Sedco Forex Well Control Manual

Foreword
This manual presents the well control policies and procedures of

Transocean SedcoForex. It has been developed with input from
Operations, Engineering, Well Construction and Training.
This manual is to be kept on all rigs and in the Operations offices and
it is to be used as the reference for all well control operations. It is the
duty of all personnel involved in well control operations to read this
manual to familiarize themselves with the current company policies
and ensure that they are followed.
This manual must be discussed and reviewed with our customers

both offshore and onshore in a timely manner. Any discrepancies or
misunderstandings must be clarified before drilling or completion
operations begin.
Whilst every attempt has been made to capture best industry

practices, no manual is perfect and issues you disagree with should
be challenged in an appropriate manner. It is your responsibility to
keep this a live and healthy document.
Well Control is an everyday issue, not just an exam to pass every two
years, so for the safety of all concerned please use this manual in
your daily business. Above all, THINK about kick prevention and the
rest will never have to be used.
W. Dennis Heagney Jean Cahuzac

EVP Asia & Americas EVP Europe, Middle East, Africa
1
Introduction
Transocean SedcoForex personnel can forward recommendations for

change to their Region Operations Manager or Regional Training
Centre. The proposal for change will be forwarded to the Well
Construction Manager who will be responsible for obtaining
appropriate approval and preparing the final revision sheet. These
revisions will, in turn, be issued to the field.
IMPORTANT NOTICE
Throughout this manual, measurements and formulae have been

given in oilfield, metric and SI units. This gives the flexibility for each
operation to decide with the client which units are to be used and the
appropriate forms made available. THIS DECISION MUST BE MADE
AND CLEARLY COMMUNICATED TO ALLCONCERNED PRIOR TO
OPERATIONS COMMENCING.
The most current version of the manual is available in TSFDocs.

This printed copy is a uncontrolled version.
Revision Description Date

00 First Issue 01/11/00
2
Table of Contents
1 Policies & Responsibilities 5
1.1 Policies 6
1.2 Crew Responsibilities During Well Control Operations 11
1.3 Training Requirements 15
1.4 Exemption Process 16
2 Well Planning Considerations 17
2.1 Formation Pressure 19

2.2 Formation Strength 24
2.3 Well Planning 25
3 Well Control Principles 31
3.1 Primary Well Control 32

3.2 Secondary Well Control 34
3.3 Tertiary Well Control 36
4 Preparation & Prevention 41
4.1 Preparation of Equipment and Materials 42

4.2 Well Control Drills 46
4.3 Pre-recorded Information 49
4.4 Kick Prevention During Operations 52
5 Actions Upon Taking A Kick 65
5.1 Detecting A Kick 66

5.2 Containment As Early As Possible 68
5.3 Shut-in Procedures 68
5.4 Shut-in Period Prior to Well Kill 72
6 Well Kill Techniques 81
6.1 Wait and Weight Method 83

6.2 Driller’s Method 86
6.3 Volumetric Method 88
6.4 Dynamic Volumetric Method 91
6.5 Stripping 93
6.6 Bullheading 98
6.7 Off-Bottom Kill 101
6.8 Removing Trapped Gas from the BOP 103
6.9 Decision Flow Charts 104
3
Table of Contents
7 Well Control Complications/Emergency 111
7.1 Complications 112

7.2 Emergency 122
8 Specific Environments 137
8.1 Shallow Gas 138

8.2 Hydrogen Sulphide (H 2S) 150
8.3 Horizontal/Deviated Wells 153
8.4 Deepwater 164
8.5 HP/HT 195
8.6 Slim Hole 209
8.7 Underbalanced Drilling 220
8.8 Lost Circulation 229
9 Well Control Equipment 243
9.1 Minimum BOP Requirements 245

9.2 Minimum Diverter Requirements 255
9.3 Closing Units and Accumulator Requirements 257
9.4 Choke and Kill Manifold Requirements 264
9.5 Other Well Control Equipment 269
9.6 Well Control Equipment Testing Requirements 273
Appendices 279
Appendix 1 Abbreviations & Definitions 280

Appendix 2 Forms & Procedures 288
Appendix 3 Well Control Formulae 310
Appendix 4 Conversion Factors 320
Appendix 5 Seismic Evaluation for Shallow Gas 323
Appendix 6 Procedures for Conducting LOT/FIT 325
Appendix 7 Choke Line Friction Losses (CLFL) 328
Appendix 8 Annular Pressure Loss (APL) Calculation Sheet 333
Appendix 9 Bullheading Calculations 336
Appendix 10 Mud Gas Separator (MGS) Design 338
Well Control Manual Index 340
4
Policies & Responsibilities
Contents
1.1 Policies 6
1.1.1 Preparation 7
1.1.2 Prevention 9
1.1.3 Detection 10
1.1.4 Remedy 10
1.2 Crew Responsibilities During Well Control Operations 11
1.2.1 Offshore Installation Manager (OIM) 11

1.2.2 Toolpusher 12
1.2.3 Driller 12
1.2.4 Assistant Driller/Derrickman 12
1.2.5 Floormen 13
1.2.6 Operator Representative 13
1.2.7 Mud Engineer 13
1.2.8 Additional Personnel 13
1.3 Training Requirements 15
1.4 Exemption Process 16
5
1.1 POLICIES
On all Transocean SedcoForex (TSF) drilling rigs it is the respon-
sibility of the Offshore Installation Manager, OIM (where OIM also
means Platform Manager) to assure the implementation of the well
control policies and procedures contained within this manual.
All TSF personnel must know and comply with the TSF approved well
control policies which are summarized below and appear through-
out the manual in bold type and shaded boxes.
The designated person-in-charge (nominated by OIM) will review the

well control policies and emergency response procedures with the
Operator Representative on the rig to ensure that TSF’s and
Operator’s policies are consistent. He/she will report any differences
to the Rig Manager.
The policies and practices contained in this manual are the minimum
standard and must be complied with unless the “Exemption Process”
has been initiated and approval received. The well control policies
and practices should be enhanced, if necessary, to comply with more
stringent local government regulations or operator’s policies.
The responsibilities of TSF personnel as described in this manual in

no way reduce those of the Operator with regards to well control.
The term “Operations Manager” used throughout this manual refers

to the Region Operations Manager or District Manager.
6
1.1.1 Preparation
1.1.1.1 Prior to spudding, it is the responsibility of the TSF person-in-charge
to review the well program and ensure that well control issues have
been addressed. This must include potential blowout/underground
blowout situations and contingency.
1.1.1.2 The TSF person-in-charge will ensure that either oilfield, metric or
SI units have been selected and clearly communicated to relevant
personnel. Appropriate forms will be made available.
1.1.1.3 The distance from the rotary table to the pipe rams will be known at
all times and a space-out diagram posted in the vicinity of the Driller’s
BOP panel. Driller’s on floating rigs will be provided with tide charts.
1.1.1.4 As well as the measured depth (MD), the Driller must also know true
vertical depth (TVD) measurements in order to calculate the correct
kill mud weight and accurately complete the kill sheet.
1.1.1.5 The Driller (or his designee) will check all choke manifold, diverter
and overboard valves for the correct line-up at the beginning of each
tour and ensure correct safety valves and XO’s are available on the
drill floor.
1.1.1.6 Slow circulation rates will be taken:

• If practical, at the beginning of every tour.
• Any time the mud properties are changed.
• Any time the bit nozzle configuration or bottom hole assembly BHA
is changed.
• As soon as possible after bottoms-up from any trip.
• At least every 1000ft (305m) of new hole.
1.1.1.7 Unless the following materials are at the rig available to use, drilling
operations will be suspended:
• Enough weighting material and associated chemicals to raise the
mud weight of the hole volume and a surface active system of 150
bbls (24 m3) by at least 1 ppg (120 kg/m3 or 0.12 sg).
• Enough cement to place at least 2 x 500 ft (2 x 150m) plugs in open
hole.
7
1.1.1.8 After setting the initial casing string(s) or during workover operations,
a minimum of two independent and tested barriers should be in place
at all times. Upon failure of a barrier, normal operations will cease and
not resume until a two barrier position has been restored. A barrier is
defined as:
• Any remote operated valve or set of valves that can be regularly
pressure tested.
• Any fluid column that exerts sufficient hydrostatic pressure to over-
balance the pore pressure.
• Any cement plug in the wellbore that has been suitably tested.
• Any mechanical device installed in the wellhead, christmas tree,
tubing, annulus or wellbore that has been suitably tested.
• Any other pressure sealing mechanism installed for the purpose of
preventing flow of fluids from a well.
1.1.1.9 During relevant operations, well control drills will be held on at least a
weekly basis. These drills will be logged in the I.A.D.C. report.
1.1.1.10 The period between pressure tests of the BOP and related equipment
(excluding blind/shear rams which will have a maximum period
between tests of 42 days) will not exceed a maximum of 21 days.
Pressure testing will be conducted in accordance with the TSF Well
Control manual.
1.1.1.11 BOP and related equipment will be function tested every 7 days or
during the first trip after the 7-day interval. The intent is that the test
be done when practical near the 7th day and will depend on the type
of operations being carried out or still to be carried out. The period
between function tests will not exceed a maximum of 14 days.
1.1.1.12 A float (solid or ported) will be run while drilling and opening hole prior
to setting surface casing or any time the posted well control plan is to
divert.
1.1.1.13 A minimum of one safety valve and one inside BOP with XO’s, to fit
all connection sizes of tubulars in the drillstring, will be available on
the drill floor at all times, including a circulating head and/or ‘water
bushing’ when running casing. A proper means of handling will be
provided to assist with its installation.
8
1.1.1.14 If the well cannot be shut-in with the BOP, the well will be properly
secured by setting and testing a plug.
1.1.1.15 Automatic MAASP control devices will be disabled.
1.1.2 Prevention
1.1.2.1 All drilling breaks will be flow checked.
1.1.2.2 The hole must be kept full at all times using a trip tank or a calibrated
pit. Accurate hole fill records will be kept during trips. If the hole does
not take the correct volume of mud, or if the Driller has any doubt,
the pipe will be run immediately and cautiously back to bottom and
bottoms-up circulated.
1.1.2.3 When tripping pipe, flow checks will be performed at the following
times:
• At the bottom of the well before any trip out of the hole.
• At the lowest casing shoe.
• Anytime the hole displacement is incorrect during a trip.
If continuous volume monitoring is not possible, then a flow check will
be made:
• Prior to pulling the HWDP or Drill Collars through the BOP’s.
1.1.2.4 Any time a trip is interrupted the hand tight installation of a safety
valve is required.
1.1.2.5 When lost circulation occurs and cannot be regained through the
drillpipe, the annulus will be filled with the lightest fluid available
(usually water) and the volume recorded.
1.1.2.6 Tripping out of the hole without full returns is potentially dangerous
and will only be permitted under known conditions and with the
approval of the Operations Manager. The Region Manager may
decide that this decision will be made at the Region level.
Such permission may be granted, in advance, on a well-by-well basis.
This policy does not apply to stable ‘seepage’ losses of less than
20 bbls/hr (3 m3/hr).
9
1.1.2.7 No more than 6 joints of casing will be run without filling, irrespective
of the type of float equipment in use.
1.1.2.8 A flow check will be conducted any time the Driller has doubt about
the stability of the well.
1.1.3 Detection
1.1.3.1 It is the responsibility of the Driller (or person performing the Driller’s
role) to shut-in the well as quickly as possible if a kick is indicated or
suspected.
1.1.3.2 Drillers must be instructed in writing on whether to shut-in or divert if

a well kicks while drilling surface hole (as indicated in the drilling
programme).
1.1.3.3 Wells will be shut-in using the procedure described in Chapter 5 of

this manual. A step-by-step procedure for shutting-in the well will be
posted in the vicinity of the Driller’s panel.
1.1.4 Remedy
1.1.4.1 The topdrive/kelly will be used for well control operations with a kick
assembly kept available as an alternative. The kick assembly will be
used if:
• The anticipated surface pressure exceeds the safe working limits of
the topdrive/kelly or associated equipment.
• The drillstring compensator (DSC) is not operational.
1.1.4.2 For standard wells, the Wait and Weight method is preferred.
1.1.4.3 When a kick is being displaced from the well, constant BHP will be
maintained. Priority will be given to maintaining constant BHP even if
the MAASP is exceeded. However, all efforts will be made to minimize
the risk of MAASP being exceeded when the kick is in the open hole.
1.1.4.4 When the well is shut-in due to a kick, reciprocation or rotation of the
drillpipe is not permitted unless prior approval has been received from
the Operations Manager.
10
1.1.4.5 The OIM will complete a Well Control Report and send it to the Rig
Manager for review after any type of well control operation. The report
will include an account of any equipment-related problems that may
have occurred during the well control operation. Rigs equipped with a
computerized kick detection system should have a printout of the
recorded data from the well kick attached to the report. A copy of the
report must be forwarded to the regional training centre.
1.2 CREW RESPONSIBILITIES DURING WELL

CONTROL OPERATIONS
1.2.1 Offshore Installation Manager (OIM)
The OIM is responsible for overall safety of the installation and all the
personnel onboard.
Convenes a pre-kill meeting in order to establish and agree upon the

kill strategy to be pursued. Participants will be the Senior Toolpusher,
the Operator Representative and any other relevant personnel.
Delegates the responsibility for the well control operation to the

Senior Toolpusher, if required.
Prepares the installation for evacuation in accordance with the level

of alert.
Informs all shore-based parties as required by the emergency

response procedures.
Arranges assistance as the situation may require.
Delegates someone to maintain a log of events.
Keeps non-essential personnel updated on a regular basis with

respect to well status.
11
1.2.2 Toolpusher
The Senior Toolpusher is the TSF Person-in-Charge of the kill
operation (if so delegated).
The Senior Toolpusher may delegate to the Toolpusher, as required.
Ensures that the crew is organized and prepared for killing the well.
Liaises with the Operator Representative throughout the well kill

operation.
The Senior Toolpusher, or designee, will operate the choke during

well kill operation.
Communicates the status of the well kill operation to the OIM on a

continuous basis.
1.2.3 Driller
Responsible for monitoring the well at all times, identifying when the
well is to be shut-in and shutting-in the well quickly and safely.
Once the well is shut-in calls the Person-in-Charge.
On floating rigs, calls the Subsea Engineer to the drill floor initially.
Monitors the key parameters (e.g. pressures and volumes) and

designates a crew member to record same during the kill operation.
Operates the mud pump during the kill operation.
Implements instructions from the Toolpusher.
1.2.4 Assistant Driller/Derrickman

Lines up the mud gas separator and vacuum degasser.
12
Lines up the mixing pumps and bulk barite system for weighting up
the mud and stands by for specific instructions from Toolpusher and
Mud Engineer.
Once pumping starts, keeps constant check on mud weight and pit
volumes and reports these to the Driller.
Ensures the kick assembly is ready to be picked up, if required.
1.2.5 Floormen
Follow Driller’s instructions.
1.2.6 Operator Representative

It is suggested that, during the kill operation, the Operator
Representative remains at the remote choke control panel in order to
observe and discuss the operation with the Senior Toolpusher.
Organizes assistance from the Operator’s shore-base, as required.
Organizes sub-contractors, as required.
1.2.7 Mud Engineer

Reports to the pit room to check the Assistant Driller’s/Derrickman’s
preparations and co-ordinates the building and maintenance of the
required mud system.
Checks and confirms all volumes of mud and chemicals on board.
Monitors mud properties and return flow for any abnormalities.
1.2.8 Additional Personnel

Responsibilities are as per the posted station bill. The following are
shown below as examples:
13
Barge Supervisor/Captain
• Ensures that the bulk system is charged and ready for use.
• Stands by in the control room or bridge in preparation for respond-
ing to an emergency situation.
• Notifies the standby vessel to move into evacuation position.
• Ensures readiness of the evacuation equipment.
Crane Operator
• Prepares to release the workboat, if alongside.

• Ensures that doors and hatches are closed, where necessary.
• Assists mud mixing operations.
Roustabouts
• Report to mud pits/sack room to assist the Assistant Driller/

Derrickman.
Subsea Engineer
• Reports initially to the drill floor to check functions and operating

pressures on the BOP control panel. He/she will be present at the
control panel in case of equipment problems.
Mud Logging Engineers
• Report to the mud logging unit and continuously monitor the

circulating and drilling systems during the well control operation.
• Review all data and report any abnormalities to the Operator
Representative, Driller and Senior Toolpusher.
Cementer
• Ensures that the cement unit is ready for operation.

• Ensures slurry formulation and additives are ready in case a
cement plug is required.
• Operates the cement unit, if required, under the instruction of the
Senior Toolpusher.
14
Electrician/Mechanic
• Standby for possible instructions.
Control Room Operator
• Ensures that rig stability is maintained and monitors safety systems

(Gas Alarms, etc.) during well control operations.
Radio Operator
• Logs all calls, telexes and faxes and keeps the lines open for the
Operator Representative, OIM and any other personnel authorized
by the OIM to use the communications system.
• Assists the OIM and Operator Representative in all matters of
communication.
1.3 TRAINING REQUIREMENTS

As a minimum requirement, the following personnel will successfully
complete a TSF Well Control Training course at least every 2 years.
Operations Managers and Senior Subsea Engineer’s will be required
to successfully complete every 4 years.
Every 4 years:
• Operations Managers.
• District Managers.
• Rig Managers.
• Operations Staff Engineers.
• Senior Subsea Engineers (i.e. principal subsea engineers on every rig).
Every 2 years:
• OIM’s.
• Senior Toolpushers.
• Toolpushers.
• Drillers.
• Assistant Drillers.
• Operations Drilling Engineers.
• Drilling Supervisors.
• Rig Engineers.
15
1.4 EXEMPTION PROCESS

TSF has a formal exemption process in place (HS&E Manual,
HOU-HSE-001, Section 2.5) that will be used if, due to exceptional
circumstances, it is not possible to comply with a particular policy or
procedure contained in this manual. In such a case, operations may
proceed only if the Region Manager (or designee) has approved a
“Request for Exemption” prior to the commencement of the work.
It is the responsibility of the approving Region Manager (or designee)

to ensure that all possible avenues have been given the fullest
consideration prior to authorizing a “Request for Exemption” for a
specific policy or procedure. Once it is determined that it is not
possible to comply, a formal risk assessment will be attached to any
“Request for Exemption” which will include appropriate controls put in
place to mitigate the risk normally covered by the particular policy or
procedure.
The formal exemption process is not required for issues identified in

this manual as being approved at Operations Manager level.
16
Well Planning Considerations
Contents
2.1 Formation Pressure 19
2.1.1 Pressure Regimes 19

2.1.2 Prediction and Evaluation 21
2.1.3 Effects of Porosity and Permeability 23
2.2 Formation Strength 24
2.2.1 Description 24
2.2.2 Prediction and Evaluation 24
2.3 Well Planning 25
2.3.1 Casing Setting Depths 25

2.3.2 Kick Tolerance 26
2.3.3 Wellbore Fluid Pressure Gradients 27
2.3.4 Collision Avoidance 29
17
The two factors that most influence well planning are formation
pressure and formation strength and represent the limits within which
drilling operations are able to continue - the “drilling window”.
Accurate estimates of both are required in order to optimise well
design and perform operations in a safe and efficient manner.
Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a column of fluid and

is calculated by multiplying the density gradient of the fluid by the true
vertical depth at which the pressure is being measured. Most well
control calculations revolve around this basic equation:
Hydrostatic Pressure = Fluid Density Gradient x True Vertical Depth
Throughout this manual equations are presented using the 3 units of

measurement used by TSF world-wide, namely: Oilfield, SI and
Metric. To convert a mud weight into a pressure gradient a conversion
factor is required as follows:
Oilfield units: Ph (psi) = 0.052 x MW (ppg) x TVD (ft)
SI units: Ph (kPa) = MW (kg/m 3) ÷ 102 x TVD (m)
Metric units: Ph (bar) = MW (kg/l) ÷ 10.2 x TVD (m)
where, Ph = Hydrostatic pressure

MW = Mud weight
TVD = True vertical depth
18
2.1 FORMATION PRESSURE

2.1.1 Pressure Regimes
Normal Pressure
Normal formation pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the

‘native’ water extending from the surface to the subsurface formation
and results when the rate of sedimentation allows the water between
the pore spaces to flow freely during compaction.
The degree of hydrostatic pressure exerted by the ‘native’ water is

mainly dependent on its salinity and, to a lesser extent, dissolved gas
and temperature. ‘Normal’ formation pressure gradients of as high as
0.515 psi/ft (11.65 kPa/m, 0.117 bar/m) have been encountered in
formations adjacent to salt domes.
Gradient
Formation water (psi/ft) (kPa/m) (bar/m) Region

