involved in
C,,,, and C,,s were taken as 0.25 and 0.32, respectively. selection of pollution control equ ipment prefer to work in terms
of grains/acf or grains/scf (actual and standard cubic feel). The
2.16a relation is as follows:
Q: How is the ash concentration in flue gases cstimated'l C., = 0.01 X A X 7000 X p = 70A ( 12b)
where
A: Particulate emission data arc needed lo size dust collectors for
coal-fired boilers. In coal-fired boilers, aboul 75% of the ash is p = gas densuy. lb/cu ft = 39.5/(460 + t)
carried away by lhc flue gases and 25% drop~ into the ash pi!. t = gas temperature, °F
The following expression may be derived using the MM Btu c. = ash content. grains/acf or grainslscf depending o n
method of combustion calculation [5]: whether dcr1sity is computed at actual temperature or
at 60°F.
C = 24-0,000 x (')fa.sh/ I (k))
A = ash content, % by weight
( 12a)
" Tx(16x lO "xHIIVX( l00 +£)+t-C%a,hil00l l
The expression for density is based on atmospheric flue gases
where having a molecular weight of 28.8 (sec Q 1.03).
C., = ash concentration, grains/cu ft Flue ga~es contain 1.5~ by weight of ash . The concentration
E = excess air. % in grains/acf at 400°F is
T = gas temperature, 0 R 39.5
HHV = healing value. Btu/lb C0 = 70 X 1.5 X
860
4.8 grains/acf
HO (,,ll\~llh-ilhy Fu<·lb, crno1Ju..,ric>11. and 1-"Jlici<'l'l<Y of J"i.oilt·r., dn(I I l<·c11<·r.., HI

and a1 60°F, A: The following expression gives<'. the em1SS10n of S02 in lb/MM
B1u:
39.5
C0 = 70 X 1.5 X
520
= 7. 98 grainsisd s
e = 2 X lO'
HHV
( 14)
2.17
where S is the % sulfur in the fuel.
Q: Discuss the importance of the melting point of ash in coal-firctl
boilers. How is ii es1i111ated'/ l.5 = 2.73 lb/MM Btu
e = 2 X 104 X
11.000
A: In the design of steam genermors and ash removal syMcms. the If an SO, scrubbing system of 75% efficiency is installed, the
ash fusion temperature is considered an important vmiublc Low exiting S01 concentration will be 0.25 X 2.73 = 0.68 lb/MM
ush fusion temperature may cause slagging and result in deposi-
Btu.
tion of molten ash on surfaces like su1>erheaters and furnaces
The furnace wi ll then absorb less energy, leading to higher
furnace exit gas temperatures and overheating of supcrhcaters.
2.18h
A quick estimate of ash melting temperature in °C can be
made using the expression 16] Q: What 1s the S01 level in ppm (part, per million) by volume if the
coals in Q2. I 8a arc fired wi1h 25% excess air?
I., = 19 X Al~O, + 15 X (Si01 X Ti02)
+ JO x (CaO + MgO) J\: We have to estimate the nuc gas produced. Using the MM Htu
+ 6 X (l-'e20 3 + + K 10)
Na10 C13) method.
where 1,,. is 1hc rusion temperature in °C. and the rci-t of the 1erm~ 106
-1 1.25 x 760 = 1041 lb/MM Blu
are percent ash content of oxides of aluminum. silicon. titanium. 11,000
calcium. mugnc&ium. iron. sodium, and po1assium.
Let the molecular weigh1 be JO. which is a good es1ima1c in 1he
L:Xi\MI 'LI, absence of nue gas analysis. Then.
i\nalys1s ol u given ash indic.i1cs the following composition:
1041
Al 20 1 = 20%, Si02 ~ Ti01 = 30% Moles of lluc gas = -30- = 34. 7 per MM Btu fired
20% . Ca() + MgO = 15%
2.7)
Find the fusion temperature. Moles of S01 = 64
= 0.042 (lrom Q2.18a anti
Tahlc I . I)
So/111io11 Substituting into Eq. ( 13), we find that 1,. = I I00°C.
(6-1 is 1he molecular weight ot S02• Dividing weigh! by molecu-
2.l&l lar weigh! gives 1hc moles.)
Q: What is the emission of SO, in lb/MM Btu if coals of HI IV -· Hence ppm of S02 m 1l uc g.is w1'JI 1.u-:.. () .()4'J- X :14.7110''
- =
11,000 Btu/lb and having 1.5% sulfur arc fired in a boiler'1 1230 ppm.
 C1111ldl>•11hv Ftael~. t:rnlthu.... nun. nn<t Efn< lenc ·y ••t J\ollt•r!., .11icl ltt•t11<·"' Ii.I

.!.18C 3. Loss due lo moisture in air. L,:

I - f1,
Q: If 5% of Lhe S01 gels converted Lo SO.,, estimaie the ppm of SO., (15c)
in the nue gas . HHV

A: 2.73 4. Radia1ion loss , L4 • The American Boiler Manufac1urcrs

Moles of SO, = 0.05 x
80
= 0.0017 per MM Btu Association (ABMAJ chart 171 may be referred 10 to ob1ain
this value. A quick cslimalc of /.,4 1s
Hence
((Sci)
0.0017
ppm by volume of SO, = 34.7
X 10" = 49 ppm For Eqs. ( I Sa) 10 ( I Sd).

(80 is che molecular wcighL of S0.1) .

wu, = dry nue ga~ produced, lb/lb fuel
!I'd., = dry air required. lb/lb fuel .
H, , W = hydrogen und moisture m fuel. fracuon
2.19a • M = moislurc in air, lb/lb dry nir (sec Q 1.09b)
Q: How is chc efficiency of a boiler or a fired healer determined'! ,,. ,,, = temperatun:s of lluc ga.~, air, °F
Q = duly in MM 81u/hr
A: The estimation of Lhc eITiciency of a boiler or healer involves
computal ion of several losses such as Lhose due to lluc gases 5. To lcis,cs /, 1 to L4 must be added a margin or unaccounted
leaving the unit, unburned fuel. radiation losses. heal loss due 10 loss. L,. Hence efficiency becomes
mollcn ash. and so on. Readers may refer to the ASMb l'ower
Test Code• (7) for details. Two methods arc widely used, one '11,u,v = 100 - (/., 1 + L2 + LJ + L., + L~) (15c)
based on the measurement of input and output and the mhcr Note 1ha1 combustion calculacions arc a prerequisite to efficiency
based on heat losses. The lauer is preferred. as ii is easy 10 use.
dctenninauon. If the fuel analysis is not available. plant engi-
There arc two ways of staling the efficiency. one based on the
nccl'li can use 1he MM Btu me1hod to es1i ma1c II'"' rather easi ly
HHV and the mher on LHV. As discussed in Q2.0I.
and then estimate the efficiency (sc~ Q2.20).
HHV = 'llLHV X LH V
'llHHV X The efficiency can abo be cslimated on an LI IV basis . The
The various losses are JIJ. on an HHV basis. various losses considered arc the following.
I. Dry !Fl!> loss. l 1: I. Wet lluc gas loss:
( 15a) 1t\.,!!- X C,. X
( lSfJ

2. Loss due to combustion of hydrogen and mob1urc m fuel. (C,,. gas specific hc;\t. will be m the range of 0.25 10 0.265
l 1: for wet nue gases.)
l(XJ 2. Radia1ion loss (,cc Q2.23)
/.,J = (9 X H1 + W) X ( 1080 - 0.-161, - I" ) X HHV (15b) 3. Unaccounted loss . margin
 fuel.'-t. Cotnht~lion. <-lfl<I 1:-.ffit iem y ot Bollrr't ,md I h·<11<·1 ....

Then 1c111pcra1u re = 4(Xl0 1-. and ambient 70. f·. Ex~~" air und
rela11vc humidi1y arc the same a, in Q2.09a C 15% and 80% J.
l'J111v JOO - (,um of 1hc above 1hrcc losses)
One can also conven YJ 111 ,v 10 11, uv u,ing Eq. C3b) (,cc Q2.0I ). /\: Re,ulh ol combusiion calcula110n, are already available
Dry Oue gos = 18 lbllh fuel
J.191)
Moi~ture in air = 19. 52 - 19. 29 = 0.23 lb/ lb/ fuel
Q: Coals or HHV = 13,500 and LIIV = 12,600 Btu/lb arc fired rn Water vapor lonncd due to combu,uon or fuel = 20.4
a boiler wi1h cxces, air or 25%. If the exit ga., temperature i, - 18 - 0.23 = 2.17 lb/lb luel
3()()0 [ ' and ambient t~mperatures is 80°F, determine the efficien-
cy on an HHV basis and on an LHV basis. 83.4 x 1013.2 + 15.8 X 1792 = 1128 Blu/cu rt
HHV = JOO
A: rrom the MM Btu method of combustion calculation,. assuming Fuel density a1 60°F = 18.31379 = 0.483 lblcu 11, so
thut moisture in air is 0.013 lbllb dry air,
1,()(3 X 760 X 1.25 + )()1'/13,5()() HHV = - 1128
-- = 23,364 Btu/lb
0.0483
w~" = 10°113.500
I 036 The los~c~ arc;
= 14.0
74 I. Dry gas los,.
(760 i, the conslant obtain~(( from Table 2.4.) I fence 400 - 70
/, 1 = 100 X 18 X 0.24 X = 6. 1%
23.364
Wei flue gas los, = 100 X 14.0 x 0.26
300 - 80 Loss due 10 combustion of hydrogen and moisture in fuel.
X ---- = 6.35'»
12.600 IOXO + 0.46 x 400 - 70 = I I.IN
L, = J()() X 2. 17 X
23.364
·;,
Let raui,11ion and unaccounted los,cs by 1.3%. Then
'lLIIV = )()0 - (6 .35 I- J .)) = 92.34% 3. L(lSS due 10 moisture in air.
400 - 70
'lHIIV = 92. 34 X
12.600
= 86 . I8o/r L, = JOO X 0 .23 X 0 .46 X
23,364
= 0. 15%
13.500
(Radiation losses vary from 0.5 to 1.0% in large boiler, and may 4. Radia1ion loss = 1.0%
go up to 2.0% in smalkr units. The major loss i, 1hc lluc gi,, 5. Unaccounted los,~, and 1m1rgin = 0%
loss.I Total lo,ses = 6. 1 -I 11. 1 ~ 0. 15 .; 1.0 = ll!. 357<
Hence
~-1~){'
Efficiency on llliV basis = 100 - 18.35 = 81.65'H,
Q: Dc1cm1ine the cffic1cncy of a boiler linng tht Juel given in
Q2.09a at 15'7r excess air. /\,sumc radiation loss = I%. <exn gm, One can convcn this to LHV basi, aflcr computing 1hc LHV.
 ~ ::: ~ 0 ...

2.19<1
QQ
~, -
o C""', -t
va>-'1;1"
ir, C"'l -
...;o~ ~
00
'° :2i
CC
("'\ r-.: V)
r-
~ d ,...;
- - V')
Q>

Q: How do excess air and boiler exit gas tcmpcruturc affect the a,. - l"'"l
'° 0 "' .0
3
various losses and boiler efficiency?
f;A O -:;
~~ :0

~
t\: Table 2. 7 shows the results of combustion calcu lation, for vari- cl
II
ou, fueb al different excess air levels and boiler exit ga., tcm- >
:,::
pernture. ll aha 5hows the amoum of CO 2 generated per MM Btu ...,
fired. ~-
0 "'
r- o,.
~
N r":i
oo""-V"'l
ll c:in be seen that naturnl gas generates the lowest amount of
CO2• - - ,-
- _; ~ N ,-
- r, O r"I
"' - "' o.,,
"' -
0 .,.,
~- "' 0 '° "' -.
!'.!

CO2/MM Btu natural gas = 23,789

X 19.17 X
0 6
9.06 X 44
= 116.5 lb 00
27.571100 00 r""' M <"'I
0
~ g '°
(1l1c above is obtained by convert ing the volumetric analysis lo
00 ....-; 00 C'

-- ,- d
"'' C"i f"": . ""
QO

"'
weight basis using the molecular weights <>f CO2 ,md the nue .,, .,,
0

gas.) For oil. CO2 generated = 162.4 lb. and for coal. 202.9 lb. "'

2.20
Q: A fired heater of duty 100 MM Btu/hr(HHV basis) tiring No. 6 0 ,,.,
oil show~ Lhe following dry lluc ga., analysis: ~- 'If ::: 00 ~
r-"'""" a,
CO2 = 13.S'Jr. 02 = 2.5%. N2 = 84% ('f";
00 r-.: ...; r-i
- ,-. 0
N (""", 0 0\
00
~-
("'I -
0"' a "'
The exit gas temperature and ambient temperature are 300 ond in c2 :!i -
80°F. respectively If moisture in air is 0.013 lb/lb dry air,
estimu1c lhc efficiency of the unit on an LHY and an HHV basis.
LHV = 18.400 Btu/lb and HHV - 19,5()0 Bmtlb.
... "'
0
.,., ... - "'
-t Cl N

A: Since the fuel analysis is not known, let us estimate the nuc gas
,-. '° 0 =
,,;
produced by the MM Btu method. First, compute the excess ai r. -"!fi:(;\
which is
0
.... "'
,- -

~
QC)

=i "' ,,.,
0

"' ei ""
2.5
£ = 9-1.5 X
21 - 2.5
= 12.8%

The fuctor 94.5 is from Table 2.6 (see Q2. 12). The wet nue ga.~
prnduced b !J..
.~ ~~~ 3
..J "" "1" ::;:
88 (i,IIMJ>,1lhV Fll<: 1.... Co111hu~1ion. dn(I l~mcit'IU, y ol Boll(•r ... ,IIHI I IC·tctt<.·1~

745 X 1. 128 X 1.013 10" The loss m Btu/lb " given by 111
( - - ) = 17.6 lhllh fuel
+ -19.500
10'' co x 10.160 x C
1
L = co+ co,
( I 0 '/19 .500)
where C is the c,irbon in fuel. fraction by weight. and CO and
Hence
CO, arc vol 7~ ol the gasc,.
3(Xl - 80
Wet gas loss= 100 x 17.<, x 0.26 x 5.47% EX1\f\1PLE
18,40()
Detemiine the los,es due to formation or CO 11' coal with HHV of
The radia11on loss on an HHV basis can be approximated by Eq. 12,000 Btu/lb b fired in a boiler. given that CO and C01 in the_
( 15d): nuc gas arc 1.5% and I 7'H and the fuel has a carbon content ol
Radiation loss = Io0 " 2 "•2 1o~ (! = 0.60%; 56%.
Q = 100 MM Btu/hr S0l111io11. Subslitutmg into the equation given above,
Let us use 1.0% on an LHV basis. ulthough this may Ix: a bit
L= ~ X 10.160 X O.S
6
- 0.038.
high. Hence the efficiency on an LHV basis ,s 100 - 6.47 = 18.5 12.000
93.53'1i. The efficiency on an HHV basis would be [Eq. (3b)I or 3.K* on HHV basis (dividing loss in Btu/lb by HHV)
"YlHIIV X HHV = ,,, IIV X LHV 2.22
or Q: Is there a simple formula to estimate the efficiency of boilers and
18.400 heaters if the excess air and exit gas temperature arc known and
111111v = 93.53 X
19,500
= 88.25 the fuel analysb is not available'/
Thus. even in the absence of fuel ultimate analysis. the plam Boiler efficiency depends mainl y on excess air and the difference
/\:
personnel can check the efficiency of boilers and healers based between the flue gas exit tcmixrature and the ambient tempcra-
on opcrnting darn. llm:. The following expressions have been dcri ved from combus-
tion calculmions of typical natural gas and oil fuels. These may
2.21 be used for quick estimations.
Q: How is the loss due to incomplete combustion such as formation For natural gas:
of CO determined'!
111111,. % = 8<J.4 - (0.001123 + 0.0195 X EA) X u'/' ( 16a)
1\: Effons must be made by the boiler and burner designers 10 Tllfl\'• % = 99.0 (0.001244 + 0.021(1 X EM X liT ( 16b)
ensure that complete combustion takes place in the furnace.
However, bccau~c of vanous factors such a, size or fuel pani- For fuel oils:
cles. turbulence. and availability of air 10 fuel and the mixing Tlmov· % = 92.9 (0.001298 + 0.01905 X EA) x Ci.T
process. some carbon monoxide will be fonncd. which means "lLHV• o/r = 99.0 - (0.0013!!3 + 0.0203 x EA) x ::.T
losses, If CO is formed from carbon instead of CO!. 10,600 Btu/
lb is lm,t. Thi;. is the difference between the heat of reaction of where
the two processes EA = excess air foctor (EA = I. 15 means 15'if excess
C + O,-+ CO, and C + o, ...... co air)
90 Fuel~. coinbu~rio11, and Efncicncv of Boilc-r.s c.1nd I l<~mcr~ ~) I

AT = difference between exit ga~ and ambient tempera- (50,000 x !075) = I . 17%. If Uie HHV of the fuel were 1182
tures Btu/scf. the radiation loss on an HHV basis would be 0.63 x
EXAMPLE 1182/1075 = 1.06%.
Natural gas at J 5% excess air is fired in a boiler. with exit gas
temrerature 280°F and ambient temperature 80°F. Determine the 2.24
boi ler efficiency. EA = I. 15 and AT = (280 - 80) = 200°F. Q: How docs the radiation loss vary with boiler duty or load'! How
Solu1io11. does this affect the boiler efficiency?
'111t1v = 89.4 - (0.001 123 + 0.0 195 X 1.15)
;\ : The heat losses from the surface of a boiler will he nearly the
X (280 - 80) = 84.64%
same al all loads if the ambient temperature and wind velocity
'1LHV = 99.0 - (0.00 1244 + 0.0216 X 1. 15) are the same. Variations in heat losses can occur owing to dif-
X (280 - 80) = 93.78% ferences m the gas temperature profile in the boiler, which varies
The above equations arc based on I% radiation plus unaccounted with load. However. for practical purposes this variation can be
considered minor. Hence the heat loss as a percent wi ll increase
losses.
us the boi ler duty decreases.
The boiler exit gas temperalurc decreases with a decrease in
2 .23 load or duty and conlributes lo some improvement in efficiency.
Q: The average surface temperature of the aluminum casing of a which is offset by the increase in radiation losses. Hence there
gas-fired boiler was measured to be J80°F when the ambient wi ll be a slight increase in efficiency as the load increases , and
temperature was 85°F and the wind velocity was 5 mph. The after a certain load, efficiency decreases.
boiler was firing 50,000 scfb of natural gas with LHV = 1075 The above discussion pertains co fired water tube or fire tube
Btu/scf. Determine the radiation loss on an LHV basis if the total boilers and nol waste heat boilers, which have to be analyzed for
surface area of the boiler was 2500 ft2• Assume that the emis- each load because the gas flow and inlet gas temperalllrc can
sivity of the casing = 0.1 . vary significantly with load depending on the type of process or
application.
/\: This example shows how radiation loss can be obtained from the
measurement of casing temperatures. The wi nd velocity is 5 mph ~ .25c)
= 440 fpm. From Q4.5 I we see U1at the heat loss q in Btu/ ft2 hr Q: Discuss the importance of dew point corrosion in boilers and
will be
heaters fired with fuels containing sulfur.
q = 0. 173 X 10 -• X 0. l X [(460 + 180)4 - (460 + 85)4]
A: During the process of combustion. sulfur in fuels such as coal,
, 0.296 X (IMO - 85)1 is X j 44
0 +
69
69 oil. and gas is convert0d 10 sulfur dioxide. Some portion of ii
( I to 5%) is converted to sul fur trioxide. which can combine with
= 252 Btu/ft~ hr (J 7)
water vapor in the flue gas lo form gaseous sulfuric acid. If the
The total heat loss will be 2500 x 252 = 0.63 x 10' Btu/hr. su1face in contacl with the gas is cooler than the acid dew point.
The radiation loss on an LHV basi, will be 0.63 x I06 x JOO/ sul furic acid can condense on it. causing corrosion. ADP (acid
 02
C,dlldl>•Hhy Fuel..,, co,nbt~rion, (;ll1(1 Efflt lei it \' of I3ollc:rs i:.llld J 1, ·.a11.•r:-,

d:w point) is ~cpen<font on several factors, such a, excess air. 260

pcrc_en1 sulfur m fuel. perccm convcr,ion of SO, 10 SO,. und ... Ats1dual 0 11
panial pressure of water vapor in Lhc nue gas. Manulacrurers of .; 240
CConom1zcrs and ,Ur heaters suggest minimum cold and ICmpcra- a
•
I

-- •
Coal (stoker) or Oi$tillate 0 11
tures that are r~qu1red lo avmd corrosion. Figures 2. 1 and 2.2 are 8. 220
17p1cal. S0me11mes. the minimum lluid temperature , which af-
~ecr_s _the w~
metaJ tcm~ratur:, is suggested. The followi ng
equation gives a conservauve estimate of the acid <.Jew point l8J:
!
:
G
:Ii
200
~\'1>\ G•'
~·':,,,,-
:,, --
7;1" = I . 7842 + 0.0269 log p,. - o. 129 log Pso , E
.5•
180 _,,,.
, -
+ 0.329 log p., x log Pso, .: 160
... ../

--
( 18) :Ii Coal (P.C. , ,~n ..., or r~,,.lr>no Fu, nace I
where C

7.ip = 11cid dew point. K

"'
f
0
140 ....
p., -- p,1nial pressure of waler vapor. aim 120
0.0001 0.001 0.0 1 01 1.0 3.0 5.0
Pso, = paniul pressure of sul fur trioxide, atm (lppm) llOppmJ 1100 ppm)

Sulfur 1n Fuel % by Weight (as tu edl

40 FigttrC' 2.2 Limu,ng 1ubc-mcutl tcmpcrnwres 10 avoid extcmal cormsion

in cconomi1en,. and air hemer.. when burning fuels contmning :,,ulfur. (From
Steam: /tr Grtra(l(ion mu/ Use , 39th ed., Babcock and Wilcox. courtc.,y of
e the publisher.)
0• 30
> Area of Corrosion.
~ Fouling and Acid Table 2.8 gives typical //so, values for various fuels and
l Soot Emmion
execs~ air. Q2. I 8c shows how p 50 , can be computed.
.g 20 A practical way to <.Jctcm1inc 1:ir is to use a dew point meter.
• An eMimaLion of the cold-end metal temperature can give an
"
C
indication of possible coITosion.
j 10 A,&a of Safe
M
g Operat,on 2.25h
Q: How i~ the dew point of an acid gas computed?
o_~::::::....-.,,_..__..,..____ A: Table 2.9 :,hows the dew point correlations for variom, acid gases
100 120 140 160 (9. II I
Acid Dewpo1n1 Temperature (AOToC> Flue gas from an incinerntor has the following analysis: H20
Figure 2.1 The rda1io11,hip bc1Y.ecn SO, and ADT. !Courtesy uf Land
= 12. S01 = 0.02. HCI - 0.0015% by volume und the rest
Combus11on Inc ) oxygen and nitrogen . Gas pressure = 10 in . wg. Compute the
dew points of sul furic and hydrochloric aca<.Js given that 2% ol
 Fui•t-.,. Cumllu~llon, dn<I Effldt.•n< \ or H011<·~ <-llltl I ll'cHl"rS H3

I cll)I(' 2.8 SO, m Flue Gas (ppm) P, ,c, = 0.000 l5 x 1.0245 x 760 = 0. 1168 mm H~.
Excess lnCPim) = - 2.1473
air Sulfur('*) Panial pressures of sulfuric acid and SO, nre equal. Hence
Fuel (%) 0.5 I.() 2.0 J.() 4 () 5.0 l'.m, = 0.02 x 0.0002 x 760 x 1.0245 = 0.0031 mm Hg.
Oil 5 2 3 3 4 5 6 ln(P50 ,) = - 5.7716
11 6 7 8 10 12 14
Coal 25 3 7 7-14 14-!8 20-40 27-54 Subs1i1u1ing inlo Lhc equal.ions, we obrnin Lhc following.
33--06
For hydrochloric acid:

Tai))(' 2.9 Dew Points of Acid Gases' = 3.7368 -0. 159 1 X 4 .537 + 0.0326 X 2.1473

Hydrobromic acid
0.00269 X 4.537 X 2 1473 = 3.0588
100017a, = 3.5639 0. 1350 In (P11, 0 ) or 7;1" = 327 K = 54°C = 129°F
- 0.0398 In (P118 ,) + 0.()()235 In (/'f,-0) In (/\10 ) For sulfuric acid:
Hydrochloric acid · '
100017'.,0 = J.7368 - 0. 1591 In (Pu,<,) 1000
= 2.276 - 0.0294 X 4 .537 + 0.0858 X 5.7716
- 0.0326 In (Puc:,) + 0.00269 In (P 11 ~,J In (Punl
Nhric acid 0.0062 X 4.537 X 5.7716 = 2.4755
IO<lOiT.i,, 3.6614 - 0.1446 In (P,.,,J or T.ir = 404 K = 131°C = 268°F
- 0.0827 In CP 11 s 0 .) + ·o.00756 In (P11 ,,) In (/'11 No,J The dew points of other gases can be obtained in a similar
Sulfurous acid
manner.
1ooorr.,0 = 3.9526 - 0.1863 In <P,w) +
0.000867 In (Ps0 .) - 0.000913 In (1'11•0 ) In (Psol
Su lfunc acid ·
2.25c
1000/f~P = 2.276 - 0.0294 In (P11 ",1 -
0.0858 In (P11,soJ + 0.0062 In (P11 ,0 ) In (P11 .so.l Q: Docs the po1en1i;1I for acid dew point corro~ion decrease if the
ga~ 1cmpcrnlllre al the economizer is increased?
~rd" is dew poini tC111J)t!r.:1turo {K), and P 1s p~nml prc~sure (mm Hg) Compared wi1h
pubf,,hcd dnm._1hc _prcd1cred dew ,x>11m• nre widun nbout 6 K oructu::il value, c,i.ccp1
for HiS04, wluch 1s wi1hjn abt)ul tJ K A: Acid dew points were computed in Q2.25a. If the lube wall
Smu:~·#!; HC't, 11 Br, HNO. onJ SO. coJTeln1mns were da,ved from vapor-li<1uic.l 1empera1ure, can be maintained above the dew point, Lhen con-
equ1hbnum c.t:ua. The 11.,SO., c,nrel~lmn b from Rer S. densation of vapors is unlikely. However, the lube wal l tempera·
lure in a gas 10 liquid heal c.xchnnger such as the economizer is
governed by Lhe gas film heat transfer coefficient r;tthcr than the
SO, convcns ltl SO,. In order l<l u~c the corre lations, the gas lube-side waler coefficienl, which i, very high.
prcssu~cs mu~! be converted 10 mm Hg. i\1mospheric pressure IL can be shown by u,ing the eleclncal analogy and neglccung
= 10 m. wg = 10/407 = 0.02457 aung or 1.02457 aim abs !he effects of foul ing Lha1 [91
fl1-0 = 0.12 x 1.02457 x 760 = 93.44 mm Hg,
ln(P, 1,0 ) = 4.537 t,,, = I<' - (In - t,) X
"·
h, !- h.,
 'lG
FlWl!'t. ( :on,l>tL.,llon, c.1rn l ECriclt·rn }' 0 1 Boih·r, ,111cl 11,·rlft•r-.
where
One can easily obtain the total lb/hr of NO, or CO in the
t,. = tube wall temperature exhaust gas. However. regulations refer to NO, and CO in
10 = gas and tube-side fluid temperature ppmvd (puns per million volume dry) referred lo I 5'K oxygen ,n
h, = tube-.sidc heat cransfcr cocfficicnl the ga,. The conversion can be done as follows.
h., = gas-side heal tran_~fcr coeflicicm If w lb/hr is !he now rate of NO, (usually rcponcd as N0 2) in a
In an economizer. h, is cypically about 1000 Btu/ft~hr °F and 1, turbine exhaust flow of W lb/hr, the following expression give,
is about 15 B1u/ft2 hr °F. ' • NO, m volumelnc units on dry basis f9J.
Let us assume that water cempcratum 1, = 250°F and compute (w/46)/(W/MW)
the wall temperature ,,. for two gas temperatures 350°F and
V = 100 X
100 - %H20
II 9)
750°F. '
where
IOOO = volume of water vapor
'"'' = 350 (350 - 250) X
1015
= 252°F. %H20
MW = molecular weight of the exhaust gases
Im'! = 750 - (750 - 250) X
1000
= 258°F The value of V obtained with Eq. ( 19) must be converted to 15%
l015
oxygen on dry basis to give ppmvd of NO,:
Hence for a variation of 400°F in gas temperature, the tube wall 6
temperature changes by only 6°F because the gas film heat trans- V X (2 1 - 15) X 10 = V X f\20)
fer coefficient is so low compared 10 the water-side coefficient.
V,, = 21 - 100 X %02/(100 - %H 20)
Even with finned tubes the difference would be marginal . where %02 is the oxygen present in the wet exhaust gases and
We see that by specifying a higher stack gas temperature when factor F converts V to 15'J! oxygen basis, which is the usual basis
selecting or designing an economizer we cannot avoid corrosion of reponing emissions. Simi larly. CO emission in ppmvd can be
concerns if the water tcmperat urc is low or close 10 the acid dew obtained as
point. A bcUer way is_ l~ increa~e 1hc water temperature entering V,. = 1.642 x V,, (for the same w lb/hr rate)
the econom izer by ra1s111g the dcaera1or pressure or by using u
heat exchanger to preheat !he water. because the ratio of the molecular weights of N02 and CO is
1.642.
2.26a
EXNvlPLE
Q: Ho~ do you conven pollucants such as NO, and CO from gas Dctern1ine !he NO, und CO concenLracion5 in ppmvd. 15'lt
turbine exhaust gase, from mass uni ts such as lb/hr to ppm? oxygen dry basis if 25 lb/hr of NO, and 15 lb/hr of CO are pres-
ent in 550,000 lb/hr of turbine exhaust gas that has the follow-
A: With strict emission regulations. plant engineers and wm,ultanls ing analy~is by % volume (usually argon i~ added 10 nitrogen
often find it necessary to relate mass and volumetric units of content):
pollutants such as NO, and CO. ln ga; turbine cogenera11on and
Comb1n~d cyc le plants. in addition to the pollutanLs from the gas CO 2 =
3.5. H20 = 10, N2 = 75. 02 = 11.5
turbine itself, one has to consider the contribution~ from duct Sa/11tio11. First.
burners or auxiliary burners that arc adtled to increase the steam MW = (3 .5 X 44 + 10 X 18 + 75 X 28 + 11 .5
generation from the HRSG, (heat recovery steam genera1ors). X 32)/ 100 = 28
 Lei us compute NO, on dry ba\i~ in the exhaust Table <!. 10 Rcsulls of Combustion Calculation,

l()(J X (25/46) Pcrcen1 exccM, air

V =
(550.000/28)/(100 - 10)
= 0.00003074. 30 () 10 20 30
() JO 20
10" X (21 - 15)
F= 2 1 - [100/(100 - IO)J X 11.5
= 0.73 X 106 Component
No. 2 oil'
(vol %) Natural gas'
Hence 9.47 8.6~ 8.02 7.45 13.49 12.33 11.35 10.51
COi 11 .90 11.07 10.3b
19.91 18.38 17 .08 15.96 12.88
V,, = 0.00003074 x 0.73 X 10• = 16.4 ppmvd H,O
70 .62 71.22 71.73 72 . 16 73.63 74.02 74.34 74.62
N,
Similarly. V, = (15/25) x 1.642 x 16.4 = 16.2 ppnivJ. 0 1.76 3.24 4.50
o, 0 1.72 3. IS 4.43
27.68 27.77 28.87 28.85 28.84 28.82
MW 27.52 27 .62
2.26b 841 914 966 790 86-1 938 1011
Wgm 768
Q: How can the emissions due lo NO, and CO be converted from •Natural gu..s :muly~i, assumed: C1 • 97 , C:= 2, C1=- 1 vo1 %. .
ppm 10 lb/MM Btu or vice versa I IOI'? (Higher un<l lower he;iLing value, - 23,759 and 21.462 13tu/lb, respcc11vely.)
•No. 2 011 on•IY"' ,L<Sumcd: C - 87 ,5'A. 11, = 12.5<;!. deg API =J2 ,
A: Packaged steam gcncmtors firing gas or oil must limil emissions (Higher :.mJ lower heating volues 19.727 ;ind 18.512 litullb. rc)pt,:Cllvcly.)
of pollutants in order to meet state and federal regu lations.
Cri1eria on emissions of common pollutant~ such as carbon mon-
oxide (CO) and oxides of oitrogen (NO,) are often specilicd in where
parts per million volume dry (ppnwd) at 3% oxygen. On the MW = molecular weight of wcl lluc gases
other hand, burner and boiler suppl iers oflcn cite or guarantee N = pounds of NO, per million Btu fired
values in pounds per million Btu lired. O, = % volume or oxygen in wc1 Oue gases
Table 2.10 demonstrates a simple method for calculating the i,:, = parts per million volume dry NO!
conversion. It should be noted that excess air has li ttle effec1 on Wgm = nuc gas produced per MM Btu hrcd , lb
the conversion factor. y = 100/( 100 - %H 20), where H,0 is the volume
Table 2. JO shows the results of combustion calculat,ons for of water vapor in wel flue gases.
natural gas and No. 2 oil at various excess air levels. The 1:1ble
shows the Ouc gas ana lysis, molecular weight, and amoun1 of From Table 2.10, for 1..cro excess air:
nuc gas produced per million Btu fired on higher healing value Wgm = (106/23,789) X IS .3 = 769
(HHV) basis. Using these. we will arrive al lhe relationship be- y = 100/(100 - 19.91) = 1.248
tween ppmvd values of NO., or CO to the corresponding values
in lb/MM Btu fired. MW = 27.53, 01 =0
Substituting these into Eq. (21) we have
C:ALCULt\TIONS FOR ;-.JATLIHAL GAS
From simple mas~ 10 mole conversion, we have V. = 106 X 1.248 X N X 27.52
"
V. = lo• X y X-
N X --
MW X
2I - 3 (2 I l
x lS = 832 N
" 46 Wgm 21 - 0 2 X Y (46 X 769 X 21)
 Fuel..,. ( rnnl>u~1ion. aiul t... Uh"lc:nc~.' 0 1 Boil<·rs w,ct I h'dtcr.., IO I
lfXI <,n11c1p.ith)

Similarly. to obtain pJlnwtl CO (part~ per milliun volume tlr even coal while raismg its tempcru1urc. ( If the ga, mrbine is
CO). one would use 28 i11S1cad of 46 in lhc denominator Th/ injected wi th large amount\ of s1cam , the oxygen content will be
the molecular_weight of NO, would be 46 and the cal~ulatcJ lower. and we ,hould refer the analysis 10 a burner supphed.)
molecular wc1gh1 of CO would equal 28. Also ,rthe amount of fuel Ii red i!> very large. 1hen we can ruo om
of oxygen in the ga, s1remn. Supplementary firing or auxiliary
V, = 1367 co firing can double or even quadruple the s1eam genenition in the
where CO is the pounds of CO per MM 81u lirctl on higher boiler compared to its unlired 111odcl of operation l 11. The energy
heating value basi;.. Q in Bru/ hr requi red to raise W, lb/hr of exhaust gases from a
Now repeal the calculations for 30% excess air: 1cmpcrature of I I lo 1, 1s given by

Wgm = 986.6. Y=
100
I 189. Q = W,,. X (/11 - h 1)
HXl - 15.96
where
MW = 27.77. o, = 4.43
1, , lr = enthalpy of the gas ill /1 and,,. respeclively.
1 2
N 27.77
V,, = 10' X 1.189 X
46
X
986.6
The fuel quanti1y io lb/hr is Wr in Q/LHV. where LHV h, the
lower heating value of the fuel in Btu/ lb.
18 If 0% volume of oxygen is available in the exhaust gases, the
X = 832 X N
21 - (4.43 X 1.189) ix1uivalent .imount of air W,, in the exhaust is 191
: hu,, independcnl of excess air, we obtain 832 a, the convcr.,ion
100 X IV X O X 32
factor for NO, and 1367 for CO. \.¥;, = 23 X 100 X 29.5
Similarly. the No. 2 oil and using values from Table 2. IO.
In this equation we arc merely converting the moles of oxygen
V,, = 783 N and V, = 1286 CO from volume to weight basis. A molecular weigh1 of 29 .5 is used
EXAMPLE for the ex haust ga,e,, ,md 32 for oxygen. The ractor I 00/23
If a narural g,_1s burner generates 0. 1 lh of NO, per MM Btu Ii red. con vcrls the ox ygcn to air.
then the ettu, valcnt would ix1ual 832 x 0. 1 = 83 ppmvd. (22)
ii/, = 0.04 17 X If, X 0
Now let us relate the air required for combustton with fuel fired .
2.27
From Q l.03 to Ql.05 we know that each MM Btu of fuel tired
Q: In gas turbine cogeneration and combined cyc le projects the heat on an HIIV basis rcquir~s a constant amount A of air A is 745 for
recovery steam generator may be !ired with auxi liary fuel in oil nod 730 for natural gas; thus. 10''/HHV lb of fuel requires A
order_to ~~ncrale additional steam. One or the frequcn1ly asked lb of ai r Hence Q/LHV lb of fuel requires
questions concerns the con,umpt1on of oxygen in the exhaust ga,
Q HHV
versus fuel quan~ily fired. Would there be sufficient oxygen 111 x A x lh or air
the exhaust to raise the exhaust gas to the desired temperature'? LHV 10''
and lhis equ.ils ii(, from t2~) .
,\: Gus turbine exhaust g.ise, typically con tam 14 to 16% ox ygcn by
~olume_ compared to 21 'lf- in air. llcncc generally there is no need _ Q_ HHV 0.0417 \<I(, X O t23J
X A X
for add1t1onal oxygen to fire 11u,iliary fuel ,uch a, ga, or oil or LHV 10'
102 LldJlclJMlhy 103

or it is on an HHY or LHY basi;. The efficiency will be on the s,une

Q = 0.0417 X W,, X O X I 06 X
LHV basis.
(24)
AX HHV
EXAMPLE
Now for natural gas and fuel oils, it can be shown that LI IVt(A Lf t.he heat rate for a gas turbine is 9000 Btu/kWh on an LHV
x HHV) = 0.00124. Hence substituting into Eq. (24). we get basis, and the higher and lower heating values of the fuel are
Q = 58.4 X W,, X O (25) 20,000 and 22.000 Btu/lb. then
This is a very important equation, as it relates the energy input by . 3413
Efficiency on LHV basis = = 0.379. or 37 .9%
the fuel (on an LHV basis) with oxygen consumed. 9000
EXAMPLE To convert this efficiency to an HHV basis. simply multiply it by
It is desired 10 raise the temperature of 150.000 lb/hr of turbine the ratio of the heating values:
exhaust gases from 950°F to J 575°F in order to double rhe output 20.000
of the waste heat boiler. If the exhaust gases contain 15% volume Efficiency on HHV basis = 37.9 x = 34.45%
22.000
of oxygen, and the fuel input is 29 MM Btu/hr (LHV basis).
determine the oxygen consumed.
Solwio11. From (4), NOMENCLATUHE
6 A Theoretical amount of air for combustion per MM Btu
O = 29 X 10
3 ·32% fired. lb
150,000 X 58.4 =
c, co. co? Carbon, carbon monoxide. and carbon dioxide
Hence if the incom ing gases had 159r volume of oxygen, even c., Ash concentration in flue gas, grains/cu ft
after the firing of 29 MM Btu/hr. we would have 15 - 3.32 c, Specific heat, Btu/lb °F
= 11.68% oxygen in the exhaust gases. e Emission rate of sulfur dioxide. lb/MM Btu
A more accurate method wou ld be to use a computer program £ Exces~ air. 'JI
[9J. but the above equation clearly tells us if there is likely lo be a EA Excess a1r factor
shortage of oxygen. HHV Higher heating value. Btu/lb or Btu/scf
HR Heat rate, Btu/kWh
2.~8 2
h;, h" Inside and outside heal tran;fer coefficients, Btu/ft
Q: How can the fuel consumption for power plant equipment such Ju °F
as gas turbines and diesel engines be determined if the heat rates K Constant used in Eq. (7)
are known'! K1 , K? Con;tants used in Eqs. (IOa) and (IOc)
L1 to L5 Losses in steam generator. %
A: The heat rate (HR) of ga, turbines or engines in Btu/kWh refers LHV Lower heating value. Btu/lb or Btulscf
imlirectly to !he efficiency. MW Molecular weight
P,., ~.. PH,O Partial pressure, of carbon dioxide and water
Effi. 34 13
1c1cncy = UR vapor. atm
Partial pressure of sulfur tnoxidc. atm
where 3413 is the conversion factor from Bw/hr to kW. /\ctual and standard pressures. psia
One has to be careful about the basis for the heat rate. whether Differemial pressure. psi
H~I- <.,,u>upc.11l1y

Heal Joss. Btu,11 1 hr

"Q Energy, Rtuihr or I.. W
.\ Spcdfk gra"IIY
s Sulfur in fuel
Ill. If! TemperalUres uf air. ga,. J.
,,,. Mchmg 1>oin1 of ash. °C: tube wall 1cmpera1Ure. "C 3
r.r Acid de" po1111 temperature , K
0
T., . 11: Standard and actual icmperaturc,. R
Fluid Flow, Valve Sizing,
\,:. ~' Standard and actual volume,. cu It
V,. v,. CO and NO,. ppmvd and Pressure l)rop Ccllculation~
Weight of air. lbilb luel; ,ub~npr da \land, fnr drv
" air: wa. wet uir: wg. wet ias: dg. <lry ga, •
I\' Mo1,rurc. lb,hr
W,,. W,. 11} Flow rnte, of air. ga,. am.I fuel, Jblhr
11 Effidcncy. suh,crip1, HHV and I HV denote the ba,is
P Density. lbicu ft: subscript g stands for ga,. I for tucl

HEFEBENCES
\ Ganapa1hy. lp/Jlwl H,•ar Tr,111.,f,·r. PcnnWcll Boob, Tuha. 01.. 1.,.•
19X2, pp. 14-24. 3.01 S11ing. tlo" meters. di,tharge coefficients for orifice,. ,en·
' .\'orth ·1mrrinm Ctmrlnuti,JII 1/all(/boal.. 2nd cc.I • Non.h Amcrilan Mfg.
Co . Cll'vclan<I. Ohio, 1978. Pl' '}-40.
turis. and nou les: permanent pressure drop across rlow me-
te,...,, correctmg Mcam Ou" rcadmg, for d1ffcrcnt opcratmg
J Bahc<><:I.. anJ Wiko,. Sream. In <imuawm ,111,I Uu. 38th cd . l\cv.
condiuons
York, 11/78, p 6-2.
4 V Ganap.uhy. L\c chan to c,timatc: fum.k.',c p,,ramch.:I"\. H, drc,n,rl>cm
3.02: Siting nriticc, tor water !low measurement: avoiding trial-and-
/'roce.<1111g. Feb. 1982, p. 106.
V Uanap.ilh}. 1'1gurc part1<ula1c cmi'""" rate ~uickl). C/,,nurn/ E11R1- error pro,:cdure
11rl'r111,r:. Jul) 26, 19X2, p. 82,
6 V Oanapath)'. Nomugram c,11mah:, mehing ruint of a,h. l'cm·er l:.llxi· 3.03. Si11ng oriticc, for ,team tlov. mea,uremcnt
11,ai11i:. "1arch I978. p. 61
7 ASME. l'mr,•t ll'.\'I Coe.It·. Pcrfomiancc te,t l·o<le tor ,team ~cncra11ng 3.(>4· S1gnitic.mcc of pennanenl prc"urc drop in no" meters; co~, ol
umh. PTC 4 I. AS\1E Nev. Yori... 11174 - pcr1r1a11cnt pressure drop :1cro" flow meter,
8. V Oanap::llhy. EMiimuc comhu~uon ga, dcwpoint, Oil und Gm Jm,r-
'"'' April IQ7X. (l !OS 3.05: Conve11ing l)ilot tube rc!ldings 10 ail ve locity. llnw 1n duel\
() V Ganapa1hy, Wa<r,· Hrm /Jmlu DrdlN1ok, Ftummnl Pre" All.tnta.
Ga. tWI Si,ing safety valve, for hoilcr,: ASME Code procc<lurc
1tJ V Gan.ip,11hy, C'onvcrung ppm lo lbll'vlM Btu: an ca>\' me1hod. /'m ,·,·r 3 06:
F11.~i11eu111~. April 11/1/2. p ,2. -
3.07: Rchevmg capac i1ic, for ,team ,crvice: orifice uc,ignauons for
II K ) H,1ung. f'>red1ct1ng de\.\ poinh of ill'lc.l ga:-.c,. Clwmical J,,11,r:uu•,•r-
,,,~. Feb. 9. l'IXI p. 127 ,afcty , ahc,, rel.it mg ,ct and accumulat,·d mlct prc"ure,
10;
 F luid How. ValVl' Sizi, 1~ . c.md Pre. ·ssur(" nrop t:.11< ·uJu1 iont-- 107
IOG Ga11npc1rl1y

3.08: Selecting s.1fcty valves for boiler supcrheater: actual and re- 3.21: Calculating now in gpm and in lb/hr for fue l o ils; expansion
quired relieving capacities factors for fuel o ils at different temperature.~

3.09: Relieving capacities of a given safety valve on differe nt gase.s 3.22: Pressure Joss in natun d gas lines using Spit7.glas;, fomrnla

3.23: Calculating pressure drop of flue gas and air in ducts; friction
3.10: Relieving capacity of safety relief valve for liquid service
factors: equivalent diameter for rectangular duel\; Reynolds
number c.stimation
3.11: Determining re lieving capacity of a g iven safety valve on a ir
and steam service
3.24: Determining Reynolds number for superheated steam in tubes;
viscosity of steam; Reynolds number ror air flowing over tube
3. 12: Sizing control valves; valve coefticient C,
bundles
3. I3: Calculating C,. for steam service; saturated and superheated
3.25: Determining flow in parallel passes of a supcrhcater
steam: critical and noncritical flow

3.1 4: Calculating C. for liquid service 3 .26: Equivalent length of piping system: equivalent le ngth of valves
and fittings
3.15: On cavitation: recovery factors
3.27: Pressure d ro1) of air a nd flue gases over plain tube bundles:
friction factor for in-line and staggered arrangements
3.16: Selecting valves for laminar flow
3.28: Pressure drop of a ir and flue gases over finned tube bundles
3.17: Calculating pressure Joss in water line; determining friction
fa_ctor for turbulent flow: equivalent le ngth o f piping; viscosity 3.29: Factors influencing boiler circularion
o t water
3.30: Purpose of determining circulation ratio
3. 18: Pressure loss in boiler supcrhcatcr; estimating friction factor in
s mooth tubes: pressure drop in s mooth tubing; Reynolds num- 3.3 I: Determining circulation ratio in water tube boilers
ber for gases
3.32: Determining circulation ratio in fire tube boilers
3. 19: Determining pressure drop under laminar condit ion;,: pressure
drop in fuel o il lines; effect of temperature on specific volume, 3.33: Dete rmining stea111 llow in blowoff lines
viscosity of oi ls
3.34: Sizing boiler blowdown lines
3.20: Pressure drop for viscous liquids: fricrion factor under turbu-
lent conditions 3.35: Stack height and friction losses
10~ Gnnapa1l\y Fluict Flo,,•. valve Sizin~. and PT('~!-illr<' urop Calnllalions

these conditions . Because of different pla11t load requircmems ,

Q: How are flow mercrs sized? the steam parameters are now 900 psi a and 800°F. If rhe differen-
tial pressure is 200 in. WC, whal is the steam llow'!
,\: The basic cquarion for pressure differemial in head merers (ven-
luri, noules. orifices) is [ I] /\: From Eq. (la).
/h
W = 359YC,,d;, (Ia)
w ex vph "' ..;-;
v/ - 13•
where
where
W = now of rhe tl uid. lb/hr W = steam Jlow, lb/hr
,, = specific volume. cu ftilb
d,, = orifice diamc1er. in. h = differential pressure, in. WC
Y = expansion factor. which allows for changes in densi-
p = density . lb/cu ft
ty of compressible fluids (for li,1uids Y = l, and
for mosl gases it varies from 0.92 10 1.0) From the steam tables (see che Appendix).
13 = ralio of orifice 10 pipe inner diameler = d,,ld, v, = 0.4553 cu ft/lb al 1600 psia, 900°F
p = density of lluid, lb/cu 1'1
v2 = 0.77 I6 cu fVlh at 900 psi a. 800°F
CJ = a coefficient of charge
11 1 = 180, h, = 200. and \V 1 = 80.000. We need lo
C,1 may be taken as 0.61 for orifices and 0. 95 10 0.98 for venturis
find w,.
and no1.1.les. ll is a complica1ed function of Reynolds number
and orifice sue. The pem1anenl pressure drop. tip , across a Jlow 180 X 0.77 16
rnc1cr is imponant, as it means loss in power or addilional = 200 X 0.4553
= 1.235
consumplion of energy. It is lhe highest for orifices [2]:
Hence W2 = 64 ,770 lb/hr.
t:,.p = h X (I - 132) ( I b)
For nozzles. 3.02
I - 13' Q: Determine the orifice size to limit the differential pressure to I 00
t:,.p =h X
I + 132
( le) in . WC when 700 lb/sec of water at 60°F Jlows in a pipe of inner
diameter 18 in. The densicy of water is 62.4 lblcu ft.
and for venturis il depend, on the angle of divergence but varies
from JO to 15% of/,. Q3.04 diswsses the signil1cance of perma- A: Equation ( la) is not handy to use when it is required to solve for
nent prcssu re drop and lhe cosl associated with ii. the orifice diameter ii•. Hence, by s uhslitutmg for 13 = djcl; ,md
simplifying, we have
:1.0JI) W = 359C Yd2 Vph l3' (2)
Q: The differential pressure across an orifice o f a steam llQw me1cr • ' v1 - w
s hows 180 in. WC when 1hc upstream conditions are 1600 psia This equation is easy to use eilher when orifice si£C i, needed or
and 900°F. The steam llo\\ was calibrared at 80.000 lbihr under when llow through a given orifice i~ required. The tcm1 i3
110 <Ja1,a1>athy Flui<I Flow, valve Sizing. t1ncl Prc·sstm· Drop CaKulc.11ions Ill

v I - ~ is a fUJ1ction of 13 and can be looked up rrom T<1blc 3. I. 3.04

SubsLituting for W = 700 x 3600, c.,
= 0 .61. Y = I. r =
Q: What is the sign iticance of a permanent pressure drop across the
62.4, and I, = 100, we have
flow measurement device'! 1.3 million scfli of natural gas with a
700 X 3600 = 359 X 0.61 X I X 182 V62.4 X 100 specific gravity of 0.62 at J25 psia is metered using an orifice
X F(l3) plate with a d ifferential head of 100 in. WC. The line size is 12
in. What are che operating costs involved? Assume that electrici-
or
ty costs 20 mi lls/kWh.
F(l3) = 0.45
From Tahle 3.1. by interpolation , we note that 13 = 0 .64. Thus A: TI1e first step is to size the orifice. Use a molecular weight of
the orifice diameter d., = 0.64 x 18 = 11.5 in. 0.62 X 29 = 18 to compute the density. (The molecular weight
of any gas = specific gravity X 29.J From QI .03,

3.03 p = 18 x 492 x ___1_;____

25
= 0.39 lb/cu fl
359 X 520 X 15
Q: Whal size of orifice is needed to pass a saturated steam flow of
26.480 lb/hr when the upstream pressure is 1000 psia :ind line (A temperature of 60°F was a.ssumed.) The density at standard
siLe is 2 .9 in . and the differential is not to exceed 300 in . WC? conditions of 60°F. 15 psia. is
492
A: U,ing Eq. (2) and substituting Y = 0.95, p = 1/v = 1/0 .4456 f) = 18 X
359 X 520
= 0.047 lb/cu ft
= 2 .24 lb/cu ft, and d, = 2.9, we have
Hence mass now io
W = 26.480 = 359 X 0.61 X 0.95 X 2.92 X F(l3)
W = 1.3 X 106 X 0.047 = 359 X 0 .61 X 122
x V2.24 x 300
X v'0.39 X 100 X F(l3)
Hence
F(13) = 0.31
F(l3) = 0.58
From Table 3. 1, 13 = 0.55, ,o 132 = 0 . 3. The permanent
From Table 3. 1, [3 = 0. 71. lie nee pressure drop, from Q3 .0 1, is
d,, = 0 .71 X 2.9 = 2.03 in. t,,p = (l - 132)/, = (I - 0 .3) x 100 = 70 in. WC
The horsepower consumed in developing this head is
b.P
Tnble 3.1 F(Jl) Values for Solving Eq. (2) HP = scfh x (460 + I) x P X 10 1
(3)
fl F(~) = ~2l YJ 13•
IL was assumed in the deriv.ition of Eq. (3) that compressor
0.3 0.09 efficiency was 75%. Substitution yields
0.4 0. 162
70
0.5 0.258 HP = 1.3 X 10° X 520 X
107 X 125
= 38
0.6 0.39
0.7 0.562 The annual cost of operation is
0.8 0.83
38 X 0.746 X 80()() X 0 .02 = $4535
IJ~
Flulcl Ho,,•, \",ll\'e Slzln~. t1n<I l'rc·~~un· Drop Calt ul,11inn..,

(8000 hours of orcr:u,on was assumed per year: 0.746 is 1hc If there arc only 1wo valves for a noilcr, 1hc capacily or the
fac1or convening horsepower 10 kilowan,.) smaller one mu,1 be 01 lea,1 50')f of that of 1hc larger one The
difference between drum pressure and the lowest sci valve may
3.05 be at least 5% above drum pressure bul never more 1han the
design pressure and nol lc., s than JO psi. The range between the
Q: Orten. pi101 1ubcs urc used 10 measure .ur velociucs m ducts in
loweM ,el boiler valve and the highest sci value is not lo be
order 10 cornpu1e 1he air now. A ri101 1u be in a duct handling 111r
greater 1han JO')[ o l the sel prc.ssurc or 1he lughcst set valve.
ai 200°F shows a differential of 0.4 in. WC. If the duc1 cross
Arter blowing. each valve is 10 c lose a1 97% of its sci pressure.
section 1s 4 fr. c,1ima1e the .iir veloci1y und the llow rn1c.
The highest sci boiler valve cnnno1 he ~Cl higher 1han 3'w over
/\: 11 can be shown (3J by subs1iru1ing p = 40/(460 I- 1) 1ha1 for a 1hc design pressure.
pilot, The gu idelines above an: ,omc of Lho,e used m selecting
safely valves For dcwil, 1he reader should refer 10 the ASME
V = 2.85 X \ h X \460 + I) (4) Code (4J.
where
V =
velocity. fps 3.07
ii -differential pressure. in. WC
Q: How arc 1hc c11pad1ics of sal'ety valves for steam service ueter-
1 = air or flue gas 1emrcra1ure. °F
mincd'!
V = 2.85 x Y0.4 x 660 = 46 fps
The air tlow rate in acfm will be 46 x 4 x 60 = 11.040 acfm . A: The rel ieving capaci1ic~ of safely valve, arc given hy the follow-
The now Win lb/hr = 11,040 x 60 x 40/660 = 40.145 lb/hr. ing cxpres.icins. ASME Colle, Sec I use, a 90% rat ing, while
IW = acfm x 60 x density. and densi1y = 40/(460 + I). l Sec . 8 uses a 100% rnling l5J .
IV = 45AP,,K,h (Sa)
3.()6
W = SOAP.,K,11 (Sb)
Q: How arc safety valves for boi lers sized'! where

A: The ASME Code for boilers and pressure vessels (Secs. I and 8) W = lb/hr of slcam relieved
describes lhe proceuure for si1.ing salety or relief valves. For A - no11.lc or 1hroai area of valve. in. '
boilers with 500 fl' or more of heating surface. two or more P,, = accumulated inlet pressure = P, x ( I + ace) +
safety valve, 111us1 be provided. Boilers with supcrhemers mus1 15. psia !The factor ace 1> the J'racllon of pressure
have at le.isl one valve on 1hc ~upcrhealcr The valves on 1hc accu mula1ion . J
drum muM relieve ;11 least 75",f of the 101al boiler capacity . P, = sci pre,surc. psig
Supcrhca1er valves mu,l relieve m least 20%. Boi ler, that have K,h = corrcclion faclOr for ,upcrhcal (see Hgure 3 . l J
rehcmcrs musl have at kasl one safct} valve on 1hc rchca1cr The noule areas of standard 1mlices arc specified by letters D
ou1lc1 capable of handling a minimum or 15% of the !low. The lO T and are given in Table 3. 2. for saturated ,1cam. the degree
remainder or 1he flow mus! be handled by valves ul the rchcalcr of supcrhea1 i, ,cni. ,o K,h = I The boiler s:1fo1y valves arc
inlcc. ,ized for J'k accumu l111ion
II+ Ganaf)alll~.. Fluicl FJo,,v. Vctlvc Sizir),-{. dlld Prc~..,ur<· Drop Cah..'uldtlun..;

Table 3.2 Orir.cc Designation

Type Arca (in. 2 )

D 0.1 10
E 0. 196
F 0.307
PRESSURE
PSIG G 0.503
H 0.785
J 1.287
K 1.838
K2 2.545
L 2.853
M 3.600
15 M2 3.976
N 4.340
p 6.380
Q J 1.05
R 16.00

A: The set pre~sure must be such that the supcrheater valve opens
before lhc drum valves. l-lence the set pressure can be ( 1500 -
60 - 40) = 1400 psig (60 is the pressure drop and 40 is a
0.7 .___ _.,___ __.__ ___._ _ _L __ _...__ _.J...._ _ _, margin). The inlet pressure P0 = 1.03 x 14()() + 15 = 1457
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 p~ia. From Figure 3.1 , K,11 = 0. 79.
TEMPERATURE.'F
W 130,000
A = 45K,,,P,,
= 2.51 in. 2
r:igure 3. l Correction factors for superheat 45 X 0 . 79 X 1457
We used a value of l 30,000 lb/hr. which is 20% of the total
boikr capacity . A K2 orifice i~ suitable. TI1is relieves (2.545/
3.08
2.51) x 130,000 = 131,550 lb/hr. The drum valves must re-
Q: Detcm1ine the sizes of valves to be used on a boiler that has a lieve 650,000 - 131,550 = 518.450 lb/hr. About 260,000
superheater: the parameters arc the following. lb/hr may be handled by each drum valve if two arc used. Let
Total steam generation = 650.000 lb/hr the fir.,t valve be set at 1475 p~ig, or
Design pressure = l 500 psig P., = 1.03 x 1475 + 15 - 1535 psia
Drum operating pressure = 14()() psig
Steam outlet temperature = 950°F
and 1he next a1 P., = 1575 psht.
Pressure accumulat ion = 3% 260.000
Supcrheater out let opcr.Hing pressure = 1340 psig
Arca of firs! valve: A = 45 x 1535
= 3.76 in. 2
llfi Fluid Flow. Valve Sizing, un(I PrC".S!-.t1re Drop ()-1ln1ta1ion-, 117

260.000 Table 33 Constam C for Gas or Vapor Related R<11io

Area of second valve: /I = = 3 .67 in . 2
10
45 X 1575 of Specific Heats (k = C/C,,)
Use two M2 orifices. which each have an area or 3.976 in .' Constant Constant Constant
Relieving capacities are k C k C k C
3.976 3.976 1.00 315 1.26 343 1. 52 366
3.76
+ 3.67
X 260,000 = 556.000 lb/hr
1.02 3 18 1.28 345 1.54 368
1.04 320 1.30 347 1.56 369
which cxceeus our requiremem of 520.000 lb/hr. 1.32 349 1.58 37 1
1.06 322
1.08 324 1. 34 35 1 l.f,0 372
3.Wa 1. 10 327 1.36 352 1.62 374
1. 12 329 1.38 354 1.64 376
Q: How is the relieving capacity or safety valves for gaseous service 1. 14 33 1 1.40 356 1.66 377
found 1 1.16 333 1.42 358 1.68 379
I. 18 335 1.44 359 1.70 380
A: The expression used for estimating the relieving capacity for 1.20 337 1.46 36 1 2.00 400
gases and vapors [ 6J is 1.22 339 1.48 363 2.20 4 12

~ 1.24 341 1.50 364

W = CKAP,, (6)
Source: Ref. 5.
where
C = a function of the ratio (kl o r specific heat~ of
(29
gases (Table 3.3) W,. = 356 X 0.98 X 0.503 X ( I.I X 100-'- 15) " ~
K = valve discharge coefficient. varies from 0.96 co
0.98 - 4990 lb/hr
P0 = accumu lated inlet pressure = P.( I + a~c) + 15.
(An ace value of 0. 10 was used ,,bovc.) From b<[ . (6). substitu1-
psm
ing MW = 17 and T = 5 10 for ammonia, we have
P., = set pressure. psig
MW = molecular weight of gas
T = absolute temperature, 0 R
Hence
w,.
\.Vu;mm
= J~~ X 5 10
X 560
= 1.24(,

3.09b 4990
wa11111l =
1.246
= 4006 lb/hr
Q: A safety valve is set for JOO psig for air ~crvicc al I00°F and uses
a G orifice . What is the relieving capacity 11' n is used on
3. 10.-l
ammonia service at 50°F. pressure being the same''
Q: How are the relieving capacitie~ for liquids determined?
A: Assume 1ha1 I. is nearly the same for both air ,md ammonia .
Hence for 1hc v,Llve, CKAP., is a com,1an1. For air. use C = 356, A: An expression for relieving capaci1y at 25% accurnulalion [51 is
K = 0.98. A = 0.503. MW = 29. and 'l' = 560 . q = 27.2AK, VP , - !\ (7)
l 111 Ganap.-11hy Fluid Flo"''· Val\·<· Sizing, and Preo;-.;ure Drop Caln 11a11ons IIU

where For air.