Fresh Water 0.433 9.79 0.098 Rocky Mountains
Salt Water 0.442 10.00 0.100 Most sedimentary basins
Salt Water 0.452 10.22 0.102 North Sea, S. China Sea
Salt Water 0.465 10.52 0.105 Gulf of Mexico (GOM)
Salt Water 0.478 10.81 0.108 Some areas of GOM
Figure 2.1: Normal Pressure by Region
Subnormal Pressure
Subnormal formation pressure is defined as any formation pressure

that is less than ‘normal’ pressure. A subnormal formation pressure
gradient is any gradient less than the ‘native’ water gradient and can
be due to reservoir depletion, surface elevation higher than water
table elevation, temperature reduction in an isolated fluid system,
tectonic activity and osmosis.
19
Abnormal Pressure
Abnormal formation pressure is any formation pressure that is greater

than ‘normal’ pressure. An abnormal formation pressure gradient is
higher than the pressure gradient of the ‘native’ water and is most
commonly caused by the undercompaction of shales, claystone
diagenesis, tectonic activity (e.g. faulting, uplift, salt diapirs) and
structural features (e.g. an impermeable cap rock overlaying a gas
reservoir).
Transition Zone
The transition zone is the formation in which the pressure gradient

begins to change from that of a normal gradient to one of subnormal
or, more usually, abnormal gradient.
The depth over which the pressure regime changes is a function of

the sealing capability (vertical permeability) of the formation. Since
perfect seals of zero permeability rarely occur (except, for example
salts and anhydrites), transition zones are normally present.
The thickness of the transition zone depends on the vertical

permeability of the formation, the differential pressure caused by the
adjacent formation and the age of the overpressure (i.e. the time
available for fluid flow/pressure transmission to occur).
The presence of the transition zone is very important in formation

pressure evaluation. Formation properties in this zone often show a
change away from normally pressured depth related trends and the
magnitude of the change in the trend can sometimes be used to
estimate the change in the formation pressure gradient.
20
2.1.2 Prediction and Evaluation

Prediction
The table below summarizes the various methods used in predicting

pore pressure.
Data Source Pressure Data/Indicators Stage of Well

Offset Wells Mud loggers reports Planning (also used
Mud weights used for comparison
Kick data while drilling)
Wireline log data
Wireline formation test data
Drill stem test data
Geophysics Seismic (interval velocity) Planning
Drilling Drilling rate While Drilling
Parameters Drilling exponents
Other drilling rate methods
Torque/Drag
MWD/LWD/FEWD
Drilling Mud Gas levels While Drilling
Parameters Flowline mud weight (delayed by the
Flowline temperature lag time)
Resistivity, salinity and other
mud properties including lime.
Cutting Bulk density While Drilling
Parameters Shale factor (delayed by the
Volume, shape and size lag time)
Example Wireline Sonic (int. transit time) After Drilling
Logs Resistivity log
Density log
Direct Pressure Wireline tests (RFT/MDT) Well Testing
Measurements Drill stem tests or Completion
Figure 2.2: Methods for predicting formation pressure
21
Evaluation while Drilling
The aim of formation pressure evaluation while drilling is to determine

the optimum mud weight needed to contain any formation pressures
encountered, while maximising rates of penetration and minimising
lost circulation, differential sticking and hole stability problems. To
achieve this, formation properties have to be closely monitored in
order to detect any changes that may indicate the transition from one
pressure regime to another.
Abnormally pressured zones may exhibit several of the following

properties when compared to normally pressured zones at the same
depths:
• Higher porosities.
• Higher temperatures.
• Lower formation water salinity.
• Lower bulk densities.
• Lower shale resistivities.
• Higher interval velocities.
• Higher hydrocarbon saturations.
Any parameter, which reflects changes in these properties, may be

used as a means of evaluating formation pressures. It should be
remembered that the above properties also vary with differing litholo-
gies and this must always be taken into account when interpreting
changes in drilling and mud parameters.
Drillstring tools such as LWD and FEWD tools are now able to
continually log and help identify high and low pressure zones.
Evaluation after Drilling
Electric Logging
After drilling a hole section, the formations may be electrically logged

to evaluate their physical characteristics and hydrocarbon potential.
Direct formation pressure measurements (only in permeable
formations) are of particular importance to well control.
22
In impermeable (e.g. shale) formations, the sonic log is usually the

best log for quantitative pressure evaluation as it is relatively
unaffected by changes in hole size, formation temperature, and
formation water salinity.
Drill Stem Test (DST)
Pressure gauges are normally run with the DST string to calculate
reservoir characteristics such as formation pressure, permeability,
skin damage and productivity index.
2.1.3 Effects of Porosity and Permeability

The essential properties of reservoir rocks are their porosity and
permeability - these properties will determine how much and how
quick a kick will enter the well. Kicks will enter a wellbore faster from
rocks having high permeability. It is possible to drill under
balance in formations with very low permeability, such as shales,
because the entry of the influx into the wellbore is very slow.
The porosity provides the storage space for fluids and gases and is
the ratio of the pore spaces in the rock to the bulk volume of the rock.
This is expressed as a percentage. Reservoir rocks commonly have
porosities ranging from 5% to 30%.
Formation permeability is a measure of how easy the fluid will flow

through the rock and depends upon on the number, size and degree
of interconnection between the pore spaces. Shales may have a
similar porosity as sandstones but because the pores are not
connected fluid is unable to travel through the formation. Permeability
is expressed in Darcys and in reservoir rocks, ranges from a few
milliDarcys to several Darcys.
23
2.2 FORMATION STRENGTH

2.2.1 Description
In order to plan and drill a well it is necessary to have some knowl-
edge of the formation strength/fracture pressures of the formations to
be penetrated. The maximum volume of an influx that can be
contained by the open hole is dependent on the fracture gradient.
In the absence of LOT data an estimation can be made using Daines’

method (a refinement of Eaton’s method).
2.2.2 Prediction and Evaluation

Leak-Off Test (LOT)/Formation Integrity Test (FIT)
A leak-off test (LOT) determines the pressure at which the formation

begins to take fluid. This test is conducted after drilling out about
10-15 ft (3-5 metres) of new hole below the shoe of any casing intend-
ed for pressure containment.
Such a test will establish the strength of the formation at the shoe and
the integrity of the cement job at the shoe, which is used to determine
the maximum mud weight the open hole can withstand to reach the
next casing point. For long open hole sections, the original leak-off
test will not necessarily determine the weakest point in that section.
In the event that a weaker formation has been drilled, a further leak-
off test should be performed.
The exposed formation is usually tested to the following:

• A pre-determined pressure test that is below fracture pressure
(FIT).
• Leak-off pressure (LOT).
• Breakdown and injection pressure (Injectivity Test).
The test pressure should not exceed 70% of the minimum yield
of the weakest casing, allowing for mud weight differential (inside/
behind the casing string).
24
Data obtained from LOT’s should be treated with some caution. High
or low temperatures will have an effect on mud properties such as
density and rheology, thus introducing an element of error into the
surface readings obtained during a LOT.
Using values obtained to calculate the maximum pressure the

formation can temporarily handle, such as circulating out a kick, is
acceptable. However, the ability of the formation to support pressure
continuously may be adversely affected by changes in the hole
profile or localised damage to the wellbore.
Conversely, the capability of the formation to withstand pressure may

improve during the subsequent drilling of the section due to the build
up of filter cake on the formation wall and temperature enhancement
of formation strength.
(Refer to Appendix 6.)
2.3 WELL PLANNING

2.3.1 Casing Setting Depths
The choice of setting depths for all casing strings is a vital part of the
well planning process. A casing string set too high may leave weak
zones exposed in the subsequent open hole section, which are
unable to support the mud weights needed to drill to the next
casing point.
Initial selection of the setting depths is made with reference to the

anticipated lithological column, formation pressure and fracture
gradient profiles. From a well control aspect, it is necessary to
determine whether these tentative setting depths give adequate
protection against formation breakdown when a kick is taken.
Formation strength required will depend on whether a large volume
kick back to the casing shoe is being designed for or a “limited kick”.
For the latter, kick tolerance calculations will need to be made.
25
2.3.2 Kick Tolerance

Kick tolerance is the maximum kick size that can be taken into the
wellbore and circulated to the shoe without breaking down the forma-
tion. It is dependent on the mud weight in use, the LOT, the formation
pressure, the size and density of the influx and the hole geometry.
Kick tolerance is normally expressed as an equivalent mud weight

(EMW). The calculation for kick tolerance includes an assumption on
the volume of influx which, in practice, can vary considerably.
When the kick tolerance calculation is equivalent to 0.5 ppg

(60 kg/m3, 0.06 kg/l) or less, the value of the kick tolerance will be
brought to the attention of the Operator Representative. For the
purpose of this calculation, the assumption of an influx volume of
25 bbls (4 m 3) is recommended unless specific information about the
formation permeability suggests otherwise.
To calculate kick tolerance, KT:
KT (ppg) = [MAASP (psi) - (MW (ppg) x 0.052 x Hi (ft))]

÷ 0.052 ÷ TVD (ft)
KT (kg/m3) = [MAASP (kPa) - (MW (kg/m 3) ÷ 102 x Hi (m))]

x 102 ÷ TVD (m)
KT (kg/l) = [MAASP (bar) - (MW (kg/l) ÷ 10.2 x Hi (m))]

x 10.2 ÷ TVD (m)
Where,
KT = Kick tolerance
MAASP = Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure
(refer to 4.3.1)
MW = Mud weight
Hi = Height of influx (determined from kick volume)
TVD = True vertical depth of well
26
Note: The equation (above) for kick tolerance is a simplified version

and neglects formation pressure, influx gradient and the effect of
circulating the kick (assumed to be gas) to the shoe. If kick tolerance
becomes a critical issue for a particular well, advice should be sought
from the TSF Well Construction group.
When to calculate kick tolerance
The frequency of kick tolerance calculation is dependent on the

nature of the well. In hole sections which kick tolerance is likely to be
a critical factor the following guidelines should be considered:
• After a LOT, evaluate the kick tolerance at suitable intervals
throughout the next hole section with the mud weight used at the
start of the section.
• The kick tolerance should also be evaluated throughout the section
with mud weights that are likely to be used.
• If the hole section contains areas of rapid pore pressure increases
the kick tolerance should be re-evaluated at suitable intervals
across the area of increasing pressure.
• If any factors that effect kick tolerance (such as mud weight)
change as the section is drilled, the kick tolerance below that point
should be re-evaluated to reflect that change.
2.3.3 Wellbore Fluid Pressure Gradients

Equivalent Mud Weight (EMW)
The most convenient method of describing down hole pressure is in

terms of an equivalent mud weight, EMW (ppg, kg/m3, kg/l).
EMW is used in order that down hole pressure can easily be related
to the density of a mud column. EMW can therefore be used to
describe a formation pressure as well as a pressure applied by a
column of mud.
The hydrostatic pressure of the mud column acts as a result of the

height of fluid between the flowline and the point of interest in the
wellbore. The EMW must therefore be referenced to the flowline.
27
It is important that the effect of flowline elevation be taken into

account when describing formation pressure in terms of an equivalent
mud weight because formation pressure is often referenced to sea
level.
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD)
When a well is being circulated, back pressure created by the

passage of the mud up the annulus exerts an additional pressure at
any point along the annulus. These annular pressure losses (APL’s)
can be quantified and when added to the hydrostatic pressure
exerted by the mud can be expressed as a mud weight or ECD
(ppg, kg/m3, kg/l).
The main factors effecting ECD’s are:

• Hole depth.
• Hole size.
• Hole condition (e.g. balling, packing off, etc).
• (External) drillstring geometry.
• Circulation rate.
• Pipe rotation.
• Mud weight.
• Mud rheology.
• Quantity of drilled cuttings in the annulus.
Equivalent Static Density (ESD)
At elevated pressures and temperatures the hydrostatic pressure

exerted by a static column of mud at the bottom of the hole cannot be
calculated directly from the mud weight measured on surface. This is
due to a combination of fluid compressibility and thermal expansion
and results in a greater bottom hole pressure than expected.
For example, in a 16,500 ft TVD (5037m) well with a mud weight of

18.1 ppg (2170 kg/m3, 2.17 kg/l) and a surface mud temperature of
122°F (50°C), the static bottom hole pressure was measured down-
hole. This value was 0.16 ppg (20 kg / m3, 0.02 kg/l) above the value
calculated from the surface mud weight. Therefore, for certain wells,
it is essential that mud weights be corrected for the effect of bottom
hole temperature.
28
2.3.4 Collision Avoidance

Collision avoidance is particularly important in the shallow sections of
platform or subsea template wells, generally down to the surface
casing depth. Accurate surveys over this section of hole being drilled,
and all wells in close proximity, may reduce the requirement for
shutting in producing wells during close proximity drilling.
Survey uncertainty in this hole section should be kept to less than

2 ft/1000 ft. Figure 2.3 below gives typical surveying tool accuracy.
While drilling in close proximity to other wells, returns should be

monitored for metal cuttings. If metal cuttings are detected, drilling
should stop immediately. A survey shall then be run to determine the
position of the wellbore.
Typical Lateral Position Uncertainties

for Magnetic and Gyroscopic Surveys
(After Wolff and de Wardt 1981)
1000
x
Relative Lateral Position Uncertainty
100
x
(ft per 1000 ft)
x
x
10 x
x
x
x
x
1
Good Magnetic
x
Poor Magnetic
Poor Gyro
x Good Gyro
0.1
0.1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 85
Hole inclination (degrees)
Figure 2.3
29
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30
Well Control Principles
Contents
3.1 Primary Well Control 32
3.1.1 Definition 32
3.1.2 Causes of kicks 32
3.2 Secondary Well Control 34
3.2.1 Definition 34
3.2.2 Kick Size and Severity 35
3.3 Tertiary Well Control 36
3.3.1 Definition 36
3.3.2 Procedures 37
3.3.3 Blowout/Underground Blowout 40
31
3.1 PRIMARY WELL CONTROL

3.1.1 Definition
Primary well control is the use of wellbore fluid density to provide
sufficient hydrostatic pressure to prevent the influx of formation fluid
(i.e. a kick) into the wellbore. It is of the utmost importance that
primary control is maintained at all times by:
• Using drilling and completion fluids of an adequate density.
• Keeping the well full of an adequate density fluid at all times.
• Continuously monitoring active pit volumes, especially during
tripping.
• Immediately detecting changes in the density, volumes and flow
rate of drilling fluids from the wellbore and taking the appropriate
action.
3.1.2 Causes of kicks

There are 5 major causes for the loss of primary well control.
Failure To Fill The Hole Properly While Tripping
As the drillstring is pulled from the hole, the mud level drops due to
the volume of pipe being removed. As the mud level drops the hydro-
static pressure may be reduced enough to lose primary well control
allowing formation fluids to enter the wellbore.
Swabbing
The hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore will always be reduced to

some extent when the drillstring or any downhole tools are being
pulled from the hole. The reduction in hydrostatic pressure should not
be such that primary control is lost.
32
Swabbing is caused by one or more of the following:

• High pulling speeds.
• Mud properties with high viscosity and high gels.
• Tight annulus BHA/hole clearance, or restricted annulus clearance.
• Mud density in use is close to formation pressure.
Lost Circulation (refer to 8.8)
When lost circulation occurs, the drilling fluid level can drop and a
reduction in hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore may cause the loss
of primary well control. Loss of circulation may result from one or
more of the following:
• Cavernous or vugular formations.
• Naturally fractured, pressure depleted or sub-normally pressured
zones.
• Fractures induced by excessive pipe running speeds, especially if
the mud density is close to the fracture gradient.
• A restricted annulus due to balling of BHA or sloughing shales/
mobile formations.
• Excessively high annular friction losses.
• Excessive pressures caused by breaking circulation when mud gel
strength is high.
• Mechanical failure (casing, riser, etc).
Insufficient Mud Weight
When the hydrostatic pressure due to drilling fluid density is less than
formation pressure of a permeable zone, formation fluids will enter
the wellbore. This may occur due to the following:
• Drilling into an abnormal pressure zone.
• Dilution of the drilling fluid on surface (reduction in MW).
• Reduction in drilling fluid density due to influx of formation fluids, in
particular gas (refer to 4.4.4).
• Settling of weighted material (barite sag).
• Failures to displace riser to kill mud after circulating out a kick.
• Pumping long columns of lower weight fluids during specific opera-
tions (e.g. hole cleaning pills in inclined sections, spacers during
cementing, etc).
33
• After cementing and while WOC the hydrostatic pressure of the

slurry may be reduced to the equivalent of the mixwater as it starts
to set.
Loss Of Riser Drilling Fluid Column
On floating rig operations, the loss of the drilling fluid column in the
riser may result in a reduction of hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore
and may cause the loss of primary well control.
This loss of riser hydrostatic column could be due to:

• Accidental disconnect.
• Riser damage.
• Displacement of riser with seawater or a lower density fluid.
• Accidental “U-tubing” into choke/kill lines.
3.2 SECONDARY WELL CONTROL

3.2.1 Definition
Secondary well control is the proper use of blowout prevention equip-
ment to control the well in the event that primary control cannot be
properly maintained.
Early recognition of the warning signals and rapid shut-in are

the key to effective well control. By taking action quickly, the
amount of formation fluid that enters the wellbore is minimized.
34
3.2.2 Kick Size and Severity

Minimizing kick size is fundamental in enhancing the safety of a well
control operation. Smaller kicks provide lower choke or annulus
pressure both upon initial closure and later when the kick is circu-
lated to the choke. The kick size is dependant on a number of
parameters, all of which are related to well productivity but only some
of which we can influence. These can be summarized:
Controllable parameters
Parameter Influence
• Degree of underbalance ➱ Mud weight
(drawdown on the reservoir)
• Length of reservoir exposed ➱ ROP + kick detection time
• Length of time well ➱ Kick detection and shut-in time
remains underbalanced
• Wellbore diameter ➱ Hole size
Non-controllable parameters
• Formation permeability.
• Formation fluid type/mobility.
• Wellbore skin (can be controlled to a certain extent).
It is important to understand and focus on the 4 ‘controllable para-

meters’ during well planning and operations.
Figure 3.1 shows the importance of rapid shut-in to reduce influx

volume.
35
Depth = 18,000 ft
4500 Hole Geometry 4 1/2 DP x 8 3/4 Hole
ISIDP = 940 psi
BHP = 18,850 psi
4000 Original Mud Weight = 17.0 ppg
Pc Max = 3800 psi
New Mud Weight = 18.0 ppg
Annulus Pressure While Circulating
3500
150 bbls
Pc Max = 3120 psi
3000
Out Gas Kick
100 bbls
2500
Pc Max = 2220 psi
2000
50 bbls Pc Max = 1640 psi
1500
25 bbls
1000 Pc Max = 640 psi

5 bbls
500
250 500 750 1000 1250

Kill Mud Pumped (bbls)
Figure 3.1: Effects of Influx Volume on SICP
3.3 TERTIARY WELL CONTROL

3.3.1 Definition
In the event that secondary control cannot be properly maintained
due to hole conditions or equipment failure, certain emergency
procedures can be implemented to prevent the total loss of control.
These procedures are referred to as “Tertiary Well Control” and
usually lead to partial or complete abandonment of the well.
The procedures to be applied depend on the particular operating

conditions encountered, and specific recommendations regarding
appropriate tertiary control procedures cannot be given until the
circumstances leading to the loss of secondary control have been
established.
36
However, there are three procedures that are widely used. These
involve the use of:
• Diesel-Bentonite ‘gunk’ plugs.
• Barite plugs.
• Cement plugs.
3.3.2 Procedures
Diesel-Bentonite ‘Gunk’ Plugs
A diesel-bentonite plug is a slurry of bentonite mixed in diesel oil

which is pumpable at surface and develops a high shear strength
when displaced into position downhole. Cement or LCM can be
added to the slurry if necessary.
Key features
• Designed to set upon contact with a water-based mud or formation

water if squeezed into the formation.
• The bentonite hydrates rapidly upon contact with water to form a
gelatinous plug with the consistency of putty.
• If cement is included in the slurry it will increase the rigidity of the
plug when set and provide a higher compressive strength.
• It is preferable to spot the plug through open-ended drillpipe or a
slotted, closed-ended mule shoe.
Advantages
• It can be pumped through the bit and the drillstring recovered.

• The material required is normally available at the rig site.
• The plug can be drilled easily.
Disadvantages
• Any contact with water before the plug has been displaced will
cause it to ‘flash’ set.
• The plug will degrade over time and therefore the problem forma-
tion will have to be cemented or cased at the first opportunity.
37
Barite Plugs
A barite plug is a slurry of barite in fresh water or diesel oil which is

spotted in the hole to form a barite bridge that will seal the well and
allow control to be re-established.
Key features
• The plug is displaced through the drillstring and, if conditions allow,

the string is pulled up to a safe point above the plug.
• The barite settles out rapidly to form an impermeable mass capable
of shutting off high rates of flow.
• The effectiveness of a barite plug derives from the high density and
fine particle size of the barite and its ability to form a tough imper-
meable barrier.
• A minimum final plug length of 200 ft (60 m) and not less than
10 bbls (1.5m3) volume is recommended to ensure a good seal.
Advantages
• It can be pumped through the bit and offers a reasonable chance of

recovering the drillstring.
• The material required is normally available at the rig site.
• The plug can be drilled easily if required.
Disadvantages
• The risk of the barite settling out and the consequent plugging of the
drillstring if pumping is stopped before the slurry has been
completely displaced.
Refer to 7.2.5.4 for recipes in WBM and OBM.
38
Cement Plugs
A cement plug can be used to shut off a downhole flow. However, this
generally involves abandonment of the well and loss of most of the
drilling tools.
Key features
• Cement plugs are set by pumping a quantity of quick setting

(accelerated) cement into the annulus via the drillstring.
• The cement is usually displaced until the pump and choke
pressures indicate that a bridge has formed.
• Quick setting cement reduces the possibility of gas cutting.
• If a cement plug has to be set off bottom with mud below it, then
consideration should be given to spotting a slug of viscous
mud below the zone to be plugged. This precaution should be
considered in long or deviated holes or when the cement slurry is
substantially heavier than the mud.
• Cement plugging should be regarded as the final option.
Advantages
• Highest chance of success in bridging/sealing troublesome

formation.
• Materials required are normally at rig site.
Disadvantages
• Little chance of recovering drillstring.

• Subsequent drilling will require a sidetrack if fish left in hole.
• Possible plugging of drillstring during cement placement precluding
a second attempt.
39
3.3.3 Blowout/Underground Blowout

It is critical to establish, prior to drilling any hydrocarbon
bearing formations, that potential blowout/underground
blowout situations have been addressed. This should be
covered under in an emergency procedures manual written
jointly by TSF and Operator.
Refer to 7.2.5 for additional information about blowouts/underground

blowouts.
40
Preparation and Prevention
Contents
4.1 Preparation of Equipment and Materials 42
4.1.1 Mud Pit Management 42

4.1.2 Bulk and Chemical Stocks 43
4.1.3 Instrumentation 43
4.1.4 Equipment line up for Shut-In 45
4.2 Well Control Drills 46
4.2.1 Diverter Drill 46

4.2.2 Kick While Tripping (Trip Drill) 47
4.2.3 Kick While Drilling (Kick Drill) 48
4.2.4 Well Kill Drill (Choke Drill) 48
4.2.5 Stripping Drill 49
4.3 Pre-recorded Information 49
4.3.1 Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure

(MAASP) 49
4.3.2 Slow Circulating Rates (SCR) 50
4.3.3 Choke Line Friction Losses (CLFL) 51
4.4 Kick Prevention During Operations 52
4.4.1 Tripping Practices 52

4.4.1.1 Before Tripping 52
4.4.1.2 Pulling out of Hole (POOH) 54
4.4.1.3 No Pipe in the Hole 55
4.4.1.4 Running in Hole (RIH) 55
4.4.1.5 Flow Checks 57
4.4.2 Drilling with OBM 58
4.4.3 Indications of Increasing Formation Pressure 59
4.4.4 Gas Cut Mud 61
4.4.5 Types of Gases 62
41
4.1 PREPARATION OF EQUIPMENT

AND MATERIALS
4.1.1 Mud Pit Management
During normal operations
Use the minimum amount of solids control pits while still being able to
use the degasser pit(s).
Keep the surface area of the active mud system as small as possible
to improve kick detection. Reserve mud pits should be isolated from
the active system.
Ensure all pit volume measurement systems are calibrated and pit
isolation valves are sealing properly before drilling into possible
hydrocarbon bearing zones.
Keep all mud treatment and pit transfers to the absolute minimum
during critical sections of the well. The Mud Engineer and Derrickman
will keep the Driller and Mud Loggers informed of any transfers or
treatment of mud.
During well control operations
The following checklist should be considered prior to circulating out a

kick to ensure correct surface arrangement of pits.
Check:
• Method used to kill the well.
• Useable pit volume in relation to the hole volume.
• Available pit capacity to accommodate the gain caused by kick
expansion during displacement.
• Method of weighting up the mud.
• The type and toxicity of the kick.
• Method of disposal of the kick at surface.
• Treatment of contaminated returns.
42
4.1.2 Bulk and Chemical Stocks

Barite and Mud Chemical Stocks:
The minimum quantity of barite (or any alternative weighting

material) held on board will be sufficient to raise the density of
the mud system by at least 1 ppg (120 kg/m3, 0.12 kg/l) where,
Mud system = Hole volume (no pipe) + 150 bbls (24 m3) surface
volume.
The minimum stocks of mud chemicals held on board will be

sufficient to enable the mud system (as defined above) to be
weighted up by at least 1 ppg (120 kg/m3, 0.12 kg/l).
Cement and Cement Chemical Stocks:
The minimum quantities of bulk cement and cement additives

held on board will be sufficient to set at least two (2) 500 ft
(150 m) cement plugs in the hole section being drilled.
Drilling operations will be stopped if minimum stock levels are

reached.
4.1.3 Instrumentation
Pressure Measurement
The rig will be equipped to read standpipe and annulus pressures.

These gauges are fitted to the Driller’s console and the remote choke
operating panel and will be rated to display pressures equal to the
working pressure of the equipment.
Standpipe and choke/kill lines must all have at least two (2) separate
gauges reading the same pressure for the purposes of redundancy
and calibration. These should be cross-checked during every BOP
test.
43
A set of choke, standpipe and kill line gauges must be visible at the
remote choke operating panel in the Driller’s station and from the
manual/adjustable choke on the choke manifold.
It should be possible to install (and remove) low pressure gauges on

the choke and kill manifold(s) and on the remote choke operating
panel.
Hydraulic fluid and a hand charge pump must be available on the drill
floor.
Fluid Volume Measurement
A pit level monitoring system, capable of registering gains and losses

and displaying the contents as a volume will be installed in all the
active mud pits.
A gauge/readout complete with an adjustable, audio-visual alarm will

be installed on the Driller’s instrument panel and must be able to
monitor the pit volume(s) separately or collectively.
During Well Control operations it may be necessary to bleed volumes

from the well as small as 1/2 bbl. (0.08 m 3) and the trip/stripping tank
gauges (electronic and mechanical) must be able to display this
increment.
Return Flow Measurement
The flowline will be equipped with a device for measuring the rate of
return flow from the well.
A gauge/readout complete with an adjustable, audio-visual alarm will

be installed on the Driller’'s instrument panel.
44
Pump Output
Gauges and counters will be available (at both the Driller’s station and
the remote choke operating panel) to show the following:
• Pump strokes per minute.

• Cumulative pump strokes.
4.1.4 Equipment line up for Shut-In

Diverter
The Driller, or his designee, will check diverter and overboard

line valves for the correct setting at the beginning of each tour.
• The diverter insert packer will always be in and locked down after
the riser is run (except during the handling of BHA’s).
Choke and Kill Manifold
The Driller, or his designee, will check the correct manifold line-
up at the beginning of each tour.
• The choke and the valve(s) immediately upstream of chokes on the

choke manifold to be kept in the closed position. If the valve down-
stream of the choke is of same pressure rating as the manifold
upstream, then this may be closed instead.
• Choke and Kill manifold valves will be lined up to obtain immediate
pressure readings after well is shut-in.
• Choke and Kill manifold low-pressure valves will be lined up to
direct the flow of the well through the MGS.
BOP Valves
• Remote operated choke line valve (HCR) on surface BOP’s or fail-
safe valves on subsea BOP’s are to be kept in closed position.
45
4.2 WELL CONTROL DRILLS

During relevant operations, Well Control Drills will be held on at
least a weekly basis or more often if the Senior Toolpusher
considers it necessary.
Well control drills will be conducted under the supervision of the

Senior Toolpusher or his designee and will be structured to acquaint
each crewmember with his role during a well control incident so that
he can perform it promptly and efficiently. Well control drills will be
initiated at unscheduled times when operations and hole conditions
permit.
A well control drill plan, applicable to the particular site, will be

prepared for each crewmember outlining the assignments he is to
fulfil during the drill and establishing a prescribed time for the
completion of each stage of the drill. A copy of the complete well
control drill plan will be posted.
The timing of the drills should be selected so that crews can practice
drills while on bottom and while tripping.
The following will be recorded in the IADC report:

• Type of drill.
• Reaction time from the moment the kick is simulated until the
designated crewmember is ready to start the shutting-in procedure.
• Total time taken to complete the drill.
4.2.1 Diverter Drill

When the posted instruction is to divert, drills are particularly
important since there is little time to react. The actions taken by
the Driller and his crew must be planned and practised.
Diverter drills should be carried out to reduce the crew’s reaction time
and prove the operation of all diverter system equipment. A drill
should be carried out before drilling out the surface casing.
46
A specific detailed diverter drill will be prepared for each rig/well that
should include the following:
• Simulation of diverting the well according to diverter procedures
(includes lining up pumps to heavy mud).
• The sending of essential personnel to their pre-assigned positions.
• The sending of all non-essential personnel to the muster point or
assigned position as per the Emergency Response Plan.
• Simulate “get ready for disconnect and move off location” on
floating rigs.
These drills must be held by each crew at the beginning of

every tour during this phase of the well to familiarize all
personnel with the proper and immediate actions to take.
4.2.2 Kick While Tripping (Trip Drill)

The drill should only be conducted if the BHAis inside casing (but not
in or above the BOP’s).
The Driller and crew should complete the following steps to secure
the well:
• The Driller should recognise the indication of a kick and alert the
crew.
• Lower the drillstring and set the slips. Install a safety valve in the
open position. Close the safety valve.
• Simulate shutting-in the well using the Annular Preventer (Upper
Annular preferred in the case of subsea BOP’s).
• Simulate opening the HCR/’fail-safe’valves on the choke line at the
BOP’s.
• Make up the kick assembly or the topdrive/kelly to the string and
open the safety valve.
• Pick up to the pre-determined space-out position for the Annular
Preventer.
• Open and adjust the compensator to mid-stroke (on floating rigs).
• Read and record the SIDPP and SICP.
• Measure the gain in the active mud pit.
• Prepare to strip pipe, including lining up equipment as required,
assigning individual responsibilities and prepare stripping work-
sheets and instructions.
47
4.2.3 Kick While Drilling (Kick Drill)

This drill may be conducted either in an open or cased hole. If the drill
is conducted when in open hole the well will not be shut-in.
The Driller and crew will complete the following tasks to secure the
well:
• Recognise the kick and alert the crew.
• Pick up off bottom.
• Stop the pump(s).
• Flow check. If the trip tank can be lined up quickly (i.e. remotely),
check the well for flow on the trip tank with the trip tank circulating.
• Simulate shutting in the well using the Annular Preventer. Do not
shut the well in if in open hole.
• Simulate opening the HCR/ ‘fail-safe’ valves in the choke line at the
BOP stack.
• Simulate setting the DSC at mid stroke (floating rigs).
• Take readings of the shut-in casing and drillpipe pressures (SICP,
SIDPP).
• Measure the gain in the active mud tanks.
• Double check the space-out is correct, simulate hanging off the
pipe and close and lock the hang-off rams (on floating rigs).
• Check all valves on choke manifold and BOP stack for correct
position.
• Simulate stopping all hot work.
This operation shall be performed at least once per week (well

conditions permitting) with each crew.
4.2.4 Well Kill Drill (Choke Drill)

Before drilling out the shoe of casing set above the reservoir or a
high-pressure zone, a drill including actual closure of BOP’s, circula-
tion through chokes, mustering of crews, pressuring of silos etc.
should be conducted. In particular, this will give the choke operator a
“feel” of the choke operation and pressure lag times in the well.
48
4.2.5 Stripping Drill

Strip drills should be held inside the (intermediate and) production
casing before drilling out the shoe-track. (Refer to Appendix A2.2 for
forms.)
4.3 PRE-RECORDED INFORMATION

4.3.1 Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure
(MAASP)
MAASP is defined as the surface pressure which, when added to the
hydrostatic pressure of the existing mud column, results in formation
breakdown at the weakest point in the well.
This value is normally based on LOT data, with the assumption that
the formation at the shoe is the weakest point in the open hole
section. This assumption should be reconsidered if losses to the
formation are sustained or weaker zones are encountered in
subsequent drilling. Conversely, the calculated value of MAASP can
be conservative and if exceeded, may not result in formation break-
down for the following reasons:
• MAASP has been calculated from readings obtained from a LOT
(refer to 2.2.2).
• Drilling fluid properties may have changed since the LOT was
conducted.
• The deposition of filter cake and the effect of temperature as drilling
proceeds may improve the effective formation strength.
• The near-wellbore region may be weaker than the surrounding
formation.
During well control operations, it is most important that the position of

the kick, in relation to the last casing shoe, is monitored so that the
MAASP figure can be used correctly.
49
Calculation of MAASP
When the hydrostatic head of the mud in the hole changes the value
of MAASP must be recalculated.
MAASP (psi) = [EMWLOT (ppg) - MW (ppg)] x 0.052 x TVDshoe (ft)
MAASP (kPa) = [EMWLOT (kg/m3) - MW (kg/m3)] ÷ 102 x TVDshoe (m)
MAASP (bar) = [EMWLOT (kg/l) - MW (kg/l)] ÷ 10.2 x TVDshoe (m)
Automatic MAASP control devices will be disabled.
4.3.2 Slow Circulating Rates (SCR)

Well control operations are conducted at reduced circulating rates in
order to:
• Minimize annulus pressures.
• Allow for more controlled choke adjustments.
• Allow for the weighting up and degassing of the mud and disposal
of the influx.
• Reduce the chance of choke erosion.
• Reduce risk of overpressuring system if plugging occurs.
Slow circulating rate pressures for each pump will be taken:

• If practical, at the beginning of every tour.
• Any time the mud properties are changed.
• Any time the bit nozzle configuration or bottom hole assembly is
changed.
• As soon as possible after bottoms-up from any trip.
• At least every 1000 ft (305 m) of new hole.
A minimum of two circulating rates should be obtained for all pumps.
When determining slow circulation rates, consider wellbore geometry,

water depth choke line lengths and equipment limitations.
50
The pressures must be recorded using the gauge that will be used
during well kill operations.
The SCR pressures and corresponding pump rates will be recorded

on the IADC report and on the Daily Drilling Report.
4.3.3 Choke Line Friction Losses (CLFL)

Choke line pressure losses at Slow Circulation Rates should be
taken:
• Before drilling out first casing string after BOP installation.
• After any significant change in mud weight or other mud properties.
It is important that the CLFL is known for a wide range of circulating

rates. From this information the additional pressure on the well can be
assessed at a range of displacement rates and the most suitable
circulating rate chosen (refer to Appendix 7).
Procedures for Recording CLFL
There are four recognised methods of recording CLFL at SCR’s of

1- 5bbls/min (0.16-0.8 m 3/min).
1. Take the difference between the drillpipe pressure required to

circulate the well through a full open choke with the BOP closed
and the drillpipe pressure required to circulate the well through the
marine riser with the BOP open.
2. Circulate the well through a full open choke with the BOP closed
and recording the pressure on the (static) kill line. The kill line
pressure will reflect the choke line pressure loss.
3. Circulate down the choke line and up the marine riser with the
BOP open. The pressure required for circulation is a direct reflec-
tion of the choke line pressure loss.
4. Circulate down the kill line taking returns through a full open choke
with the wellbore and riser isolated by closing the BOP’s. Pressure
observed is double the choke line pressure loss.
51
The pressure readings provided by the choke manifold pressure

sensor, rather than the pump pressure gauge, should be recorded
since the effect of the pressure losses between the pump and the
choke manifold are eliminated.
Whenever the choke/kill line is used to calculate pressures

MAKE SURE the correct fluid density is used.
4.4 KICK PREVENTION DURING OPERATIONS

4.4.1 Tripping Practices
The majority of kicks are taken while pulling the drillstring from the
wellbore. This is a problem that can be avoided if the crew is well
trained and if proper procedures are followed.
During tripping the potential exists for a significant reduction in bottom

hole pressure due to the following effects:
• Swab pressures due to pipe motion.
• Reduction in height of the mud column as pipe is removed from the
well.
4.4.1.1 Before Tripping
Trip Margin
To minimize the risk of taking a kick when tripping out of hole, a

sufficient mud weight should be in use which gives an overbalance on
the formation. This increment in mud weight is called the “Trip Margin”
and can be a selected value (e.g. 200 psi (1400 kPa, 14 bar)) or
calculated (refer to Appendix 3).
In cases where trip margin can only be a very small increment

consideration should be given to pumping out of hole.
52
Circulation
The mud should be conditioned to minimize excessive swab/surge

pressures when tripping.
Any entrained gas or cuttings should be circulated out.
It will be permissible to trip with stable ‘seepage’ losses i.e.

less than 20 bbls/hr (3.2 m3/hr). If losses are in excess of this,
authorization from the Operations Manager will be required.
The difference between the mud weight ‘in’and ‘out’of the well should
be uniform.
Determine the Maximum Pipe Speed
Swab/surge pressures should be calculated for various tripping

speeds. If software is not available on the rig then tools can be found
on the intranet (TSFNet\Field Support\Well Construction\Toolbox).
Line up the Trip Tank
The trip tank will be filled with adequate weight fluid and function
tested prior to removing the topdrive or kelly.
A trip sheet will be prepared. The trip sheet will show the expected
hole fill volumes as the drillpipe is pulled out of the hole. As the trip
out of the hole proceeds, the actual hole fill volumes will be recorded.
The Mud Loggers will independently monitor the mud volumes during
the trip. They will notify the Driller if any discrepancies occur during
the trip. If any discrepancies cannot be resolved the Senior
Toolpusher will be informed.
Should the trip tank pump fail, an alternative will be to use a mud
pump while pulling pipe. The annulus will be filled with mud before the
change in mud level decreases the hydrostatic pressure by 75 psi
(500 kPa, 5 bar) or every 5 stands of drillpipe, whichever gives a
53
lower decrease in hydrostatic pressure. When pulling HWDP or drill

collars the hole will be filled every stand. The pit from which the hole
is being filled will be isolated from all other pits and the volume
closely monitored.
Drill Floor Preparation - Safety Valves
Suitable safety valves made up with the appropriate XO subs to

fit all drillpipe and BHA connections must be on the drill floor
in an accessible place and always in the “open” position. The
closing/opening wrench must be readily available for immedi-
ate use and there must be correct means of lifting.
An IBOP valve will be kept on the drill floor should it become neces-
sary to strip into the hole.
4.4.1.2 Pulling out of Hole (POOH)
If the trip margin is insufficient/unknown, conduct a short check trip.

Once back on bottom, the ability to safely trip can be assessed from
the level of the trip gas following a bottoms-up circulation.
Pulling wet pipe should be avoided if possible.
If hole problems are expected, tripping through the problem intervals

before pumping a slug should be considered.
Slugs
The following calculations should be made (refer to Appendix 3):

• Volume of slug required for the desired length of dry pipe.
• The gain in returned volume produced by the U-tubing of the slug.
Where possible, rotate the pipe while pumping and allow the slug to
equalize.
Allow the trip tank level to stabilize before POOH.
54
The Toolpusher on tour should be on the drill floor to observe the first
10 stands of every trip or until the bit is inside the casing shoe.
The trip tank should be closely monitored at this stage to ensure that
swabbing is quickly detected.
Circulating the hole across the trip tank will continuously monitor the
pipe displacement.
If the hole is taking the proper amount of fluid and if there is no drag
or overpull that could generate swabbing, then the pipe wiper should
be installed after pulling the first 5 stands or after the bit is pulled into
cased hole.
Whenever a trip is interrupted, a full opening safety valve must

be installed and the well monitored on the trip tank.
Tripping should be stopped whenever the trip tank is refilled. The

lower and upper tank fill figures should be checked with the Mud
Loggers before proceeding with the tripping operation.
4.4.1.3 No Pipe in the Hole
The trip tank will be lined up and used to monitor hole conditions while
the drillstring is out of the hole. A person must be assigned to monitor
the trip tank.
4.4.1.4 Running in Hole (RIH)
There are 2 main issues when RIH:

• Surge pressures developed while RIH can cause formation break-
down leading to losses.
• An undetected kick could exist in the well which is “run into” when
tripping in.
55
Running Speed
The speed at which the drillstring is run in the hole will be controlled
to reduce the surge effects on the hole. Surge calculations should be
made and the appropriate schedule given to the Driller.
Breaking Circulation
To reduce possibilities of high surge pressures, consider breaking

circulation before entering the open hole. Once circulation is broken,
conduct a flow check before continuing RIH. On bottom, slow pipe
rotation should be considered to break mud gels prior to breaking
circulation.
Filling Drillpipe
With a float in the string, drillpipe must be filled at predetermined

intervals (up to a maximum of 15 stands). When the BHA is in open
hole, the drillstring will be reciprocated while filling the drillstring to
prevent becoming stuck.
Mud Pit/Trip Tank
The trip tank or a mud pit will be monitored while tripping into the hole.
Incorrect Hole Fill
If at any time during the tripping operation the hole is not taking the
proper amount of drilling fluid (or if the hole is giving fluid), stop and
install the full opening safety valve, flow check the well and inform the
Toolpusher.
If the hole is taking too much fluid this may be due to a high
tripping speed or gelled up mud. Reduce tripping speed and/or break
circulation.
Bottoms-Up Circulation
During the first circulation of bottoms-up after a round trip drilling

fluids should not be transferred from the reserve to the active system.
56
4.4.1.5 Flow Checks
A flow check is the observation of the well without circulation. Flow

checks are made to determine if the well is or is not flowing.
The duration of a flow check may be specified by the Senior

Toolpusher but must take whatever time is necessary to determine
whether the well is static.
Flow Checks during a Trip
Flow checks will be performed at the following times:

• At the bottom of the well before any trip out of the hole.
• At the lowest casing shoe.
• Anytime the hole displacement is incorrect during a trip.
If continuous volume monitoring is not possible, then a flow

check will be made:
• Prior to pulling the HWDP or Drill Collars through the BOP’s.
Flow Checks during other well operations
Flow checks will be performed at the following times:

• After unseating a seal assembly.
• After cutting a casing string.
• Before and during hanging off the blocks for slipping and cutting
drilling line.
• While testing the BOP.
• During wireline operations.
• Before and while running a survey.
• After any well control operation.
At any time the Driller has a doubt about the stability of the
well.
57
4.4.2 Drilling with OBM

Kick Detection
Kicks taken while drilling with OBM may be difficult to detect due to
the problems created by gas solubility in OBM. Gas may go into
solution during a kick instead of staying as a discrete phase as occurs
with WBM.
When the gas saturated mud reaches a depth where pressure/

temperature are at the bubble point, the gas will start coming out of
solution causing a very rapid increase in well flow. In some cases this
can unload the annulus resulting in large pit gains and high annulus
shut-in pressures.
Gas solubility increases as:

• Bottom hole pressure increases.
• Gas density increases.
• % of base oil increases.
• Bottom hole temperature decreases.
• Solids content, % of emulsifiers and/or brine decreases.
Special Precautions - While Drilling
Monitor active pit for small gains (< 5 bbls/0.8m3).
Be prepared to shut-in or handle increases in pit volume when

circulating after drilling breaks.
The Senior Toolpusher or his designee must be notified of any trend

changes or flow checks.
Base oil, oil base mud or diesel should not be transferred directly from
supply boat to the active mud pits while drilling operations are in
progress.
Flow checks taken after any kick indicators have been observed
should be extended to between 15 and 30 minutes. Even with a stat-
ic flow check, consideration should be given to circulating bottoms-up.
58
If the Driller encounters any kick indicator then consideration should

be given to shutting in the well even if a flow check proves inconclu-
sive. If there is no indication of flow, it does not necessarily mean that
a kick has not entered the wellbore. Clear instructions must be given
to the Driller for this occurrence prior to start of drilling an OBM
section.
Consideration should be given to circulating the last 3000 ft (900 m)

of the annulus volume below the BOP’s out through an open choke.
Special Precautions - While Tripping
If there are signs of a kick while circulating bottoms-up, consideration

should be given to completing the circulation through the choke as
per the Driller ’s method. This will distinguish trip gas from a real kick
and will determine if an increase in mud weight is required.
4.4.3 Indications of Increasing Formation Pressure

The detection of increasing formation pressure is an essential step in
maintaining primary well control. There is no one rule that will pinpoint
abnormally pressured zones but many of the following indicators, in
order of priority, appear before the formation pressure becomes high
enough to cause a kick.
Increase in Drilling Rate
When abnormal pressure is encountered, differential pressure and

shale density are decreased causing an increase in penetration rate
(ROP).
Increase in Gas Trend
Section 4.4.5 below, describes the various “types” of gases that which
should be continuously monitored. An increasing trend is a strong
indicator that a mud gradient/pore pressure balance is being
approaching the mud gradiented.
59
Change in Cutting Size and Shape
Cuttings from normally pressured shales are small with rounded

edges and are generally flat, while cuttings from abnormally
pressured shales often become long and splintery with angular
edges. As differential between the pore pressure and wellbore pres-
sure is reduced, the cuttings have a tendency to “explode” off bottom.
In addition, because of a reduction in differential pressure, fluid in the
shale can expand causing cracking and sloughing of the shales into
the wellbore. A change in cutting shape will occur along with an
increase in the amount of cuttings recovered at the surface and this
should indicate that abnormal pressure has been encountered.
Temperature Measurements
The continuous measurement of the mud temperature at the flowline

may suggest change in temperature gradient that is associated with
penetrating an abnormally pressured formation. The temperature
gradient in abnormally pressured formations is usually higher than
normal. This temperature gradient increase occurs before penetrating
the interface and may provide early warning of abnormal pressures.
Increase in Torque and Drag
Increases in torque and drag often occur when drilling at- or under-
balance through some shale intervals. This condition can be caused
by “heaving” or “sloughing” shales resulting in a build up of cuttings in
the annulus and excessive fill on connections and trips. Taken alone,
increase in torque and drag is not always a reliable indicator since it
may be caused by hydratable shales, change of formation, worn out
bit, deviated hole, etc.
Decrease in Shale Density
Shale density normally increases with depth but decreases as abnor-

mal pressure zones are drilled. The density of the cuttings can be
determined at the surface and plotted versus depth. A normal trend
line is established and any deviation should (in theory) indicate
changes in pore pressure.
60
Change in d-exponent
A normalized drilling rate may be defined as a function of measured

drilling rate, bit weight and size, and rotary speed.
Because “d” is an indication of “drillability”, a plot of “d” versus depth

in shale sections has been used with moderate success in predicting
abnormal pressure. Trends of d-exponent normally increase with
depth, but in transition zones, values of “d” decrease with lower than
expected values. Since the d-exponent indicates the pressure differ-
ence between formation pressure and wellbore pressure, changing
the mud weight will affect the d-exponent.
It should be remembered that the d-exponent was developed

primarily for use in shale type formations drilled with rock bits.
Chloride Trends
The chloride content of the mud filtrate can be monitored both going
into and coming out of the hole. A comparison of chloride trends can
provide a warning or confirmation signal of increasing pore pressures.
An alternative to measuring chloride content of the filtrate is continu-

ous measurement of the mud resistivity both in and out of the hole.
Mud additives and make-up water can affect resistivity and chloride
measurements.
4.4.4 Gas Cut Mud

A minor influx that is not detected as a pit gain may first be identified
at the surface in the returned mud. Formation fluids in the returned
mud may indicate that a low volume influx is occurring or has
occurred, though no gain has been detected. Therefore, returned
mud must be monitored for contamination with formation fluids.
Constantly recording the flowline mud density and accurately moni-
toring gas levels in the returned mud accomplishes this.
Mud which is sufficiently gas cut will cause a reduction in BHP.
61
The presence of gas cut mud does not indicate that the well is kick-
ing (gas may be entrained in the cuttings). However, the presence of
gas cut mud must be treated as an early warning sign of a potential
kick.
Interpreting Gas Levels
Interpreting gas levels in the mud requires an understanding of the

conditions under which the gas has entered the mud. Gas can enter
the mud for one or more of the following reasons:
• Drilling a formation that contains gas even with a suitable over-
balance.
• Temporary reduction in hydrostatic pressure caused by swabbing.
• Pore pressure in a formation greater than the hydrostatic pressure
of the mud column.
4.4.5 Types of Gases

Drilled Gas
As porous formations containing gas are drilled, a certain quantity of

the gas contained in the cuttings will enter the mud. This occurs even
if the formation is overbalanced.
Background Gas
This is the average gas level (excluding peaks) and corresponds

to the gas that enters the wellbore under dynamic (circulating)
conditions.
Connection Gas
This is the gas that enters the wellbore under static (non circulating)
conditions such as the time when connections are being made.
Connection gas is characterized by peaks of gas that match the time
between connections and an increasing trend indicates a potential
future kick (refer to figure 4.1).
62
If connection gas is present and the ROP is high, limiting the volume
of connection gas in the annulus by controlling the drilling rate should
be considered.
Trip Gas
Trip gas is any gas that enters the mud while the pipe is tripped (or
partially tripped) and will be detected in the mud on circulating
bottoms-up. If the static mud column is sufficient to balance the
formation pressure, swabbing or osmosis may have caused the trip
gas from the gas bearing formation to enter the wellbore.
Re-circulated Gas
The gas that is not removed by surface equipment, and is re-circulat-

ed into the wellbore, and may be detected when circulated back to
surface again.
Swabbed Gas
The gas that is introduced into the wellbore when the hydrostatic
bottom hole pressure is temporarily less than the gas bearing forma-
tion pore pressure at the point of interest. The temporary reduction in
pressure is caused by the swabbing effect of the drillstring moving
upwards.
Kick Gas
The gas that enters into the wellbore, when the reservoir pore
pressure exceeds the mud gradient, either while circulating or under
static conditions.
63
MUD WEIGHT PRESSURE PROFILES GAS LEVELS
C
Connection
C
C Background
Bottom Hole Gas
Pore Dynamic Pressure
C Pressure
Connection
Depth
C Gases
C
Increase in
BNG Level
C
C - Indicates connection
Figure 4.1: Mud Gas Levels as an Indicator of Formation Pressure
Effect of Gas Cutting on Bottom Hole Pressure
Gas cutting can cause false indications of a kick. It will cause mud
weight to be reduced at the surface and can also cause an apparent
gain in the pits, often interpreted as a well flow. Pressure may also
show up on the annulus if the well is shut-in.
Gas cutting only slightly reduces mud column pressure. Drilled

cuttings from which the gas comes may increase mud column
pressure and compensate for the decrease.
64
Actions Upon Taking A Kick
Contents
5.1 Detecting A Kick 66
5.1.1 Kick Detection while Drilling 66

5.1.2 Kick Detection while Tripping 67
5.2 Containment As Early As Possible 68
5.3 Shut-in Procedures 68
5.3.1 Drilling - Surface BOP’s 68

5.3.2 Drilling - Subsea BOP’s 69
5.3.3 Tripping - Surface BOP’s 69
5.3.4 Tripping - Subsea BOP’s 70
5.3.5 While out of Hole 70
5.3.6 Casing Running 71
5.4 Shut-in Period Prior to Well Kill 72
5.4.1 Monitoring on Trip Tank 72

5.4.2 Well Control with a Kill Joint 72
5.4.3 Pressure and Pit Volume/Trip Tank Readings 72
5.4.4 Recording Drillpipe Pressure with a Non-Ported
Float Valve 74
5.4.5 Trapped Pressure 74
5.4.6 Kick Migration 75
5.4.7 Height and Gradient of a Kick 76
5.4.8 Determining Overbalance 77
65
5.1 DETECTING A KICK

A kick is a flow of formation fluid and/or gas into the wellbore (refer to
3.1.2), the effects of which are normally measurable on the surface.
5.1.1 Kick Detection while Drilling

Drilling Breaks
All drilling breaks will be flow checked. Even if a flow check is

negative, circulating bottoms-up may be advisable before continuing
to drill ahead, e.g. HTHP wells, transition zones or reservoir intervals.
The Toolpusher will be advised of all flow checks.
Increase in Flow Rate
The first positive indicator that the well is flowing is an increase in the
return flow rate while the pumps are running at constant output.
Increase in Pit Volume
A gain in pit volume is a positive indicator that a kick is occurring

assuming there are no other activities ongoing such as mud
additions, mud transfers, start/stop of mud solids control or degassing
equipment. Anyone influencing the active system volumes MUST
communicate with the Driller.
Variation in Pump Speed and Pressure
A decrease in pump pressure combined with an increase in pump

speed may occur when low-density formation fluids flow into the
annulus causing a “U-tubing” effect.
Changes in the pump speed and pressure do not always mean an

influx has entered the wellbore and may be an indication of pump
problems, a washout in the drillstring, washed nozzles etc. First
conduct a flow check before proceeding with other diagnostic
measures to determine the cause(s) of the variation.
66
Well Flowing during a Connection
Annular flow with the pumps shut off may be a positive indicator that
a kick is in progress.
An influx may occur during a connection due to the reduction in

bottom hole pressure as the pumps are shut down (reduction of
hydrostatic pressure from ECD ➱ ESD).
Change of Drilling Fluid Properties
Gas cut or fluid contaminated mud returning from the well could mean
the well is kicking (refer to 4.4.4).
Reduced mud weights can occur during drilling for many reasons;
principally:
• Reduction due to the presence of formation fluids in the mud.
• Reduction due to gas cutting.
• The settling out of weighting material (barite ‘sag’).
5.1.2 Kick Detection while Tripping

Flow into the wellbore will cause improper hole fill-up. Any deviation
from expected hole fill volumes will be investigated and the first action
will be to install a fully open safety valve and then make a flow check
(refer to 4.4.1).
If the flow check is positive the well will be shut-in immediately.
A negative flow check is not necessarily confirmation that an influx

has not occurred. It is possible that the well will not flow even if an
influx has been swabbed in.
If the hole does not take the correct volume of mud, or if the
Driller has any doubt, the pipe will be run immediately and
cautiously back to bottom and bottoms-up circulated.
67
5.2 CONTAINMENT AS EARLY AS POSSIBLE

When a well kicks, it should be shut-in within the shortest possible
time. By taking action quickly, the amount of formation fluid that
enters the wellbore and the amount of drilling fluid expelled from the
annulus is minimized (refer to 3.2.2).
It is the Driller’s (or the person performing the Driller’s

function) responsibility to shut-in the well as quickly as
possible if a kick is detected or suspected using the procedure
in 5.3 below.
Clearly written, detailed instructions on the shut-in policy will

be available to the Driller. Notices displaying the shut-in
procedure will be posted on the drill floor.
5.3 SHUT-IN PROCEDURES

See figure 5.2 for outline shut-in procedures.
5.3.1 Drilling - Surface BOP’s

The procedure is:
• Stop rotation.
• Pick up the drillstring to shut-in position.
• Stop the pumps and flow check - if the well flows:
- Close annular and open remote control choke line valve (HCR).
- Notify the Toolpusher and OIM (who will notify the Operator
Representative).
- Record shut-in drillpipe and casing pressures, pit gain and time of
day.
- Check space-out and close upper pipe rams and ram locks.
- Bleed off pressure between pipe rams and annular (if possible
without risking further kick).
68
5.3.2 Drilling - Subsea BOP’s

The procedure is:
• Stop rotation.
• Pick up the string to shut-in position.
• Stop the pumps and flow check - if well flows:
- Close the annular preventer (upper preferred), and open the
choke line ‘fail-safe’ valves on the BOP stack.
- Notify the Toolpusher and OIM (who will notify the Operator
Representative).
- Record the shut-in drillpipe and casing pressures (note fluid
density in choke/kill lines). Record the gain in pit volume and time
of day.
- Confirm the space-out and close the designated hang-off rams
with reduced closing pressure. Reduce the annular pressure,
slack off and land drillstring on the rams using the drillstring
compensator (DSC).
- Increase the manifold pressure back to 1500 psi. Engage ram
locks.
- Bleed off pressure between pipe rams and annular (if possible)
and open annular.
- Adjust the DSC to support the drillstring weight to the BOP plus
20,000 lbs. Position the DSC at mid-stroke.
- Monitor riser for flow (refer to 8.4.8).
5.3.3 Tripping - Surface BOP’s

The procedure is:
• Set the slips below the top tool joint of the stand.
• Install and close the full opening safety valve .
• Close annular and open HCR valve on choke line.
• Notify the Toolpusher and OIM (who will notify the Operator
Representative).
• Make up the topdrive/kelly (insert pup joint or single between
safety valve and topdrive) and open the safety valve.
• Record shut-in drillpipe and casing pressures and gain in trip tank
volume.
• Torque up all joints and prepare to strip back to bottom.
69
5.3.4 Tripping - Subsea BOP’s

The procedure is:
• Set the slips below the top tool joint of the stand.
• Install and close the fully opening safety valve.
• Close the annular preventer (upper preferred) and open the choke
line ‘fail-safe’ valves on the BOP stack.
Representative).
• Make up the topdrive/kelly (insert a pup joint or single between the
topdrive and the safety valve) and open the safety valve.
• Open the drillstring compensator (DSC).
• Record the shut-in drillpipe and casing pressures and gain in trip
tank volume.
• Monitor riser for flow (refer to 8.4.8).
• Torque up all joints and prepare to strip back to bottom.
If unable, try to make-up top drive to string. If unsuccessful

shear pipe or drop string.
The preferred action is to return the pipe as close as possible to

bottom. If the OIM decides to strip back in the hole refer to 6.5.
5.3.5 While out of Hole

The procedure (Surface and Subsea BOP’s) is:
• Close blind/shear rams and open remote operated valve.

Representative).
• Allow pressure to stabilize and record casing pressure and pit gain,
while running drillstring down to the top of the BOP’s.
• Monitor riser for flow (refer to 8.4.8).
• Stripping procedures will be planned according to the well pressure.
70
5.3.6 Casing Running

The following will be prepared prior to running casing:
• Consideration will be given to the use of casing rams, which will be

dependent on the inherent risks of the section to be cased.
• Record the annular volume between the casing and open hole/
outer casing and calculate acceptable running speeds by depth
with respect to surge pressures.
• Prepare a volume displacement schedule for monitoring volumes.
• Have a circulating head on the drill floor. Check correct thread type
by physical installation and have it prepared without protectors for
rapid installation.
• On floating rigs, ensure a XO from casing to drillpipe is available.
The following should be considered for shutting-in on casing:
• The immediate priority is to shut-in the well. (Note: Reduce

annular/ram operating pressure to account for size and type of
casing closed-in on).
• The most suitable control technique can only be determined after
accessing the particular conditions at the rig site.
• The subsequent options available can be summarized as follows:
- XO to drillpipe (unless the current casing string weight is too
great) and strip to bottom to kill the well.
- XO to drillpipe, strip in until the drillpipe is in the stack. Perform a
top kill.
- Kill the well with the casing across the stack, (possibly using the
Volumetric Method first). The possibility of disconnect must be
considered.
- Drop the casing.
- Shear the casing.
The major factors that will determine the most appropriate course of
action will include the following:
• The length and type of casing run.

• The possibility and consequences of the casing becoming stuck.
71
• The feasibility of circulating out a kick by conventional means (the

smaller annular clearance may cause excessive pressures in the
annulus, or might completely restrict circulation).
• The feasibility of killing the well by other means such as bullhead-
ing or by volumetric control.
• The BOP stack design and ram types.
• The casing being forced out of the hole by the well pressure.
• The weather.
• The possibilities of a disconnect due to blackout, drive-off, etc.
5.4 SHUT-IN PERIOD PRIOR TO WELL KILL

5.4.1 Monitoring on Trip Tank
• Check trip tank line-up and circulate the well over the trip tank to
confirm the mud level in the riser.
• Bleed the pressure from between the annular and the rams, where
applicable, if possible. After the pressure has been bled off, open
the annular.
• Continue monitoring the riser volume.
5.4.2 Well Control with a Kill Joint

If required, the topdrive/ kelly can be changed out for a high-pressure
Kill Joint, complete with high-pressure hose, if the SIDPP approach-
es (or is predicted to approach) the maximum pressure rating of the
equipment or (on floating rigs) the DSC is inoperative.
5.4.3 Pressure and Pit Volume/ Trip Tank Readings

Once the well is shut-in, monitor its behaviour carefully by doing the
following.
• Record the pit gain.

• Continue to monitor the well on the trip tank to make sure that the
BOP’s are not leaking.
• The SIDPP and SICP should be recorded initially at 1-minute
intervals until the pressures have stabilized. It is important to record
the data frequently in order that any change in the rate of build up
72
can be clearly identified (refer to Well Control Records form in

Appendix A2.4).
• Usually, the rate of build up is relatively fast until the well begins to
stabilize. Once the pressures have begun to stabilize, any further
significant increase in both SIDPP and SICP may be indicative of
kick migration.
• If surface pressures take a considerable time to stabilize, it may be
due to one, or all, of the following:
- The kick formation is a low permeability zone.
- The kick created instability in the wellbore, leading to the hole
sloughing and packing off.
- The kick is migrating up the hole.
- The surface lines or subsea choke line are partially plugged.
- An underground blowout is in progress
- Leak between casing strings has developed
The shut-in drillpipe pressure reflects the difference between the kick
zone pressure and the effective hydrostatic pressure of the mud
column in the drillpipe, assuming that the influx has not entered the
drillstring. It can therefore be used to determine the kick formation
pressure.
INITIAL STABILISED INFLUX

PRESSURE PERIOD MIGRATION
BUILD UP OCCURRING
SURFACE PRESSURE (psi)
ANNULUS
PRESSURE
DRILLPIPE
PRESSURE
TIME ELAPSED AFTER SHUT-IN
Figure 5.1: Surface Pressures After Shut-In
73
5.4.4 Recording Drillpipe Pressure with a Non-Ported

Float Valve
If a non-ported float valve is in the string and a kick is taken, the valve
will close against the differential pressure and zero pressure will be
recorded at the standpipe, assuming no trapped pressure.
A typical method to determine shut-in drillpipe pressure follows the

same principles as performing a LOT:
• Pump into the closed wellbore through the drillpipe at a slow rate or
by using the hesitation method and closely monitor the drillpipe and
shut-in casing pressures.
• When the rate of increase of the drillpipe pressure changes
significantly, or the casing pressure just begins to rise, shut off the
pump and record the drillpipe pressure. This value will be the
shut-in drillpipe pressure.
5.4.5 Trapped Pressure

In some circumstances it is possible that the pressure, in excess of
that caused by the kick zone, can be trapped in the well. There are
four possible causes of this phenomenon:
• The pumps were left running after the well was shut-in.
• The influx is migrating up the hole.
• Pipe has been stripped into the well without bleeding off the correct
volume of mud.
• Dynamic forces within the mud due to pressure and temperature
(especially in HP/HT wells).
Trapped pressure of this kind will result in surface pressures that do

not reflect the actual kick zone pressure.
The following procedure can be used to check for trapped pressure:

• Using a manual choke, bleed a small volume (1/4-1/2 bbls, 0.04-
0.08 m3) of mud from the annulus to a suitable measuring tank.
• Close the choke and allow the pressure(s) to stabilize.
• If pressure has been trapped in the well, the drillpipe pressure and
casing pressure will have fallen by approximately an equal amount.
74
• If the drillpipe pressure does not drop after bleeding mud from the
annulus, no pressure is trapped in the well. If there is no trapped
pressure in the well, each increment of mud bled from the well will
cause a further influx into the well. Therefore, if no reduction in
drillpipe pressure is detected after bleeding 2-3 bbls (0.3-0.4 m3)
from the well, no more mud should be bled off.
• An increase in casing pressure is a sign that additional influx has
entered the well. If this occurs, no more mud will be bled from the
well.
• If both the drillpipe pressure and casing pressure have decreased,
continue to bleed mud from the well in (1/4-1/2 bbl, 0.04-0.08 m3)
increments.
• When the drillpipe pressure no longer decreases as the mud is bled
from the well, stop bleeding mud and record the drillpipe pressure
as the shut-in drillpipe pressure.
While it is undesirable to overkill the well, it is potentially hazardous to

increase the size of the influx, which is a possibility if this procedure
is not properly carried out. If there is some doubt as to the true shut-
in drillpipe pressure, even after bleeding mud from the annulus, it may
be prudent to use the Driller’s method to circulate out the kick, rather
than continue bleeding mud.
5.4.6 Kick Migration