P, = sec pre.~sure, psig
W=CKAP,,~
P, = back pressure, psig
K, = VJ /.1·, s being 1he specific gravi1y C = 356. MW = 29. and T = 560°R for the case of air. Hence.
= orifice area. in. 2
A
q = capaci1y. gpm W., = 356 X 400.3 X J 560
= 32,430 lb/hr

Converting to acfm, we have

:;l.101) 15
q = 32.430 X 560 X 0 .081 X 492 X 465 X 60
Q: Dctennine the relieving capacity of a relief value on an econ-
omizer if the sel pressure is 300 psig, back pressure is 15 psig,
ands = I. The valve has a G orifice (A = 0.503 in .1) .
= 244 acfm
(The <lcnsity of air was cscimatcd at 465 psia and I00°F.)
/\: Using Eq. (7), we have
q = 27.2 X 0.503 X I X v'300 - 15 = 231 gpm 3.12
= 231 X 5()() = 115,000 lb/hr Q: How is the s ize of control valves for s team service determine<l?
Al 10% accumulaiion. q would be 0.6 X 231 = 140 gpm and
A: Control valves arc speci fied by C,. or valve coefficients. The
che flow W = 70,000 lb/hr. (500 i; the conversion factor from
manufacturers of control valves provide these values (see Table
gpm co lb/hr when s = I.)
3.4). The C,. provided must exceed the C,, required. Also, C, al
several point& of possible operation of the valve must be found,
and the best C,, characceristics that meet the load requirements
3.11 must be used, as con1rollahili1y depends on this. For example, a
Q: A safety valve bears a rating of 20,017 lb/hr at a set pressure of quick-opening characteristic (see Figure 3.2) is desired for on-
450 p~ig for saturaccd s1cam. If the same valve is to be usc<l for off service. A linear characteristic is desired for general tlow
air at the same set pressure and at 100°F, what is its relieving control and liquid-level control systems, while equal percentage
capacity? trim is desired for pressure control or in systems where pressure
varies. The control valve supplier mus t be con1acted for the
A: For a given valve. CKAP,, i, a constant if the set pressure is the selection and for proper actuator s izing.
same. (See Q3.09,1 for definition of these terms.) For the noncritical flow of sccam (P 1 < 2P2 ) 171,
For steam.
W X [I + 0.00065 X (I - 1.,)J (8)
20,017 = 50 x KAP,, C
'
= 2 . 11 X \/AP XI',
llcnce For cri tical llow (1' 1 ? 2P 1 ),
20,017 W x [I -+ 0.0(X)65 x (1 - I.JI
KAP(,=
50
= 400.3 c,. = 1.85 X P,
(9)
Tobie 3.4 Flow Coefficient C,.
Bu<ly Port
~i,.e
Total Valve l)pening (1 iota! lrdvel) K.,., ~
diameter travel and
(ln.l (in.) (in l JO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 CI
¼ lf.1 .y, 0.075 0. 115 0. 165 0.230 0 .321 0.448 0 .625 0.870 1. 15 1.47 0 70
¾ ¼ 0. 120 0. 190 0.305 0.450 0.628 0.900 1.24 1.68 2. 18 2.69 0 .80
½ % 0.235 0 400 0.600 0 .860 1.16 1.65 2.15 2.85 3.40 1.66 0 .70
¼ 1/.& 0.075 0 I 15 0 165 0 .230 0.321 0.448 0.625 0.870 1.20 1.56 0.80
1/, ¼ 0 .1 20 0. 190 0.305 0.450 0 .630 0 9!0 1.35 I.Q7 2.78 3.68 0.70
½ -¼ 0.235 0 .41 0 0.610 0.900 1.26 I 80 2 .50 J .45 4.50 5.36 0.70
1/-<1 ¾ 0.3~0 0 .700 1.1 0 1.57 2.36 3.40 5 00 6 .30 6 .67 6 .95 0 .75
l'/2 ¼ ¾ 0.075 0. 115 0. 165 0.230 0.321 0.448 0.625 0.870 1.20 1.56 0 .80
Y11 ¼ 0 . 120 0 . 190 0 .305 0.450 0.630 0.9 10 1.35 1.97 2.78 .1.68 0 70
½ ¼ 0.'.26S 0.420 0.620 0.9 15 1.3 I 1.90 2.64 3.65 4 .56 6 .04 0.80
Y-1 ·¼ 0.380 0 .700 1.1 0 I 65 2 .15 3.70 5.30 7. 10 S.88 10.2 0.75
·¼ 0 .930 1. 39 2. 12 3. 10 -1..14 6. 12 8. 13 10. l I 1.5 12.2 0.75
2 \I, 1/.1 0.075 0 . 115 0. 165 0.230 0.321 0.448 0625 0.870 I 20 1.56 0.80
Y, % 0. 120 0 . 190 (J.305 0.450 0.630 0.9 10 1.35 1.97 2 78 3.68 0.70
½ ¼ 0. 265 0.420 0.620 U.9 15 I.J I I 90 2.64 3.65 -1.89 6.44 0.70
y, ¼ 0.380 0 .700 1. 10 1.65 2.45 3 70 5 53 $.00 10 .3 12.3 0.70
I ¼ 0.930 1.39 2. 12 .l. 10 4.50 6.45 9.3 1 12.9 15.7 17.8 0.75
I Y, ¼ 0.957 1.45 2.31 3.70 6.05 9.86 15.2 20.2 22.0 22.0 0.79
3 ¼ ¼ 0.075 0. 115 0 . 165 0 .230 0.321 0.448 0.625 0.870 1.20 1. 56 0.80
Y, 'I, 0. 120 0. 190 0 .305 0.450 0.630 0.9 10 1.35 1.97 2.78 1. .(,8 0 70 -
1/i
-1/..
¼
'I,
0.265
0.380
0.420
0.700
0.620
1.1 0
0 .9 15
1.65
1.3 I
2.15
1.90
.l .70
2.64
5 .70
3.65
8.66
4 .89
12 ..1
6.-14
14.8
0 70
0.65
~
¼ o. ()J() 1.39 2. 12 3. 10 4.50 6.70 ~-'!O 11.2 17.9 23 6 0.65 ~
IY, I¼ 1.1 5 2.29 3.41 4 77 6.44 8.69 12.S 19 .! 26.7 .l2.2 0 74 '<
2 I '/4 1.92 3. 13 4.83 7 93 12.6 24.6 35 .9 40.5 43.4 4-1.3 0.72

.c•• w
..
•
!i.
O':i.
PERCENT OF MAX1MUM FLOW
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122 Fh1id r-tow, Va lve.... Siiing, and Pre~!-:iurP l>rop C.alculdllur~

A: Since this is a case or noncritical flow . from Eq. (R). substituting From Ql.01 ,
1 = 800 and ,., = 596, we have W = 8qp
60,000 X [I + 0.00065 X (900 - 596)1 100,000
2. J J X \/3() X (1500 + ]470) q = 8 X 45
= 278 gpm
= 114 45
s = = 0.72
If the steam is saturated, I = t., and C,. = 95. We have to choose 62.4
from the valve supplier's catalog -
a valve that eoivcs this C, or t:.P = 50
more at 90 to 95% of the opening of the trim. This ensures that
the valve is operating at about 90'* of the trim opening and Hence
provides room for control.
C, = 278 X J 0.?2
50
= 34
3.13b
Q: In a pressure-reducing station. 20,000 lb/hr of steam at 200 psia, 3.IS
500°F is to be reduced to 90 psia. Detennine C,.
Q: How is cavitation caused? How is the valve sizing done to
A: Use Eq. (9) for critical flow conditions: consider th is aspect?
20,00() X [ l + 0.00065 X (500 382)J
C, = 1.85 X 200
58 A: Flashing and cavitation can limit the flow in a control valve for
liquid. The pressure distribution tnrough a valve explains the
(382 is the saturation temperature at 200 psi a.) phenomenon. The pressure at the vena c-0ntracta is the lowest,
and as the fluid flows it gains pressure but never reaches the
upstream pressure. If the pressure at the port or vena contracta
3.14 should drop below the vapor pressure corresponding to upstream
Q: Determine the valve coefficient for liquids. A liquid with density conditions, bubbles will form. If the pressure at the exit remains
45 lb/cu ft flows at the rate of 100,000 lb/hr. If the allowable below the vapor pressure, bubbles remain in the stream and
pressure drop is 50 psi. determine C,,. flashing occurs.
A valve has a certain recovery factor associated with it. If the
A: TI1e valve coefficient for liquid, C,., is given by [81 recovery of pressure is high enough to raise the outlet pressure
above the vapor pressure of the liquid. the bubbles will collapse
c,. = q ~ (10) or implode, producing cavitation. High-recovery valves tend to
be more subject to cavitation [9]. The formation of bubbles tends
where to Iimit the flow through the val vc. Hence the pressure drop used
q = flow, gpm in sizing the valve should allow for this reduced capacity. t:.P,u is
AP = pressure drop. psi used in sizing,
s = specilic gravity M.,11 = K'" (P 1 - r, I',.) ( 11 )
 Fluid I low, \'dh't· SIJ'lng, dll(I 1-'n.·..,.",urt• l)rop C:<.1lc.. Uldtiot1'i 12:-'i
I :!..I

where fJ.1/ )211 ( 12)

lam C, = 0.072 X ( t.P
K., = valve recovery coefficient (depends on val,c make)
P, = upstream pressure, psia Use the larger C, in the valve selection.(µ is the liquid viscosity
r, = critical pressure ratio (see Figure 3.3) in ccnupoise.)
P.. = vapor pressure at inlet liquid temperature, psia
Full cavitation will occur if the actual AP is greater than AP,11 3.17a
and if lhe outlet pressure i, higher than the nuid vapor pressure. Q: Determine the pressure loss in a 3-in. schedule 80 line carrying
If the actual l::i.P is less than AP,.11 • the actual J.P shou Id be used water al J00°F and 2000 ps,a if the total equivalent length is IOOO
for valve si7ing. To avoid cavitation, select a valve with a low ft. Flow is 38.000 lb/hr.
rc,ovcry factor (11 high K,.. factor).
A: The expression for turbulent now pressure drop of fluids (Reyn-
olds number > 2 LOO) is I l 1I
V
(J I low arc v,1lves selected for laminar flow and viscou5 liquids? 6P = 3.36 X 10 1
' X
2
JW L, ds ( 13)
'
J\: Calculate the turbulcnL now C, from Eq. ( 10) and the l;iminar C, where
from i lOJ
Al' = pressure los,. psi
f = Darcy friction factor
1.0
w = now. lb/hr
I., = cquivalenl length. rt (Q3.26 shows how the equiv.i-
I\ lcnt length can be computed)
0.9 v = specific volume of nuid, cu ft/lb
~ t/1 = tube inner diameter. in.
0

~
w
er:
~
w
f
0.8

0.1
I"-..
--- r-- r---
t-.....
For water at I00°F and 2000 p,ia, from Table I. I, 1• = 0.0 16. In
industrial he.it transfer equipment such as boilers. supcrhcaters.
ccono111i1.ers. and uir heaters. the fluid now b generally turbu-
lcnl. and hence we need no1 check for Reynolds number. (Q3.24
show:, how Re can be found.) However, let us quickly check Re
"'
J

..
~
ii
here:
o 0.6 w ( 14)
Re = 15.2
d,µ
Referring to Table 3.5. wmcr viscosity. JJ,. nt l00°F is 1.645 lblft
0.5
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3SOO hr.
VAPOR PAESSURE- 0 SIA 38.000
Re = 15.2 X = 121.070
Figure '.L ! Cricical pressure ratio, for w:11cr. 2.9 X I 645
Tahlc- 3.S Viscosity of Ste.im and Wa1er (lb mlhr flJ

Pressure (p;ia)
Temp. (0 1') l 2 5 10 10 50 100 200 500 1(100 1()00 5(XXl
1500 O.ll'J<J6 0.(l996 0.(1996 0.0996 0.0996 0.0996 0.(1996 0.0996 0. IOCJ8 0. 1008 0.1019 0. J()(,6
1400 0.0938 0.0938 0 .0938 0.0938 0.0938 0 0938 0 0952 0.0952 0.0952 0096 1 0.0973 0. 1019
1300 0.0892 0.0982 0.0892 0.0892 0.0892 0.0892 0.0891 0 .0892 0.0892 0.09\B 0.0915 0.0973
1200 0.0834 0 .0834 0.0834 0.0834 0.0834 0.0834 0.0834 0.0834 0.0846 0.0846 0.0867 0.0926
11 ()() 0.0776 0 .0776 0.0776 0.0776 0.0776 0.0776 0 .0776 IJ.0776 0 .0788 0.0799 0 .0811 0.0891
IOCK> 0.0730 0.0730 0.0730 0.0730 0.0730 0.0730 0.0730 0.0730 0.0730 0.0741 0.0764 0.0857
900 0.0672 0 .0672 0.0672 0.0672 0.0672 0.0672 0.0672 0.0672 0.0683 00683 0.0707 0.0846
800 0.0614 0.0614 0.06 14 0 .0614 0 .0614 0.0614 0.0614 0.0614 0.0625 0 .0637 00660 0.0973
70() 0.0556 0.0556 0.0556 0.0556 0.0556 1).0556 0.0568 0.0568 0.0568 0.0579 0.0625 0.171
600 0.0510 0.05 10 0.0510 0.0510 0.0510 0.0510 0.05 10 0.05 10 0.05 10 0.0510 0 .210 0 22 1
500 0 0452 0.0452 0.(1452 0 .0452 0.0452 0.0452 0.0452 0 .0440 0.0440 0.250 0 .155 0.26K
400 0 .0394 0.0394 0.0394 0.0394 0.0394 0.0394 0.0394 0.0382 0.317 0.320 0.3'.!J 0.335
300 0.0336 0.0336 0.0336 0.0336 0.0336 0.0336 0.44 1 0.442 0.444 0.-145 0.448 0.460
250 0 .0313 0.03 13 0.031.l 0.03 13 0 03 13 0.551 0 .551 0.551 0.552 0.554 0 .558 0.5(19
200 0.0290 0.0290 0.0290 0.0290 0.725 0.725 0. 725 0.726 0.729 0.729 0.732 0.741
150 0 .0255 0.0255 1 032 1.032 1.032 1.032 1.032 1.032 1.033 1.034 1.037 1 044
100 1.645 1.645 1.645 1.645 1.645 1.645 1.645 1.645 1.645 1.646 I .6-16 lMK
50 3. 144 3 144 3. 144 3. 144 3.144 3. 144 3. 144 3. 142 3. 141 , . 139 ,.1>4 3.119
32 -1.240 4.240 4.240 4.240 4.240 4.240 4.140 4.239 4.236 4.231 4.222 4 192

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1:18 Ganap.·Hhy Flui<I Plow, Valve Sizing, ,Jn(I Prc..·1,~urc~ l>rop c:..11n1Jc;11lons

3. 18a Table 3.7 Viscosity of Air

Q: How does friction factor depend on pipe roughness'? Viscosity
Temperature (°F) tlbtft lu)
A: For smooLh tubes such as copper and mher hem exchanger tube~.
100 0 .0459
Iis given by l 12J
200 0 .0520
f = 0.133 X Rc - 0174 ( 15) 400 0.062
600 0.0772
Substituting this in Eq. {13) gives us
8()() 0.0806
f = 0.0267 X p0 ·g261 X µ" 114 X
y1 ,x26

d', 174
( 16)
1000
1200
0.0884
0.0957
' 1400 o. )()27
(µ is the viscosity, lb/ft hr: V is the velocity, fps.) 1600 0. 1100
1800 0.1512

3.18b
Q: Determine the pressure drop per 100 ft in a drawn copper tube of :'l.19a
inner diameter 1.0 in. when 250 lb/hr of air a1 a pressure of 30 Q: Derive the expression for M' for laminar flow of Ouids .
psig and a1 100°F Oows through ii.
A: For laminar flow of fluids in pipes such as that occurring with
/\: Calculale the density (sec Chapter I): oils, the friccion factor is

45 64 (17a)
p = 29 X 492 X
359 X 560 X 15
= 0.2 13 lb/cu ft f = Re

The effect of pressure can be neglected in the estimation o f Substituting into Eq. ( 13) and using Eq. (14) gives us
viscosity of gases up to 40 psig. For a detailed computation of L, X 1•
viscosity as a function of pressure, readers may refer to the !1P = 3.36 X 10- 1• X 64 X d,µW1
15.2 X Wd~
author's book, Ref. 11. From Table 3.7, µ = 0.047 lb/ft hr. The vµ
velocity is = 14.4 X JO " X W X L, X - 14 ( 17b)
( '
576
V = 250 X
3600 X 3.14 X 02 13
= 60 fps Converting lb/hr to gph (gallons per hour) , we tan rewrite this as
gph
11P 11P = 4.5 X 10 • X L, X cS X s X J' (J 8)

JOO = 0.0267 X 0.213°· 8267

X 0.047"·11' '
where
6()1 X2(,
X = 7. 7 psi
cS = visco&ity. ccnt istokes
s= specific grnvity
1'10 rJuld Flow, Valve Sizin~. <m(I Pressure nrop calcu.larlonc., 131

Equation ( 18) is convenient for calcula1ions for oil !low situa- Substituting into Eq . (17b) yields
tions.
t:,,p = 14 X 10 • X 54.6 X 7000 X 100
I
:1.19b
X = 9.42 psi
0.91 X 62.4
Q: Estimate the pressure drop per HX) ft in an oil line when the oil
has a specific gravity of 16°API and is at 180°F. The line size is
l.0 in., and the flow is 7000 lb/hr. 3.20a
A: We must estimate Re. To do this we need the viscosi1y [13) in Q: For viscous fluids in turbulent flow , how is the pressure drop
ccntistokcs: determined?
195 A:
cs = 0.226 ssu ssu for SSU 32 Lo l 00 ( l 9) For viscous fluids, the following expression can be used for 1he
friction faclor:
135
cS = 0.220 SSU ssu for SSU > 100 (20)
J=
0.316 (21)
Re"·,,
SSU represents the Sayboh seconds, a measure of viscosity. Substituting in!o Eq. (13) gives us
Also, cS x s = cP, where cP is the viscositv in centipoisc and
0.4 l3 cP = I lb/ft h1·. , ' 11P = 3.36 X I0- 6 X 0 .3()1 X (d1µ)°' 22L, W2
The specific gravity is to be found . At I 80°F. from Eq. (23) V
(see Q3.2 1) it can be s hown that the specific volume al 180°F is X

0.0176 cu fl/lb. Then V

= 0.58 X ,o -6 X µll 22w• 18L
' X
d. 1, (22)
I
s = = 0.91 '
0 .0 I 76 X 62.4
Hence cP = 0.9 1 x 24.83 . where 3.20b
135 Q: A fuel oil system delivers 4500 lb/hr of light oil at 70°F in a pipe.
CS = 0.22 X 118 -
118
= 24.83
What is 1he flow that can be de livered at 30°1", assu mi ng that
and f.t.7olfJ-:Jo = 0.5. v1 ,/v.., = 0.95. and flow i~ 1urbulent?
µ. = 2.42 X 0 .9 1 X 24.83 = 54.6 Jb/ft hr
A.: Using Eq. (22), we have
7000
Re = 15.2 X
0.91 X 24.83 X 2.42
= 1948 v, \V: 78µ.~ 22 = v1W4 ,sµ.~·.?:!

(2.42 was u;cd !O conven cP Lo lblft hr.) From Eq. ( 17a) , 45001. 78 X 0.5 11 22 X 0.95 = W/ 78
64 or
l= 1948
= 0.0328 W1 = 4013 lb/hr
 F luid Flow, V <1lvt· Siz111g, anti Pre ssure Drop Ca l<·111a 1ious

3 .2 1 Hence
Q: 0 .01836
What is the flow in gpm if I000 lb/hr of an oil of specific gravity q, 0, = lOOO X = 0.306 c fm = 0 .306 x 7.4R
(60/60. F) = 0.9 1 flows in a pipe at 60°F and at I 68°F? 60
= 2 .29 gpm
t\: We need LO know the dens ity al 60°F and at 168°F.
A t 60°F:
3.22
Density = p = 0. 9 1 x 62.4 = 56. 78 lb/cu fl
Q : How is the pressure loss in natural gas lines detennined'/ Deter-
I mine the line si1.e Lo limit the gas press ure drop to 20 psi when
= 0.0 176 cu fl/lb
56.78 20.000 scfh of natural ga~ of SJ:>ecific gravity 0. 7 nows with a
source pressure o f 80 psig. The length of the pipeline is 150 ft.
Hence at 60°F.
1000 r\: The Spilzglass fonnula is widely used for compressible fluids
If = 60 X 56.78
= 0. 293 cu ft/ min (cfm) [ 13 ]:
= 0.293 X 7.48 = 2.2 gpm Pi - P~
q = 3410 X F
sL
(24)
At 168°F. the specific volume o f fuel oi ls increases with tem-
perature: where

v, = ''•u[ I + F.(t - 60) ] (23) q = gas now. scfl1

s = gas speci fic gravity
where F. is the coefficient o f expansion as given in Table 3.8 P 1 • P1 = gas inlet and exit pressures. psia
I 13]. For lhis fue l o il , J:: = 0.00<)4. Hence. F = a function o r pipe inner diamete r (,cc Table 3. 9)
v,61< = 0 .0176 X (I + 0 .0004 X 108) = 0.01836 cu ft/lb L = length of pi pel ine. ft
Substituting, we have
952 751
T a ble 3 .8 Expansion Factor for Fuel Oils
20,000 = 34 10 X F \ I 0.7
-
X ISO
He nce F = 1.03 . From Table 3 .9 we see 1h.at d shoul<.l be l ¼ in .
F,
Choosing the next higher ,tandard Ford limit, the pressure <.lrop
14.9 0.00035 to desire<.l values. Alternatively , if q. d, L. an<.l P, are given. P1
15-34.9 0 00040 can be fo und .
35- 50.9 0.00050
5 1-63.9 0.00060
64-78.9 0 .00070 :~. 2:~
79--88.9 0 .00080 Q: Determine the pres,urc Joss in a rectangular due l 2 f't by 2.5 fl in
89-93.9 0.00085 cross section if 25.000 lb/hr of flue gases at 300°F llow through
94-100 0.00090 it. The equiva lent length i~ 1000 fl.
,:~l (idm11>ml1y F hii<I Ho,"'· Valve Si1.inS,t. an<l l">f(.'.....~urc Uro1, C:dh·ul1.U icH1~ l .l5

Tal>le :i.n S1:111durd S1ccl Pipe" Darn (Black, Galvan,zcd, Welded. 0.316 (25)
and Seamlcs.,) f= Re013
Function, We make use of 1he equivalent diameter calculated earlier !Eq.
Nominal Ou1,idc Inside W:ill ol im,u.le (14)1 while computing Re:
pipe Site dir11nc1cr <liamctcr thickni!\!'I diameter
Schedule• (in.)
w
lin. (mm) I (111 (mnl) I (in.) F' (in.) Re= 15.2 - -
d,µ
'A< (6) 40 0.405 (10.2) 0.269 0.068 O.(~~JR•1
From Table 3. 7 at 300°F. µ = 0.05 lblft hr.
¼ (II) 40 0.540 ( 13.6) 0.364 0.08~ 0.024!
y,, ( 10) 0.675 (17.1) O.O'JI 25,000
40 0.493 0 059!
Re = 15.2 X = 285,285
½ ( 15) 40 0.840 (21 .4) 0.622 0. 1()9 0.117 26.64 X 0.05
¼ (20) 40 1.050 (26.9) 0.824 0. 11 3 0265
(25) 40 1.3 15 (33.8) 1.049 0. 11 3 o.s:n Hence
I I/, (32) 40 1.660 (42.4) 1.380 0 140 I 17 0.3 16
I½ (40) 40 I. 900 (48.4) 1.610 0.145 1.82 J= = 0.0 14
2 (50) 40 2.375 (60.2) 2.067 0 154 3.67
2½ (65) 40 2.875 (76.0) 2.469 0 203 6 02 For air or flue gases. pressure loss is gencndly expressed in in.
3 (80) 40 3.5()() (88.8) 3.0611 0.2 16 11 .0 WC and not in psi. The following equation gives l!,.P, 11 1I:
4 ( I (X)) 40 4.5()() ( 114.0) 4.026 0.237 22.\>
5 ( 125) 40 5.563 ( 13<).6) 5.047 0.25K 41 'J .6.Pt = 93 X 10-• X f X W2 X i' X ~~ (26)
6 C150) 40 6.625 ( 165.2) 6.065 0.280 68.0
8 (200) 40 8.625 (219.1) 7.981 0.322 138 where d; is in inches and the specific volume is 1• = llp.
8 (200) 30 8.625 8.071 0.277 142
40
10 (250) 40 10.75 (2H.O) 10.020 0.%5 247 p = = 0.526 lb/cu ft
10 (250) 30 10.75 10.136 0.307 254 460 + 300
12 (300) 40 12.75 (323.9) l 1.938 0 406 382 Mcnee
12 (300) 1() 12.75 12.090 0 330 395
• ASTM A53·<>~. sumdurd pipe. \I = = )9 cu fl/lb
tuOO x m;cumum internal ,crviccprc~:-.un:, Jl"il:I,
0.0526
"Sch<.-dulc number:; arc opprox \'alue, ol
ullowuble~.uess in rn,uenal. psi Sub,tituting int11 Eq. (26). we have
..,.. =
V,i(I + 0.03,/ + 3.6!,/) for u~c 111 S(litt.glu~i. forinul::i 5f2J tor ~:1., ltne pres:-.ure loi.:,, .6.P, = 93 X 10 '' X (l.014 X 25.000' X 19
Sm,rct. Adapted I rom Rel 13
X IOOO = 1.16 in. WC
(26.64)'
1\: The equivalent diameter of a rectangular duct 1, given by
b 2.5
d,=2X11X
(/ + /, =2 X 2 X
4.5
= 2.22 ft
3.2-~a
= 26.64 in. Q: Detem1ine the Reynold, number when 500.000 lblhr of super-
1l1e friction factor fin turbulent now region for now ,n ducts and heated steam at 1600 p;ig and 750°F nows through a pipe of
1>ipc, is given by I 11 I inner diamclcr 10 in.
 Gcllldf>alll)' Fluid Flcn,v, valvt· S i7 ing. r.11ld l"'rrsMire l>r<>11 c:all ult1li<ms 137

/\: The viscosity of ~uperheaccd ~team docs not vary as much wi 1h Equ1valen1
Inner
pressure as it docs with temperature (see Table 3.5). clmmecer lenglh
Tube no.
µ = 0.062 lb/ft hr (pass no. ) (in.) (ft)

Using Eq. ( 14), we have 2.0 400

2 1.75 350
w 500,000
Re = 15 .2 X = 15.2 X 3 2.0 370
d,µ 10 X 0.062
= 1.25 X (07
Total steam now is 15,(J(Xl lb/hr. and average steam condition,
:3.2 .+b are 800 psia and 750°F.
Q: Determine the Reynolds nu mbcr when hot air nows over a tube
hundle. A: As the passes arc connected between the same headers, Ille
pressure drop in each wi ll he the same. Also, the total steam flow
Air mass velocity = 7000 lb/ft! hr will be equal 10 the s um of the flow in each. Thai 1s ,
Temperature of air film = 8()0°F
Tube size = 2 in . OD !1P 1 = AP 2 = !!i.P.,
T ransverse pitch = 4.0 in. In other words, u~ing the pressure drop correlation, we have
I
L ') Le~ W.,J, LrJ
/\: The Reynolds number when gas or fluids now over tube bundles Wf/1 X ,/, ' = Wif2 X -d5 = j ~ X JS
is g iven by che expression \l 1 i1 13

Gd and
Re = (27)
12µ W, + 1¥2 + W3 = total flow
where The effect of variations in s team properties in lhe various IUhes
G = fl uid mass velocity. Jbift2 hr can be neglected. as its effect will not be very s ignificant. .
d = tube outer d iamete r, in. Substim1ing the data and using J from Table 3 .6 , we obtam
µ = gas viscosity, lb/ft hr 1¥1 1- W2 + w, = 15,000
A l 800°F, the air viscosity from Table 3. 7 is 0.08 lb/ ft hr; thub 400 350
Wf X 0.0195 X 7 = Wi X 0.02 X
( I. 75) 5
2
Re = 7000 X = 14,580 370
12 X ().08 = W5 X 0.0195 X
7 = a constant

3.25 Simplifying and solving for flow,, we have

Q: There are three tubes connected between two headers of a s upcr- w, = 5353 lb/hr. 1¥2 = 4054 lb/hr, W, = 5591 lb/hr
heatcr, and it is required to determine 1he flow in each parn llc l TI1is type of calculation is done 10 check if each pass receives
pass. following are 1he dc1ails of each pass. adc.1ua1e steam flow to cool 1t. Note that pas;, 2 had the lcas1
 Fluid r lo\>v, v'-1lvt· Si1.i11J.t, tHlcl Pres..,ure l)rop C,1lndu1hJn...
I. II\ C,c.Hl<-1S>c-lll )Y
"90° b~nd has 5.17 fl of equivaleni length. lne equivalent length
now, and hence a metal tcmpcr,nurc ched. must be pcrfom1ed. II'
the metal temperature is high. the tube length ur 1ubc sizes must of ;di valves and fittings i,
be modified 10 ensure that the tubes are protected from overheat- 3 X 58.6 X 17.2 + 3 X 5. 17 = 208.5 fl
ing. Hence the total equivulent length b ( 100 + 208.5) = 30!1.5 ft.
:3.2Ci
3.27
Q: How is the .:qui va lcnr lcnglh of a piping system determined'! I ()() Determine the pressure drop o r llue gases and air !lowing over a
ft of a piping system has three globe valves. u check valve, and
Q:
tube bundle under the following conditions:
three 90° bends. If the li ne size is 2 in .. dc1ermine the towl 2
equivalent lcnglh. Gas 111as, velocity = 7000 lb/ft hr
Tube site = 2 in. OD
/\: The total equivalent lenglh is the sum of the deve loped lengt h nf Transverse pitch = 4.0 in.
the piping plus the equivalent lengths of valves. fittings. and Longitudinal pitch = 3.6 in.
bends. Table 3.10 gives the equivalent length of valves and Arrangement: in-line
fittings. A globe valve has 58.6 fl , a check valve has 17 .2 ft, and Average gas temperature = 800°F
Numhcr of row~ deep = 30

A: The rollowing procedure may be u~ed to determine gas pressure

T able 3.10 Equovulcnt Length L, for Va.Ives drop over tube bund les in in-line and staggered arrangements
and Fittings' 11 I ].
Pipe size
(in.) 1• 2" 3h 4h Cif', = 9.3 X I() oo X jG 1 X (28)

I 0.70 8.70 30.()(l 2.60 where

2 1.40 17.20 60.00 5.20
3 2.00 25.50 87.00 7.70
G = g11s mass velocity. lbifl1 hr
4 2.70 33 .50 l 14.00 10.00 6.f',, = ga. pressure drop, in. WC
6 4.00 50.50 172.00 15.20 f = friction factor
8 5.30 33.00 225.00 20.00 p, = gas density. lb/cu ft
10 6.70 41.80 284.0() 25.00 N11 = numher of rows deep
12 8.()() 50.()() 338.()() 30.()() where. for in-line arrangement for S,/(/ = 1.5 to 4.0 and for
16 10.00 62.50 425.00 37.50
2000 < Re < 40.000 [ 12],
2() 12.50 78.40 533.()() 47 (){)

~
O.O&S,lcl ) (29)
11
4 = Kc//12/. where ti, the pipe mncrd11une1cr(m.) and
1.s
A ,~ 1hc number ot ve.locuy heads (~Ldapted fro111 Crane
f = Re 11 1
' X 0.044 + (S,td _ l )o•J•• ,.,.s,
Technical P.Jpcr ~ Ill). f" 1ho Darcy fnc11un ra.ior. wheres,. is the 1ransvcr.,c pitch and S1 is the longitudmal pitch.
••1, Cah! vitlvc, fully open; 2, swmg check valve. fully
OJ>en: 3, globe val,e. fully open: 4. 1)(1' elbow. in.
140 F luid Plow. Valve· Sizin~. ancl Pressure.· orop (:t,lculo11ion.<,. 141

ror a staggered arrangement for S,.ld = 1.5 to 4.0, Average gas temperature = 800°F
Tube size = 2.0 in.
= '6 X (o.25 0.1175 )
f Re + 1 (30) Transverse pitch S.,. = 4 .0 in.
(Srld - I) ' "'
Longitudinal pitch S1 = 3.6 in.
In the absence of information on gas properties, use a molecu- Number of rows deep = 10
lar weight of 30 for Oue gas. 1l1en, from Chapter I,
492 A: The equation of Robinson and Briggs [ 11) may be used in the
P, = 30 X
359 X (460 + 800)
= 0.0326 lb/cu ft absence of site-proven data or correlation provided by the manu-
facturer for staggered arrangement:
The viscosity is to be estimated at the gas film temperature:
however, it can be computed at the average gas temperature, and t:J>, =
the difference is not significant for Reynolds number computa- 1.58 X 10-, X G 1 6"" X d" 611 X f.1,0·"
6
X (460 + 1) X N11
tions.
S~"'? X sim X MW
From Table 3.7. µ. = 0.08 lb/ft hr. From Eq. (27), (3 1)
Re= Gd 7000 X 2
12 X 0.08 = l 4 ,SSO where
12µ,
G = gas mas~ velocity. lb/ft hr
From Eq. (29),
MW = gas molecular weight
d = tube outer diameter, inc.
f = (14,580) (Uj (o.044 + 0.()81 X 2 ) = 0.041.\4
F(r) = µ,0
316
X (460 + I)

30 S.r, SL = transverse and longitudinal pitch, in.

= 9.3 X (0 O X 0.0484 X 70002 X
0.0326 F(t) is given as a function of git, temperature in Table 3. 1I .
= 2.03 in. WC Substituting into Eq. (31) gives us

Sim ilarly, using Eq. (30) we can estimate M',; for a staggered t.P,, = 1.58 X 10- 8 X 6000 1 6"4 X 2"·" 11 X 556
arrangement. (()
X 12
Nore: The foregoing procedure may be used in the absence of 4°' x 3.6°m X 30
field-tested data or correlation.
= 3.0 in. WC

3.28 3.20
Q: Determine the gas pressure drop over a bundle of circumferen- Q: What is boiler circulation. and how is it detem1ined'!
tially finned tubes in an economizer when
A: The motive force driving the steam- wa1er mixture through boiler
Gas mass velocity of nue gas = 6(Kl0 lb/f12 hr tubes (water tube boilers) or over tubes (in lire tube boilers} is
(The method of computing G for plain and finned tubes is often the difference in dcnsi1y between the cooler water in the
discussed in Chapter +.) downcomcr circuits and the steam-water mixture in the riser
 rluld Flo'"'· v,,lvt• S izing, .-uul l'rc·o,surC" Drop c.-1h. uldrlon~

Tcll)le 3. 11 F(r) Versus I for Air or Flue Gases

l(F") F(r)

200 25 1
400 348
600 450
800 556
l(X)() •o
664 N

1200 776
1600 I
1003

rubes (Figure 3.4). A them1al head is developed because of this

difference, which forces a certain amount of steam-water mix-
ture through the system. This head overcomes several losses in
the system such as
8
Friction loss m rhc downcomers
Friction loss and flow acceleration loss in the risers and connec- •
JUII
•
ting pipe, to the drum
Gr.ivity loss in Lhe evapornt0r tubes and the nscr sys1em
Losses in the drum internals
C{l ftRING A.DAUM
Generally, the higher the drum operating pressure, the lower I. DOWN CON[RS
the difference between lhe densities of water and the steam- C. WA TU ..,...LLS
water mixture, and hence the lower the circulation rate. D. AISU TU81[S
I.SU~l[lt HU.TIii
Circulation ratio (CR) is defined as lhc ratio between the mass
of the steam-water mixture nowing through the system and the
mas, of the steam generated. Ir CR = 15. Lhen a boi lcr generat-
ing 10,000 lb/hr of steam would have 150,000 lb/hr of steam-
C
water mixture llowing through U1e downcomers. risers, inter-
nals. etc . The qua lity of steam at the exit of the riser = I /CR, or
0.067 if CR = 15. tn other words. 6.7% would be the average
wetness of steam m ihe mixture . Low-pressure system, have an
average CR ranging rrom 10 to 40. If there are several parallel
circuiu; For the Meum-watcr mixture. each would have a different
resistance to flow. and hence CR would vary from circuit to
circuit. For natural circulation systems, CR is usually arrived at Fi~urc 3.-~ Schc,~ of natural c,rculauon boiler showing furnace. drum.
by trial and error or by iterative c.tlculation. which lirM a,,umc, riser, und <Jowncomer circuits .
144 Fluid F low, Val\'(' Sizing, ,m< I Prc:!"l>~Uf{' I >rop C;.1Jnll.-11io1t""

a CR and compu1es al l 1he losses and !hen balances the losses owing to the lower difference in densily between the water and
with lhe available lhermal head. TI1is compu1ation is carried on the steam-waler mixture.
unti l the available head and 1he losse.~ balance.
Sometimes lhe difference in density between the waler and the
steam-water mixture is inadequate to circu late lhe mixture 3.30
through the sys1em. In such cases. a circulation pump is installed Q: What is the main purpose of de1crmining CR?
at the bottom of the steam drum. which circulates a desired
quantity of mixture through the system (Figure 3.5). This system A: Determination of CR is not 1he end in itself. The CR value is
is called a forced circu/a1io11 system. One has to ensure that there used to detem1ine whelher a given circuit in the boiler has all the
are an adequate number of pumps to ensure circulation, as the conditions necessary to avoid DNB (departure from nucleale
failure of the pump would mean starvation of llow in the evap- boiling) problems. For each pressure and quality (or CR) there is
orator tubes. Since we arc forcing the mixture through the tube~. a particular heat nux beyond which the type of boiling may
the CR is preselected, and the circulating pump is chosen accor- change from nucleate. which is preferred. to fi lm boiling. which
dingly. A CR of 3 to JO is typical. This system is usually used is to be avoided. as lhis can cause the tube wal l rempera1ures to
when the pressure drop through lhe evaporator is likely to he rise sign iticantly, resulting in tube failure. DNB occurs a1 heat
high such as when hori1.omal rubes arc used. When horizon1al lluxcs of 100,000 to 400,000 Btu/ft 2 hr depending on size and
tubes arc used. the critical heat nux to avoid DNB (departure orientation of tubes. pressure, mass velocity. quality. and rough-
from nucleate boiling) conditions is lower , and hence force<! ness of tubes. DNB occurs at a much lower heat flux in a hor-
circulation helps to ensure adequa1e flow inside the tubes . Circu- izontal tube than in an equi valcn1 vertical tuhe because the steam
lating pumps are also used when 1he boi ler pressure is high bubble formation and release occurs more freely and rapidly in
vertical tubes than in horizontal tubes where there is a possibility
of bubbles adhering ro the 1op of the tube and causing overheat-
ing. More in formation on DNB and circulation can be found in
drum In references cited in Refs. 11 and 14.
Nore that the heat flux in fi nned tubes is much higher than in
bare tubes owing to the large ratio of external to internal surface
area; this aspect is ,dso discussed elsewhere. Hence one has to be
careful in designing boilers with extended surfaces IO ensure that
the heal nux in 1he fin ned rubes docs not reach critical levels or
cause DNB. Thal is why boilers wi1h very high gas inlet tem-
peratures are de~igncd with a few rows of bare tubes followed by
pump a few rows of low-fi n-density tubes and then high-fi n-density
,I. tubes. As the gas cools, the heat nux decreases .

3.31cl
boiler
Q: Describe the procedure for analyzing the circulation SY$1em for
Figure 3.5 Scheme of forced c,rculation boiler. the water tube boiler furnace shown in Figure 3.4.
14G Fluid Flo,v. Viilvr Sizin~. ancl Pr<·ssun· Drop C:ul< 1 il<ttiou...., 1-&.7

A: First, the them1al data such as e nergy absorbed, steam genera- velocity in lblft2 hr. The friction factor used is that of Fanning,
tion, pressure, and geometry of downcomers, evaporaLOr tubes, which is 0.25 the Moody friction factor.
and risers should be known. These arc obtained from an analysb AP,. the gmvrty Joss in the heated riser/evaporator, is g iven by
of furnace performance (see example in Chapter 4). The circula- r4
tion ratio (CR) is assumed; then the flow through the system is AP, = 6.95 X 10- 3
X L X - (33)
VJ
computed, followed by estimation of various pressure losses:
Thorn's method is used for evaluating two-phase now losses where r4 is obtained from Figure 3.7.
[ 15. 16]. 6Pa, the acceleration loss, which is significant at lower pres-
The losses can be estimated as follows. A/}, the friction loss in sures and at high mass velocities. is given by
two-phase flow (evaporators/risers). is given by b.f'a = J.664 X JO II X VJ X G'i X T2 (34)
j 'L
6.P.
I
=4 X )() tO X v X
f
-
d
X G2 X r1
' · (32) Figure 3.8 gives r2•
Single-phase pressure losses such as losses in downcomers,
'
The factor r, is shown in Figure 3.6. G, is the tube-side mass arc obtained from

AP = 12 X f X L, X p X
2g X d 1

s
,1-:. . .
i"s

1 r"""-i'"',;;;~~~~k--"'7'~Mrl

1 0
2QO 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000
OPERATING PRESSURE, PSIA OPERAI ING PRESSURE, PS I A

Fii;lur e 3.6 Thom ·s 1wo-phase multiplica11on fac1or for rric1ion Joss Figurl' 3.7 Thom·s two-phase mull1plicauon factor lor gravlly loss
( I 1. 15.16). I 11 .15.161,
l4R tianapd1hy F ll 1i<.I FIO\\', V ;.ilve Sizin~ . oncl l'f<·~~urt: nrop C.ulnll.ilirnb 1-Hl

or
wi
!1P = 3.36 X 10 • X JL,v - 5-
d,
where
W = now per tube, lb/hr
V = n uid velocity, fps
J = Moody's friction factor
!,, = effective or equivale nt le ngth of piping. fl
,, = specific volume of the fluid, cu flllb
The unheatc<l riser losses can be obtained from

AD
u.r = 1· X - 12l,
- X c'i X (35)
1 d; 2g X 144
...
'- rr is givenin Figure 3.9.
The eq uivalent lengths have to be obtained a fter considering
the bends. elbows, etc., in the piping: see Tables 3. 10 and 3.12.

.-.
Of'ERAT ING PRESSURE, PS I A

f'igure 3 .8 111om·~ 1wo-phasc multiplical ion factor for accelern1ion loss

I 11 , 15.16].

OPERATING PRESSURE, psia

F ig ure 3 .9 Two, phll'>c friccion faccor for unhealed cubes [ I l.l5 , 16I.
150 F luid Flo\.v. V<·dvf· Sizln~. ancl Prt"ssure Orop <.:alcu1..u1on'i l ,'.; l

T able 3.12 l.,Jd1 Ratios for Fitting

Turbulent Flow Tl£ NUMBER OH EACH CURVE
INDICATES HEAT FLUX AS
Fitting l.,Jd, Btu/..,, oq. It OF INT!;RNAl
TUBE SURFACE.
45° elbows IS 14
90° elbows, standard radius 32
90° elbows. medium radius 26
90° elbows, long sweep 20
I800 close-return bends 75 1200
180° mediurn-radiu, return bends 50
Tee (used as elbow. enteri ng run) 60
Tee (used as elbow, entering branch) 90
Gate valves, open 7 1000
Gate valves. one-quarter closed 40 ::

~-
Gate valves. half-closed 200 .;
Gate valves, three-quartcn; closed
Gate valves. open
800
300
~·-
•
~
I
rI/UNSAFE
Angle valves, open 170 0
0
2 SAFE' I

,.
A heal balance is first done around Lhe steam drum 10 estimate !: IQ)
Lhe amounl of liquid heat to be added to the steam-water mixture ...~
before the start of boil ing. The mixture is considered lo be waier
until boiling starts. ..
>

~
Once all of the losses are computed, the available head is
compared with the losses. If they match, the assumed circulation
rate is correct; otherwise anolher ilera1ion is performed. A5
mentioned before, chis method gives an average circu lat ion rate
for a particular circuit. lf there are several parallel circuils. 1hen 9
the CR must be de1ermined for each circuit. The circuit with the
lowcs1 CR and highest heal nuxes should be evaluated for DNB.
In order to analyze for DNB, one may compute the allowable
s1c;im quality at a given location in the evaporator with 1he actual ol-----.-----,-----.---,-----,----,
0 10 20 lO ,o so
quality. The sys1em is considered safe if the allowable quali1y is GUALITY, "'/• STEAM SY Wt'.I GHf
higher than the actual quality. The al lowable quality is based on
lhe heat nux, pressure, mas~ velocity. and roughness and orien- Figure 3. 10 Allowable quality for nucleace boiling a1 2700 psia. a.~ a
1ation of the tubes. S1udics have been perfom1ed to arrive a1 these function of ma,;s velocity and heat nux inside tubes. (Courtesy of Rabcoc~
values. Figure 3. 10 shows a 1ypical chart [ 14] that gives the and Wilcox.)
152
Fluid Flow. Valvt· Sizing. ;in(I l'rc....~tm· Drop Cal<- uldtio11.~

allowable steam quality as a runction of pressure and heat nux . It 4. As the flow enters the water wall,. it gets heated, and
can be seen that as the pressure or heat flux increases, the boiling starts after a particular distance from Lhe bottom of
a llowable quality decreases. Another c riterion for ensuring thar a the furnace. Thb distance is .:alled boiling height. and it
syMem is safe is that the actual heat nux on the steam side (inside increase, as the , ubcooli ng increases. It is calculated as
tubes in water tube boilers and outside tube, in fire tuhe boilers) follows.
must be lower than the critical heat flux (C HF) for the particular
conditions of pressure, llow, lUbe size, roughness. orientation, D,,=L x CRxW,
etc. CH F values are available in the literature; boiler manufac-
turers have developed their own CHF correlat ions based on 1hc1r Beyond the boiling height, the two-phase flow situation
experience. See Chapter 4 for ilrl example. begins.
5. Friction loss in various circuits such as downcomcrs, con-
:~.31b necting headers, wate r-wall tubes (single-phase, two-phase
losses) , riser pipes, and drums are calcul ated . Gravity
Q : Compute the circulation ratio and c heck the system s hown in losses. 1)..P,, are estimated along the acceleration losses,
Figure 3.4 for DNB. AP0 , in a bo iling regime. The head ava il able in the down-
comer is calculated and equated with th~ losse,. Jf they
A: Figure 3.4 shows a boi ler ,chematic operating on natural- balance, the assumed CR is wm:ct; otherwise. a revised
circulation principles. The basis for estimating the now through trial is made until they balance. Flow through the water-wall
water wa lls is briefly as follows. tubes is thus estimated .
I. Assume a c irc ulation ratio (CR) based on experience. For 6. Checks for DNB are made. Actual quality distribution along
low-pressure boilers(< 1000 psia), CR could be from 20 to furnace height is known. Based on the heat-flux d is tributio n
50. For high-pressure boilers (1000 to 2700 psia), CR could (Figure 3. 11), the a llowable quality along the furnace height
range from 9 to 5. The following expression relates c ircula- may be found. If the allowable quality exceeds actual qua li -
tion ratio and dryness fraction. x: ty, the design is satisfactory; otherwise, bun1out possibilities
exist, and efforts must i:>e made 10 improve the !low through
CR = (J7)
water-wal l lube, .
X
EX/\MPLE
He nce, flow through the evaporator = CR x the s team A coal-fired boiler has a furnace configuration as s hown in
generated.
Figure 3.4. Followmg are lhe parameters obta ined a1·ter perform-
2. Furnace thermal performance data s uch as efficiency . fur- ing preliminary thennal design:
nace exit temperatu re, and fcedwater te mperature ente ring
the drum should be known before the start o f this exercise, Steam generated 600.000 lblhr
in add ition io details such as the location of the drum . bends. Prcs_,urc al drum 27()() psia
size. and length of various circu its. Feedwater temperature enteri ng
3. Mixtu re e nthalpy entering downcomers 1s calculated as fol- drum from economizer 570°F
lows through an energy ba lance at the drum . Furnace absorpLion 320 x I06 BTU/hr
h,., + CR x Ii~ = h /.! + CR x i,'" Number and size of
(36)
down comers 4. 12-in ID
IS4 Garn-11,.ithy Flui<I Flo,v, Valve Sizing. and Pw~sure Drop c~tn1lr11ion~

,20 Number and size of waler-wall

tubes 416. 2½-in. OD x 0. 197 in. thick
Number and si,,e or ri,er tubes 15, 6-in ID
Drum 1D 54 in.
Furnace projected area 8400 fl1

100
Since it is difficult to estimate now through paralle l paths. let us
assume that now in each tube or circu it of downcomen., water
walls. and risers may be near the average now values. However,
computer programs may be developed that take care of different
circuits. Since the manual methods gives a good idea of the
10 solution procedure (though approx imate), it is <lcscribed below.
METHOD
Let c irculat ion rat io CR = 8. Then, x = 0. 125. From the steam
tables,
; 1,,., = 680°F
••
,0
-..
~
hg = 1069.7 Btu/lb
hr= 753.7 Btu/lb
:! VJ = 0.0303 CU fUJb
-i•
J
I.\, = 0.112 cu ft/lb
h,.,, = 568 Btu/lb
!=
'0 Enthalpy of steam leaving water walls.

:2
h, = 0.125 X 1069.7 + 0.875 X 753. 7 = 793.2 Btu/lb
JP
:! Heat balance around the drum gives
Steam now = 600,000 lb/hr
20
Water-wall. downcomer now = 8 x 600,000 = 4,800,000
lb/hr
600.000 X 568 -t 8 X 600.000 X 793.2
= 600,000 X 1069.7 + 8 X 600,000 Ii.,
0
Hence, h,.. = 731 Btu/lb.
0
From the steam tables.
~ 10 120 1$0
Abeorption Rate ~ Btu/ tt'hr. ' •• = 0.0286 cu fUlb
1;. = 0. 125 X 0. 112 + 0.875 X 0.0303 0.0405 ,u
Figure 3.11 Typical heat absorption rates along furnace height.
fUlb
156 1~7
GtHH..IIMthy Fluld Flo,v, Vttlvc SiLln~. ~mcl PrCS:',;llrC' Drop C ulcu lalior~

a. t.P, = head available = 106/(0 0286 x 144J = 25.7 psi. f. Computing losses in two-phase now , f':"'111 Figure, 3.6 to
b. .1.P,i, = losses in downcomer circuit. 3.8. for x = 12.5% and P = 2700 ps,.
The downcomer has one 90° bend and one entrn.nce and exit r2 = 0.22, r:, = I . IS. r, = 0.85
loss. Using an approximate equivalent length of 7d,. For compu1ing two-phase losses:
L, = 104 + 16 + (7 X 12) = 204 ft t,pu = l.664 X 10- 11 X 1•,r2 G;
'Jl1e value J; from Table 3.6 is around 0.013 .
8 X 600,000 X 576 = 480,000 lbift2 hr
8 X 600,000 X 0.0286 X 576 G; = 416 X 7T X {2. lf
v"" = 3600 X 144 X 4 12. I fps 2
7T X
6.J>,, = l.664 X 10- II X 0. 0303 X (4 .8 x IOS)
0.013 X 204 X ( 12.1)2 X 12 0.22 = 0.026 psi
~ c = 2 X 32 X 12 X 0.0286 X 144 = 1.47 psi
X

Friction loss.
c. Estimate boiling height:
0.0019
753.7 - 731 t.i'i = 4 X 10- IO X 0.0303 X
4
X 69
Lh = 100 X 8 X 600,000 X
320 X JO• l. 15
= 31 ft = 0.5 psi
Hence , up to a height of 3 l ft, preheating of water occurs. 2.1
Boiling occurs over a length of 100 - JI = 69 fl only.
Gravity loss.
d. Gravily loss in boiling height:
3
6 .944 X 10 X 69 X 0.85
V,,,. mean specific volume = 0. 0286 + 0. 0303 ," ...::.:..:..:..:....;..:....:.~=:::-- -- - = I3 •4 ·
psi
2 ""• = 0.0303
- 0.02945 cu fl/lb Toral two-phase loss = 0.026 + 0 .5 + 13.4 = 13.926
31
.1.PK = 0.02945 X 144 = 7.3 psi psi, or 14.0 psi

e. Friction loss in boiling height. Compule velocity through g. Riser circuit losses . Use Thom 's method for tw~-phase
waler-wall tubes: ,/, = 2. I in. unheated tubes. Let the total equivalent length. cons1denng
bends and inlet and exit losses. be 50 ft.
v.. = 8 X 600.000 X 576
416 X 7T X (2. 1)2
X
X
0.02945
3600 = J. 9J fps 'i = t.4 (Figure 3.9). f, = 0.015 from Table 3.6
From Table 3.6. f, = 0.019. 576 X 8 X 600,000 = l.63 X J06 lb/ft2 hr
One exil loss. one 135° bend. and one 45° bend can be G, = ,r X 36 x I 5

considered for computing an cquivalcnl Jenglh . L, works out 50 X 12 (1.63 X 106f

to abou1 45 ft. t.Pr = 0 .015 X
6
X
2 X 32 X 36002
6.P,,
0.019 X 45 X (3.93)2 X 12
=-
2 X 32 X 2. 1 X 0.02945 X 144 = 0.28 psi X :~ X 0.0303 = 1.41 psi
 Gc-111t1jhllhy Flui<.I Flow. \'i.J(ve Si~ln~. ilfl<I Pr<·ssure Drop <....:alt ula1frnt..., 1.sn
No1e tha1 in esli111uting pressure drop by Thom's mc1hod for
h. Losses in drum. This is a negligible value: use 0.2 psi.
healed tubes. the Darcy friction facior was used. For un-
(Generally the supplier of the drums should furnish this
healed lubes, Moody 's friclion fac1or cou ld be used. Void
figure.)
fraction u' from Figure 3. 12 = 0.36. From Eq 38.
Total losses =
b + d + e + f + g + h
AP,, = lPr (1-u') + p,u'J ; (38)
14 = 1.47 + 7.3 + 0.28 + 14.0 + 2.26
~ 0.2 = 25.5 l psi
AJ>,i = l( 0.0~03 X 0.64) + ( 0. 1'i2 X 0.36) I Available head = a = 25.70 psi
X --2_ = 0.85 psi Hence, as these two match, an assumed circu lation ra1io of
144
8 is reasonable. This is only an average value for the cmire
To1al losses in riser circuit = 1.41 + 0.85 = 2.26 psi. system. If one is interested in a detailed analysis, the cir-
cuits should be separa1ed according 10 heal loadings. and a
rigorous computer analysis balancing llows and pressure
drop in each circuit can be carried ou1.
lO
0.9 ,\Nt\LYSIS 1-"0R DNH
Typical furnace absorpiion profiles for 1he ac1ual fuel fired are
Q.I
desirable for DNB analysi~ . Since lhese data arc generally based
0.7 on field tests. for the problem ai hand let us use Figure 3.1 1.
o., which gives lypical absorp1ion proliles for a boiler.
a
;:: o.s Average heat flux = 320 x 10°18400 = 38,095 BtuJft2 hr
~ There is a varialion at any plan cross scciion of a boiler furnace
...a: 11.L
beJwccn 1hc maximum hca1 flux and 1hc average heal flux, hascd
g (lJ on the burner location, burncn. in opcru1ion. excess air used, CIC.
i cu This ratio be1ween maximum and average could be 20 IO 30%.
Let us use 25%.
Q. 1
Again. 1hc absorption profile along furnace height shows a
peak al some distance above the burner where maximum heal
0 ru 02 OJ 11.L 05 0..6 o, o..a OJ 1.0
release has occurred. II decreases as !he producls of combustion
QUALITY leave 1he furnace. The average for the entire profile may be
found, and the ra1io of actual to average hca1 llux should be
r-i):lurc :l. 12 Void frac1icm as a function M quality and prcs,ure lor ;icam compu1ed. For the sake of illustraiion. use the following ra1ios of
111 ,161.
ac1ual 10 average heat llux a1 localions memioncd .
t6()
(;nrmp.arhy Fluld Ho,,v, V<.11,·<· Sizi,·•g:. t1rnt J)ressurc Or<>!> C<1h·u1a1itn1-... 16 I

Distance fro1r1 Ratio of nctuaJ to average useful. For the sake of illustrating our example. let us use 1-'igurc
bonom (fl) heat nux 3.10. This gives a good estimate only, as cxlrapolation must be
carried out for the low heal nux in our case. We sec lhe follow-
40 1.4 ing lrcnd at G, = 480,000 lb/fl2 hr and 2700 p;ia:
56 1.6
70 1.0
80 0.9
HK> Location (fl) Allowable quality(%)
04
40 15
56 22
We must determine the maximum inside heat Oux at each of 30
70
the locations and correct ii for nux inside the lubes 10 check for 8() 34
DNB. Hence, considering the tube OD to ID ratio of 1.19 and 100 42
the 25% nonunifonnity at each furnace elevation, we have lhc
following local maximum inside heat flux at the locations men-
tioned Figure 3.13 shows the acrual qual ity (assuming linear varia-
tion, perhaps in reality quadratic) vs. allowable quality. It shows
fq, is 1aken as q" x _!f,__)
~ d; that a large safery margin exists: hence. the design is safe. This
exercise should be carried oul al all loads (and for all circuits)
before coming 10 a conclusion.
Location (fl) l/, (Btu/fl2 hr)
40 I.4 X 38,095 X 1.25 X 1.19 = 79.335 3.32a
56 \)(),440
7() 56.525 Q: How is the c irc ulation system analyzed in fire tube boilers?
80 50.872
100 22.600 A: TI1e procedure is similar to that followed for waler tube boilers in
1ha1 the CR is assumed and the various losses are compuled . If
1he losses associated with the assumed C R and the resulting mass
It is desirable lo obtain allowable quality of steam at each of now balance the available head, then the assumed CR is co1Tect;
these locations and check 10 be sure aclual quality does not otherwise another iteration is done. Since fire tube boilers in
exceed it. general use horiwntal tubes, the allowable heat nux lo avoid
DNB 1es1s based on particular tube profiles. roughness, and DNB is lower than when vcr1ical tubes are used. With gas
water quality as used in the operation give 1he most rcalislic dala streams containing hydrogen and steam as in hydrogen plant
for checking furnace tube burnout. Correlations. 1hough avail - waste heat boilers, the tube-side and hence the overall heat
able in lhe literature , may give a completely wrong picture since transfer coefficient and heat tlux will be rather high compared lo
they are based on lUbe size, he.Hing pattern. waier quali1y. and nue gas stream from combus1ion o f fossil fuels . Typical allow-
lube roughness 1ha1 may not cally with actual operaling condi- able heal fluxes for horizontal tubes range from 100,000 lo
tions. Correla1ions, however, give the trend, which could be 150,000 8tu/ft 2 hr.
 Ciii1mp;,1hy Fluid Flov.1 • Vtllve Sizing. ancl Prc.'•>s1m· Drop c(1fn.1lc:Hion s IG3

3.32b
Q: Perform the circulation calcu lations for the system shown in
Figure 3.14 with the following data:
Steam flow = 20,000 lb/hr, steam pressure = 400 psig
Assume that satW'ated water e nters the drum.

A: From steam tables , v,

= 0.194 and v,
= I. 12 c u ft/lb Assume
there are two downcomcrs of size 4 in schedule 40 (d; = 4.026
in.) and two risers of size 8 in schedule 40 (d, = 7.981 in.). The
total developed length of each <lowncomer is 22.5 ft. and each
.:::' has two 90° bends; the riser pipes have a total developed le ngth
.."'-·
;;;
of 5 ft. Exchanger diameter is 6 ft. and the cemer distance
hetween the exchanger and the steam drum is 8 ft.
.....
:,:
I. Assume CR = 15; then
C
"'" Mixture volume 0 .067 X 1.12 + 0.933 X 0 .0194
...
:,
= 0.093 1
AlLOW.U:LC OU..Ll JY
-~ The head available due to the column of satu rated water is
I 1/(0.0 194/144} = 3. 94 psi , where I I ft is the height of the
801 LIN Ci S TAl'TS
water column.

• • IO IS 10

x,"
U lO JS (Q 4S
·,·
I

., _,·,3
flg1Jrc "' A ctua I qua 11ty
· vs. aII owabl e qua1·1ty along furnace heigh1. • C r •
Figurt• 3.1-+ Circulation scheme 111 fire 1uhc boiler.
lG4 F1uid Plow, V<.1lve ~iz.ing, o:.1nd Pn'!-.!-,Urc Drop calcul,11ion~

2. Losses in downcomers: 6. Friction Joss in riser:

0 .093 I
a. Water velocity = 0.05 x (15 x 20~) Velocity = 0.05 X (I5x 22o )·x = 11 fps
(7.981 2)

X
0.0 194
=9 fps
Inlet plus exit losses = I .5 x velocity head
(4.026)1
1.5 X JI X 11
= - - =--'-',--'-'-''---
2 X 32 X 0 .093) X ]44
= 0 .21 psi
Inlet plus exist losses = I .5 velocity head

9
Friction loss = 3.36 x 0.014 x (I.., X
< 220 )2
= 1.5 X 9 X
0.093 1
2 X 32 X 144 X 0.0194
X 5 X
(7.98 1)'
= 0.02 psi
= 0 .68 psi
b. Tota l developed length = 22.5 + 2 x JO = 42.5 ft, where 5 ft is the developed length of the riser.
where JO ft is the equivalent length of a 90° bend from Let the losses in drum internals = 0.5 psi. This can vary
Table 3. 10 . depending o n the type of internals used. T hen

Mj· = 3.36 X 0.0165 X (15 X i )' X 42.5

Total losses = I .66 + 1.22
+ 0.50
+
=
0.37 t- 0.2 I
3.98 psi
+ 0.02

0.0194 This is close to the available head: hence CR = I 5 is the

X (4 .026 )s = 0.98 psi circulation ratio for this system. The calculations can be 11nc
where 0.0165 i, the friction factor. Equation ( 13) was tuned w ith nctual dimensions after the layout is done. One can
used for pressure drop of single-phase now. compute the heat nux and compare it with the allowable heat flux
to check if the circulation rate is adequate. Usual ly circulation is
Total downcomer losses = 0.68 + 0.98
not a problem in this type of boiler, as the heat flux is low, on the
= 1.66 psi order of 20,000 to 30,000 Btu/ ft2 hr, while the allowable nux
3. Friction and acceleration losses in the exchanger may be could be 100,000 to 150,000 Btu/ ft2 hr. See Chapter 4 for cor-
neglected for this fi rst tria l, as in a fire tube boiler they w ill relations for CHF tcriti<:al heat nux).
be negligible due to the low mass velocity.
4. Gravity losses in the exchanger: Using Figure 3.7, r4
= 0.57. 3.33
0.57 Q: How is the flow in steam blowoff lines determined?
!lf>, = 0.00695 X 6 X
0 0 194
= 1. 22 psi
t\: Whenever steam llows to the atmosphere from a high-pressure
5. Gravity loss in riser pipe: vessel. the flow reac hes critical now conditions, and beyond a
5 certain pressure further lowering of press ure doe, not increase
tu>,, = 0.093 1/144
= 0.37 psi the steam discharge. The flow is given by the equation 1171
 Fluid Flow. Valvt· Si7JnS{. ancl Pr(•",..,un· Drop C,1h ulc:1tion... 1()7

W = 1891 X Y X d 2 X ( ~ )°' (39)

EXAMPLE
Dctcm1ine 1he now of saturated ste.un from a vessel 111 170 psia
The value of 11P 10 be chosen depends on K, the sysicm to atmosphere if 1he lotal cquivalcn1 sys1cm rcsisiancc K = 10
resistance, where and pipe inner diameler = 2.067 in.
S0l111io11. Specific volume of steam at 170 psia = 2.674 f1'ilb.
K = 12 X
/L,. Ac1ual 6P = 170 - 14 7 = 155.3 psia. From Table 3.13. for
d K = 10. APIP, = 0 .773, or AP= 170 x 0.773 = 131.5 psia.
where Hence. use AP= l3t.5 psia. Also from Table 3. 13 for K = 10.
Y = 0.705. Hence
L, = ~Olal equivalen1 length of all downstream piping

=f
mcludmg valves. fillings, fl
Darcy friction factor W = 1891.0 X 0.705 X (2.067)2 X
131.5
( I0/2. 674
)0'
=d pipe inner diame1cr, in .
=Y expansion fac1or (sec Table 3.13) = 12.630 lb/hr
"= specific volume of sleam before expansion, cu fl/lb
11P = pressure drop, lower of actual upstream pressure -
downstream pressure or that obtained from Table 3.34
3. 13
Q: How is the now through boiler blowdown lines delcrmined?

A: Si1.ing of blowdown or drain lines is very importan1 in boih:r or

Tahl(· 3. 13 Limiting Factors For Sonic
process plant operation:,.
Velocity k = 1.3
The problem of estimaling the discharge rates from a boiler
t;.p drum or vessel lo a1mosphere or to a vessel al low pressures
K P', y involves 1wo-pha;,c now calcu lmions and is a lcng1hy procedure
1.2 I 18 1,
0.525 0.612
1.5 Presented below is a simplified approach io 1he problem that
0.550 0.631
2.0 0.593 can save considerable time for engineers who me involved in
0.635
3 0.642 0.658 sizing or es1i111a1ing discharge nites from boiler dnuns, vessels,
4 0.678 0.670 or similar applications involving water.
6 0.722 0.685 Several advantages me claime<l for these charts. including the
ll 0.750 0.698 following.
10 0.773 0.705
15 No reference to ,1cam 1ablc, i; required.
0.807 0.718
20 No trial-am.I-error procedure 1:, involved
0.83 1 0.7 18
40 0.877 Effect of friclion can be easily studied.
0.718
IQ() 0.920 0.718 Obtaining pipe size to discharge a dc;,ircd rate of nuid. tl1e
reverse problem. is simple.
 F1t 1id 1•1c,w. \'rllv<· Si/In~. rJ1U I Pft'""'...,urc· 1,r,>p ( :;11tul.J1i~l1lS IHD
lh8 <~dlh·l j)Jthy

11 IEOHY The 1em1 (dP!dv)., refers to the change in pressure to volume

The basic Bernoulli's cquntion c an be wrincn a, follows for llow ratio al critical !low conditions at constant entropy.
in a pi[>ing system: Hence, 1n order to estimate m, . Eqs. (42) and (44) have to be
solved. This is an iterative procedurc. For the ~ake of simplicity,
y2 ' the 1cnn involving the height differences will be neglected. For
104 11 dP + -,- dk + d,· + dH =0 (40)
-8 !I high-pressure systems the error in neglecting this tcm1 is mar-
Subs1i1ut1ng mass llow rate 111 = Viv: ginal. on the ordcr of 5%.
2
The problem 1s, then, given K und f'., 10 estimate P.. and m .
dH
-111
2g
(:./'
<, + 2 -dv
II
) = - 10 , X -
dP-
V
-11-
,- (4 1) Thi, is a trial-and-error procedure, and the ,teps are outlined
below, follow.:d by an example. Figure 3. 16 and 3.17 arc two
Integrating between conditions I and ~: chans that can be used for quic~ siling purposes.

mi
211
r~ + 21n 111
"1
j= - I04 I.
2.
Assume u value for P,.
Calculate (,IP idv), at/~. for consrnnt-eniropy conditions. The
volume change corresponding to 2 to 39' of P, can be
f ' .!!!:_
IV
_ f '1 7dH (42a) calculated, and then (dl'!tlv), can be obiaincd.
3. Calculate m, using Eq. (44).
m = I k +
211
21n ( v21v1)
X (- 1()' 1
4. Solve Eq . (42b) form,.
The tem1 I- 10 ' Ji dP!v] b computed as fol lows using
f '. ,- )r?
dP
"
- f '. -,- dH (42b) Simpson's rule:

where - 104 j'I

dP
V
= - 10• I'I
p dP
K = }1/d, ll1e equivalent pipe resistance P, P, X (p, + 4 p,. -I ll, )
=
When the pressure of the vessel 10 which Lhc blowdown p,pe 6
1s connected is decreased , the llow rate increases until critical where
pressure is reached l1l the end of the pipe. Reducing 1hc vessel
pressure below critical pressure does not increase 1he now note.
p,. = density at a mean pressure of {f, + P, )12.
If the vessel pressure 1s less chan the cricical pressure. cntical The densities are computed as iscnthalpic conditions. The
flow conditions are reached and ,onic llow results. term 2 In (11,/ 111) = 2 In (p, lp,.l is then found .
From thennodynamics. 1he son ic velocity can be , hown tu he: Then III i; computed using Eq . (42b). If III computed using
Eqs . (42b) and (44) tally. the assumed P, and the resultant m, are
v. = - 1i 11 ( ~(,), x 10' c431 correct. Otherwise P, has to be changed. and all steps have to be
repeated until III and 111, agree.
and
EXAt>l PLE
m, = 10() - '~ (-tlP)
-
d,, (44)
A boiler drum blowdown line is connec ted to u tank set at 8 utm .
l Dnim pressure is 100 atm. and the resistance K of the blow.town
170 r-lulcl Flow, Valve Si,;ing, and Prcssurf· Drop C<1lnllc.11irnl:-, 17l

line is 80. Es1ima1c che critical mass flow rate m,. and the critical Similarly, at P., = (lOO + 40)/2 = 70 atm,
pressure~- v,., = 0.03785 ml/kg or Pm = 264 kg/m'
The procedure will be detailed for an assumed pressure P,. of
40 atm.
For sccam iablc P, = I()() acm, s = 0.7983 (kcal/kg °C): 1,1
-10• J'
I
dP
V
=
I()() -
6
40

= 334 kcal/kg, v1 = 0.001445 m3 /kg or p = 692 kg/ml. X (692 + 4 X 264 + 96.J)

Leep, = 40 atm: then h1 = 258.2 kcal/kg, h, = 669 kcal/kg,
s, = 0.6649, s,. = 1.4513. v, = 0.001249. v, = 0.05078: = 184 X 10" X 2 X In ( ~: )
Hence:

x=
s - s, 0.7983 - 0.6649 = 2 X In ( :: ) = 4.6
s, - s, 1.4513 - 0.6649
Substituting the various quantities into Eq. (42b).

v
=
=
0.1696
v1 + x(v,, - v1) 111 = J 2 X 9 ·8 X 184
80 + 4.6
X 106
= 0.001249 + 0.1696 X (0.05078 - 0.001249) = 6530 kg/m2 sec
= 0.009651 ml/kg The two values m and 111,. do not agree. Hence we have LO
Again, compute vat 41 atm (2.5% more chan P,.). Using seeps repeat the calculations for another P,.
similar to those described above, v = 0.0093 m 1/kg. This has been done for P, = 30 and 15, and the results are
Hence, presented in Figure 3.15.
At about 19 atm, U1e two c urves intersect. and the mass llow
m, = 100 g(~'
dv ),
rate is about 7000 kg/m2 sec.
However. one may do the calculations at this pressure and
check.
= IOO j -- - 9_.8_X_I_ _ = 16,733 kg/ni2 sec USE Of C l IAnTS
0.00965 0.0093
As seen above, the procedure is lengthy and tedious. and trial
Compute the densities as and error is involved. Also. reference Lo steam tables makes it
cumbersome. Hence with various K val ucs and initial pressure
P., = 0.001445
= 692 kg/m 3 P,. a calculator was used to solve for I'.. and m, and the result, arc
presented in Figures 3.16 and 3.17.
The dryness fraction al 40 atm al isenthalphic condicion is
X = 334 - 258.2 = 0. ) 845 3.35
669 - 258.2
Q: What is the effect of stack hetghl o n friction loss. draft?
Vr = 0.001249 + 0 1845 X (0.05078 - 0.001249)
= 0.010387 nr'/kg A: Whenever hot llue gases now in a vertical scack. a natural draft i,
r,, = 96.3 kg/m' created owing to the difference in densicy between the low-
172 Flul, I Hu,v. V.-ilve Sl1.in>-{, ,u1<I P1·t·c.,stm· Drop< ·aludcuion..., 17.1
(,r1n~11>1Ul1y

17.000
- -
'IOI)
1e
/
1./
15
14
/ . ·--i.- -

40
13
/ I - ··t--!",
30
,I
12
/ _; 20
11 •
10
-- . ~ C:
9
/ 10

,/
8
7
11
m
1----·
Ii
/
/1
'I
- 5
4
3
5 •I
4 2
i 2 3 • 5 10 20 30 40 SO 100 200 300
3,000 K C flld
10 15 21) 2!5 315
p
Figure :1.17 Solving for P
Calcul:111on result,
density nuc gases amJ ambient air. which has a higher density.
However. due to the fril:1ion lo~scs in 1hc Mad., this availabk
draft is reduced.
30.ooo ,... I
N.
20.000 EX1\i\1l'LE
,. • l
I-
If 100.tXKl lb/hr of nuc ga~c, "t 400°F llow in a 4&-in. ID ,tack
0.000 =' ~ ~~
of 50 ft height. dctcrmmc 1hc net slack effect. Ambicnl uir
1c111peraturc is 70°F .
'
5000
- •
' '
........
.....
'
S0l11tiu11. Density of flue gases ('.cc Q 1.02) al 400°1-' =
39.5/860 = 0.0459 lb/cu ft. Dcns11y of air tit 70°1-' = 40/530 =
r......... ' ... 0.0755 lb/cu rt. I lcncc
"
3000

2000
I "' ...
Tomi draft avai labk
lb/ ft?
= (0.0755 0. 0459) X 50

12
= (0.0755 - 0.()459) X 50 X 0.:!85 in we
1000 62.4
2 3 4 S 6 7 8 g 10 20 30 40 SO 100 (The faclor 62.4 is density 11f water. and 12 ,onvcrt, ft. tll in.)
K • ft.Id Let us sec how much the friction lo,, per unit kngth i:,. l·rom
Figure- :1. lfl Solving for 111. Eq. (26),
1, ... Fluid Flo,v. Valvt· Sizi11g, cln(l 1're..,suw I >rop <c1h t1lt11iu11.., 1/l

flp = 93 X 10 n X f X W' X
,. K,b Superheat correction factor
--;,·
"
,. = 1/0.0459 = 21 79cu fVlb. Toc:,iimatethc fric11on factor},
l
l,
Length of pipe. fl
Equivalent length, h
we need the Reynolds number. From the Appendix. µ 0.058 M Constant used III Q3.25
lb/fl hr. Hence m, ma,s llow at critical cond11ion. ~g,m' sec
MW Molecular weight of gas or vapor
100,000 Number of rows deep 1n a tube bunc.l le
Re = 15.2 X
-18/0.058
= 546.000. NH
P., Accumulated inlet prc;surc, psia
0.316 Pb Buck pressure. psig
J= (546,000)0 15 = 0.012
P, Set pre-ssurc. psig
21 79 P,. Vapor pressure. psia
u/> = 93 x to " x 0.012 x 110<),(){)())' x 50 x - -
48' P1• P2 Inlet and ex it pressures. psia
6.P Pressure drop. psi
= 0.(),18 in. WC
Gas prcssur.: drop. in. WC
t:,p.
Hence Ill:, • /l/}, llP,, Acceleration lo,s. friction loss. and loss due to
Net draft available (1.285 - 0.0-18 = 0.237 in. we gravity, psi
q Fluid now. gpm
Re Reynolds number
Factors used in two-phase pressure drop calculation
NOMENCLATL IHE
Entropy
A Area ol orifice. m. 2 s Specific gravity of lluid
C A con,wnt depending on ratio of gas specific heats s.,., s, Transverse and longnudinal pitch. in.
CR Cirtu lation ratio t. T r1u,d temperature. °For "R
c,, Discharge coefficiem I'
Saturation temperature. °F
C, Control valve coefficient Specific volume of lluid, cu fl/lb
d Tube or pipe outer diameter, in .
"v, Critical velocity. mi,
till. d, Orifice diameter and pipe or duct inner diameter. V Fluid vell>eity. ft/sec
m. v,. ,·., . ,., . Specific volume of s:itur:11cd liquid. steam. and
E Expansion factor for fud oils mixture. cu It/lb
f Frk1ion factor w Flow. lb/hr
C G:ts ma,, velocity. lb/fl~ hr Steam qua Iity. fraction
h Diffcrcnual pressure across now meter. in. WC ,,
{

Volume fraction of gas

h, Enthalpy of mixture at exit. Btu/lb y Expansion factor
,,,, h,. "··· h,., Enthalpy nf saturated li4uid. ~a1u111tcd stc11111, mix- 13 d,!tl, r.itio
tu,·c. and l'ccdw:ner. respectively, Btu/lb µ. Fluid viscosity. lb/fl hr
K System resistance p Density of fluid. lb/cu ft: subscript g ,tand, tor ga,
1
K'" Va)vc recovery cocfl 1ci~n1 µ. Spccilic volu111c of lluid. m /kg
17()

H.E FERENCES
V. Ganapathy. Determining flowmeler sizes. />lam En,:Ult>,•rinR, Sepl.
18. 1980, p. 127.
2. Chemi<'al £11.~i11eers' Hwulbook. 5th ed .. McGraw-Hill, New Yori-.
1974. pp. 5- 7.
3. V. GanapaLliy. Conver1ing pilnl 1uhe readings, P/(lni Engineering, June
24, 1982, p. 61. 4
4 ASME, Bt>i/erand Presrnre Ves.sel Code, Sec. I, New York, 1980. pp,
59, 67. Heat Transfer Equiprnent Design
5. Crosby Valve Ca~tlog 402. Crosby. Wremham, Mass .• 1968, p. 27.
6. ASME. Boiler and P,·e.rntrc Vessel C0<le. Sec. 8. New York. 1980. and Performance
Appendix 11 , p. 455.
7. V . Ganapathy. Control valve coci'licicnls. Pla111 E11.~111erri11g. Aui:, 20.
1981. p. 80.
8. V. Ganapathy. Nomogram est imates controJ vaJve coefficiem~. Power
Engineering, December 1978. p. 60.
9. F. D. Jury , F1111dame11tu!., of mlve si:in11 .for liq11id.v. Fisher Technical
Monograph 30. Fisher Comrols Co .. Marshalllown, Iowa. 1974, p. 2.
IO. Ma;oneilan. Handbook for Control Valve Sizing. 61h ed .• Norwood,
Ma,s .. 1977, p. 3.
11. V. Ganapathy, Applied Hear Trousfer. Penn Well Books. Tulsa. Okla ..
1982. pp. 500-530. 4,0 1: Estimating surface area of heat transfer equipment: ovcr.111
12. V, Ganapathy. Chart speeds estimates of gas pressure drop. Oil am/ Gas heat transfer coefficient: approximating overall heat transfer-
Journal. Feb. 4. 1980. p. 7 1. coefficient in water tube boilers. lire tube boi lers. and air
13 . North American Comb11.1tio111/andl}()ok. 2nd ed., North American Mfg. heaters: Jog-mean-temperature d ifference
Co., Cleveland. Ohio, 1978, pp. 20-25.
14, Babcock and Wilcox. Steam: Its Ge11erarion and Use, 38th ed. 4.02: Estimat ing tube-side heat transfer coefficient: simpli fied ex-
IS. J. R, S. 11iom. Prediction of pressure drop during forced circulation pression for estimating tube-side cocflicicnt
boiling of water. hrtenwtimral lmmwl of Heat Transfer, no. 7. 1964.
16. W. Roshenow and J. P, Hartnett, Handbook of Heat Transfer,
4.03: Estimating tube-side coefficient for air. nue gas, water, and
McGraw-Hill. New York. 1972.
17 . Crane Company Technical Paper 4 10. steam
18. F. J. Moody, Maximum two-phase vessel blowdown from pipes. Trans-
<l<'liu11s of ASME . .lounral of Heat Tn111sfe,. August 1966. p. 285. 4.04: &limating heat transfer coefficient omsidc tube~

4 .05: Estimating convective heat transfer coefficient outside tubes

using Grimson·s corrclm ions

4 .06: Effect of in-line vs. staggered arrangement

17i
178 1-1ea1 Tra11.c;l(·r Equ1prn<'n1 1le!,ls.{n ,ul< I Pt'rforn,w,t·e 17()

4.07a: Evaluating nonluminous radiation heat mrn,fer using Hotter, 4 .19b: Heal transfer in finned tube, using Brigg, and Young...,_or,c,Ja,
chru1.~ tion

4.07b: Nonluminous radiation using equations 4.20: Siicing uf finned tube evaporator

4.08a: Predicting heat transfer in boiler furnaces 4.21: Compaiison of bare tube versus finned tube boi ler

4.08b: Design of radiant section for heat recovery application 4.22: In-line versus staggered arrangement

4.09: Evaluating distribution of radiation lO tube banks 4.23: Effect of tube-side heat transfer on fin configuration

4 . I 0: Si'.1.ing lire tube boilers 4 .24: Effect of tube-side foul ing on hare and finned tube boilers

4. I I: Effect of gas velocity. tube size on lire mbe boiler size 4.25: Estimating weight of finned tubes

4.12: Computing heat Oux. tube wall temperatures 4.26: Effect of lin thkkncss. conductivity on boiler performance
and tube and fin tip temperatures
4.13: Effect of scale formation on tuhe wall temperature and boiler
performance 4.27: ls s urface area an important c riterion for boiler selection'!

4. 14: Design of water tube boilers 4.28: Design of tubular air heaters

4. 15a: Predicting off.design perfom1ance 4.29: Off-de;ign performance of air heaters

4 .30: Predicting perforn1ancc or economizers using NTU method

4. ISb: Logic for off-design performance evaluation for water tube
boilers
4. 31 : Evaluating natural convection heat transfer coefficient, in air
4.16: Estimating metal temperature in a boiler superhcater tube;
4.32: Natural convection heat transfer in liquids
thermal resistances in heat transfer; calculating heat flux
4.33: Determining ,izc of coil/tube bundle immersed in liquid,
4. 17: Predicting performance of tire tube an(! water tube boilers
4.34: Evaluati ng gas/steam temperature profiles m HRSGs
4. 18: Why finned tubes arc used and their design aspects
4.35: S 1mulaung off-design performance
4 .19a: Heat transfer and pressure drop in finned tubes using ESCOA
corre lations 4.36: Why gas exit temperature cannot be assumcc.l in HRSGs
180 (ia1m1mtl,v 11enr ·rri.insft.·r E.quipnl<·n, D<'bign ;.-tml l-,l... rfun11nrn·<· Jill

4.37: How to optimize temperature profiles in HRSGs 4.52: Estimaiing s urface temperature of given 1hickness of insu la-
tion: trial-anc.J-error procedure to detennine casing 1cmpcra-
4 .38: Efficiency of HRSGs according to ASME Power Test Code 1urc

4. 39: Effect of fresh air fan size on HRSG performance 4.53: Siz ing insula1ion to prevent frecling; de1em1ining wa1er dew
poinr
4.40: How to evaluate operating costs in HRSGs
4 .54a: Estimaling heat loss from pipes for various. insulation thick-
4.41: Why economizer steaming occurs in gas turbine HRSGs nesses

4.42: Why water tube boilers are preferred to fire tube boilers for 4 .54b: E.stimaling temperature drop of fluids in insul ated piping
gas turbine applications
4.55: Optimum thickness of insulation; li fe-cycle costing: annual
4.43: Why 10% increase in s U1t'ace an:a docs not mean l0% more heat loss ancJ capitalized cost; annual hear loss if nu insulation
duty in boilers or heat transfer equipment is used

4.44: Time required to heat up boilers 4.56: Design of hot casing

4.45: Parameter,, to he considered in testing performance of HRSGs 4. 57: Temperature of duct or stack wall with and wi!l1out insulation

4 .46: Estimating boiling heat transfer coefficient and critical heat 4 .58: Effect of wind veloci1y, casing emissivity on heat loss
flu x in water tube bo ilers
4.59a: Checking for noise and vibra1ion problems in heat transfer
4.47a: Relating heat llux. steam pressure. q uality. flow in water tube equipment
hoilers
4.59b: Determining natural frequency of vibration of a tube bundle
4.47b: Estimating cri1ical heat flux in fire tube boilers
4.59c: Computing acous1ic frequency
4.48: Simplified approach to designing fire tube boilers
4.59d: Determining vortex shedding frequency
4.49: Simplified approach tu designing water tube boilers
4.59e: Checking for bundle vibrations
4.50: Estimating tube bund le size
4 .60: Estimating specific heal , viscosity, and thermal conduc1iv ity
4.51. Estimating thickness of insuhllion for flat and c urved sur- for a gas mixture
faces: effect of wind velocity; estimating thickness to limit
surface tcmperarure-s 4.61: Effect of ga, analysis on heat transfer
182 11ca1 Transf<'r Equlpnu..·n1 oe~ign Hncl Pcrforrnance IH:J

4.62: Effect of gas pressure on heal transfer ff1• ff,. = fouling factors inside and outside the mbes, fl2
hr ~F/Btu
4.63: Converting ga;, analysi; from weight to volume basis h., h. = tube-side and gas-side coefficiems. Bm/l't2 hr °F
"1 =.fin effectiveness

4.01
If bare tubes are used instead of finned Lubes , A, = -rrd/12.
Equauon (3) can be simplified to
Q: How is the surface area of heat transfer equipmcnc detcm1ined''
I d d
I d
+ 24K,,, In
u =
What terms can be neglected while evaluating the overall heat + - X
h,d, h. d,
transfer coefficiem in boilers. cconomiLcr~. and superhealers'!
d
+ ff, X - - + ff0 (4)
A: The energy transferred in heal transfer equipment, Q. is given by 1
t,
the basic equation where h,. is Lhc outside coefficient.
Q=UXAXAT ( I) Now let us take the various cases.
Also. WATER TUBE BOILl::J-{S. ECONOMIZERS.
1\NJ) SUPER I IE;\TEH..S
W,, X Ah1, = IV,. Alie (2)
The gas-side heal transfer coefficient h,, is significant: the oth~r
where terms can be neglected. In a typical hare-tube economizer, for
A = surface area. ft2 example, h, = 1500 Btu/ft2 hr °F. I{ and ff,, = 0.001 l'r2 hr
w = nuid now' lb/hr °F/Btu, and h,, = 12 Btu/f11 hr"F. d = 2.0 in., d, = 1.5 in., and
Ah = change in enthalpy (subscripts h and i· s tand for ho1 K,,, = 25 Btu/fl hr °F.
and cold) Substituting in Eq. (4) yields
AT = corrected log-mean temperature difference . °F I 2.0 I 2.0 2
U = overall heat transfer coefficient. Btu/ft2 hr °F U
= ---='-'--- +
1500 X 1.5 12
+ 24 X 25
X In
1.5
For extended surfaces. U can be obtained from 111 + 0.001 X
2.0
+ 0.001
1.5
I ~ + ff, ~ ~ d
u
=
h;A;
X
A,
+ ff,, + t\\l
X
24K,., = 0.0874
I Hence,
x In ( : ) + (3)
l)h. U = 11.44 Bm/ ft2 lir °F
where Thus we see tha1 the overall coefficient is close to the gas-side
A, = surface area of tinned tube, ft 2/ft cocflicien1. which is the highest Lhermal resistance. The metal
A1 = tube inner surface area = ml,! 12. rt2 /1'1 thermal resistance and the tube-~idc resistance are not high
A,,. = average wal l surface area = -rr(d + d;)/24. 1°12/fl enough lo change rhe resistance distribution much.
K,., = thermal conductivi1y of the tube w,11l, Btu/ff hr However. in a liquid-to-liquid heat 1.:xchangcr. all Lhe re-
•p sistances will be of the same order, and hence none of the
ti, d1 = rube ou1er and inner diameter. in. resistances can be neglected.
IX-i Hecu Tnm~rrr Equipn\C'lll 1>c-.si~n ,md Perrornmncr- 18.':i

Even if finned mbes were used in the case above ' wi1h A , t.1'1, 6'/'. the corrected log-mean-tempcra1urc difference. can be
= 9 substituting in Eq. (3), U = 9 .3 BtuJft2 hr °F, which is c lo:.c estimated from
to h,,. Thus. while trying to figure U for economizers, water tube D.Tmax. - JlTmin
boilers, or gas-to-liquid heal exchangers, U may be written as ln(6T0 .,/6T01, 0 )
U = (0.8 to 0.9) X h,. (5) where Fr is 1he correction factor for flow arrangement. For
FIRE TURE ROILERS. Gt\S ( :O( )LJ:ns. counterflow cases, F-,. = 1.0. For other types of flow, 1cxtbooks
,-\ ND 111:AT EXCHANGERS WITI I Gt\S FLOW may be referred to for Fr. It varies from 0.6 to 0.95 12]. t.T....,
INSIDE TUOES WITH LIQUID OR STEANI-W,\TEll and 6T,..,0 are the maximum and minimum tem1inal differences.
MIXTURE ON THE OUTSIDE ln a heat exchanger the hotter fluid enters at l 000°F and leaves
h,, is large, on the order of 1000 to 150() B1utf1 2 hr °F, while h; at 400°F. while the colder flu id enters at 250°F and leaves at
w ill be about JO to 12 Btu/ft2 hr°F. Again, using EQ . (4). it can 450°F. Assuming counterflow, we have
be shown that 6Tmax = 1000 - 450 = 550°F.
U"'hX !!,_ (6) t:i.T,.,,,, = 400 - 250 = L50°F
' d
Then
All the other thcm1al resis1.anccs can be seen lo be very small,
550 - 150
and U approaches the tube-side coefficient It;. t:i.T = ln(550/ l 50)
= 307°F
C,AS·TO·GAS I !EAT EXCH A>IGEl1S
In boi ler economizers and superhcaters, fr could be taken as I.
(EXAMPLE: AIH H Et\TER IN ROILER PLANT)
In tubular air heaters. Fr could vary from 0.8 to 0.9. rr accurate
Jn gas-to-gas heat transfer equi pment, both h; and /r0 arc sma ll
values are needed, publ i~hed charts can be consulted [ 1,2·1.
and comparable, while the other coefficients are high.
Assuming that h,, - 10 and h, = 15, and using the lube
configuration above, 4 .02
I 2.0 I Q: How is the tube-side heat transfer cocfficicn! h1 estimated?
10- 4
u = 15 X 1.5
+ 10
+ 0.001 + 9 6 X

?
A: The widely used expression for h, is II J
+ 0.001 X ~ = 0.1922 Nu = 0.023 X Rc0·8 X Pr" (&)
15
or where the Nusselt number is
U = 5.2 Btu/ft1 hr °F
Nu =
h, X d,
(9)
12k
Simplifying Eq. (4). neglecting the metal resistance term and
fo ul ing, we obtain the Reynolds number is
h,d,ld w X d,
U=h,,X (7) Re = 15.2 X ( 10)
h,, + h,(l/d µ,
Thus both /r,. and h, contribute to U. where w is the flow in the tube in lb/hr, and the Prandtl number is
Uih (jtllhl()dlhy

Pr =
µ, X c;, ()I)
where
k V = vcloci1y . fl/s
where 1 = water temperature . F
µ, = viscosity. lb/ ft hr For very viscous Ouids. E4. (8) has to be corrected by the term
C~, = ~~c,fic hem . Btu/lb °F involving visco,i1ic, at 1uhe wall 1empcra1urc and at hulk tem-
k = thcnnal conductivity. Btu/ft hr °F pcra1urc l I I.
all estimated at the Ouid bulk temperature.
Substituting E4s. (9) through ( 11) into Eq . (8) and simplify- 4.03a
ing, we have Q: falimate h, when 200 lbihr of air at 800°F and at atmospheric
1110Ako bet: ., pressure nows in a tube of inner diamc1cr I 75 in.
h, = 2.44 X
d,usµo " = 2.44 X I 12)
t\: Using Table~ I and Eq. (12). we have C = 0. 187.
where C i, a factor given by
187
h, = 2.44 x 200" • x O. = 11.55 Btu/ft~ hr °F
C = l. 75 '"
µ." 4
where
C is available in the fom1 of chnrts for various Ouid~ f I] as a
function of temperature. For air ,ind lluc gases . C may be taken 11· = llow. lb/hr
from Table 4.1. d, = rnner diameter. 111.

For hot water flowing inside tubes. Eq. (8) has been sim- For gases at high pressures, Ref. l !,lives the C values.
plified and can be wrillcn as below 13 J. ror 1 < 300°P:
vox 4.<HI>
Ii, = (150 + 1.551) X - :/ 0, ; , ( 13)
i - Q: In an economizer. 50.000 lb/hr of wmer at an average tcmpcrJ-
' ture of 250°F nows ma pipe of inner diameter 2.9 in. Estimate
h,.

TalllC' -1-. I Facwr C for Air uml Hue Ga,c, A: Let u, u,e Eq. (13). first the velocity has to be calculatcu. From
QI .07u. V = 0.05(,w/d f ). 11, the ,pccilic volume of ho1 water at
Temp. 1°1') r 250°F. i, 0.017 cu ft/lh. Then.
200 016~ 0.017
400 0 . 172 V = 0.05 X 50,000 X
2.<J·
= 5.05 fl/,ec
60() 0 . 180
RlX) 0 187 Hence, from Eq. ( 13).
l()()() 0 . 194 5.05""
1200 0.205 Ji, = (150 + l.55 X 250) X
2.911 ?
= 1586 B1u/fl1 hr °F
 tKO
1/!X

4.()3(' A: The outside ga, heat transfer coefficicnl h,. is the ,um or the
convective heal 1ransfcr coefficient 11, and nonluminou, heal
Q: fa1ima1c 1hc heal lmrn,fcr c.:oeflicicm when 5000 lb/hr of supcr- transfer cocflicicm h,..
hca1cd slcam nows 1n:,idc a cube of inner diameler 1.78 111 in a
boiler supcrhcmer. The steam pressure is IOOO p,ia, an<l the h,. = h, + It,. (14)

1~mpern1ure i;. 800°P. Quick cs1i111ates or heat 1ran:,fcr c.:ocffi- For finned tubes, h,, should be corrcc1cd for lin effcc11veness. h.,
c1cnt;, for saturated and ,upcrhcatcd s1eam in tubes or pipe:, can is usual ly small if 1he gas temperature is less 1han !100°F and can
be made using Eq. ( 12) with factor C given m Table 4.2. be ncglec1cd.

A: Using Eq. (12) and a C value of 0.345. we have E ..<.;Tl/l'lt\TIN<i h, FOH 131\RE T l 113ES
A conservative es1ima1e of h, for now of Ouid, over bare cubes in
0.345 in-line and staggered arrangemenls is given by 111
h1 = 2.44 X 500()''" X = 271 Btu/fl~ hr 0 1-'
1.711 1 8 ( 15)
Nu = 0.33 x Re" 1' x Pr'u 3
If the s1ea111 were salurated. C would be 0.49. Then we would
Subs1i1u1ing. we have the Reynolds. Nusselt. and Prand1I num-
have
bers
0.49
h, = 2.44 X 5000" 8 X
I. 7gl.• - 385 Btu/fl: hr °F C X d ( 16)
Re =
12
4.04 ii, X d ( 17)
Nu =
12(
Q: How is the outside gas heat transfer coeflicienl II,, in boilers, air
healers. economizers. and supcrhealcrs determined? and

Pr =
µ. X ½> ( I 8)
k
Ti:ll>le 4. 2 Futlur C for Steam
where
Pressure
(psi,i): 100 500 1000 2000 C = gas mass velocity, lblfl1 hr
d = 1ube ou1er diamcler. in.
Sm.: 0 .244 0.417 0.-19() 0.900 µ. = gas viscosity. lb/fl hr
Temp. ("F) k = ga, thermal conduc1ivity, Btu/ft hr °F
400 0.271 C,, = gas specific hc;H, Bmilb °F
5()0 0.273 0.360 Al l the gas propcnies above arc 10 be evalualcd al the gas li lm
600 0.281 0.322 0.-113 lempcraturc. Subs111ucing Eqs. (16) lo (18) into Eq. (15) and
700 0.291 0.316 0.358 0.520
800 simplifying, we have
0.305 0.320 0.345 0.-120
900 0.3 17 0.327 0.347 0 .394 r I 19)
1000 0.325 0.340 0.353 (U86 h, = 0.9 X G°· 0 X d'"
 100
( H.11 i,l,>t11h\ 101
where
Lcngrh of the tubes = 10.5 fl
F = ,0•1 X COB
-=.Jt_ Transverse pi tch = 4 .0 m .
"' µ..o:ir (2()) Longitudinal pitch = 3 .5 in. (staggered!
So/111io11. E>t immc G. From E<.J. /2 I).
Fa~tor F _has been_compmcd for air and fl ue gases. and a good
estimate as g,ven an Table 4 .3. 150.000
The gas rna,s velocity G is given by
C = 12 x
12 X 10.5 X (4 - 2)
= 7 I42 lb/ft 1 hr

G = 12 x
w Using Table 4 3. a, a fi lm rcmpcraturc of 700°F. F = 0. 113.
N,J.(S 1 - d) /21 l Hence.
where 0. I 13
Ii, = 0.9 X 7 14211 • X z1,, = 15.8 Btu/fl~ hr °F
N,. = numocr of tubes wide
S, = transverse pitch. in. As the gas temperature i~ not high. the 1,,, value wi ll be low. Ml
l = lube length. ft
w. = gas now. lb/ hr V "' It,."' h, = 15.8 Btu/fl' hr °F
(Film tcmpcrnturc may be taken as the average ur gas and Mcam
For quick estimates. ga~ film rcmpcraturc ,, can be taken a, rhc
temperature for prelin11nary esltmates. If an accurate estimate is
average of gas and tluid temperat ure inside the tu bes.
required, temperature drops across the various thcni1al re-
l~Xl\l\lJ>LE sistances as discussed an Q4. I6a must be determined )
Dctcm11nc the gas-side convecta vc heat tram,fcr cocflicicn, ror a Convective h..:al transfer coefficient obtained by the above
bare-tube superhcalcr lube of diameter 2.0 in. with the follov. ing method or Gnmson's method can be modilied Lo include the
parameters: effect of angle of auack a of the gas llow over the rubes. The
Gas now = 150.000 lb/hr correction factor F,, 1s I ror pcrpcnclicul,ir llow and clccrcascs as
Gas tcmrcrnturc = 900°F shown in Table 4.4 for other angles [II
Average steam tcmpcrarurc = 500°F If. for example. ii, = I5 and the angle of auack is 60°. then
Number of tubes witk = 12 Ii,= 0.94 X 15 14. 1 Btu/J't 2 hr °F.

4.0S
Tai ) )(· 4.3 F Facror for A,r and Aue Gase,
Q: How is the convcctavc heal transfer coefficient for air and nuc
Temp. (°F) ,. gases detcm1incd using C rimson·, correlation''
20()
0.094
400 0 ll)J
<,Oo 0. 1IU T a l>le 4 .4 Correction i'act<1r fur Angle or Am,c~
800 0. 116
I000 0. 123 a. deg 90 80 70 I\O 50 40 30 20 JO
1100 0.1JO F. 1.0 IO 0.98 0 .94 0 SH 0 .78 0.67 0.52 0.42
 192 GiUldf)c:.ltl,y 11ca1 Trunsfl·r Eq1.1ip1nc·n1 Dc.·.si~n and Pcrforr1,ru1cc 1!)3

A: Grimson's correlalion, which is widely used for estimating hr

f I ]. is Nu = 0.229 X 12,980° 632 = 91 =
12 X 0.02344
Nu = B X ReN (22) or h, = l2.8 B1u/ fr hr °F
Coefficient B and power N are given in Table 4.5.
EXI\MPLE 4.()6
150.000 lb/hr of flue ga~cs having an analysis CO2 = 12, H20
Q: How does an in -line arrangement compare wi1h a staggered
= l 2, N2 = 70. and 0 2 = 6, all in% volume. llows over a tube arrangement for bare tubes?
bundle having 2-in. OD lubes al 4-in. square pitch. Tubes per
row = 18; length = JO fl. Dc1crmine ii,. if the fluid 1emperature A: In-line arrangement is preterred 10 staggered with bare tubes
is 353°F and average gas temperature is 700 °F. The Appendix because the gas-side heat transfer coeffic iem is nearly the same
tables give the properties of gases . while the gas pressure drop is much higher. To illustrate. let us
At a film tempemture of0.5 x (353 + 700) = 526°F. CP = work out an exan1ple.
0.2695, µ = 0.0642, and k = 0.02344. Then mass veloci1y C is
EX/\tvlPLE
G = 12 X ISO,OOO = 5()()0 lb/ft 2 hr 150.000 lb/hr of flue gases at 900°F is cooled 10 500°F in a boi ler
18 X IO X (4 - 2) generating 125 ps1g steam. Neglecting the effect of the non-
From Table 4.5, for Srfd = SJd = 2, B = 0.229 and N = luminous heal transfer coefficieni, s1udy the effect of using
0.632, so longitudinal pitches of 3, 4, and 6 in. Tube diameter is 2 in .. and
5000 X 2 transverse pi1ch is 4 in. Boi ler duty is 16 MM Btu/hr. Tubes per
Re= = 12,980 row = 18. Effec1ivc length = 10 n. Gas analysis(% vol) is CO 2
12 X 0.0642
= 12, H20 = 12, N2 = 70. 0 2 = 6. Log-mean temperature
difference (117) = 319°F.
Tal.>le 4.5 Grimson's Value., or B and N Using Grimson·s co1Telation. /i,. was computed for the various
configurat ions. Overall heal transfer coefficiem was then arrived
S 1 id = 1.25 Srld = 1.5 s.,,d =2 Srid = 3 at and used 10 de1erminc surface areas. Then the number of rows
SL/d 8 N B N IJ N 8 N deep for each case and the gas pressure drop were evaluated for
each case. The results are shown in Table 4.6.
Staggered
1.25 0.518 0.556 0.505 0.554 05 19 0.556 0 .522 0.56'.! I. The staggered arrangement does not have a significant in-
1.50 0.451 0.568 0.460 0.562 0.452 0.568 0.488 0.568 crease in h, over the in-line arrangement when the longitudi-
2.0 0.404 0.572 0.4!6 0 .568 0.482 0.556 0.449 0.570 nal pitch-lo-diameter ra1io exceeds 2. II appears auractive
3.0 0.310 0.592 0.356 0.580 0.44 0.562 0.421 0 .574 below a ra1io of 1.5. However. 1his raiio is not widely used
Lu-lino in the industry because of low ligament efficiency, the
1.25 0. 348 0.592 0.275 0.608 O.JOO 0.704 0.0633 0.752 possibi lity of bridging of particu lates, cleanability. access
I.SO 0.367 0.586 0.250 0.620 O.lOI 0 .702 0.0678 0.744 for welding. elc.
'.!.O 0.418 0.570 0.299 0.602 0.229 0 .632 0 .198 0.648
3.0
2. The ga.s pressure drop is much l1igher for the siaggcrcd
0.290 0.601 0.357 0.584 0 .374 0.58 1 0.286 0.608
arrangement. For example, when we have a S 1 /d = S,Jd
 IU4 GanapaUtv 11ea1 Trnnskr E<1uipff1c.·n1 Ot.'sign nud l"errornl.mn· 19S

Tc1ble 4.6 Study of In-line Versus Staggered Arrangements where

Si.Id = 1.5 S, id = 2.0 s, /1/ = 3.0 e, = emissivity of gases at T,
C'<g = absorptivity al T.
In-line Stnggered In-line Staggered In-line Staggered
T,, = absolute temperature of ga.~. R 0

It,. Grimson 10.% 13.79 12.81 13. 13 12.91 12.69 T,, = absolute temperature of tube surface, 0
R
Fishenden
ii,. , 11.90 14.35 13.20 13.56 13.30 13.20
Friction factor 0.0396 0.0807 0.()4928 0.0807 0.()686 0.0807 e, is given by
hr. average 11.50 14.07 13 13.35 13. Ill 12.95 EK = E, + 'l X E.,. - llE (23)
No. of row.s 49 40 43 42 43 43
M',.. in we 1.32 2. 12 1.44 2.29 2.00 2.33
a, is calculated similarly at T,,. 'l is !he correction factor for the
water pressure. and Ae i; !he decrease in emissivity due to the
presence of water vapor and carbon dioxide.
Alihough it is desirable to calculate heat flux by (22), it is
= 2, the staggered arrangement ha.~ nearly the same numher
tedious 10 estimate o,8 at temperature T,,. Considering the fact that
of rows but the gas pressure drop is 40 to 50% higher.
In conclusion , in-l ine arrangement, are wiuely usec.l for bare
ri will be much :,mailer than r;,
with a very small loss of
accuracy, we can use the following si mplified equation. which
tubes. For finned lubes, see Q4.22. lends iL\elf to further manipulations.

4.07a ~ = O'E,(~ - 1'!) = h,/,T,, - T,,) (24)

Q: I low is nonluminous radiation heat transfer coefficient evalu- Nonluminous heat transfer coefficient hN can be wriuen as
ated? T~-r:,
Ilf,1 = <IEg Tg - T,, (25)
A: In engineering heal transfer equipment as hoilers, fired heaters,
and process steam supcrheatcrs where gases at high temperatures To estimate ""' partial pressures of triatomic ga~es and beam
transfer energy lO Ouid inside tubes. nonluminous heat transfer length L are require<.!. L is a characteristic dimension that de-
plays a significant role. During combustion of fossil fuels such as pends on the shape of the enclosure . For a bundle of tubes
coal oil, or gas-triatomic gases-for example, water vapor, interchanging radiation wilh gases, it can be shown that
carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide are formed, which comribute L = I.OS X S7S,, - 0.7851/1
to radiation. The emissivity pancm of these gases has been (26a)
d
studied by Hollel. and chart, are available lo predict gas emis-
Lis taken approximately as 3.4 to 3.6 times the volume of the
sivity if gas temperature. partial pressure of gases. and beam
le ngth are known . space divided by !he surface area o f the heat-receiving surface.
Net interchange of raJiation between gases anti ,urroundings For a cavity of dimension~ o. band c,
(e.g., a wall or lube bundle or a cavity) can be wrillen as 3.4 x abc 1.7
L = = (26b)
2(ab + be + rn) I la + 1/b + l i e
; = CJ X (e_.T: - a,T~) (22)
ln the case of fire tube boilers, L = d,.
IYh 1tei.H Transfer Equlpnwnr I >t ·~i~n a1 Kl l-'<~rf<m11anc<: 107
c;anapatll}'
0·)

,-_.. --, -.... 0,1.,--.--..--,--T===I===l

o, .... - - ===:::i====r::::=i
i~,,
-r-
0,S

0,1
0-2
-
_, ·- -...;
,
·- .....
.... <
"' < .,
s~
~
J ~...::.
I'-"'·
- .... _,
~o,
.......
f
..... '
0 ,1
0.0 g ~ ~ ' --..:-
,_.....
-...... o.,....
l ...
.... · O.' '. 02
•
(),() .....
- :<..:; ....... ....... .... .._-~ ... ..... ,
......._ .._ ....
~-...... ,'......... .... , O,<.......... v.,: ' - '
0.0 J..o ~
7 ' ~ 0-15
~o 's .....
(),()

........., ~~ ~ ........
012
IJ. ) ,.,
'o. ;,... r,...~ ..
' -...
0-10
o.o ....... ' ... 0.09

'... , , '
.... ' " ,·v_
'
...... ' A ' . ' -
~
.... 'O ' 3:
0,01
0,01

-
u O· O1
'~ '......... , " "-o;' ,........ .......... 0.06
"' ,
\J.)
0.02
~~

·--
-· --
....
'-'-'- ....... '"'
'-.......:,t--...._' " ,,
A~' '
,o,,
., ' ' ' '
·,
.
o.os

I.>'..' ...'
l>J '( ()< '
(),() 1S
''
''
0·010
0-009
(),() 01
0,0 07
',
.
"'~-~ ~
·- "" ·n
i4, j_.• 'VJ'
·n
•()A
~ ·o'o

~ '-
's '
....
'
' C.q, ' ' ...
· Oo 0
• ' ,.
1, '

.
0, 02

0,01 S .....,,,__.....,_,....,!,,-'.._
<>o,
O•OOG ~
• I, ' ·,~ ',
...
'' 0-01?
'
'()$ '
ooos ·- ' . . " ' 0,010
I
'
' ' ' Q.009

·. . . '
0.004 ... ' . . '
0·00)
. ' . .
0.008~L:::±::::::slt:~~-~.c3~._.:,.:J,.....J,J_~
0.001
500 1000 1500
-'..:'\._
2000
-.J'l':;;_...:....J>....:'--..:........ll.....ll.~__J
2SOO 3000 lSOO 4000 4SOO SOOO
soo 1000 1SOO 2000 lSOO 1000 lSOO 4000 4SOO SOOO 0
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATUREl R)
(a) ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE ( T • R) (b)

Figure 4.1 (a) Emis-sivity of carbon dioxide.

(b) Emissivity of water vapor. EXJ\Ml-'Ll: I
(c) Corrcc1ion foctor for emissivity
of water vapor. Detcm1ine the beam length L if S7 = 5 in .. S,. = 3.5 in • and
(d) CorrccLion 1erm due to presence of water vapor and d = 2 in.
carbon d1oxitlc. (From. Ref. I.}
S0l111io11
5 X 3.5 - 0. 785 X 4
e, can be estimated using Figure 4. J, which give, e,. e,., 11, L = 1.08 x = 7.8 in.
2
and Ae. For purposes of engineering estimates. radiation effects
of S01 can be taken as simi lar to chose of CO2• Hence. par1ial EX,\t\ IPLE ~

pressures of CO: and S01 can be added and Figure 4. I used to In a tired heater firing a waste ga.s. CO: in Bue ga,c; = 12% and
get E,.. H20 = 16'¾. The gases llow over a bank of whes m the
108

18 convective section where tubes arc arranged a, in Example 1

(hence L - 7.8). Determine h, ,r ,, = 1650°F and,. = 600°F
1.6
S0l111io11 .
I.' 7.8
P, L = 012 X = 0.078 alm l't
12
I 2
,._.L,_,oo .,. ,., P•.f, = 0.16 X
7.8 = 0. 104 aim It
'? 10 12
In Figure 4. la ,ll T, = (1650 + 460) = 2110°R and PJ. =
0.8
0.078. e, = 0.065. In Figure 4.lb. at T, = 2110°R and P.L ~
0.6 0. 104. E., = 0.05. In Figure 4. le. corresponding m (P + P•.)11
= I 16/2 = 0.5S am.I P.L = 0. 104. 'I'\ = I. I In Figure 4. lc.l.
o, corresponding to P,J(P. + /~,) = 0. 16/0.28 and(/~ + P,,) l, =
0 182, .C,e = 0.002. Hence.
0.1
E, = 0.065 + (I. I X 0.05) - 0,()()2 = 0 . l I 8
0.0
0.0 02 0.4 06 0,8
Using Eq. (25) with the BoltL.mann constant er = 0 173 x 10 "
1.0 1.2 1
2 110 1060'
(c) ½(P+Pw)(alm) lr,v = 0.173 X 10 • X 0. ll8 X 21 10 - 1060

= 3.6 Btu/ft' hr °F
Thus. h.v can be evaluated for gases.

4.07l>
Q: Can gas emissivity be c,timatcd using equations'?
,,. 1-+ --+--l--l--
/\: Gas emissivity can he obta1nccl a, follows. lr.v 1s given by

•• j~ T' (25)
ftN = ere, "
r. r..
where
er = Sti:fon-Boll/mann constant = 0.173 x 10 0
•,
.. ,o O.;. Ot f.11 1O
T and 7;,
11
= gas and tub<: outer wall temperature. R
_b_ !~
'"e• " • ;,, ' f . e• . gas emissivity , is obtained from Hottel', charts or from the
(d) exprc,sion I l I

Figure .J..1 Continued

:.:?()C}
11e,c11 Transrcr Equis)n1en1 oeslgn iil1d Pc-rforn,ancc· 2 01

(27aJ Then. from Eq. (25) .

20604 - 1160-1
(0.8 + l.6p.,J X ( I - 0.38T.I IOOO) hN = 0.173 X 0.107 X 10-K X
K 1600 700
vci>:+ p•.)l
X (p, + />. ) (27t,) = 3.33 Btu/ ft2 hr °F
T,, is in K. L is the beam length in meters , and /1, and p,. are the
partial pressures of carbon dioxide and water vapor in atm. L. the
beam length, can be estimated for a tube bundle by 4.08a
Q: How is heat transfer in a boiler furnace evaluated?
L = I .OB S,. X S1• - 0. 785d 2
(26a)
d
A: Furnace heat transfer is a complex phenomenon. and a single
S7 and S, are the transverse pitch and longirud inal pitch. Meth- formula or correlation cannot be prescribed for sizing furnaces of
ods of estimating p,. and fl• . are given in Chapter I. all types. Basically. it is an energy balance between two fluids-
gas and a steam-water mixture. Heal transfer in a boiler furnace
EXAMPLE i; predominamly radiation. partly <.luc to the luminous pan of the
In a boiler superheat.er with bare tubes. the average gas tempera- name and partly due 10 nonluminous gases. A general. approx i-
ture is I 600°F and the tube metal temperature is 700"F. Tuhe size mate expression can be written for furnace absorption using an
is 2.0 in., and transverse pitch S,. = longitudinal pitch S1 = 4.0 energy approach:
in. Partial pressure of water vapor and carbon dioxide a.rep., =
0.12, p,. = 0. 16. Determine the non luminous heat transfer coef-
QF = A,,E., E.1 <T ('r, - T!)
ficient. = ~ x LHV - W,!1, (28)
From Eq. (26a). the heam length L is calculated. Gas temperature (7~) is defined in many ways; some authors
define it as the ex it-gas tempemturc itself. Some put it as the
L = I .08. X 4 X 4 - 0. 785 X 2 X 2
= 6.9 in. mean of thcorecical flame temperature and 1,. However. plant
2
experience shows that a bctler agreement between measured and
= 0.176 m calculated values prevail, when ,., = r, + 300 to 400 °F II].
Using Eq. (27b) with T, = (1600 - 32)/1.8 + 273 = 1114 K. The emissivity of gaseous name is evaluated as follows I 11:
we obtain
Er = 13(1 - e - KI'/.) (29)
(0.8 I- 1.6 X 0.12) X (I - 0.38 X 1.1 14) f3
Factor K = characterizes ll;u11e-lilling volumes.
\ / 0.28 X 0. 176
13 =1.0 for nonluminous names
X 0.28 = 0.72 1 = 0. 75
for luminous sooty flames of liqu id fuels
From Eq. (27a). = 0.65
for luminous and semiluminous names of solid
fuels
E_. = 0.9 x II - exp( - 0.721 x 0.176}1 = 0. 107 L = beam length. m
202 1-tc.-11 Transfer Eql 1i1 unen1 Dl'sign <1nd 1>erf< ,rn ,,u1l ·e

K = attenuation factor, which depends on fuel type and Excess air 15% 25%
presence of a~h and its concemrmion. For non- Furnace exu 0.6 0.5
luminous flame it is Middle 0.7 0.6

K=
0.8+ l.6pw l - 0.38'/; )
X ( IOOO X (p, + p•.) (27b)
Y(p, + flw)L
Also, furnace tubes coated with ferric oxide have emissivities.
For semiluminous flame, the ash particle size and concentration e,.. of the order of 0.8. depending on whether a slag layer covers
enter into the calculation: them. Soot blowing changes E,. considerably. Thus, only an
K=
0.8 + l.6pw ( I - 0.38'f, ) estimate of E1 and e,. can be obtained, which varies with type of
X
1000
X (p,. + /1,.) unit , fuel, and operation regime~.
V(p,. + p..,}L
To illustrate these concepts, a few examples are worked out.
) 1/3
+7fLx(d,' The purpose is only to s how lhe effect of variables like excess air
,,,x r2' (27c)
and heat release rates on furnace absorption and furnace exit-gas
where temperature.
d,,. is the mean effective diameter of ash particles, in microm- EXAMPLE I
eters Determine the approximate furnace exit-gas temperature of a
d,,. = 13 for coals ground in ball mills boiler when net heat input is abou1 2000 X 106 Btu/hr. of which
= 16 for coals ground in medium- and high-speed 1750 x ,o~
Bluihr is due to fuel and the rest is due to air. HHV
mills and LJ-lV of coals lircd are JO,()()() and 9000 Btu/lb, respectively,
= 20 for combustion of coals milled in hammer mills and a furnace heat release rate of 80,000 Btu/ft~ hr (projected
µ. = ash concentration in g/Nm3 area basis) has been used. The values e,.. and e, may be taken as
T,. furnace exit temperature. K 0.6 and 0 .5, respectively; 25% is the excess air used. Water-wall
outer temperature is 600°F. A,;h content in coal is JO%.
For luminous oil or gas flame,
Solution
K -- 1.6T, 0 - LHV
1000 - .) (27d)
_l?_ = 80,000 = "t X
A,,
Ap
P.. and Pc are partial pressures of water vapor and carbon dioxide
in the tluc gas. From combuMion calculation methods discussed in Chapter I,
using I MM Btu lired basis, we have the following ratio of flue
The above equations only give a trend. A wide variation could
exist due to the basic combustion phenomenon itself. Again, the gas to fuel:
name does not fill the furnace fully. Unfilled portions are sub- = 760 X l.24 X 10'
IV,,. + I - (10/ 100)
jected to gas radiation only, the emissivity of which is far below 10
(0.15 to 0.30) that of the flame. Hence. e1 decreases . Godridge
"i
reports that in a pulverized coal-fired boiler, emissivity varied as
=
10.4 lb/lb
follows with respect to location [3]: Q = Ape. £r<T X <r:: - T;,) = "t X LHV - 1¥,.h,.
2(H He.or Tran...-,fer tql 1i1 mu ·n1 I )(·~ign an<I P<' r(c ml 1onc(· 20,:;

Dividing throughout by W1. LHV

= 100,000
= 0.09
~v. e.,. e1 <r(""
Ae , , - T',.) -- LHV - ~
w, h,
'f I ~ = 10.4. t = 2000 °F; '• = 2300°F
A,J"'i =
LHV/80,000 = 0 1125 "1 '
Assume I,. = J 900°F. Cpm -- O, 3 Btu/lb F-•
0
T.I( = 2300 + 460 = 2760°R
Cv., = 0.3 lltu/lb °F 4
,, = ( 1900 + 300) = 2200°F = 2660°R
LHS = 0 .09 X 0.6 X 0.5 X 0.173 X (27.6
- 10.64 ) = 2664
Let us see if the assumed 1, is correct. Substituting for A,!"'i,
RHS = (9000 - 10.4) X 2000 X 0.3 = 2760
E... e1. <T, T,, T, in the above equation, we have

LHS = 0. I 125 X 0.6 X 0 .5 X 0.173 X (26.64 From this it is seen that r, will be higher than assumed. Let
- 10.64 ) = 2850 t, = 2030°F, 1k = 2790°R
RHS = (9000 - 10.4 X 1900 X 0.3J 3072 Then
Since these do not tally. Lry 1, = 1920 °F. Neglect the effect uf LHS = 0.09 X 0.6 X 0.5 X 0. 173 X [(27 9)
4

varia1ion in c;N,,: - ( 10 6)4 1 = 2771

LHS = 0.1125 X 0.6 X 0. 5 X (26.8 4
- 10.6 4)
RHS = 9000 - 10.4 X 2030 X 0 . 3 = 2667
X 0.173 = 2938 Hence, 1, will lie between 2000 and 2030°F, perhaps 2015°P.
RHS = 9000 - 1920 x 0.3 X 10.4 = 3009 The exercise shows Lhat the exit-gas temperature in any steam
Since these agree closely , furnace exit-gas temperature i~ generator will increase as more heat input is give_n to iL; that is.
around I920°F. Note that the effect of extern,~ radiation to the higher the load of the boiler, the higher the exit-gas tempera-
supcrheaters has been neglected in the energy balance. This may ture. Example 3 shows the effect of excess air on 1,.
give rise to an error of I .5 to 2.5% in 1,, but iL~ omission greatly l, XAMPI.E :'l
simplifies the calculation procedure. Also, losses occurring in
What will be 1he furnace exit-ga.~ temperature when 40% excess
the furnace were omitted 10 ~implify the procedure. The error
air is used instead of 25%. heat loading remaining at about
introduced is quite low.
I 00.000 Btu/ft2 hr in the furnace mentioned in earlier examples'!
EXAMPLE 2 S0lt11io11
It is desired to use a heat loading of I 00,000 Btu/ft 2 hr in the
furnace in Example I . Other factors s uch as excess air and
g_ = 100,000 = w, -LHV
- ~ = 0.09
emissivities remain unaltered. Estimate the furnace exi1-ga~ 1cm- A,, A, w,
pera1urc. ~ = 760 X 1.4 X 10·•
+ 0.9 = 11 .54 lb/lb
Solution: w, 106
LHV t, = I950°F, C,,,,, = 0.3 Btu/lb 0 1-', T,, = 1950
.k. = 100,0()0 = "" X
+ + =
A,, A,, 300 460 2710°R
200
Gc..HldjMll1\' I re.-H 1 nau..,l'l'r E.qulpnK.. lll Ut·'-;iif(n .incl Pc:rtonlldt\( <..' ..!07

LHS = 0.09 X06 X 0.5 X 0.173 x 1(27 1)'1

op claw ba,ccl on lit.:ld tests. Estimating,, is the starting poim for
- ( 10.6}"] 2460 lhc design of supcrheatcrs. reheaters, and economizers.
RHS = 9000 - ( 11.54 x 1950 x 0.3) - 2249 Some boiler furnaces arc cc1uipp,:d with tilling tangential
These nearly tally; hence , r, i; about 1950 °F. compared lo abom burners, while some rurnaccs have only from or rear nontiltablc
2.030 °Fin Example 2. The effect of lhc higher execs, air ha., wall burners. The location of the burners affects ,,. significantly
been lo lower 1,. Hence, in these situations. correlations wilh practical site data
would help in establishing furnace absorption and temperature
EXt\Ml'LE 4
profiles.
If e. X Er = 0.5 im,te.id of 0.3. what will be the cffocl on , A promising technique for predict ing furnace heat transfer
when heal loading is 100.000 Btu/fl2 hr and excess air is 40'-t ·•' performance is the £One method of analysis. It is a~sumed that
Sol111io11 the pallcrn of nuid now, chemical heat release. and radiating gas
Let concentration are known. and equations describing conservation
r, = I800°F: T, = I 800 + 300 + 460 = 2560°R of energy within the furnace are developed. The furnace "
divided into many zones, and nidiation exchange calculation, are
LllS = 0.09 X 0.5 X 0.173 X 1(25.6)4 ( 10.6) 1
4
carried out.
= 3245
RIIS = 9000 - (11.54 X 1800 X 0.3) = 276~
Try: 4.081J

= Q: How is heal transfer eva luated in unfired furnaces?

I, 1700°F: T, = 2460°R
Then
A: Radiant sections using partially or fully water-cooled membrane
LHS = 0.09 X 0.5 X 0. 173 x [(24.6)' - ( 10.6)'1 wall designs arc used 10 cool gas streams ul high gas tempcrn·
= 2752 mres (Figure 4.2). They generate saturated steam and may opcr-
:,1c in parallel with convective evaporators if any. The design
RHS = 9000 - (11.54 X 1700 x 0.3) = 3115
procct.lure is simple and may involve an neration or two. The
Try: higher the partial pressures of triatomic gases. the higher will be
t, = l770°F: T,, = 2530°R. the nonluminou, racliation :md hence the duty.
If a burner is used as in the radiant ,cct,on of a furnace-fired
Then
HRSG. the emissivity of the flame must also be considered. As
LHS = 3091; RIIS = 2872 explained elsewhere 181, radiant sections are necessary tll cool
llencc. t, will be around 1760 °F Thi, example ;hows 1ha1 the gases 10 below 1hc softening point~ of any eutectics present so
when surfaces arc cleaner and capable of ab,orbing more radia- as 10 avoid bridgmg or slagging al the convection section. They
tion, r, decrca,cs. arc also required 10 cool ga,es lo a reasonable temperature at the
In practice. furnace hea1 transfer i:, nol cvalua1et.1 a, simply a, ,uperheuter if II is uset.l.
shown above because t1f the inadet1uacy of accurate data on soot EX,'u\ II 'LL
emissivity. particle ,i,c, cfo1ribu1ion, name size. excess air. 150.000 pph of nuc gasc, ;it 1700°!- ha~ to he rnolcd to 1500°F
presence and effect of a;h particles, c1c. I lcnce. ck,igner, dcvcl- in:, r:it.liunt ,cct,on of a w:i,le heal !,oiler of c.:ro,s ,cc.:tion 8 ft x
 208
I lc'ar Trccul!-th'r Equipnwm t>c..;lgu ~m <J Pt·rfo nn.11 ur 2(~J
drum
Let the average surface temperature of the radiant section be
400"!-'. Surface area for heat transfer = (8 + 10) x 2 x 25 =
900 ft.2. Tran:,fcrred energy is
gos oul:.
Q, = 0. 173 X 0.9 X 0.29 X 1(20.6)' - (8 .6)4) X 900
= 7. 1 MM Btu/hr
Required duty = 150,000 x 0.99 x 0.308 x 200
= 9. 15 MM Btu/hr
rodtonl:. Since there is a large discrepancy and the required duty 1s
sec l:.ton more, a larger :,urface area is required. A s the furnace length
docs not signi ficantly change the beam length and hence the gas
emissivity. we can assume that the transferred duty is propori ion-
ol to tbc surface area. Hence the required furnace length =
t9os in (9. 1517. I) X 25 = 32 ft.

Figure -l-.2 Radiani furna~c in u waste hea1 boiler.

4.0<J
Q: How is the distribution of external radiation to tube bundles
IO fl. ~aturated steam at 150 psig is generated by the gases. evaluated') Discuss 1he effecl of Lube spacing.
Dctcmunc the length . Gas analysis('¼ vol) is CO2 = 12. H,O
= I2, N1 = 70. and 0 1 = 6. - A: Tube banks are exposed to d trecl or external radiation from
Solution. Let the length = 25 ft . names, cavities, etc., in boi ler~. Depending on 1he 1uhc pitch,
the energy absorbed by each row of tubes varies. wiLh the first
volume row facing the radiation lOne receiving the maxi mum energy. It
Beam length = 3.4 x
i~ necessary to compute the energy absorbed by each row.
surface
particu larly in superheater.. as the contribmion of the radiatio n
3.4 X 8 X 10 X 25 can resu lt in high tube wall temperatures .
8 X 25 X 2 + 10 X 25 X 2+2 X 10 X 8 The following formula predicts the radiation 10 the tube~ 18).
= 6.4 fl = 2m

l ·-l( Sd)
ti d
a = 3. 14 X
2S s X Stn
Average gas temperature = 1600°F = 1144 K. Using (27).
K = (0.8 + 1.6
0.24
X 0. 12) (I - 0.38 x 1. 144)
+J(:~r-,- ~1 (30)
X
(0.24 X 2)0 < = 0 .1 94 where a is the fraction of energy absorbed by the first row. The
second row would then absorb ( 1-aJ x a; the third row.
{l-[a+(l-a)111}11: and so on.
 2.tl
1l<'al T rm\...,f('r l..:.·<1,1l1mu:ni Uc·~ij.(11
· dn<1 Pertnrn,imce

°F Tubes used are 2 x 1 77 in . (outer

loXAl\lll'LE fcedwater en lers al 220 · · . . •. _
and mncr diameter); fouling factors arc gas-side If Btu/fl hr I' -
I MM Btu/hr of energy from a cavity is radiated to a supcrheater 0 002 and steam-side ff = 0.001 ftz"F/ Btu. Tube metal thermal
tube bank that has 2-in. OD tubes at a pitch of 8 in . lf there arc · d . . _ ? Btu/ ft hr F Steam-side boiling heat trunsfer
six rows. estimate the distribution of energy to each row . con uCtl\'I1Y - - 5 • d .
coefficient = 2000 Btu/fr·F. Assume that heal losses an mar-
Solurion. Substituting d = 2, S = 8 into Eq. (30). we have
gin = 2% and blowdown = 5%.
a =
28
3.14 x ( ~ ) - ~ [sin - ' ( !) /\:
Use Eq. (4) to compute the ovemll heal transfer coefficient. and
then an-i VI} al the site from ( 1).
+ V4 X 4 - l - ~J I = ~ I- ff,. + ff, / + d.,
d., ln(d,/d,)
?4K
= 0.3925 - 0.25 (0.2526 + V IS - 4) = 0.361 u d,f,, (, - "*

Hence the first row absorbs 0.361 MM Btu/hr.

I (4)
I -
'lne second rowwouldreceive(I - 0.36 1) x 0.361 = 0.231 ho
or 0.23 I MM Btu/hr. ii the tubc-~ide coefficient, is actually the sum.of a c~nvc~tive
Thethirdrowreceives[l - (0.36 1 + 0.231)]0.361 = 0.147 ;rtion h, plus a non luminous coefficient h,, . h, is obtained Irom
MM Btu/hr Q4.04:
The fourth row. l I - (0.36 l + 0.231 + 0. 147)1 x 0.36 l = C
11
0.094 MM Btu/Hr. and so on. h, = 2.44 X 11' x X d'1f
I
It can be seen that the first row receives the maximum energy
and the amount lessens as the number of rows increases. For a At the average gas temperature of 1o<)O· F. the gas properties
tube pitch S of 4 in., a = 0.6575. The first row receives 0.6575 can be shown to be C,, = 0.287 Btu/tb• F. µ. = 0.084 lb/ft hr.
MM Btu/hr; the second, 0.225 M Btu/ hr; and the third, 0.077 and k = 0.0322 Btu/ft hr°F. Hence,
MM Btu/hr. Hence if the tube pitch is small, a large amount of
energy is absorbed within the first two 10 three rows, resulting in - ( 0.287 ·)00 X(0.0322)0 <, = 0.208.
C - ().084
high heat nux in those tubes and consequently high tu be wall
temperatures. Hence it is better to use a wide pitch when the BoilcrdutyQ = 100.000 x 0.98 x 0.287 x (1500 - 5()())
external radiation is large so that the radiation is ,prcad over = 28. l 3 x 10'' Btu/hr
more tubes and the intensity is not concentrated with in two or
three tubes. Screen tubes in boiler:; and fired heaters perform this Enthalpies of saturated steam, snturuted water, and fccd_water
function. from steam tables arc 11 95.5. 338. and 188 Btu/lb. respCCllVC~S
The enthalpy absorbed by steam is then (l 195.5 - 188) l- 0 ..
x (338 _ 1881 = 10l5 Btu/ lb. where 0.05 is the blowdown
4.10
factor corrc,ponding to 5% blowdown.
Q: Determine the size of a lire tube wa.,te heat hoiler required to 11encc
cool 100.000 lblhr of nue gases from 1500°F to 500°F. Gas 28. 13 X 10" = 27.710 lb/hr
analysis 1s (% vol) CO2 = l 2, H10 = 12. N1 = 70. and 0 1 = Steam generation = lo 15
6; gas pressure 1s 5 m. WC . Steam pressure is 150 rsig , and
 HC<tl Tran.sfc·r Equipnu·nt t)eslgn ancl Pcrfurrnann· 213

In order to compute h,. the llow per lube w is required . Typically 2

w ranges from 100 10 200 lb/hr for a 2-in. tube. Lei us start with U; = 9 .6 X - -
1.77 = 10.85 Btu/ fr hr °F
600 tubes; hence w = 100,000/600 = 167 lb/hr.
Log-mean temperature difference is
167"·"
h, = 2.44 X 0.208 X
( I. 77) ,.. = 10.9 Btu/ft2 hr ° F ( 1500- 366) - (500- 366) = 4 6s•r
6. T = lnf(I500-366)1(500-366)]
The nonluminous coefficient i, usually small in fire tube boilers
1-lence
as the beam length corresponds to the tube inner diameter.
However, the procedure used in Q4.07 can also be used here. Let 28.13 X 10''
A• = = 6261 ft2 = 3.14 X 2 X 600
us assume that it is 0.45 Btulfli hr °F. Hence 468 X 9.6
h, = 10.90 + 0.45 = 11.35 Btuift2 hr °F L
X 12
Let us compute U. Since it is based on tube outside s urface. let
us call it U.,. so required length L of tl1e tubes = 19 93 ft. Use 20 ft. Then
2/ I. 77 2 20
u,, = 11.35
+ 0.()()1 + 0.002 X A• = 3. 14 X 2 X 600 X
12
1.77

+ In ( I .~7 ) X 24 ~ 25 -l 0.0005
A, = 5558 ft2
Let us compum the gas pressure drop us ing Eq. (12) of Chap-
= 0. 10 + 0.001 + 0.00226 + 0.00041 + 0 0005 ter J.
= 0. 10417 V
6.P, = 93 X lO " X w2 X f X L, X
Hence. U., = 2
9.6 Btu/ft hr °F. df
The various resistances in f't 1 hr °F/Blu are Friction factor f depends on tube inner diameter and can be taken
as 0.02. The equivalent length L, can be approximated by L +
,Sd, to include the tube inlet and exit losses. G
Gas-side heal Lrnnsfer 0. 10 · d as I/<Icns1· 1y •. or " = 1/p. as
Specific volume 1• o b tame
density at the average gas temperature of I 000 F is r>, =
0
Gas-side fouling 0.00226
Metal r~istance 0.()(1()41 3911460 = 0.0267 lb/cu ft. Therefore.
Steam-side fouling 0.001
Steam-side heat transfer 0.0005 t:,P, = 93 X lO - s X 167l X 0.02
20 +5 X 1.77 = 3.23 in. WC
X 0.0267 X (1.77)'
If U is computed on the basis of tube inner !,Urface area, then U, This is only one design. Several variables s uch as tube_size and
is given by the expression mass flow could be changed to arrive al severnl options that
A, X U, = A,. x U,.. Hence could be reviewed for optimum operating and installed costs.
 Uandpt:1lh)
l·lt·~I Trtm!->l'l·i Ec1uiprn(·n1 rx·-..ign ancl l>C'rlonnni,<.<.""

4.11 velocity and tube size cun affect ~urfacc area. This is ~cu~se<A
elsewhere.
Q: What is the e ffect of mbe ,i.te and gas velocity on boiler ,i.te·> Is
surface area 1he sole criterion for boiler selection'!
4 .12
A: Surface area should not be used as the sole criterion for selcctmg Q: How is the tube wall temperature in l'ire tube boilers evaluated'!
or purchasing boilers, as tube size and gas velocity affoct this Discuss 1he importance of heat n ux.
variable.
Shown in Table 4. 7 are the design option, for the same boiler
A: To compute the tube wall tempemturcs. heat flu x must be
duty using differenl gas velocities and tube sizes: the procedure known.
1
described in Q4. IO was used to arrive at these options. The ,,
G/ = heat nux outside tubes = U., x (1, - 11) Biu/ft hr
purpose behind this example is to bring out the fact that surface Similarly, q, (heat llux inside the Lube) would be U, _x (~, - 1,).
area can vary by as much as 50% for the same duty. However heat nux outside the tubes is relevant 10 hre tube
boilers as' boiling occurs outside the tube,. whereas in water t~bc
I. As the gas velocity increases, the surface area required boilers, the heat nux inside the tubes would be relevant. A high
decreases, which is obvious. heat llux can result in a condition called DNB (departure from
2. The sma ller the tubes , the higher the heat transfer coefficient nucleate boiling). which will result in overheating of iubes. It is
for the same gas velocity, which also decreases the surface preferable to keep the actual maximum heat nux below th;
area. critical heat nux. which varies from I 50.000 to 250.000 Btu/ft
3. For the same gas pressure drop, the tube length is smaller if hr depending on steam quality. pressure, and tube condition lI],
the tube size is smaller. Thi, fact help, when we try to fit a An electrical analogy can be used in determining the tube wall
boiler into a small space. temperatures. Heat nux is analogous to current. electrical re-
4. For the same tube size. increasing the gas velocity results in sistance 10 thermal resistance, and voltage drop to 1emperature
a longer boiler. a greater gas pressure drop. but smaller drop. Using the example worked in Q4. 10. we have that at
surface area. average gas conditions the product of current (helll flux) and
resistance (thermal resistance} gives the voltage drop (tempera-
In the case of water tube boilers. more variables s uch as tube ture drop):
spacing and in-line or s taggered arrangement. in addition to g,L~ 2
q,. = heat nux = 9.6 x ( I000 - 366) = 6086 Btu/ft
hr

Tahle 4.7 F.ffccl of rube Sue and G;1,. Vchi..:11y

Temperaiure drop across gas film = 6086 X 0.1 = 609°F
Tempernturc drop across gas-side fouling = 6086 X 0.()0226
I S11.c 175 X 1.521 !.U X 177 2.5 x 2 B~
2. Vcloc1t}, f~ 9S 1r~ 1(,~ Y> 121 1<12 ,,g 12, J()~ = 14°F
\.1ubc, 1000 800 bOO 750 600 4l(I 470 :ns 280 Temperature drop across tube wall = 6086 X 0,()()041 = 3°F
4 /,. r, I~ 75 16 75 IS 1H 7.1 10 21 5 :?.t.7~ :!() 0 :?M ~)
~- s.. 11J 626'1 5BJ 4298 b5lJ 5558 -1480 6812 5711) A(,T\ Tcmpemturc drop acros, steam-side fouling = 6086 X 0.00 I
6. u, 1~ 47 1108 13 70 9.07 IO.b8 IJ 19 8.73 l021J I:? 7:?
7 ~-"., In WC 2.05 3 1.t 6.2} 1 97 1.20 h (I() 1.95 ,.16 6JKJ = 6°F
• I' iw 15 (l 25 ~ 47.-1 15 0 24 -l 4l6 14 9 2-1 (I 45 c, Temperature drop ucros:. steam film = 6085 x 0.0<)05 = 3°F
 I l<·a1 Tr;.u,..,ft•r E<1u11,nu·r11 l>t•sig1 1
· dl1tl J>l'rrc,rn1ci1nct· 21 7

Hence, thickness of scale

Avcmge inside tube wa ll 1empcrature = IOOO - 609 conductivity
- 14 = 377°F
L.:t us use the same example as in Q4. IO and chec~ 1he effect of
Outside tube wall temperntun: = 377 - 3 = 374°F. ff., on boi ler duty and tube wall temperatures . Let a silicate scale
The same result, are obtained working from lhe steam ,ide. of 1hickness O.OJ in. be fonncd. Then.
Outside tube wall lemperaturc = 366 + 6 + 3 = J75°F 0
ff,, = 0~ = 0.05 fr hr °F/ Btu
One. c?n also compute the max imum tube wall 1cmperature by
obtaining the beat flux at the hot gas inle1 end. As~ume that other rcsb1anccs have not changed. ( Because of
different duty and gas temperature profile, the gas-side heat
4 .1:3 transfer coefficient will be slightly different. However. for the
sake of illustration. we neglect this.) We have
Q: What is the effect of sca le formation on tube wall ternperalu n:s?