Kick migration in a shut-in well can cause excessive pressures within
the wellbore if suitable control procedures are not implemented.
Procedures for relieving bottom hole pressure, due to migration, will

depend on both:
• The position of the drillstring in the hole.
• Ability to monitor BHP with SIDPP.
In both cases, control will be by the Volumetric Method (refer to 6.3).
75
5.4.7 Height and Gradient of a Kick

Kick gradient is not required for the kill procedure, but can be useful
to determine the magnitude of annulus pressures expected and will
help with the planning, handling and disposal of the kick when it
arrives at surface (refer to Appendix 3).
Kick Gradient Kick Type

(psi/ft) (kPa/m) (bar/m)
0.05-0.2 1.1-4.5 0.01-0.05 Gas
0.30-0.4 6.8-9.0 0.07-0.09 Oil
> 0.4 >9.0 >0.09 Water
The following assumptions are made:

• Gradient of the mud in the annulus above the kick is uncontamin-
ated.
• Annular volume is based on gauge hole.
As such, care must be taken with interpretation, the gas gradient

should be considered for safety and critical decisions, as this is the
“worse case”.
If long choke and kill lines are filled with water or other fluids, the
gradient of the kick is given by:
Gi = Gm - (SICP - [Lchoke x (Gm - Psw)] - SIDPP)

Hi
Where:
Gi = Kick gradient.
Gm = Mud gradient.
Lchoke = Length of choke line.
Psw = Gradient of sea water or other liquid.
SIDPP = Shut-in drillpipe pressure.
Hi = Height of influx.
SICP = Shut-in casing pressure.
76
5.4.8 Determining Overbalance

The TSF instructed method is to calculate KMW equivalent to
formation pressure with the only overbalance coming from “rounding-
up” the calculated KMW. If the decision is made to provide more
overbalance when killing the well, applying additional choke pressure
is preferable to increasing the mud weight as this allows immediate
BHP adjustment should mud losses or other problems develop.
Once the well has been killed, the mud weight can be increased
further to include a trip/safety margin (refer to Appendix 3).
For wells where there is a known large margin between pore pressure
and fracture pressure, consideration should be given to including a
trip/safety margin with the KMW. This will minimize the chance of
swabbing a kick once the well has been initially killed.
77
78
TRANSOCEAN SEDCOFOREX
SHUT-IN PROCEDURES
Well Flowing
Drilling or
Circulating Operation Out of Hole
on Bottom in Progress
Stop Tripping
Rotation
Pick Up Install Open

Off Bottom Safety Valve
Stop Pump Close

Safety Valve
Close
Shear Rams
Close Close
Annular Annular
Open Open Open

Choke Line Choke Line Choke Line
Inform Senior
Toolpusher
& Operator Inform OIM
Representative
Drilling Tripping Out of Hole Withdraw

Work
Permits
Check Install
Space Out Top Drive
Advise
Standby
Lower Check Boat
Manifold Space Out
Pressure
Muster All
Close Close Crews for
Pre-determined Pre-determined Information
Rams Rams Hang
Off
Hang Off Prepare

Pressure Up for
To Last Evacuation
Recorded
SIDPP Open
Re-adjust Safety Valve
Manifold
Pressure
Observe Well,
Lock Rams Record SIDPP,
SICP, Pit Gain
On Bottom Prepare Off Bottom

Kill Diagram Kill Procedure Kill Diagram
(Yellow Chart) (Red Chart)
79
Figure 5.2: Shut-in Procedures

80
Well Kill Techniques
Contents
6.1 Wait and Weight Method 83
6.1.1 Procedure 83
6.1.2 Advantages & Disadvantages 85
6.2 Driller’s Method 86
6.2.1 Procedure 86
6.3 Volumetric Method 88
6.3.1 Procedures 88
6.3.1.1 Drillstring Communication 88
6.3.1.2 No Drillstring Communication 89
6.3.1.3 Lubrication 90
6.4 Dynamic Volumetric Method 91
6.5 Stripping 93
6.5.1 General Procedures 93

6.5.2 Stripping through Annular Preventers 94
6.5.3 Stripping through Ram Preventers 97
6.6 Bullheading 98
6.6.1 Reasons to Consider Bullheading 98

6.6.2 Procedures 99
6.6.3 Complications 100
81
6.7 Off-Bottom Kill 101
6.7.1 Reasons to consider off bottom kill 101

6.7.2 Procedure 101
6.8 Removing Trapped Gas from the BOP 103
6.9 Decision Flow Charts 104
82
Once a well has been shut-in, the influx must be removed from the
well in a controlled manner and without permitting the further entry of
formation fluids into the wellbore. Several methods of controlling an
influx exist, some with circulation and some without.
There are three basic methods, all of which aim at maintaining

bottom hole pressure constant and equal to or slightly greater
than formation pressure.
• The Wait and Weight Method.

• The Driller’s Method.
• The Volumetric Method (only required in special situations).
Note: Assuming conditions are safe to do so, remotely monitor well

control equipment during well kill operations. For subsea stacks, this
includes launching of the subsea camera or ROV to observe for
component failures.
6.1 WAIT AND WEIGHT METHOD

This method involves one circulation and is the TSF preferred
method for standard wells. Kill mud is prepared and is pumped from
surface to the bit while following a calculated drillpipe pressure drop
schedule. Once the kill mud enters the annulus, a constant drillpipe
pressure is maintained until the kill mud arrives at surface.
(Refer to A2.1 for worked TSF Kill Sheet examples in oilfield units for
both surface and subsea applications, vertical and deviated wells.)
6.1.1 Procedure
The following procedure should be followed:
1. Once the kill sheet has been completed and the mud weight has
been raised to the desired value, prepare to circulate through
choke.
2. Open choke manifold valve upstream of choke (or downstream if
applicable), zero stroke counters, ensure good communication
between choke operator, mud pump operator and personnel in the
pump room.
83
3. Bring the pump to kill rate speed while holding casing pressure
constant. For subsea well control operations, reduce the casing
pressure by an amount equal to the choke line friction loss (CLFL).
4. Once the pump is up to speed and the pressures have stabilized,
record the actual circulating drillpipe pressure. If the actual circu-
lating pressure is equal to, or reasonably close to the calculated
ICP, continue pumping and follow the standpipe pressure accord-
ing to the drillpipe pressure schedule.
Any marginal difference between the actual and calculated ICP is

most likely to be due to the fact that the SCRP used to calculate the
ICP was inaccurate.
The actual SCRP, and hence the corrected final circulating pressure,
FCP, can be determined from the initial circulating pressure as follows:
Actual SCRP = Actual Initial Circulating Pressure - SIDPP

FCP = Actual SCRP x (KMW ÷ OMW)
The drillpipe pressure schedule must be corrected to take into

account the adjusted circulating pressures.
If the actual circulating pressure is significantly different from the

calculated ICP, stop the pump, shut the well in, and investigate the
reason. Ensure there is no trapped pressure (refer to 5.4.5).
5. From the moment pumping of the weighted mud begins, until the
end of the well kill process, constant BHP must be maintained.
6. When the kill mud enters the annulus, the choke operator then
holds drillpipe pressure constant until the kill mud returns at
surface.
7. Any time the circulation is interrupted and the well shut-in during
the kill operation, it will be necessary to ensure that no pressure
has been dynamically trapped and that the BHP is equal to the
formation pressure before resuming the kill operation.
8. Once uncontaminated kill mud returns are observed at surface,
shut-in the well and monitor the drillpipe and casing pressures.
If any pressure is found, the reason for it will have to be investigated

and additional steps taken as explained in 5.4.5.
84
If no pressure is measured, the well will be flow checked through the

choke before opening the BOP’s.
9. On floating rigs, the riser will be displaced to the kill weight mud
and any gas trapped in the BOP’s removed before opening the
BOP’s (refer to 6.8).
10. To help in identifying the cause of potential problems, it is impor-
tant to maintain an accurate record of times, pressures, volumes,
etc. on the well control kick report. Normally the Driller or his
assistant will be assigned this task.
6.1.2 Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages include:
• In most circumstances, it will generate the lowest pressure on the

formation near the casing shoe.
• With a long open hole section, it is the least likely method to induce
lost circulation. This difference is most significant if the influx con-
tains gas and is a high intensity (large under balance) kick.
• In most circumstances, it will generate the lowest pressure on the
casing and surface equipment.
• Requires one less circulation than the Driller’s Method.
• Least time spent circulating through the choke(s) and least time the
equipment is exposed to excess pressure.
Disadvantages include:
• Requires longest waiting time prior to circulating the influx from the
wellbore.
• In a case where a significant amount of hole is drilled prior to
encountering the kick zone, the cuttings could settle out and plug
the annulus.
• Gas migration might become a problem while the mud weight is
being increased.
• Sufficient weighting agent necessary to increase mud weight may
not be present on site. In this case it may be desirable to circulate
the influx from the wellbore and then kill the well when the weight-
ing material arrives.
85
6.2 DRILLER’S METHOD

6.2.1 Procedure
This method requires two circulation’s. During the first circulation, the
drillpipe pressure is maintained at a constant value until the influx is
circulated from the well.
During the second circulation, kill mud weight is pumped to the bit
while following a drillpipe pressure schedule.
If all of the influx is successfully circulated from the well in the first cir-
culation then during the second circulation, the casing pressure should
remain constant as the drillpipe pressure reduces from ICP to FCP.
When the kill mud enters the annulus, FCP is maintained constant
until the kill mud reaches surface.
First Circulation:
1. Once the pressures have stabilized, the pump is brought up to kill

rate speed while holding the casing pressure constant (less CLFL
for subsea BOP’s).
2. If the observed pressure is greater or lower than the expected
pumping pressure, subsequent calculations will be based on this
new value of ICP (refer to 6.1.1).
3. When the kill rate speed is established, the choke operator should
switch to the drillpipe gauge and hold this pressure constant until
the influx is removed from the well.
4. Shut-in the well and record SIDPP and SICP prior to beginning the
second circulation (they should be approximately equal).
5. The active mud system should be weighted up to the proper kill
mud weight and lined up on the selected mud pump.
6. Prepare a drillpipe pressure schedule, as was done with the ‘Wait
and Weight’ method.
Second circulation:
7. The pump is brought up to kill rate speed while holding the casing
86
pressure constant (less CLFL for subsea BOP’s).

8. When the kill rate speed is established, switch to the drillpipe
gauge and follow the drillpipe pressure schedule until the kill mud
reaches the bit.
9. At this point hold drillpipe pressure (FCP) constant until the kill
mud returns at surface.
10.Once uncontaminated kill mud is observed at surface, shut-in the
well and monitor drillpipe and casing for pressure.
11. If any pressure is found, the reason for it will have to be investi-
gated and additional steps taken.
12.If no pressure is registered the well will be flow checked through
the choke before opening the BOP’s.
13.On floating rigs, the riser will be displaced to the kill weight mud
and any gas trapped in the BOP’s removed before the BOP’s are
opened.
14.To help in identifying the cause of potential problems, it is impor-
tant to maintain an accurate record of times, pressures, volumes,
etc. on the well control report. Normally the Driller or his assistant
will be assigned this task.

Advantages include:
• Can start circulation right away if hole conditions warrant.

• Able to remove hydrocarbons from the well even if limited barite
available on location.
• Less chance of gas migration.
• Drillpipe pressure schedule is not absolutely required if all the influx
was removed from the well in the first circulation and no additional
influx was taken.
• Highest surface pressures for longest period.

• In certain situations, highest shoe pressure.
• One more circulation required than Wait and Weight Method.
• More time circulating through the choke(s).
87
6.3 VOLUMETRIC METHOD

If a gas kick cannot be circulated from the well, gas migration may
occur resulting in high surface, casing shoe and bottom hole
pressures. To minimize this, it will be necessary to allow the influx to
expand in a controlled fashion as it migrates up the wellbore. The
volumetric method maintains BHP slightly above formation pressure.
This technique may be used under the following circumstances:

• Gas migration while waiting to start/restart an operation.
• Drill bit is plugged.
• Drillstring has failed allowing communication between drillstring and
annulus.
• Drillstring is off-bottom, causing drillpipe and casing pressures to
read the same until the influx has migrated above the bit.
• Drillstring is out of the hole entirely.
6.3.1 Procedures
6.3.1.1 Drillstring Communication
If pumping is not an option and gas migration is suspected due to a

steady increase in drillpipe and annulus pressure, apply the volu-
metric method using the drillpipe gauge if the bit is at or near to
bottom.
1. Record SIDDP and SICP at fixed intervals and determine the

migration rate.
2. Allow SIDPP to build up to an overbalance margin (normally 100-
200 psi, 700-1400 kPa, 7-14 bar).
3. Allow the SIDPP to build up by an operating margin 50-150 psi,
350-1050 kPa, 3.5-10.5 bar).
4. Bleed mud slowly from the choke manifold until the drillpipe
pressure has reduced to the original stabilized shut-in value plus
the overbalance margin.
5. Continue until the kick has reached the BOP’s.
88
6.3.1.2 No Drillstring Communication
If the drillstring becomes plugged when on bottom, the bit is off

bottom or out of the hole and gas is migrating, the situation becomes
more complicated.
1. Monitor SICP allowing it to increase approximately 100-200 psi

(700-1400 kPa, 7-14 bar) above the original shut-in pressure for
an overbalance.
2. Calculate the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a barrel (m3) of mud
in the annulus.
= Mud Gradient (psi/bbl, kPa/m3, bar/m3)

Annular Capacity
If there is no pipe in the hole:
= Mud Gradient (psi/bbl, kPa/m3, bar/m3)

Hole Volume
3. Calculate annulus capacity based on drillpipe in a gauge hole, or

if no drillpipe use gauge hole volume.
4. Monitor the SICP while allowing it to increase an additional 50-150
psi. (350-1050 kPa, 3.5-10.5 bar) operating margin.
5. Calculate the volume of mud in the annulus that would contribute
a hydrostatic pressure equal to the selected casing pressure
increase.
Casing Pressure Increase = Vol. to bleed (bbls, m3)

3
Ph exerted by each (bbls, m ) of mud
6. Hold the casing pressure constant until the amount of mud

calculated is bled off into the trip tank or another calibrated tank.
7. Keep a record of time, pressures and volumes.
8. Repeat this sequence of allowing casing pressure increases and
then bleeding a calculated volume until the influx reaches the
surface.
9. Once the gas is at surface, stop the bleeding process.
10.If more gas is bled from the annulus at this point, the BHPwill drop
below formation pressure and another influx will result.
89
6.3.1.3 Lubrication
With gas at the BOP, casing pressure can be reduced by lubrication

as follows:
1. Slowly pump a selected volume of mud into the annulus and allow
the mud to fall through the gas.
2. A small pressure increase may occur due to the gas being
compressed by the mud being pumped in.
3. Bleed gas allowing casing pressure to fall an amount equal to the
hydrostatic pressure of the mud pumped into the well.
• If the annulus pressure increases during the pumping-in proce-
dure, the amount of this increase should be bled off in addition
to the pressure bled for the hydrostatic pressure increase.
• If mud starts coming back, shut the choke and wait for the gas
to work up to the surface before continuing to bleed off.
4. Repeat until all the gas has been bled off or the desired surface
pressure is reached.

Advantages include:
• Can be used to prevent wellbore pressures from increasing due to

gas expansion.
• Does not require circulation and can therefore be used when
circulation is not possible.
• The precise diameter of the open hole, required for the calculations,
is unknown.
• Dependent on influx migration.
90
6.4 DYNAMIC VOLUMETRIC METHOD

For wells drilled in deepwater, this method is recommended in
preference to the (Static) Volumetric method.
As the influx migrates above the wellhead, gas is forced into the
subsea choke line, which has a much smaller cross sectional area
than the annulus. With this configuration, the static volumetric method
is much more difficult to implement, since gas entry into the subsea
choke line must be detected.
Additionally, gas distribution and migration rate must be known in

order to make appropriate changes in the casing pressure-pit gain
schedule.
1. Mud is pumped into the kill line, across the top of the annulus, and
out through the choke line and choke manifold. By carefully mon-
itoring pit gain, an appropriate casing pressure can be selected
that will maintain constant bottom hole pressure. CLFL at that
pump speed are added to the surface pressure (see figure 6.1
below).
Upward gas
migration } Choke line friction
at kill speed
} Safety margin
Gas
removal
Casing
pressure
SICP
Gi
Theoretical SIDP at zero pit gain
Pit Gain
Figure 6.1: Dynamic Volumetric Kill
91
2. The base line is constructed by plotting initial shut-in casing

pressure (SICP) against initial pit gain (G i). The slope of the line is
computed by dividing the change in hydrostatic pressure of the
annular mud by the annular capacity.
Slope = Gm/Ca
Where:
Gm = Mud gradient
Ca = Annular capacity
The line is drawn with the computed slope through this point. The
zero intercept represents the theoretical shut-in drillpipe pressure
that would be observed if meaningful drillpipe pressure was avail-
able. A safety margin can be plotted above the base line to allow the
choke operator some margin for error. The dashed line represents
the subsea case in which the choke line friction must be added.
3. Ensure that the kill line is full of mud and that a small pit is used
for suction and return that has an accurate level sensor, able to
measure small volume changes.
4. The pump should be brought up to speed slowly while holding the
casing pressure (less CLFL for subsea BOP’s) constant.
5. Once the pump is up to a constant speed, pump pressure (kill line
pressure) is monitored and adjusted by the choke according to
changes in pit level.
6. Pump pressure will decrease in line with the drop in pit level as
mud displaces gas from the choke line.
Pit gain to allow

for gas expansion Gas removed from the Well
Mud lubricated in
KILL LINE PRESSURE
Original Kill Line Pressure

Slope of Line Once pump is brought
= Hydro Pressure per up to speed
bbl of Mud
Gain in Pit Level Original Pit Level Once the Pump is up to Speed Drop in Pit Level
CHANGE IN PIT LEVEL (BBLS)
Figure 6.2: Dynamic Volumetric
92
6.5 STRIPPING
When the drillstring is partially or completely out of the hole and an
influx or swabbing is experienced, every effort should be made to
return the bit to bottom, while maintaining well control, as the well can
be most effectively killed with the bit on bottom.
For both surface and subsea stacks, the recommended procedure is

to install inside BOP (IBOP) and strip through the annular preventer
using the combined stripping and volumetric method until the bit is
returned to bottom or until further stripping becomes impossible.
It requires knowledge of equipment and procedures used by all crews

and occasional practice drills are recommended (refer to 4.2.5).
6.5.1 General Procedures

Preparation
• Have an additional full opening safety valve available on the drill

floor during stripping operations.
• Remove all drillpipe/casing protector rubbers.
• Lubricate the string with grease and/or, if a surface stack, pour oil
on top of the annular.
• Ensure the tool joints are smooth.
• Apply the lowest practical closing pressure to the annular preventer
while avoiding leakage.
• A “stripping checklist” will be available on each rig to assist super-
visors before and during this well control operation.
Note: if drillpipe >5" OD is to be stripped, modification of fingers on

some annulars may be required - check with manufacturers.
(Refer to Appendix A2.2 for stripping sheet.)
Operation
• Install an inside BOP above the full opening safety valve or pump a
drop in check valve (dart sub).
93
• Open the full opening safety valve prior to stripping and make sure
the inside BOP is not leaking.
• The packing element of an annular preventer must be allowed to
breathe slightly when a tool joint passes through. Recommended
BOP closing pressures can be obtained from the manufacturer’s
BOP operating manuals.
• If installed (surface stacks), a surge bottle connected to the closing
line of the annular preventer will improve effective BOP control
during stripping tool joints through the annular preventer; adjust its
pre-charge to the required value before starting the stripping
operation.
• Stripping speeds should not exceed 2 ft/sec.
• It is recommended to vent the opening chamber control line of the
annular preventer (Cameron D-type) to improve stripping tool joints
through the preventer.
• Watch the flowline for any leakage. Any returns are to go back into
the trip tank.
• Accurately measure and record mud volumes bled-off using the trip
tank. If available, a separate stripping tank may be used.
• Keep the string full, measure and record mud volumes used to fill
the string.
• Monitor the marine riser of a subsea BOP stack for gains and take
the effect of heave and tidal changes into account when stripping.
6.5.2 Stripping through Annular Preventers

After shutting in the well, record SICP and determine the influx
volume.
While preparing for stripping, allow the shut-in annulus pressure to

build-up to P choke, where:
Pchoke = SICP + P saf + Pstep
where:
SICP = Iinitial Shut-in Casing Pressure.
94
Psaf = allowance for loss of hydrostatic pressure as the influx rises

from below the bit to around the drill collars calculated as below:
Psaf = (Vinf/CapOH/DC - V inf/CapOH) x (G mud - Ginf)
where:
Vinf = initial Volume of the influx (Pit Gain)
CapOH/DC = Open Hole/Drill Collar annular capacity
CapOH = Open Hole capacity
Gmud = mud gradient
Ginf = estimated influx gradient
Pstep = working pressure increment
Convenient values of Pstep are between 50-100 psi (350-700 kPa,