/\: If nonsolublc sails such as calcium or magnesium salls or sil ica = 0.10 + 0.00226 + 0.0004 1 + 0.05 + 0.0005
U,.
arc present in the fcedwa1cr. lhcy can deposit in a lhin layer on
tube surfaces during cvapora1ion, thereby resulting in higher tube = 0. 15317
wall temperatures.
Table 4.8 lists the thermal conductivity k of a few sca les.
Hence. U,, = 6.52 Btuifrhr°F
Outside fou ling factor ff0 can be oblained if the scale informmion Heat flux q,. = 6.52 x (1000 - 366) = 4133 Btu/ft2 hr.
is available .
Temperature dmp across outside steam film = 0.0005 x
4 133 = 2°F.
Table 4 .8 Thcm1aJ Conduc1ivihcs of Scale Temperature drop across steam-side foul ing layer 11r ~cale =
Malerials 4 I 33 X 0.05 = 207°F.
Temperature drop across tube wall = 4 I 33 X 0.0004 1 =
Thcnnal conduc1ivity
Mu1crial 2°F.
((B1u/f12 hr °FJ/in.J
Annlcitc We sec 1hat averafie tube wall temperature has risen to 366 + 2
8.8
Calcium phospharc 25
+ 207 -i 2 = 577°F from an earlier value of abom 375°F. Scale
Calcium sulfate 16 formation is a serious problem. Note 1hat the heat nux is now
Magnesium phosphate 15 lower. but that doe~ not help. Ar the from end, H·here rhe hear
Magncric mm oxide 20 {11Lr is higher, rh1• tube~ would he """'" houer.
Silicate scale (porous) 0.6 Now let us check Ihe effect on boi ler duty. It can be shown I. I •
Boiler Slccl 310 81 thal
Firebric~ 7
ln,ulaiing brick In _t_s1~-'=
'"~' UA
0.7
/ 1:~ Isa,
=
 11<.'..ll Trdrt....;fc·r EC(llilml<'111 n,~~1g11 ("uut Pt·rforn1..-1nc..c..· 21 1 )
(j'-llldf)clll\y

where 11 11• is the heat los, factor. If 2% Jo,\e, are a,sumcd, then inlet temperature. Similarly, one can consider the effect of ga.,
It., = 0.98. now and saturation temperature
We know that U,, = 6.52. A,. = 6820, r, 1 = 1500.1 ~, = 366.
llcncc,
4.14
1500 - 366 6.52 X 6280 Q: How h, 1he size of a water tube boi ler dctermmcd'/
In
1,2 - 366
= 100.000 X 0.9~ X 0.287
1500 - 366 A: The Marting point in the design or an evaporator bundle I Figure
= 1.456, or = 4.29 4.3) 1s thee,t,mation of overall hent transfer coefficient. Thccro,,-
,.~ - 366
~ec1ional data such as the number of tube, wide. ,pacing, and
Hence,, , = 630°F compared to 500°F earlier. The reason for 1,2 length or tubes arc assumed. U is est imatcd on the basis of mass
going up is the lower U,, caused by scale formation. velocity. The surface area is then detem1inc<l, followed by the
Hence new duty = 100.000 x 0.98 x 0.287 x ( 1500 - number of rows deep. The ga, pressure drop is then evaluated.
630) = 24.47 x 10'' Btu/hr. The decrease in duty is 28. lJ - This is only a reasiblc design . Several options arc possible
24.47 = 3.66 MM Btu/hr. Even assuming a mvdebl energy COM depending on the ,i1,e anu operating cost, which is influenced by
of $3/MM Btu. the annual loss due to incrcasc<l fouling b 3.66 the gas pressure drop. Optimization is then resorted to. prefera-
X 3 X 8000 = $87 .800. The steam production in turn gets
bly using a computer program.
reduced.
Plam engineer~ shoulu chcc~ the perfom,ance of their heat EX,\Ml 'LE
transfer equipment periodicaJ ly to see if the exit gas temperature l 50,000 pph of nue gas must be cooled from 900°F 10 520°F m
rises for the same inlet gas flow and temperature. If it docs. then an evaporator generating saturated steam at 125 psig with 230°F
it is likely due to fouling on either the gas or steam side, which fccdwatcr. Blowdown is 5%. Gas analysis(% vol) is as follows:
can be checked. Fou ling on the ga~ side affecLs only the duty and CO,= 12. H,O = 12. N, = 70. and Oz = 6. Heat loss from
steam production, but fouling on ihe steam side incrca~es the the ·casing = ·1.0%. Fouli~g factors on s1eam anu gas side =
tube wall temperature in addition to reducing the duty anu steam 0.001 J't2 hr °F/ Btu.
production. Solurimr. Let us assume the following. Tube size = 2 x 0.105
To ensure that variations in exit gas temperature are not due to in. (inner diameter = J .77 in.): number wide = 18: tube length
fouling bm arc due to changes in gas now or temperature, one = JO ft; Transverse and longitudinal pitch arc 4 in. each. Aver-
can use simu lation methods. For cx:1111ple. if. for the same gas age ga5 temperature= 0.5 x (90{) + 520) = 7 l0°F = 650 K.
flow. the inlet ga.s temperdturc i!, I 800°F, we can expect the exit Fluid temperature inside tubes = 353°F. Hence film temperature
ga, temperature LO rise. Under clean conditions. this can be = 0.5 x (353 + 710) = 531 °F. The ga5 properties from the
estimated using &1. (35) . Appendix arc c,, = 0.270. µ. = O.Cl645. and k = 0.02345. The
gas ,pccilic heat at the average gas 1cmpcramre = 0.277.
1500 - 366 1800 - 366
500 - 366 = 1, 2 - 366
or 1, 2 = 535°F Duty Q = 150,000 X () 99 X 0.277 X (900 - 520)
Now if. in operation. the exu ga., temperature were 570 to 600°1-', = 15,60 MM Btu/hr
then fouling could be suspected; but ir the g;i, temperature were Steam enthalpy change = ( l 193 198) I- 0.05 x (325
only about 535°F. Lhb would only he uuc to the increased ga, - l 9Sl = l()() l .4 Bmt lb
 1u·a1 Transff·r Equiprnern 1>co:;ign ;,;-m d Pcrlorrnuncc: 221
220 GonaptHhy

Let us compule 1he nonluminous coefficienl. Partial pressures

of COi and HzO = 0. I 2; beam length l = 1.08 x (4 X 4 -
0.785 x 4)/2 = 6.95 in. = 0.176 m;
K = (0.8 + l.6 x 0.12) (I - 0.38 X 0 .650)
0 ·24 - 0 877
X (0 .24 X 0. 176)05 - ., - ,

Eg = 0 .9 X ( I - e- u.sn , o 17 ~) = 0.128
Assume that the surface temperature is 400°F. A reasonable
assump1ion is 30 to 40°F above the average nuid temperature.
'
11---1-=,.,,.,. 4 4

= 0. 173 I l.7 - 8.6 = O 85

'' hN X 0.9 X 0.128 X
1170 - 860 .
a! 1-o-----1
(An additional factor of 0. 9 was used to accoun1 for the emis-
sivity of the surface .)
Using an h; value of 2000 Btu/ft2 hr°F, fouling factors of'
0.001 for both inside and outside the tubes, and a tuhe metal
Figure 4.:1 Boiler evaporator bundle.
conductivity of 25 Btu/fl hr°F
I 2
+ 0.00 1 + 0.001
u = 0.85 + 12.78
X
1.77
Hence I 2 (211.77)
15.60 X 106
+ 2000 X I.TI + I X In 24 X 25
Steam generation = 100 1.4
= 15.580 lb/hr = 0.07326 + 0.001 + 0.001 l + 0.000565
12 + 0.0004 = 0.07633
G = 150.000 x
18 X 10 X (4 - 2)
= 5000 lb/ft2 hr
Hence, U = 13. I Btu/ft2 hr°F.
Re = 5000 X
2
= 12920. Log-mean temperature difference = [(900 - 353) - (520 -
12 X 0.0645 353)]/ln (547/167) = 320°F
Using Grimson 's equation, for a spacing of 4 in. in-line. 15,600,000 _ ? 2
Required surface area =A = x 13 . 1 - 3 7 - I ft
Nu = 0.229 X ( 12,920)0 6.1? = 90.8 = II, 320
2
X
2 = 3.14 X
12
X 18 X 10 X Nd
12 X 0.02345
Hence. h, = 12. 78 Btu/ft l1r°F. or N,1 = 39.5; use 40. Provided surface area = 3768 ft1 .
222
11eac Tran~fer E.quipn1eru nc~lgn tu1d Pcrfonl1ant. e

Lei us compute the gas pressure drop . high. where. due to heal flux and tube wall or fin hp ccmperature
MW 492 concern~. a few bare tubes would be used followed by tubes with
Ga, density = x = 29 increasing fin density. Also , in diny gas applications. the tube
359 460 + 1,
spacing would be wide at the gas inlet because of ~lagging or
492
X bridging concerns. In these case,. an analysis of each sort of ar·
359 X I 170 rangement for heal transfer and pressure drop may be warranted.
= !l.034 lb/cu rt
0 15
/ = 12,950 - x (0.044 + 0.08 x 2) = 0.0493
4.15cl
6.P,. = 9.3 X IQ - Ill X 50002 X 40 X 0.0493 How is the off-design perfonnance of a boiler evaluated?
Q:
0.034
= J.35 in. we A: Let us see how the boiler in Q4.14 behaves when the gas inlet
The average heat flux q (based on inner diameter) is temperature and flow change while the steam parameters remain
unchanged.
q = U X (t, - 1,) = 13. I X (7 JO - 353) X 2
EXJ\NIPLE
I. 77
Predict the performance of the boiler in Q4.14 when the gas flow
= 5285 Btu/ft' hr.
= 130.000 pph and inlet gas temperature = 1500°F. Gas analy-
The temperature drops across the various resistances are com- sis is unchanged .
puted. S0/11tio11. Performance calcu latiorn, arc more involved Lhan de-
Drop across inside fi lm = 5285/2000 = 2. 7°F sign calculations. as we have a given surface area and the heat
balance has to be arrived at th rough a trial-and-error procedure.
Drop across inside fouling = 5285 X 0.001 - 5.3°F
The basic steps are
Drop across tube wall = ~).0004 X - I. 77
- ) X 5285 I. A,sumc a value for the exit gas temperature.
2 2. Calcu late U.
= 1.9°F 3. Compute the assumed duty Q,.. = W. x C1, x (T, - T,)
Hence the outer wall temperature = 353 + 2.7 + 5.3 + 1.9 X h,,.
= 363°F. 4. Calcu late the log-mean temperature diflerence AT.
Note that this is only an average outer wall temperature. The 5. Compute the transterred duty Q, = U X A x A..T.
heat flux and rhe tube wal l temperature should he evaluated at the 6. Jf Q,, and Q, do not agree, go back 10 step I and try another
gas inlet, considering the nonuniformity in eas llow and tem- ex it gas temperature.
perature profi le across the boiler cross section~ Note also thac the For evaporators this is not a tedious calculations. but for econ-
heat flux with bare tubes is low compared 10 t.hac with finned omizers or supcrheaters. particularly when there is more than one
cubes. as wil l l>e shown later. stage. the calculations arc time-consuming. Let the exit gas
Also. an evaporator section may have several combinations of temperature = 700°F. The average film temperature = [0.5 x
!ube spacings and tin configurations. Thi, design would be used ( 1500 + 700) + 3531 = 725°F. Gas propenies at 725°F from
111 clean gas applications when the inlet gas temperature is very
the Appendix are C,, = 0.277. µ. = 0.07256. and k = 0.027.
224
( "HM!)dtl 1y ) ') ....
--·'
G = 130.000 X
12 Transferred duty Q, = 629 x 13.38 x 3768 = 31.71 MM
18 X 10 X (4 _ 2) = 4333 lb/ft' hr
Btu/hr Th" i; close enough. Hence the new dllly is 31.71 MM
Re = 4333 x 2 Btu/hr. and the corresponding steam !low = (31.71 / 15.6()) x
12 X O. 007256 = 995~ 15.580 = 31.670 lb/hr.
2 Ga~ pressure drop is computed as before.
Nu = 0.229 X 9954" 612 = 77 = fl x
' 12 X 0.027 Averagc gas temperature = I07 5°F = l535°R
Hence II, = 12.47. Average gas temperature = 0.5 x ( 1500 + 492
700) = I I 00°F = 866 K P = 29 X ( X ) = 0.0259 lbtcu ft
359 1534
K = (() .8 + 1.6 X 0. I 2) ( I - 0 38 X 866) f = 9954 o 1' X (0.044 + 0.08 X 2) = 0 0512
= .782
V().0.24 0. 176 X
= 9.3 X IO- IO X 4333 2 X 4() X 0.0512
e, = 0.9 X (I - e 0 7•?x O t76) = 0. 1286. 0.0259
= 1.39 1n. WC
II,, = 0. J7J X 0.9 X O 1286 X i(l5At -(8.6)')
1540 - 860 = 1.49 Tube wall temperature and heat flux can be computed as
l before.
u = -=--:-=---'-- -
12.47 + 1.49
+ l
2000 X
2
1.77
2
+ 0.()()( X
1.77
+ 2 In (21 I. 77) 4.151)
(24 X 25)
Q: Discuss Lhe logic for detemtining the off-design performance of a
= 0.0747,
U = 13.38 water tube waMe heat boiler with Lhe configuration shown in
The assumed duty = 130,(JOO x 0.99 x ( 1500 - 700) = Figure 4.4
29.8 MM Btu/hr (C" at average gas temperature = 0.289,)
Log-mean temperature difference ,\: In the design procedure one calculates the sir,e of the various
heating surfaces such us supcrheater... evaporator,. and econ
= (1500 - 353) - (700 - 353) omizers by the methods discussed earlier based on the equation
In (11471347)
A = Qi(U x tJ.n. In thi, situation, the duty Q, log-mean
= 669°F tcmpcrJture difference !J.T. :mc.J overall heat Lransfer coefficicm
Transforred duty Q, = 3768 x 13.38 x 669 = 33. 72 MM U are known or can be obtained easi ly for a given configunuion
B_tu/hr. Smee the discrepancy 1, large and the transfcrrnd duty is In the off-design procedure. which is more involved , the
higher than the assumed duiy, another trial is required. Try purpose is to predict the performance (If a given boiler under dif-
650_"F as exit gas temperature. There is no need to compute U fcrcm conditions of gas llow, inlet g,1s temperature. and steam
agam as the difference will be marginal. parameters. In these calculations several lnal-and-crror steps arc
Try assumed duty Q" = 130,000 X 0.289 x ( 1500 - 650) required before arriving at the final heat balance and duty. as the
X 0.99 = 31.61 MM Bruthr \Urfacc area is now J..nown . The procedure is discussed for a
,implc ca,e, configuration I of Figure 4.4. which consi;,ts of a
!J.T = 629; U = 13.38: A = 3768 screen section. ,upcrheatcr. evaporator, and economizer.
 22(;
( ifll1d1Mlll\ Hl·ar Thnhl"er E.q11Jpn1<·m l)c5ign c:11 u I Pc:rh.mlla11c. r .........
·) · J -
,
Compute U. Then transferred dmy i, Q, : U x A x 'tJ."f'.. t(
Qu and Q, are close. then the assumed duty and g a . ~

-~~~'-~
temperatures are correct. and proceed lo the ncxl step; other-
wise assume another duly and repeal step 3.
4. Solve for the evaporator section as in step I. No trial and
( 1>1 EVAPj []EJ [fvAPJ I ECON I error is required. as the steam temperature is constant.
(2)! EVAP! @D (EyAPJ 5. Solve for the economilcr ui. in step 3. Assume a value for
( J ) ~ ~ []EJ jEVAPj !ECON I
the duty and then compute exit gas/water temperature,. t:,.T,
and Q,. Iteration proceeds umi I Q" and Q, match. The NTU
C•>I EVAPj []BJ~---, IECON I method can also he used lo avoid several iterations.
(5)r=-----, []EJ j EVAPj 6. The entire HRSG duty is now obtained by adding all of the
transferred duty of the four sections. The steam now is
(6)1 EVAP ! [][) corrected based on the actual total duty and enthalpy rise.
) j~E-V-AP~,
(7 IECON I 7 If the actual steam now from step 6 equals that assumed in
(8) IEVAP! step I , then the iterations are complete and the solution is
over; if not. go back 10 step I with 1he revise.cl stenm flow.
(9)
!ECON I TI1e calculations become more complex if supplementary tir-
(10)
ing is added to generate a desired quantity of steam; the gas now
(11)
!ECON I and analysis change as the firing temperature change,, and the
calculations for U and the gas/steam temperature profile must
Key EVAP = [vo.poratol"' take this imo consideration. Again. if mulliprcssurc HRSGSs are
ECON • (cononaizer
SM: Sup9rhe4ter involved, the calculations arc even more complex and cannot be
done without a computer.
Figure 4.4 Conligural ions for wa1er mbc boiler.

I. Assume a steam now W. based on gm, condition,. 4.16i:l

2. Solve for the ,creen ,cct ion . which is actually an evapora- Q: Octcnnine the tube metal temperature for the case of a super-
tor. by using the methods discussed in Q4.15a. heater under lhe following conditions:
3. Solve for the supcrhe:uer section. either using 1he NTU Average gas temperature : I 200°F
method or by trial and error. Assume a value for the duty Avcrage steam temperature : 620°F
and compute the exit gus/steam temperatures and 1hcn AT. Outside gas heal transfer coefficient = I 5 Btu/ft1 hr °F
Assumed duty Qu = W/I, x Cp x (T,:, - ,:,,J /111 = ,.,r "'s S1cam-s1dc coefficient : 900 Btu/ft 2 hr °F
X (h,0 - h.,) (Estimation of steam and gas heal transfer coefficients is dis-
where cus,ed in Q4.03 and 4.04.)
h,.,. h,, : enthalpies or steam a1 exit and inlet Tube size = 2 X 0.142 in. (2 in. OD and 0.142 in .
T,,. T,.,, = gas inlet and ex it temperatures. thicl..)
Tab((' 4.9 Thcnnal Conductivity of Metals. Btu/ft hr °F
Temperarure (0 F)
Materlal 200 300 400 500 600 700 sou 900 IOOO I 100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Aluminum \annealed)
T ype 1100-0 126 124 123 122 121 120 118
f ypc 3003-0 111 111 111 111 111 111 111
Type 3004-0 97 98 99 100 102 103 104
Type 606 I .o 102 103 104 105 106 106 106
Alu,ninum /tempered)
Type 1100 (all tempers) 123 122 121 120 11 8 118 11 8
Type 3003 (all tempers) 96 97 98 99 100 102 104
Type 3004 (illl 1empcn,) 97 98 99 100 102 103 104
Type 6061-T4 and T6 95 9<, 97 98 99 100 102
Type 6063-TS and T6 11 6 116 116 116 11 6 115 114
fype 6063- 1'42 111 111 111 11 l 111 111 111
Cast iron 31 31 30 29 28 27 26 25
Carbon steel 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23
Carbon moly ( Wk I steel 29 28 17 26 25 25 24 23

Chro1ne moly ~tech.

'17 27 26 25 24 24 23 21 21
1% Cr, '',% Mo
25 24 23 23 22 :!2 21 21 20 20
2¼% Cr, 1% Mn
5'k Cr. 1/,,,:, Mn 21 21 21 20 20 20 20 19 19 19
14 15 15 15 16 16 16 IC, 17 17 17 IR
12% Cr
Au~tentllc Mamie~, ,tccb
II II )2 12 13 13 1-1 14 14 15 15
18%, Cr. 8% N, 9.3 9.8 10
8.-1 8.'l 9.5 10 11 II 12 12 13 14 14 15 15
25% Cr. 20% Ni 7.8
AJm,ralty metol 70 75 79 8-l 89
Navnl bmss 71 74 77 80 83
Copper lclcctrolytic) 215 225 224 224 223
Copper and nickel alloy;,
90'k Cu. 1ort Ni 30 31 34 37 42 -17 49 51 53
22 23 15 27 29 31 34 37 40
80'Jf Cu, 10% Ni
70'¼- Cu. 30''f Ni 18 19 21 23 25 27 30 33 37
10"! Cu, ?or+ Ni <Muncl) 15 16 16 16 17 18 18 19 20 20
38 36 33 31 29 28 28 29 31 33
N,ckel 13 13
9.-l 9.7 9.9 10 10 II 11 11 12 12 12 13
I\ ,ckcl-chrome•1ro11
Titanium (gr Bl 10.9 10.4 10.5
··- -
2:m ( ii'llltll )i:lll 1y 11t•a1 Tran!-:lrer Equlp1nent l>esij.(11 dlld 1.>errorn1;.1nn~ 2 .U

Tube 1hcrmal conduc1ivi1y = 21 Btu/fl hr °F (carbon (Here we have applied the electrical analogy. where voltage drop
SICCI) is equal 10 1hc product of current and the resistance.) Hence.
(Them1al conduc1ivity of metals can be looked up from Table Average mbe
4.9.) (1200 565) + (620 - 9.3)
metal temperature = 2
/\: Since the average conditions arc given and lhc average tube
metal temperature is desired, we mus1 have lhe parame1crs noted = 632°F
above under 1he rnosl severe concli1ions of opcrn1ion, such as We note that the 1ubc metal temperature is close to Lhc tubc-s,dc
the highes1 gas temperature, steam temperature , heal nu,., and nuid temperature. This is because of 1he high Lube-side coefli-
so on. cient compared to the gas heat transfer coefficient. This 1rcnd
Let us use Lhe concept of electrical analogy, in which the would prevail in cquipmenl such as water tube boilers, supcrhca-
thermal and electrical resis1anccs. heat nux, and current , tem- lcr~. economizers, or any gas-liquid heat transfer c<1uipmcnt.
perature difference, and voltage arc analogous For the themial An approximate estimate of the tube metal 1empera1urc for
rcsiMance of the tube metal, hare tubes in a gas-liquid or gas-gas heat 1ransfer device is
d 2 2
R,,l = In (.!!._) = In ( -- ) x X (1,, - 11) (31)
24K., d, 1.72 24 X 21 h, + h,,
= 0.0006 Ir hr °F/Btu where
Outside gas lilm resistance R,, = I It,. hi/ = heal transfer coefficienls inside and outside the
15 tubes, Btu/fl hr °F 1

°F/B1u ,,, '" = lluid temperatures inside and outside , °F

I
lnside film resistance R1 = = 0.00 11 fl 2 hr °F/ Btu
900 4.161)
Total resistance R, = 0.067 + 0.0006 + 0.()(J 11 Q: In a boiler air heater. h,. = 9. h, = 12, r, = 200°F. and ,. =
= 0.0687 fl 2 hr °F/Btu 800°F. Estimate the average wbe wall temperature r,,..
Hence /\: Using Eq. (3 I ), we haw
1200 - 620
Heat llux Q = = 8443 Bwlfl 2 hr ,,. = 8(X> -
12
X (800 - 200) = 457°F
0.0687 12 ·+ 9
Temperature drop across the gas film = 8443 x 0.067 =
565°F 4.17
Temperature drop aero;.; the, tube mc11tl = 8443 x 0.0006 = Q: How is the pcrfom1ancc of fire tube and water tube boilers
5°F
evaluated? Can we infer 1he extent of fouling from operational
Temperature drop across steam lilm = 8443 x 0.001 I = data'! A water tube boiler waste he.it boi ler 11s shown in Figure
9.J°F 4.5 gcnera1cs 10,000 lb/hr of saturated steam at JOO psia when
232 He-ttr Transfer F.quiptllC'nt Design ancl p,~rtornmnce

Fire tube
boiler Steam
C, = instanianeous gas ,pccific heat at the average 1cm-
perature of (I 1 + 1,)/2 Btu/lb °F
t For lire tube boilers, the overall heat transfer coefficient is

-
dependent on the gas coefficient inside the tubes: that is, U is
Hor gas

T, -
Ti
proportional to W~·8 . ln a water tube boiler, U is proponional to
wi·<•. Substituting these onto Eq. (32) gives us the following.
For lire LUbc boilers:
Steam In r, - = K~ 2
t Ti 12 -
l1oa1
1sal W>:
(33)

00 For water rube boilers:

0 0
00
0 0 Jn 11 - 1,.., K2 (34)
oo
0 0 I 2-s.,t
I = wo•
g

As long as the fouling is not severe. Eqs. (33) and (34) predict

W,ue, tube
Ho1 gas 1 T1 the exit gas temperatures co1Tectly. If 12 is greater than predicted.
1.>01ler we can infer that fouling has occurred. Also. if the gas pressure
drop aero~ the boiler is more than the calculated value (see
Figure .i.5 Sketch of fire lube ,md water tube boilers. Chapter 3 for pressure drop calculations). we can infer that
fou ling has taken place.
Calcu late K! from Eq. (34). 1,,,. = 41 7 from the sleam tables
the gas now is 75,000 lb/hr and gas temperatures in and out are
IOOO"F and 500"F. What s hould the ,team generation and exit (sec the Appendix)
gas temperature be when 50.000 lb/hr of gas at 950°F enters 1
the boiler? K! = In ( 5 : : ; / ; ) x (75.000)°" = 173

A: It can be shown that in cquipme,11 with a phase change I 1. 8J,

Lel us predict the exit gas temperature when W., = 50.000.

In i, t"" = VA In (
950 417 ) = cso.ooot• = 2.29
(32) 4 17 173
1'<at w,,c;. /! -

where 11 = 4 17 + 950 - 417 = 4710F

exp(2.29)
1,. = gas
12
~ .
temperatures entering and leaving the boiler
Now lhc actual exit gas temperature is 520°F, which means that
the fouling is severe.
t.,., = saturation steam temperature, °F The energy loss due to fouling is
A = surface area. f(2
U = overall hea1 lrnnsfcr coefficient, Btu/ft! hr •p Q = 50,000 X 0.26 X (520 - 47 J) = 0.63
W, = total gas now. Ib/hr 6
x !0 Btu/hr
 CullhlJ>clfhy 11c.-t11 I rausf('r EqulpuH·n, u ..,.,1~u 0111d Pl'r10(111c11 1t .._

If e~crgy _costs $3/MM Rtu. the annual los, of energy due to cocflicient could be in the range of 1500 to 3000 Btuift 1 hr °F.
fou ling wdl be 3 X 0 .63 x 800() = $ 15.120 (assuming 80()0 whi le the gas-,idc coefficient could be in the range llf 10 to 20
how; or operntion a year). Btu/f1Z hr °F, A large fin den,iiy or a large ra1io of external to
internal surface area 1s j u&tified in this case. As the ratio between
4. 18 the ou1side and inside coeflicienLs decrca.ses . the effectiveness or
Q: When and where arc finned tubes used'' Whal arc their advan- using a large ratio of cx1emal 10 in1ernal surface areas decrease,.
tages over bare tubes'? For example, in supcrhea1crs or high-prcssure air heater,. where
the tube-side coefficient could be in the range of 30 to 300 Btu/
A: Finned tu bes arc used extensively in boiler~. supcrhea1ers. econ- ft2 hr °F. it does not pay to use a large fin surface: in fact, ii is
omizers. and he,ners for recovering energy from clean gas coumerproductive, as wi ll be shown later. A moderate fin ucnsi-
streams such as gas turbine exhaust or nue gas from combustion ty l,Uch os 1wo or three fins per inch would be adequate. while for
o f premium fossi l fue ls. If the part iculate concenir.u ion in the ga, economizers or evaporaiors, five or even six fins per inch may be
stream is very low, !inned lubes with a low fin density ma/be j usti fied if cleanliness pem1iLS.
used. However. the c hoice o f lin configuration. pan icu larly in T he other impon ant fuel to he kept in mind il, that more ,ur-
clean gas applications. is determined by several factors such as face area docs nm necessarily mean more e nergy transfer. It is
tube-side heat transfer coefficient. overall size, co,t. and Qas possible, through poor c hoice of fin configuration. to have more
pressure drop, which affects the operating cost. - surface area and yet transfer less e nergy. One has 10 look al 1he
Sol id and serrnted fins (Figure 4.6) are used m boiler, and product of surfocc area and overall hc11t trans fer coefficient :in,1
heaters Finned s u1faccs arc auractive when the rauo between the nol at surface area alone. The overal l heat lransfcr coeffic ient is
hea1 trans for cocfficicnL\ on the ouL~idc of 1he tube, to that ins ide significantly reduced as we increase the fin surface or use more
is very small . ln boiler evaporators or economizers, 1hc lube-side fin, per inch .
Finned tubes offer scvcrul advan1ages over bare 1ubcl, , uch a,
a compact design that occupies less space. lower gas pressure
drop, lower tube-siue prnssurc drop uuc to the fewer rows of
LUbcs. and a smaller overall weight and cost.
Solid fins offer sligh1ly lower gas pressure drop over serrated
(i n;, which hove a higher hca1 transfer coeffic ient ror the same
fin density and configurution . Pan iculatcs , if prescn1. arc likely
10 accumulate on serrated finned tubes. which may be difficult
to clean.
Solld !Ins

4. 19<1
Q: Mow arc 1hc heal transfer and pressu re drop <>ver finned tubes
anu !Ube and fin wall temperatures cvalualed'I

A: T he widely used ESCOA correlations developed by ESCOA

1'igurt' 4.() Solid and serrated lins. Corponllion J9] will be used 10 evaluate the hea1 1ransfcr and
 I l('nr Tr<.1n°'lt·r Equipnu.·ut l>t·...,i~rl an<l t•t•rrom1..-1u, e 237

pressure drop over solid and serrated finned tube\ in in-line and
staggered arrangements. The basic equation for heal translcr
coefficient with finned tubes is given by Eq CJ)
The calculation for tube-side coefficient h, is discussed ear-
lier h., consists or two parts. a non luminou, coefficient It,,.
which i, computed as discussed in Q4.07. and h, . the convective
heat transfer coefficient. Computation of h, involves an elaborate
procedure and the solving of several equations, a., detailed b~-
low.
OETEH1' lli\lATION OF /J, [~lJ

hr = C,C,C, ( d+2h)"
d s X
(
'• + 460 )tl2.\
'" + 460
.,., r-
X GCP X ( --r
JJ. ,,
k )" •7
(35)
('~ 0
0 d
Ii 11 11 11 II 11
G= w "" "t .,., I ~
06) ~t)' u~u-
I(Srll 2) - A. JN,.L
d nbh
A.,= 12 + -6- (37)

C, , C2 • and C, are obtained from Table 4. 10.

Gd
Re = (38) .,
12
'f
l re
s = - h (39) M
11
~ '
-~
.~ l:.' -
FIN EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVENE.S,,<;
For both solid and serrated fin,; effectiveness 1l is
....,
g
"' ,i
-~- r:'
"
~
0

11= 1 - (l - l : , ) x ~
u
1'.;
: ; :
(40)
A, 2
u ii!
~ 0
For solid fins. "
:.,.
: oc
Ar = ir II x (4Jh + 4h~ + 2bd + 4hh)
(41)
-
:::::
-t ,.
~ +
"' 0r-
+ ::;;
~-;;;
24 .~
,-=
C"l

.,, :;II eII

No - .a
::i ci _; _;
d X () - 11b) :3 .~ I II ti II
A, = A1 + ,r (-121 :;i
,2
' .. , .,., ~ .:.
12 I- u5 .: u u v v
2:u1
GdthlJ>Jtlly
H'ea1 rrJnsfer F.qulprnen1 1Je..,1w1 i uuJ Pcrforn1mu ·c
t: = 1/{I ~ 0.002292 m h ICd+2M!dJ" '} 1 1

where
(43)
'•- ,, =
K1(mr,) X / 11(mr, )
K 1(mr,) X 11,(mro)
+ / 1(mr,) X K 11(mr,)
+ K11(mr11 ) X I 1( mr,) (54)
(R - 11,

111 = (24 h,,!Kb)11 ~ (44) TI,c variouJ, Bessel functional data are shown in Table 4 . I I for
For scrnucd fins. serrated tins. treated lL~ longitudinal fins:
21, (ws + b) + bws = (55)
(45) c<>sh (m/J)
12ws
( I - 11/J) A good estimate of r1 can also be obLained for either type of fin as
A, = A1 + 'IT d 12 (46) follows:

E =
tanh (mh) r, = r. + (1, - th) X ( 1.42 - I .4 X E) (56)
(47)
mh r., 1he fin base Lempcraturc. is cs1ima1cd a, follows:
where
,,, = ,, + 'I X (R, + RI + R~) (57)

m =
l 24 X h,,(h
Kbws
+ ws) J'" (48) where R3 • R4 • and R~arc resistances 10 heat lfansfcr of the inside
film , fouling layer. and tube wall. respcc1ively and hea1 nux q,, is
Gas pressure drop !:J.P. is given by
q,, = U,, (r, - t,) (58)
6.P, = (j + a) 9 (49)
p, X 1.083 X 10 The following example illustrates the use of Lhc equations.
where
EXA/\IPU~

.( -
-CCC
1 ,6X ("+d 2" )'"
A steam supcrheater is dcsignet.1 for the following conditions .
Ga, now = 150,()(X) pph
for s1aggcrcd arrangement (50) Gas inlet temperature = 1000°F
d + 21, Gas exi1 temperatu re = 861 °F
= c,c,c<, x for in-line arrangemcm (5 I)
ti Gasanalysis(%vol):CO~ = l2_H20 = 12,N 2 = 70.0 2 = 6
Steam now = 30.000 pph
= (I + 8 2}
X
U,1 - r, ,) Steam 1cmpcra1urc in = 491°F (sat)
(l (52)
4Nd 460 + ,. Steam exit temperature = 787°F
B = ( free gas area Steam pressure (ex it) = 600 p5ig
toial area f (53)
Tubes used: 2 X 0.120 low alloy Meet lube,: 18 tubc,/row. 6
C2• C,. C,, arc given in Table 4. 10 for solid i,nd serrated fins. deep. in-line amngc111c111 with -t-m. sqmlfC pi1ch anti nine
TLIBE \V;\LL AND FIN T lr' TE~ll'EH1\TU HJ:'_<-; s1rcams. Tube inner diameter = J.738 in.; outer diameter = 2
For solit.1 fins the rela1ion bc1wecn tube wall ant.I fin tip 1cmpcra- in.
1ures is given by Fins used: solid stainlc" steel. 1 tins/in .. 0.5 in. high and
0.075 in 1hicL Fin thenmd con<.luc1ivi1y K = I5 81u/fl hr. °F.
 24 1
i~u, Ga1,.ipa1l1y

Tai >ll' 4.1 1 lo, /1, Ku, and K, VaJues for Vanous A rguments Deicrmine 1he he.ii 1ransfcr coefficicnl and pressure drop.
Solutio11.
x ,,r•> /1(,t) K1J.tl K 1(.1)

() 1.0 0 8 8 A,. = -122 +

2 X 0.5 X 0.075
= o.17917 r11,r1
6
0.1 I .()()2 0.05 2.427 9.854
0.2 1.010 0. 10 1.753 -1.776 150.000 = 5420 lblfl 1 hr
G =
0.3 1.023 0. 152 1.372 3.056 IS X 10 X 1(4/12) - 0.17917 1
0.4 1.040 0.2()4 1.114 2. 184 T he gas properties al 1hc average gas 1cmperalurc ( from 1hc
0.5 1.063 0.258 0.924 1.656
Appcndi x) are
06 1.092 0.3 14 0.778 1.303
0.7 1. 126 0.372 0.66 1.05 c,, = 0 .285 l. µ. = 0.08 146. k = 0.03094
08
0.9
1.0
1. 166
1.2 13
1.266
0.433
0.497
0.565
0.565
0.487
0.421
0.862
0.716
0.602
Re =
1
0
_~ ~/4:
0 8 46
= 11.090

1.2 I 39-1 0.7 15 0.318 0.434 C1 = 0.25 x (11,09()) ",, = 0,()096.

1.4 1.553 0.886 0.244 0.321 s = I /2 - 0.075 = 0.425
1.6 I. 75 1.085 0.188 0.24 1 C, = 0.2 + 0.65 (! 0. 2SXO <IOAlS = 0.6843
1.8 1.99 1.3 17 0.146 0.183
2.0 2.28 J.59 1 0.114 0.140 C, = I. I - (0.75 - 1.5 e- 117
'") Ce 1
·••, = 1.()(J15
2.2 2.629 J.9 14 0.0893 0.108 Assume thal the averngc Jin tc mpcra1urc is 750°F. The aver-
2.4 3.049 2.298 0.0702 0.0837 age gas temperature = 930°F, and steam 1empcrature = 640°P.
2.6 3.553 2.755 0.554 0.0653 The lin thermal conduc1ivi1y K is a,i,u med 10 be 15 81u/ft hr °F.
2.8 4.157 3.301 0.0438 0.05 II
3.0 4.881 3.953 0.0347 0.0402 Then.
1.2 5.747 4.734 0.027(, 0.031(1 h, = 0.()()96 X 0.6843 X 1.0015 X ( 3
2
)"'
3.4 6.785 5.670 0.0220 0.0250
25
930 + 460 )"·
( 750 + 460
3.6 8.028 6.793 0.0175 0.0198 X X 5420 X 0.2851
3.8 9.517 8.140 0.0140 0.0157
4.0 II JO 9.759 0.0112 0.0 125 7
0.3094 )"" - , - 4
4.2 U.44 11.70 0.0089 0.0099 x ( 0.285 1 X 0.08 146 - ) .?
4.4 16.01 14.04 0.0071 0.0079
4.6 19.09 16.86 0.0057 0.0063 U,ing methods discussed in Q4.07. we !ind It,. = 1.12, The
4.K 22.79 20.25 0.0046 0.0050 beam lc nglh for !i nned lubes is compulcd as 3.4 x volume/
5.0 27 24 24.~ 0.0037 0.()()4() surface areas He nce
Ii.,= 15.74 + l.1 2 = 16.86.
1
_ ( 24 X 16.86 \" _
19
111 - 15 X 0.075 I -
£ = 1/( I + 0.002292 X 19 X 19 X 0.5 X 0.5 X V 1.5)
= O.XO
 I l<"dl l'ra11....1t·r Equlpnu-111 Orc..ign ,uul Pc-rforn1.1nc·<· .!43

A1 - J. 111 X 2 /0 = 3.048.
(2.38) , , (2.38) = 2.295
X 4 X 2 X 0,5 ~ -I X U 5 X O5 t l X 0,075 X 2 + 4 X (I 075 X j K 0 ( 1.58) = 0. I 86. ,,, ( 1.58) = J. 74
24
Hence.
= 1.426
I- 2 .075 930 - 11 0.0837 X 3.048 + 2.295
0.07 X
A, = 1.426 + 3.J4 X 2 X
X
= 1.871 930 - 722 = 0.0837 X 1.74 I- 0. 186 X 2.295
12
Hence = 0.723;
Using the approximation
1.426
11 = 0.8 + () - 0.8) X = 0.848 t1 = th + ( 1.42 - I .4 x 0.8) X (930 - 722) = 785°F
1.87 1
Let us compute h, for steam. w = 30,(J00/9 = 3333 lb/hr per Note 1ha1 this is only an average base and fin tip temperature. For
tube . From Table 4.2, factor C = 0.337. material selection purposes one should look at the maximum heat
nux, whicb occurs, for insuonce, at the gm, inlet in a counterflow
3333° •
h, = 2.44 X 0.337 X -~~~
1 = 200 Btu/ft! hr °F arrangement, and also consider the nonun,formity or mal -
( I. 738) " distribution in ga; and steam now. A computer program can be
I developed to compute the lUbe wall and fin tip temperatures at
u = 16.85 X 0.848
+ 12
vurious points along the tube length and the resulL~ used to select
1.872 appropriate materials.
X
200 X 3.14 X J.738 + 0.001 IL can be noteu from the above that there arc a rcw way, to
reduce the fin tip tcmpcralurc:
1.871 X 12
+ 0.001 X
3.14x 1.738 I. Increase fin thickness. This reduces the factor m and hence
1.871
,,.
X 24 X 20 X 3. 14 X 1.738 = 0.0699 2. Increase the thennal conductivity of the fin material. This
may be difficult. as 1hc thermal conductivi1 y of carbon steels
+ 0.02 11 + 0.001 + 0.0041 + 0.0024 = 0.0985 is higher thtm that of alloy steels. and carbon steels can
u. = 10.16 Btu/ft 2 hr °F withstand temperatures only up to 850°F. which alloy steels
Ca/cu/a1io11 of wb,, wall and ji11 tip 1emperw11re can withstand up 10 I 300°F depending on the alloy composi-
Heat nu x q = I 0.16 x (930 - 640) = 2945 Btu/fr1 hr tion.
3. Reduce h., or the gas-side coefficient by using a lower gas
11, = 640 + 2945 X (0.0024 + 0.0041 + 0.02 11 )
mass velocity.
= 722 "F 4. Reduce fin height or den;i1y.
Using the elaborate Bessel funct,ons. 5, In designs where the ga, mlet temperature is very high. use a
combination of bare and finned rows. The first few tows
1.5
mr
'
= 19 X - - - 0 38 fl
12 - -· ' mr,. = 1.58 fl could be bare. followed hy tubes with a low fin density or
height or increased thickness and then followed by tubes
K0 (2.38) = 0.07. K1 (2.38) = 0.0837. with higher f'in density or height or smaller thickness to
 obtain the clcsircd boiler performance. A row by-row analy- f:l. PC'i.llO RQVS ....
si, of the finned bundle i\ necc,sary. which requires the use
of a computer program.
Computmio11 of ga:. pressur~ drop
Z3
22

21
5

•
3
..••
80
78
76
= 0.07 + x (11.090) """ = 0.191
,. •
C2 8 20 7'
n
c.
c.,
= 0.08

= I.
x JO.IS x 21
j' = 0.191 x 0.3107 x I x
1 , . , ... ~.UJ1')'"' = 0 .3 107
3
= 0.0!!9
,. I

0
70
68
66,
6•
2 ~ 17
t
81 =( 0.33 - 0.17917 ) = 0.2089, 1 16

0.33 ~ 15

861 - 1000 I+ 0.1089

=-
'f 1UII( OD • 2,0'
SQl,.11\R( PlTQt -: •.O•

u = 460 + 930
X
24
0.005 "
13

6
llP, = (} 0&4 X 5420 X 542() X
0.0288 X l.083 X 10''
12

ll

= 0.53 in. WC ,o G, LB/SQ f'T H <MASS Vt\.OCHY>

Computer solution of the above system of equation~ save, a • 5000 (,000 7000 DODO 9000 10000 uooo ,2000

lot of time. However, I have cleveloped a chart (Figure 4.7) that

fi~llf(' 4-. 7 Chart of convective heat trun,fcr cocflic,cnt un<l pre.sure
can be used to obtain/,, (or It,) and 11 values for ,em11cd fin, ancl
dr~p versus lin geometry. 18 , 101
in-line arrangement for various lin configurations and gas mass
vclociues lor gas turbine exhaust gases at an average gas tem-
perature of 600°F. Although a compuwr program as lhc best tool, 2. Higher lin density or height results in higher tlP,. Even after
the chm, can be used to show trend, and the effect of fin adjusting for the increased surface area per row, it can be
configurauon on performance of finned surfaces. The use of the shown that the higher the fin density or the greater the
chart is explained later with an example. The following point, height, the higher the gas pressure drop wall be for a given
should be noted. ma,s velocity.
I. From Figure 4. 7. it can be seen that for a given mass
vcloc11y, the higher the lin density or height. the lower the 4.19))
gas-side coefficient or effcctivene,,. which rc,ult, in lower Q: Describe Briggs and Young', correlation.
U,.. The amount of energy trnnsrcrrcd in heat trunsl'cr l!!IUlp·
mcnt depend; on the product of the overall heal transfer A: Charts and equation, provided by the manufacturer of finned
coefficient and surface area ant.I not on surface area alone. whc, can be used 10 obtain Ii,. In the absence of such data, thc
We will see later that one can have more surface area and yet following equation or Briggs aml Young for carculur or helical
transfer less duty due to poor choice of fin confagur.ilton. finned tubes in staggered arrnngemcnt l4J ~an he used
'..!4-- 0 Me.<.11 Trnrl.<,f('r Equipn)<.·m L>c~lg:11 and P<"rfonndnce 247
Gar1a1)a1h;r·

)uog1 X( µ:•." )CUJ X( /Si )"2 'TTJI ')

h ,.d ( Gd Ar = X (4dh + 4/t" + 2bd + 4bh) [Eq. (41)1
12k = 0.134 X 12µ 24
'ITd
x(!)O ll3 (59)
A, = Ar+
12
X (I - 11b) IEq. (42)1

11 is the fin density in fins/in. The factor

Simplifying. we have
k"-•1 C')-33 F= (62)
h, = 0.295 X X
µ.IJ 351 (60) µ.o j}

where is given in Table 4. 12.

The overall heal transfer coefficient with finned tubes. U. can
w be estimated as U = 0.85'1)h,. neglecting the e ffect of non-
= gas mass velocity = ------'----
G
N ...L(S1 / 12 - A)
[Eq. (36)]
luminous heat transfer coefficient.
S = fin clearance = ( 1/n - b), in. [Eq. (39)] EXAMPLE
d, h. b = tube outer diameter, height. and thickness, in . Detennine the gas-side heat transfer coefficient when 150,000
lb/hr of flue gases at an average temperature of 900°F flow over
A .. = fin obstruction area - d + nbd helically finned economizer tubes with the fol lowing parameters:
V 12 6-

ft21ft iEq. (37lJ d = tube outer diameter = 2.0 in.

The gas properties Cr, I'-, and k are evaluated at the average gas n = fins/in. = 3
temperature. h = fin height = I in.
The gas heat transfer coefficient be ha.\ to be corrected for the b = fin thickness = 0.06 in.
temperature distribution along the fin height by the fin efficiency L = effective length of mbes = 10.5 ft
Nw = number of mbes wide = 12
= -------''-----;::==
H
I +
1
I
3
( mh )
12
J d + 2h
d
(6 1) S7 = transverse pitch = 4.5 in. (staggered)

where
Table 4.12 Factor F for Finned Tube1.
m= {2;;j;: [Eq . (44)]
'17,J; Temp. ('F) F
200 0 .()<)78
K,. is the fin metal thermal conductivity, in Btu/ft hr °F.
In order Lo correct for the effect o f finned area. a term cal led 400 0. 1250
600 0. 1340
fin effectiveness is used. This term, 11· is given by
800 0 1-139
1000 0. 1473
'Tl = J - ( I - £) X ~f [Eq. 40)1
12()() 0.1540
I
160() 0.11>50
where the finned area Ar and total arc.i A, arc given by
 c;;,u1apall ,y 1-1cn1 Truns(cr Equlf >111<'111 Oc..~i,;!n and Pcrronnance 240

Calculate A,,, A1. and A,. From Eq. (37). Tublc 4.13 Data for Gas Turbine Exh~ust Gases'

A,. =( I~ + 3 X 0.06 X +) = 0 .2 ft~lf! Temp .. °F

200
Sp. heat
0.2529
Viscosity

0.05172
Th. cond

0.0182
F

0.1152
From Eq. (4 1), 400 0.2584 0.0612 0.02176 0.1238
600 0.2643 0.0702 0.02525 0.1316
A1 = ('IT X
2~ ) X (4 X 2 X I + 4 X I X I + 2
I
800
000
0.2705
0.2767
0.07885
().()870
0.02871
0.0321
0.1392
0.1462
X 0.06 X 2 +4 X 0.06) = 4.9 ft2/ft
' % vol CO, = 3, 11,0 = 7. N, = 75. o, = 15.
From Eq. (42).
2X(I - 3 X 0.06)
A, = 4. 9 + 'IT X = 5.33 ft2/ft 4.20
12
Q: Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient an<l pressure drop
From &]. (36),
for a finned tube boiler for gas turbine exhaust under the follow-
150.000 ing conditions:
G = 12 X 1.0 .5 X (4.5/ 12 - 0.2) = 6800 lb/ft2 hr
Oas flow = 150,000 lb/hr(% vol CO2 = 3, H10 = 7, N2 =
F. . h I 75, and O, = 15)
111 p1tc S = - - 0.06 = 0.27
3 Oas inlet cemperature = I000°F
Exit gas temperature = 3!\2°F
Using E<1. (62) with F = 0.145 from Table 4.12 gives us
Duty = 150.000 X 0.2643 X 0.99 X (1000 - 382) =
h., = 0.295 X 6880°·6"' X 0 . 145 24 .25 MM Btu/hr (I% heat loss assumed); c,, = 0.2643 was
0.27°·313 taken from Table 4. I 3.
X 2u.i1• x 1o.:! X 0.06o.ll3 = 12 .74 Btu/fti hr °F Steam pressure = I 50 psig
Feedwatcr temperature = 240°F
Calculate fin efficiency from Eq. (61 ). Let metal them1al
conductivity of fins (carbon steel) = 24 Btu/ft hr °F.
Fouling factors 1, rr rr.
= 0.00 I ft2 hr °F/Btu
Boiler configuration: 18 tubes/row: square pitch = 4.0 in.:
24 X 12.74 length = JO ft; 18 tubes/row: semttcd fins; 4 fins/in., 0.75 in.
m =
24 X 006
= 14.57
high. 0.05 in. thick; all-carbon steel (K,. = 25) surface area of
tinned tube = 5. 35 [t2 /ft
E= = 0.6 Let us use Eq. (3) and Figure 4. 7 to arrive al h, and U0 • Nmc
I+ 0.33 x (14.57 x 1/ 12) 2 x Y(2 + 2)/2
that h, and 11, are used synonymo11sly . The gas properties have to
49
Fin effectiveness '11 = I - ( I - 0 .6) x = 0.63 be computed first. Table 4.13 gives 1he properties along with the
5.33 factor F u~cd 10 compute h,.
Hence.
'l)h, = 0.63 x 12. 74 = 8 Btutft1 hr 0 t
F =(; )°" X koo7

K,. ranges from 23 to 27 Btu/ft hr °F for carbon steel:,, depending To obtain h, (or h, ). the gas mass velocity 0 must be computed .
on temperature ll). For alloy steel:, it is lower. Using the ec,uations given t!arlier,
250 11<•;;11 Tn.1ns((.•r EquipTlK'III nc.•-.,.ig.n i.lllC I P<·rforn 1.mc. c.- ~->l

2 0.06 20. 140 = 5.35 x l S x I x N,1• so N,1 = number ol rows

+ 5 X 0 . 75 X
deep = 21.
12 6
150.000 Hence gas pressure drop = (21/ 10) x 1.5 =. 3.15 in. WC.
G= = 6308 lb/ft2 hr Thus the chart can be used 10 simplify the cukulauon~. ('1, and 11,
18 X 10 X (0.33 - 0.1979)
shown in the chart are the same. )
From Figure 4.7. "• = 11.5; fin effcctovcncss = 0.745; ga,
pressure drop/ 10 rows = 1.5 in. WC. (Nole that Figure 4 .7 ha.,
been developed for gm, turbine cxham,l gase, for an avernge ga, 4.21
temperature of 600"F and for serrated lubes; therefore . correc- Q: How does a finned surface compare wilh a bare tube bundle for
tions for gas data or fin type should be done a, requ ired. The ga.\
the same duty?
pressure drop is for 10 row,. and corrections ,hould be made for
actual number of rows .) A: Let us try 10 design a boiler for the same application and duty
Let us assume that the tube-side coefficient i,1 = 2000. The using bare and tinned tubes and compare 1he two designs . Q4.04
boiling heat transfer coefficient i, very high compared IO the ga,,- discusses 1he methodology for design of bare tubes.
side coefficient and hence doe, nol affect Ii,. Let us use the same cross sec110n and tubes per row , length,
5.35 mbe si1.c . and pilch as in Q4.20.
~
A,
=
3. 14 X 1.77/12
= 11.55. For the bare tube design.
12 ,
Then, subslituting into Eq. (3), we have G = 150.000 x - - --'-'---,---::c- = 5000 lb/t'l· hr
)8 X 10 X (-1 - 2)
I ;\ 11.55
+ ~
u.. = ( 11.5 +
X 0 .745_, 1000 382
2000 Gas lilm temperature = 0 .5 x ( 2 + 366/
+ 0.00 1 X I l .55 + 0.001 + 2 X 10.85
= 528°1'
In (2/ 1.77)
X
24/25
= 0.13946 Frnm 1he Appendix.
Hence U,, = 7. 17. Since the average ga:, temperature in our ca,e cp = 0.262. µ = o.675. k = 0 .024
is close to 600"F and the gas analysis 1s the same as that used for 0 .024° 1'7
the chart. no correction is required. Otherwise it would be F = 0.262° n X 0.06?So ll = 0 . 1093
necessary to compute foctor F and correct '1,. Also, bcc.iuse of
the low ga:, temperature, the nonluminous heat transfer coeffi - II' = 0.9 X 50000 X
6 O. I093 = 12.36
26 4
cient was neglected.
The log-mean 1empcrature difference t!.T is The nonluminous heat transfer coefficient i, more significant for

t.T =
( I 000 - 366) - (382 - 366)
In I( IOOO - 366)/(382 - 366)1
J bare tubes than [or finned tu hes: lr,v can be s hown to be about 0.5
81u/ft2 hr "F
[
= 168°F Hence Ir,, = h, + "" = 12.86.
24,250,000 2
Surface area required = = 20. 140 f1 1 = + X 0.001 I- 0.001
168 x 7. l7 U,, 12.86 T.n
 ·- ·~)
- ·>-
Ciclnap•.11hv
Table 4.14 Cnmpamon ol Bare Tube and Finned Tube Boilers" A: 801h in-line and staggered arrangements have been u,cd with
Bare 1ubc finned 1uhc extended surfaces. The advanlagc, of 1hc staggered arrangement
I Gas now, pph arc higher overall heal 1ransfcr cocfficiems and smaller surface
150.000 area; cost could be marginally lower depending on 1he configura-
2. lnlc1 gas temp. °F 100()
3. Exil gus 1cmp. °F tion: gas pressure drop could be higher or lower depending on 1hc
382 gas mass vcloci1y used. If cleaning lanes arc required for soo1
4. Du1y, MM Btu/hr 24.25
5. S1cam pressure, psig blowing, an in-line arrangement is preferred.
150
6. feedwalcr lcmp, 0 f 240 801h solid and serrated fins are used in lhe indm,lry. Generally
7. S1e..m flow. pph 24.500 solid fins are used in applica1ions where 1he deposition of solid,
8. Surface area, ft 1 11 .670 is likely.
20.140
9. U0 • Btu/ft 1 hr °F 12.86 The following example illustrates the effect of arrangemem on
7. 17
HJ. Ga, pressure drop, m. WC 4.5 3. 15 boiler pcrfor111ance.
11 . Number of rows deep 124 21
12. Heat Oux. 81u/f12 hr 9213 52 ,295 EX,\Ml'LE
13. Tube wall 1cmp, · r J85 4/14 150,000 lb/h of turbine exhaust gases at l000°F enter an evap-
"Number uf tul)C~ wide = lk, length = 10 fl; ,qtJan:- pnch = .1 .0 io .: linncd lubes us~ orator of a wa,,te hear boiler generating steam at 235 psig.
four rinshn,; ,err.lie~ rin,. 0.75 in. high, 0.05 in . 111,ck Deter111ine Lhe perfor111ancc using solid and serrated tins and in-
hnc versus staggered arrangements. Tube size is 2 x 1.77 in.
2/1 .77 ln(2/ I. 77) Solmio11. Using the ESCOA corrcla1ions and the methodology
+ 2000
I 2 = 0.08085 discm,secl above for evnporaror pcrfonnancc, the rcsulis shown
24/25
in Table 4. 15 were arrived at.
U,, = 12.37 Btu/fl2 hr °F
Surface area required = 24,250,000
= 11.670 f{1
(168 x 12.37)
= 3.14 X 2 X 18 X 10 X N,, = 94.2.N,,: Tai>!<• -1-.15 Comparison Between $1aggercd and In-Linc Designs
12 for Nearly Same Duly and Prc~surc Drop"
N,, = 124
Solid Fin,
Serru1ed Fin,
Gas prcss~rc drop can be computed as in Chapter 3 and shown Jo In-hoe S1ai;g . In-line S1agg.
equal 4.5_,n. WC. Table 4. 14 shows the resuhs. The advantages
Fin config. 5 X .75 X . 05 X . f57 2 X .75 X .05 X 0
of using finned tubes arc obvious. The finned tube boiler is more Tubes/row 18 18 20
20
co111pacl: ha., lower gas pressure drop, and should also cost fess, No. ol fins deep 20 16 20 16
cons1denng the labor involved with the smaller number of row LcngLl, 10 10 10 11
of lubes. Ii also weighs fess. s
U,, 7. 18 H.36 <J.75 I0.02
4.22 AP,. 3. 19 3.62 1.72 1.42
Q 23.24 23.31 21 68 ll. 71
Q: Which is 1he preferred arrangement for finned 1ube,. in-line or Surface 20524 18244 9802 9584
staggered'?
'Duty. MM Btu/hr. .6.P,, m. WC~ \urfote, Ir. temperature , °F: U,,. B1u1tr ' hr °F.
 G..-1nt111a1hy 11c.~at rrtulsfer Equlp1ne111 1)(·1.ii).tu ancl f',.:rrornmnt.·c

4.2:l Table 4.16. Abo shown arc the ratio (}f U, value, betwocn U'IC 5
Q: How does the tube-side heat transfer coeffieicnl or fouling factor and 2 tins/in. dc,igm, a, well as their surface area.
aft~ct the sel~ction of tin configuration ~uch a;, fin density. The foll(}wing conclusions can be drawn J 101.
he1gh1, and 1h1ckness·1 J. As the tube-side coefficient decreases. the ratio of U, values
(between 5 and 2 fins/in.) decreases. With h, = 20, the U1
A: Pin density, height, and thickness affect the overall heat tran:,fcr ratio is only 1.11. With an h, ol 2000. the U, rntio is 1.74.
coefficient as seen in Figure 4. 7. However, the tube-side coeffi- What 1his means is 1hat as h, decreases, the benefit of
cient also has an important bearing on the selection of !in con- increasing the external surface becomes less attractive. With
figuration . 2.325 times the surface area we have only I. I I-fold im-
A simple calculation can be done 10 show the effect oflhe tube- provement in U1• With a higher /,1 of 2000, Lh<: incrca~e is
side coefficient on U,.. It was mentioned earlier that the higher better, I .74.
the tube-side coefficient, the higher the ratio of external to 2. A simple estimation of tube wal l temperature can tell us that
internal surface area can be. In other words, it makes no sense to the higher the fin density, the higher the tube wall tempera-
use the same tin configuration, say 5 fins/in. tin density, for a ture will be. For the case of h, = I00, with 11 = 2, U1 =
supcrheater as for an evaporator. 39.28. gas temperature = 900°F. and fluid ternperatur~ uf
Rewriting Eq. (3) based on tube-side area and neglecting other 600"f'.
resistances.
Heal flux q, = (900 - 600) x 39.28 = 11.784
_ = + A,IA, 1
Btu/ft hr
(63)
u, "· h,;r,
The tcmpcmturc drop across the tube-side lilm (lz1 = I 00)
Using the data from f'igure 4. 7, U, values have been computed = 11 ,784/ 100 = I 18°F. The wall temperature = 600 +
for different fin densities and for different h, values ror the 118 "" 718°F.
configuration indicated in Table 4.16. The results are ~hown in With 11 = 5. U, = 53.55, q1 = 53.55 X 300 = 16.065
Btu/ft2 hr. Tube wall tempcnuurc = 600 + (16.065/100)
Table -l-.16 Effect of h on U "·" = 76 I°F. Note that we are comparing for the same height.
' ' The increase in wall temperature is 43°1-'.
hi 20 100 3. The ratio of the gas pressure drop between the 5 and 2 tins/
1()()0
,, , fins/in. 2 5 2 5 2 5 in. designs (after adjusting for the effect of U1 values and
G, lblft2 hr 5591 6366 5591 6366 5591 6366 differences in surface area for the same energy transfer)
A/(A,T)h,.) .0 1546 .00867 .01546 .()()867 .0 1546 .00867 increases as the tube-side coefficient reduces . It 1s 1.6 for h,
u. 2.73 1.31 7.03 4.12 11.21 8.38 = 20 and 1.02 for h, = 2000. Thal is, when 1,1 is smaller, ii
U, 15.28 17.00 39.2ll 53 .55 62.66 109 is prudent 10 u;c a smaller fin su1face.
Ra110 U, I.JI 1..163
Rmioll?,, 1.74
1.6 1.3 1.02 EFFECT 01- rOUUNCi FACTOHS
'C.dculalion, ba,,cd on 2.0 X ll.105 tubes. 29 lube>/row, 6 fl long. O.OS in. thkk ,crr:ucd fins. tub<·, The effects of inside and outside fouling factor, ff, and n;, arc
~'.' 4.0 '"· ,quan, pit~h; ~n hc1gh1 = 0.75 '?·' ~as flow = 150.000 pph: gas 11lfe1 tcrnp = IOOO"F shown in Tables 4.17 and 4. 18. The following observations can
Surface area ol 2 lms/1n. 1uhe = 2.59 fr/fl and lor 5 fin, /m = 6.02 r,'lfl be made.
 25()
t l<:<11 Transfer Equi1m1r111 nc·~ign ancl l'erforn1c11-wc·

Table 4.17 Effect of ff;. Tube-Side Fouling Factor Three boiler evaporators were designed using bare tubes, 2 fins/
1\:
Fins/in., 11 2 2 in. and 5 fins/in .. to cool 150,000 lh/hr of clean flue gasc., from
5 5
Vu, clean 11 .21 11.21 8.38 1ooo•F to 520°F. The effect of fouling factor.. of0.001 and 0.01
8.38
fj; 0.0()1 0.01 0 .001 0.01 on duty. tube wall temperatures. and steam production are s hown
u., dirty 10.54 6.89 7.56 4.01 in Table 4.19. The following points may be observed [I I].
U,., as% JOO 65 I 00 53 I. With bare tubes, the higher tube-side foul ing res ults in the
"Tube-side coefficient = 2000. lowest reduction in duty, from 19.65 10 18.65 MM Btu!hr,
with the exit gas temperature going up to 545°F from
520"F-see columns I ,md 2. With 2 fins/in., the exit gas
Tal)lc 4.18 Effect of ff,,, Outside Fouling Factor
temperature increases to 604.F from s2o•F, with lhe duty
Fins/in. , m 2 2 5 5 reducing to 16.3 from 19.65 MM Btu/hr. The steam genera-
U,,. clean 11.21 11.21 8.38 8.38 tion is about 3200 lb/hr lower. With 5 fins/in., the rcductton
ff. 0.001 O.Ol 0 .001 0.01 in duty and steam generation are the greatest.
u•. dirty 11.08 10.08 8.31 7.73 2. The heat flux increases with fin density. Therefore, with
u. as% 100 91 100 93 high-temperature units one has to be concerned with DNB
~ube.sidt: cocfficiem = 20(Xl (departure from nucleate boiling) conditions: however. hca1
flux decreases because of fouling.

I. Wi1h a smaller fin density, the effect of ft; is less . With 0 .01
fouling and 2 fins/in., U. = 6.89 compared w ith 10.54 with T at>lc 4.19 Effect of Fouling Factors
0 .001 fouling. The ratio is 0.65. With 5 fins/in. , the corre- Case 2 3 4 5 6
sponding values are 4.01 and 7.46. the ralio being 0.53.
I. Gas temp in., °F IOOO IOOO ICXX) IOOO 1000 1000
That means that with increased tube-side fouling, it makes
2. Exit temp. °F 520 545 520 604 520 646
sense 10 use a lower fin density or sma ller ratio of external to
3. Duty , MM Btu/hr 19.65 18.65 19.65 16.30 19.65 14.60
internal surface area. The ,ame conclusion was drawn with a 19,390 14,400
4. Steam now, lb/hr 19,390 18,400 19.390 1.6110
s maller tube-side coefficient. .00 I .0 1
5. ff;, Ft1 hr °F/Btu 0.001 .01 .00 1 .01
2. The effect of ff., is less significant, as it is 001 enhanced by 6. Heat flux Btuifl2 hr 9,314 8, 162 35 ,360 23,080 55. 79() 30,260
the ratio of external to internal surface area. A review of Eq. 7. Wall temp, °F 437 5 16 490 680 530 760
(I) tells us that the tube-side heat transfer coefficient or 8. Fin temp, °F 730 840 725 861
foulfog factor is increased by the ratio of the external to 9. A/A, 1.1 3 1. 13 5.6 5.6 12.3 12.3
internal surface area, and hence its eftect i~ easily magni - 10. Fins bare bare (2 X 0.75 X (5 X 0.75 X
fied. 0.05 X 0 .1 57) 0.05 X 0. 157)
l I Tubes/row 20 20 20 20 20 20
12. No. deep 60 60 16 16 lO 10
4.24
13. Length, ft 8 8 8 8 8 8
Q: Compare the effect of tube-side fouling on bare, low, and high 14. Surfac.:c arf.!H. ft2 5024 5024 6642 6642 9122 9122
finned tubes. 15. Gas t:.,,. 10 . WC 3.0 3. 1 1.80 1.9() 2.0 2.1
 H~ll ·1r1.u,~fc·r E<1ulpnwnr U(•sij.!n ancl Pt·rlonnan<<·

3. The tube wa ll 1cmpcra1urc increa.sc, ,ignfficantly with lin Table 4.20 Table of F Factor,,
density . The ,amc fouling factor result, in a much higher F
Material
mbc wall temperature for Ii nncd tubes compared to bare
tubes . The tube wall temperature increases from 5J0°F to Carbon steel I
7(i0°F with 5 !ins/in .. while it increases from 437°F to 516°F Type 304. J 16. 321 ulloys 1.024
Type 409. 410. 430 0.978
for bare tubes . The effect of fouling is more pronounced in
Nickel 200 1.133
rubes of high li n density. which means that high lin density
loconel 600. 625 1.073
tllbcs have to be kept cleaner than bare tuhes. Demincralized 1.013
lncoloy 800
water and good water treatment are recommended in such 1.038
lncoloy 825
situation~. Hastclloy B 1.179

4.25
Q: How is the weight of ~olid anu serrated lins dctem1incd'I EX1\t,.1PLE
Determine the weight of solid carhon steel fins on a 2-in. OD
A: The weight of fin~ is given tiy the fom111las 1ube if the fin density is 5 fins/in., height = 0.75 in .. and
\Vf = 10.68 X Pim X (d,, , /,) X (/, + 0.03) thickness = 0.05 in . Average tube wall thickness is 0.120 in.
for solid tins (64a) Snl111im1 . F from Table 4.20 = I. Using Eq. (64a). we have
"'., = 10.68 X /;bnd,, X (/, + 0.12) W1 = 10.68 X I X 0.05 X 5 X (2 + 0.75) X (0.75
for serrated fi ns (64b)
+ 0.03) = 5. 725 lb/fl
where
The tube weight has to be added to this. The lube weight is given
"'., = the fin weight. lb/ft (The segment of width docs not by
affect the weight.)
W, = 10.68 X 1.94 X 0. 12 = 2.49 lb/ft
b = fin thickness, in.
11 = fin density , fins/in. Hence the torn) wcigh1 of 1he finned tube = 2.49 + 5.725 =
h = fin height. in. 8.2 15 lb/fl.
d., = tube outer diameter, m.
!'actor F correct, for material of lin, and is given in Table 4.26
4.20 [9]. Q: What is the effect of fin thidnes, and conductivity on boiler
The weight or the tubes has to be added to the lin weight to performance and tube mtd fin tip temperat ures'/
give the total weight of the finned tube. Tube weight per unit
length 1s given by ,\: Table 4.21 gives the performance of a boiler evaporator using
W, = 10.68 X F X d,. X t., (65) different tins.
2 x 0. 120 carbon ,tee! tube,: 26 tubes/mw. 14 deep. 20 fl.
where
long. 2
d,., = mean diameter of tube. in. 4 x 0.75 x 0.05 thick solid fins-surface area= 35,~31 ft
2
t.,, = avcmgc wall thicknc,,, in 4 x (1.75 x 0. 102 thic~ solid !ins-surface area= 36.426 l'l
 1tea, Transfer Equiprnent l>l·sign .111<1 Perrorrnance 261
260 Ganopa1hy

A: The answer is yes if the person evaluating the designs is k.nowl-

Tat1lc 4.21 Fin Configuration and Pcrfomrnncc
edgeablc in heat transfer-related aspcc1s and no if 1he person
Tube Fin simply compares different designs looking only for ,urface area
Fin cond. Hn thickness Duty temp. temp u information. As we have seen in the case of fire tube boilers
(Btu/ft hr °F) (in.) 1MM Btu/hr) ("F) ("Fl (Btulft' hr °F) Q4. I l. where, due 10 variations in tube size and gas velocity.
25 0.05 104 673 996 8.27 different designs with over 40 to 50% differences in s urface areas
25 0.!02 106.35 692 874 9.00 were seen for the same duly. In the case of water tube boilers
15 0.05 98.35 642 1164 6.78 also. due to variations in tube size, pitch, and gas velocity. one
15 0.102 103.48 670 990 7.98 can have different s urface areas for the sa me duty; hence one has
10 be careful in evaluating boilers based only on surface areas.
ln the case of finned tube boilers , in addition to tube size,
pitch. and arrangement (staggered or in-line). one has to review
In-line arrangement. 4 in. square pitch. the fin configuration-the height, thickness. and fin density. The
Gas now = 430.000 lb/hr al 1400°F in;% vol CO, = 8.2. higher the fin density or ratio of external to internal su1face area ,
H20 = 20.9. N2 = 67.5!. 0, = 3.1 - the lower the overall heat transfer coefficient will be even though
Steam pressure = 635 psig - the surface area can be I00 to 200% more. It is also possible to
Fouling factors = 0.001 ft2 hr °F/Btu on hoth gas and steam. transfer more duty with less surface area by proper selec1jon of
It can be seen that fin geometry.

I. Due to the slightly larger ;urfoce area and higher heal EXNvlPlli
transfer coefficient. more duly is transferred with hil!.her fin A supcrheater is 10 be designed for the condi1ions shown in Table
thickness. - 4.22. Study the different design, possible with varying lin con-
2. Overall heat transfer coefficicm is increased owing to higher figurations.
fin effectiveness for the same fin conductivity and greater
fin thickness.
3. Lower fin conductivity reduces the fin effectiveness and the Table 4.22 Data for HRSG Superhcmcr
overall heat transfer coefficient U, and hence less duty is Design
transferred . Gas now. pph 200.000
4. Though fin tip temperature is reduced with greater fin thick- Gas inlet 1emperature. °F 1200
ness. owing lo improved effectiveness, the tube wall tem- Gas analy\i~, %- by volume
perature increases. This is due co the additional resistance Carbon d ioxide 7
imposed by the larger surface area. Water 12
Nitrogen 75
Oxygen 6
4.27 Steam Oow. pph 100.(M)(l
Entering steam tcrnperaturc, °F 491
Q: ls surface area an important criterion for evaluating different Leaving :,;team pressure, psig 600
boiler designs?
 262 Gan:IJ>iHhy Item Tran~ft·r Equlpn1cm Design and Pl·rtom1anc<· 2()3

Solution. Using the methods discussed above, various designs 4.28

were arrived at, with the results shown in Table 4.23 f JO].
Several interesting observations can be made. 111 cases I and 2.
Q: How are rubular air heaters designed?
the same energy of 14.14 MM Btu/hr is transferred; however. the A: Let W,.. and W,, be the gas and air quantities. Normally. flue gas
surface area of case 2 is much higher because of Lhe high fin flows inside 1he tubes while air flows across the tubes in cross-
density. which decreases u, the overall heac transfer coefficient. flow fashion. as shown in Figure 4.8. Carbon s teel tubes of I½
Also. the mbe wall and fin tip temperatures arc higher because of to 3.0 in. OD are generally used. Thickness ranges from 0.06 to
the large ratio of external to internal surface area. 0.09 in. since high pressures arc not involved. The tubes arc
Comparing cases 3 and 4, we see that case 3 transfers more arranged in in-line fashion and are connected to the mbe s heets at
energy with less surface area because of bcuer fin selection. the ends. More than one block may be used in series; in this case,
Thus it is not a good idea to select or evaluate designs based on air flows across the tube bundles with a few turns. Hence, while
surface area alone , as this can be misleading. ln addition. exces- calculating log-mean temperature difference , we must consider
sive fin surface can lead to higher tube wall and fin tip tempera- correction factors F1'.
tures, forcing one lO use better materials and increas ing the cost. Flue gas veloci1y is in the range of 40 LO 70 fps, while air-side
Some purchasing managers believe incorrectly that if they can mass velocities range from 4000 to 8000 lb/fl' hr. N.,. and N,,, the
get more surface area for the same price, they are gelling a good number of tubes wide and deep. can be decided on the basis of
deal. Nothing could be further from the truth . duct dimensions leading to the a ir heater. ln the case of a
separate heater, we have the choice of N•. or N,1 . In a boiler, for
example. duct dimensions al the economizer section fix dimen-
s ions of the air heater also, since the air heater is located below
Table 4.<!:_i Effect of Fin Geometry on Superheater Perfol'mance the economizer.
Case Case Case To size the air heater. first dctennine the total number of tubes
Ca"'
I 2 3 4 N,: [I]

Duty. MM Btu/hr 14. 14 14. 18 17.43 17.39 N = 0.05 W,, (65)

I .eaving steam temper.iturc, °F 689 69 1 747 747 I d/fl, V.
Oas pressure drop. in. WG 0.65 1.20 1.15 l.37 S7 /d and SJd raoge from 1.25 10 2.0. For the gas-side heat
Leaving gas temperature. °F 951 950 893 892 transfer coefficient h,. Eq. ( 12) is used:
Fins per in. 2 5 2.5 4
Fin height. m. 0.50 o. 75 0.75 0.75 h.. = 2 .44 x w0 S x -
C
-
Mn thickness, in. 0.075 0.075 0.075 0.075 d ~.8
Surface area. ft 2 2471 5342
•
5077 6549
Max tube wall temperature, 0 1· Values of C are evaluated at average tlue gas tcmpcrawrc.
836 908 905 931
Fin tip tempcr'Jlure. •p 949 1033 1064 1057 Air-side heat transfer coefficient h0 is given by &1. (19)
Overall heat transfer coefficient , 11 .79 5.50 8.04 6.23 (variation in h., between staggered and in-line arrangement is
Btulft' hr "F small in the range of Reynolds number and pitches one comes
Tube side pressure drop. p,i 9.0 b.5 I I .0 9.0 across),
Number of rows deep 6 4 7 6 F
6
h.. = 0. 9 X G" X
 Ci._nld1>ml1v ll<'<.11 Tran~f<'r Equlpmcn1 1>c·..,1~n c:ind Pt·rforruc:11Kt..

l
GASIN
. where,, and 1,, refer to the average or gm, anti air tcmpcrnturc,
1 Calculate U using
1
'
-- uI =
r I ,,,,,,
X d + I
h,.
I (67)

Metal resistance is neglected . Air· und gas-side pressure drop~

cnn be computed by Eqs. (26) anti ('.!8) of Chapter 3. al'lcr ,ur-
AIR OUT
facing is done:

AP, = 93 x 10 - '' X f 11•

2

.- AP,., = 9.3 X 10 111

X f X G2 N,,
P.ur
It i, :1lso good Ill check for partial-load performance 10 sec if
dew point corrosion proble ms are likely. Methods like air bypas,
-- or steam- air healing mm,t be considered . Vibration of tube
bundle, a lso must be c hecked .
C and F arc given in Table 4.24 for easy reference.
AJR IN ..
- EX,\MPI.E
A quantity of 5()(),000 lb/hr of nue gas from a boiler is cooled

-.. .
from 700°F: -1()().000 lb/hr of air a1 80°F i, heated 10 400°F.
Design a suitable tubular air healer. Carbon ,1ecl tubes of 2 in .
I .. I
O D and 0.087-in. thickness arc available .
Solution. Assume 1ha1 d uct dimensions arc nut a limitation.
Hence. the bundle arrangement is quite 11exiblc. Choose S,ld

Figure 4.8 Tubular air heater.