3.5-7 bar), bearing in mind the scale divisions of available pressure
gauges.
1. Commence stripping. Allow the choke pressure to build up to:
Pchoke = SICP + P saf + Pstep without bleeding off any mud.
2. Once the required choke pressure is reached, Pchoke is kept

constant while drillpipe is stripped in the hole.
3. Excess pressure is bled off via the choke manifold into the trip/
stripping tank.
4. If the influx is entirely liquid (water for example), the volume of
mud bled should be equal to the closed-end displacement of the
stripped-in drillpipe.
5. If the influx is all or in part gas, the volume of mud bled should be
greater than the closed-end displacement of the stripped-in
drillpipe because of the gas expansion due to the gas migration.
95
6. This will result in some hydrostatic pressure loss that must be

compensated for by using the following procedure:
Continue stripping in maintaining Pchoke until the total volume

drained to the trip tank exceeds the closed-end displacement of
the stripped-in drillpipe by an amount Vstep calculated as below:
Vstep = P step x CapOH/DC/Gmud
7. Depending on rig design and equipment set-up, instead of bleed-

ing off mud and gas via the MGS into the trip tank, it can also be
bled off into an auxiliary calibrated tank (“stripping tank”). The
returns may be taken in the trip tank and the closed end displace-
ment of a stand of drillpipe bled into the auxiliary tank after each
stand has been stripped in and the excess volume is measured in
the trip tank.
8. Once the measured excess volume equals Vstep, the choke is
closed and the choke manifold pressure is allowed to rise by P step
by means of stripping drillpipe in the hole.
9. The closed-end pipe displacement volume should not be bled off
during this phase of the operation.
10.It is recommended to strip the complete stand in the hole for each
phase of the operation (e.g. while maintaining Pchoke constant, or
when increasing Pchoke by Pstep) to simplify the bleeding off
process and to improve the accuracy of differential volume
measurements.
11. As a result of stripping the complete stand, higher than required
choke pressures will occasionally be obtained which should be
taken into account when the next pressure increment is added.
12.Safety factors to obtain sufficient overbalance, in particular when
the drillstring enters the influx are incorporated in this killing
method.
13.Repeat as often as necessary, until one of the following situations
arises:
• The bit is back on bottom.
• Gas has reached surface.
• Stripping is no longer possible (excessive pressures, BOP stack
problems, open hole resistance, etc.).
96
14.Stripping is then stopped and the well killed conventionally, if the

influx is above the bit.
15.The chance of having to kill the well with the bit off bottom is
relatively small, since the migration rate of gas in mud is such that
the bit can be stripped back to bottom before gas has reached
surface.
16.Migration rates of gas in workover fluids are much higher and
should be taken into consideration before deciding to start
stripping pipe in the hole.
17.When the bit is back on bottom or below the influx, the well can be
killed conventionally using the Driller’s Method.
6.5.3 Stripping through Ram Preventers

Stripping through ram preventers will only be permitted with
surface stacks.
Stripping ram to ram will not be allowed if only two sets of ram
preventers are available for use.
As in all stripping operations, the location of the tool joint in the

preventer stack must be known at all times.
1. To prevent premature damage to the ram preventers, the closing

operating pressure should be reduced to a minimum.
2. When a tool joint reaches the lower set of closed rams, the upper
set must be closed.
3. The pressure between the rams is then brought up to the current
well pressure and the lower rams are opened allowing a tool joint
to pass.
4. When the next tool joint approaches the upper rams, the lower set
of pipe rams are closed and the pressure between the two sets of
rams is bled off and the upper rams are opened allowing a tool
joint to pass.
5. This process is repeated alternating stripping through one ram
then the other until the pipe reaches bottom or until the bit enters
the influx.
97
6.6 BULLHEADING
Bullheading is a method used to displace an influx back into the
formation without needing to bring it to surface.
This method should, in most cases, be considered only as a last

resort.
6.6.1 Reasons to Consider Bullheading

• The influx size is too large to be circulated to the surface (i.e. exces-
sive surface pressures, and/or volume expected is too large for the
surface gas handling equipment).
• A combined kick and losses situation is experienced (downhole
annulus bullhead rates must exceed the gas migration rate to
ensure the situation does not deteriorate further).
• Calculations show that casing pressure during a conventional kill
operations will probably result in a detrimental well control situation
(in this case, only the kick needs to be squeezed back).
• The drillstring is out of the hole or has been sheared.
• The drillstring is plugged, washed out or has parted.
• The influx is caused by swabbing when pulling out of the hole
(POOH).
• The influx or drilling mud returns contain more H2S than the surface
equipment can safely handle at surface.
In some instances, e.g. workovers in cased hole, H2S wells, HP/HT

wells or well testing, bullheading will be considered as the prime
method. In such cases, the choice of bullheading, will be stated in the
well plan.
While the advantages or reasons for bullheading are given above,

there are disadvantages that must be borne in mind:
• Fluid will go to the weakest formation interval and may not follow
the preferred path, particularly with a long open hole section.
• Potential is created for an underground blowout.
• Even a successful bullhead may not kill the well; it may still be
necessary to circulate heavier kill mud after displacing the influx
back into the formation.
98
6.6.2 Procedures
Prior to Bullheading
• Position of the influx in the wellbore is fundamental to deciding

whether to bullhead. The nearer the influx is to the formation the
more likely the bullheading operation will be successful.
• Consider using the volumetric method to eliminate the complication
of migrating gas. If the gas can be largely removed this way, the
bullheading operation is likely to be much easier and more effective
in killing the well.
• If a gas influx is suspected (shut-in pressures continue to rise
indicating migrating gas), the pumping rate for bullheading must be
fast enough to exceed the rate of gas migration.
If pump pressures increase instead of decreasing, it is an indication
that the pumping rate is too low to be successful. This can be a
problem in large diameter holes.
• Review pressure limitations of pumping equipment, wellhead
equipment and casing.
• Consideration may have to be given to using the cement pump if
surface pressures are high.
• Special consideration should be given to the possibility of breaking
down long open hole sections beyond the last casing shoe rather
than the producing formation.
- In this event, rather than killing the well, this procedure may
aggravate the development of an underground blowout that could
pose risks to nearby wells in communication with the formations
involved.
- It could also increase risk of a blowout around casing in place with
subsequent obvious risks.
• Where possible, bullheading should be carried out through an
upper choke or kill line outlet on the BOP’s so that in case of
washout or equipment failure, a lower outlet and preventer can be
used.
• A check valve is required between the pumping unit and the well
should surface equipment fail during the procedure.
• The cementing unit may be used for better control and adequate
pressure rating.
• Large mud volume and LCM pills should be available in case major
losses are experienced during the operation.
99
Operation
(Refer to Appendix 9 for example calculations.)
1. Calculate maximum injection pressure from the leak-off value at

the casing shoe and the mud weight in the hole. The maximum
injection pressure must be adjusted if higher weight mud is used
to bullhead.
Ensure equipment pressure limitations are not going to be
exceeded.
Ensure that enough mud volume is on the surface to displace the
entire open hole volume by 50% excess.
2. Establish injection pressure by pumping down the string/annulus
at a slow rate. Attempt to keep a constant rate and plot the injec-
tion pressure versus the volume.
Have the LOT information available so this information can be
compared.
3. Continue pumping until minimum volume displaced is influx
volume plus 50%. In some situations the entire open hole volume
must be displaced plus a margin.
4. Shut down and observe the well. Drillpipe and annulus pressures
should be approximately the same.
5. Raise mud weight (if necessary) and circulate using the Wait and
Weight Method until the annulus is clear of influx and the well is
killed.
6.6.3 Complications
If unable to inject at chosen pressure, increasing it to the maximum
may be necessary.
If injection is established but injection pressure begins or continues to

rise, this could be due to either:
• Gas migration, in which case the injection rate must be increased
to overcome the migration rate.
• The permeability of the reservoir is decreasing due to damage by
the mud. Bullheading should continue until maximum surface pres-
sure is reached and then the kill procedure re-evaluated.
100
• If losses are evident after completion of the bullhead or during the

bullhead operation, attempts should be made to stabilize the well
with loss circulation material, gunk squeezes or if necessary with
cement squeeze.
6.7 OFF-BOTTOM KILL

This method involves circulation at the point of shut-in or at the point
stripping has ceased prior to reaching TD. The bit will not be at
bottom and the kill operation will be more complicated.
6.7.1 Reasons to consider off bottom kill

An off bottom kill might be considered if:
• Casing pressure is too high to allow continued stripping.
• Heave becomes a problem.
• Pipe is stuck.
• Equipment problems arise.
6.7.2 Procedure
The further off bottom and the weaker the casing seat, the more
difficult this method becomes. If the casing seat is strong enough, it
might be possible to kill the well by weighting up the system and
pumping heavy mud.
The density of the mud used should not exceed the Equivalent Mud
Weight (EMW) based on leak-off data if the bit is in open hole.
Because the bit is at a shallower depth relative to T.D., the well will be
“over killed” and the chances of becoming stuck are considerable.
The heavier mud may not prevent gas migration.
If the well can be stabilized and the influx evacuated with this method,
it will be necessary, once the well is opened up, to run into the hole
(and circulate) in stages with a lighter MW.
101
String Out of Hole
If the string is out of the hole when an influx is detected and the
closed-in surface pressure allows safe lowering the first stands of drill
collars or drillpipe into the well, the OIM may decide to start stripping
since it will improve the well control situation.
The topdrive/kelly may have to be used in conjunction with singles for

extra weight. Drill Collars used should be slick.
The maximum surface pressure that can be overcome by the weight

of the first stand, ignoring the friction between the annular preventer
and the string, is calculated as follows:
Max. Surface pressure = Weight of first stand in mud

Cross-sectional area of the stand
(Note: for subsea stacks, this will be the weight of stands from rig to
BOP.)
The procedure to enter the string back into the well is as follows:
1. Install an inside BOP (Gray valve or preferably, float valve) on the

first stand of slick drill collars or drillpipe.
Use a bit without nozzles to reduce the chance of plugged
nozzles.
2. Lower the stand to just above the blind/shear rams and close the
annular preventer. Equalize pressure between wellbore and
annular.
3. Open the blind/shear rams and strip through the annular preven-
ter. Allow the choke pressure to increase by Pstep and maintain
constant thereafter.
4. Fill the string with mud.
If drill collars are used instead of drillpipe, continue stripping the slick
BHA and maintain a constant choke pressure. Do not use more than
three stands of drill collars.
102
5. Allow the choke pressure to increase to SICP + Psaf + Pstep

without bleeding off any mud when stripping the first stands of
drillpipe.
6. Continue the combined stripping and volumetric method as
described in the previous section.
If it is not possible to strip the string into the well, the volumetric
method or bullheading may have to be employed.
Note: Re-entering a shut-in subsea well with a drillstring on a floating

rig may be difficult because of the heave and the distance to the
subsea BOP stack.
The heave should not exceed the distance between blind/shear rams
and annular preventer.
In order to avoid buckling of the drillpipe in the riser, Drill Collar weight
should be used to get the string back into the hole.
If re-entry is not possible, bullheading or a volumetric kill should be

considered.
6.8 REMOVING TRAPPED GAS FROM THE BOP

It is quite likely that some gas will have accumulated under the closed
BOP during displacement of the influx.
This gas must be removed from the stack before the BOP is opened.
The volume of the trapped gas depends on the volume between the
preventer in use and the choke line outlet in use.
1. Isolate the well with the lower rams; displace the kill line with kill
weight mud taking returns up the choke line. Continue to circulate
until the kill and choke lines are full of uncontaminated kill weight
mud.
2. Displace choke line to water or base oil to BOP stack taking
returns up the kill line. Do not over displace.
3. Close the fail-safe valves on the kill line.
103
4. Vent the choke line to the MGS. This will unload the water or base
oil and depressurized gas.
5. Open the annular preventer and allow the mud to U-tube from the
riser into the choke line. Continuously fill the riser with mud.
6. Close the annular preventer and displace the choke line with kill
weight mud through the kill line.
7. Close the diverter and line up the mud to flow through the MGS.
8. Open the annular and displace the riser to kill weight mud and
close the annular.
9. Open the pipe rams and monitor the well for flow.
10.If the well is dead, open the annular.
11.Circulate and condition the mud.
Diagrams to show this procedure are included on the intranet

(TSFNet\Field Support\Well Construction\Toolbox).
6.9 DECISION FLOW CHARTS

Figures 6.3, 6.4 and 6.5 are decision flow charts for on bottom, off
bottom and bullhead kills, respectively.
104
ON BOTTOM KILL FLOWCHART
Determine Expected
Gas Volume at Surface
Gas Volume
Bullhead YES Exceeds MGS NO
(Purple Chart) Capacity or

H2S Expected?
Can
Weight Up
YES System/Kill
Follow Kill Sheet Procedures Use Wait & Weight Method
Mud on
Hand?
Monitor MGS & Choke

Pressures & Temperatures NO
Use Driller’s Method
Circulate Out 75%

of Calculated Volume
Slow Pump Rate to Minimum

Check SIDPP &
Continue with
Kill Program
If Required Inject Glycol
YES
Is Choke Is Choke Is MGS
Any Manifold Temp Manifold Temp
NO NO NO Pressure NO
Indication of Approaching Minimum Approaching Maximum
Hydrates? Approaching
Values for Values for Maximum?
Hydrates? Equipment?
YES YES YES

YES
Shut In, Clear Any Blockage,
Wait On Temp Increase,
Increase Glycol Injection Rate Slow Down SCR
Circulate Out Influx

YES Is Temp
Inc or Hydrates
Cleared?
NO YES Is Temp Check

or Pressure NO
Well
Reduced? Dead?
Close In YES Overboard YES

Clear Problem Line Valve
Opens? NO
Add Trip Margin
NO
YES Fill Trip Tank With

Close In Equipment New Weight Mud
Repair Failure? Shut Well In
NO
Consider Second
Re-evaluate Kill Procedure Circulation With
Consult With Operator Overbalance Through
OIM & Onshore Teams Chokes
Bullhead
(Purple Chart)
105
Figure 6.3: On Bottom Kill (Yellow Chart)

106
OFF BOTTOM KILL FLOWCHART
YES Any Pipe NO

Tripping Out of Hole
in Hole?
Determine Expected
Gas Volume at
Surface
Estimate
Migration Rate. NO
Less Than 500 ft/hr,
Gas 152 m/hr?
Volume
YES Larger Than MGS
Tolerance/or H2S YES Allow Influx to
Expected? Migrate to Surface
& Adjust Pressure
Bullhead NO
(Purple Chart) Bullhead
Calculate Upward Force (Purple Chart) Calculate the
On Drillstring With Surface Pressure
Closed-in Annular Pressure Adjustments
psi/bbl, bar/m3,
kPa/m3
Remain Closed-in Stringweight Replace with Mud

YES
with Designated Greater than
Pipe Rams Force Up Lubricate
Bullhead NO
(Purple Chart) NO
Well Dead?
Stuck?
YES Run Drillstring in Hole YES
Monitor Hole Volumes
Bullhead NO
(Purple Chart)
Able
to Strip in YES Pressure &
Safely? Volume Calculation
Apply Volumetric
Technique NO Install Gray Valve &
Open Kelly Cock
Blue Section
YES Is Influx
Migrating? Reduce Closing
Pressure on Annular
Preventer to Minimum
NO
Is
NO Bullheading Strip in
Possible? Pipe Until
Perform Off
Bottom Kill YES Bit on Bottom Gas At Surface
On Bottom Kill Diagram Circulate Annulus

Bullhead (Yellow Chart) Gas Free
(Purple Chart)
Strip or Run To
Bottom & Kill Well
Green Section
107
Figure 6.4: Off Bottom Kill (Red Chart)

108
BULLHEADING FLOWCHART
Record SIDPP, SICP

& Pit Gain
Calculate Maximum Injection

Pressure Based on L.O.T.
YES Surface Equipment NO

Rating Adequate?
Ensure Surface Mud Volume Correct

Quantity = 1.5 Open Hole Volume YES
On Bottom?
Evaluate Mud Weight Requirements
Align Kill Pump to Maintain Shut In &

Annulus & Drill Pipe Monitor Pressures
Establish Injection Pressure Evacuate Non-Essential

NO
Personnel
Pressure Equal to Allow Influx to Migrate

NO
Maximum Calculated to Surface & Adjust
Injection Pressure Pressure
Calculate the Surface

YES Establish Injection Rate Pressure Adjustments
Continue to Bullhead at psi/bbl, bar/m3, kPa/m3
Maximum Rate
POSSIBLE CAUSES
1. Gas Migration Bleed Off Gas &
2. Formation Damage Permeability Replace With Mud
Reducing Due to Invasion Shut Down & Observe
Well & Record Parameters
Lubricate
Re-Evaluate Kill Procedure
Consult with Operator, OIM
& Onshore Team Continue Until Influx Abandon With Barite Plug
Bullheaded Into Formation Cement Plug
With Safety Margin
OR
OPTIONS
Mobilize Additional
1. Strip In
Equipment
2. Bullhead: Breakdown Formation YES NO
Pipe In
Weakest Point & Top Kill
Well?
3. Abandon
Is NO
Stripping
Possible?
Refer to Appropriate Chart YES

Re-evaluate Kill Procedure
Off Bottom Kill Diagram Consult with Operator, OIM
(Red Chart) & Onshore Teams
Strip In
On Bottom Kill Diagram Off Bottom Kill Diagram
(Yellow Chart) (Green Chart)
Coil Tubing
OR OR
Abandon With Barite Plug Abandon With Barite Plug

Cement Plug Cement Plug Snub Workstring
109
Figure 6.5: Bullhead Diagram (Purple Chart)

110
Well Control Complications/Emergency
Contents
7.1 Complications 112
7.1.1 Problem Solving Matrix 113

7.1.2 Additional Complications 115
7.1.2.1 Surface pressure approaching MAASP 115
7.1.2.2 Stuck pipe 116
7.1.2.3 Damage to BOP Sealing Elements 116
7.1.2.4 Hydrates 117
7.1.3 Complications Arising From Specific Operations 118
7.1.3.1 Cement jobs 118
7.1.3.2 Wireline in the hole 119
7.1.3.3 DST operations 120
7.2 Emergency 122
7.2.1 Dropping the Drillstring 122

7.2.2 Shearing the Drillstring 123
7.2.3 Emergency Disconnect 125
7.2.4 Reconnection Following Emergency Disconnect 126
7.2.5 Blowout/Underground Blowout 126
7.2.5.1 Flow to a fracture above a
high pressure zone 127
7.2.5.2 Flow to a fracture/loss zone below
a high pressure zone 127
7.2.5.3 Recognizing an underground flow 128
7.2.5.4 Kill methods 129
111
7.1 COMPLICATIONS
Problems may occur during a well control situation and, depending on
their nature, may have a significant impact on the operation. The
principal personnel involved in the kill operation should be aware of
potential problems, be able to recognise them, understand the
implications and resolve them.
It should be noted that restarting a kill is a delicate operation and

shutting-in the well should be avoided. However, if there is doubt the
well should be shut-in.
112
7.1.1 Problem Solving Matrix
PRESSURE INDICATIONS PRESSURE INDICATIONS

Problem Drillpipe Casing BHP Other Indications Comments Problem Drillpipe Casing BHP Other Indications Comments
Washout in KMW back to surface If washout occurs above the kick, it is unlikely that it will be possible to Mud pump Variable Variable Variable Rotary hose vibration Mud pump efficiency is very important in all well control operations and the
string/bit earlier than expected circulate it from the well. If the washout is identified to be below the kick, problems Pump knocking/ efficiency of the mud pumps at different rates must be known.
nozzle circulating out should be possible. Extended circulation through the washout fluid hammer
will very likely result in the drillstring parting. If a mud pump problem occurs:
If the washout is near the surface, stop circulation and either bullhead the kick Identify cause of problem.
back into the formation or implement the Volumetric method. If necessary, shut-in the well and isolate the pump.
Line up the reserve mud pump.
Plugged Do not open choke to reduce DPP as this will reduce BHP and could induce a
Resume circulating by holding the choke pressure constant (less CLFL for
string/bit further kick.
subsea) while bringing the pump up to kill speed.
(gradually If the increased DPP is not too high, continue the kill with the “new” DPP.
Repair the damaged pump immediately.
decreasing) If DPP approaches maximum relief valve setting, reduce pump speed while
controlling choke pressure (NB. CLFL). Continue kill at lower circulating rate. Partial losses Decrease in pit level During well control operations lost circulation is normally caused by induced
If this is unsuccessful, shut-in well. (NB: opposite effect fractures. This can happen at any time during initial shut-in or kill operation.
If the bit becomes completely plugged the DPP will increase sharply and the of gas expansion
CP will eventually decrease. A wireline operation should be planned to + mud additions.) It is important to differentiate between seepage, partial, severe and complete
perforate as far down the string as possible. losses (refer to 8.8).
Packed off Decrease in returns There is no fixed set of rules and well conditions/specific situation will
If the mud volume can be maintained by mixing, continue killing the well in the
Annulus (gradually determine course of action.
conventional manner with the lowest, effective pump speed, maintaining drill
decreasing)
drillpipe/BHP accordingly.
Washout in Gradual choke closure Check the pit levels to confirm that partial losses are not occurring.
choke to maintain pressures Isolate the washed out choke and line up to the back-up choke. Add lost circulation material to the kill mud (if possible).
Resume circulating by holding the choke pressure constant (less CLFL for
subsea) while bringing the pumps up to kill speed. There is no fixed set of rules and the situation will dictate the method of cure.
Plugged The choke may become plugged by cuttings, hydrates forming or the lead
choke coming loose from target flanges upstream of the choke. Increase Decrease Stay the same
If this occurs:
Shut down the pump immediately.
Isolate the plugged choke and line up to the back-up choke.
Resume circulation (after bleeding off any excess pressure from the well) by
holding choke pressure constant (less CLFL subsea) and bringing the pump
up to kill speed.
113
114
7.1.2 Additional Complications

7.1.2.1 Surface pressure approaching MAASP
MAASP is calculated from the last LOT or FIT and is only valid when
a full column of fluid of a known density extends from the surface to
the weakest point in the open hole. Surface pressures greater than
the MAASP may not cause formation fracturing.
During well kill operations, from the moment that the top of the kick is
displaced above the open hole weak point, the MAASPbecomes less
critical at the shoe and focus should move to surface equipment
pressure ratings.
It is a TSF policy that constant BHP, at least equal to the

formation pressure, will be maintained. Priority will be given to
maintaining constant BHP even if the MAASP is exceeded.
However, all efforts will be made to minimize the risk of MAASP
being exceeded.
If the kick is below the last casing shoe and the surface casing
pressure approaches the MAASP then one of the following options
could be selected:
• Reduce the circulation rate to the lowest possible and adjust the
drillpipe pressure accordingly.
• Continue with kill procedures and exceed MAASP thereby risking
formation breakdown.
• Bullhead the kick back into the formation.
• Use a tertiary control method (barite/cement plug).
Once the kick has passed above the casing shoe, the MAASP will be
based upon the pressure ratings of the following:
• Innermost casing string.
• Wellhead equipment.
• BOP and related surface equipment.
• Other equipment exposed to burst or collapse pressure.
115
The Driller will be instructed in writing on what action needs to be

taken if the casing pressure reaches or exceeds the MAASP immedi-
ately after initial shut-in.
7.1.2.2 Stuck pipe
Stuck pipe during a well kill operation can cause problems, more so
if it is stuck off bottom. The priority during a well control operation is
to kill the well, resolving the problem of stuck pipe is secondary.
If circulation is still possible then the well kill operation should be

carried out using standard procedures.
If there is no circulation, and bullheading is not possible, remove the

kick by the Volumetric method. In order to kill well, perforate the string
above the stuck point and perform a top kill.
7.1.2.3 Damage to BOP Sealing Elements
Annular Preventer
A leaking annular packer will manifest itself by requiring steadily

higher pressures to effect a seal during BOP tests and is the first
indication that it is worn or damaged and should be changed at the
earliest opportunity.
For surface stacks, when packing unit leakage occurs during kick
control, pipe ram preventers will be closed and, if necessary, a
second set of ram preventers should be equipped with appropriate
sized rams before the killing operation is resumed.
For subsea stacks, the upper annular preventer should be used for
all exercises, shut-ins and stripping operations, leaving the lower
preventer for back-up.
116
Ram Preventers
To prevent rapid deterioration of ram packers the following precau-

tions should be observed:
• Recommended operating pressure (1500 psi) should not be
exceeded (higher pressures may be required to shear pipe with
shear rams).
• Never close on open hole during function tests.
• Under severe well control conditions, failure of ram packers can
occur.
• On surface BOPstacks, two rams of correct size will be maintained,
where possible. This may mean that the bottom ram (emergency) is
closed and the upper ram packers changed before the kill operation
is resumed. The OIM will decide whether to change the damaged
rams or continue with the kill.
7.1.2.4 Hydrates
Hydrates are a complex crystalline structure of hydrocarbons and

water or, more simply, a frozen gas, commonly methane.
Hydrates can cause severe problems by forming a plug in valves or

chokes, completely blocking flow. Upstream pressure then increases
which compounds the problem.
Hydrate prevention can be achieved as follows:
Inside the Wellbore
• Good primary well control practices to minimize gas coming from

the formation.
• Reducing free water by using OBM or maximizing the chloride
content of a WBM.
• Maintaining wellbore temperature as high as possible (i.e. avoid
long periods of no circulation).
• Injecting methanol or glycol at a rate of 0.5-1 gal. (2-4 litre) per
minute on the upstream side of a choke or line and/or down the kill
line so that it mixes with the mud/gas coming up the choke line.
117
Outside the Wellbore
• Hydrates could form on the outside of the BOP stack in deepwater

wells.
Further details on hydrates are contained in the deepwater section

(refer to 8.4.3).
7.1.3 Complications Arising From Specific Operations

7.1.3.1 Cement jobs
Kicks that occur while cementing are the result of reducing the hydro-
static pressure during the operation. Wells have been lost due to
improperly designed cement slurries and spacers.
The following can cause a reduction in hydrostatic pressure/formation

breakdown subsequently leading to a kick:
• A spacer of inadequate density or too much volume is pumped
ahead of the cement.
• The density of the cement slurry exceeds the formation strength,
causing losses to the formation.
• If lightweight cement is used, backpressure may be held at the
choke. Inadequate backpressure will result in a flow; excessive
backpressure will may cause lost circulation.
• As cement is setting its effective density passes from that of the
slurry to its base fluid (i.e. water) density.
• High fluid loss opposite permeable zones will cause premature
dehydration of the cement slurry.
• Formation of a micro-annulus (channel) which provides a flow path
for fluid/gas. This can be created by a casing pressure test once
cement is set or due to the heating up of the casing as cement sets.
• Casing float failure.
• Free water, particularly in deviated wells.
• Poor cement retarder design or performance.
• Swabbing the hole while reciprocating pipe during circulation and
cementing of the casing.
118
All of the above must be addressed in the design of any cement job
where zones of potential flow are exposed. The well should be close-
ly monitored during all phases of the cementing operation, and BOP’s
should not be nippled down before the cement has taken a final set
and the well is confirmed static.
7.1.3.2 Wireline in the hole
Wireline Operations Without Pressure Control
Many wireline operations are conducted using drilling fluid as the

primary means of pressure control with the rig BOP as secondary
control. If there is a kick, the rig BOP’s would be used to maintain
control until the well is killed.
During logging operations:

• It is the responsibility of the Driller (or designee) to continuously
monitor the well during logging operations. This must be done by
continuous circulation over the hole using the trip tank system.
• If a flow occurs, the annular BOPwill be closed and the logging unit
notified. If possible the wireline should be stripped out of the BOP,
and then pulled to the surface.
• Shear/blind rams are to be used only as a last resort.
Before any wireline operation begins, all drilling personnel must be

involved in a safety briefing during which responsibilities will be
clearly defined and sufficiently detailed instructions must be given to
drilling personnel to enable them to close the well in under any
foreseeable circumstance.
Wireline Operations With Pressure Control
When conducting wireline operations where it has been decided to

use dedicated pressure control equipment, this equipment must be
capable of the following:
• Sealing around the specific wireline in use while the tool string is
downhole.
119
• Providing a method of closing the well in completely when the tool

string is in the riser or is being changed out.
• Closing the well in without reliance on external pressure or power
sources (i.e., equipped with a failsafe shut-in system) with or with-
out wireline in the hole.
In addition, the following should be noted:

• The relationship of rig BOP’s to the operation in progress must be
kept clear to all involved.
• Wireline pressure control equipment will only be used for its
designed function.
• Ensure that wireline BOP equipment is installed correctly.
• A gate valve capable of cutting the wireline is recommended in
addition to (and located above) wireline BOP’s whenever the drilling
rig BOP’s are not in use.
• Be aware of pressure ratings and limitations of equipment in use.
• All pressure tests will be conducted using applied surface pressure
(not wellbore pressure).
7.1.3.3 DST operations
A drill stem test (DST) is a temporary well completion to gather

information on the potential productivity of a formation. Since DST’s
involve bringing formation fluids to surface special precautions are
required to maintain control of the well.
A detailed review of the relevant test program will be carried out on

the rig before commencing operations to assess the risks involved.
The OIM and Senior Toolpusher in conjunction with the Operator
Representative and key Service Company personnel will review all
aspects of the program.
The review should concentrate on key areas such as communication,

roles and responsibilities of personnel, emergency response, expect-
ed test parameters (temperature, pressure, etc.) and any required
changes to the program.
120
Basic Precautions
• Prior to conducting any DST the BOP’s and the gas detection
system will be tested.
• Drillpipe or tubing can be used but must be designed for anticipat-
ed conditions. Any doubt about the test string’s integrity will be
referred to the Rig Manager. During the test the annulus pressure
will be monitored to ensure a leak does not develop in the test
string.
• All DST work will use a surface tree that enables the test string to
be closed in. When wireline is to be used during the test, a lubrica-
tor will be installed on surface stacks.
• When the DSTis finished, ensure that the contents of the test string
are reverse circulated out to mud prior to releasing the packer
(when using retrievable packers) or unstinging from permanently
set packers by opening the reverse circulation valve. This valve
may be pressure actuated or operated by dropping a bar or ball.
• Special attention should be emphasised for H2S detection (refer
to 8.2).
Special Precautions for Floating Rigs
• DST’s on floating rigs must always be conducted with the test string
hung-off in the BOP’s with a subsea Master Valve installed (E-Z tree
or Sub Sea Test Tree).
• When it becomes necessary to pull off location due to rough seas
or other emergencies, the hydraulic latch assembly is disconnected
by bleeding hydraulic power pressure from the surface, leaving the
well shut-in and safely under control. Ensure time required to
perform this sequence is known and acceptable.
• The BOP pipe rams are closed around the slick joint situated
immediately below the Master Valve thus sealing off the well annu -
lus. Following emergency closure of the Master Valve and discon-
nection of the hydraulic operator, the blind/shear rams will be
closed above the Master valve during temporary abandonment.
• Ensure enough chiksans or high pressure flexible lines are used to
allow compensation for the maximum heave.
121
Precautions While Testing
• For the initial test of a zone, DST tools must not be opened at
night without the permission of the Operations Manager. The
Region Manager may decide that this decision will be made
at a Regional level.
• When testing wells containing H2S, NO GAS, should be released

into the atmosphere unless it is burned on the spot.
• Always open up a well slowly, using the Upper Master Valve.
• An emergency surface shut-down system (ESD) should be
incorporated in any well test hook-up.
• Always pressure test the installed equipment, prior to opening up
the well.
• The spacing between the various units comprising a well test
hook-up should be implemented as per the recommended safety
standards.
• Wind direction should be considered when venting gas into the
atmosphere. Total lack of wind may create hazardous conditions.
• Minimize risk of ignition by grounding units, not allowing naked
lights/hot work, etc.
7.2 EMERGENCY
7.2.1 Dropping the Drillstring
A quick decision may have to be made by the Driller to drop the
drillstring. The success of this “last resort” method depends on the
severity of the kick and the speed of execution of the correct
procedure.
Situations that may require the drillstring to be released include:

• If an internal blowout occurs and the shear rams cannot be used.
• If an internal blowout occurs when the drill collars are across the
BOP.
• As an alternative to the use of shear rams in the event of an
internal blowout when drillpipe is in the stack.
• If the BOP develops a leak and no back-up is available.
122
It is important to be sure that the string will clear the BOP once it has
been dropped (especially on a floating rig in deepwater).
Example procedure for dropping drillstring
1. If the topdrive is connected, pick up the string as far as possible to

position a tool joint three feet above the rotary table height.
2. Stop circulating. Set the slips and break the connection three
times.
3. Pick up on the drillstring and remove the slips.
4. RIH until the tool joint is as far below the rotary table as possible.
5. Select reverse on the topdrive, set the torque limiter to maximum
and turn the topdrive at maximum RPM until the string separates.
6. If this operation has to be carried out while tripping, and after
following the above procedure the string has not parted, consider-
ation should be given to using the annular BOP to hold the lower
section of the drill stringdrillstring.
Example procedure for dropping drill collars
1. Position the elevators (manual) near the rotary table and attach an
air hoist to the latch. If air-operated elevators are in use, position
so that at least one joint (but less than two) is above the rotary
table.
2. Close the annular preventer with 1500 psi closing pressure to
support the string weight. Where possible, consider closing both
annulars.
3. Unlatch/open the elevators.
4. Open the annular preventer(s) and release the drill collars.
5. Close the blind/shear rams, after string has had time to clear the
BOP’s.
6. Read and record shut-in pressure and pit gain.
7. Great care should be taken to ensure safety of personnel during
these operations.
7.2.2 Shearing the Drillstring

Blind shear rams (BSR’s) can be used to cut drillpipe and then act as
blind rams in order to isolate the well.
123
Shearing the pipe is an operation that will be conducted only in

exceptional circumstances and can be considered in the following
situations:
• In preference to dropping the pipe in the event of an internal
blowout.
• When it becomes necessary to move a floating rig off location at
short notice.
• When there is no pipe in the hole, the BSR’s may be used as blind
rams.
Most BSR’s are designed to shear effectively only on the body of the
drillpipe. Procedures for the use of BSR’s must therefore ensure that
there is no tool joint opposite the ram prior to shearing.
Note: Some subsea BOP stacks have insufficient clearance between

the upper pipe rams and the BSR to hang-off on the upper rams and
shear the tube of the pipe.
Rig personnel must know the capabilities (ie. what size and grade of
pipe can be sheared) and operating parameters of the shear rams
installed in the rig’s BOP stack.
Optimum shearing characteristics are obtained when the pipe is

stationary and under tension. It is recommended that the string weight
is partially hung off prior to shearing. Hanging off the pipe also
ensures that there is no tool joint opposite the shear rams. Maximum
operating pressure should be used to shear the pipe.
Example procedure
1. Space-out to ensure that there is no tool joint opposite the shear

rams.
2. Close the hang-off rams and hang-off the string.
3. Ensure that the pipe above the hang-off rams remains in tension.
4. Close the shear rams at maximum accumulator pressure.
5. Monitor the well.
124
7.2.3 Emergency Disconnect

There are several situations that could arise during well control
operations that may require disconnecting the LMRP and moving off
the well:
• If high annulus pressures approach the rated working pressure of
the BOP’s or because of equipment failure.
• Vessel movement due to adverse weather conditions (anchor
chains failure).
• Impending vessel collision or fire.
If time permits:
• Attempt to bullhead the kick back into the formation.

• If a drop in dart sub is in use, pump down (with kill mud, if available)
the dart until it lands in the dart sub, while controlling annulus
pressures.
• After the dart seats, bleed off drillpipe pressure and observe to see
if dart is holding pressure.
• If the dart is holding pressure, close lower pipe rams - assuming
string is already hung off on designated hang-off pipe rams.
• Displace riser with sea water.
• Close all fail-safe valves.
• Shear pipe and lock the rams.
• Disconnect lower marine riser package.
• Slack off guide line tensioners, where applicable.
• Move rig off location.
If there is no time:
• Stop the well control operation.

• Stop pumping.
• Close all fail-safe valves.
• Close and lock lower pipe rams (assuming string is already hung off
on the designated hang-off rams).
• Shear Pipe and lock the rams.
• Disconnect lower marine riser package.
• Slack off the guidelines, if applicable, and move rig off location.
125
7.2.4 Reconnection Following Emergency Disconnect

• Move rig back to well site. Run and latch LMRP. Displace riser with
kill mud and pressure test choke and kill lines. Do not use any
preventers for well control operations until tested.
• Open kill line fail-safe valves and observe drillpipe pressure (there
will be no pressure if dart is holding). If pressure is observed, either
the dart is not holding (though kill procedures can continue) or
consider the possibility that the string has been dropped. If this is
the case, the choke and kill line pressures would be the same and
the only well control options would involve the use of the Volumetric
method or bullheading to kill the well.
• Open choke line fail-safe valves below lower pipe rams and
observe casing pressure.
• Pump down kill line to ensure that circulation through dart is
possible. Observe pressure increase on kill line gauge.
• If circulation is possible then continue to kill well using kill line gauge
as drillpipe pressure and choke line gauge as casing pressure.
Be sure to re-establish circulating pressures as previous slow
circulating rate figures will no longer apply.
• If circulation is impossible then consider bullheading or the
Volumetric control.
7.2.5 Blowout/Underground Blowout

Contingency planning should be prepared on the following basis:
Stage 1 - Early Response: Pre-determined operations that can be

implemented regardless of the type of blowout, including preparations
for abandoning the installation and mobilizing emergency/support
services.
Stage 2 - Containment: Operations designed to reduce the maximum

possible damage, most of which occurs during the first 1-2 hours and
depends on the type and severity of the blowout.
Stage 3 - Control: Requires the assistance of specialists and might

involve some of the following services and disciplines:
126
• Well capping.
• Relief well planning.
• HP pumping vessels/equipment.
• Logistics.
• Operations support/contractor personnel.
• Pollution control.
• News/media interface.
• Regulatory authority interface.
• Insurance adjusters.
An underground blowout occurs when formation fluids flow from one

subsurface zone to another.
The majority of underground blowouts have been the result of

fracturing a shallower, weaker zone when shutting in on a kick
originating from a deeper, more highly pressured zone.
If an underground flow is confirmed, the Operator

Representative and the Rig Manager must be notified
immediately.
The direction of flow is important when choosing a control procedure.
7.2.5.1 Flow to a fracture above a high pressure zone
Figure 7.1. shows a decision tree for identifying and dealing with an
underground blowout of this type. If an underground blowout is
suspected, no attempt should be made to control the well using
standard techniques. If the annulus is opened, reservoir fluids will be
allowed to flow up the well to surface, thereby increasing surface
pressures.
7.2.5.2 Flow to a fracture/loss zone below a high pressure zone
Flow down the wellbore from a high-pressure zone usually occurs

when drilling into a naturally fractured, cavernous or structurally weak
formation. The resultant losses reduce the hydrostatic head of the
drilling fluid to such an extent that a permeable zone higher in the
wellbore begins to flow.
127
When the well is shut-in, it is unlikely that any pressure will be record-
ed on either the drillpipe or the casing, although the casing pressure
may increase if gas migrates up the annulus. Pumping mud down the
annulus will prevent this rise in pressure. Figure 7.2 shows the
decision tree for identifying and dealing with an underground blowout
of this type.
7.2.5.3 Recognizing an underground flow
Indicators of underground flow
• Loss of returns and erratic increases in annulus pressures while

circulating out a kick as the mud in the annulus is lost to a fracture
zone and replaced by more influx.
• After shutting in the well, the build up of SIDPP and SICP will be
interrupted by a sudden reduction in both as the formation
fractures.
• Unstable or fluctuating SIDPP and SICP may result from the
unsteady flow from one or more formations or from the fractured
formation opening or closing in response to the changing
pressures.
• In most cases, there will be little or no communication between the
drillpipe and annulus. SIDPP may change without being reflected
by the SICP and vice versa.
• Both SIDPP and SICP may fluctuate simultaneously or independ-
ently of each other.
• If the formation collapses around the drillstring the SICP may
stabilize while the SIDPP continues to change.
• SIDPP may be greater than the SICP as a result of formation fluids
entering the drillpipe.
• SIDPP may fall or go on vacuum if the mud U-tubes from the string
and is not replaced by influx.
• Perform a test to confirm whether or not the shut in well is a closed
system. Pump a small amount of fluid down the drillpipe and if the
DPP and SICP increase, the open hole is intact. If neither the DPP
nor the SICP increase then a fracture exists in the open hole.
128
7.2.5.4 Kill methods
The monitoring and recording of the initial drillpipe and casing pres-
sures is important for selecting a method of killing the well. Although
the drillpipe pressures may not provide a reading with which to
accurately determine bottom hole pressure, they could indicate the
minimum pressure required to control the kick i.e. the maximum
SIDPP seen prior to the formation breaking down would be used to
calculate the minimum kill mud weight.
Flow to a Fracture Above a High Pressure Zone
If readily available, consider running a temperature/noise log through

the drillstring in order to locate the loss zone.
Heavy Pill
• Calculate the minimum pressure required to control the kick using

the highest SIDPP recorded.
• Select a range of densities for a heavy pill that, in combination with
the existing mud weight, will provide the equivalent of the minimum
hydrostatic pressure to control the kick.
• Calculate the height the pill will occupy in the annulus, convert it to
a volume and mix three times the required amount to account for
out of gauge hole and influx cutting.
• Displace (with the choke closed) the heavy pill down the pipe and
into the annulus at as fast a rate as possible to reduce contamina-
tion by the influx.
• Once the well is killed and losses have ceased, POOH and cement
the fractured zone.
• The original mud in the annulus must be conditioned to a density
that will control the formation pressure at bottom and the heavy pill
used to kill the well must be circulated out in stages in order to avoid
re-fracturing the formation.
129
Barite Plugs
If the losses continue, spot a Barite plug on bottom of at least 500ft

(150m) high and 3 ppg (360kg/m3, 0.36kg/l) heavier than current mud
weight .
• The high density/fine particle size of Barite when mixed with fresh
water containing no suspension agent enables the Barite to settle
out rapidly when pumping ceases to form an impenetrable barrier
that seals off the flowing zone.
• The surface mixing facilities and plug placement must be continu-
ous and rapid. If mixing or pumping is halted for even a short time,
settling in the pits or plugging of the drillstring will occur.
• Barite plugs have the following advantages:
- They can be pumped through the bit and offer a reasonable
chance of recovering the drillstring.
- The plug can be drilled easily if required.
Barite - Fresh Water Slurry Recipe (for 1 bbl/0.16 m 3)
Required Volume of Weight of

Density Fresh Water Barite
18 ppg (2.15 kg/l) 0.642 bbls (0.102 m 3) 530 lbs (240 kg)
A complex phosphate, such as sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) or

sodium hexametaphosphate, should be added to act as a thinner in
case of contamination by mud in the annulus or by low quality barite.
The concentration required is 0.7 ppb (2 kg/m3). Note: complex
phosphates will thermally degrade if the down hole temperature
exceeds 140°F (60°C). If this is the case, a mixture of lignosulphonate
0.4 ppb (1.14 kg/m3) and caustic soda 0.25 ppb (0.71 kg/m3)can be
used instead.
Optimum barite settling is achieved by adjusting the pH to 8-10 with

0.25 ppb (0.71 kg/m 3) of caustic soda.
130
Barite - Diesel Oil Slurry Recipe (for 1 bbl/0.16 m 3)
A barite plug derived from a barite - diesel oil slurry is preferred in oil
based or invert emulsion muds. A Barite - Fresh water slurry can be
used provided there is a diesel oil spacer ahead of and behind the
slurry.
Required Volume of Weight of