Tai >IC' 4.24 C and f . Factors lor Calculaung
/1, am.I /J,. of Tuhular Atr

Temp . (' Fl C F
The value /J,. is calculated a1 air-film 1cmpcr:11urc.
Since the 1crnpcra1urc drop;, across the ga, and air fi lm, arc 200 0.162 0.094
ncnrly the same. unlike in an cvapornlOr or supcrhcatcr. lilm tem- 4()() 0.172 0 103
perature is approxunatcd a, 600 0. 18 0.1IO
8()0 0. 187 0.116
11 = (3 ' ·' + t.,)/4 (66)
 11ea1 Tra1,~rcr t:.qui1mH'111 l>r'"ii~11 dtKI P<·rforrna11ce 207
266 Cono1la1hy

= 1.5 and S,Jd = 1.25 in . in-line: use a maximum nue-gas Average gas and air tcn1peratures arc
velocity of 50 fusee. '• = 577°F. t" = 240"F.
From energy balance, assuming negligible los,cs and for a 3 x 577 + 240 = 492.F
11 = 4
specific heat of 0.25 for gas and 0 .24 for the air side.
Q = 500,()0() X 0.25 X (700 - I) = 400,000 X 0.24 From Table 4.24. F is 0 . 105. T hen
X (400 - 80) = 30.7 X 106 Btu/hr h,, = 0.9 X 5333°·6 X 0. 105/2'" = 12.3 Btu/ft2 hr °F
Hence, the gas temperature leaving the nir heater is 454°F. The I 2.0 I
average flue gas temperature is (700 + 454)/2 = 577°F. Let the
VI = -7.2 - X -~~J.826
+ --
12.3
molecular weight of the flue gas be 30. Then = 0 . 152 + 0 08 1 = 0.233
30 492
= 0.0396 lb/cu ft
U = 4.3 Btuift2 hr °F
P, = 359 X 460 + 577
We must calculate F'.r, the correction factor for tff, for the case
From Eq. (65), of one fluid mixed and other munixcd. From Figure 4.9 (single-
0 05 X 500,000 pass crossflow),
N, = I .8262 X 0.0396 X 50
= 3800
700 - 454
R = 400 - 80 = 0.7?
S7 = 3.0 in .. Si = 2 .5 in.
Let Nw = 60. Hence, the width of the air heater is 400 80
p = 700 - 80 = 0.516
60 X ~i = 15 ft Fr= 0.9

N,1 = 63 as N, = N.. x N•• so Therefore,

Depth = 63 X 2.5/12 = 13.2 ft (454 - 80) - (700 - 400) = .F

t.T = 0.9 X
In (374/3()())
302
At 577°F, from Table 4.24 we have C = 0.178:
30.7 X 106
Q = 23,64 1 ft2
500.000 )O.& 0.178 A = = 4.3 X 302
h, = 2.44 X ( 3780 X
( 1.826)1 ~
V X t.T
'IT X 2
= 7.2 Btu(fr hr °F = --
12
- X 3780L
To estimate hu, C i, required. This requires an idea of l. We l = 11.95 ft
must assume a value for the length and check later to sec if it is
sufficient. Hence. it is a trial-and-error approach . Try/., = 15 ft:
Hence. the assumed /., is not correct. Try L = 11.0 ft.
11
FGA
Sr-d
X N.,L =
I
X 60 X 15 = 75 ft·, FGA = -
15
X 75 = 55 fr
12 12
G = 400.000175 = 5333 lb/ft 2 hr
C = 7272 lb/ft2 hr
2 (ili ( it_Ul, lf >cHh y 1fp;u Trtt1t1.,f<-r Equiprm·ut Ut·~lgn tiltd Jl'1•1for11l<lHt.e
,. 0 r, Taking rar,os.
~
0
0 ,9
u

··~··
2 0 ,8 (
7272 )"" x 12.3 = 1-1 8 B1u/l'1' hr °F
5333
.~ 0•7
~
I I X 2.0 + +
.
0,6 =- 0.152 0.067
~ 0 S r, u 7.2 X I 826 1-1 .8

·-,, - ,,
u
,, . ,,
, • ..!l..!.!J ' 1 . ,, = 0.2 19
,.0 U = 4 .56 Bwift' hr °F
r,
30 7 X 10"
.__ 0 .9
0 A = 4 56
,
30?
X -
12.293 n2. L = 11.25 Ir
] 0 ,8
,,
-~ 0,7
i
3
0·6
0.5
,.~ ,,- •1
"+ T2
•• .!l:..!J
•r•,
Tbc calculatctl and a.s~umcd lengths arc close 10 each other,
and the de-sign may be rro,cn. Chee~ the metal temperature ar lhc
ex it portion. Si nce the ga~-,ide re,i~tance and air-fi lm resistance,
arc O 152 and 0.067. the metal 1empcra1u re at !he exit or the ,11r
heater can be calcu l31cd 11, follow$. The drop acro,s the ga, film
,.o T1 will hc
~
0
u o.a
./?
J
u
•
~
~
0
0
0.9

0, 7
0,6
0. 5
...1,

T2
I
0. 152(45-1 -
0. 152 + 0.067
80)
= 260°F

Metal temperature wil l he -154 - 260 = I 9-1°F.

If the nuc ga, cont;iins sulfur. dew po,nr corrosion rnay occur
,0 I ,, _ 12 at the ex it. Since Lhc air-,iuc heat trJ.11,fcr cocflicicnt is high. 1hc
,, - .,
,. • ..!l:..!.1 ·-- ti . ,,
dmp across 11s film is low compared 10 the gas-side film tlrop. If
,.o we increase 1hc llue gas hear tr.msfcr coefficient. the urop acros,
~
irs film will be low anu the mccal temperature will be higher
!! 0 .9
u
./? 0,8
-~ O,? 4-. 2~)
u
~
~
• o., I hl
Q: How is the off-design pcrfonnam:c evaluated'!
0
0 0.5 The oir heater descrihcd m Q-1.28 works m partial loads. W
0 0, 1 0 l O.J 04 0-5 O.S C>7 H 09 1,0
• ' ...!J.:..!, = 100,000 lhihr, anu ll uc ga, enters lhc air heater al 62fft' iv,,
12• I 1 = 250.000 lb/hr. and 1hc air temperature i, Ro•r . C'hec:k the cx ,t
gas lemperaturcs of gas and :1ir.
Fig11r<·.j.,9 Cros~floy. corrcttion lnch11"\ tor log-meun tcmpeiJture <.lifter-
cncc (1.21 , \: A"umc the ga, leaves the air heater al 40(Y'F. Then
270 1tear Tran.c:;fer Equipn1ern Dcsi~n and Performance :!71

Q = 300,000 X 0.25 X (620 - 400) = 250.000 Q = 250.000 X 0.24 (390 - 80) = 18.6 X 106
0.24 (L - 80)
X = 16.5 X 101' = 300,000 X 0.25 X (620 - /)
Air temperature leaving = 355°F Then gas temperature leaving = 372°F
To calculate Ir, and Ir.,. sec Table 4. 24. At an average nue gas Assume U remains the same ai 4.2 Bcu/ft2 hr "F. Then
temperature of =
R = 0.8. P 0.574. Fr= 0.82.
620 + 400 AT = 213°F
2
= 510°F, C = 0. 175
Transferred Q = 4.2 x 23,640 x 213 = 21. 1
And at a film temperature or [3 x 510 + (355 + 1\0)/2)/4 X 106 Beu/hr
= 437"F, F = 0. 104
Again, they don't tally. Next, try Q = 20 X 106 Btu/hr.
300,000 )o.s 0.175
h; = 2.44 X (
3825
X
1.8261 8 Air temperature leaving = 410°F
= 4.75 Btu/ft2 hr °F Gas temperacure leaving = 353°F
250,000 F,. = 0.75, AT= 0.75 x 242 = 182°F
G
75
= 3333 lb/ft2 hr Transferred Q = 4.2 x 23.640 X 182 = 18 x 10" Btu/hr
(3333)° 6 Again. try an exit air temperature at 400°F. Then
h., = 0.9 X 20..,
x 0.104 = 9.22 Btu/ft2 hr °F Q = 250.000 X 0.24 X (400 80) = 19 2
l 2 I x Io<• Btu/hr
u = 1.826 X 4.73 + 9.22 = 0.238
Ex it gas temperature = 620 -
19.2 X 106
U = 4.22 Btuift2 hr •p 300,000 X 0.25
From Figure 4.9; = 364°F

f' = 355 - 80
= 0.51, R = 0.8. P = ~~ = 0.593. F7 = 0.77
620 - 80
620 - 400 284 - 220
R = = 0.8 AT= 0.77 X
In (284/220)
= 193°F
355 - 80
1-; = o.9 Transferred Q = 4.2 X 193 x 23.640 = 19. 16 x 10" Btu/hr

AT = 0.9 X
(400 - 80) - (620 - 355)
= 262°F Q = 19.2 x 10• Btu/hr
In (320/265)
The gas leaves at 364°F against 454°F at full load.
Transferred Q = 4.2 x 262 X 23.640 = 26 X 10" Btu/hr. Metal temperature can be computed as before. AL lower loads,
and assumed Q = 16.5 x 10• Btu/hr. They don 't tal ly. metal temperature is lower, and the air heater should be given
Since an air heater ~an trunsfcr more energy, assume a higher some protection. 1l1is protection may take two fom1s: Bypas~
air temperature. 390°F. ac the exit part of the air or use steam to heat the air entering the heater to
.!7'.!. (i<lt1clJ)Hlh\' I IL'al I ran..,f<'r E<1clipnwrn nc!-,i).l,1 cJncl Perlonn,mt ('

100 10 12o•r. Ei1hcr of these wi ll increase 1hc uveragc metal = water temperature in = 250°1--'
1,11
1empera1ure of the air healer. In the firsl case. the air-s,de heal A = surface area = 6000 fl'
lransfer coellic1en1 will fall. Because U decrease,, the ga, tem- 1,\;. = ga, llow = 75.000 lb/hr
perature leaving the air healer will increase and le" Q will be W,, = water llow = 67 .000 lb/hr
transferred. Hence. metal tempernlure will increase In the ,cc- U = overall heal transfer coefficient = 8 Btu/ft' hr °F
ond case, since air tempern1ure entering mcreases, pro1cction of c,, = gas specific hea1 = 0.265 Btu/lb °F
1he me1al is ensured. Again, the grL, tcmpernlurc differential al c,,.. = waler specific heal = I Btu/Ib °F
the ex i1 will be higher, causing a higher exil gw, tcmpcrnture
/\: Figure 4. 10 show~ the arrangement of an cconomiLcr. A 1rial-
£:Xr\i\lPU.::
and-crror mclhod is usually adoplcd to solve for the duty of uny
Solve 1he problem usi ng the NTU method.
heat transfer equipment if 1he surface area " known. This pro-
S0l111io11. Oflen the NTU method i, convcnienl when trial-aml- cedure is detailed in Q4.29. Altcrnmively, the 1111111/Jer oftru,1.1fer
crror calcu lations of 1he type shown above are mvolved. 1111i1.1 (NTUJ merltod prcdic1s the el(il tcmpcra1urc, and duly. For

= -UA- = 4.2 X 23.6-10 more on this 1hcory. the reader is referred to any lcxtbook on heal
NTU
250,000 X 0.24
= 1.65 tran,fcr 1'2]. Basically, the duty Qi:, given by
Cmlll~..t 250,000 X 0.24 (69)
= 300,()(X) X 0.25
= 0.80
c.u,ml)l.rJ where e depend, on the 1ypc of llow, whelher counlcrllow.
parallel llow, or crossfl ow In cconomi7crs, usually a counlcr-
e = effectiveness = I exp j - c"'"\'. llow arrangcmenl 1s adopted. E for this 1s given by
cmifl

JI - exp(-NTU x CJI/ (68)

E =
I - exp J NTU x Cl C)J (70)
I - C exp I - NTU x ( I - C)I
= I - exp { - 1.25
x I I - exp( - 1.65 x 0.8) I} = 0.59
air tcmpcrnlure ri~e
Effec1ivencss = 0.59 =
620 - 80
Air temperature rise = 3 I9°F
Air tcmperarure leaving = 3 I9 + 80 = 399°F
This compures wel l wi1h the answer 4000F. When U does nOI
change much, 1h1s mclhod is very hundy .

..i..:Jo
Q: Predict lhc cxil ga., and water temperatures and the energy
lran:,fcrrcd in an ccononll/.cr under the following condition,:
r, 1 = ga, tempcru1urc in = llXJ0°F F i~llr(' -1-.10 Economi,er.
274 I l<·a1 Tran~h ·r F.<Jutprnt ·ni Design iii 1<1 Per1orn1i'111cr

where
Table 4.25 Eflcctiveness Factors
VA C = (WCr),,,.,. Effectiveness
NT U = and Exchanger ty-pc
(WC")'"'"
I - <>rl NTIJ X ii ~c>1
(WC1,),... =
75.000 X 0.265 = 19.875 Parallel flow. singlc·pll'.Ss • =
I +C
(WC"),,.,.,. = 67,000 X I = 67,000 I - exp J-1','TU X ( I - Cll
Countctflow, ~mgleMpa:,.!, ' r.
1-Cexp l-NTUX(I 01
=
C 19,875 = 0. 3
. I'
I +(
67.000 Shell-1md-1Ube cone ,;hell I + <Xp I - NTU X ( I + C')"I
pass; 2. 4. 6. e1c..
•, = 2 l + --~-~-,-=---=,-;:-C l _.. C:)'"~
1 - cAf' 1 N'ru )( < 1 + c 1>1·11
6000 1ube paS'>CS)
NT U=8x
J9,875
= 2.42
SbeH~and-iube c,, shell
passes; 2,1. 411, 6n,
Substituting into Eq. (70) yields e1c .. tube passes)
I -exp(-2.42 x 0.7) CrossOow. bolh sueams < - I • upl(' x NTU''''lexp(-C X NTU'"') Iii
E = - 0.3 x exp(-2.42 X 0.7)
= 0.86 umni,ccd
NTU Nl'U x C
Cr0:5S0ow. bolh s1reanu,
From Eq . (69), utixod e:,:,p(-NlUJ I - t.\p(-NTU X C>

Q = 0.86 X 19,875 X (1000 - 250) = 12.8 Cr~fluw. -.lream C_ • = CO - exp I Cl I - exp( - NTU)IJJ
x Io<• Btu/hr umt1ii1.ed
•=
c~now . .slrcam C_,, I - c.pl CII - exp(-NTU x C)I)
Let us calculate the ex it water and gas temperatures. unmixed

Q = W,,.C1,,..(t.,2 - 1.,1) = ~¥,:C,,g(t,, - 1, 2)

Hence,
106 A: 111e situa1ions of interest to steam plant engineers would be U1ose
t,..1 = 250 + 12.8 X
67,000 X
= 441°F involving heal transfer between pi pes or 1ube.s and air as when an
insulated pipe runs across a room or outside it and heal transfer
106
1,2 = 1000 - 12.8 X
75,000 X 0.265
= 355°F can take place with the atmosphere.
Simplified forms of these equations are the following 112).
l11e NTU method can be used to evaluate the perfonnancc of I. Horizontal pipes in air;
other types of heat transfer equipment, Table 4.25 gives the ef-
X ( AT )O.l.l (7 la)
fectiveness factor E. Ii, = 0.5 I
("

where
4.31 t;.T = 1empcrnrure di ffercnce between lhe hot surface
Q; How is the natun~ or free convection heat transfer coefficient in and cold fluid. °F
air determined? d., = 1ube outside diamelcr. in.
27G Ga11apu1hy l 1e.-1t Tran~rcr Equipmen, ocsign dnct P<·rCornlc:1nc<: 277

2. Long vertical pipes: \

DRUM
/:J.T)"?S
hr = 0.4 X ( T. (7 1b)

3. Vertical plate.s less than 2 ft high:

\ ( J
-
-

J,c = 0.28 ( ~
)02s
!:J.T (7Jc)
,

Figure 4.11 Exchanger inside boiler dn,m .

where
- height. fl desupcrhcatcrs are used instead of spray desuperhcaters when
solids are not pennitted to be injecte<l into steam. The heat
4. Vertical plates more than 2 ft high:
exchanger is used to cool superheated s team (Figure 4.11 ),
Jr,. = 0.3 X (fiT}O 2., (71d) which flows inside the tubes. while the cooler water is outside
5. HoriLomal plates facing upward: the tubes in the drum. Drum heating coils are useu to keep boi ler
water hot for quick restart or to prevent freezing.
It,. = 0.38 X (!:J.T)" 2.< (7Je)
Jn this heat exchanger, steam condenses inside tubes while the
6. Horizontal plates facing downward: cooler water is outside the tubes. The nalllral convection coeffi-
cient between the coil and drum water has 10 be detennined to
h, = 0.2 X (!:J.7f 2S (71 f)
arrive at the overall heat transfer coefficient and then the size or
EXAMPLE surface area.
Determine the heat tr.insfcr coefficient between a horizontal bare The equation that relates Ir, with other parameters is f2]
pipe of diameter 4.5 in. al 500°F and atmospheric air at 80°F.
Solution. (72)
500 - 80 )" '.\.~
hr = 0.5 X ( . = 1.55 Btulft1 hr °F
4 5 Simplifying the above we have
Nmc that the above equations have been modified to include lhe p1".., tiT C-,,
effect of wind velocity in lhe insulation calculations: ,ec Q4.5 I. It,. = J44 X (e X
µ;.I.
(73)

4.32 where

Q: How is the natural or free convection heal transfer coefficient d,, = tube outer diameter, in.
between tube bundles am.I liquids determined'? k = nuid thermal conductivity, Btu/l't hr °F
CP = tluid specific heat, Btu/lb °F
A: One has to determine the free convection heat transfer coefficient 13 = volumetric expansion coefficient, R- 1 0

when tube bundles such as clesuperheater coils or dnm1 preheat !:J.T = temperature difference between tubes and liquid. °F
coils are immersed m boiler water in order to arriv.: at the overall µ. = viscosity of fluid. lblft hr
heat transfer coefficient and then the su1facc area . Drum coil p = lluid density, lb/ft'
,._,
"'

Tal>le 4.2n Propcrtic, of Saturated Water

I c, p µ ,, k a ~
{"F) (Btu/lb °F) (lb n' l (lb/ft hr) {ft2/hr) (Utu/br ft °Fl {ft'thrl {"R I) N

32 1.()()9 62.42 4.33 0.0694 0 .327 0.0052 0.03 X 10 ' 1Ll7

40 1.005 62.42 3 75 0.0<,01 0.332 0 .0053 0.0-15 II 36
50 1.002 62 .38 3.17 0.0508 0.338 0 .()054 0.070 9.41
60 1.000 62 34 2 71 0.0435 0.344 0.0055 0 . 10 7.88
70 0 998 62.27 2. 37 0 .0381 0.349 0,()()56 0. 13 b.?l\
80 0.998 62 . 17 2.08 0 .0334 0.355 0.0057 0 15 5.85
9() 0.997 62. 11 1.85 0.0298 0 .360 0.()()58 0 18 5.13
100 0.997 61.99 1.65 0.0266 0.364 0.()()59 0.20 4.52
11 0 0.997 61.84 1.49 0.024 1 0.368 0.0060 0.22 4.04
120 0.997 61.73 1.36 0.0220 0 .372 0.0060 0.24 3.65
130 0 .998 61.5-1 1.24 0.0202 0.375 0.0061 0 .27 3.30
140 0.998 61.39 1 14 ().0186 0.378 0.0062 0.29 3.01
150 0.999 61.20 1.04 0.0170 0.38 1 0.0063 0 .31 2.72
160 1.000 61.01 0 .97 0.0159 0.384 0 .0063 0 .33 2.53
170 1.001 60.79 0 .90 0.0148 0.386 0.0064 0.35 2.33

1~0 I 002 60.57 0.84 0.0139 0.389 0.0064 0.37 2. 16

190 1.003 60.35 0 .79 0 .0131 0.39() 0.0065 0 .39 2 .03
200 1.004 60. 13 0.74 0.0 123 0.392 0.0065 0.41 1.90
2IO I 005 59.88 0.69 0.0 11 5 0.393 0 .0065 0.43 I 76
220 1.007 59.6) 0.65 0.0109 0.395 0 .0066 0.-15 1.66

230 1.()()9 59.38 0.62 0.0 104 0.395 0.0066 0.-17 1.58
240 I.OJI 59.10 0.59 0.0 100 0.396 0.0066 0.-18 1.51
250 1.013 58.82 0.56 0 0095 0.396 00066 0.50 1.43
260 1.015 58 .51 0.53 0.0091 0.396 0 .0067 0.51 1.36
270 1.017 58.24 0.50 0.0086 0.3% 0.0067 0.53 1.2K

1.020 57.94 0.48 0.0083 0 .396 0.0067 0.55 1.2-1

280
1.023 57.64 0.46 0.0080 0.396 0.()()67 0.56 1.19
290
1.026 57 .3 1 0.45 0.0079 0.395 0.0067 0.58 1.17
300
350 1.044 55 .59 0.38 0.0068 0.391 0.0067 0.62 1.01
-100 1.ll67 53.65 0 .33 0.0062 0.384 0.0068 0 .72 0.91

450 1.095 51.55 0.29 0.0056 0.373 0 .()()66 0.93 0.85

49.02 0.26 0.0053 0.356 O.(l064 I. l 8 0 .83
500 1.130
550 1.200 45.92 0.23 0.0050 0.330 0.0060 1.63 0.8-1
600 1.362 42.37 0 .21 0.0050 0.298 0.0052 - 0.96

,.
~
 (,illltll)dlfl) I lt·<.11 Transfer 1;qulp1nent Ut·':tlUn ~.1n<I Pl'rfurrndrn l'

In Eq. (73) all the nuid propcnic, arc evaluated at the mean n,cn
1em~rature bc~ween nuid and tubes except for the cxpan,ion
coeffi~1ent, which is evaluated at the nu,d temperature. I I
= 188 + + 0.0025 = 0.00849.
Fluid properties 111 saturauon condition, arc given 111 TabJ~ U,, 1500
4.26. or U,, = 2
117 Btu/ft hr °F
EX1\Ml'LE AT = log-mean tcmpcrJturediffcrence = 212 - 100 = I 12 °F.
I-in . pipes arc used lo maintain boiler water at I OO"F in a tank Then.
using steam at 212°F. which is condensed inside the tubes. Q 500,000
Assume that the pipes arc at 200°F, and estimate rhe free convec- Surface area A = U,,AT = 117 X 112
= 38 n'
tion heat transfer coefficient between pipes and water.
Solutio11. From Table 4.26, al a mean temperature of' ISO"F.
4.34
k 0 . 381, µ = 1.04, ~ = 0.0002, p1 = 61.2
Q: Can we de1crminc ga" or steam 1cmpera1urc profiles in a heat
(.~ = I .0. llT = 100. t/0 = 1.32 recovery ;ieam generator CHRSG) without actually designing ,r1
h, = 144 X (0.38] 1 X 61.22 X 1.0 X 0.()()()2 X l(X) )0.2;
1.04 X 1.32 A: Yes. One can stimulate 1he design as well as the off-design
= I 88 8tu/ ft 2 hr °F pcrfom1ancc or an HRSG without designing it in tenns or tube
size, ~urfacc area, etc The methodology has scvcral applica-
tions. Consultants and plant engineers can dc1crmine for a given
4.:.13
set of gas inlet conditions for an HRSG how much s1eam can be
Q: Est.imatc the surface area of the heat exchanger required to genera1cd. what the gas/steam lempcraLUrc profile will lo()k like,
maintain water in a boiler at 100°P using steam at 2 I2°F n, in the and hence write better "pecifications for the HRSG or ,clccl
example ofQ4.32. Assume thai rhe heat loss to the cold ambien1 auxiliaric, based on this simulation without going to a boiler firm
from the boiler is 0.5 MM Btu/hr Steam is condensed inside 1he for this infom,ation 11ms severnl option" can he ruled out or
tubes. I-in. schedule 40 pipes ore used . ru led in depending on 1he IIRSG rerformancc. The methodology
has applications in complex, mulliprcssure cogencrntion or com-
A: The overall heat lrnrn,rer cocrric1en1 can be cs11ma1ed from bined cycle phmt evaluullon wnh g:is turbines. More infonm1tion
on HRSG simulation can be found in refs . 8. 11, and 12.
u.I
(J
= h
I
,.
+ h
I
'
+ R,,. -t ff, + IT,. l'.XAl'vlPLE
where R., = metal resistance. and ff, and I( arc msidc and 140.000 lb/hr of turbine exhaust gasc, ot 980°F enter im HRSG
outside fouling factors: sec Eq. (J ). generating saturJtcd stem,, at 200 psig. Dctcm1ine 1he steam
h,,, the free convection heat transfer cocrricicnt between the gcn~rat,un and temperature profile, if feeclwa1cr tcmpcra1urc is
tubes and boiler wmer. ohtaincd from Q4.32. = 188 8tu/h 2 hr 230"F anti blowdown = 5%. Assume that average gas specific
°F. Assume '1 = 150(), ff, = I{, = 0.001 . and
1
heat is 0.27 at the evaporator and 0.253 at the economizer.
Two important terms 1hat determine the design should he
Metal resis1ancc R'" ~ ( dj,' ) - defined here (sec Figure 4. 11). Pinch poim is the difference
24K In 0.0005
between the g:1s temperature leavmg the cvaporJtor aml ,aium-
282 Ganapa1hy 1l<·ac Twn~rcr Equipn1<·n1 Design nnd J>erforn1unn·

Tgl
pinch •Tg3-Tael
Evaporator duty = 140,000 x 0.99 x 0.27 x (980
- 408) = 21.4 MM Btu/hr
4+' ooch-Tsel-Tw2
(0 .99 is the heat loss factor with a 1% loss.)
Enthalpy absorbed by steam in evaporator = (1199.3
- 345) + 0.05 X (362.2 - 345)
T
Tw!
= 855.2 Btutlb
(1199.3. 345, and 362.2 are the emhalpies of saturated steam,
f'igurc- 4. J2 Pinch and approach points . water emering the evaporator, and saturated water, respectively.
0.05 is the blowdown factor for 5% blowdown .)
,;ie. flow •lSl!IRElll lb/h Hence
ai:.-. flow •l86!0 lb/h 21.4 X 106
Steam generated = 25,000 lb/hr
855.2
Economizer duty = 25,000 x 1.05 x (345 - 198.5)
=
3 84 MM Btu/hr
461
3,840,000
Gas temperature drop =
140,000 X 0.253 X 0.99
451 = 109°F
240 Hence gas temperature leaving economizer = 408 - I09
Figure 4.13 Temperamre profile in an l!RSG. = 299°F. Thus the thermal design of the HRSG is simulated.

tion 1cmperaturc. l\pproach poi111 is the difference between the 4.35

saturation temperature and the water temperature entering the Q: Simulate the performance of the HRSG designed in Q4.34 when
evaporator. More information on how to select these important a gas now of 165.000 lb/hr enters the HRSG a1 880°F. The
values and how they arc innucnced by gas inlet conditions is HRSO will operate at 150 psig. Fecdwa1er tempera111rc remains
available in the references. a1 230°F.
For unfired gas turbine HRSOs, pinch and approach poi111s lie
in the range of 15 10 30°F. The higher these values. the smaller A: Oas turbine exhaust now and temperature chm1gc with ambient
will be the boiler size and cost, and vice versa. . conditions and load. As a result the HRSG has to operate at
Let us choose a pinch point of 20°F and an approach point of different gas parameters. and hence simulation is necessary 10
15°F. Saturation temperature = 388°F. Figure 4.13 shows the determine how the HRSG behaves under different gHs and steam
temperature profile. The gas temperature leaving the evaporator parameters.
= 388 + 20 = 408°F. and water temperature entering it = 388 The evaporator performance can be determined using Eq.
- 15 = 373°F. (34). Based on design conditions. compute K.
 Jiea1 Trn11.,fer Equlp1nrn1 D<'sig1i anc.l Pcrfcmndnce 28..)

J [ 980 - 3881 =K X (140,000) - 04 = 3.388;

3.520,000
85°F
n 408 - 388 165,000 X 0.99 X 0.253
K = 387.6 Hence 1,, = 388 - 85 = 3()3°F. and
Under the new conditions, (303 - 230) - (388 360)
tiT = In (73/28)
= 47°1-'.
In rsso - 3661 = 3"7.6
o X ( I65.000) "I = 3. 1724
1,2 - 366 Transferred duty Q, = 85,200 X 47 = 4.00 MM Btu/hr
Hence 1, 2 = 388°F. Since the assumed and transferred duty to not match, another
Evaporator duty = 165,000 x 0.99 x 0.27 x (880 iteration is required. We can show that at duty of 3.55 MM Btu/
hr the assumed and transferred duty match. Water temperature
388) = 21. 70 MM Btu/hr
leaving eco = 366°r (~aturation); exit gas temperature = 30 I"F.
In order to estimate the ~team now. the feedwatcr temperature Steam generation = 25.310 lh/hr.
leaving the economizer must be known. This is arrived at Since the calculations are quite involved. I have developed a
through a series of iterations. Try 1.,.2 = 360°F. Then software program called HRSGS that can simulate the design and
off-design performance of complex. multipressure fired and un-
21.70 X 10°
Steam Oow = fired HRSGs. More information can be had hy writing lo V.
(1195.7 - 332) + 0.05 X (338.5 - 332) Ganapathy. P.O. Box 673, Abi lene, Texas 79604.
= 25.110 lb/hr
EconomizerassumeddutyQ,, = 25,J 10 X 1.05 X (332 4.36
- 198.5) = 3.52 MM Btu/hr Q: Can we assume that a particu lar exit gas temperature can be
obtained in gas turbine HRSGs without doing a temperature
Compute the term (US),k;;,, = QI ti T for cconom izer based on
profile analysis?
design conditions.
Q = 3.84 x 10• and A: No. It is not good practice 10 assu me tl1e HRSG exit ga.< tempera-
ture and compute the duty or steam generation a, some consul-
tiT = (299 - 230) - (408 - 373) = SOOF
tants and engineers do. The problem is that, depending on the
In (69/35)
steam pressure and temperature, the exit gas temperature will
Hence (US)dc"gn = 3.840,000/50 = 76,800. Correct this for off. vary significant ly. Often, consultants and plant engineers assume
design conditions. that any stack gas temperature can be achieved. For example, I
. ( gas now. perf )<>M have seen catalogs published by reputable gas turbine ftrms
(USlr,cn = ( US)J,"6" x gas flow. design . suggesting that 300°F siack gas temperature can be obtained
irrespective of the steam pressure or parameters. Now this may
165.000 )" 65 be possible at low pressures but not at all steam conditions. In
= 76,800 X ( 14().000 = 85,200
order to arrive at the correct temperature profile, several heat
The economizer transferred duty is then (US)perf x 6.T. Based on balance calculations have to be perfom1ed. as explained below.
360°F water leaving the economizer. Q0 = 3.52 MM Btu/hr and lt will be shown that one cannot arbitrarily fix the stack gas
the exit gas temperature is temperature or the pinch point.
 286 Ganc.lJMlhy 1-1ea1 Transfer Equ,prneni D<\<.ig11 ancl Pcrfon11ancc 287

Looking at the ,uperheater and evaporator of Figure 4. 12, infinite surface areas we cannot (1chieve low temperatures. as this
is a thermodynamic limitation.
W, X C,,, X ('T,,, - 'T,,3) = W, X (I,,.. - /i,..2) (74)
Looking at the entire HRSG, EXAMPLE I
Detennine the HRSG exit gas temperature when the gas inlet
w,, x ce, x er,, - 1~...> = ~~ x <""'' - h,. ,J c1s1 temperature is 900°F and the steam pressure is I00 psig sat.
Blowdown was neglected in the above equations for simplicity. Solu1io11. X = 0.904. Samration temp= 338'F. Hence with a
Dividing (74) by (75) and neglecting variations in Ce,. we have 20°F pinch point. T,,., = 358°F, and r,.2 = 323°F with a 15°F
approach point.
?;1 - 1;J = 1,10 - hwi = X (76)
'J;, - 'fg4 900 - Tg4 "'••• =
h.1(, - hwl = 0.904. or 300°F
900 - 358
Factor X depends only on steam parameters and approach point
used. -r.~
depends on the pinch point selected. Hence if is r,, EXAMPLE 2
known, T,,, can be calculated. What is Tg-1 when steam pressure is 600 psig and temperature is
It can be concluded from the above analysis that one cannot 1so r?
0

assume that any HRSG exit gas temperature can be obtained. To Sol111io11. X = 0.7728. Saturation tempernmre = 492°F: 1..2
illustrate, Table 4. 27 shows several operating steam conditions = 477°F; T,,3 = 512'F.
and X values and exit gas temperatures. As the steam pressure or
steam temperature increases , so does the ex it gas temperature, ~~-=_ ~2 = 0.7728. or T.., = 398°F
with 1he result that less energy is transferred to steam. This a lso ••
tells us why we need to go in for rnuhiple-pressure-Jevel l·IRSGs So a 300°F stack 1emperarure is 1101 thermodynamically feasible.
when the main Ste.am pressure is high. Note that even with Let us see what happens if we try to achieve that.
EXAMPLE 3
Can you obtain 300°F stack gas temperature with 900°F inlet
Table' 4.27 HRSG Exit Gas Temperatures' gas temperature and at 600 psig, 750°F and 15°F approach tem-
perature?
Steam temp. Sat. temp. Exit gas 1ernp. Solution . X = 0.7728. Let us see, using Eq. (76). wha1 7',:,
Pressure (psig) ('F) ("F) X ('F)
result~ in a T, of 300°F, as that is the only unknown .
100 Sal 338 0 .904 300 (900 - 'fgJ/(900 - 300) = 0. 7728. or 7,., = 436°F, which is
150 Sal 366 0.8754 313 not thermodynamically feasible as the saturation temperature at
250 sat 406 0.8337 332 6 l5 psig is 492°F! This is the reason one has to be careful in
400 sat 448 0.7895 353 specifying HRSG ex it gas lempcratures or computing steam
400 600 450 0.8063 367 generation based on a particular exit gas temperature.
600 sat 490 0.740 373
600 750 492 0.7728 398 EXAMPLE 4
What should be done to obtain a stack gas temperature of 300°F
"Based on IS'F approach poinc. 201;)F pinch point, 90(fF ga!> inlet temperature , n.nd no
blowdowa Fcedwater tcmpcrmure is 2JO"F. Similar <.lata can be genef'c1ted for mh<.:r
in the situation described in Example 3'?
conditions. Solmion. One of the options is lo increase the gas inlet tern-
28/l
1teat Trc'nsfcr Ec1u.iprnen1 1.><.·si$-t11 ancl Pcr{orrr1ance

pcraturc to the IIRSG by supplementary firing. If T,, 1 is in- EX,\MJ>LE

creased, then it is possible to get a lower r.,•. Say T., 1 = I600°F. A gas turbine exhausts 300.000 lb/hr of gas at 900°F. It 1s desired
Then to genentte about 20,500 lb/hr of superheated steam at 600 psig
1600 - T,, and 650°F and as much as 200 psig saturated steam using
1600 - 300 = 0 ·7728 · or T,,, = 595°F feedwater at 230°F. Using the method di,cussed in Q4.34, we
can arrive at the gas/steam temperature profiles and steam flows.
This is a feasible temperature as the pinch point is now (595 Figure 4.14 shows results obtained with HRSGS software. In
492) = I 03°F. This brings us to another important rule: Pinc-!, option I, we have the high-pressure (HP) section consisting of
poim and exit gas 1empera111re ,tmllot be arbitrarily selecred in the superheater, evaporator. and economizer followed by the
the fired mode. It is preferable to analyze the temperature pro- low-pressure (LP) section consisting of the LP evaporator and
files in the unfired mode and evaluate the off-design performance economizer. By using a pinch point of J90°F and approach point
using available simulation methods [8J. of 15°F. we generate 20,438 lb/hr of high-pressure steam at
EXAMPLE 5
If gas inlet temperature in Example I is 800°F instead of 900°F,
900 HP PRESS • EOO oS:S
what happens to the exit gas temperature at I00 psig sat? Bi'll L~ PRESS, 200 CST.;
Solution.
SlZ G.,S Fl.Ow , 300.1:00 LB/h
800 - 358 = () 904
800 - -z;. . ' ,re
or T,14 = 3 I2°F versus 300°F when the inlet gas temperature was 338 3?0

~2l11
900°F. We note that the exit gas temperature increases when the
gas inlet temperature decreases, and vice versa. This is another
important basic fact. 23:l
Once the exit gas temperature is arrived at, one can use Eq. 1-P STEN'\ , 20.500 LP STEAM • IB.?lll L8/H
(75) to determine how much steam can be generated.

4.37
Q: How can HRSG simulation be used to optimize gas and steam
660 652
temperature profiles'!
\ 49,?
A: HRSG simulation is a method of arriving at the design or off-
design performance of HRSGs without physically designing
ChSi: B
them as shown in Q4.34. By using different pinch and approach
points and different configurations, pai1icularly in multipressure
HRSGs. one can maximize heat recovery . We will illustrate this
with an example rs. 121. Figure .J.. I-+ Optimizing wrnperarure profile,.
2!>0 Hea1 Transfer Equipn,{·111 f><"si.gn t1nd Pl''fJurn1ancc 2!-H

650°F. Then, using a pinch point of 20°F and approach of I 2°F, temperature to the HRSG and hence increases it5 steam gcncm-
we make 18,670 lb/hr low-pressure steam. The srnck gas tem- tion. There arc two reasons for this.
perature is 370°F. In option 2, we have the HP section consisting 1. Addition of auxiliary fuel reduces the effective excess air in
of the supcrheater and evaporator and the LP section consisting the exhaust gases, as no air is added, only fuel. Hence the
of only the evaporator. A common economizer fc.:ds both the HP exhaust gas Joss in relation to steam production is reduced.
and LP sections with feedwater at 375°F. Due to the larger heat 2. With increased steam generation. usually the HRSG exhaust
sink avai lahle beyond the LP evaporator, the stack gas tempera- gas temperature decreases. This is due to the increased now
ture reduces to 321 °F. TI1c HP steam generation is adjusted using of water in the economizer. which offers a larger heat smk.
the pinch point to make 20,488 lb/hr while the LP steam is which in rum pul ls down the gas temperature funher. In gas
allowed to noat. With a pinch point of 20°F, we sec that we can turbine units. the gas flow does not vary much with steam
make 22,400 lb/hr in comparison with the I 8,673 lb/hr earlier. output as in conventional steam generators, which accounts
The ASME system cfliciency is much higher now. T hus by for the larger temperature drop.
manipulating the HRSG configuration, one can maximize the
heat recovery. More information on HRSG temperature profiles can be found
in Ref. 8.
Table 4.28 shows the performance of an HRSG under differ-
4.38 ent operating conditions. Case I is the unfired ca~e. while cases
Q: How is the HRSG efficiency determined according to ASME 2 and 3 have different firing conditions. It can be seen that the
Power Test Code 4.4? system efficiency is higher when more fuel is fired , for reasons
explained above.
A: The efficiency E is given by
energy given to steam/water/fluids
I:. -
gas llow x inlet enthalpy I fuel input on LHV basis Data for Supplementary Fired Boiler'
Table 4.28
To evaluate the efficiency, the enthalpy of the turbine exhaust
Case I Case 2 Case 3
gas should be known. The Appendix gives the enthalpy based on
a panicular ga~ analy~i;. Fuel input on an LHV basis should also Gas flow, pph 150,000 150.000 150,000
be known ii' auxiliary firing is used. JnleL gas temp., 'F 90() 900 900
ln Q4.37 the efficiency in the design case is Firing temperature. °F 9(X) 1290 1715
Burner duty. LHV, MM Btuihl' () 17.30 37.60
(21.4 + 3.84) x !Ob Steam llow. pph 22.780 40,000 60.000
E = - - - - - - - - = 0.715, or 71.5'¾-
140,000 X 242 Steam pressure, psig 200 200 200
If steam or water injection is resorted to, then the gas analysis Feedwatcr temp .. °F 240 240 240
Exit ga> temp .. °F 327 315 310
will change, and the enthalpy has to be computed based on the
Steam duty, MM Btu/hr 22.67 39.90 59.90
actual analy~is. 84.90
System efficiency % 68.7 79 2
TI1c HRSG system efficiency in gas turbine plants will im-
prove with the addition of auxiliary fuel, which increasc.s the gas 'Gas mmly;i, (in% l'Oil C0,=3, H,0=7. N,=75, O,= 15: blowdown = 3%
 tic.II H·IJ ),.1Jhy 11e.. 11 Tr;u1~fc·r Eqt1ip111t·111 Dt·o.;iJ,.,t11 .u1<l l'c·rft>nnc-1nc.<.·
4.30
4.40
Q: In some cogeneration pl.mis with ga., 1urbmc,. a forced drafl fan Q: Jlow docs one evaluate the opcrn1ing co,1s of an HRsu·1 Would
is used and to ,end aimo,pheric air to the HRSG into which fuel an HRSG 1ha1 generates more steam bul costs more be preferred
is fired 10 gencrale steam when the gas 1urbinc is no1 m opcra- to a lower cosl alremative thal genera1es less steam'!
1,on. Whal should be the criteria for the fan si.re'/
A: Let u, illustrate 1hc si tuation with 1hc Jcsign of 1wo HRSGs for
A: The air now should be large enough to have turbulent now gas !Urbine cxhausl applica11on. 1hc 1wo havmg diffcrcm pinch
regimes in lhc HRSG and al lhe same 11111c be ,mall enough 10 points. A larger pinch p<)int nalUrally means a smaller boiler and
minimize lhe loss due lO exit ing ga~es. If the air flow is high. the hence lower crn,1. The pcrfom1ance of both option, is unfired and
firing lempcraturc will be low. bu1 lhc ,ys1em efficiency will be fired modes when 30.000 lb/hr of steam is to he generated is
lower and 1hc fuel inpm will be higher. Th,, is illustrated for a prcscn1cd in Table ~.30. The larger boiler. design B. hu, a larger
simple case of lwo fans gcnera1ing 130,000 ant! 150.000 lbihr ol gas prcs~urc drup but a ,maller fuel inpul to gcncra1e 1hc same
air flow in the HRSG discussed above . The HRSGS program amount of s1eam in the fired mode. Lc1 us assume that each
was used in the simulation. See Table 4.29 18J. bmlcr operates for 50% of the time in both lhe unfired and 11red
It can be seen thm !hough the firing temper.tture is higher with mode,.
1hc smaller fan, the efficiency is higher due 10 1he lower exit ga,
losses considering lhe lower mas, flow anu exit gas 1empcruture.
II should be noted thm as 1hc firing 1cmpera1ure increases. the Tal)Jc -1-.30 Performance of Alternative Designs
exi1 gas tcmpermurc will decrease when an cconomi,cr 1s used .
Also. with the smaller fan the initial anu operating cost, are Design A Design B
lower. One should ensure that 1hc firing tempcrJlllre does nol Unfired Fired Unfired Fired
increase to the point of changing the basic design conccp1 of the Gai. no" . pph 150.00() 150.()()()
HRSG. For example. insulated casing design is used up to Q.,, temp cvap. °F
10 9()() 1086 900 1()61
1700°F linng 1cmpera1urc, beyond which a waler-cooled mem- Temp m ..;co, °F 407 419 388 393
brane wall design is required. Sec Ref. 8. Stack temp. °F 332 329 309 302
Gas d,,, in WC 4.W 4.60 540 5.80
Steam ( 150 psig ,an 12. 107 30.000 22.985 30,000
TalJI<' 4.2!) Fresh Air Firing Pcrf1>nnancc Fccdwntcr 1cmp, °F 230 230
Temp to cvap. np 35! 337 352 340
Air no", pph 130.000 150.000 Burner uu1y, MM Btu/hr 0 8. J() () 6.90
Inlet lcmp .• °F 60 60 Ga, turtunc output. kW -15CXl 4500
Firing temp., <p 1424 (nominal)
129-1
Exit gas temp., °F 308 314 Sur1at:c area. evap. 11..! l3.227 16.514
Steam now. pph 40,000 40 .()()(1 ccn. fl.., 594!; 8922
Burner duty. MM Btu/hr 48 71 50 32 Pinch poull, °F -II 53 22 27
Emciency. % 81 ~ 79 25 Approach po,m. "F 15 29 14 26
 Let fuel COS( = $2 7/MM Btu (LI-IV), ctlSI of ,team = first look al the chaniclcrb1ic, uf a gas !urbane as a funcuon of
$3/1000 lb. and electricity 5~/kWh Assume 8()()() hr of opera- amb,cm 1cmpera1ure and load (see Table 4. 3 1}.
lion per year.. A,su~c abo that an additional 4 m . WC of gas In single-shaft machines. which are widely used. as the ambi-
pressure drop is cqurvalcnt lo 1.1 % decrease in gas turbine ou1 enl 1empcra1ure or load decreases, 1he cxhausl gas temperature
put, which " a nominal 4500 kW. dccrea;cs. The variaiion in mass llow is margrnal compared 10
Design B has the following edge over dc;,ign A m opcrahng fossil fucl-lired boilers, while chc steam or water tlow drops off
costs:
signilicanily. (The effect of ma;,s Jlow increase in mos1 cases
Due lo higher ;1eam gencra1ion in unfired mode: uocs not offset lhc effect of lower exhaust ga, 1empcn11urc. ) The
4000 encrgy-tr.insferring abi lity of the economizer, which is governed
(22,985 - 22, 107) X 3 X IOOO = $10.536 by the gas-side heat rransfer coefficicnl, does not c hange much
with ga.~ turbine load or ambient 1cmpera1ure. and hence nearly
Due to lower fuel consumption in fired mode:
1hc s,,n1e duty is tr.msfcrrcd wilh a srn.,l lcr water now through
(8.1 - 6.9) X 2.7 X 40<)0 = $(2.960 lhc cconumi£er, which results in a water exit lemperaiurc 11p-
Due lo higher gas pressure drop of J .2 in . WC: proaching saturation temperature as seen in Q4.35. Hence we

I. I X
1
/ X 4500 X 0.05 X r':
8
= -$5940
shoo ld uesign 1he economizer such 1hat ii docs no1 steam in lhe
lowest unlired amb1cn1 case. which will ensure 1ha1 s teaming
docs not occur m other ambicni conditions. A few other steps
llcnce the nel bcnefi1 of design B over A = ( 10.536 + 12,960 may also be taken , such as designing the cconomi£er [81 with a
- 5940) = $17,556 per year. If 1hc additional cosl of design B horizontal gas now with horizontal tubes (Figure 4. I 5). This
rs $35,000. the payback is less lhan 2 yean,. Detailed economic ensure.s 1ha11hc lasi few rows of the cconomi1cr. which are likely
evaluation may be done IO sch:c1 the option . II the HRSG 10 steam, have a vcr11cul !low of steam1wa1er mixture.
operate, for only, say. 3000 hr per year. oplion B will iake a In conventional fossil fuel-fired boilers the gas flow llecrcascs
much longer lime to pay back and hence may not be viable. in proponion 10 the water llow, and 1he energy-transferring
abili1y of 1hc economizer is also lower al lower loads . Hence
s1caming is 001 a concern in these boilers: usually the approach
4.41 point mercascs al lower loads in fired boilers , whi le ii is a con-
cern m HRSGs.
Q: What i; s1ea111ing, and why" it likely in gas turbine HRSGs and
nol in conven1ional fossil fuel- fired boilers?
4A2
A: When 1he economizer in a boiler or HRSG slarL, gcncm1ing Q: Why arc water tube boilers generally preferred lo lire lube
sicam. particularly with downward llow of water, problems can boilers for gas turbine exhaust applicaLion,?
arise in the rorm of wata hammer, vibrauon, clc. Wrth upward
w,ucr llow design. a ccnam amount of s1caming. J m· 5~f. can be A: Fire tube boilers require a lol of surface area 10 reduce Lhe
lolerated as the bubbles have a muural rendcncy 10 go up along tempcralurc of gas leaving the evaporator IO wilhin 15 lo 25°F of
with the waler, However. ,teaming should generally be avo11.lcd. sa1ura11on 1cmpcra111re (pinch point) They have lower heat trans-
To undcn,1and wh) lhe economizer" likely to sleam. we should fer coefficients than those llf bare tube waler lube boilers (sec
 2!--17

ci
:: ·~I
' I ,
I flliIJ.lLJJWJ.$"1/Jd

I
I

UPA/1$l0JI IIJIYT -·' •

I

-r I
f-1
·n

Figure 4.15 Hori,ontal gas now econc1mizer.

Q4. IO). which do 001 compare well with finneJ tube boilers.
Water tube boilers can use extended surfaces It) reduce the pinch
point to 15 10 25°F in the unfired mode and hence be compact.
The lubes will be very long if fire tube boilers arc used, and
hence 1he gas pressure Jrop will be higher. (A fire lube boiler can
be made into a two-pass boiler to reduce the leng1h; however,
1his will increase the shell diameter and 1he labor cost. as twice
the number of tubes will have IO be welded to the lube sheets. l
The lire tube hoiler will have 10 be even larger if the same gas
prcs~ure drop is 10 be maintnined. Table 4.32 compares the
performance of water tube and rire tube boilers for lhc same duly
and pressure drop.
 u eat Trarn,kr Equipment L>e~i~n tlll(t 1>rrrorn1anu.• 299
(;rllldJ)dll\y
11

T abl<' 4.~:! Boiler Perfonnant:c with Increased Surface. Area

T a l>le 4.32 Water Tuhc vs. Fire Tuhc Boiler for Ga, Turbine
Exhau.i Length Surface Duty Exit gas temp.
N"· of (OF)
tubes (fl) (rt1) (MM Btu/hr)
Waicr tube' Case
16 2839 20.53 567
Ga, now. lb/hr I()(). 000 HXl.000 I 390
39() 17.6 3 123 21. 16 533
Inlet temp., °F 90() ()/)() 2 5()5
3 39() 19.2 3407 21.68
Bxit 1emp .. °F 373 373
Duty. MM Btu/hr 13.72 13.72 "Gas now e 70,000 lb/hr~ inkt ga, tcm~rJturc = 1600°'1~. G.1,, analr,i~ (% vol):
Gas pressure drop, in. WC 2.75 2.75 C0 = 1. H 0 = 12. N, = 75 . O, = 6, Mcam prcs::,ure = 125 p:,,ig ,uturatc<l Tubes:
1 1
Feedwater temp .. °F 220 220 2 x 0.120 carbon >1cel.
Steam pressure. psig 125 125
Steam now, lb/hr 13,500 13,500
12,315 crea,es the duty by only 6%. Similar trends may be shown for
Surface area, ft' 9798
water tube boilers, supcrheaters, economizers, etc.
'.Wa'.cr tube boiler. _2 X 0. 105 In. iubes, 20 wide. 18 deep. 6 fl long. wi1h 5 scrr:ued
hnshn .. 0.75 on, high, 0.05 on. 1hick.
'Fire lube boiler. 1400 1.5 x 0. 105 in. iubcs, 21 fl lung 4.44
Q: How do we estimate the time required m heat u boiler'!
le can be seen from the table foomotes that the water tube
boiler is very compact. If the gas now is very small , say less than A: A boiler can take a long ume 10 get healed. depending on the
50,000 lb/hr, then a fire tube hailer may be considered. initial temperature of the system, mass of steel. und amount of
water stored. The following procedure gives a quic~ estimate of
the time required 10 wam1 up a boiler. The methodology is ap-
4.43
plic.ible 10 either tire tube or waler tube boiler~.
Q: Does addition of 10% surface area ton boiler increase 11s dury Ga~ at a temperature of f, 1 enters the unit , which i~ initially at
by 10%? a temperature of 11 (both the water and the boi ler tubes/metal).
The followi ng energy balance equation can then be written
J\: No. :he additional surface area increases the duty only slightly. neglecting heat losses:
The increased temperature drop acros, the boi ler and the 1cm-
perature rise ~f water or steam (if sing le-phase) due io the higher UA t.T (77)
duty results m a lower log-mean tcmpernture difference. Thi s
results in lower transferred duty. even assuming that the overall where
heat transfer cocffi~ient U remains unchanged. If the larger
su_rface area results 111 lower gas velocities, the increase in duty
M, = water equivalent of the boiler
= mass of steel x specific heal of ,tecl + ma.s
wi ll be margina l as U is further reduced.
of water x ~pccitic heat of water
A, an example. consider the perfom1ance o f a fire tu be boiler (Weight of the hni lcr tubes, drum. casing, etc ..
with JO% and 20% increase in surface area as shown in Table is included in the steel weight.)
4.33. As can be ,een. a JO'Jf increase in surface area increases
,lrtd: = rate of change of temperature, °F/hr
!he duty by only 3%, and a 20% increase in surface ;irca in-
:lOo (l8Jll'-ll)illhy Hl'clC ·1 r;:1n..c;,lrr Equiprnen, Desi~n and ..,,~rfonm:111n .·

W, = ga~ llow, lb/hr EXJ\,vlPI.E

c,,, = ga~ specific heat, Btu/lb °F A water tube waste heat boiler of weigh! 50,000 lb and wntain-
T,,. T,, = entering and exit boiler gas tcmpernturc. 0 f ing 30.000 lb of water is initially at a temperature of J00°F.
U = overall heat tr.msfer coefficient, B1u/ f12 hr0 f 130,000 lb of flue gases at 1400°F enter the unit. Assume 1he
A = surface area. fl2 following:
11T = log-mean lemperacurc difference, •r Gas specific heat = 0.3 Btu/lb °F
= (T., - t) - (T., - I) Steel specific heat = 0. 12 Btu/lb °F
In l('f, 1 - r)!(T,1 - r)] Su1face area of boiler = 21,000 fti
Overall heat transfer coefficient = 8 Btu/ft2 hr °F
t = temperature of the water/steam in boiler, °F
Estimate the time required to bring the hoiler to 2 I 2°F.
From (77) we have
Solution
In [ T. 1 - r ] = UA (78) u 8 X 21.000
T,,2 - I IV,c;,. = 4.3
W,C,,,, 130,000 X 0.3
or
K = e43 =74
T., - I T., - +
1;, = 1+ --"'---'-- = t+ (79) M,. = 50,000 x 0. 12 30,000 X I = 36,000
e UAIW,,C,,.
Substitu1ing (79) into (77), we get
K
In l 1400 100
1400-212
l = O.O<)=
130,000 X 0.3
36.000
X
73
74
X;

dt K- or z = 0.084 hr = 5.1 min.

M,
d:
= W,C1,, ('f, 1 - /) X
K One could develop a compucer program to wive (77) lo
or include steam generation and pressure-raising tcnns. In real-life
boiler operation, 1he procedure is co1Tected by factors based on
dt = W,Ces x K-1
dz (80) operating daia of similar units.
T, 1 - I M,. K It can also be noted that. in general. fire tube boiler, with the
To estimate the time co hcac up the boiler from an initial tempera- same capacity as waler cube boilers would have a larger waler
lllre 11 to 12 , we have to integrate dt between the limit, 11 and 12• equivalenl and hence the slartup time for fire mbc boilers would

In l 7;, -
T111 -
t,
12
J = W,Ca,
M,.
x (K -
K
I): (8 1)
be larger.

The ahove equation can he used to estimate the 1ime re<ruired to 4.4S
heat up 1hc boiler from a tempcralure of 11 to , 2 , using flue gases Q: Discuss the parame1ers intluencing 1he test results ot an HRSG
entering al T,,. However, in order to generate ,team, we mus1 during performance testing
tirs1 bring the hoiler to 1he boiling point a1 almospheric pressure
and slowly raise !he sleam pressure through manipulalion of vent A: The main variables affe~ling 1he performance of an HRSG arc
valves. drains. e cc: 1he firs! term of Eq. (77) would involve the the gas tlow. inle1 gas 1cmperniure, gas analysi~. and Mcam
term for s1eam generalion and flow in addition 10 mcial healing. para;-,,e,ers. As,umi,;g 1hat an HRSG has been designed tor a
:102 Gctnapathy 1tem T rc:1n~fcr Equipmen1 Oesign a.ncl P<:rrorrmm(T 30:l

given set of gas conditions. in reality several of the parameters

could be different at the time of testing . In the case of a gas 55 , -- - - -- - - - - - -- - - 0 765
turbine HRSG in particular. ambieni temperature also influences
the exhaust gas conditions. The HRSG could. as a result. be >760
receiving a different gas flow at a different temperature, in which >755 r..
,ase the steam production would be different Crom that predicted.
Even if the ambient temperature and the gas turbine load were
lo remain the same, it is difficult to ensure that the HRSG
>750
!
receives the design gas flow at the design temperature. This is
due to instrument errors. Typically, in large ducts. the gas
745
~
e-,
(/)

measurement could be off by 3 to 5% and the gas temperatures '740

could differ hy IO to 20°F according to ASME Power Test Code 735
4.4. As a result it is possible that the HRSG is receiving 5% lcs,
flow at \0°F lower gas temperature than design condition;, 50-1-- - ~- - ~ - - - - - - , -- - ~ -- - 730
although the instruments record design conditions. As a result . 485 490 495 soc 505 510 515
GAS flDlf. l 000 lB/8
the HRSG steam generation and steam temperature would be less
than predicted through no fau lt of the HRSG design. Figure 4. 16
shows the performance of an HRSG designed for 500,000 lb/hr 1--- no F -+-880 F -- sso F -e-920'
gas flow at 900°F; steam generation is 57 ,<XX) lb/hr al 650 psig
and 750°F. The chart shows how the same HRSG behaves when Figure 4.16 HRSG performance a~ a function of gas flow and exhaust
the mass flow changes from 485 ,000 to 515,000 lb/hr while the temperature.
exhaust temperature varies from 880°F to 902°F. The steam
temperature faJJs to 741 "F with 880°F gas temperature, while it is
758°F at 920°F. The steam llow incrca;es from 52,900 to 60.900 A: Subcooled boiling heal transfer coefficient inside tubes for water
lb/hr as the gas mass flow increases. Thus the figure shows the can be estimated by the following equations:
map of performance or the IIRSG for possible instrument error According to Coll ier 11 3],
variations only. Hence HRSG designers and plant usefi> s hould
mutually agree upon possible variations in gas parameters and AT = 0.072e _,.,,2"" q°·5 (82a)
their influence on HRSG perfom,ance before conducting such According to Jens and Lottes l 13].
tests. AT = I. 9e - Pl'JOO q° 2' (82b)
where
4.46 AT = difference between saturation temperature and tube
Q: Estimate the boiling heat transfer coefficient inside tubes for wall temperature . °F
water and the tube wall temperature rise for a given heal flux and P = steam pressure. ps,a
steam pressure. q = heal llux inside tubes. Btui ft 1 hr
 11r-at ·rransfcr Equipn1en1 Dcsi~11 t1n<I Perforn1un<T 30 ~

The heal Lransfer coefficient is then given by G, = mass velocity inside wbcs. lb/ ft2 hr
h, = q!AT
x = sicam quali1y , expressed as a fraction
d, = tube inner diamcccr, in.
EXt\MJ'LI::
EXJ\MPLCT
What is the boil ing heat transfer coefficient m;ide the mbe.s and
Estimate the cri1ical heat flux under the following cond itions :
the tube wall temperature if the heat flux inside boiler tube, is
60,000 B1u/ftl hr and slcam pressure = 120<) psia'' steam pressure = 1000 psia, tube inner diameter = 1.5 in. mass
velocity = 600.000 lb/ft2 hr. and steam quality = 0.20.
Solwion. Using Collier' s equa1ion.
6.T = 0.072 X e 1200m,., X 60.000"' = 6 .8°F q, = 0.00633 X ,o~ X 650 x 1.so-0 1 x 0.6°-H
X (1 - 0.2) = 2.43 X 101' Btulf12 hr
Ii, = 60,000/6.8 = 8817 Btuift2 hr °F
In real-life boilers , the allowable heat flux 10 avoid DNB is much
Using Jens and Lottes·s equat ion.
lower. say 20 IO 30% lower, than the value;, obtained by labora-
AT = 1.9 X r 12 '"'"°" 11 2
X 60,000 ~ = 7.8°F tory tests under controlled conditions due to factors s uch as
h,- = 60,00017 .8 = 7650 Btu/ft2 hr °F roughness of cubes, water quality , and safety considerations.
Boiler s uppliers have their own data and design boilers accor-
T he tube surface where boiling occurs is assumed to be smooth
dingly.
and clean in the above expressions.

4.47a 4.47b

Q: What is the relation among critical heat flux. steam pressure. Q: How is the crilical heat flux q,. dc1crmincd in pool boiling
situa1ions as in fire tube boilers'!
quali1y. and flow in water tube boilers?

,\: Several variables influence 1hc critical hear flux or the departure A: Several corre lations arc available in 1hc literature. bu! only two
will be c ited. Motsinki s uggests the ,impk equation l 13]
from nuclcace boiling (DNB) condi1ion. These are
Steam pressure G7=803PX
• . ,.
P. <> "
(.-p' ) X
( I - P.
p ·'
)o9 (84a)
i'
Mass velocity of mi xing inside the tubes I '

Steam quali1y where P,. P. are the s!Cam pressure and critical pressure, both
Tube roughness and cleanliness in psia.
Tube size and orientation Zuber's correlation take-s 1he fonn l 13]
Correlations ~uch as 1he Macbeth correlation are available in the _q,_ = 0. 13 X ( cr(p, - /•)gg. )" 2,
Iiternture I13]. The Macbc1h corrcla1ion is p, h;, P,
q, = 0.00633 X 106 X '11, d,- o.,(Ci,I I06 )°- 51 X ( I - t) (83)
X (
Pr )os (84b)
where P, + Pr
qr = criucal heat flux. Btu/ ft2 hr where
hr., = latent heat of steam, Btu/lb a = ,111-face lension
 {.,dmlJ)Ull 1)'
11c·a1 rransr«-r Equi1unt·n1 uc~IS,,{n rnu l Pt.·rfcmn~11,<·<.· !07
p = dcnsi1y
'11, = talent heal 4.48
g. 1/,, = accclcrntion due to gravi1y and convcr:,ion f;ictor Q: Discuss Lhe s11nplilicd approach to designing lire tube boilers.
g and force units
all in metric units. A: Engineers often musl cs11ma1c the size of heat transfer equip-
ment. such as heat exchangers . ga_~ coolers , boilers, and econ-
l::XAMJ>LG omizers, for preliminary costing and 10 check space require-
Dct:rminc the_ critical hem Oux for s1ean, at 400 psia under pool ments. With the approach presented here. one can quickly
bm1mg condn ions. dc1erminc one or more configurations 10 accomplish a cenain
Sol111io11. The following data can be ob1ained from Mcam amouni of hea1 1ransfcr One can also ,i,c equipment so as 10
tables: limit lhc pressure drop. wi1hout pcrfonnmg lengthy calcula1ions.
Life-cycle cos11ng can 1hen be applied to select the opumum
Satura1ion 1crnpcrnturc al 400 psia = 445°p
Density of liquid =
5 I lh/cu ft (827 kgtm 3) design .
Several siluation:, will be discussed 18).
Dcn~11y of vapor = 0.86 lb/cu fl (13.8 kg/m 1)
Latent hem of vaporization = 780 8111/lb (433 kcal/kg) The tube-side heat 1ransfcr coefficient governs 1he overall heat
transfer. Examples: tire tube boilers: gas coolers: heal ex-
F~orn_Tablc 4.26 at saiuration temperature of 445°F. surface
1cns100 1s 0.002 1 lb11fl (0.31 kg,lm) changers rn which a medium such a, air or Ouc gas nows on
lhe 1ube side and a nuid with a high heat transfer coefficicm
I/ = 9 8 X 360(r m/hr. 1/., = 9.8 X 36002 nows on the outside . Pha5e c hanges can a lso occur on 1hc
kg,./kg, hr outside of the Iubcs.
Substiru1ing into (84a): The shell side governs. Examples: wa1er-1ubc boilers. steam-air
exchanger:,, and gas- liquid heal transfer c,1uipmcn1 . Sec
q, = 803 X 3208 X ( 40() )" l< X (r _ 4()() )IIV Q4.49.
3208 3208 TUBlc-S IDE TlV\NSFEH CiO\'ERNS
= 1. 102 MM Btu/1'12 hr In a lire tube boiler. gas nows inside the tubes ; a ,1cam- water
Using Eq. (84b), mixture flows on 1he outside. The gas heal transfer cocfficicnl is
smal l, about 10 10 20 B1ulfl1 hr °F. compared 10 the outside
({,. = 13.8 X 433 X 0 . 13 X (0.0031 X 8 13 X 9.8! coefficient of 2000 to 3000 Btu/1'1 ~ hr 0 f . The metal resislance is
X 3600·' )o 25 ( 827 11., also small, and hence the ga:,-side coefficient govern~ the overall
( 13.8Ji x 827 i 13.R ) coefficient and the size of lhc equipment.
= 2.95 X 101' 1
kcal/ m = I .083 MM Btu/ ft' hr The energy 1rnnsfcrreu is given by

Again. as. before. factors ,uch as surface roughncs,. wn1cr quali- Q = UA AT = W,C,, x (1'1 - 7i) (85)
ly. scale fonna11on. and bundle conliguration play a role. and for The overall heat 1ransfcr coefficient b obtained from Eq . (4).
conservative estima1e;,. boiler designers use a value 1ha1 is 20 to
30% of these values .
u
I = -1,_ +
t,,d, t,..
+ _d_ In (.l.,,_ )
24K'" ti,
 G<.11HlJ><1ll1y H<·at Trnn~ler Ec111ipmc:·n1 llcsign cln<I Pt---rrorn1,111<·c·

Table 4.:t4 factor., F,!Cp, F ,IC:1, F, and F 1 for Air and Flue Gas•
+ ff. I X (3.!.!..)
d. + ff"
' Temp. (°F) }: IJCI' F ,_ F,_IC1, F,
Since the inside coefl1cienL governs U. we can rewrite Eq. (4)
as follows (neglecting lower-order resistances, s uch ash,,, metal Air
resistance. and fouling factors. which contribute to about 5'k 100 0.6660 0.0897 0.3730 0.5920
of U): 200 0.6870 0.0952 0.3945 0.6146
300 0.7068 0.1006 0.4 140 0.6350
U = 0.95h, X .!!!._ 400 0. 7225 0. 1056 0.4308 0.6528
(86)
d,, 600 0.7446 0.1150 0.459 I 0.6810
1000 0.7680 0 1220 0.4890 0.6930
The value of the tube-side coeffic ient is obtained from the 0.7030
t2(XI 0.7760 0. 13 18 0.5030
famil iar Dittus-Boelter c<Juation, Eq. (8). 0.7 150
0. 1353
Nu = 0.023 Re"" Pr° 4
Flue gas"'
where 0.5851
200 0.6590 0.0954 0.3698
Nu = h;<i, R 5? ,.. 300 0.6780 0.1015 0.3890 0.6059
12k ' c = I ·- d;fL 400 0 .6920 0. 107 1 0.4041 0.6208
600 0.7140 0. 11 70 ().4300 0.6457
The flu id transport properties arc evaluated at the bulk tempera- 0.73(K) 0. 1264 ().4498 0.6632
800
ture. 1000 0.739() 0.1340 0.4636 0.6735
Substituting Eqs. (8) to ( 11) into Eq. (86) and simplifying, we 1200 Cl. 7480 0 .1413 0.4773 0 .6849
have the following expression [Eq. (12)J:
'Flue gas is assumed 10 have t 2% water vapor by volume.
h; = 2.44w" 8F 1id/ 8
where
When a phase change occurs, as in a boiler. !:,.T is written as
F, = (C,/IL)"·''k" 1' (R7)
(T, - r.) - (T2 - t) (89)
Combining Eqs. (86), (85), and (87), we have. after substitut-
ing A = 3.14d,LN/12, and for flow per tube w = W/N. ln[(T1 - 1,) - (T2 - t)]
Combining Eqs. (88) and (89) and simplifying, we arrive at the
= 0.606 X (88) expression

This simple equation relates several important variables. G iven

Q. tlT. W,, and F,. one can try combinations of L. d,. and ,v 10
[T,-1 1= 0 .606
In ..- _ '
' 2 (1
X C
F,
,,
X
NO'
" X
f
L 0.s
W".2,1'
(90)

arrive at a s uitable configuration. Also, for given thermal data. Factor F1tC1, is also g iven in Table 4.34.
LN° 2td)'" is con&tant in Eq. (88). Equation (90) relates the major geometric parameters to ther-
F, is shown in Table 4.34 for flue gas and air. For other gases, mal performance. Using this method. one need not evaluate heat
F, can be computed from Eq. (87). transfer coefficients.
 :rn, 1reai -rran!-tf<', 1:qu1pmc·n1 Desls.t:11 d1ul Pcrfnrn·t.1nc t.'

GAS PHE..'>SLIHL-:. DROP l IC

Ti.I) 4 ..~c·
, •
Values of K,_ as a Function of Tube Dinmc1er ond Length
Now, consider gas pressure drop. The equation that relates the ti, (111 . J
geometry 10 tube-side pressure drop in in. H!O is 1.50 1.75 l.(~) 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00
I. (fl) 1.00 1.25

/j,Pi = 9.3 x l\f )2(L + 5d,J

,o-~r x ( N x I'
d'; 8 029'JO 0 1027 0.0428 0.0424 (),(11()') 0 .0062 OIX)37 ll 0024 0.001~
0 ()484 0 .0229 ()0121 0.006'1 O 00.J l 00027 0.0018

r 10 0.3450 0 .1171
0.0075 0.0045 0.0029 0.(1019
0.39 10 0 13 15 0.0539 0.02~2 0.0 134
~
12 0 0031 0 .0021
00049
= 9.3 X 10 - < X ( K iv (91) 14 0.4370 () 1·11>0 0 .0595 0.0277 0.0 141> O.OOR2
0(K)88 O.ClOB 0 (1033 0 (1022
16 041\30 0 t(J()3 0.0650 00301 0.0l58
0.0 101 !I !Xl<~) 0 .0()3S 0.0025
20 0.5750 0 18'12 0.0760 0 .0350 O 0183
where 0.0816 IJ.0375 0.0 195 Cl.OI 08 (I 0064 0.(>040 0 ()()27
22 0.6210 0 2036
0.0114 o .OOl,7 0.(>042 00028
Kz = f(L + .5d1)!d,5 (92) 24 0.6670 0.2 180 0 .0870 (),(MO() IJ.0207
00)21 0.007 1 ll 0045 0.()()30
26 0 71 30 Cl 2320 0.0926 0 042.1 0.0219
0.0075 0.(>047 0 .0031
Combining Eq~. (90) to (92) and eliminating N, 28 0 751JO 0 246~ 0.0982 0 .0447 00231 0 02 17

In (
T,
~ =:: ) = 0 .24 X 2,
F
X K,
\10.1

!!.P"
'
I
(93)
friction factor for cold-dmwn lube, is a function of inner diame-
where ter.
K, = (L + St/1)111 Lf 0 1
/d] -' (94) Using &1. (93), one cun quickly figure the lube diameter and
length Lhal limit tube pres~urc drop 10 a desired value. Any 1wo
K, and K 2 appear in Tables 4 .35 and 4.36, respectively, as a of 1hc three variables N. I,. and d,. determine 1hcm1al perfor-
runction of tube ID and length. In the turbulent range. the mance as well as ga~ pressure drop. Let us discuss the conven-
Lional design procedure:
Tal)le 4.3;, Values of K, as a Function of Tube Diame,cr and Length I. Assume 11·, calculate N.
2. Calculate V, using Eqs . (4) and {86).
tl1 (in.) 3. Calculate L after obtaining A from (85).
L (fl) 1.00 1.25 1.50 I 75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 4. Calcu late M', from Eq. (91).
8 7.09 5.33 4.22 3.46 2.92 2.52 2.20 1.95 1.75 If the geometry or prc,sure drop obtained is unsuitable, repeal
10 8.99 6.75 5.34 4.38 3.70 3. 17 2.78 2.46 2.21 sleps 1-4. This procedure is lengthy. .
12 10.92 8.20 6.48 5.3 1 4.48 3.85 3.36 2.98 2.67 Some examples will illus1m1c the s11npl11icd approach. The
14 12.89 9.f,(, 7.6.l 6.25 5.27 4.53 3.95 3.50 3. 14 preceding equation:, arc valid for single-pass_dcsign. llowevc~.
16 14.88 11.14 8 .80 7.2 1 6.07 5.21 4.55 4 02 3.61 wtth minor changes. one cm1 derive the relaltonshtps for mul11-
18 16.89 12.65 9.98 8. 17 6.88 5.91 5. 15 4.56 4.1() pass units (e.g .. use length ~ L/2 for two-pass units).
20 18.92 14. 16 11. 17 9. 14 7 70 6.60 5.76 5. 10 4.56
22 20.98 15.70 12.38 10. 12 8 .52 7.31 6.37 5.64 5.05 EX/\1\ll'Lc I
24 23.0S 17.24 13.59 II. I I 9.35 8 .02 6.99 6 19 5. 54 A fire tube waste heal boiler will cool 66,000 lb/hr of nuc gas
26 25. 13 HI.SO 14.81 12. 11 10. 19 8.74 7.61 6 74 6.03 from I 160°F to ~ °F. Saturation temperature b 350°F. Molecu-
28 27 .24 20.37 16.05 13. 11 11.00 9.46 8.74 730 6.52 lar weight is 28.5. and gas pressure is atmospheric. If Lb 10 be
 11ea1 Trd1lsfcr Equi1>m<·f1t Dcsig11 ancl P<·rf<>rnmncc .ff!
GWlilJ)c:\III)'

Umited Lo 20 ft due to layout, determine N and ilP, for two tube

sizes: ( I) 2 x 1.77 in. (2 in. OD, 1.77 in. rD) and (2) 1.75 x
tJ..P, = 9.3 X JO - ' X ( 6(;,;o )2 X 0.076 X 32.25

1.521 in . = 8.95 in . 1-1 20

S0lutio11. Use Eq. (88) to lind N. Use 2-in tubes. (F, IC,,) from
EXA:vlPLE 2
Table 4.34 is 0.73 for flue gas at the average gas temperature of
Size the heat exchanger for 2.0-in. tubes. with a pressure drop of
0.5 X (I I (,O + 440) = 800°F.
1160 - 350
In [ 440 - 350
l= 2. 197
3.0 in . H20. For the same thermal performance, determine the
geometry .
Solution. The conventional approach would take several trials
20 to arrive at the right combination. However, with Eq. (93). one
2. 197 = 0 .606 X 0.73 x N' ' x can determine the geometry rather easily:
(66.000)"·2 X (J.77)'"
= 0.6089N"·'. N = 611 I
n
l '160 - 350
440 - 350
l= 2 197
·
= 0 24 X
·
F,
C,,
x K,,·"·'1
ilP'.'
Compute ilP, using Eq. (91). From Table 4.36. K, is 0 .035.
Compute the gas specific volume. - From Table 4.34, (F,IC1,) = 0.73; ilP, = 3, " = 32.25. Then
J=
Density {p) = 28.5 x
359
X (::~ + SOO) = 0.031 lb/ft\ In
l J l60 - }SO
440 - 350
2 197 = 0.24K
. I
X (32.25)0·'

3,U
Or II = 32.25 fr/lb x 0
= o.222K,. K, = 9.89
Substituting in Eq . (91 ). we have
From Table 4.35. we can obtain several combination; of tube
66 000
flP.1 = 9.3 X 10 ; )(
( 611
• )' X 0 ' 035 X 32.25 diameter and length that have the same K1 value and would yield
the same the rmal performance .tnd pre.~surc drop. For the 1.77-
= 1.23 in . H20 in . [D tube, Lis 21.75 ft. Use Eq. (88) to calculate the number of
Repeat the exercise with I. 75-in tubes; length remain~ al 20 tubes.
ft. From Eq . (88), we note that for the same thermal pcrfonnance
2. 197 = 0.606 X 0.73 X 21.75
N"'
X -(--.-()()()~),,.,-X-(_l_,7_7-
~ )"~-
•
and gas flow, N° 2Lfd,0 ·8 = a constant. The above concept comes 66
in handy when o ne wants to quickly figure the effect of geometry
on performance. Hence,
orN = 402
Thus, several alternative tube geometries can be arrived al for
20 20 the same performance, using the preceding approach. One saves
( I. 77)'Us = N° 2 X
(1.521)° 8 a lot of time by not calculating heat transfer coefficients and gas
or N = 333 prope11ies.
With ;mailer tubes. one needs fewer tube, for the same duty. LIFE-CYCLE COSTING
This is due to a higher heat transfer coefficient; however. the gas Such techniques determine the optimum design. gi,•en several
pressure drop wou ld be higher. From Table 4.36. K, = 0 .076 a lternatives . Herc, the maJor operating cost is from moving the
for 1.521-in. tubes. From &1. (91 ), gas through the system, and the installed cost is that of the
 G;111Jµ,111ly J 1e<:u Trc.msfcr Equipment D<-~si~n and PC'rforrnanC'<' 3 1:t
equipment and auxiliaries such as the fan. The life-cycle cost is
the sum of the capitalized cost of operation and the installed cost: Nu = h.,d., Re = Gd Pr = µ.Ce
12.l 12µ. • k
LCC = Cr + I,
The capitalized cost of operation is 12
w,, (21)
G = N. L(S1 - d, )
I - y1
c;. = C,,Y I _ y &1uation (9S) is valid for both in-line (square or rectangular
pitch) and s taggered (triangu lar pitch) arrangemems . ror bare
where tubes , the difference in"· between in-line and ;taggcrec.l arrange-
Y = (I + e)i(I -'- 1) ments at Reynolds numbers and pitches found in practice is 3 to
5% . For finned tubes, the variation is significant.
The annual cost of operat ing the fan i~ estimated a,
Substituting Eqs. ( 17) to (21) into Eq. (95) and simplifying.
Ca = 0.001 X PHC,
h., = 0. 94SG0·°F,td~ .. (96)
where the fan power consumption in kW is U = 0.9G'' F1 td:! 6 4
(97)

P = 1.9 X 10- 6 X W, X tJ', where

P"l F, = ko.1(C~lµ.)0J (98)
The above procedure is used to evaluate LCC. The alternative
F2 is given in Table 4.34. Gas Transport properties arc computed
with the lowest LCC is usually chosen if the geometry is accep1-
ahlc. re,.
is cost of elcctricity.J at the rilm temperature.
A = 'ITd, N•.Ndl/12
4.40 Combining the above with Eq. (85) and simplifying gives
Q: Discuss the simplified approach 10 designing water tube boilers. Qlt.T = VA = 'IT0.9G0 ''F2d N•.N"LJl2d'.'. 4
0

A: Whenever gas flows ouL~ide a tube bund le-as in water tube

= 0.235 F,G" 0N,.N,1Ld ?, •
boilers. economizers. and heat exchangers with high heat trans- Substitllling for G from Eq. (21)
fer coefficients on the tube side- the overall wefficiem is gov- N04LO. IN
erned by the gas-side resistance. As~uming that the other resis- 14'
0
" (99)
(S Id I ) ''
tances contribme about 5% 10 the total. and neglecting the effect T "

of nonluminous transfer coefficients. one may write the expres- The above equation relates thermal performance Lo geometry.
sion for U as When there is a phase c hange. as in a boiler, further simplifica-
t.ion leads to
U = 0.95'1., (95a)
where tl1e outside coefficient. !,• . is obtained from ln r TT, -.1.,]
T\
= 2.82 X F1
c,. x N,,
G" \S rid,. - l ),/ :! ' ( JOO)
2-
Nu = 0 . 35 Re" "Pr°·' (95h)
If the tube diameter and pitch arc known . one can estimate Nd or
where. Eqs. ( 16) 10 ( 18). and
G for a desired thermal performance.
:110 t lct11 Tr(msC<·r Eqlliprnem D<·sign dn<I J>erforr11c.1ncc 3l7

Let us now account for gas pressure drop. The equation that x (800 + 350)
Lei us use Eq. ( 102). Film cemperaiure is 0.5
relates the gas pressure drop 10 G i& Eq. (28) of Chapter 3: = 575°F. Interpolating from Table 4.34 al 475°F, F3 = 0.643 .
Ga, density at 800°F is 0.03 l lbift3 from Example I.
liP,. = 9.3 X 10 '° x G2f Nd
. p 6.P,, = 4.78 X 10 IO X G 2· 25 X (4 - 2)
1160 - 350 ]
For in-line affangemencs, the friction factor is obtained from X In [ 440 - 350
Eg. (29) of Chapter 3:
(0.(144 +
0.08 X 2)
J = Re - 01 ~x X
2°·75 X 0.643 X 0 .03 l
where = 128 X 10 ,o X G2·15 = 3
X = 0.044 + Hence. G = 5200 lb/ft2 hr. From Eq. (2 1) one can choose
(S Id _ l}o.431 1.1 Jt1.,, s,
1 " different combinations of N., and l:
Another form of Eg. (3.28) is N,..L = 66 ,000 X 12/(2 X 5200} = 76
\¥I., 1N u ' 01 sx
fip" = l ·34 X 10 7 X " d f1 (IOI) lf N.,. = 8. then l = 9.5 fl.
N1.gs
w 1...
l.s;do h(S _ ( 1h )1.xs
C} T Calcula1e Nd from Eq. (100):
Substituting forJ in Eq. (3.28) and combining with Eq. ( 100),
we can relate A/>0 10 performance in a single equation: In [ 1
160
-
35
440 - 350
0 l= 2 . 197 = 2.82

IV,,= 4.78 X 10-

111
X G22 ' (Sr - d,.) In [-;c-'~--;..c; l X N,1
d'·<s,.1t1,. - 1)<1?.'
X 2. l 97 = 2.82 X 0.426N,1/ (5200° • X I X 2'14) or N., = 74
X ( 102)
don
u F.l P
Thus, the entire gcomelr)' has been arrived al.
where
F, = (Fi lCP)µ u.1; (103)
4.50
F, is given in Table 4.34. With the above equation, one can Q: How is the bundle diarne1er of heal exchangers or fire tube
easily calculate the geometry for a given tube bank so as to limit boilers determined'?
the pressure drop to a desired value. An example will illustrate
the versatility of the technique. r\: Tubes of heal exchanger~ and fire tube boilers are 1ypically
EXAMPLE arranged in triangular or square pitch (Figure 4. 17). The ratio of
In a water tube boi ler, 66,000 lb/hr of flue ga, is cooled from tube pitch to diameter could range from 1.25 to 2 depending on
116() !O 440°F. Saturation temperature is 350°F. Tube outside the tube size and the manufacturer's past practice.
diameter is 2 in .. and an in-line arrangement is used with Sr = S 7 Looking al the triangular pitch arrangement. we see that Ju,/f
= 4 in. Determine a suitable configuration co limit the ga, of a wbc area is located within the triangle. whose area i•
pressure to 3 in. Hi). given by
318 I ten1 Trcln'ifrr Equiprncnl l)csign <111d Perforrnanc-(· 310
G(1nc:1p4,11hy

Area of triangle = 0.5 x 0.866p

2
= 0.433p2
If there arc N tubes in the bundle.
1
Total area occupied = 0.866Np
1
If the bundle d iameter is D , then 3. 14 x D 14 = area of
bundle = 0.866Np or
2

w D = 1.05pN° 5 (104)
Similarly, for the square pitc h. the area occupied by one tube
= =
,i2. Hence bundle area 3.14 x D114 = Nil , or
D = 1.128pN" 5 (105)
In practice. a small clearance is added to the above number for
manufacturing purposes.
EXNvlPLE
If 500 tubes of 2-in . diameter arc located in a fire tube boiler
shell at a triangular pitch of 3 in. , the bundle diameter would be
D = 1.05 X 3 X 500° 5 = 70.5 in .
Tr the pitch were square. the bundle d iameter would be
D = 1.128 X 3 X 500° 5 = 75.7 in.
Sometimes tubes have to be located within a given sector o f a
circle. In such cases, it is helpful to know the area of a sector of a
w circle given its height and diameter. Table 4.37 gives the factor
C, which when mu ltiplied by D 2 gives the sector area.
EXAMPLE
Find the area of a sector of height 10 in. and diameter 24 in.
S0lu1io11. For h/D = 10/24 = 0.4 I 67. C from Table 4.37 =
0.309. He nce
Area= C x 0 1 = 0.309 X 24 X 24 = 178 in.
2

Fig ur<' 4. 17
-
Triangular and square pi1ch for boiler/exchanger tubes. 4 .5 1
Q: How is the thickness of insulation for a rial or curved surface
determined? Determine the thickness of insulation to limit the
 Tal>l<' 4.37 C Factors for Finding Arca of Sector (Area = CO2 ) of a Circle
:,,

-
!z· lr/D C h/D
0.050
C lr/D C lr/D C lr/D C
0.01468 0. !00 0.04-087 0. 150 0.07387 0.200 0.1 11 82
0.001 0.00004 0.05 1 0.0 15 12 0.1 0 1 004 148 0. 151 0.07-159 0.20 1 0.11 262
0.002 0 .()(J0 12 0.052 0.0 1556 0.102 0.(14208 0.152 0.07531 0.202 0.11343
0.003 0.00022 0.053 0.0 16() 1 0. 103 0.04269 0 . 153 0.07603 0.203 0 . 11423
0.004 0.00034 0.054 0.0 1646 0 . 104 0.04330 0.154 0.07675 0.204 0.11504
0.005 0.00047 0.055 0.01691 0 . 105 0.04391 0. 155 0.07747 0.205 0.11584
0.006 0.{J0062 0.056 0.01737 0.106 0.04452 0.1 56 0.078 19 0.206 0. 11 665
0.007 0.00078 0.057 0.01783 0. !07 0.045 14 0. 157 0.07892 0.207 0.11 746
0.008 0.00095 0.058 0.01830 0. 108 0.04578 0. 158 0.07965 0.208 0. 11827
0.009 0.001 13 0.059 0.0 1877 0. 109 0.04638 0.159 0.08038 0.209 0. 11908
0.0JO 0.001.n 0.060 0 .0 1924 0. 11 0 0 .04701 0. 160 0.0811 I 0 210 0. 11990
0.01 l 0.00153 0 .061 0.0 1972 0 . 111 0.04763 0. 161 0.08185 0.211 0. 1207 1
0 .012 0.()0 175 0.062 0.02020 0.112 0.04826 0.1 62 0.08258 0.212 0.12153
0.013 0 00 197 0.063 0.02068 0. 113 0.04889 0. 163 0.08332 0.2 13 0.12235
0.014 0.00220 0.064 0.02117 0.114 0.04953 0. 164 0.08406 0.2 14 0.123 17
0.0 15 0 00244 0.065 0.02166 0. 11 5 0.050 16 0. 165 0.08480 0.215 0.02399
0.0 16 0.00268 0.(166 0.022 15 0. 11 6 0.05080 0.166 0.08554 0.216 0.1248 1
0.01 7 0.00294 0.067 0.02265 0. 11 7 0 .05145 0. 167 0.08629 0.2 17 0.12563
0018 0.00320 0.068 0.02315 0.118 0.()5209 0. 168 0.()8704 0.2 18 0. 12646
0 .019 0.00347 0.069 0.02366 0. 119 0.05274 0. 169 0.08779 0.219 o. 12729
0.020 0.00375 0.070 0.02417 0. 120 0.05338 0. 170 0.08854 0.220 0. 128 11
0.02 1 0(J(J403 0.07 1 0.02468 0. 12 1 0.05404 0 .1 71 0.08929 0.22 1 0. 12894
0.022 0 .00432 0.072 0.02520 0. 122 0.05469 0. 172 0.09(XJ4 0.222 0. 12977
0.023 0.00462 0.073 0.0257 1 0. 123 0.05535 0. 173 0.09080 0.223 0. 13060

0.024 0.00492 L>.074 0.0262-1 0. 124 0.05600 0. 174 0.09155 0.224 0 . 13144
0.025 0.00523 0.075 0.02676 0.125 0.05666 0 . 175 O.ll923 I 0.225 0. 13277
0.026 0.00555 0.076 0.02729 0.126 0.05733 0. 176 0.09307 0.226 0. 1331 1
0 .027 0.(1()587 0.077 0.02782 0. 127 0.05799 0. 177 0.09384 (1.227 0. 13395
0.021! 0.00619 ().078 0.02836 0 . 128 0.05866 0 178 0.09460 0.228 0. 13478
0.029 0 .00653 0.079 0.02889 0. 129 0.05933 0. 179 0.09537 0.229 0. 13562
0.030 0.00687 0.080 0.02943 0. 130 0 .06000 0. 180 0.09613 0.230 0. 13646
().031 0.(J072 I 0.08 1 0.02998 0 13 1 0.06067 0.181 0.09690 0.13 1 0. I 3731
0.032 0.00756 0.082 0.03053 0.132 0.06 135 0.182 0.09767 0 232 0.138 15
0.033 O.lXl791 0.083 0.03108 0 . 133 0.06203 0 . 183 0.09845 0 .233 0. 13900
0.0.14 O.OOK27 0 .084 0.03 163 0.134 0.0627 1 0.184 0.09922 0.234 0. 13984
0.035 0 .00864 0.085 0.03219 0. 135 0.06339 0. 185 0.1 0000 0.235 0 . 14069
0 .036 0.00901 0 .086 0.03275 0. 136 0 .06407 0. 186 0. 10077 0.236 0 . 14154
0.037 0.0093l! 0087 0.03331 0.137 0.06476 0 . 187 0. 10155 0.237 0.14239
0.038 0.()()976 0.088 0.03387 0. 138 0.06545 0 . 188 0.10233 0.238 u. 14324
0 .039 0.01015 0.089 0.03444 0.139 0.()66 14 0.1 $9 0. 103 12 0.239 0. 14409
0.040 0.01054 0.090 0.0350 1 0. 140 0.06683 0. 190 0. 10390 0.240 0. 14494
0.041 0.01093 0.091 0.03559 0. 14 1 0 .06753 0. 19 1 0. 10469 0.241 0. 14580
0.042 0.01133 0.092 0 .03616 0.1 42 0 .06822 0.192 0. 10547 0.292 0. 146M
0.043 0.01173 0.093 0.03674 0.143 0.06892 0 . 193 0. 10626 0.243 0.14751
0.044 0.01214 0.094 0.03732 0. 144 0.06963 0 . 194 0.10705 0.244 0. 14837
0.045 0.01255 0.095 0.0379 1 0 . 145 0.07033 0.1 95 0. 10784 0.245 0. 14923
(),()46 0.01297 0.()96 0.03850 0 . 146 0.07103 0. 196 0. 10864 0.246 0. 15009
0.()47 0.01339 0.097 0.03909 0.1 47 0.07174 0. 197 0. 10943 0.247 0. 15095
:,;
IC 0.048 0.0 1382 0.098 0.03968 0. 148 0.07245 0. 198 0. 11023 0.2411 0. 15182
0.049 0.0 1425 0.099 0.04028 (). 149 0.073 16 0.199 0.11102 0.249 0. 15268
 Tal)IC- 4.37 Conlmued
-'"
IC lr/D C h!D C /rf[) C h/D C Ir/[) C
0.250 0.15355 ().300 0.19817 0.350 Cl.24498 0.400 0.29337 0.-150 0.34278
0.251 0.15441 0.301 0.199()8 0.351 0.24593 0.40 1 0.29435 0.45 1 0.34378
0.252 0.15528 0.302 0.20000 0.352 0.24689 0.402 0.29533 0.452 0.34477
0.253 0.15615 0.303 0.20092 0.353 0.24784 0403 0.29631 0.453 0.34577
0.254 0.15702 0.304 0.20184 (l.354 0.24880 0.404 0.29719 0.-154 0.34676
0.255 0.15789 0.305 0.10276 0.355 0.24976 0.405 0.291\27 0.455 0.34776
0.256 0.15876 0.306 0.20368 0.356 0.25071 0.-106 0.29926 0.456 0.34876
0 257 0.15964 0.307 0.20460 0.357 0.25167 0.407 0.30024 0.457 0.34975
0.258 0. 1650 1 0.308 0.20553 0.358 0.25263 0.408 0.30122 0.458 0.35075
0.259 0. 16139 O.JO\I 0.20645 0.359 0.25359 0.409 0.30220 0.459 0.35175
0.26() 0. 16226 0.3!0 0.20738 0.360 0.25455 0.410 0.303 19 0.460 0.35274
0.261 0. 1631-1 0.311 0.20830 0.361 0.2555 1 0.-1 1 I 0.304 17 0.46 1 0.35374
0.262 0. 16402 0.312 0.20923 0.362 0.25647 0.4 1~ 0.305 16 0.462 0.35474
0.263 0.16490 0.313 0 21015 0.363 0.25743 0.-113 0.3061-1 0.463 0.3557:l
0.264 0.16578 0.314 0.21108 0.364 0.25839 0.414 0.30712 0.464 0.35673
0.265 0 16666 0.315 0.21201 0.365 0.25936 Cl.+15 (l.30811 0.465 cusn3
0.266 0.16755 0.3 16 0.2 1294 0.366 0.26032 0.416 0.30910 0.466 0.35873
0.267 0.16843 0 317 0.21387 0.367 0.26128 0.417 0 31008 0467 0.35971
U.268 0.16932 0.3 18 0.2 1+80 0.368 0.26225 0.418 0.31107 0.46S 0.36072
0.269 0.17020 0.3 19 0.2 1573 CU69 0.26321 0.419 0.31205 0.46'1 0.36172
0.270 0.17 109 0.320 0.2 1667 0.370 0.264 18 0.420 0.31304 0.470 0.36272
().27 1 0 17 198 0.32 1 0 21760 0.371 0.26514 0.421 0.31403 0.471 0.36372
0.272 0.17187 0.322 0.21853 CJ.372 0.266 11 0.422 0.3 1502 0.472 0.36471
0.273 0. 17376 0.323 0.21947 Cl 373 0.26708 0.423 0 31600 0.473 0.3<,571

0.26805 Cl.424 0.31699 0.474 0.36671

0.274 0.17465 0.324 0.22040 0.374
Cl.26901 0.425 0.31798 0.475 0.36771
0.275 0. 17554 0.325 0 .22134 0.375
0.26998 0.426 0.3 1897 0.47(, 0.36871
0.276 0.17644 0.326 0.22221! 0 .376
0.377 0.27095 0.427 0.31996 0.-177 0.36971
0.277 0. 17733 0.327 0.22322
0.27192 0.428 0.32(1'15 0.478 0.3707 1
0.278 0.17823 0.328 0.22415 0.378
0.27289 0..129 0.32194 Cl.479 0.37171
0.279 ().179 12 0.329 0.22509 0.379
0.27386 0.430 0.32293 U.480 0.37270
0.280 0 ISl~S:! 0 330 0.22603 0.380
0.27483 U.431 0.32392 0.48 1 0.37370
0.28 1 0 18092 0.331 0.22697 0.381
0.27580 0.432 0.32491 0.482 0. 3747(1
0.282 0.18182 0.332 0.22792 0.382
0.27678 0.433 0.32590 0483 (l.37570
0.283 0. 18272 0.333 0.22886 0.383
0.27775 0.434 0.32689 0.484 0.37670
0.284 0.18362 0.334 0.22980 0.384
0.27872 0.435 0.32788 0.485 0.37770
0.285 0. 18452 0.335 0.23074 0.385
0.27969 0.436 0.32887 Cl.-186 0 37870
0.286 0.18542 0.336 0.23 169 0.386
0.387 0 28067 0.437 0.32987 0.487 0.37970
0287 0.18633 0.337 0.23263
0.2ll16-I 0.438 U.33086 0.-188 0.38070
0.288 0 18723 0.338 0.23358 0.388
0.28262 0.439 0.33185 0.489 0.38170
0.289 0. 18814 0.339 0.23453 0.389
II 28359 0.440 0.33284 0.490 0. 38270
0.290 0.18905 0.340 0.23547 0.390
0.28457 0.441 0.33384 0.491 0.38370
U.29 1 0.18996 0.341 0.'.!36-12 0.391
0.28554 0.442 0.33483 0.492 0.38470
0.292 0.19086 Cl.342 0.23737 0.392
0.28652 0.443 0.33582 0.-l'J:I 0.38570
0.293 0.19177 0.343 0.23832 0.393
0.28750 0.-144 0.3368'.! 0.494 0.38670
0.294 0.19268 0.344 0.23927 0.394
0.28848 0.445 0.3378 1 0.495 0.38770
().295 0. 19360 0.345 0.2402'.! 0.395
0.28945 0.446 0.33880 0.496 0.38S'70
0.296 0.19-151 0.34() 0.24 11 7 0.396
0.397 0.29()43 0.447 0.33980 0.-197 0.31\970
0.297 0. 19542 0.347 0.24212
0.29141 0.448 0.34079 0.498 0.39070
0.29K 0. 1%34 0.348 0.24307 0.398
0.449 0.34179 0.49'1 03817()
0.349 0.24403 0.399 0 29239
!V 0.299 0.19725
0.500 0.39270
 11c~a1 1rtut:,l<'r Equipment Dc~is:(.11 ,mcl P<.·rforrnanc(' :125
Gana1>a1J1y

casing surface 1empera1urc of a pipe operating a1 800°F to 20()°F, Tc1l1le 4 .:18 Equivalent Thickness of ln,ulauon. l, (in.)'
when Thickness of insulation L c in. l
Tube
Ambient temperature 1., = 80°F diam.
4.0 5.0 6.0
O.S 1.5 2.0 3.0
Thcnnal conductivity of insulation K,. al average temperature d (in.)
of S00°F = 0.35 Btu in .lft 2 hr. °F 0.6<J 1.65 2.77 4.0 6.8() 9.90 13.2 16.7
Pipe outer diameter d = 12 in. 2 0.61 1.39 2.29 3.30 5.50 8.05 10.75 13.62
Wind velocity V = 264 ft/min (3 mph) 0.57 J.28 2.0S 2.97 4.94 7.1 5 9.53 12.07
3
Emissivity of casing = 0.15 (oxidized) 4 0.56 1.22 1.96 2.77 4.55 6.60 ~ 76 11 10
0.55 1. 18 1.88 2.65 4.34 6.21 ~.24 10.40
5
A: The heat loss q from the surface is given by 171 0.54 1.15 1.82 2.55 4.1 6 5.93 7.85 9.80

+,;9,6 r-(,.
6
0.53 1.12 1.75 2.43 3.92 5.55 7.50 9.15
8
q = 0.174e [( ,, +,o~9.6 )'] 10 0.52 1.09 1.70 2.35 3.76 5.29 6.93 8.57
12 0.52 1.08 1.67 2.30 3.65 5. 11 6.65 l\.31
112 2.23 3.50 4.86 6.31 7.83
0.296 (I - I )1.2~ X ( V + 68 ·9 ) 16 0.52 1.06 1.63
+ (106) 1.()5 1.6] 2. 19 3.41 4 70 6.10 7.52
' " 68.9 20 0.51

e may be taken as 0.9 for oxidized s1ccl, 0.05 for polished cl + 1/. d + 11.
IIL,. - In . For example. foul = 3 and l = 1.5. l, = 2.08 .
aluminum, and 0. l 5 for oxidized aluminum. Also, 2 ,I

K,.,(1 - t,) = K,,,(I - I.,} O

q= [(d + 2l)/2J x In [(d + 2l,)/d] L, ( I ?)
We can solve for L given L, and d using Eq. ( 108) by tiial and
where I is the hot face temperature. °F, and L, is the equiva lent error or use Table 4.38. It can be shown that l = 0.75 in. The
thickness of insufation for a curved surface such as a pipe nexl standard thickness avai lable wil l he chosen. A trial-and-
or tube. error method as discussed next will be needed lo solve for the
surface 1e111perature 1.,· (Note thal L is the aclual thickness of
l = d+2L I d+2l ( 108)
' 2 n d insulation.)

Substituting 1., = 200, r. = 80. V = 264. and E = 0.15 into Eq.

( 106), we have
q = 0.173 X 0. 15 X (6.6' - 5.44 ) + 0.296 Q: Determine the surface tcmpemturc of insulation in Q4.5 l when
l .0-in-thick insulation is used on the pipe. Olher data are a~
X (660 - 540)115 X ( 264 + 69 )II' given earlier.
69
= 285 Btu!ft1 hr
J\: Calculate the equivalent 1hiclmcss L,. From Eq. ( 108).
rrom Eq. { I07),
800 - 200 12 + 2 In 14
L, = 0.35 X = 0.74 in. l,,. = J 12
= 1.08 m.
285
3241 Gana1>c11l1y Metu Tnlnsfer Equlpnwnr Ot..·!-,igll and Performarn:e

Assume thac for the first uial 1., = I50°F. Let K,,. ut a mean tion temperature of 73°F, which is also the dew point. Hence we
temperature of (800 + 150)/2 = 475 be 0.34 Btu in ./fl2 hr °F. must design the insulation so the casing temperature is above
From Eq. (106). 73°F.
From Eq. ( I 06),
q = 0.173 X 0.15 X (6.1 4 - 5.44 ) + 0.296

X (610 - 540)1 :!5 X (

264 ; 69
6
rs q = 0. )73
x
X

(80 - 73)
0.9 X
11
·'
(5.44
=
- 5.334 )
10.1 Btu/ft' hr
+ 0.296

= 145 Btu/ft' hr Also. from Eq . ( 107).

From Eq. (107). 0.28
q = (1, - I)
., X K,.,
L = (73 - 10) X
I,
800 - 150
q = 0.34 X
1.08
= 205 Btu/ft2 hr
(!n this case of a Oat surface. L, = L.)
Nole that the heat now is from the atmosphere to the surface.
Since chcsc two values of q do not agree, we must go for
1d and 1,, are the dew point and surface temperature, °F. Solving
another trial. Try 1, = I 70°F. Then, from Eq. ( 106),
for l. we gel L = 1.75 in .
q = 200 Btu/ft2 hr Hence. by using the next standard insulation thickness avail-
and from Eq. ( 107), able, we can ensure that the casing is above the dew point. To
obtain the exact casing temperature with the standard thickness
q = 198 Btu/ft 2 hr of insulation, a trial-and-error pl'ocedure as discussed in Q4.52
These two arc quite close. Hence the f'inal surface temperature is may be used . But this is not really necessary, as we have
170°F, and the heat loss is about 2()() Btuift 2 hr. provided a safe design thickness.

4.54a
Q: A horizontal flat surface is I0°F. The ambient dry bulb tempera- Q: A 11/1-in. schedule 40 pipe IOOO ft long carries hot water at
ture is 80°F and chc relative humidity is 80%. Determine the 300°F. What is the heat loss from its su,face if it is not insulated
thickness of fibrous msulation that will prevent condensation of (case I) or if it has I-in .-, 2-in.- . am.I 3-in.-thick insulation (case
water vapor on the surface. Use K,. = 0. 28 Btu/fl hr °F. The 2)?
wind velocity is 1..ero. Use a surface emissivity of 0.9 for the The them1al conductivity of insulation may be assumed as
casing. 0.25 Btu in.!ft2 hr 0 F. The ambient temperature is 80°F, and the
wind velocity is zero.
A: The surface temperature must be above che dew point of water to
prevent condensation of water vapor. Qi. LO shows how the dew A: Case / Equation ( 106) can be used to determine the heat loss.
point can be calculated. The saturated vapor pressure is 80°F. For the bal'e pipe surface, assume that E is 0.90. Then
from the ,team tables in the Appendix, is 0.51 psia. Al 80'* 4 4
relative humidity. the vapor pressure will be 0.8 x 0.51 =
q = 0 . 173 X 0.9 X (7.6 - 5.4 ) + 0.296
2
0.408 psia. From the steam table~. thb corresponds 10 a satura- X (300 - 80)''-' = 638 Btuift hr.
 11<..,ll rr.-,,1....,fer 1~q,111>11wn1 l)t·!'-tlgn 1..Ul(I Pc·rhmtMncc·
(ullldl )dlh)'

33,675
Ca.H• 2 Dc1em1ination of the ~urface 1e111pcrn1urc given the AT = = 4.s•r
insulation thickness involves a trial-and-error procc<Jure as d1;- 7500
cu,sed in Q4 .52 and will be done in detail for the 1-m. case. By equauntt the heat loss from insulation to the heat lm,l by
Various surface temperatures are a"umed an<J q is co111pu1cd the Ouid. be it air, oil. steam. or water. one can compute the drop
from Eqs ()06) and ( 107). Let us use a E v:lluc of 0 . 15 The in 1empcraturc 1n the pipe or duct. This calculauon 1s pa11icularly
following table give, the results of the caku latmn,. important when oil line, arc involved, as viscosity is atTccicd,
leading 10 pumping and atomi1,a1ion problems.

4 i'ru111 q from
I, Eq. ( 106) Eq ( 107) 4.5.J
Q: In Q4.54 dctcnninc the optimum thickness of insulation with the
110 16 3,1
37 following data.
120 32
140 61 28 Co,t of energy = $3/M M Btu
Cost of operution = $8000/ycar
Interest and escalation rates I2% and 7% =
We can draw a graph of 1, ver.;u;, u with these value, nnd obtain Life of the plant = 15 ye,1rs .
the correct 1, . However, we see from the table, by in1crpola1ion, Total cost of l-in.-thicJ.. insulation, including labor and mutcmtl
that at,, = I I5°F. q, from both equation~. is about .n Btutfl 2hr. = $5200; for 2-in. insulation, $7100: and for 3-in. im,ult11ion.
39 $ 10,500.
Total heat loss = 3 . 14 X ).2 X JO()() X 33
A: Let us calculate the capitalization foc1or F from Q I .21.
33, 675 Btu/hr
1.07 I - (1.07/ 1. 12) 1~
F = - - x _,:__ :..:.;..::..:..:....:~ -c- = 10.5
Similarly , we may ,olve for q when the thicknesses arc 2 und 3 1. 12 I - Cl.0711.12)
in . It can be , hown th!ll at L = 2 in. , q = 1513mtf12 hr, and at L
= 3 in., q = 9 Btu/112 hr. Also, when L = 2 in .. 1., = 98°F and Let us ca Jculate the annual heat Joss.
total heat Joss = 23.157 Btu/ltr. When l = 3 in .. I, = 92°F and For L = I 111 ..
total loss = 18.604 Btu/hr. 8000
~t...,,, 33,675 X 3 X
ur = $808

4.541) For L = 2 m ..
xooo
Q: E..,11ma1c 1hc d1·op in waler tempermure of 1-in.-thick in,u l:ttion
were u,cd m Q4. 54a. The water flow is 750<1 lb/hr.
C,, = 23. 157 X 3 X
-w = SS55

For L = 3 in .,
/\: The total heat Joss ha, been shown to be 33.675 Btu/hr. This i,
~r. 8000
lo,t by the water and can be wriucn as 7500 where j,,T i, the
drop in temperature. assuming that the specilic heat i, I. Hence
c., = 18,604 X 3 X
I()" =
$4-16
 11ea1 Transfer E<-tuiprncrn nrsign t1n< l P(~rtnrffliint<" .i. it

Calculate capitalized co~t = C,,F. 4.56

For L = I in., Q: Whal is a hot casing? Whai are its uses?
C0 F = 808 X 10.5 = $8484
A: Whenever hot gases arc contained in an internally refractory-
For L = 2 in., lined (or insulated) duct. the casing temperature can fall below
C~F = 555 x 10.5 = $5827 the dew point of acid gases. which can seep through the refrac-
tory cracks and cause acid condensation, which i;, a potential
For L = 3 in.. problem . To avoid this, some engineers prefer a "hot casing"
C,,F = 446 X 10.5 = $4683 design, which ensures that the casing or the vessel or duel
containing the gases is maintained at a high enough temperature
Calculate total capitalized cost or life-cycle cost (LCC):
to minimize or prevent acid condensation. Al the ~ame time, the
For L = I in ..
casing is also externally insulated to minimize the heat losses to
LCC = 8484 + 5200 = $13,684 the ambient (see Figure 4. 18). A ''hot casing" is a combination
For L = 2 in., LCC = $12,927: and for L = 3 in., of imernal plus external insulation used 10 maintain the ca~ing at
a high enough 1emperature to avoid acid condensation while
LCC = $15,183.
ensuring that the heat losses to the atmosphere arc low.
Consider the use of a combination of two refractories inside
Hence we see that the optimum thickness is about 2 in. With the boiler casing: 4 m. of KS4 and 2 in. of CBM. The hot gases
higher thicknesses, the capital cost hecomes more than the bene- arc at J000°F. Ambient temperature = 60°F. and wind velocity
fits from savings in heat loss. A trade-off wouJd be to go for is JOO fl/min. Ca~ingemissivity i~ 0.9. To keep the hoilercasing
2-in.-thick insulation. ~
Several factors enter into cakulations of this type. lf the
period of operation were Jess, probably a lesser thickness would
be adequate. If the cost of energy were more, we might have to
go for a higher thickness . Thus each case must be evaluated
g~s Flow
before we decide on the optimum thickness. This examples gives
only a methodology, and the evaluation can be as detailed as
desired by the plant engineering personnel.
If 1here were no insulation. the annual heat los.5 would be reFreclor!:i

3.14 X
1.9
12
X 1000 X 638 X 3 X
8000
JO" = $7600
cosloble

f' 1ber
' \ '" -~ -
;,..,£ v ) A;"v·,t ,"'./'
cesLng

).,'\

Hence simple payback with even 1-in.-lhick insulation is

5200/(7600 - 808) = 0.76 year. or 9 months. Figure ~.18 /\mng,emenl of ho1 casing.
 132 c;an,-1pl.Hlly 11ea1 Trai1'tfc·r E<.1ul1)111c·n1 l)f·!->is.{r1 dl1(1 1-'<·rf,mnanc ·,·

hot, an external 0.5 in. of mineral fiber is added. Determine the Ti;.2
boiler casing temperature, the outer casi ng tempcrnture, and the
heat loss.
One can perform the calculation, discussed earlier Lo arrive at
the te111peratures and hear loss. Fur the sake of illustrating the
point, a computer printout of the result is ~hown in Figure 4.19.
It can be seen that the boiler casing is at 392°F, while the VTo
outermost casing is at 142°f. The hear loss is 180 l3tu/ft 2 hr. The s::.ock
boiler casing is hot enough to avoid acid condensation, while the
heat losses arc kept low.

4.57 1-Tg.2- r .,.3-- wo 4-Tc.5-To

Q: Whal happens if ducts or stacks hand Iing flue gases are not
insulated? What would the gas or stack wall temper.iture be'' gos flo11
j' ~gl

A: TI1is quesuon faces engineers involved in engineering of boiler Figure 4.20 St.,ck wall 1cmpcrature.
plants. If ducts and stacks are not insulated, the heat los, fro111
the casing can be ,ubstantial. Also. the stack wall te111perature
can drop low enough to cause acid dew point corrosion.
Let the flue gas now = W lb/hr at a temperature of,,, at the
q
= O. I ?4 E X
l( I, +100460 )' _ ( I., +100460 )']
inlet to the duct or stack (Figure 4.20). The heat los, from the
+ 0.296 (/, - 1,.)1.
2
X
V + 69 ·1us
casing wall is given by Eq. (106). $
r 69
The temperatui-e drop across 1he gas film is given by
d(lld,
R~SU1.TS-INSUL,.TION P£R~'0!1MA.."iCt- r J.aL :tur!t:tco h,.
t·!0)9t'.t H•Jr S::ASW'.i where,
NAM£ THlCK-IN nt<?·F u...... ;.•1 cor.o, T£M;>:i OOND2 h, = convective heal transfer coefficient Bm/ft2 hr °F
Ccthn.g 0.00 , ..2 . 27 o.oo o.~u o.oo = outer and inner diameter of the stack, in.
... d,,, d,
0.0U
dtd:--t:d/mf/tlb ll,5<:• ,,2.q;, lOV,00 0.}2 .. oo.oo u......
etm 2 . 00 seo.11 lOC·. O•J o.n
w0 •c
~00.00 0,71
4. , 00 1001 .i.z aoo.o,. ;;..oz !600. 00 E,. i'O

KY.AT LOSS -9TU/ft~n• 179 ;997 ~t..l'l"lbe~ o! l~y~:a ur ~~~ul~t:cr.• } h, = 2.44 X ti 1 •

,Al,I& TiMP* "70 war.i 'J'Bl.·!pll• ~00 DUS$• c; MAX l0SS·l3TU/FT~:-t· O;B0 , 7)b '
where, frum Eq. (12).

Figure 4.19 Rc,ul1s of primou1 on casing temperature.

C = ( ~' )o' k"6
The duel wall temperature <lrop 1s given by Eq t I 07). which can q = 0.174 X 0.9 X 1(7.1)4 - (5.3)4] + 0.296
be rearranged to give
X (710 - 530)12S X ( 1256; 69 )01
ln(d,.lcf,)
,,. I - , .,.,, = ,,d
~I ">4K
= 601 Brulft2 hr
- '"
where ,,..1, , .... arc Lhe inner and outer wnll rempcmturc,. °F. Gas temperature drop across gas film = 601/4.5 = 134°F
The total heal loss from the duct or Mack is Q = 3. I 4d,, x
Temperature drop across 1he stack wall = 60 I x 50
11/ 12, where II is the height, ft. The exit gas temperature is then
Q
x In {50/48 l = 2.F
( 109) (24 X 25)
W., X c;,
Hence stack wall outer temperature = 400 - 134 - 2 =
The above equation, have 10 be solved iteratively. A 1rial 264°F.
value for 1,2 is assumed. and the gas propcrtic, arc comput.:tl at It cnn be 5hown that UL a casing or wall temperature of 256 °F,
the average ga, temperature. The cm,mg temperature b abo the heat loss through ga.~ film matches the loss through the stack
obtained through an iterative process. The total heat loss 1s wall. The heat loss = 629 Btu/ft2 hr, and iocal heal loss =
computed and which I ,~ is again evaluated. If the assumed an<l 411.400 Btu/hr.
calculaLed r, 2 values agree, then iteration stops. A computer
411.400
prognun can be dcvclopcd Lo obtain accurate result,, particularly Ga, temperature drop = 110,000/0.265
= 14 °F.
if the stack is tall and calculations arc better lione ,n sevaal
segments. The average gas temperature =
410 - 14 = 396°F. which is
close to the 400°[• assumed. With a computer program. one can
EX/\~ll'LE
fine tune 1he calculations to include fouling factors.
I 10,000 lb/hr of nue ga~cs at 410°F enter a 48-in. ID stack Lhat i,
50 ft long and I in. thick. If the ambient 1empcra1urc is 70°F and
wind velocity is 125 ft/min. de1em1rne the casing temperature. 4.58
total heat lo,s, anti exit gas temperature. Q: What are the effect, or wmd velocity and casing cmis~ivity on
rlue gas propenies can he assumed to be as follows at 400°P heat loss and ca.sing temperature?
(or computed from methods discussed in Q4.12 if analysis i,,
known): CP = 0.265. µ = 0.058 lb/ft hr. i = 0.021 I Btulrl hr 1\: Using the method described earlier. the casing temperature and
°F. Let 1hc gru; temperature drop in the stack = 20°F: hence the heat loss were dctcnnined for the ca~c of an insulated surfucc at
c;,.il g11s tempera1ure = 390°F. 600°F using 3 in . of mincrnl libcr insulation. (Alummum casing
The gas-side heal tmnsfer cocfficienl is has an emissivity of about 0.15. and oxidi1.ed steel 0.9) The
1 result, are shown in T:ible 4 39.
2.44 X (110.000)og X ( ~:~~; ) " X (0.0211)" 0 II cnn be seen that the wind velocity uocs not result in reliuc·
lion of heat losses though the casing temperature is ,ignilicantly
= 4.5 Btu/fl" hr 0
r reduced. Also 1he use of lower emissivity casing docs not affect
Let the ~a,ing tempcn11urc 1, ( = ,.... w1lhtlu1 insulation) - the heat loss. though the ca\lng temperature is incrca.cd . partic-
250°F. ularly at low wind veloc11y.
 (u-llldpdlhy 1h:c:11 1 rnn.-.,ft·r Equipn1<·nt D<'~ign oncl l'rrtornl<-1111. ('

Tal>ll' .J..'.:l!J Rc~ult!> or lm,ulalion Pcrform:mcc To pr-oeeu

Ca~ing E.mi~:,.ivlly Wind vcl ( 1pm) Hear los, c.,.,lflg temp (.I')

Aluminum 0.15 (1 67 l.>5

Aluminum 0.15 176() 71 91
Steel 0.90 0 70 I09
Steel 0.90 1760 70 88 o u tn Ououl

4.Stlcl
Q: How docs one check heal transfer equipment ror possible noise
and vibration problems?

A: A dctnilcd procedure is outlined in Refs . I and &. Herc only a

- -•llet•tul>o . . . .
brief reference to the methodology will be made.
Whenever a fluid nows across a tube bundle such as boiler
tubes in an economizer. air heater. or ,uperheater (see Figure
4. 21 ). vortices are fonned and shed in the wake hcyond the
tubes. This shedding on alternate sides of the tubes causes a
harmontcally varying force on the tube perpendicular 10 the
. .
I I
normal flow of the fluid. It is a self-excited vibration If the
frequency of the von Karman vortices us they are called coin- Urou
cides with the natural frequency of vtbrauon ol the lubes. reso-
m111cc occurs and tubc.s vibrate. !cat.ling lo leakage ant.I damage at
support,. Vortex shedding ts more prevalent in the range or
l
Reynolds numbers from 300 lo 2 x 10' 111b is the range m Air In
I-
which many boiler,,. economiLers. and ,upcrhcalcrs operate.
Another mechanism associated with vortex shedding is acoustic

'
oscillmion. which b normal 10 bmh lluid now anti tube length.
This is observed wilh gases and vapors only. These oscillations o... oul
coupled with vortex shedding lcat.l 10 resonance and cxcessiw
noise. Standing waves are formed inside the dm:1
Hence in order to analyze tube bundle vibration and no1'c, Figt in· 4 .2 1 C:ro"now or ga, ,wer tube hunJlcs.
three frequencies must be computed: natural frequency of vibra-
tion of tube:.: vortex shedding frequency: and acoustic frequen-
cy. When these are apart by at leaM 2091-. vibration and noise
may be absent. Q4.59b to Q4.59e show how these values arc
computed and evaluated.
.I.IK 11<•a1 rnut'iofer Equlpnwnt l>t.·!':i1gn a11<1 1•crtonuaiu ("

4.591) Table 4.-1-0 Values or C for Eq I I IOb)

Q: How 1s the natural frequency of v,brnllon of a mhc bundle Mode of vibration
determined? 3
End ,upport condiuon,
t\: The natural frequency oftransver.;e vibrations ofa uniform beam Both ends clamped 22.37 61.67 120 9
supported al each end is given by 15.42 49.97 1{14.1
One clamped. one hmgcd
'),87 39.48 X8.X
f. = 2: X ( i:f: )"' (110a)
Both hinged

where
4.59<1
C = a factor dctem1i11ed by end conditions Q: How is Lhe vortex shedding frequency f, determined'?
E = Young's modulus of elasticity
I = moment of inertia = ,r (d! - df)/64 A: J,. 1s obtained from the Strouhal number S:
M, = ma~s per unit length of tube, lb/ft (including ash ( 112)
deposits, if any. on the rube.) S = f,.d,.112V
l = tube length. fl where
Simplifying (I !Oa). we have for steel tubes d.,= tube outer diumctcr. in.
V = gas velocity. fl/sec
J,' = 90C X
( d'II - t1'' )os ( I !Ob)
J; M S is avai lable in 1he form of charts ror various tube pitches: 1L
' typically ranges from 0.2 to 0.3 (sec Figure 4.22) l I. 8].
where d,, and c/1 arc in inches. Q4.59c shows how a tube bundle is analyzed for noi,e and
Table 4.40 gives C for various end condition,.
vibration.

4-.S!JC
Q: How ib th\! acoustic frC(1ucncy computed?
Q: A tubular air heater 11 7 ft wide. 12.5 ft deep. and 13.5 ft high i~
A: J., is given by V,IX. where V. = velocity of sound nt the gas used ma boiler Carbon steel tube, of 2 in. 0.D. and 0.08 in.
temperat ure in the duct or shell. fl/sec . It is given by the cxprcs- thickness arc used min-line fashion with a Lransvcn,c pitch of 3.5
,ion V. = (g,. u wn° '. For nuc gases and air, sonic v~locity b 111 • and longitudinal pitch of 3.0 m. There are 40 tubes wide (3.5
obtained by subMituting 3'.! for g,., I .4 l'or u. and 1546/MW for in. pitch) and 60 tubes deep (2.5 m. pilch). Air llow across the
R. where the molecu lar weight for tlue gases is nearly 29. tubes 1s 300.000 lb/hr at an average tcmperanm: of 219°F. The
llence, tubes arc lixed nt both ends in tube sheets. Check if bundle
vibrJt10ns arc likely. Tube mass per unit length = l.67 lb/ft
V. = 49 X 'f"' ~ ( 111 l
Wavelength X = 2Wln . where W 1s the duct width. ft, and II i, ,\: Firi;t compute[.,./,, and/;,. L = 13.5 ft, ti,. = 2 in. d, = l.84
the mode of vibration. 1n .. M, = I 67 lb/ft. and . from Table 4.40, C = 22.37.
 1-tec.11 Tmn~fer E.quipn wut oc·sis.,t11 an(I P<"rlonlld1Kc 3-H
:140 Ganapui hy

0.5
0. 5 ,_ I I I I I I
_,_,_ -
.... -
-Lf Slfd:1.25 - _,_,_ I-
-

'
- --
I• ....
,_,_
- -UNF INNEO TUBE BA NK

- '-- .... _ - ,__ ,_ - - - FINNED TUBE BANK

.... _,_
,.s I-
_,_ - ,_,_
'

-
...a:
0

- ........ J- "'..,..,
2,0 <
w - _.._ .... ,_ "' 0.3
z 2 63
V
~
O.J ... ... .. ,_ a:
- I- w

... ,.
"'::,
:1
V ~ 2. s ~
2
I-
'
·1 1 1,,~ '
, I
_ -11.- -- --- ----
...J

~
0.2
I !,
....
J, O
I
,, ~

::, /
0 /
a: /
0.1
~

"' I/ I- !- ,_,_ /
V
.... /
"' ... ~ ........ I
., FLOW - f-1-
........ I
0.1 .
.... ........ ,.
I { ~+] ,_
-f-1- 1/

~ 001+----.-----,-----r--
! ........
.... .... ...
...... ,_ ST
1- H -
....~
2 )

-
I/

,, ,.... ...
... ... ... -1- I- ...
-

I-
I-
~ - .... ... 1-1-
,_,_ (h)
0.0 Using Eq . ( I IOb). we have
2 J
90 X 22.37 (2'' - 1.84")"-'
f,, = ( 13.5)"' X (1.67)05
= 18.2 HL
(a)
1-'ig urt' 4 .22 Strouhal number ta) for in-line bank of tubes: (b) for This is in mode I . ln mode 2. C: = 6 1.67; hcnccf,,1 is 50.2 Hz.
staggered bank of tubes: (c) for staggered bank of tubes; (tl) for in-line bank of (The fi rsl 1wo modes arc important. )
tube,. Let us compute J~- S from Figure 4. 22 for S, Id,, = 3.512 =
1.75 and a longitudinal pitc h of 3.0/2 = 1.5 is 0.33.
 Hen1 Tro:m.st<·r Equi1 >n1en1 l>C{"tign oncl i>crrorn":111cc-· 343
"
,. 0.09 Dz, .,, .,, From Eq. (I) of C hapter I, p = 40/(219 + 460) = 0.059 lb/
cu ft.
Free gas area= 40 x (3 .5 - 2) x 13.5/12 = 67.5 lb/ fl 2 h.r.
( I 3.5 is the tube length. and 40 tubes wide is used wilh a pilch of
)U 3.5 in.) Hence air velocity across lubes is
''/• ,., V=
300.000
= 21 ft/sec
67 .5 X 3600 X 0.059

" Hence
... 1; =
12SV
= 12 X
0 .33 X 21
= 41.6 Hz
d,, 2
,._ 0.1'8
Let us compute J;,. T = (219 + 460) = 679°R. Hence I( =
10
.,
f--__Jlfil-L.1.~L-r-....;:..•2~ ' -, - ~•,g'
a
,,,,
2
!,---.;'~·'~'~--.~~
11. 1,
49 x 679° s = 1277 ftfsec. Width W = I 1.7 ft, and I\ = 2 x
11. 7 = 23.4 ft. For mode I or 11 = I.
J., = 1277/23.4 = 54.5 Hz
(c)
For 11 = 2.
.f.,2 = 54.5 X 2 = 109 Hz
The results for modes I and 2 are summari1,ed in Table 4.41.
38 It can be seen that without baJfles the frequencies J,, and J; are
020 0.16 0 21 010
within 20% of each other. Hence noise problems are likely to
)L arise. If a baffle or plate is used LO divide the duct width into two
regions. 1he acoustic frequency is doubled as the wavelength or
018 a1a on
JO width is halved. This i~ a practical solution to acoustic vibration
problems.
s,;, , •
0 20 026 0" 00, 0 ll

l2
.,. ............,._ Tal>le 4.41 Summary of Fre<Jucncies
... oo,
for Modes 1 and 2

.,.
18
Mode of vibration 11 2

}~. (cps or Hz) 18.2 50.2

" O.}§
J;. (cps or Hz) 41.6 41.6
o .:. 2 1 OSG 020 OJO 11.11 001
•• t----,-..__....,.__.__.--1-.,-----.--L.,~-.:.·::~:__...,..::__:_~--- J,, (without bafnes) 54.5 109
0.8 12 16 HI .f. (with one bafnc) 109 2 18
(d)
"
Figure 4.~~ Continued
 Gurn1pa1hv Meat l'fansf<-r l~tulpnu..·111 Oe-.,J~11 ancl f'c:rfon1u111('(· ¾5
4.6()
0 tH tr Z1<1 1 ~ USU 10 UOU • 11 1· 1 II 12 i II 0,4 x f•I'' ~ 0.011
1,,:
Q: How are 1hc gas• prorertic, C ,and ,'· c,11matcd
, · · a gaseous !K' x ll~l , Jll' U J? + M 1 0.011
,, . · ,,. µ., tor
1
mixture. Dctem1me µ., and k c•. for a gas mixwre having the U U\2 Bru.·11 hr 1-
following anaJys1s at J650°F and 14.7 ps1a
.. :
II IUK • \-'1K A Oft. • II 12~ " \, \ l

V i8 "! 011 tV32

0 .1::' -t U 10~ ,, \ M x ti (Mt;
012 +\ 6-l• 0. 10~
Gas Vol% c,, µ k MW =- 0. 109 IM1 hr

N2 80 0 .2ll6 0. 108 0.030 28

02 12 0.270 0.125 0.043 32
S02 8 0.2 10 0.105 0 040 4.61
64
Q: How do g,ts analysis and pressure affect heat transfer perfor-
Mixture properties arc needed 10 eva luate heat transfer coeffi- mance?
~1en1s. For nuc gas obtained from the combustion oJ fossil fuels
'"the absence of flue gas analysis. one can use the data on air: A: The presence of gases such as hydrogen and water vapor in-
creases the heal transfer coefficient significantly, which can af-
A: For ~ gaseous mixture at mmosphcric pressure, the following fect the heal flux and the boiler si1.e. Also. if the gas is at high
relations apply. For high ga.~ pressures, readers are referred 10 pressure. say 100 psi or more, 1he mass velocity inside the tubes
Ref. I. (fire tube boilers) or outside the boiler tubes (water tube boilers)
"i,y;µ, V MW, can he much higher due 10 the higher density, which also comrib-
µ.,. = utcs 10 the higher he.it transfer coeffic ients. Table 4.42 compares
'.£y, V MW1 ( 113a)
two gas streams, reformed gases from a hydrogen plant and nue
"i,y;k, v'MW, gases from combustion of natural gas.
km = ( 113b)
Y, v'MW1 Factors C and Fused in the estimation of heat transfer coeffi-
:rc1,, MW cients inside and outside the tubes arc also given in Table 4.42. II
X J'f
C,~,,, = (I I 3c/ can be seen that the effect of gas analysis 1s very significant.
IMW X t.V,
Even at low gas pre.,surcs of refonncd gase, (50 10 100 p,ig), the
where factors C and F would be very close to the values shown, within
MW = molecular weight 2 to 5%.
Y = volume fraction of any consti1ucn1
Subscript III stands for 1111x1urc.
Substituting in Eqs. ( 113), we have 4.G2

( ',.. ._ II 2~b X O g x l H I O Z7 • 0 I~ " t~ t 0.2 1 ]I( U og x fH Q: How docs gas pressure affect the heat transfer coefficient'!
1J II'. " 2k f II I.? ,.. J? t ()OK x t'l..l
1\: The effect of gas pressure on factors C and F for some common
• O 171 Btu lb "F
gases is shown in Figures 4 . 23 and 4.24. 11 can be seen 1ha1 the
 (Jc:;11 taJ >a1hy

Table 4.42 Effect of Gas Analysis on I lca1 Transfer

Rtformcd gas Flue ga,
~·~--,---,- -.--,---,
.."'~- ~-
CO2,% vol 5.0 17.45
H20 . 'k vol 38.0 18.76
N2 , <7, vol 62.27
0 2 • % vol l.52
CO.~ vol 9.0
H,. % vol 45.0 • •
CJ-14 , 'it vol 3.0
Gas pressure, ps,a 400 15
Temp, °F 1550 675 1540 700
C1., Bru/ lb °F 0686 0.615 0.320 0.286
µ. lb/ll hr 0.087 0.056 0. 109 0.070
C Btu/fl hr •r 0.109 0.069 0.046 0.028
...• ..,•
Factor C'
Facror F'
0.571
0.352
0.225
0.142
- -,_.,- - ·- "' -·-~... ... ·-
"C = (C/µ)0 '*"'; I· C (I ·"k" Ml
' µ
ll !7
Au
°'"""'
...
pressure cffecr becomes smaller al high gas te mperatures, while
ar low temperatures there is a s ignificant difference. A lso. the
pressure effect is small and can be ignored up ma gas pressure o f
20() psia .

•
4 .63
Q: How do we convcn gas analy,is in% by weight to "k by volume"!

A: One of the freq uent calcularions perfon11cll by heat transfer

engineers b the conversion from weight to volume basis and vice
versa. The following example shows how this is done.
EXr\MJ>LE
...• "'
...,_._.,... ... .... ... ...,................, ... ,....
A gas contain~ 3% CO 2 , 6% H~O. 74% N,. und 17"k O! by
Nitrogen Hydtogtn
weight. Determine the ga, analysis in % by volume.
Solmion. Fi~ur<· .J..:,!:l Effccr ol pressure nn hear tmnsfcr-llow inside rubes.
(From Ref. I .)
 Ga11ca1,.:11hy He.al Tr<1nsh:r 1:::quiprn<:ut L>cc;J~n an<.I Perfonn;,:mc(" :i4fl

." Gas 'l! Wcighl MW Moles % Volume

CO2 3 44 0.06818 1.91

H20 6 18 0.3333 9.32
N, 74 28 2.6429 73 91
o, 17 32 0.5312 14.86
Total 3.57563 100

Moles of a ga.~ are obtained by dividing the weight by the

molecular weight: moles of CO2 = 3/44 = 0.06818 .
The volume of each gas, then, is the mole fraction x 100.
Percent volumeof02 = (0.5312/3.57563) x 100 = 14.86, and
so on. One can work in reverse and convert from volume (or
mole) basis to weight basis .
.~~=-=---_.,.,.._.___.__.,__.,_. . ,_,_,_
- - ,_.,
Alt
... ... -
•• .__.,___._--'--'--'' --'--"--...J.......i..-1 ..o,

NOMENCLATURE
A Surface area, ft2
A1• A,. A,. A,. tin. total. inside, and obstruction surface areas. ft 2/ft
A., Area of tube wall, ft 2ift
B Factor used in Grimson's correlation
b Fin thickness. in .
C Factor used to estimate heat transfer coefficient
c,, Specific heat, Btu/lb °F; subscripts g, w, 111 stand for
gm,, water. and mixture
CI- C6 Factors used in heat transfer and pressure drop calcula-
tions for tinned tubes
D Exchanger dian1etcr. in .
d, d, Tube outer and inner diameter. in.
e Escalation factor used in life~ycling costing calcula-
tions: base of natural logarithm

, __
··~:, _,___.__.,__.,__.__.,_..._..J_,__.,____J
,-,

Nitrogen
··· :-.-'---;!-=-"'--:... __
,!---'---,....,l,---'-.l.......,L.......J,..
E
I
Efficiency of HRSG or fins
Frequency, Hz or cps; s ubscripts a, e. 11 stand for
acoustic, vortex-shedding. and natural
HydrogCJ\
ff Fouling factor. ft2 hr "F/Btu: subscripts i and a stand
Figure -L~4 Effect of pressure on heal lransfer-llow ou1side tube,. for inside and outside
(From Ref. I . )
 Hetu Tranttfer Eq1.1iprne111 Dcsl~n anc1 Pcrlorn,<-·mc r 351

F Factor used in the estimation o r outside heat transfer Transverse and longitudinal pitch. in.
coefficient and in the estimation of capitalired costs Fluid temperature, °F; subscripts u. s. b. stand for
G Gas mass velocity, lb/ft2 hr ambient, surface, fin base
h Fin height, in. Fin tip temperature, °F
h, Convective heat transfer coefficient, Btu/ft 2 hr °F
Heat transfer coefficients inside and outside tubes,
,t1.. ~

~
Metal temperature, °F
Saturalion temperature. °F
h,, "· Isa,
8tu/ft2 hr °F T Absolute temperatu re, K or 0 R; subscripts g and w
Heat Joss factor, fraction stand for gas and wall
Nonluminous heal transfer coefficient, Btu/ft 1 hr °F t:.T Log-mean cempcrature difference, °F
Change in enthalpy, Btu/lb u Overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/ft2 hr °F
Interest rate V Fluid velocity, ft/sec or fVmin
k Thermal conductivity, Btu/ft hr °For Bru in./f12 hr °F: V, Sonic velocity, ft/sec
subscript III stands for mixture IV Fluid flow , lb/hr; subscripts g . .f. iv stand for gas,
K,,, Metal thennal conduclivity, Btuift hr °F sieam. and water
K, , K2 Constants \V Flow per tube, lb/hr
L Length. ft; thickness of insulation, in.; or beam length X Steam quality , fraction
l, Equivalent thickness of insulation, in. y Volume fratction of gas
m Factor used in Eq. (25b) E Effectiveness factor
M, Water equivalent. Btu/°F E.-. Ew Emissivity of CO 2 and H20
M, Weight of tube, lb/ ft Ei Gas emissivity
MW Molecular weight AE Emissivity correction term
n Number of fins per inch T} Fin effecti vcness
N Constant used in Grimson's correlation: also number µ, Viscosity, lb/ft hr: subscript m stands for mixture
of tubes (~ Fi n efficiency
Nu Nusselt nu mher p gas density. lb/cu ft
NTU Number of transfer units h wavelength. ft
p Term used in temperature cross-correclion 11 ratio o r specific heacs
p...,. p,. Panial pressure of water vapor and carbon dioxide
Pr Prandll number
Q Energy transferred, Btu/hr; heat flux. Btuift2 hr REFERENCES
q Heat flux, heat Joss, Btu/ ft2 hr 1. v. Ganapathy. Applied Heat Trcm~fer. PennWell Book~. Tulsa,
q,. Critical heat flux, Btu/ft2 hr
Okla., 1982.
R Them,al resistance. ft1 hr °F/Btu: subscripts i, o, and 1 2. D. Q. Kem, Pr(l<'e.<s l/e,i1 Tra11~{er. McGraw-Hill. New York, 1950.
stand for inside, omside. and total 3. v. Gaoapathy. Numogram determines heal transfer coeffic1cn1 for water
Re Reynolds number llowing pipes or 1Ubes. Pmver £11gi11eeri11g, July l977 , ~· 69. .
R,,, Metal thennal resistance, ft2 hr °F/Btu 4. v . Ganapathy, Chans simplify ,piral finned !Ube calculaLLons, Che1111-
s Fin clearance. in.; Strouhal number ml £11gi11eeri11g,. Apr. 25. 1977. p. 117.
 I~ -,
·'-
5. V. Ganap:uhy, 8timate nonluminuus nul,ation heal 1rnnslcr cocffi-
eicnts. l/wirocariw11 1'rtJ<·essill1;. April 1981, p. 235.
6. V. Ganapathy. Evaluate Ll1e pcrfon11ancc 01 waste heut hnilcrs. c111,,,11 _
cul £11,qi11eeri11g. Nov. I6. I981 . p. 29 I
7. W. C. Turner and J. F Malloy. /'hermu/ /11.rnlmio11 Hmulhoo~
McGraw-Hill. New York. 19111. pp. 40-45 ·
8 V. Ganapathy, Waste Helli Boiler De.,k/mok. Fu,rmont l'ress, Allama. 5
1991. ~

9 ESCOA Corp .. ESCOA Ftn111be M11111111/, Tulsa. Okla .. 1979.

10 V. Ganapa1hy. Evaluate extended surfaces curefully. Hydromr/>1111 I'm- 1.::ans, PL1111ps, and Steam Turbines
cessm11, October 1990, p. 65.
11. V. Ganapathy. Fouling-the silent heal transfer l11ieL JhdroC<1r/1on
Proces.,i11g. October 1992. p. 49 ·
12. V. Ganapathy, l·IRSG lempermurc profiles guide energy 1\'rnvcry.
Power, September 1988.
13. W. Roshcnow and J. P. Hartnell , l/c111d/Jook of Hem Transfer,
McGraw-Hill , New York, 1972.

5.0 I: Determining steam rates in steam turbines: actual and theo-

retical steam rates; determining steam quantity required to
generate clec1rici1y; calcu lating enthalpy or ,1ea111 after isen-
tropic and actual expansion

5.02a: Cogeneration and ilb advamugc;

5.02b: Comparison of energy utilization between a cogencra1ion

plant and a power plant

5.03: Which is the belier location for tapping deaeration steam,

boiler or turbine?

5.04: Detctmining fan power requirements and cost or operation:

calculating BHP (brake horsepower) of fan,: actual horse-
power consumed ,f motor efficiency is known: annual co~t ol
operation or fan
 G~md1>,1lli\'

5.05: EITcc1 of elevation and air density on fan performance mg motor current con,.umprion 10 pump flow and head: an-
alyzing for pump problems
5.06a: Density of air and sclec1ion of fan capacity
5.19: Checkmg perfol11'1ance of fan from motor c.lata: relating molar
5.06b: How Ian horsepower varies will, density for forced draft fan, current consumption 10 fan flow and head

5.07: Ocicrmining power rcquiremenis of pumps 5.20: Evaluating performance of pump, in series and in parallel

5.08: Electric and steam 1urbine drives for pumps; annual cost of 5.21: Parameters uffccting Braywn cycle efficiency
operaiion using steam turbine drive: annual co;i of opcra1ion
with motor 5.22: How to improve rhe l'fficiency of Brayton cycle

5.09a: How specific gravity of liquid affecis pump pcrfonnance;

BHP required at different temperatures 5.01

5.09b: H~w water temperature affects boiler feed pump power re- Q: How is rhc ,team rnte for s1cU111 turbrnes detennincd'/
qu irement~
A: The actual steam rate (ASR) for a turbine is given by the equa-
5.10: tion
Effect of speed on pump pcrfol11'1ance; eflcc1 of change in
supply frequency 3413
ASR = YJ, X (11 1 - h2,)
(I)
5. 11: Effect of viscosity on pump now , head, and efficiency where ASR is the actual ,team rnte in lb/kWh. This is the steam
flow in lb/hr required to gcncrarc I kW of electricity. h 1 1s the
5. 12: Determining temperature rise of liquids through pumps steam enll1alpy at inlet 10 rurbine, Btu/lb. and h:,, is rhc steam
5.13: enthalpy at rurbine exhaust pressure if rhe expansion is assumed
Estimating minimum recircula1ion flow through pumps to be isentropic. Btu/lb. That is. rhc entropy is the same at inlet
condition and at cxir. Given 1, 1, 1,2_, can be obtained either from
5.14: Ner positive suction head (NPSH) and its dctem1 ina1ion the Mollier chart or by calcularion using ~,earn table dalll (sec the
Appendix). YJ, is the efficiency of the rurbinc_ expressed a; a
5.15: Effect of pump suction condirion;, on NPSH., (avai lable fraction. Typica lly, YJ, ranges from 0.65 to 0.80.
NPSl-f)
Anorhcr way to estimate ASR is 10 u,e published Llata on
5.16: rurbinc theoretical srcam rate~ (TSRs) (sec Table 5. I).
Esrirnating NPSl·l, !required NPSH) for ccnrrifugul pumps
34 13
5. 17:
TSR = (2)
Determining NPSH,, for reciprocaiing pumps "· - J,'1.,
TSR divic.led by rt, gives ASR. The following example shows
5.18. Checkmg performance of pumps from molar readings: relar- how the src:im rate can be u,cd to find required stcum flow.
 (l;llldJ)dlhy Fan~. l'tinlJ ,~. ~UH l S IL'i)Ol Tur1Jlnr~

Table 5.1 T heorcucal Steam Rate:,. for Steam Turbil)CS. at Some. Common Condilinns (lb,lkWh•

lnle1
200 ~i~. 400 1"'8· 600 psig. 600 p'>ig, 850 p,,1g,
150 psig. 200 ps1g, SO<f'F. 7500F. 750°1', Fvel
&25'F. 825'"F,
fahaU<;I 366°F, 3&8'F, Q4~f.. 302°F. 261"F, 336'F, 298...,F.
pttSSUl't' '>aturated satllrnted ~upt:rheat ,;upcrhca1 :,.uperl,~at supcrhca1 ~uperhc~1
2 io, Hg I0.52 10.0 1 9.07 7.37 7.09 6.77 6.;R
4 IO, Hg 11 .76 JI.I~ Hl.!Xl 7.99 7.65 7Z8 7.OI\
0 ps1g 19.37 17.51 15.16 11.20 I0.40 <).82 9.31
10 psig 23.96 21.09 17.90 12.72 II (.t I0.96 10 29
JO psig 33.6 28.05 22.94 15.23 13.62 12.75 I I.RO
50 ps,g 46.0 36.0 28 20 17.57 15.:16 14.J I 1307
60 ps,g 53 .9 } I 10 Heat Rec:O\'tt'(
40.4 18.75 16. 19 I l.05 13.66
Comti.,nllOI'\ 801let
70 psig 63.5 45.6 .\4.1 19% 17.00 15.79 14 22
75 p,ig T-vrb•ne
69.3 48.5 35.8 20.59 17.40 16. 17 14.50 PO Wi!'I
.'w,urrr R, H Perry imd C H Chdton, Cl,nmcul £r.gm~4'rs· 1/a,rdbuok. 5th ed... McGraw-Hilt, Nc.w y0 11,;,. 1974
pp. 18--20. ri14urc 5.1 Cogeneral icm produces power and steam from the ,ame fuel
source by converting the Lurbine exhaust heat in :.i bo1Jer, which produces
,;team for process.

EXAMPLE
A: Cogeneration is the tenn used for ;imultancous generation o r
How many lb/hr of superheated steam al 1000 psia, 900°F, is power and process steam from a single full source. as in a syswm
reqm_red to g~nerate 7500 kW in a steam turbine if the back pres- o f ga,, turbine and process waste heat boiler. wherein the gas tur-
;ure 1:, 2?0 psrn and the overall efficiency of the turbine generator bine generates electricity and the boiler generates steam for
system 1s 70%'/
process (see Figure 5.1 ).
Snlutio11. From the steam tables, at !000 psia. 9()()°F, 1,1 = lo a typical power plant that operates al 35 to 43% overall
1448.2
. . and entropy s 1 = l.6121 Btu/lb °F. At 200 ps1,1.
, Btu/lb .·. efficiency, the steam pressure in the condenser is about 2 to4 in.
~orres~n_d111g to the same entropy, we must calculate Ii!, by Hg. A lot of e nergy is wasted in the cool ing water, which con-
mlerpolat1on. We can note I.hat steam is in superheated condi- denses the stemn in the condenser.
uon. h 2, = 1257.7 Btu/lb. Then If, instead, the steam is generated at a high pressure and ex-
ASR = 34 13 panded in a steam turbine LO the process steam pressure. we can
0.70 X ( 1448 - 1257.7) = 25 .6 lb/kWh use the steam for process, a nd electricity is also generated. A full
credit for the process steam can he given if the steam is used-
llence. to generate 7500 kW, the steam Oow required i, hence the improvement in overall e nergy utilizalion, Q5.02b
1-1'. = 25.6 X 7500 = 192,000 lb/hr explains this in detaiI.

S .02a 5.021J
Q: What is cogencration'? How does it improve the efficiency or th' Q: 50,000 lb/hr of superheated steam al lOOO psia ,ind 900~ is
~~~ C available in a process plant. One alternative is to expand this in a
 Fdn":t. Ptnllp..;, .:tn<I Su-,ui1 ·1 urhill('..,

0. I 326( l - ., ) u-,. =
+ l ·97 o.c.< 1.612 J
steam turbine lo 200 psia and use the 200-psia steam for process
(cogcnerauon). Another alternative 1s to expand the supcrheutcd Hence
steam in a steam turbine to l p,ia, generating electricity alone 111
a power plant. Evaluate each ,chcmc. .x = 0.80
The enthalpy corre;ponding to this condition 1s
A: Scheme I . The steam condit,ons arc as in QS.01, so let us u,c the
data on cmh:tlpy. Assume that the 1urb10c efficiency is 70<Jf The
It = (I - 1·)/rr + xh,
electricity produced can be written as fol lows using bq. ( l I: or
I1,y = 0 •80 x I 106 + 0.2 X 70 = 900 Btu/lb
P = IV,11, X " , - h i,\
(3)
3413 (/J/ :nd h,
life 70 and 1106 at I p;ia.) Using a turbine efficiency
P is kilowatts. lt 1 = 1448 Btu/lb and lt2., = 1257 7 Btu/lb.
in of 75%, from &J. (3) we have
from QS.01. Substituting in &J. (3), we h:,vc 0.75
p = 50,000 X ( 1448 - 900) X 3413 = 6023 I.W
0.70
P = 50,()()() X ( 1448 - 1257.7) X J~IJ = 1954 kW
= 20.55 x 10• Btu/hr
Now let us calculate lhc final enthalpy al condition 2, lt 1 . U,ing Hence we note that there is a lot of difference in. the energy
the equation pattern be tween lh c' two C"SCS
~ · •
with the . cogcnerauon scheme
11,(111 - h'l,) = It, - hi using much more energy than thal used 111 s.che~e 2: . •
(4)
Even if the steam in Scheme l were used tor ml healing. the
we obtuin l:Jlent heat of 834 Btu/lb al 200 psia could be used .
0.70 X (1448 - 1257.7) = 1448 - '12 Total output =
I954 X 34 I3 + 50,000 x 834
or = 48.3 X I0° Btu/hr
h1 = 1315 Btu/lb Thi, is ,till more than the output ·10 lh'c ca.
, se of power gencr.ition
Thi, enthalpy is available for prnccss in the cogeneration mode. :tione. . . . t were
The energy Q avail<1ble ,, the cogencra11on mode ,s the sum or , 1r the phnt
Note however, lh ·it • elecmc11y rcqu1rcmen ·1·
. , 'W Scheme I ,hould have more steam avm •
the electricity produced and the energy lo process, 1111 10 Btu/ hr. more lh an - 000 h • • • ·1 bl E · I
Hence the lolal energy 1, ability whichmean,1hatabiggerboilcrshouldbcava1 a c .. va.
uation · of capllal
. .mvcstmen1 ·IS nc•ccssary
. before
. a particular
.
Q = 1954 X 3413 + 50,000 X 1315 = 72.4 x IO'' Btu/hr ~chcmc is chosen. However. n is clear that '" cogcncratmn the
Scheme 2. Lei u, take the case when electricity alone is utilitation of energy is heller.
generated. Let u~ calculate the linal steam conditions at a pres-
sure of I psia. s, = 1.6121 = 12,. Al I psiu. from the ,team
tables, ,ll saturated condition,, .,1 = 0. 1326 ands,. = I. 9782 s1
5Ati .
and "• life entropic, of ~.lluratcd liquid and vapor. S111cc the
Q: Wh' h is a beucr location for lapping steam for lkacrauon m u
cog~cner;tion plant with an cxtracuon mrbme, the IIRSG or the
entropy s1, is in between s1 and s, . the steam al iscntropic
cond11ions is wet. Let us estimate the quality 1. From husic,. steam 1urh1ne'/
 :j(jO r-ans. Pun11 >!->. <.ll1(l s 1r·c1ff1 T1 irhinc.c;
Garn:l f>mhy

. . for deaerat ion from the HRSG and no t rrom

A: When steHm where 20&. 28, 76. and 13 19 arc enthalpies of feedwater at
. is taken
an extraction point m a steam turbine. there is a net loss to the 240°F, makeup water at 60°F, condensate a1 I08°F. and steam at
system power output as the steam is throttled and not expanded 620 psig, 650°F.
to the lower deacrator pressure. Throttling is a mere wa~Le of en - The deacration steam X = 8741 lb/hr: use 8785 to account for
ergy. whereas_ steam generates power while ii expands 10 a lower losses. Now compute 1hc actual s1eam rate (ASR) in the steam
pressure. To 1Jlustrate. rnnsider 1he following example. turbine (see QS .01). II can be shown that /\SR = 11. 14 lb/kWh
EXAMPLE at 70% expansion efficiency; hence power output of the turbine
generator = 0.96 x (80.000 - 8785)/11. 14 = 6137 kW,
An HRSG generates 80,000 lb/hr of steam al 620 psig am.I 6S0°F
assuming 49f loss in the generator.
from 550.000 lb/hr of turbine ex haust gases at 975°1-'. The steam
Similarly, when steam is taken at 30 psia from the extraction
1s expanded in an extraction-condensing steam turbine. Figure
point in the steam turbine. the enthalpy of s team for <leaeration is
5.2 shows !.he two schemes. The condenser operates al 2.5 in.
1140.6 Btu/lb. /\n energy balance around !.he deaerator shows
Hg abs. The deaerator is at 10 psig. Rlowdown losses = 2%. Nc-
g lcctmg flash steam and vent now. we can s how that when s team 81,700 X 208 = I 140.6X + (80.000 - X) X 76
1s taken for deaera1ion from the HRSG , + 1700 X 28
8 1,700 X 208 = 17()() X 28 + (80,000 - X) X 76 HenccX = 10.250 lb/hr. Then ASR for expansion from 620 psig
+ 1319X to 30 psia = 19 lb/kWh and 11.14 for the remaining now. The
power output is

P = O•96 X ( 10.250 + 80,000 - 10,250 ) = 6528 kW

19 11. 14
D -0::i\ERATO'<
M,'l!Xll\1, TA'l< Thus a significant d ifference in power output can be seen. How-
M
H ·KlSG ever. one has to review the cost of extraction machine versus the
straight condensing type and associated pipi ng, valves, etc.
T-T.RBJNE

P ·PU"P
5.()4
V ·Vf.LV':..
Q: A fan develops an 18-in. WC stalic head when the now is 18,000
acfm and static efficiency of the fan i~ 75%. Detennine the brake
horsepower rc<Juired. the horsepower consumed when !.he motor
V has an efficiency of 90%, and the annual cost of operation if
elcctrici1y costs Scents/kWh and the annual period of operation
is 7500 hr.
,';'vL.,
H A: The power required when the now is q acfm and the hi;ad is H,.
in. we i~
H,.. (5)
Figur!' G.:! Oplions for 1akmg stcrun for deaerat,on. BHP= q x
635611r
 Pan!,, Pumps. anti Stetml Turhil1e~

where TJr is the efficiency of the fan, frac1ion; in this ca.,c, '11/ p, = 0 .07S = 0.0707 lb/cu ft
= 0.75 1.06
The horsepower consumed is At 60°F and 5000 ft.
HP= BHP (6) 0.075 lb/cu ft
,.,,,, P1 = 1.18
= 0.0636
where l].,, is the motor efficiency, frnction. Substituting the data, Substitution into Eq. (7) yields
we have
18 Hw2
18 =
BHP = I &,000 x
0.75 X 6356
= 68 hp 0.0707 0.0636
H w,.. = 16. 1 in. WC
and
In case I ilow wi ll be
68
HP=
0.9
= 76 hp J 8,000 X 0.0707 X 60 = 76,356 )b/hr
and in case 2 1he flow will be
The annual cost of operation will be
[8 ,000 X 0.0636 X 60 :e 68,638 lb/hr
76 X 0.74 X 0.05 X 7500 = $2 1,26 1
The ex.ict opcra1ing poinl of tl1e fan can be o~tained af~er
(0. 74 is the conversion factor from hp to kW.)
plotting the new H.,. versus q ch~cterist ic .ind -~ot'.ng the_pon:t
of intersection of the new curve with the system te,1,tance c urve .
5.05
Q: A fan develops 18,000 acfm at 18 in . WC when the ambien1
conditions are 80°F and the elevat ion is JOOO ft (case I). What 5.(>6cl
are the flow and the head developed by the fan when the tem- Q: Why should the capacity of forced dral't fans for boilers be
pernture is 60°F and the e levation is 5000 ft (case 2)? reviewed at the lowest density condition?

r\: The head developed by a fan would vary wi1h density as follows: A: For the same heat input to boilers , the air q_uantity r:equi":d in
ma.ss flow units (lb/hr) remains 1he same trrespccuve of the
- - = -H,,.-2
llw,
(7) ambient conditions.
P, P1
where p is the density, lb/cu ft, and the subscripts I and 2 refer to W=60pq
any two ambient conditions. where
The flow q in acfm developed by a fan would remain the same w= 111 ass flow. lb/hr
for differenl ambient conditions: however, the flow in lbihr p = densi1y, lb/cu ft
would vary as the density changes. q = volu metric llow, acfm ..
Let us use Table 5.2 for quick est imation of density as a
F . d 'scharoeconsranl volumetric flow al any density. Hen~c ,t
function of elevation and temperature. p = 0.075/ foctor from
;~'~a~ is si;d to give a particular volumetric flow al the high-
Table 5.2. At 80°F and 1000 ft. elevation.
i

Tal)le 5.2 Temperature and Elevation Fact,

Altiwde (ft) :ind barometric prcs8urc (in. Hg)
Temp. 0 500 I 000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40(Kl 4500 5000 5500 6000
("F') 29.92 29.38 28.R6 28.33 27.82 27.3 1 26.82 26.32 25.84 25.36 24.90 24.43 23.%
- 4() .79 .81 .82 .84 85 .87 .88 .90 .\12 .93 .95 .97 .99
0 .87 .88 .90 .92 .93 .95 .97 .99 1.00 1.02 1.()4 1.06 I.OH
40 .94 .96 .98 1.00 1.01 1.03 1.05 1.07 1.09 I. II I 13 1.16 1. 18
70 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.14 I 16 1.18 1.20 1.22 1.25
80 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.16 I. 18 1.20 1.22 1.25 1.27
100 J.06 1.()8 1.10 1.12 1. 14 I. 16 I. 18 1.20 1.22 1.25 1.27 1.29 1.32
120 1.09 I. I I l. I 3 I 16 1.18 1. 20 1.22 1.24 1.27 1.29 1.31 1.34 1.37
140 l .13 1.15 1.17 1.20 1.22 1.24 1.26 l.29 1.3 l 1.34 1.36 l.39 1.41
160 1.17 1.19 1.21 1.24 l.26 1.28 1.31 1.33 1.35 1.38 I 41 1.43 1.46
180 1.2 1 1.23 1.25 1.28 1.30 1.32 1.35 1.37 1.40 1.42 1.45 1.48 1.51
200 1.25 1.27 1.29 1.32 1.34 1.36 1.39 1.42 1.44 1.47 1.50 1.53 1.55

1.58 1.61 1.64 1.67

1.47 1.49 1.52 1.55
1.36 1.39 l .41 1.44 l.79
250 l.34 1.69 1.72 1.76
1.57 1.60 1.63 1.66
1.46 1.49 1.51 1.54 1.91
300 1.43 l.77 1.80 1.114 1.87
I 67 1.70 1.74
l.56 1.58 1.61 1.6-l 2.02
350 1.53 l.88 1.91 1.95 J.99
1.75 1.78 J.81 1.84
1.62 1.65 1.68 1.71 2.10 2.14
400 1.95 1.99 2.03 2.06
1.81 1.85 1.88 1.92
450 1.72 1.75 1.78 2.18 2.22 2.26
2.02 2 06 2. 10 2.14
1.88 L.91 1.95 1.98
5()(1 1.81 L.84 2.2'J l.33 2.38
2.13 2.17 2.21 2.25
1.98 2.01 2.05 2.09
550 1.91 1.94 2.36 2.40 2.45 2.50
2.19 2.2, 2.27 2.32
2.04 2.07 2.11 2.15 2.61
600 2.00 2.43 2.47 1.52 2.56
2.25 2.29 2.34 2.38
2.09 2. 13 2. 17 2.21 2.68 2.73
650 2.49 2.53 2.58 2.63
2.31 2.35 2.40 2.44
700 2.19 2.23 2.27 2.80 2.85
2.60 2.64 2.69 2.74
2.4 1 2.46 2.50 2.55
750 2.28 2.32 2.37 2.86 2.91 2.97
2.65 2.70 2 .75 2.80
2.46 2.51 2.56 2.60
800 2.38 2.42 2.92 2.97 1,03 3.08
2.71 2.76 2.81 2.86
2.52 2.56 2.61 2.66 3.20
850 2.47 2.97 3.03 3.08 3.14
2.76 2.81 2.86 2.92
2.57 2.61 2.66 2.71 3.32
900 3.08 3.14 1.20 3.26
2.86 2.91 2.97 J.02
2.66 2.71 2.76 2.81 3.37 3..14
950 3.13 3. 19 3.25 3.3 I
2.91 2.96 3.02 3.07
1000 2.76 2.81 2.86

"'::i
3GG Fans. Pt.1n1p!-,, nrnl 5 1<·,un ·1\Jrl>incs 3G7

density condition, the mass now would decrease when density and the discharge pressure 1:, I000 psig. Determine the BHP
decreases as can be seen in the equation above. Hence the fan required.
must be sized to deliver the volumetric now at the lowest density
condition. in which case the output in lb/hr will be higher at the J\: Use the expression
higher density condition, which can be then controlled.
o.P (8)
Also, the gas pressure drop Min in. WC across the wind box BHP= q X
l7151)p
is proportional to W2/p. If the air density decreases as at high-
temperature conditions. the pressure drop increases, because W where
remains unchanged for a given heat input. Considering the fact q = now, gpm
that Hip is a constant for a given fan, where H is the s tatic head t,p = differential pressure. psi
in in. WC. using the lowest p ensures that the head available at ll,, = pump efficiency, fraction
higher density will be larger.
In the absence of data on pumps , use 0.9 for triplex and 0. 92 for
quintuplcx pumps.
5.0(::5b
!000 - 4
Q: How does the horsepower of a forced draft fan for boilers or BHP = 40 X = 25.8 hp
17 15 X 0.90
heaters c hange with density?
A 3(>-hp motor can be used. . .
A: Equation (5) gives the fan horsepower: The same expression can be used for cenlnfugal. pumps. The
q II,. efficiency can be obtained from the pump charactensuc curve at
BHP=
6356 "1! the desired operating point.
U~i ng the relation W = 60 q p. we can rewrite the above as
W H,. 5.08
BHP =
381 .360 p llr Q: A pump is required to develop 230 gpm of water at 6~°F al a
For a boi ler at a given duty, the air flow in lb/hr and the head in head of 970 ft. It; efficiency is 70%. There ,u-e two opttons for
in. WC, fl.,., remain unchanged, and hence as the density de- the drive: an electric motor with an effkicncy of 90% or a steam
creases. the horsepower increases. Th is is yet another reason to turbine drive with a mechanical efficiency of 95%. Assume that
check the fan power al the lowest density condition. However, if the exhaust is used for process and not wasted . .
the application involves an uncontrolled fan that delivers a given If electricity costs 50 mills/kWh. steam for the tur.bmc ,s
volume of air at all densities. then the horsepower should be generated in a boiler with an efficiency of 85% (HHV basts). and
evaluated at the highest density case as the mass now would be fuel costs $3/MM Bill (HHV basis). dc1em1inc the annual cost of
higher as well as the gas pressure drop. operation of each drive if the plant operates for 6000 hr/year.

5.07 J\: Another form of Eq . (8) is

fl
Q: A triplex reciprocating pump is used for pumping 40 gpm (gal- (9)
BHP = W X l, 980,00011,,
lons per minute) of water at IOO"F . The suction pressure is 4 psig
 \lc111..-1pa1hy Ftt11.,. Pu,np~. Hllcl SH'i·Ull TLU'bin(''"t

where where
W = flow. lb/hr q= Iiquid flow, gpm
H = head developed by lhe pump. ft of liquid W = liquid flow. lb/ hr
s = specific gravity
For relating head in ft with differential pressure in psi or flow in t:,P = pressure developed. psi
lb/hr with gpm. refer to QL.01. Substituting into Eq. (9) and H = head developed, ft of liquid
as.suming that s = I. W = 230 x 500 lb/hr.
Also.
970
BHP = 230 X 500 x 0.70 X 1,980.000
= 81 hp !11' (I I)
H = 2.31 x
s
The annual cost of operation with an electric motor drive will be
EXr\MPLE
81 X 0.746 X 0 .05 X ~: = $20,142 If a pump can develop HX)() gpm of water at 40°F through I000
ft. what tlow and head can it develop when the water is at 120°P/
(0.746 is the conversion factor from hp to kW.) Assume that pump efficiency is 75% in both cases.
If steam is used, the annual cost of operation will be Solwion. s1 at 40°F (from the steam tables: see the Appendix)
3 is 1. s2 at t 20°F is 0. 988.
81 X 2545 X 6000 X
0.85 X 0.90 X JO"
= $4595
I
ti.P, = IOOO x 2.31
= 433 psi
(2545 Btu/hr = I hp; 0 .85 is the boiler efficiency: 0.95 is the
mechanical efficiency.) Hence the savings in cost of operntion is From Eq. ( 11).
(20.142 - 4545) = $ 15.547/year. 433
Depending on lhc difference in investment between the two BHP, = rooo X
0.75 X 1715
= 337 hp
drives, payback can be worked out. In the calculation above it
wa~ assumed that the back-pressure steam was used for process. W, = 500q1; 1 = 500 X 1000 X I = 5()().0()() lhihr
!fit was wasted. the economics may not work out the same way. At 120°F.
0.988
5 .o<.Ja ti.P2 = JOOO x = 427 psi
2.31
Q: How does the specific gravity or density of liquid pumped affect 427
the BHP, flow, and head developed? BHP2 = JOOO x = 332 hp
0.75 X 1715
i\: A pump always delivers the same flow in gpm (assuming. that W2 = 500 X 0 .988 X 1000 = 494,000 lb/hr
viscosity effects can be neglected) and head in feet of liquid at If the same W is to be maintained, BHP must increase.
any temperature. However. due to changes in density, the flow
in lb/hr, pressure in psi, and BHP would ch,mge. A variation of
Eq. (9) is 5.Wb
W X ti.P Q: How doe., the temperallLre of water affect pump power consump-
BHP = q x ti.I' = ( 10)
1715'1'], 857 .000..,,.s tion?
370 Gan<11>01hy F<tllS, Prn llµ~. (llld Slt.'c.)nl Turhhll'',

A: The answer can be obtained by analyzing. the fol lowing equations A: For varialions in ,peed or impeller &ile. the following equation,
for pump power consumption. One is based on flow in gpm and apply:
the other in lb/hr.
.!/,L = N' = VH I ( 14)
Q H s q, N1 Y/·/ 2
BHP= ( 12)
3960-ri,, where
where
q = pump flow. gpm
Q = flow, gprn H = head developed, fl
H = head. ft of water N = speed. rpm
s = speci fie 6>n1vity Use of Eq. ( 14) gives us the head and the llow characteristics of a
"Yip = efficiency pump al different speeds. However, to get the actual operating
In boilern, one would like to maimain a constant flow in lb/hr point, one must plot the new head versus flow curve and note the
1101in gprn, and at a particular pressure in psi. The relationship; poinl of intersection of this curve with the syscem resistance
are curve. In the case above,
w 50
Q= and H = 2.3 1 X q1 = 100 X = 83 gpm
500s 60
where
W = flow. lb/hr
6.P = pump differential, psi
H2 = 155 X (: r = 107 ft
In this fashion, the new fl versus q curve can be obtained. The
Substituting these terms inio ( I), we have new operating point can chen be found .

BHP= W x ( 13)
857 .OOOri,,s 5.11
Ass decreases with temperature, BHP will increase if we want lO
Q: How does the perfomiance of a pump change wiih the viscosity
maintain the llow in lb/hr and head or pressure in psi. However. of the fluids pumped?
if the flow in g.prn and head in fl should be maintaineu, then the
A: The Hydraulic ln>ticute has published char1s that give correction
BHP will uccrcasc with a uccrease ins. which in turn is lower al
factors for head. llow, and efficiency for viscous fluids when the
lower temperatures.
perfonnance with water is known (see Hgures 5.3a and 5.3b).
A similar analogy can be drawn with fons in boiler plants.
which require a certain amount of air in lbihr for combustion and 1•.XAMPl.1-:
a par1icu lar head in in. WC. A pump delivers 750 gpm at 100 ft head when waler b pumped.
Whal is rhe performance when ii pumps oil with viscosity I000
S.10 SSU'! Assume rhal eflicien,y with water is 82%.
Q: A centrifugal pum1> delivers 100 gpm at 155 ft of water with a Solution. In Figure 5.3b, go up from capacity 750 gpm to cur
60-Ht. supply. If the electric supply is changed to 50 Hz. how ihe head line at 100 ft and move horizontally LO cul viscosity at
will Che pump perform'? 1000 SSU: move up ro cut the various correction factori..
 i72
(,di IHl)o.Jlh\' Fans. Purnps. ,md Stt·c.1ru rurhinl'~
..,, -- ---,r - --,-- -,-- - . - - - - , . - ~ -T-~-~~
- - ---- ---· --~ '.
.... - .......... -::,,.._
'
M
- +-~,- -1-~r'k:--+--+~~ "- <:.
• ' ,.._ "
~

-"-
0
u
••
.......
'> ..... ~

0• ., I
~
~ .,
•u• ,.
' I, I
'
0 ' ' ' --
--......
-
,." . ' '- '" 't--.
0
' ~

--
.

_ ,,

,.ooo

" .,.......--1/ " \ i\ ' \ \ \ \ \I ' \ ,.ooo

·: :...-:::---- \\-1--:-\-'
\\ \ \ \ t\ \ \
• ••" i-- • ~ ~ ! r i ~ :~ s § ~r ,,..
,, ,, ,. . " •• '
lo)
CAPACITY · GAUON5 PCFI MINUTE

Figure s.:l (a) Vi,cosity e<1rrec11on,. 1b) Dctcnnonauon ol pump perlor

mancc when handling vi,cou, hquid~ IC'uuncsy of llydmul,c Tn,111u1clGould
Purnp Manual I
 Fait~. PUIHJ).'-t, di HI Sll'.-llll I urhirn.· ... -i75
c. = 0.94, CH = 0.92. CE = 0.64 where TJ is the pump efficiency. fraction. Suh:.tituling into Eqs.
Hence the new data are
( ISa) a;c.l (9) and simplifying, we have
(f = 0.94 X 750 = 705 gpm
fl = 0.92 X 100 = 92 fl AT= fl x 1/TJ , - I (l5b)
778
TJ,, = 0.64 X 82 = 52%
The new ff versu~ q data can be ploucd for variou, now, to
If fl = 100 r, or water and TJr = 0.6, then

obtain the characteristic curve. The operating poin1 can be ob- t:,,T = 1000 X 1.66 - I = 1•F
tained by noting the point of intersection o f ,yslcm resistance 778
curve with the fl versus q curve. c•. C11 , and CF arc co1TCction
factors for now, head. and efficiency. 5.1'.{
Q: How is the mimmum recirculation now through a centri fugal
5.12
pump dc1cm1ined?
Q: What is lhe tcmpcrarurc rise or water when a pump delivers 100
gpm at IOOO ft at an efficiency of 60%? A: Let us illustrate this with the case of a pump whose characteris-
tics are as shown m Figure 5.4. We need to plot the AT versus Q
A: The temperature rise of nuids through the pump is an important characteristics first. Notice that at low nows when the effic iency
factor in pump maintenance and performance con~idcrations and
must be limited. The rccircuiluiun valve i~ used 10 ensure thnt the PUMPING TEMPERATURE: 250°F
desired now goes through the pump at low load conditions of the SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 0 943
plant, thus cooling it. 2200
I200() ~ 0 cukv.
From energy balance, r.he friction losses arc equated to the ..._
energy absorbed by the fluid. 80 \aoo ~

......
30
1
ii; 1600 2 5.:
AT = (B HP - theoretical power) x 2545 70
.,,.... "-
wc,, ( 15a) t:so ~ \,oo ,.~<:}.,, ~ 20::l
where >
~50 ~ 1200
*I ,.~~ft, 15w
rr
ii:

AT "' temperature rise of the fluid, °F

~
!::!40 w
;,:
I\ V
I
:,
0:;
BHP = brake horsepower
~
....
" £ <( I',., / rr

W = now of the fluid. lb/hr

w30 :; O
<( V - TEMPERATURE RI•
I
5 ::'

0 ..."
w
20 400 ~
C" = specific hem of the fluid, Btu/lb •r -' I/ Bf'A
KE i<ORSEPOWER
I
10 200 ~
For w:ucr, c;, = I.
From Eq (9), 0 0
0
1- / 100 200 300 400 100
0 500 600
CAPACITY IGPMI
BHP "' IV x H
TJ,, X J6()() X 550 Figure 5.-1- Typical charoc1cri,tk curve ol a rnullistngc pump also ,hu"-
ing temperature ri\C vcr~u?\ cHpac11y
 \77
.l((; 1-:.a ns. Pun1p~. and !',H "di H turl)hlt •i.,
41J suc110t; l>Uf>?t.Y OPEN TO AtMOSPHEflL
,-.. ~fl/Jllf SU~ff\.Y 01-£,o TO AhlO!,.S'l1UIE 11•...a
is low, we can ex peel a large lemperalurc rise. Al 100 gpm. for _..,,..,"'-"" -•111 SIICllflA

example,
YI,, = 0.23 and H = 2150 fl
Then ,.
1/0.23 - •1PSH~-1•.-fll~•t..tll,~
J).T = 2150 x
77R
= 9°F
L"
In a similar fashion, t!.T is c,111na1cd al various nows. Nole thal
J).T is higher al low flows due lO the low efficiency and also
because of the lesser cool ing capacity.
The maximum Lempcrnturc ri,e i, generally limited to about c Cl OSIO SUCTlt,i !ii.WP\.y
-••l'I !,ijCl,~n I.JI'
20°F, depending on the recommendations of the pump manufac-
turer. This means that at least 40 gpm must be circulated through
the pump in this case. Ir !he load is only 30 gpm. then depenuing
on the recircuJation control logic, 70 to 10 gpm could he recircu-
fL.+'t~ +11,I
lated through the pump.

v:
p - ~ ' " ' " "'"_., ,n lt-1 •1>soh.i1•
-VfflO• Pll,..,f GI l~l -ci,..,d 111 IN'°""'" oumplf!O Yfll"
S. 14 110<.0hi"I, ill fiHt tbt0h1i.
p _ ;,1' " " ' ' Oft ,....t.N ol ....,a ,n cl11111d .-...:~ llfll Ill

Q; What is net positive suction head (NPSH). and how is it calcu- *"' 1Uteh,••
L. • w ..,,..,.,u1111c wttiOII Mt 111 ' " '
'""" • Mm""""' llll>C 1..CIIO!I 111..:J • IHl
, _ S:n,i;IIOOI io., 1,, ,,.. In ....c:1.o11 ~ •• ttq111tt0 c111,011y
lated? 11

A: The NPSH is the net positive suction head in feet absolute dcter- Figure 5.5 Calculation of system NPSH available fo r typical suc1ion
111111cd at the pump suction after accounting for suct ion pip,ng condit ions.
losse5 (friction) and vapor pressun:. NPSH helps one to check if
there is a possibility of cavitation at pump suction. This is likely NPSH,, can be detcnnined by a gauge readi ng at pump suc-
when the liquid vapori7es or tlashes due to low local pressure tion:
and collapses at the pump as 'i-OOn m, the pressure incrca,cs. ( 16)
NPSH determined from pump layout in this manner i, NPSH.,
NPSH,, = P,, - VP ± PG + VH
(NPSH available). This will vary depending on pump location as where
shown in Figure 5.5. VH = velocity head at the gauge connection. fl
NPSH, (NPSH required) is the positive hcnd in feel absolute PG = pressure gauge rc:iding. converted to feet
required to overcome the prcM,urc drop due 10 nuid flow from 1hc VP = vapor pressure. f1 absolute .
pump suc11on lO the eye of the impeller and maintain !he liquid p
8
= barometnc pres,urc. rt (if suction is atmo,phenc)
above its vapor pressure. NPSJ-1, varies with pump speed and
To avoid cav11a1ion. NPSH,, mu,t be greater tban NPSH,
capacity Pump suppliers generally proviue this informa1ion.
:l71\ f'm1s. Pu111ps. and Stea1, l Turhi11<~s

5.15 For example, when q = 100 gpm, N = 1770. and assuming

that S = 10.000 for water,
Q: Does the pump suction pressure change NPSH.?
NPSH, = 1770 X
\/100
( JO.OOO
)u• = 2.2 J't
/\: NPSH., is given by
NPSH. = P, + H - VP - H1 ( 17) Even ifwe took a conservative value of7000 for S. we would get
where NPSH, = 3.43 ft
P,. = suction pre-5sure. ft of Iiquid This information can be used in making preliminary layouts for
H = head of liquid, ft systems involving pumps.
VP = vapor pressure of the liquid at operating
temperature, ft 5.17
Hi = friction loss in the suction line, ft
Q: How is NPSH. for a reciprocating pump arrived at?
For saturated liquids, VP = P,, so changes in suction pressure
do not significantly change NPSH,,. A: NPSH,, for a reciprocating pump is calculated in the same way as
for a centrifugal pump except that the acceleration head H,. is
EXAMPLE
included with the friction 101;-~es. This is the head required to
Determine the NPSH,, for the system shown in Figure 5.5b when accelerate the liquid column on each suction stroke so that there
Ii = lO ft. Hr = 3 ft. and VP = 0.4 psia (from the ~team will be no separation of this column in the pump suction line or
tables). Assume that the water has a density of 62 lb/cu ft.
in the pump LI J:
Sol111io11.
LNVC ( 19)
VP = 0.4 X
144
= 0.93 ft
H, =
62
where
166
Suction pressure = 14.6 psia = 14.6 x
62
= 33.9 ft L = length of the suction line, ft (actual length. not
developed)
NPSH0 = 33.9 - 3 - 0.93 + JO = 40 ft V = velocity in the suction Iine, ft/sec
N = pump speed, rpm
5.16
C is a constant: 0.066 for triplex pump, 0.04 for quimuplex. and
Q: In _the absence of information from the pump supplier. can we 0.2 for duplex pumps. K is a factor: 2.5 for hot oil, 2.0 for most
cstunate NPSH;I hydrocarbon,. I .5 for water. and 1.4 for dcaerated water. f!. =
32 ft/sec2• Pulsation dampeners arc used to reduce L signifi-
A: A good estimate of NPSH, can be made from the expression for cantly. By proper selection. L can be reduced to nearly Lero.
specific speed S.
1::Xt\MPLJ::
Vq A triplex pump running al 360 rpm and displacing 36 gpm has a
S == N X ( 18)
NPSH:' 71 3-in. suction line 8 ft long and a 2-in. line I8 ft long. Estimate
S range, from 7000 to 12,000 for water. the acceleration head required.
 :tAO Fans. Pun1ps. ~111<1 S1c·,wn Turl)Jncs .181
Gc.1napa1hy

So/111io11. First obtain th~ velocity of water in each pan of the where
lme. In the J-111. line, which ha~ an inner diameter of 3 .068 .m.. q= flow. gpm
= differential pressure. psi
!:,J>
V = 0.41 dq!, = 0.4 1 X (3 _36 = E = voltage. V
068 )_ 1.57 ft/sec
I = current. A
In the 2-in. line having an inner diameter of 2. 067 ·Ill .• Y)P' 11m = efficiency of pump and motor. fraction
36 cos <I> = power faclOr
v = 0.4l x (2.067)2
= 3.45 fl/sec
From Eq . (22} we can solve for pump efficiency given the other
The acceleration head in Lhe 3-in. line is variables. Alternatively. we can solve for the flow by making a
0 .066 reasonable estimate of '11,, and c heck whether the flow reading is
H,, = 8 X 360 X 1.57 X
1.4 X 32
= 6.7 ft good. The power factor cos~> typically varies between 0 .8 and
0.9, and the motor efficiency between 0.90 and 0.95.
In the 2-in. line.
EX1\MPLE
0.066
H,, = 18 X 3.45 X 360 X
1.4 X 32
= 32.9 ft A plant engineer observes that al a 90-gpm t1ow of water and
1000 psi differential. the motor current is 100 A. Assuming that
The total acceleration head is 32.9 + 6. 7 = .3 9.(, ff. the voltage is 460 V, the power factor is 0.85, nnd the motor
efficiency is 0.90. estimate the pump efficiency.
5. 18 Solution. Substituting the data in Eq. (22), we obtain
Q: How can we c heck the performance of a pump from the motor 9() X JO()() =4 X 460 X 100 X 0.85 X 0 .90 X 11p
data? Solving for 11,,. we have 11,, = 0.65 .
We can use this ligure to check if something is wrong with the
A: Abgood
· estimate
· of the efficiency of a pump or ,·1 1<1n
•• ..
<.:dn be system. For instance, if the pump has been operating at this now
o tamed_ from the current reading if we make a few reasonable for some time but the current drawn is more. one can infer that
assumptions. The efficiency of a motor is more predictable than the machine needs altention. One can also check the pump
that of a_~ump _due to its small variation~ with duty. The pump efficiency from its characteristic curve and compare the calcu-
d1fferenual pressure and llow can be obtained rather easily and lated and predicted efficiencies.
ac_curately. Ry relating the power consumed by the pump with
that delivered by the motor. the fol lowing can be derived. The
pump power consumption , P, in kW from Eq. (8) is
S.19
P = 0.00043q X t:.P (20) Q: Derive an expression simi lar to (22) relating fan and motor.
'11,,
Motor power output = 0.001732£/ cos <~ Y),., (21) A: Equating the power consumption of a fan with that delivered by

E<1uating Eqs. (20) and (21} and simplifying, we h:ive its motor.
P = I. 17 X 10 4 X qH,, = 0.001732£1 cos <~ 11,,, (23}
q llP = 4£1 cos <J> 11p11,. (22)
 Fout.... Pun,p!-t. .-uid S1C·J11t 1urhincs 18:1
where
q = now. acfm
140
no
D- /
... > 120
140

H,. = static head of fan. m. we 200

" I\
,· <)
""'ffilOO c.'
I
-r--..
i..-

Other terms arc a, in QS. 18

If the efficiency of a fan is assumed to be 65'ft when it,
a.180
ii
.. ,oo
,...,/
'<'
,/
t ~ ...I'
V ,-
"""
~'-/ ~ 80
~

....
~
w 60
- -~¼
,. "'"'
c.''1/: V
diffcremial head is 4 in. we. lhe motor voltage i, 460. the 0
~ 140 ..- <?/ ""~ \
..i / 7 r I
current 1s 7 A. then the power factor is O. 8 and 1hc mmor
efficiency is 85%. Solving for q. we have
:r
..suo A
'r- ,J'<I.
; / / !,L.-.. V 40

20
I
I SINGLE PUMP
' .
u
4 ~ 100 J.• •O
1.17 X 10 X q X 4 = 0.001732 X 46() X 7
"' 80
/e'-,-. 0 20 4060 80 100 120 1
.....
%CAl'ACfTV -
X 0.80 X 0.85 X 0.65 I/

or
60
/
,c
•o
q = 5267 acfm 30 /
K [/
One can check from the fan curve whether the now is reason- 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 110 140 160 lBO 200 220 240 260 280
able. Ahcmatively. if the now is known. one can check the head "RATEO CAPACITY
from Eq . (23} and compare ii wi1h the measured value. If the
measured head is lower. for example, we can inter thal some- Figure' 5.6 Series and p1m1llcl operations of pumps with Oat he:,d capac1-
1hmg is wrong with lhe fan or its drive or 1ha1 the Oow mem,urcd 1y curves. !Courtesy of Karussok Cenrrifugal Pump Clime. Marcel Dekker
is no1 correc1. Inc .. New Yor~. I

5.20 we add the head,, a1a given now. For example. at q = 100%. H
with one pump is 100%, and with two pumps// will be 200%.
Q: How is the performance of pump, in series and in parallel Similarly, AGH is obtained by adding nows at a given head. At
evaluated?
Ii = l(JO. q for two pumps will be 200%.
Lei the system rcsis1ance curve be KBC£. When one pump
A: For parallel operation of two or more pumps, 1hc combined
alone opcrntes, the opera1ing pmnt is B. W11h. 1wo pumps •.n
perfonnance curve Cl/ versus q) is obrnined by auding horizon- series.£ is 1hc operating point. With two pumps rn parallel, G 1s
tally •.he capacities of the same heads . For series operation, the
1hc operaling point. . .
combined performance curve i, ob1amed by adding vertically the
heads m the same capacities. BlfP curves also ha ve been plollcd and revea l that with senes
operation, BHP = 250% and with pumps m parallel BHP '.'°
The opcra1ing poim is the in1crsec1ion of 1hc combined perfor- 164%, indicating tha1 BHP/q is larger in ,cries operation than rn
mance curve wi1h 1hc system rci,i;umce curve. Figure 5.6 ex -
pamllel. Thi, varie~ wi1h pump and $ystcm rc;,istance charnc-
plains 1his. Head and now arc shown as percentages 12], AHC is
lcristics. NPSH,. also increases wi1h pump capacuy.
the H ~ersus q curve for a single pump. DEF i, the H ver,us
11 Nole thAI if 1hc full capacity of the plant were handled b) two
curve for lwo such pumps in ~cries. and AGH is the H versus I/
pump, in p.orallel, and one 1rippc<l, lhe operating BHP would nlll
curve for two such pumps in parallel. To obrain the curve DEF.
be 50% of that with two pump,, bu1 more, dcpcnd,ng on lh~
384 c;ana1,;11hy r'<1n~. l'tunps, ;Jnd Sl<'arn ~rurhhl<' ... :185

nature of the H versus q curve and 1hc system resi,tance curve. In gases ~xpand to T, in the turbine performing work. Following are
the case above, with KBGE as !he system resistance, G i; the some of the term, used IO describe the performance,
operating poinl with two pumps, and if one trips, 8 would be 1he Qu - Q,
operating point. BHP at C is 142%. while al 8 i1 is LOO% (sec Thcni1al efficiency TE = (24)
the insel of Figure 5.6). I-fence in sizing drives for pumps in
Q.
parallel, !his fact must be taken in10 account. It is a good idea to where
check if the pump has an adequately sized drive. Q" = heat added to cycle. Btu/lb
A similar procedure can be adopted for determining the per- Q, = heat rejected. Btu/lb
formance of fans in series and in parallel and for sizing drives. (25)
Q0 = C,, <T, - 71)
(26)
5.21 Q, = C1, (7; - T,>
p2 = p3 and /' 1 = I'• (27)
Q: Determine the parameters affecting the efficiency of Braywn
cycle [3] . Also.
7;
A: Figure 5. 7a shows a simple reversible Brayton cycle used in gas --
T, T,
,1,•- lllk (28)
turbine plants. Air is taken at a temperature T, absolute and
comprcs~ed, and the temperature after compression is 1'2• Heat is where
added in the combustor. raising the ga.~ temperature lo T3: the hot p,
r = pressure mtio = --
P,
(29)

3 k= ratio of gas specific heats

CP = gas specific heat, Btu/ lh
T, to T,, = temperatures. R
0

p1 to P., = pressures. psia

3 Using the above. we can write
5
T ~ = I -
TE=
T Q.,
6
2 4 = I -
IL X _T-.:,4_,,11,,_·
1- - - : - (30a)
T2 1';111
Since 1:,rr1 = T,!T2 from (5). we have

TE= I IJ_ = I _ 1/r''- ')'' (30b)

s s EXAMPLE
A simple cycle takes in air al 80°F and 14.7. psiu and,compre,scs
Fi~ure 5. 7 Simple and regenerative Brayton cycle. it at ,onstant entropy 1hrough a pressure ratio of 4. I he combus-
 ;.IB7
(,<llldJ>dll ly

tor raises the gas temperature to I500°F The heated a,r expands rejected corresponds to a temperature drop of T., - T,. while the
to 14.7 psia at constant entropy in the turbine. Assume k = J .3 heat adtlctl corresponds 10 T, - T, , and hence the cycle ,s more
nm.IC,, = 0.28. Find (I) compression work. W,: (2) heat input to efficient. Assuming constant C,..
cycle. Q"; (3) expansion work, Q,; (4) thcnnal effic iency. TE. T6 - T,
S0/urio11. From (5), TE = I Q, = I -
Q,. T, - T,
T2 = (80 + 460) X 4•1.J '" ' = 742°R P, = P, and /'4 = p• = P,. Aho,
11 111
Note that 4 ·3 1.J = 1.375. Hence T,
= T• =
W, = CP X (T2 - T1) = 0 .28 X (742 - 540)
= 56.6 Btu/lb T,,IT, - I
TE =
Heat input to cycle = Q. = CP x (T, - T, ) 1, (T,IT, - I )

= 0.28 X ( 1500 + 46() = I - Il..

T,
(ns T,JT, = T,/T5 , from above)
742) = 341 Btu/lb
,,,
1960 ,, =
Il.. _, ~ T,
-· = Il.. X
t 11t
T., = = = 1425°R T,
X
T, T3
1.375 I .375

Expansion work Q,. = 0.28 x ( I 96() - 1425) = 150 Btu/lb Hence

TE = ISO - 56·6 = 0 273 27 3~ = I - .!J.. X ,, • . I"' (31 J
34 1 · .or · ¾: TE
T
Using Eq. (30), TE = I Jt l.375 = 0.273. EXt\Ml,LE
'
It can be 1,ccn that as the pressure ratio increases. TE in- Using the same dat:t as above, compute th~ following for the
creases. Also as inlet air temperature decreases, the efficiency in- ideal n:ncrative cycle: (I) W<irk of compression. W.:. (2) heat
creases. That is why some gas turbine suppliers install chillers or added to cycle: (3) heat addc<.1 10 regenerator; (4) expansion work
air coolers at the compressor in let so that during summer months in turbine: (5) cycle efficiency.
the turbine output docs not fall off compared to the winter
Solurim,. For the same in let temperature and pre~surc ratio, W,.
months.
= 56.6 and T,, = 742°R. Ex haust temperature from above =
1425°R = T,.
5.22
Q: How can ti·,· efficiency of a simple Brayton cycle be improved''
Heat added in regenerator = C1, X IT, - T2) = 0.28
X (1425 - 742) = 191.3 Btu/lb
A: One of the ways of improving the cycle cf'nciency is to utilize the I-teat added in combustor = Q" = C,, X (1'3 - 1'sl
energy m the exhaust gases (Figure 5. 7b) and use it to preheat the = 0 . 28 x (1960 - 1425) = 150 Btu/lb
air entering the combustor. This 1s callc<.I regeneration .
Heat rejected = Q, = C,, X (T,; - T,l = 0.28
Assuming I(X)'lf regeneration. the exhaust gas at temperature
T., preheat~ air from 72to T, whi le cooling to T6 . The actual heat X (742 - 540) = 56.6 Btu/lb
 F,:lu~. Pump~. dt1< I s1e,1111 Turbines 38tl
Gam1pc11hy

56.6 q Flow. gpm or acfm

TE= I Q, = I - = 0.622 , or 62.2c,ki Heal added, rejected , Btu/lb
Q., 150 Q,,. Q,
,. Pressure ratio
Using (&) , Specific gravity
s 0

540 s,. s, Enrropy of saruratcd liquid and vapor, Btu/lb R

TE= I
1960
X 4<1.3 I YI
1
= 0.62 l. Of 62. I%
s Speci fie speed
t::.T Temperature rise, °F
It is interesting to note thal as lhe pressure ratio increases. the ef- Thcm1al efficiency
TE
ficiency decreases. As the combustor lcmpernture increases. the Temperature. 0 R
T
efficiency increases. However. il can be shown that the power Theoretical steam rate , lb/kWh
TSR
output increases with increases in the pressure ratio; hence indus- Velocity. fusee
V
trial gas turbines operate at a pressure ratio between 9 to Ill and
an inlet gas temperature of 1800 to 2200°F.
w Flow, lb/hr
IV, Work of compression. Btu/lb
Efficiency. fraction; subscripts}', m. p, and t stand for
11
NOMENCLATUHE ran, motor. pump, and turbine
ASR Actual steam rate, lb/kWh p Density. lb/cu fl
BHP Brake horsepower, hp
C,,. C11 , C, Facmrs correcting viscosity effects for now. head, and REFERENCES
efficiency I. logcr.\011 Rand. Camero/I H_w/ra11r,c Dat a. 16th ed .. Woodcliff Lake.
Specific heat. BtU/lb °F
N.J .• 198 1, P· 5.1. . D kk New York
Tube or pipe diameter, in. ; subscript i swnds for inner 2. I. Karns~ik. C1mtrifugal Pump Clime. Marcel c er, .
diameter 1981. p. 102. · N y 1 k 1983
E Voltage 3. Power Magazint', Pmn.•r Handbook. McGraw-H11l , ew <r , ~.

" Enthalpy, Btu/lb; subscripts f and g stand for saturated

Iiquid and vapor
H Head developed by pump, ft; subscript a stands for
acceleration
HP Horsepower
H •. Head developed by fan. in. WC
I Current, A
k Ratio of gas specific heats. c.,c,.
L Length. ft
N Speed of pump or fan. rpm
NPSH Net positive suc1ion head. fl; subscripts a and r stand for
available and required
p Power. kW
t::.P Differential pressure, psi
 Appendix 'Tables

Table A I Thennodynamic Properties of Dry Saturated Steam-

Pressure Table

Table A2 Thermodynamic Properties o r Ory Saturated Stearn-

Temperature Table

Table A3 Thermodynamic Properties of Superheated Stem11

Table A4 EnUrnlpy of Compressed Water

Table AS Speci fic Heal, Viscosity. and Thermal Conductivity

of Some Common Gases at Atmospheric Pressure

Table Ao Specific I leat. Viscosiry, and Thermal Conduct ivity of Air

Flue Gas, and Gas Turbine Exhaust Gases

Table A7 Enthalpy of Gases

Table A8 Correla1ions for Superheated Steam Properties

Table A9 Coefficients to Estimate Properties of Dry. Samnued

Steam with Equation

3!))
 Tahlc A I Thcm1odynamic Properties or Dry Saturated Si, P, Tab
Abs Specific volume Enthalpy
Temp. Entropy
press.
Sa1 lniemal encrg)
Ab, ....
' '
,,..
ps1.
p
"F
hqu,d
Sa1.
vapor
Sa1.
liquid Evap. Sat.
vapor
Sa1.
liquid Evap. Sat.
vapor
Sat.
liquu.l
Sat press .. -
t,.;
I •1 he vapor p~i
l.0 101.74 0.01614 333.6
hf
69.70
hfe
1036.J
he
l 106.0
if 4e SI'
ef ue ,,
2.0 126.08 0.01623 01326 1.8456 l .9782 69.70
173.73 93.99 1022.2 1116.2 1044 1 1.0
3 .0 141.48 0.01630 0.1749 I. 7451 1.9200 93.98
118.71 109.37 1013.2 1122.6 l051 9 '.!.O
4.0 152.97 0 01636 0.2008 l 6855 1.8863 109.36
90.63 120.86 1006.4 1127.3 1056 7 3.0
5.0 162.24 0.01640 0.2198 1.6427 I .8625 120.85
73.52 130.13 1001.0 1131.1 1060 2 4.0
0.2347 I 6094 1.8441 130.12
6.0 170.06 0.01645 61.98 1063.l 5.0
137.96 996.2 1134.2 0.2472
7.0 176.85 0.01649 53 64 l 5820 1.8292 137.94 1065.4
144.76 992.1 I 136.9 0.2581 6.0
8.0 182.86 0.01653 47.34 1.5586 l.1'1167 144 74 !067.4
150.79 988.5 1139.J 0.2674 70
9.0 188.28 0.01656 I .5383 l.8057 150. 77
42.40 156.22 985.2 I 141.4 1069.2 RO
10 193 21 0.2759 1.5203 I. 7962 156 19
0.01659 38.4'.! 161. 17 982 I 1070.8 9.0
1143.3 0.2835 I 5041 I. 7876
4 696 212.00 0.01672 161 14 1072.2 10
'.!6.80 180.07 970.J 1150.4
15 213.03 0.01672 0 31'.!0 14446 l 7566 18002
26.29 181.1 l 969.7 I 150.8 1077.5 14.6%
20 227.96 0.3135 l.-1415 1.7549 18106
0 01683 20.089 196.16 960.1 1077 8 15
25 240.07 1156.3 0.3356 1.3962 I 7319
0.01692 16303 208.42 952.J 196. IO 1081.9 10
30 I 160.6 0.3533 1.3606 I 7139
250 33 0.01701 13.746 218 52 208.34 l085. I ~5
945.3 1164. l 0.3680 l.3313
35 259.28 1.6993 218.71 1087 ll
0 OJ 708 11 898 227 91 30
939.2 1167. I 0.3807 I 3063
40 267 25 0.01715 10.498 I 6870 227 80 HNO I ,5
236 03 933.7 1169 7 0.3919
45 274.44 0.01721 9.401 1.2844 1.6763 235.90 1092.0
24336 928.6 1172.0 0.4019 40
50 281.0l 0.01727 l 2650 1.6669 243.22 1093 7
8 515 250.09 924 0 1174. l 45
55 287.07 0 01732 0.4110 I 2474 l.6585 249 93
7 787 256.30 919.6 I 175.9 1095.3 50
0.4193 1.2316 1.6509 256.12
60 292.71 0 01738 7.175 1096.7 55
262 09 915.5 1177.6 0.4270
65 297.97 0.01743 6.655 1.2168 1.6438 261. 90 1097.9 ()()
267 50 911.6 1179. I 0 4342
70 302 92 0.01748 1.2032 I .6374 267.29 1099.1
6.206 272.61 907.9 1180.6 ()5
75 307.60 0.01753 0.4409 1.1906 1.6315 272 ..l!!
5.816 277 43 904.5 1 ICJ0.2 70

-~-
80 1181.9 04472 1.1787 I 6259
312.03 0.01757 5.472 277. 19 I 101 2 '"'
282.02 901.1 l 183. I 0 4531 I. I676 1.6207
75 ,,.
85 316.25 0.01761 281 76 I 102.1 80 .,,..,
5.168 286.39 807 8 1184.2
90 320.27 0.4587 I 1571 l 6158 286. l l
0.01766 4.896 290.56 894.7 1102 9 85 ....
95 324. 12 1185.3 0.1641 1.1471 1.6 112
0.01770 4.65'.! 290.27 l lOJ 7 ~
294.56 891 7 I 186.2 90
)0 327.81 0.01774 4 432
0.4692 1. 1376 l.6068 294.25 I l04.5 95
..,
298.40 888.8 IIR7 .2 0 4740 ·-::
10 314 77 0 01782 4 049 I 1286 l 6026 298.08 I l05.2
30) 66 R83.2 1188 9 100
0 4XJ2 I 1117 I 5'148 105.HO I 10<,.5 I IO

120 341.25 0.01789 3.728 312.44 877.9 I 190.4 0.4916 1.0962 1.5878 312.05 I 107.6 120
130 347 32 0 01796 3.455
140 153 02 0 01802 3.220
318.81
324.82
879.9
868.2
1191.7
I 193.0
0.4995 1.0817 I 5812 318.38 I IOR 6 130 >
"C
0.6069 10682 1.575 I 324.35 1109.6 140
150 158.-12 0.01809 3.015 330.51 863.6 I 194. l 0.5138 1.0556 1.5094 330.01 I I 10.5 150 ?S
160 363.53 0 01815 2.834 333.93 859.2 I 195. l 0.5204 l.0436 1.5640 335.39 1111 2 160 g_
170 368.4 I 0.01822 2.675 34 1.09 854.9 1196.0 0.5266 l .0324 1.5590 140.52 1111.9 170 x·
IKO 173.06 0.01827 2.532 346.03 850.8 1196.9 0.5325 1 0217 1.5542 345.42 1112 5 180 -l
,.,.
190 377.51 0.01833 2.404 350.79 1!46.8 I 197.6 0.5381 10116 1.5497 350.15 1113 I 190 :::.
....
200 381.79 0.0 l 839 2.288 355.36 843.0 1198 4 0.5435 1.0018 1.5453 354.68 II 13 7 200 ~
250 400 95 0 01865 I .8438 376.00 825.1 1201. l 0.5675 0.958t\ 1.5263 375.14 1115 8 250 ",I',

300 417.33 0 01890 I 5433 393.84 809.0 1202.8 0.5879 0 9225 1.5104 392.79 1117.1 300
350 431 72 0 01913 13260 409.69 794.2 1203.9 0.6056 0.8910 l .4966 408.45 1118.0 350
400 444.59 0.0193 1.1613 424.0 780.5 1204.5 0.6214 0 8630 l.4844 422.6 I 118.5 400
450 456.28 0 0195 1.0320 437.2 767 4 1204.6 0.6356 0.8378 1.4734 435.5 1118.7 450
500 46701 0 0197 0 9278 449.4 755.0 1204.4 0.6487 0.8147 I 4634 447 6 I I IR .6 500
550 476.94 0.0199 0.8424 460.K 743.1 1203.9 0.6608 0 7934 l.-*542 458.8 I 118.2 550
600 486.21 00201 0.7698 471.6 7316 1203 2 0.6720 07734 1.4454 469 4 I 117 7 60()
650 494.90 0.0203 0 7083 481.8 720.5 1202.3 0.6826 0 7548 1.4374 479.4 1117 l 650
700 503.10 0.0205 0.6554 491.5 709 7 1201.2 06925 0 7371 1.4296 488.8 1116.3 700
750 510.86 0 0207 0.6092 500.8 699.2 1200.0 07019 0 .7204 I .4223 598.0 1115 4 750
800 518.23 0.0209 0.5687 509.7 688.9 1198.6 0.7108 0 7045 1.4 I53 506.6 I 114.4 KOO
850 525.26 0.0210 0.5327 518.3 678.8 I 197 1 0.7194 0.6891 I .4085 515.0 I I 13 3 !!50
900 531 98 0.0212 0.5006 526.6 668.8 I 195.4 0.7275 0.6744 l.4020 523.I 1112. I 900
950 536.43 0.0214 0.4717 534.6 659.1 1193 7 0.7355 0.6602 l .3957 530.9 1110.l! 950
1000 544.61 0.0216 0.4456 542.4 649.4 I 191.8 0.7430 0.6467 1.3897 538.4 1109 4 1000
1100 556.31 0 0220 0.4001 557.4 630.4 1187.8 0.7575 0.6205 l.3780 552.9 1106.4 1100
1200 567 22 0.0223 0.3619 571. 7 611. 7 I 183.4 0.771 I 0.5956 1.3667 566.7 1103.CI 1200
1300 577.46 0.0227 0.3293 585.4 593.2 1178.6 0.7840 0.5719 1.3559 580.0 1099.4 1300
1400 587 10 0 0231 0.3012 598.7 574.7 1173.4 0.7963 0.5491 1.3454 592.7 1095.4 1400
1500 596.'.!3 0 0235 0 2765 611.6 556.3 1167.9 0.8082 0.5269 l .335 1 605.I 1091.2 1500
2000 635.82 0 0257 0 1878 671 7 463.4 1135. I 0.8619 0.4230 1.2849 662.2 1065.6 2000
2500 668.13 0 0287 0.1307 730.6 360.5 1091.1 0.9126 0.3197 1.2322 717 3 1030 6 2500
3000 695.36 0.0346 0.0858 802.5 217.8 1020.3 0. 9731 0. 1885 I 1615 783.4 972.7 3000 :,.;
,,..
,..
3206.2 705.40 0.0503 0.0503 902.7 () 902.7 1.0580 0 1.0580 872.9 872.9 3206.2
.~mir«•· AbnJgC<J from Joscph H Keenan and ~rcderick G Keyes. Therm11dwru,111c Properues of Steam. John Wile} & Sons. Inc . Ne"' York, 1937 ""
Table A2 Thcrmodynam,c Properties of Dry Sat, d s
w
Specific volume Enthalpy Entropy ro
Temp., Abs Temp. ~
.t" press . psi Sat.
Evap.
Sat. Sat.
Evap.
Sat. Sat.
Evap. Sat. OF
liquid vapor liquid vapor liquid vapor
I fl ,f •fe ve hf hfe he sf afe se (

0.08854 0.01602 3306 3306 0.00 1075.8 1075.8 0.0000 ". 1877 2.1877 32
0.09995 0.01602 2947 2947 3.02 1074.J 1077.1 0.0061 2.1709 2.1770 35
0.12170 0.01602 2444 2444 8.05 1071.3 1079.3 0.0162 2.1435 2.1597 40
0 . 14752 0.01602 2036.4 2036.4 13.06 1068.4 1081.5 0.0262 2.1167 2.1429 45
0.17811 0.01603 1703.2 1703.2 18.07 1065.6 1083.7 0.0361 2.0903 2.1264 50
0.2563 0.01604 1206.6 1206.7 28 06 1059.9 1088.0 0.0555 2.0393 2.0948 60
0.3631 0.01606 867.8 867.9 38.04 1054.3 1092.3 0.0745 1.9902 2.0647 70
0.5069 0.01608 633.1 633.1 48.02 1048.6 1096.6 0.0932 1.9428 2.0360 80
0.6982 0.01610 468.0 468.0 57.99 1042.9 I 100.0 0.1115 1.8972 2.0087 90
0 9492 0.01613 350.3 350.4 67.97 1037.2 I 105.2 0.1295 1.8531 1.9826 100
1.2748 0.01617 265.3 265.4 77.94 1031.6 1109.5 0.1471 18106 I 9577 110
1.6924 0.01620 203.25 203.27 87.92 1025.8 1113.7 0.1645 1.7694 l.9.B9 120
2.2225 0.01625 157.32 157.34 97.90 1020.0 I I 17.9 0.1816 1.7296 1.9112 130
2 8886 0.01629 122.99 123.01 107.89 1014.1 1122.0 0.1984 1.6910 1.8894 140
3.718 0.01634 98.06 97.07 117.89 1008.2 1126.1 0.2149 1.6537 1.8685 150
4.741 0.01639 77.27 77.29 127.89 1002.3 1130.2 0.2311 1.6174 1.8485 160
5.992 0.01645 62.~ 62.06 137.90 996.3 I 134.2 0.2472 1.5822 1.8293 170
7.510 0.01651 50.21 50.23 147.92 990.2 1138.1 0.2630 1.5480 1.8109 180
9.339 0.01657 40.94 40.96 157.95 984. t 1142.0 0.2785 1.5147 I. 7932 190
2 I l.526 0.01663 33.62 33.64 167.99 977.9 1145.9 0.2938 1.4824 I. 7762 200
2 14 123 0.01670 27.80 27.82 178.05 971.6 1149.7 0.3090 1.4508 I. 7598 210
1 14 696 0.01672 26.78 26.80 180.07 970.3 1150.4 0.3120 1.4446 l. 7566 212
2 17.186 0.01677 23.13 23.15 188.13 965.2 1153.4 0.3239 1.4201 1.7440 220 ,..,
2 20 780 0.01684 19.365 19.382 198.23 958.8 1157.0 0.3387 1.3901 I 7288 230 ""
91
..,

--
2· 24.969 0.01692 16.306 16.323 208.34 952.2 1160.5 0.3531 1.3609 I 7140 240 "I'

25, 29.825 0.01700 13.804 13.821 216.48 945.5 1164.0 0.3675 1.3323 1.6998 250 0:
2• 35.429 0.01709 11.746 I l. 763 228.64 938.7 1167.3 0.3817 1.3043 1.6860 260 ..,
2 41.858 0.01717 10.()44 10.061 238.84 931.8 1170.6 0.3958 I 2769 I 6727 270 '<
_,
')' 49.203 0.01726 8.628 8.645 249.06 924.7 1173.8 0.4096 1.2501 1.6597 280

0.4234 1.2238 I .o-172 290

259.31 917 .5 1176.8
•O 57.556 0.01735 7.444 7.461
910 I 1179.7 0.4369 I 1980 I 6350 300 >
..,
6.449 6.466 269.59 310 ~
I() 67.013 0.01745 902.6 1182.5 0.4504 l.1727 1.6231
5.626 279.92 '..,
.:?
()
10
10
77 611
89.66
103.06
0.01755
0.01765
0.01776
5.609
4.896
4,289
4 914
4.307
290.28
300.68
894.9
887.0
1185.2
1187.7
I 190.1
0.4637
0.4769
0.4900
1.1478
1.1233
,.o9'n
1.6115
t .6002
1.5891
320
330
340
-X
3 770 3 788 311 13 879.0 -l
10 118.01 0.01787
0.5029 1.0754 1.5783 350 ,..
3.342 321.63 870.7 1192.3 ::.
so 134.63 0.01799 3.324 0.5158 I.OS 19 1.5677 360 V
2.957 332.18 862.2 I 194.0 rS"
153.0-I 0.01811 2.939 0.5286 1.0287 1.5573 370
oO 2.625 342.79 853.5 1196.3 (f.
70 173 37 0 01823 2 606 0.5413 1.0059 1.5471 380
2.335 353.45 844.6 1198. 1
80 195.77 0.01836 2.3 17 0.5539 0.9832 1.5371 390
2.0836 364.17 835.4 1199 6
220.37 0 .01850 2.0651 400
90 1201.0 0.5664 0 9608 1.5272
1.8447 1.8633 374.97 826 0
00 247.31 0.01864 0.5788 0.9386 1.5174 410
1.6700 385.83 816.2 1202.1
276.75 0.01878 1.6312 0.5912 0.9166 I 5078 420
10 1.5000 396.77 806.3 1203 I
308.83 0.01894 1.4811 0.8947 1.4982 430
120 1.3499 407.79 796 0 1203.8 0.6035
130 343. 72 0.01910 13308 0.6158 0 8730 1.4887 440
1.2171 418 90 785.4 1204.3
381.59 0.01926 1.1979 450
140 1204.6 0.6280 0.8513 I 4793
1.0993 430.1 774.5
150 422.6 0.0194 1.0799 0.(>402 0.8298 1.4700 460
0.9944 441.4 763.2 1204.6
160 466.9 0.0196 0.9748 0.6523 0.8083 1.4606 470
0.9009 452.8 751.5 1204.3
no 514.7 0.0198 0.8811 0.6645 0.7868 1.4513 480
0.8172 464.4 739.4 1203.7
4110 566.1 0.0200 0.7972 0.6766 0.7653 1.4419 490
0.7423 476.0 726.8 1202.8
621.4 0.0202 0.7221 500
490 1201.7 0.6887 0 .7438 1.4325
0.6545 0.6749 487.8 713.9
500 680.8 0.0204 I 198.2 0.7130 0.7006 1.4136 520
0.5385 0.5594 SI 1.9 686.4
520 812.4 0.0209 0.7374 0.6568 1.3942 540
0.4649 536.6 636.6 1193.2
962.5 0.0215 0.4434 0.7621 0.6121 1.3742 560
540 562.2 624.2 1186.4
0.0221 0.3647 0.3868 I 3532 580
560 1133 I 588.4 1177.3 0.7872 0.5659
0.2989 0.3217 588.9
580 1325.8 0.0228 1.3307 600
548.5 I 165.5 0.8131 0.5176
0.0236 0 2432 0.2668 617.0 620
600 1542 9 1130.3 0.8398 0 .4664 l .3062
0.1955 0.2201 646.7 503.6 640
620 1786.6 0.0247 1130.S 0.8679 0.4110 1.2789
0.1538 0.1798 678.6 452.0
640 2059.7 0.0260 1104.4 0.8987 0.3485 1.2472 660
0.1165 0.1442 714.2 390.2
660 2365.4 0.0278 0.9351 0.2719 1.2071 680
0.1115 757.3 309.9 1067 .2
680 2708.1 0.0305 0.0810 700
993.4 0.9905 0.1484 1.1359 ~
0.()392 0.0761 823.3 172.1 (:
700 3093.7 0.0369 902 7 1.0580 0 l.051!0 7()6 - ([
0 00503 902.7 0
705.4 3206.2 0.0503
Smiru Abridf,ed from Joseph ti Keen.in and Fredcnck G. Keyes. Th,nnod}·1111mic: Pmpntie> of Steam, John Wiley & S<1ns. New York. 1937
 Table A:i Thcm1odynamic Propcnies of Superhca1ed Steam
Abs press . . psi
(sa1 temp) Temp. °F
200 300 400 500 600 700 w
800 900 1000
V .. 392.6 452.3 512.0
I I00 1200 J400 1600 ~
I 571.6 63J.2 6908 750.4 Cl
h... 1150.4 1195.8 809.9 869.5 929. 1
1241.7 1288 .3 1335.7 J383.8 988.7 11 07.8 1227.0
ClOl.74) ~ - ... 2.0612 2. I 153 1432.8 1482.7 1533.5
2. 1720 2.2233 2.2702 1585.2 1637.7 1745.7
2.3 J37 2.3542 2.3923 1857.5
V, • ' 78. 16 90.25 2.4283 2.4625 2.4952
102.26 114.22 126. 16 2.5566 2.6137
5 h . . .. J148.8 138.IO 15003 161.95
J J95.0 1241.2 J288.0 J73.87 185.79 197 71
163.24) s . .. . 1335.4 1383.6 1432.7 22t.6 245.4
1.87 18 l.9370 1.9942 J482.6 1533.4 1585.1
2.0456 2.0927 2 1361 1637.7 1745.7 1857.5
v ... . 2.1767 2.2148 2.2509
38.85 45.00 51.04 2.2851 2.3178 2.3792
57.05 63.03 69.01 2.4363
10 h .. . I 146.6 1193.9 74.98 80.95 86.92
1240.6 1287.5 1335 1 92.88 98.84 110. 77
l93 .2 1)s .. . . l .7927 1383.4 J432.5 1482.4 122 .69
1.8595 1.9172 1.9689 1533.2 1555.0 1637 6
2.0J60 2.0596 2.1002 J745 .6 1857.J
V. . . . .. .. 2. 1383 2. J744 2.2086
J0 .53 34.68 38.78 2.2413 2.3028 2 ..1598
42 .56 46.94
14.096 h . ... . ..... I J92.8 J239.9 1287 . 1 1334.8
51.00 55.07 59.13 63. 19 67.25 75.37
112.00) s .••• . ... .. 1383.2 1432.3 1482.3 83.48
1.8160 1.8743 1.9261 1533. I 1584.8 1637.5
J. 9734 2.0170 2.0676 1745.5 J857.3
V .. . .... 2.0958 2. 1319 2.1662
22.36 25.43 28 .46 2. 1989 2.2603 2.3174
31.47
20 h .... ....
. .- 1191.6 1239.2 1286.6 1334.4
34.47 37.46 40.45 43.44 46.42 49 .41 55.37
137. 96) ~ .. . . ...... 1382.9 J432.I 1482. 1 61 34
1.7808 1.8396 1.8918 1533.0 1684 7 1637.4 1745.4
1.9392 1.9829 2.0235 1857.2
v ... . . .... 11.040 12.628 14.168 15.688
2.06J8 2.0978 2. 1321 2. 1648 2.2243 2.2834
40 h . . .. . .. . .. 1186.8 1236.5 1234.8 1333. I
17. 198 18.702 20 20 21.70 23.20 24.69 27 .68
67 .25) > .. . . .. .... 1.6994 I. 7()()6 1.8140 l.86 19
I 381.9 143 1.3 1481.4 1532. 4 1584 3 1637.0 1745. I
30.86
J .9058 1.9467 1.9650 1857.()
v ... . . .... . 7.259 8.357
2.0212 2.0555 2.0883 2.1498 2.2069
9.403 10.427
60 h... .... .. I I 81.8 1233.6 1283.0 133 1.8
J 1.441 12.449 13.452 14.454 15.453 16.451 18 446
n .71> s ... . .... 1.6492 I. 7135 J. 7678 1.8162
1380.9 1430 5 J480 .8 1531.9 1583.3 1636.6 1744.8
20.4-1
1.8605 1.90 15 1.9400 1856.7
V .. ' ..... . . .... 6.220 7.020 7 797
1.9762 2.0106 2.(l434 2. 10:19 2. 162 1
8.562
80 h. . . . ... . . . ... 1230.7 1281. I 1330.5
9.322 10.077 10 830 I 1.582 12.232 13 830 15.325
2.03) s . . . . ... . . ..... 1.679 1 I. 7346
1379.9 1429.7 1480. 1 J53 I. 3 1583.4 1636.2
1.7836 1.828 1 1.8694 1744 5 1856.5
V , .. . . ... . . ..... 4.937 5.589
1.9079 1.9442 1.9787 2.0 115 2.073 J 2. 1303
100 6.2 18 6.835
h . . .. . . . . .. . .... . 1227.6 1279. 1 1329.l
7.446 8.052 8.656 9.259 9.860 I J.060 ,.._
7.81 J , • . • ..... . 1378.9 1428.9 1479 .5 12.268
. .. ..
. 1.65 I 8 1.7085 I. 758 I
1530.8 1582.9 [635 .7 1744.2 1866.2
""
~
1.8029 1.8443 1.8829 ::,
V. • . . . .... . . ... . . 4.08 1 4 636 5.165
1.9 193 I. 953!1 1.9867 2.0484 2. 1056 o;
20 h... .. . . . . . ... .. 1224.4 1277 .2 1327.7
5.683 6.195 6.702 7.207 7.7 10 8.2 12 9.2 1<1
"C
:ll
J. 25) ~ ..... 1377.8 1428 . 1 10.2J3
. . .. .. J.6287 1.6869 1.7370
1478.8 1530.2 1582.4 1635.J 1743.9 ::,
I. 7822 1.8237 1.8625 1856.0
V •. •. . . .... . ..... 3.468 J.954 4.413
I 8990 1.9335 J. 9663 2.0281 2.0664 '<
4.86 J 5.301 5.738 6. 172 6 604 7.0J5 7.X95 8.752

140 h. ...... . .... . 1221. I 1275 .2 1326.4 1376.8 1427.3 1476.2 1529.7 1581 9 1634.9 1743.5 1855.7
(353 2) >..•. . .. ... . .. . .. 1.6087 1.6683 1.7 190 1.7645 1.8063 1.815 I I 88 17 1.9 163 I. 9493 2.0110 2.0683 >
-0
.. ...
I
V . ' '•
h.
.. . . .
......
.
. .... .
3.008
1217.6
3.443
1273. 1
3.849
1325.0
4.244
1375.7
4 .631
1426.4
5.0 15
1477.5
5.396
1529. I
5.775
I 581.4
6 . 152
1634.5
6.906
1743.2
7.656
1855.5
,.,
';:;
::,
(36: 3) s . . .. .. .... . .... 1.5908 1.6519 I .7033 1.7491 1.7911 1.830 I 1.8667 I. 9014 1.9344 1.9962 2.0535 ""
v .. . . . .... . .. ... 2.649 3.044 3.4 11 3.764 4. IIO 4.452 4.792 5.129 5.466 6. 136 6.804
;x
I h ... ... . . .... 1214.0 1271.0 1323.5 1374.7 1425.6 1476.8 1528.6 1581.0 1634. 1 1742.9 1855.2 -i
(37 6) s . . . ..... . .. . . . 1.5745 1.6373 1.6894 1.7355 1.7776 1.8 167 1.8534 1.8882 1.92 12
9:.
1.983 1 1.0404 :::.
V , ••• . ..... . . .... 2.361 2.726 3.040 3.380 3.693 4.002 4.309 4.613 4.9 17 5.52 1 6. 123
~
'J'
21 h .. .... . .. ... 1210.3 1268.9 1322. 1 1373.6 1424.8 1476.2 1528.0 1580.5 1633 .7 1742.6 1855 0
(38 1 9) s . .. .. . . ..... 1.5594 1.6240 1.6767 I. 7232 I. 7655 1.8048 1.8415 J.8763 1.9094 1.97 13 2.0287
V, .. .. . . . ..... 2 . 125 2.465 2.772 3.066 3.352 3.634 3.913 4. 19 1 4.467 5.0 17 5.565
h . .. . . ..... 1206.5 1266.7 1320.7 1372.0 1424 .0 1475.5 1527.5 1580.0 1633.3 1742.3 1854.7
(300 6) s .. .. ..... . ..... 1.5453 1.6117 1.6652 1.7 120 J .7545 1.7939 1.8308 1.8656 1.8987 1.9607 2.018 1
V ..• . . ..... . ... .. 1.9276 2.247 2.533 2.804 3.068 3.327 3.584 3.839 4 .093 4597 5.100
h .... .... . . . ..... 1202.5 1264.5 13 19.2 1371.5 1423.2 1474.8 1526.9 1579.6 1632.9 1742.0 1854.5
(3' 7) s .... ...... . .. ... 1.5219 1.6003 1.6546 I. 7017 1.7444 I. 7839 1.8209 1.8553 1.8889 1.9510 2.0064
v .... ... . . . . . . . . .... . 2.062 2.330 2.552 2.827 3.067 3.305 3.541 3.776 4.242 4.707
h .... ..... . . ... . . . ..... 1262.3 13 J7.7 1370.4 1422.3 1474.2 1526 3 1579.1 1632.5 1741. 7 1854 2
(404 2) s .... ...... . ... . . ... . 1.5897 1.6447 1.6923 I. 7362 I. 7748 1.8118 1.8467 1.8799 1.9420 1.9905
v. .. .. .. . . . .... . . ..... 1.9047 3. 156 2.392 2 .62 1 2.845 3.066 3.286 3.5()4 3.938 4.370
h. . .. . ... . . . . . . .... .. 1360.0 13 16.2 1360.4 142 1.5 1473 .5 1525.8 1578.6 1632. 1 174 1.4 1854 .0
(4 8) s . . . .... .. ... . . .. . . . 1.5796 1.6354 1.6834 1.7365 1.7662 J.8033 1.8383 1.87 16 I 9337 1.9912
V. • • ...... . ... .. . ... .. 1.7675 2.005 2.227 2.442 2.652 2.859 3.065 3.269 3.674 4.078
h . .. . . ..... ... .. . .. .. . 1257.6 1314.7 1368.3 1420.6 1472.8 1525.2 1578. 1 1631 7 174 1 0 1853.7
( 3) ~.". . .... . . . . .. . ... .. 1.570 1 1.6268 1.675 1 1.7 184 1.7582 I .7954 1.8305 1.8638 1.9260 1.9835
V •• ...... . . . . .. . ..... 1.4923 J. 7036 1.8980 2.084 2.366 2 .445 2.623 2.798 3. 147 3.493
h ... . ...... . . . . .. . . .. . . 1251.5 1310.9 1365.5 14 18.5 1471.1 1523.8 1577.0 1630 7 1740.3 1853 I
(• 2) • .. . . .. . . . . ..... ... ... 1.5481 1.6070 1.6563 1.7002 1.7403 1.7777 1.8130 1.8463 1.9065 1.9662
V• • .. . ... ... .. . . .. . .. 1.2851 I .4770 1.6508 1.8 16 1 1.9767 2. 134 2.290 2.445 3.751 3.055
h ... ...... . . . ... . .... . 1245 . I 1304.9 1362.7 14 16.4 1469 .4 1522.4 1575.8 1629.6 1739.5 1852.5 w
9) s .. .. . .. .. . . .. . . . . ..... 1.528 1 I 5894 1.6398 1.6842 1.7247 I. 7623 I. 7977 J.831] J .8936 1.9513 ~
-..J
Sm,ne: Abridgc<.J from Thermod.wu111uc Propt'r/U!.\ of S1ecm1. by pl
Ta!)I~ 1\3 Continued
Abs press . • ps, Temp. °F
(sat temp)
w
.,,
._
500 550 600 620 640 660 680 100 800 900 JOO() 1200 1400 1600 C1)
V - •. 1.1231 1.2155 1.3005 1.3332 1.3652 1.3967 1.4276 1.4384 1.6074 1.7616 1.8928 2. 170 2.443 2 714
450 h 1238.4 1272.0 1302.8 1214.6 1326.2 1337.5 1348.8 1359.9 1414.3 1467.7 1521.0 1628.6 1738.7 1861. 9
(456.28) ~ . . . 1.5095 1.5437 1.5735 1.5845 1.5951 I 6054 1.6153 1.6250 1.6099 1.7106 1.7486 J.8177 J.9803 I 9381
V •• • • 0.9927 J.0600 1.1591 I. 1883 1.2186 1.2478 1.2763 1.3044 1.4405 1.5715 1.6096 1.9504 2.197 2.442
500 h 1231 3 1266.8 1298.6 1310 7 1322.6 1334.2 1345.7 1357.0 1412.1 1466.0 1519.6 1627 6 1737 9 1851.3
(467 0 I l s • • 1.4919 1.5280 1.5588 1.5701 l.5810 1.5915 1.6016 1.6115 1.6571 1.6962 1.7363 1.8056 1.8683 1 9262
V ••• , 0.8852 0.9686 1.0431 1.0714 l.0969 1.1259 1.1533 I 1783 1.3068 1.4241 1.5414 1.7704 1.9957 2.219
550 h ..•• 1223 7 1261.2 1294.3 1306.8 1318.9 1330.8 1342.5 1354.0 1409.9 1464 .3 1518.2 1626.6 1737 I 1850 6
1476.94) s •... 1.4751 1.5131 1.5451 1.5568 1.5680 1.5787 1.5890 1.5991 1.6452 1.6868 I 7250 I. 7946 1.8575 1.9156
V •• •. 0.7947 0 8753 0.9463 0.9729 0.9988 1.0241 I .04l!9 1.0732 1.1899 1.3013 1.4096 1.6208 1.8279 2.033
600 h .... 1215.7 1255.5 1289.9 1302.7 1315.2 1327.4 1339.3 1351. I 1407.7 1462.5 1516.7 1625.5 1736.3 1850.0
1486.21) ~- ... 1.4596 1.4990 1.5323 1.5443 1.5558 1.5667 1.5773 1.5875 1.6342 1.6762 I. 7147 I. 7846 1.8476 I 9068
V, • • • ... 0 7277 0.7934 (U!177 0.8411 0 .8639 0.8860 0 .9077 1.0108 I. I 082 I 2024 1.3853 1.5641 1.7405
700 h .... .... . ' 1243. 2 1280.6 1294.3 1307.5 1320.3 1332.8 1345.0 1403.2 1459.0 1515.9 1623.5 1734.8 1848.lj
/503 10) s • . •• .... ' I 4722 1.5064 1.5212 1.5223 1.5449 1.5559 1.5665 1.6147 I 6572 I 6962 1.7666 1.8299 1.8881
V ••. . .... ' 0.6154 0.6779 0.7006 0.7223 0 .7433 0.7635 0.7833 0.8763 0 9623 I 0470 1 2066 1.3662 1.5214
800 h ... .... 1229.8 1270.7 1285.4 1299.4 1312.9 1325.9 1235.6 1398.6 1455.4 1511.0 1611.4 1733.2 1847.5
(51823) s ' I 4467 1.4863 1.5000 1.5129 1.5250 1.5366 1.5476 J.5972 1.64-07 1.6801 I 75 IO 1.8146 1.8729
V , •. • .... .. 0.5264 0.5873 0.6089 0.6294 0.6491 0.6680 0 6863 0 .77l6 0 .8506 0.9262 I 0714 1.2124 13 509
<)()() h .. . ..... 1215 .0 1250 I 1275.9 l290.9 1305. 1 1318.8 1332. I 1393.9 1451.8 1508.1 1619.3 1731.6 1846.2
(531 98) s ...... 1.4216 1.4653 1.4800 1.4938 1.5066 1.5187 1.5303 1.5814 1.6257 1.6656 I 7371 1.8009 1.8595
V •••• . ..... 0.4533 0.5140 0.5350 0.5546 0.5733 0.5912 0.6084 0.6878 0.7604 0.8294 0.9615 1.0893 l.2 146
1000 h .. ...... 1196.3 1248.8 1165.9 1281.9 1297.0 1311.4 1325.3 1389.2 1448.2 1505.1 1617.3 1730.0 1845 0
C~44.6 I I , ...... 1.396 l 1.4450 1.461() 1.4757 1.4893 1.5021 1.5141 1.5670 J.61 2 1 1.6525 I 7245 1.7886 1.8474
V , ..... 0.4532 0.4738 0.4929 0.51 JO 0.5281 0 .5-145 0.6191 0 .6866 0.7503 0 .8716 0.9885 I 1031
,..,
... ,
1100 h . . .. ...... . ..... 1236.7 1255.3 1272.4 1288.5 1303. 7 1318.3 1384.3 1444.5 1502.2 1615.2 1728.4 1843.8 0.,
:::;
1556 31 I ,
,. .
...... . ....
. ..... . .....
1.4251
04016
I 4425
0.4222
1.4583 1.4728 1.4862 1.4989 1.5535 1.5995 I 6406 I 7130 l.7775
0.44!0 0.4586 0.4752 0.4909 0.5617 06250 0.6843 0 7967 0 .90-!6
1.8262
I OIOl
-
,.
"~
1200 h . . ..
(567 22 ) ,
......
. . .. -
. .....
....
1223.5
1.4052
1243.9
1.4243
1262.4 1279 6 1295.7 131 I 0 1379.3 1440.7
1.4413 1.4568 1.4710 1.4843 1.5409 1.5879
1499.2 1613. 1 1726.9
1.6293 I 7025 I 7672
1842.5
1.8263
-
...,..

v •..• . . . . . . . ..... 0.3174 0.3390 0.3580 0.3753 0 .3912 0.4062 0.47 14 0.5281 0. 5805 0 6789 0 7 727 0.8640

1400 k .•.. I 193.011218 4 I

1240.4 1 1260.31 1278.5 1295.5 1369. 1
1.5177
1433. 1
1.5666
I
1493.211606.911723 71 1840.0
1.6093 l.6836 1.7489 1.8063
(5!17 10) , .. 1.3639 J.3877 1.4079 1.4258 1.4419 1.4567
V 0.3733 0.2936 0.3112 0.3271 0.3417 0.4034 0.4553 0.5027 0.5906 0.6728 0 7545 .?
.:;::
1358.4 1425.3 1487 0 1604 6 1720.5 1837.5
1187 8 1215.2 1238.7 1259.6 1278 7
1600 h
(604 .90) , 1.3489 1.3741 1.3952 1.4137 1.4303 1.4964 1.5476 1.5914 I 6669 l. 7328 1 7926 2..,
V 0.2407 0.2597 0.2760 0.2907 0.3502 0.3986 0 .4421 0.5218 0.5968 0.6()93 "'
::
X
1185. 1 1214.0 1238.5 1260.3 1347.2 1417.4 1480.8 1600.4 1717.3 1835.0
1800 h -l
1.3377 1.3628 1.3855 1.4044 1.4765 1.5301 1.5752 1.6520 1.7185 I 7766
(621.03) s
0.3532 0.3935 0.4668 0.5252 0 6011
....
~
...,
V ••• . .. . . . .. . . . 0. 1936 0.2161 0.2337 0.2489 0 .3074 ~
•. .••. •. •.. l 145.6 1184 9 1214.8 1240.0 1336.5 1409.2 1474.5 1596. 1 1714. 1 1622 .5 V'
2000 h . .. I 7886
• . . .. . . . . . . . 1.2945 1.3300 1.3564 1.3782 I .4576 1.5139 1.5602 1 6384 I. 7065
(635.112) ,
0.1484 0. 1686 0 .2294 0.27 10 0 .3061 0.3678 0.4244 0.4784
V '. 1826 2
2500 h .. .. 1132.3 1176.8 1303.6 1387 .8 1458.4 1585.3 1706 I
1 2687 1.3073 1.4127 1.4772 1.5273 1.6088 I 6775 I 73119
((,68 I 3)
'V .••
0.0964 0. 1760 0.2159 0 .2476 0.3018 0.3505 0.3966
1060.7 1267.2 1365.0 1441.tl 1574.3 1698.0 1819 9
3000 h .. ..
I. 1966 1.3690 1.4439 I 4984 1.5837 I 6540 I 7163
495 36) s •. . .
.. .. . 0 . 1583 0. 1961 0.2288 0 .2806 · 0 .3267 0.3703
V • •.
• . . . . . 1250.5 1355.2 1434.7 1569.8 1694.6 IKl 7.2
3286.2 h .. . 1.7080
. . . . 1.3506 1.4309 1.4874 1.5742 1.6452
706.40) , . .. . • ' ' • •• I • • •

0.0806 0. 1364 0.1762 0.2058 0.2546 0 .2977 0 .3381

V
780.5 1224.9 1340 7 1424.5 1563.3 1689 8 1813.6
3500 h .. ' ' I • • • • •
1.6968
0.9515 1.3241 1.4127 1.4723 1.5615 1.6336
s ..
0 .0287 0.1062 0. 1462 0. 1743 0.2192 0.2581 0 .2941
V
763.8 1174.8 1314.4 1406.8 1562. 1 1681.7 1807.2
4-000 h . . .. ...... 1.2757 I 3827 l.4482 I 541 7 l.6154 1.6795
0 .9347
s
0.0276 0.0798 0 . 1226 0. 1500 0. 1917 0.2273 0.2602
v .. 1800 9
753.5 1113.9 1286.5 1388.4 1540.8 1673.5
4500 h ... 1.6040
0.9235 1.2204 1.3529 1.4253 1.5235 1.5990
s
0 .0268 0 .0593 0 1036 0 1302 0. 1696 0 .2027 0.1329
V 1794.5
746.4 1047. 1 1256.5 1369.5 1629.5 1665.2
5000 h ....
0.9152 1.1622 1.3231 I 4034 1.5066 1.5839 1.6499
~. 0.0262 0 .0463 0.0880 01143 0. 1516 0. 1825 0.2106 "'
._
'"
V
17R8 I ._
'"
741 .3 985.0 1224. 1 1349.3 1511!.2 1657.0
5500 h.
\ ,, 1 •••••. 1,, .. . . 1 · · • l ••• ·· • I ••• · I•• •·· 1••• ··
0.9090 I 1093 l.2930 1.3821 1.4908 1.5699 l.6309

S1111r<,· Abridged from T/i,rmodv11am1c Prop;r1<n of S1eam. hy Joseph H Keenan and Frederick G . Keyes . John Wiley & Son,. Nev. York. 1937
 :t:
-
X
Tal.>le A4 Enthalpy of Compressed Water
p (t Sat.) 0 580 (467.13)
-- 1000 (544.75)
t V u h
-
s V u h s u h
V s
Sat. .019748 447.70 449.53 .64904 .021591 538.39 542.38 .743
32 .016022 -.OJ -.OJ -.00003 .015994 .00 1.49 .00000 .015967 .03 2.99 .000
50 .016024 18.06 18.06 0.3687 .015998 18.02 19.50 .03599 .015972 17 .99 20.94 .035
100 .016/30 68.05 68.05 .12963 .0 16106 67.87 69.36 .12932 .016082 67.70 70.68 .129
ISO .016343 117.95 117.95 .21504 _0163 18 117.66 119.17 .21457 .016293 11 7.38 120.40 .214
200 .016635 168.05 168.05 .29402 .016608 167.65 16919 .29341 .0 16580 167.28 170.32 .292
250 .OJ7003 2/8.32 2/8.32 .36777 .0 16972 217.99 219.56 .36702 .016941 217.47 220.61 .366
300 .0/7453 269.61 269.61 .43732 .017416 268.92 270.53 .43641 .017379 268.24 271.46 .435
350 .018000 32/.59 32/.59 .50359 .017954 320. 71 322.37 .50249 .017909 319.83 323.15 .501
400 .018668 374.85 374.85 .56740 .018608 373.68 375.40 .56604 .0 18550 372.55 375.98 .564
450 .0/9503 429.96 429.96 .62970 .019420 428.40 430. 19 .62798 .019340 426.89 430.47 .626
500 .02060 488./ 488./ .6919 .02048 485.9 487.8 .6896 .02036 483.5 487.5 .68
510 .02087 500.3 500.3 .7046 .02073 497.9 499.8 .7021 .02060 495.6 499.4 .695
520 .02116 512.7 512.7 .7173 .02/90 530.J 512.0 .7146 .02086 507.6 511.5 . 712
530 .02/48 525.5 525.5 .7303 .02130 522.6 524.5 .7273 .02114 519.9 523.8 .724
540 .02182 538.6 538.6 .7434 .02162 535.3 537.3 .7402 .02144 532.4 536.3 .737
550 .0222/ 552./ 552./ .7569 .02198 548.4 550.5 .7532 .02177 545.1 549.2 .749
560 .02265 566./ 566. / .7707 .02237 562.0 564.0 .7666 .02213 558.3 562 ../ .763
570 .023/5 580.8 580.8 .785/ .02281 576.0 578.1 .7804 .02253 571.8 576.0 .776
580 .02332 590.8 592.9 .7946 .02298 585.9 590.J .789
590 .02392 606.4 608.6 .8096 .02349 600.6 604.9 .894
6-00
.02409 6/6.2 620.6 .818
610
.02482 632.9 637.5 .834

p ( I Sal.) 1500 (596.39) 2000 (636.00) 2500 (668.31)

t V u h s V u h s V u h s
Sat. .023461 604.97 611.48 .80824 .025649 662.40 671.89 .86227 .028605 717 .66 730.89 .9 130
32 .015939 .05 4.47 .00007 .015912 .06 5.95 .00008 .015885 .08 7.43 .0000
so .015946 17.95 22.38 .03584 .015920 17.91 23.81 .03575 .0 15895 17.88 25.23 .0356
100 .016058 67.53 71.99 .12870 .016034 67.37 73.30 .12839 .016010 67.20 74.61 .1280
ISO .016268 117.10 121.62 .2 1364 .016244 116.83 122.84 .2 1318 .016220 116.56 124.07 .2127
200 .016554 166.87 171.46 .29221 .0 16527 166.49 172.60 .29162 .0 16501 166.11 173.75 .2910
250 .0 16910 216.96 221.65 .36554 .016880 216.46 222.70 .36482 .01685 1 2 15.96 223.75 .364 1
300 .017343 267.58 272.39 .43463 .017308 266.93 273.33 .43376 .017274 266.29 274.28 .4329
350 .017865 3 18.98 323.94 .50034 .017822 318.15 324.74 .49929 .017780 317 .33 325.56 .4982
400 .018493 371.45 376.59 .56343 .018439 370.38 377.21 .56216 .018386 369.34 377 .84 .5609
450 .019264 425.44 430.79 .62470 .019191 424.04 431.14 .62313 .0 19120 422.68 431.52 .6216
500 .02024 481.8 487.4 .6853 .020 14 479.8 487.3 .6832 .02004 478.0 487.3 .68 1?
510 .02048 493.4 499.1 .6974 .02036 491.4 498.9 .6953 .02025 489.4 498.8 .693?
520 .02072 505.3 511.0 .7096 .02060 503.1 510.7 .7073 .02048 501.0 510.4 .7051
530 .02099 517.3 523.1 .7219 .02085 514.9 522.6 .7195 .02072 512.6 522.2 .7 171
540 .02127 529.6 535.5 .7343 .02 112 527.0 534.8 .7317 .02098 524.5 534.2 .7292
550 .02158 542. I 548.1 .7469 .02 141 539.2 547.2 .7440 .02 125 536.6 546.4 .7413
560 02191 554.9 56 1.0 .7596 .02 172 551.8 559.8 .7565 .02154 548.9 558.8 .7536
570 .02228 568.0 574.2 .7725 .02206 564.6 572.8 .7691 .02186 561.4 571.5 .7659
580 .02269 581.6 587.9 .7857 .02243 577.8 586. J .7820 .02221 574.3 584.5 .7785
590 .02314 595.7 602.1 .7993 .02284 591.3 599.8 .7951 .02258 587.4 597.9 .7913
600 .02366 6/0.4 6/6.9 .8134 .02330 605.4 614.0 .8066 .02300 601.0 611.6 .8043
610 .02426 625.8 432.6 .828/ .02382 620.0 628.8 .8225 .02346 615.0 625.9 .8177
620 .02498 642.5 649.4 .8437 .02443 635.4 644.5 .837 1 .02399 629.6 640.7 .8315
630 .02590 660.8 668.0 .8609 .025 14 651.9 661.2 .8525 .02459 644.9 656.3 .8459
640 .02603 669.8 679.4 .869/ .02530 661.2 672.9 8610

-
:i: 650
660
670
.02724 690.3 700.4 .8881 .02616
.02729
.02895
678.7
698.4
722./
690.8
711.0
735.3
8773
.8954
.9172
 Table A5 Specific Heat, Viscosity, and Thermal Conductivity of Some Conunon Gases at Atmospheric Pressure''
Nitrogen .;,.
Carbon dioxide Water vapor C
I\,;
Temp. (°F) cp µ k cp µ k cp µ k

200 .2162 .0438 .0125 .4532 .0315 .0134 .2495 .0518 .0189
400 .2369 .0544 .0177 .4663 .0411 .0197 .2530 .0608 .0219
600 .2543 .0645 .0227 .4812 .0506 .0261 .2574 .0694 .0249
800 .2688 .0749 .0274 .4975 .0597 .0326 .2624 .0776 .0279
1000 .2807 .0829 .0319 .5147 .0687 .0393 .2678 .0854 .0309
1200 .2903 .0913 .0360 .5325 .0773 .0462 .2734 .0927 .0339
1400 .2980 .0991 .0400 .5506 .0858 .0532 .2791 .0996 .0369
1600 .3041 .1064 .0435 .5684 .0939 .0604 .2846 . 1061 .0399
1800 .3090 . I I 30 .0468 .5857 .OJ 19 .0678 .2897 .1122 .0429
2000 .3129 . 1191 .0500 .6019 .1095 .0753 .2942 . 1178 .0459

Oxygen Sulfur dioxide Hydrogen chloride

Temp. (0 F) cp µ k CP µ k cp µ k
200 .2250 .0604 .0186 .1578 .0386 .0074 .1907 .0412 .0113
400 .2332 .0716 .0229 .1704 .0493 .0109 . 1916 .0534 .0143
600 .2404 .0823 .0272 .1806 .0595 .0143 .1936 .0655 .0175
800 .2468 .0924 .0313 .1887 .0692 .0175 .1965 .0774 .0209
1000 .2523 . 1021 .0352 .1950 .0784 .0205 .2002 .0892 .0245
1200 .2570 . I I 11 .0389 .1997 .0871 .0234 .2043 .1009 .0283
1400
1600
.2611
.2647
.1197
. 1278
.0425
.0460
.2030
.2054
.0954
. 1030
.0261
.0286
.2086
.2128
. 1124
.1239
.0327
.0364
~-
'"'
o;
::::;
:l)
1800 .2678 .1353 .0492 .2069 . 1103 .0310 .2168 .1351 .0407 'C
2000 .2705 .1423 .0523 .2079 .1170 .0332 .2203 .1463 .0452 -;:;
Cl

'<
CP = gas specific heat. Btu/lb °F; µ. = viscosity , lb/ft hr; k = thermal conductivity, Btu/ft hr °F.
"From heat transfer considerations. the pressure effect becomes Si!,'llificanl above 250 psig and at gas temperatures below 400°i.;_

'fahlc A6 Specific Heat, Viscosity, and Thermal Conductivity of Air, Flue Gas, and Gas Turbine Exhaust Gases

Air (dry) Flue gasa Gas turbine exhaust gasesh

-
Te mp . (°F) µ k c,, µ k cp µ. k
c"
.0537 .0188 .2570 .0492 .0174 0.2529 0.0517 0.0182
200 .2439
.0632 .0221 .2647 .0587 .0211 0.2584 0.061 2 0.0218
400 .2485
0.2643 0.0702 0.0253
600
.0287 .2800 .0763 .0286 0.2705 0 .0789 0 .0287
800 .2587 .0809
0.2767 0.0870 0.032 1
1000
1200 .2696 .0968 .0350 .2947 .0922 .0358
1600 .2800 . I 109 .0412 .3080 .1063 .0429
2000 .2887 . 1232 .0473 .3190 . l 188 .0499

"% vol CO2 = 212 , H20 = 12, N2 = 70. 0 2 = 6.

i:,% vol CO 2 = 3, H2 0 = 7. N2 = 75. 0 ~ = 15.

:I:
...,.
'.
~
404 Gclnapathy /\ppenc.iix Tables 40~

Table A8 Correlations for Superheated Steam Properties

C1 80,870/T2
=
Table A7 Enthalpy of Gasesa C2 = (-2641.62/T) X 10c1
C3 = 1.89 + C 2
Te1np. (°F) A B C D C4 = CiP 2IT2 )
200 34.98 31.85 35.52 33.74
C5 = 2 + (372420/T 2)
400 86.19 78.57 87.83 83.00 C6 = C3C2
600 138.70 126.57 141. 79 133.42
C7 = L.89 + C6
800 192.49 175.77 197.35 184.91
C8 = 0.21878T - 126,970/T
C9 = 2C6C7 - (C:JT)(126,970)
1000 247.56 226.20 254.47 237.52
1400 330.15 372.93 345.77
= 82.546 - 162,460/T
C 10
1800 437.86 496.42 457.82
= 2C 10C7 - (C3'T)(l62,460)
C 11
v = {[(C8C4C3 + C 10)(C4/P) + l]C3 + 4.55504
% vol (T/P)}0.016018
2
H = 775.596 + 0.63296T + 0.000162467T + 47.3635 log T
Gas Type CO2 N2 02 S02 + 0.043557{C7P + 0.5C4[C 11 + CiC,o + C9C4)]}
A Gas turbine exhaust 3 7 75 15 S - l/T{[(C8 C3 - 2C9 )C3C4/2 - C 11 ]C4 /2 + (C3 - C7)P}
B Sulfur combustion 81 IO 9 x (-0.0241983) - 0.355579 - 11.4276/T + 0.00018052T
C Flue gas 12 12 70 6 - 0.253801 log P + 0.809691 Jog T
D Dry air 79 21 where
P - pressure, atm
"Enthalpy in Btu/lb at 60°F.
T - temperature, K
Source: Computed with data from
v = specific volume, ft /lb
3

H - enthalpy, Btu/lb
S - entropy, Btu/lb °F
 406 Gc111apa1hy Appendix Tables 4

Table AS! Coefficients to Estimate Propenies of Dry. Saturated Steam with Equation•

Y = Ax + 8/x + cx 112 + D In x + Ex2 + F.t3 + G Table A9

Property A B C £ F G
D
Temperature. °F - 0. 17724 3.83986 11.48345 31.1311 8.762969 X I0- 5 -2.78794 X IO - ~ 86.594
Liquid specific volume, ft3/lb - 5.280126 X I0-7 2.99461 X 10- 5 1.521874 X I0-4 6.62512 X ,o-s 8.408856 X 10- 10 1.86401 X I0 - 14 0.01596
Vapor specific volume, ft 3/lb
1- 200 psia -0.48799 304.717614 9.8299035 - 16.455274 9.474745 X 10- • - 1.363366 X I0-8 19.53953
200-1,500 psia 2.662 X I0- 3 457.5802 - 0.176959 0.826862 -4.601876 X 10- 1 6.3181 X I0- 11 - 2.3928
Liquid enthalpy, Btu/lb - 0.15115567 3.671404 11.622558 30.832667 8.74117 X ,o-s - 2.62306 X IO- " 54.55
Vaporization enthalpy. Btu/lb - 4.3043 I0-5 9.763 X IO- ~ 1,045.81
0.008676153 - J.3049844 -8.2137368 - 16.37649 X
Vapor enthalpy, Btu/lb - 0.14129 2.258225 3.4014802 14.438078 4.222624 X io-s -1.569916 X IO- " 1,100.5
Liquid entropy, Btu/lb 0 R - 1.67772 X I0-4 4.272688 X 10- 3 0.01048048 0.05801509 9.101291 X I0- 8 - 2.7592 X I0- 11 0.11801
Vaporization entropy,
Btu/lb 0 R 3.454439 X 10-5 - 2.75287 X I0-3 -7.33044 X I0- 3 -0. 14263733 -3.49366 X IO- K 7.433711 X I0 - 12 1.85565
Vapor entropy. Btu/lb 0 R -1.476933 X 10- • 1.2617946 X I0- 3 3.44201 X 10 - J -0.06494128 6.89138 X 10- 8 - 2.4941 X I0- 11 1.97364
Liquid internal energy, Btu/lb - 0.1549439 3.662121 11.632628 30.82137 8.76248 X I0- 5 -2.646533 X I0-8 54.56
Vapor internal energy, Btu/lb -0.0993951 1.93961 2.428354 10.9818864 2.737201 X I0- 5 - 1.057475 X 10-8 1,040.03

'y = propeny. x = pressure, psia.

 Bibliography

BOOKS
Fuels and Combustion
Babcock & Wilcox, Steam, Its Generation and Use, 38th ed., New
York, 1978.
Combustion Engineering, Combustion-Fossil Power Systems, 3rd ed.,
Windsor, 1981 .
North American, Combustion Handbook, 2nd ed., Cleveland, Ohio,
1978.
Spiers, H. M., Technical data on fuel, World Energy Conference, 6th
ed., London, 1970.

Fluid Flow, Valves. Pumps

ASME, Flow Meter Cornputarion Handbook, New York, 1971.
Crane Co., Flow of fluids, Technical Paper 410, New York, 1981.
Fisher Controls Co. , Control Valve Handbook, 2nd ed., Marshall-
town, Iowa , 1977.
409
 Bibliogrc1py 411
410 Ganapathy

Fisher & Porter, Handbook of Flow Meter Orifice Sizing, No. Journals
1089000, Warminster, Penna. Chernica/ Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Ingersoll Rand, Ca111ero11 Hydraulic Data, 16th ed., Woodcliff Lake, Heating Piping and Air-Conditioning. Penton/JPC, Chicago.
N.J., 1981.
Heat Transfer Engineering, Hemisphere Publishing, New York.
Karassik, I. J., Centrifugal Pump Clinic, Marcel Dekker, New York,
Hydrocarbon Processing, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex.
1981.
Oil and Gas Journal, PennWell, Tulsa, Okla.
Marks, Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 7th ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967. Plant Engineering, Technical Publishing, Barrington, lll.
Masoneilan, Handbookfor Control Valve Sizing, 3rd ed .. Norwood, Power, McGraw-HiJJ, New York.
Mass., 1971. Power Engineering, Technical Publishing Co., Barrington, Ill.
Miller, R. W., Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, McGraw- Process Engineering, Morgan Grampian, London.
HilJ , New York, 1983.
Perry, R.H., and C.H. Chilton, Che,nical Engineers' Handbook, 5th
ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1974.

I-teat Transfer, Boilers. Heat Exchangers

ASME, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Secs. I and 8, New York,
1983.
ASME/ANSI, Power Test Code, steam generating units, PTC 4.1,
New York, 1974.
Ganapathy, V., Applied Heat Transfer, PennWell Books, Tulsa,
Okla., 1982.
Kem, D. Q., Process Heat Tran5fer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950.
Roshenow, W. M., and J. P. Hartnett, Handbook of Heat Transfer,
McGraw-HiJI, New York, 1972.
Taborek, Hewitt, and Afgan, Heat Exchangers, Theory and Practice.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1981.
TEMA, Standards of Tubular Exchangers Manufacturers Association,
6th ed. , 1978.
Turner, W. C., and J. F. Malloy, Thennal Insulation Handbook,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1981.
Ganapathy, V., Waste Hear Boiler Deskbook, Fairmont Press, Atlan-
ta, Georgia, 1991.
 Glossary

actb Actual cubic feet per hour.

acfm Actual cubic feet per minute, a term used to indi-

cate the flow rate of gases, at any condition of
temperature and pressure.

0
API A scaJc adopted by American Petroleum Jnstitute to
indicate the specific gravity of a liquid. Water has a
API gravity of I0°API and No. 2 fuel oil, about
35 °API.

ABMA American Boiler Manufacturers Association.

ASME An1erican Society of Mechanical Engineers.

ASR Actual steam rate, a term used to indicate the actual

steam consumption of stearn turbines in lb/kWh.
413
 415
414 Ganapathy Glossary

BHP Brake horsepower, a term used for power con- LHV Lower heating value or net heating value of a fuel.
sun1ption or rating of turbomachinery. This does
not include the efficiency of the drive. LMTD Log-mean temperature difference.

Btu British thermal unit, a term for measuring heat. In Logarithm to base e; natural logarithm.

cP Centipoise, a unit for measuren1ent of absolute vis- log Logarithm to base 10.
cosity.
M lb/hr Thousand lb/hr
CR Circulation ratio, a term used to indicate the ratio
by weight of a mixture of steam and water to that of MM Btu Million Btu
steam in the 1nixture. A CR of 4 means that I lb of
steam-water 1nixture has l /4 lb of steam and the MW Molecular weight
remainder water.
Oxides of nitrogen.
dB Decibel, a unit for measuring noise or sound pres-
NPSH Net positive suction head, a term used to indicate
sure levels.
the effective head in feet of liquid column to avoid
cavitation. Subscripts rand a stand for required and
dBA Decibel , scale A; a unit for 1neasuring sound pres-
sure levels corrected for frequency characteristics available.
of the human ear.
NTU Number of transfer units; a term used in heat ex-
fps, f pm, fph Feet per second , minute, and hour; units for mea- changer design.
suring the velocity of fluids.
OD Outer diameter of tube or pipe.
gpn1, gph Volumetric flow rate in gallons per minute or hour.
oz Ounce.
HHV Higher heating value or gross heating value of
Ounces per square inch, a term for measuring fluid
fuels. OZI
pressure.
HRSG Heat recovery stcan1 generator.
ppm Parts per million by weight of volume.
ID Inner diarneter of tube or pipe.
ps1a Pounds per square inch absolute, a tern1 for indicat-
in. we A unit to measure pressure of gas streams, in inches ing pressure.
of water column .
Pounds per square inch gauge, a term for mea~uring
kW Kilowatt, a unit of measurement of power. pressure.
 416
Gc1napa111y
PWL Sound power level, a tenn for indicating the noise
generated by a source such as a fan or turbine.
RH Relative humidity.

SBV, SBW Steam by volume and by weight in a steam-water

mixture, terms used by boiler designers.

scfm, scfh Standard cubic feet per minute or hour, a unit for
flow of gases at standard conditions of te1nperature
Conversion Factors
and pressure, namely al 70°F and 29.92 in. Hg, or
14.696 psia. Sometin1es 60°F and 14.696 psia is
also used. The ratio of scfm at 70°F to scfm at 60°F
is 1.019.

SPL Sound pressure level, a unit of measurement of

noise in decibels.

ssu Seconds, Sayboll Universal, a unit of kinematic

viscosity of fluids. Metric 10 American, American 10 Metric.
Metric 10 Metric American 10 American

SVP Saturated vapor pressure, pressure of water vapor in AREA

I mm = 0.00155 in. = 0.00001076 fl
2 2 2
I in. 2 = 645.2 mm 2 = 6.452 cm2
a mixture of gases. I cm 2 = 0.155 in. 2 = 0.001076 ft2 = 0.0006452 m2
I m 1 = 1550 in. 2 = 10.76 fl 1 J fl 2 = 92,903 mm 2 = 929.03 cm 2
TSR Theoretical stean, rate, a term indicating the theo- = 0.0929 m2
I acre = 43,560 fl 2
retical consumption of steam to generate a kilowatt I circular mil = 0 7854 square mil
of electricity in a turbine in lb/hr. = 5.067 X IO 10 1112 - 7.854 X 10 1'in. 2
DENSITY and SPECIFIC GRAVITY
I g/cm' = 0.03613 lb/in. 1
= 62.43 lb/fi ' I lb/in.' = 27 .68 g/cm' = 27 .680 kg/m'
= I000 kg/m' I kg/liter I lb/fl' = 0.016() g/cm' = 16.02 kg/111 1
= 62.43 lb/f1 1 8.345 lb/U.S. ga l = 0.0160 kg/li1~r
µg/m 1 = 136 gr.tins/fl
1
I Specific gravity rclntive 10 water
(for paniculate pollution) SGW of 1.00 = 62.43 lb/fl 1 al 4°Cor 39.2 "F'
I kg/m' = 0.()6243 lb/fl 1 Specific grav ity relative lO dry air
SGA or 1.00 = 0.0765 lb/fl,,
= I. 225 kg/m 1
I lb/U.S. gal =- 7.481 lblft' = 0.1198 kg/lih:r
I g/fl 1 = 35.3 X 10'' µg/m 1
I lb/10()() fl' 16 X IO" µglm'

'62.35 lb/ft' at 60"r. 15 6°C; 8.335 lblU.S. gal.

'0.0763 lb/fl' for moi~t air
.+17
 418 Ganap;:ithy Conversion t-=actors 419

Metric to American. American to Metric. Metric to American, American to Metric,

Metric to Metric American to American Metric to Metric American to American

ENERGY. HEAT, and WORK = 10,000 mm H20 = 394.1 in. H20 = 7 .858 oz/in. 2 = 0.49 I psi
I cal = 0.003968 Btu 3413 Btu = I kWh = 735.6 mm Hg = 28.96 in. Hg = 25.4 torr
I kcal = 3.968 Btu = 1000 cal = 4186 J Btu = 0.2929 Whr = 227.6 oz/in. 2 = 14.22 psi psi = 6.895 kPa = 6895 N/m2
= 0.004186 MJ = 0.9807 bar = 703.1 mm H 20 = 27.71 in. H20
= 252.0 cal = 0.252 kcal
I J = 0.0<l0948 Btu = 0.239 cal - I W sec = 778 fl lb I bar = 100.0 kPa = 1.020 kg/cm 2 = 51.72 mm Hg = 2.036 in. Hg
= I N m = I07 erg = I 07 dyn cm = 1055 J = 0.001055 MJ - 10.200 mm H20 = 401.9 in. H20 = 16.00 oz/in. 2
I W h = 660.6 cal I ft lb = 0 . 1383 kg m = 1.356 J = 750.1 mm Hg = 29.53 in. Hg = 0.0703 kg/cm 2 = 70.31 g/cm 2
I hp hr = I .98 X 1()6 ft lb = 232. l oz/in. 2 = 14.50 psi = 0.068 97 bar
I thenu = 1.00 x 105 Btu = 100,000 N/1112 I oz.fin. = 0.4309 kPa
2

I BHP (boiler horsepower) = 33.475 Btu/hr I g/cm2 = 0.014 22 psi = 43.94 mm H20 = J.732 in. H20
= 8439 kcal/hr = 9 .81 kW = 0.2276 oz/in. 2 = 3.232 mm Hg
= 0.3937 in. H20 = 0.004 39 kg/cm 2 = 4.394 g/cm 2
HEAT CONTENT and SPECIFIC HEAT (For rough calculations, I atmt = 101.3 kPa = 101.325 N/m 2
l cal/g = 180 Btu/lb = 4187 J/kg I Btu/lb = 0.5556 cal/g = 2326 J/kg = 10,330 mm H20 = 407.3 in. H20
3 I bar = I atm = I kgl<.;m 2
I cal/cm = 11 2.4 Btutfe I Btu/ft3 = 0.00890 cal/cm 3
= 10 m H20 = 100 kPa) = 760.0 mm Hg = 29.92 in. Hg
I kcal/m3 = 0.1124 Btu/ft 3 = 4187 J/m 3 = 8.899 kcal/m3 = 0.0373 MJ/m' = 235.1 oz/in. 2 = 14.70 psi
I cal/g °C = l Btu/lb °F = 4187 J/kg K I Btu/U.S. gal = 0.666 kcal/liter = 1.033 kg/cm2
I Btu/lb °F = I cal/g °C = 4187 J/kg K = 1.013 bar
HEAT FLOW, POWER
l N·m/s = I W = I J/s I hp = 33 000 ft lb/min = 550 ft lb/sec TEMPERATURE
= 0.00 1341 hp = 0.7376 ft lb/sec = 745.7 W = 745.7 J/s °C = S/9 (°F - 32)
I kcal/h = 1.162 J/s = l. 162 W = 641.4 kcal/h °F = (9/5°C) + 32
= 3.966 Btu/hr Btu/hr = 0. 2522 kcal/h K = °C + 273. l 5
I kW = 1000 J/~ = 3413 Btu/hr = 0 0003931 hp 0
R = f + 459.67
0

= 1.341 hp = 0.2931 W = 0.2931 J/s

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
HEAT FLUX and HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
I W/m K = 0.5778 Btu ft/fl hr °F 2 I Btu fllfl2 hr °F = 1.730 W/m K
I cal/cm ·s = 3.687 Btu/fl2 sec
2
I Btu/ft2 sec = 0.2713 cal/cm 2s
= 41.87 kW/m2 I Btu/ft2 hr = 0.003 153 kW/m2 = 6.934 Btu in./fr 2 hr °F = l.488 kcal/m h K
I cal cm/cm 2·s·°C = 241. 9 Btu ft/fl 2 hr °F I Bru in./ft hr °F = 0.1442 W/m K
2
I cal/cm2 ·h = 1.082 W/ft2 = 11.65 W/m 2 = 2. 713 kcal/m 2 h
= 2903 Btu in./ft2 hr °F I Btu ft/ft 2 hr °F = 0 .004139 cal cm/cm2 s °C
I kW/m = 317.2 Btu/ft hr
2 2
I kW/ft = 924.2 cal/cm2 h
2
= 418.7 W/m K I Btu in./fl2 hr °F = 0.0003445 cal cm/cm 2 s
I kW/m2°C = 176.2 Btu/ft2 hr °F I Btu/ft2 hr °F = 4.89 kcal/111 2 h °C oc
LENGTH
I mm = 0.10 cm = 0.03937 in. I in. = 25.4 mm = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 111 THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
= 0 003281 ft I ft = 304.8 mm = 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m 2
I 111 /s = 2
38 760 ft /hr I fl 2/hr = 0.0000258 m2 /s = 0.0929 m 2/ h
I m = 100 cm = 1000 mm = 39.37 in. 1 mile = 5280 ft I m2/h = 10.77 ft 2/hr
= 3.281 ft I µm = ro - 6 m
I km = 0.6214 mile I Angstrom unit = I A = 10 - 111 m VELOCITY
I cm/s = 0.3937 in./scc = 0.032 81 ft/sec I in./scc = 25.4 mm/s = 0.0254 mis
PRESSURE
l N · m2 = 0.001 kPa = 1.00 Pa in. H20 = 0.2488 kPa = 25.40 mm H20 = 10.00 mm/s = 1.969 ft/min = 0.0568 mph
I mm H 20 = 0 .0098 kPa = 1.866 mm Hg
I mm Hg = 0.1333 kPa = 13.60 mm H20 = 0.00254 kg/cm2 = 2.54 g/cm 2
= I torr = 0.01933 psi 'Nom1al atmosphere = 760 torr (mm Hg at 0°C}-not a "technical atmosphere, .. which is
I in. Hg = 3.386 kPa = 25.40 mm Hg
I kg/cm2
= 98.07 kPa = 10,000 kg!m 2 = 345.3 mm H20 = 13.61 in. H20 736 torr or I kg/cm 2 • Subtract about 0.5 psi for each 1000 ft above sea level.
 420 Ganapathy convc-rc,ion Fac1ors

American tll Mctnc.

Metric to American, American Ill Metric. Metric to American. American to American
Metric to Metnc American to American Metric 10 Metric
.•. ga I
I US 3785 cm' - 0 003785 m'
VELOCITY (1'011tir111ed) Im ' = 1000 liter I x 10" .:m'
= 3.785 litcn; - '.!3 I O 1n '
I mis = 19 .37 in./sec = 3.281 fl/sec I ft/sec = 304.8 mm/s = 0.3048 mis
= 61,020 an.' = 35.31 ft' = 0.8327 Br gal = 0.1337 11'
= 196.9 fl/min = 2.237 mph = 0.6818 mph = 220.0 Br gal = sp gr x 8.335 lb
- 3.600 km/ h = 1.944 knot ft/min = 5.08 mm/~ = 0.00508 m/~ = 6.290 bbl _ 8.335 lb of water
= 0.0183 J...m/h = 264 2 U.S. gal = 1/42 barrel (oil)
mph = 0.4470 m/s = 1.609 km/h - 1.308 yd'
I Br gal = 277.4 in .'
= 1.467 fl/sec - 0.004 546 m' = 4 .546 liters
knot = 0.5 144 mis = 1.201 U.S. gal
rpm = 0. I04 7 radian/s..:c bbl. oi l = 9702 in.' = 5.615 ft'
= 0.1590 m ' = 159.0 liters
VISCOSITY. absolute . µ - 42.00 U.S gal
0.1 Pa· s = I dyne s/cm 2 = 360 kg/ h m I lb.,/ hr · ft = ().()00008634 lb 1 sec/ft 2 = 34.97 Br gal
= I poise = I 00 centipoise (cP) = 0.413 cP = 0.0004 13 Pa· s
= 242.1 lb,Jhr ft lb, sec:/ft = 115 .800 lb,,.lhr ft
2 VOLUME FLOW RATE
= 0 .()()2089 lb/, sec/fl 2 = 47,880 cP 1
I cm'ls = 1 x 10 ~ 111 / 8
I gpm (gal/min) = 60.0 gph (gal/hr)
1
= 0 .01667 gps (gal/sec)
I kgih · m = 0 .672 lb/hr/ ft = 0.00278 g/s = 47.88 Pas 1
1 litcr/s = I x 10 m /s = 0.00223 cfs (ft '1sec)
cm I reyn = I lb, sec/in. 2 I m 1/h = 4.403 U.S. gpm (gal/min) = O. 1337 cfm (ft'fmin)
= 0.0000058 I lbr sec/ft 2 = 6.890 X 10" cP = 0.5887 rt·1/min = 0.8326 Br gpm
µ of water' = 1.124 cP µ of air' = 0 .0180 cP
= 2.72 lb11 /hr ft = 0.(1436 lb/hr ft = 0.227 111'/h
= 1.429 bbl/hr
= 2.349 X 10 ' lb ~ec/ft 2
= 3.763 x lO 7 lh '\ec/ ft = 34.29 bbl/day
1 gph (gal/hr) -== 0.00105 hter/s
VISCOSITY. kinematic, v = 0.{)()()()37 I cfs (ft '/sec)
I ft 2/~ec: = 36()() ft2 /hr = 92.900 cS
I cfm {ft '/min) = 6. 18 Br gpm
= I stoke, = 100 centistokes (cS) = 0.0929 m1/s = 0.000471 m'h
= 0.00 1076 h 2/scc I ft2/ h = 0.000278 ft2/sec = 25 8 cS
I c;fs (ft '1sec) = 448 8 gpm
= 3.874 ft 2/hr = 0.0000258 1111/s
= 22.250 Br gph
= 3600 m 2/h
= 38,736 ft2/ hr = 10 .76 ft2/sec WEIGHT. FORCE. MASS
v of water' = I. 130 centislOkes 1· of air' 14.69 cS I 01 avdp mass = 28.35 g. = 0.02835 J...g
1 g = 0.03527 OL avdp mass
= 32 ssu = 1.58 1 X 10 '1 ft1/scc I kg mass = [{)()() g mass
I lb avdp mass = 453 .6 g = 0.4536 kg
= 1.216 x lO 'fl 1/sec = 4.536 X IO''µg
= 35.27 oz. avdp mas~
= 2. 205 lb avdp mass I lb avdp force = 0.4536 J...g force
VOLUME
t-g fore,: = JOO() g force = 9.807 N
= 4.448 N
I c:m' (cc) = 0.()()() 00 1 00 m' in.' = 16.39 cm' = ().{)()() 1639 m'
= 2.205 lb avdp force I lb = 7000 grain~
= 0.06J() in. I = 0 0338 U.$ = 0.01639 liter I short ton = 2000 lb = 907 2 J...g
I metric ton = I()()(} kg = 2205 lb
fluid ft ' = 1728 in.' = 7481 U.S. gal I long ton = 2240 lb = 1015.9 kg
oz. = 6.229 Br gal
liter {elm') = 0.()()10 111 ' - 1000 cm' = 28.320 cm' = 0 02832 m' = 28.32
= 61.Cl2 in.' = 0.0353 I ft 1 li1ers
= 0.2642 U.S. gal 62.427 lb of 39.4°F (4 'C) water
- 62.344 lb of 60°F ( I 5.6°C) water

' Vi~cosity at STP.

 Index

ABMA boiler and feed water power test code, 290

guidelines, 23 tube thickness calculations,
Acoustic vibration, 336 37-40
Air Auxiliary firing
for combustion, 65-70 efficiency, 290
density of, 5 oxygen required, 100
Air heater
performance, 269 Beam length , 202
sizing, 265-268 Blowdown calculations, 22
tube wall temperature, 269 Blowdown line sizing , 167
Allowable stress values, 38 Blowoff steam, 165
Approach point, 282 Boiler
Ash circulation, 141- 145
concentration, 78, 79 fire tube, 210
melting point, 80 horsepower, 11
ASME off-design calculations,
boiler and feed water 223-225
guidelines, 24 water tube, 219
 424
lnclcx lnclcx 425
Boiler horsepower, I I Dew points of acid gases,
Boiler water, 23-24 · effectiveness, efficiency, Heal flux
93-95 240-242 in bare tube boilers, 215,
Boiling heat transfer Drum hold up time, 97 fin conductivity, 259 222
coefficient, 303
fin thickness, 259 in finned tubes, 255
Brayton cycle, 384 Economizer fin tip temperature, 239 fire tube boilers, 215
regenerative, 386 off-design performance, 272 fouling factors, 255-257 Heat loss,
sizing, 183- 187 gas pressure drop, 238-241 effect of load, 91
Circulation, 141-145 steaming, 294 heat flux, 255 through insulation, 324
Cogeneration, 357 Effectiveness of fin, 240-242 heat transfer, 238-241 Heat transfer
Combustion calculations Efficiency inline arrangernent, 252 analysis for DNB, 145,
gases, 65 boiler, 82, 290 serrated fins, 253 153
liquid fuels, 70 fin, 240-242 solid fins, 253 in bare tubes, 191
MM Btu method, 69 HRSG system, 290 staggered arrangement, 258 distribution of radiant
oxygen consumption in relation between HHV and surface area, 250-253, 236 energy, 209
turbine exhaust boilers, LHV, 82 Fire tube boiler, effect of gas analysis, 345
100 En1issions design of, 210 effect of gas pressure, 347
solid fuels, 70 co, 96 effect of gas velocity, 214 effect of tube size, 214
Combustion temperature, 77 NO,, 97 effect of scale, 216 in finned tubes, 235
Control valve sizing, 119 Emissivity of gases, 195, 202 effect of tube size, 214 fire tube boilers, 2 I0
Convective heat transfer (see Excess air heat flux, 215 furnaces, 201-205
heat transfer) effect on efficiency, 86 Flash steam, 28 radiant surface, 201
Corrosion from flue gas analysis, 73, Fouling factors, 255 water tube boilers, 2 I 9
acid dew points, 93- 95 74 effect in finned tubes, 255 HRSGs
effect of feed water Expansion of steam, 355 inside tubes, 255 design, 281-283
temperature, 95-96 outside tubes. 257 off-design performance,
Fan relation to scale, 216 223-226
effect of density, 363 steaming, 294
Darnper leakage, 31 elevation effect on capacity, Gas analysis temperature profiles,
Deaeration steam calculations 363
' converting % volume to % 280-282
27, 360 horsepower, 36 I weight, 346 Heat rate, l 02
Decibels performance from motor effect on heat transfer, 345 Higher heating value, 56
addition, 45 readings, 38 l Gas mass velocity. 9 effect on air, flue gas
Density
sizing for fired HRSGs, 292 Gas pressure drop quantity, 56
computation of, 5 Feed water. 23. 24 inside tubes , 125 efficiency, 85
effect of elevation, 7 Finned tubes outside bare tubes, 139 Holdup time in drums, 47
Departure from nucleate comparison with bare tubes , outside finned tubes, Hydrochloric acid dew point,
boiling, 145 251 235-238 93-95
 426 Index 427
Index

Insulation Pinch point Scale Temperature profiles,

effect of wind velocity and design mode, 281 conductivity, 216 approach point, 282
emissivity, 324 selection of, 285-288 effect on boiler design mode, 282
heat loss, 324 Prandtl number, 185, 189 performance, 216-218 off-design mode, 283-285
hot casing, 33 l Pressure drop, Sound power level, 45 optimizing, 288
sizing of, 327 air/gas, 133 Sound pressure level, 45 pinch point, 282
temperature profile, 324-325 outside bare tubes , 139 Specific gravity, 368 Temperature rise in pumps, 374
in ducts, 134 Specific heat of gases, 344 Thermal conductivity
Leakage outside finned tubes, Stack, 171 of gases, 344
in dampers, 31 235-238 draft loss, 171 scale, 216
through openings in, 30 inside tubes, 125, 213 wall temperature , 332-334 Throttling calorimeter, 18
Life-cycle costing, 34, 314 steam, 127 Staggered arrangement Tube wall temperature
Lower heating value, 57, 84 Pumps bare tubes, 193 air heater, 269
effect of density, 368 finned tubes, 252-254 finned tubes, 239-243
Natural convection, 276 NPSH available, 379 Steam superheater, 227
Natural frequency of vibration , NPSH required, 378 heat transfer coefficient, 188 Tube thickness
338 performance from motor purity, 20 external pressure , 40
Noise readings, 380 quality, 18 internal pressure, 37, 39
decibels, 41 power, 367 Steaming in economizer, 294
Velocity
effect of distance, 46 recirculation flow, 375 StrouhJ number, 339 effect on boiler size, 214
engine exhaust, 47 series, parallel, 388 Sulfuric acid dewpoint, 93 mass and linear, 9, 10
vibration, 336 temperature rise, 374 Superheater Vibration
Nonluminous heat transfer, I 94 flow distribution in, 136
acoustic, 338
NOX tube wall temperature, 227
of tubes, 338
boilers, 97 Radiation Supplementary firing (see Viscosity, 344
conversion from volumetric distribution to tubes, 209 auxiliary firing) Vortex shedding frequency,
to mass units, 98 in furnaces, 20 l Surface area, 182 339
gas turbine exhaust, 97 nonluminous, 194 finned tubes, 235
NPSH Regenerative Brayton cycle, fire tube boiler, 210 Wind velocity, 335
available, 379 384-386
required, 378 Reynolds number, 185, 192,
NTU method, 271-273 135
Nusselt number, 185, 189

Safety valve
Orifice, l 08-1 I 0 relieving capacity, l l 6
Oxygen for combustion, 100 sizing, 113-115
about the first edition ...

" ... of particular interest to practicing engineers who wish to utilize simple methods
for rapid estimation of equipment performance.,,
-Applied Mechanics Review

about the second edition ...

Maintaining the unique question-and-answer format of the previous edition, this

completely updated single-source reference provides simplified means of solving
nearly 200 practical questions that regularly confront engineers involved in the plan-
ning, design, operation, and maintenance of steam plant systems - detailing useful
calculations pertaining to emissions, boiler efficiency, circulation, and heat transfer
equipment design and performance.

Furnishing solutions to 70 new problems, the Steam Plant Calculations Manua~ Sec-
ond EdiJ.ion demonstrates how to convert NOx and CO emissions measurements
from mass to volumetric units ... predict the effect of excess air on the efficiency of
different fuels ... develop simple equations for computing boiler efficiency ... com-
pute natural convection heat transfer coefficients ... determine the importance of
ambient temperature for boiler fan sizing and operation ... assess steam quality and
the factors affecting departure from nucleate boiling conditions ... estimate deaer-
ation steam quantity based on system water chemistry per the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and the American Boiler Manufacturers Associa-
tion (ABMA) boiler water guidelines ... and more.

about the author ...

V. GANAPATIIY is a Heat Transfer Specialist at ABCO Industries, Abilene, Texas,

where he is engaged in the engineering of heat recovery boilers for process, inciner-
ation, and cogeneration applications. The author of over 175 professional papers on
boilers, heat transfer, heat recovery, and steam plant components, Mr. Ganapathy is
also the author of several books, including BASIC Programs for Steam Plant Engi-
neers (Marcel Dekker, Inc.). He received the B.Tech degree (1969) in mechanical
engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, and the M.Sc. degree
(1972) in boiler technology from Madras University, India.

Printed in the United States of America ISBN: 0-8247-9147-9

marcel dekker, inc./new york. basel. hong kong