Density Diesel Barite
An oil wetting agent is added to increase the settling rate at a

concentration of 5.0 ppb (14.0 kg/m3).
Flow to a Fracture/Loss Zone below a High Pressure Zone
If readily available, consider running a temperature/noise log through

the drillpipe to locate the loss zone.
• Keep pumping seawater down the annulus until a suitable LCM pill,
polymer plug, cement slurry, diesel-bentonite plug has been
prepared.
• Mix and spot a diesel-bentonite ‘gunk’ plug (diesel, 400 ppb
bentonite, 15 ppb of LCM) equal to or greater than the hole volume
below the loss zone.
- At a depth 100 ft (30 m) above the loss zone, pump 5 bbls
(0.8 m3) of diesel ahead of and behind the plug.
- When the plug begins to exit the drillstring, close the annular
preventer and pump mud into the annulus at 2 bbls/min (300l/
pmin) while displacing the plug at 4 bbls/min (600 l/pmin).
- Once 50% of the plug has been displaced from the string, reduce
the pump rates to 1 bbl/min (150 l/pmin) down the annulus and
2 bbls/min (300 l/pmin).
131
- Once 75% of the plug has been displaced from the string attempt
a ‘hesitation squeeze’ with 100-500 psi (690-3450 kPa, 6.9-34.5
bar) surface pressure.
- Under displace plug by 1 bbl, POOH, allow plug 8-10 hours to set.
Other Alternatives
Cement loss zone (refer to 8.8.5.4).
132
No evidence of Implement
Shut in Monitor surface underground standard
the well pressures blowout techniques to
kill the well
An underground blow out is suspected

because:
1. Drillpipe on vacuum
2. Pressure build up clearly indicates
formation has fractured
3. Annulus pressure fluctuating
Run positive
test
Re-assess
the situation
Run temperature
and/or noise log
to identify flow
if required
1. Do not bleed fluid from the

annulus
NO Underground blow YES

2. Line up one pump to the
out confirmed? annulus, line up mud and if
necessary water to the suction
Monitor annular
pressures
If annulus pressure
is building, pump at If not excessive,
a slow rate down the then leave annulus
annulus. If annulus shut in
cannot support mud
then pump water
Continually
monitor annular
pressures
Prepare 2 x the annulus volume of kill weight mud

(at minimum PV and YP - use friction reducer
if available).
Remove top drive/kelly and install high pressure
circulating line
Implement dynamic kill using barite plug

- Pump kill mud at maximum rate
- Keep pumping until all mud is used
- Stop only if surface pressures become excessive
1. Check mud is at kill weight

Drillpipe and annulus Take steps to secure well
2. Reduce mud viscosity YES
pressures indicate that the 1. Cement BHA in place
3. Reduce drillstring internal
underground flow has 2. POOH to plug fracture
friction
ceased 3. POOH to run casing
4. Pump larger plug
NO
1. Mix LCM pill (100 bbls min) for a large annulus

2. Mix 2 x annulus volume of kill weight mud
3. Pump LCM pill down annulus until just
above fractured zone
Implement dynamic well kill

- Pump kill mud at maximum rate down drillpipe
- Pump LCM pill down annulus into fracture zone
- Keep pumping unless surface pressure limits
are reached
1. Check mud is at kill weight Take steps to secure well

2. Reduce mud viscosity Drillpipe and annulus YES
pressures indicate that the 1. Cement BHA in place
3. Reduce drillstring internal 2. POOH to plug fracture
friction underground flow has
ceased 3. POOH to run casing
4. Pump larger plug
NO
Is the
pipe
stuck?
YES NO
Options Options
1. Back off, strip up into 1. Strip up into casing,

casing, squeeze high filter having installed dart
loss cement slurry to plug squeeze high filter loss
the well cement slurry to plug
the well
2. If circulation is possible
on bottom, pump freshwater 2. Pump freshwater at
at maximum rate to slough maximum rate to slough
hole the hole
133
Figure 7.1: Decision Analysis for Flow to a Fracture or Loss Zone Above a High Pressure Zone
134
Drilling ahead
Losses
experienced
Shut down top Cure losses and

drive/rotary drill ahead
Cannot control
losses
Well starts to flow
Shut the well in
Possible underground blowout

indicators
- No surface pressure
- Annulus and drillpipe on vacuum
(annulus pressure may build up)
Run positive test
Run temperature
and/or noise log

to identify flow
if required
Underground blow NO Re-assess

out confirmed? the situation
YES
1. Do not bleed fluid from the

annulus
2. Line up one pump to the
annulus
3. Supply mud and if required water
Continually
monitor annular
pressures
Options to control the flow

- Pump LCM pill
- Set cement plug on bottom
- Circulate the hole to light mud,
drill under pressure
with a rotating head
NO
Surface pressures/
logs indicate that the
underground flow has
ceased?
YES
Take steps to
secure the well
135
Figure 7.2: Decision Analysis for Flow to a Fractre or Loss Zone Below a High Pressure Zone
136
Specific Environments
Contents
8.1 Shallow Gas 138
8.4 Deepwater 164
8.5 HP/HT 195
8.6 Slim Hole 209
137
Contents
8.1 Shallow Gas 139
8.1.1 Definition 139

8.1.2 Planning and Assessment of Risk 140
8.1.2.1 Locations Where Shallow Gas May Occur 140
8.1.2.2 Evaluation of Shallow Gas Risk 140
8.1.2.3 Well Design 141
8.1.2.4 Shallow Gas Plan 141
8.1.2.5 Jack-Up Considerations 142
8.1.2.6 Riserless Floating Unit Considerations 142
8.1.3 Causes Of Kicks 143
8.1.3.1 Gas Cutting 143
8.1.3.2 Swabbing 143
8.1.3.3 Lost Circulation 143
8.1.4 Preparation and Prevention 144
8.1.4.1 Heavy Mud 144
8.1.4.2 Controlled Drilling Rates 144
8.1.4.3 Tripping Practices 144
8.1.4.4 Flow checks 145
8.1.4.5 Mud losses 145
8.1.4.6 PWD/LWD/MWD 145
8.1.4.7 Monitoring Active Mud System 145
8.1.4.8 Preparations Prior to Drilling 146
8.1.5 Actions Upon Encountering Shallow Gas 146
8.1.5.1 Drilling Riserless from a Floating Rig 146
8.1.5.2 Diverter Procedures While Drilling 147
8.1.5.3 Diverter Procedures While Tripping 148
138
8.1 SHALLOW GAS

Statistically shallow gas is the most likely single cause of kicks
leading to blowouts.
8.1.1 Definition
Shallow gas is considered to be any gas accumulation encountered
during drilling at a depth above the setting point of the first string of
casing intended for, or capable of, pressure containment. Shallow gas
generally occurs as normally pressured accumulations in shallow
sedimentary formations with high porosities and high permeabilities.
‘Structural’ overpressures may exist where the sands are relatively

thick or tilted and can require higher mud weights even though they
are not abnormally pressured. The degree of overpressure is deter-
mined by the ratio of sand thickness to depth and so shallow, thick
sands will require higher mud weights than deeper, thinner sands.
Drilling through such a gas bearing formation requires extreme

caution. Because of the difficulty in early detection of an influx while
drilling top hole sections and the shallow nature of the hole, the gas,
upon entering the wellbore, expands and reaches the surface very
rapidly and with little warning.
It may be decided to either shut-in the well or divert, if shut-in

pressures combined with the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid
could result in breaking down the formation.
Drillers will be instructed in writing on the specific action to

take in such cases.
A copy of the procedure must be prominently posted near the BOP/

Diverter control panels.
139
8.1.2 Planning and Assessment of Risk

Prior to starting drilling operations, the Rig Manager must discuss
with the Operator the assessment of the risk of shallow gas. The well
design and specific operating procedures will be reviewed in the light
of this assessment.
8.1.2.1 Locations Where Shallow Gas May Occur
Wells with an increased risk of encountering shallow gas are

summarized as follows:
• Exploration wells in general.
• Wells drilled in shallow gas prone areas.
• Wells with probable/possible shallow gas identified by a preliminary
shallow gas investigation.
• Wells drilled in developed fields where charged shallow sands
could occur due to poorly cemented casing strings.
8.1.2.2 Evaluation of Shallow Gas Risk
A shallow seismic survey is one of the best methods available today

and is often carried out offshore to identify possible shallow gas
accumulations. The reliability of such a survey varies depending on
the methods of data acquisition, processing and interpretation.
The flow chart shown in Appendix 5 can be used as a guideline to

evaluate if proper seismic equipment and techniques are employed
by the Operator.
The results of such a survey can be considered as a guide, but should

never be considered as a guarantee against the presence of shallow
gas.
Other techniques which could be used to evaluate shallow gas

accumulations are soil sampling, pre-spud pilot hole drilling as well as
evaluation of any available offset well data.
140
8.1.2.3 Well Design
Drilling Site and Well Course Selection
When the survey indicates a possible shallow gas accumulation,

consideration should be given to repositioning the location, if at all
possible, so as to avoid such hazards.
Casing Seat Selection
A string of casing should be set and properly cemented in the first

formation that provides an impermeable seal, even if this requires an
additional or contingent string of casing.
On offshore rigs, such a string would provide the ability to shut-in a

well at shallow depths without risk of broaching around the
wellhead or mudline.
Pilot Hole
A pilot hole, normally 9 7/8"/250 mm or less, can be drilled as it

will improve the capability of controlling a shallow gas kick with a
dynamic kill operation.
8.1.2.4 Shallow Gas Plan
A shallow gas plan specific to the rig/well must be prepared in

conjunction with the Operator and will conform to TSF Policy. Special
consideration must be given to the following, non-exclusive, list of
items:
• Crew positions and their specific duties, as listed in Chapter 1, will
be reviewed.
• Training sessions and diverter drills must be designed around the
procedure outlined in 4.2.1. Drills must be held by each crew at the
beginning of each tour during this drilling phase to familiarize all
personnel with the appropriate and immediate actions in case of
shallow gas kick. One of these drills, conducted prior to drilling, will
include mustering crew and simulation of procedures necessary to
disconnect/move off location (floating rigs only).
141
• Evacuation plans for all non-essential personnel must be prepared.

• Emergency power shut-down procedures must be prepared.
• Disconnecting and/or moving off location procedures for floating
rigs must be prepared.
8.1.2.5 Jack-Up Considerations
Shallow gas reservoirs are potentially much more hazardous when

penetrated from a jack-up for the following reasons:
• The conductor extends almost to the drill floor.
• Inability to move off location.
• A hazardous situation is created if a restriction forms in the diverter
line. The subsequent build up may cause gas to broach around the
casing to the seabed. In this event there is a risk that the seabed
becomes fluidized, inducing a sudden reduction in spudcan
resistance.
Monitor the sea for evidence of gas breaking through the outside of
the conductor.
8.1.2.6 Riserless Floating Unit Considerations
A gas blowout in open water produces a 10° cone of low density water
and a discharge of highly flammable gas. The intensity of the blowout
depends to a large extent on the water depth and current.
Current further disperses and displaces the plume away from the rig.
Within the plume of expanding gas, a floating vessel may suffer some
loss of stability, however, the effect on a semi-submersible at
operating draft would be negligible. The eruption of gas would tend to
displace a vessel, and if constrained by its mooring, may cause a
floating unit to heel towards the plume, thereby reducing its freeboard
further.
The rig should be moored with the length of moorings remaining in the
locker to allow the rig to be moved 400 ft (122 m) away from the
plume without power. If practical, the windlasses should be held on
their brakes and the chain stoppers only applied after surface
casing has been set.
142
8.1.3 Causes Of Kicks

The margin of overbalance is particularly critical when drilling at
shallow depths.
The amount of overbalance (expressed as a pressure) for a given

margin of overbalance (expressed as a mud density) increases in
proportion to depth.
8.1.3.1 Gas Cutting
Gas cutting in the deeper sections of a well does not usually cause
significant problems. At shallow depths, however, the combination of
large hole size, high ROP’s and high permeabilities and porosities
serves to increase the volume of gas released from the formation as
it is penetrated. If the overbalance provided by the drilling fluid is
small (see above) the reduction in bottom hole pressure due to gas
cutting may be sufficient to cause the well to kick, particularly from
sands further up the hole. (Refer to 4.4.4.)
8.1.3.2 Swabbing
It is not uncommon for BHAs to ‘ball up’ when drilling top hole and
with a small margin of overbalance the effect of swabbing is more
likely to induce a kick.
8.1.3.3 Lost Circulation
High ROPs combined with low annular velocities may create a build
up of cuttings in the hole. Since fracture gradients are low in these
shallow, unconsolidated formations, the increase in the equivalent
mud weight due to the cuttings may be sufficient to cause losses to
the formation and the resulting reduction in hydrostatic pressure could
cause a gas bearing sand to flow.
Lost circulation can also be caused when running casing (due to

surge pressures) or during cementing the casing if slurry densities
and/or circulating pressures exceed the formation strength.
143
8.1.4 Preparation and Prevention

Guidelines for specific top hole drilling operations and sound
practices in maintaining primary well control must be strictly followed
at all times in order to prevent shallow gas incidents.
8.1.4.1 Heavy Mud
A recommendation of contingency mud volume will be made at the

planning stage and will depend on both well and rig specifics. As a
guide:
• Reserve of heavy mud for a shallow gas kill will be 1-2 ppg (120-
240 kg/m3, 0.12-0.24 kg/l) heavier than the mud weight being used.
• A minimum volume will be the calculated annular volume for the
section TD.
8.1.4.2 Controlled Drilling Rates
The penetration rate should be controlled to prevent excessive build

up of solids which could cause fracturing of the formation and result
in lost circulation.
It is also necessary to prevent accumulation of gas in the annulus

which could induce the well to flow.
Caution should be used while flushing cuttings from the annulus due
to the resulting reduction in annular hydrostatic fluid density.
8.1.4.3 Tripping Practices
Clear tripping procedures must be available and strictly adhered to.
Swabbing must be prevented while tripping out of hole. If necessary

the drillstring should be pumped out to help limit swabbing.
Consideration should be given to the use of an underreamer instead

of a hole opener, as the former can be collapsed before tripping to
reduce swabbing while pulling out of hole.
(Refer to 4.4.1.)
144
8.1.4.4 Flow checks
Flow checks will be made every time a problem is suspected.
Each connection will be systematically flow checked while drilling in

potential shallow gas zones.
It may be prudent to flow check every 30 ft (9 m) in order to

minimize the amount of any gas bearing sand penetrated.
8.1.4.5 Mud losses
Losses should be avoided. If losses are encountered they should be

cured before drilling ahead unless under known condition and with
the approval of the Operations Manager.
Large (or no) bit nozzles should be used to allow pumping of LCM and
to permit high flow rates should diverting be required.
8.1.4.6 PWD/LWD/MWD
Use of PWD/LWD/MWD tools are an effective method of detecting the

presence of gas bearing formations while drilling is in progress.
However, their usefulness is dependent on how far behind the bit
these tools are located.
8.1.4.7 Monitoring Active Mud System
The mud pit volume and mud density must be continuously

monitored.
All measuring instruments must be calibrated and in good condition to

detect any change in active volume. The most reliable indicator
generally remains the flow out sensor.
If there is any inadequacy in the measuring instruments, extra

personnel should be assigned to ensure adequate monitoring of mud
volumes.
145
8.1.4.8 Preparations Prior to Drilling
Use the following check list:

• Test all gas detectors and alarms.
• At least one windsock must be installed in a prominent position
visible from the muster point.
• Hold safety meetings with essential personnel and explain plans
and procedures.
• A float valve must be run to prevent sudden flow up the

drillstring.
• For floating rigs, to observe for gas, the subsea TV or an ROV

should be positioned so that returns can be monitored at the
seabed. In addition, a watch may be posted in the moonpool area.
• The Standby Vessel will be positioned upwind of the rig.
• Drilling operations will be suspended and a risk assessment
conducted if the rig’s gas detection system fails.
• Drilling operations will be suspended and a risk assessment
conducted if the rig’s mud monitoring system become unavailable
while using a closed mud system.
• Hot work will not be permitted while shallow gas procedures are in
force.
• Water deluge systems will be running on all engine exhaust
systems including the emergency generator.
• The diverter insert will be installed and locked in position at all times
with the exception where BHA components will not pass through.
8.1.5 Actions Upon Encountering Shallow Gas

8.1.5.1 Drilling Riserless from a Floating Rig
Riserless top hole drilling from floating rigs (with the exception
of drillships moored in shallow waters) is the TSF recommend -
ed method.
146
Actions if shallow gas is encountered while drilling:
• Do not stop pumping, increase the pump strokes to maximum and

switch suctions on the mud pumps to kill mud in the reserve pit.
• Raise the alarm.
• Prepare to release the drillstring.
• If after pumping all the kill mud the well continues to flow, release
the drillstring.
• Initiate the pre-determined, rig specific move off plan.
Actions if shallow gas is encountered while tripping:
Ifthe bit is near bottom:

• Set the slips.
• Make up the topdrive/kelly.
• Start pumping kill mud at the maximum pump speed.
• Prepare to release the drillstring.
• If after pumping all the kill mud the well continues to flow, release
the drillstring.
• Initiate the pre-determined, rig specific move off plan.
If the bit is less than 100 ft (30m) below the mud line.
• Set the slips.
• Make up the topdrive/kelly.
• Initiate the pre-determined rig specific move off plan.
8.1.5.2 Diverter Procedures While Drilling
Surface BOP’s
At first sign of flow:

• Do not stop pumping.
• Open diverter line to divert/close diverter (both functions should be
interlocked).
• Increase pump speed to maximum rate.
• Switch suction on the mud pumps to heavy mud in the reserve pit.
• Zero the stroke counter.
147
• Raise the alarm and make announcement on PA system. Inform the

Toolpusher and OIM. Post personnel to watch for gas.
• If the well appears to have stopped flowing after pumping the heavy
mud, stop the pumps and observe the well.
• If the well continues to flow after the heavy mud has been pumped,
carry on pumping from the active system and prepare to pump
water. Also consider mixing heavier kill mud.
• When all the mud has been consumed, switch the pumps to water.
Do not stop pumping for as long as the well continues to flow.
Subsea BOP’s
Note: The slip joint packer is the most vulnerable item of equipment
in the marine riser system during diverting operations.
• Rigs with subsea BOP’s should shut the well in when possible.
• Moving the rig off location immediately may be the best option.
• If diverting is necessary, do not stop pumping.
• Open diverter line and close the diverter.
• Increase pump strokes to maximum pumping rate.
• If a pin connector is in use, unlatch the connector (or open dump
valves and increase pressure on slip joint packing).
• Switch the suction line on the pumps to heavy mud in the reserve
pit.
• Raise the alarm and make announcement on PA system. Inform the
Toolpusher and OIM. Post personnel to watch for gas.
• Continue to pump until all mud has been consumed, switch pumps
to water.
• Make preparations to move the rig off location.
8.1.5.3 Diverter Procedures While Tripping
Surface BOP’s

• Set pipe in the slips.
• Open diverter line, close diverter (functions should be interlocked).
• Make up topdrive/kelly.
• Start pumping at maximum pump speed.
148
• Switch suction line to heavy mud in the reserve pit. Zero the stroke
counter.
• Raise the alarm on the PA system and notify the Toolpusher and
OIM.
• If the well appears to have stop flowing after pumping the heavy
mud, stop the pumps and observe the well.
• Prepare to run back to bottom.
• If the well continues to flow after the heavy mud has been pumped,
carry on pumping from the active system and prepare to pump
water. Also consider mixing heavier kill mud.
• When all the mud has been consumed, switch the pumps to water.
• Do not stop pumping for as long as the well continues to flow.
Subsea BOP’s

• Set pipe in the slips.
• Open diverter line, close diverter (functions should be interlocked).
• Disconnect the pin connector (or open dump valves and increase
the slip joint packer pressure).
• Make up topdrive/kelly.
• Start pumping at maximum pump speed.
• Switch suction line to heavy mud in the reserve pit. Zero the stroke
counter.
• Raise the alarm on the PA system, notify Toolpusher and OIM.
• Post personnel to watch for gas at the waterline.
• If the well appears to continue to flow after the heavy mud has been
pumped, carry on pumping from the active system and prepare to
pump water. Also consider mixing heavier kill mud. When all the
mud has been consumed, switch the pumps to water. Do not stop
pumping for as long as the well continues to flow.
• Prepare to move the rig off location.
149
Contents
8.2.1 Properties 151

8.2.2 Well Operations 151
8.2.3 Equipment and Training 151
8.2.4 Emergency Procedures 152
8.2.5 Special H2S Precautions 152
8.2.6 Well Control Operations 152
150
8.2 HYDROGEN SULPHIDE (H 2S)

8.2.1 Properties
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) is encountered in many regions of the world
during well operations and in varying concentrations. It is extremely
toxic, explosive and is heavier than air. In small concentrations it has
an offensive rotten egg odor while greater concentrations can
paralyse the olfactory nerves so no odor is detected. When ignited it
burns with a blue flame producing sulphur dioxide (SO2) which can
also cause serious injury.
8.2.2 Well Operations

When performing operations on a well where H2S is suspected, all
personnel will be trained in special procedures relating to well control,
coring, well testing and well intervention. It is recommended that all
H2S equipment be installed and functional within before 1000 ft
(300 m) of, or one week prior to, penetrating the H2S potential zone,
or as required by local regulations, whichever is the most stringent.
Even in areas of high H2S concentrations, H2S may not be detected

while drilling and its presence only confirmed during coring, well
testing or when a kick is circulated to surface.
8.2.3 Equipment and Training

The following will apply:
• H2S monitoring equipment will be continually surveyed and tested
periodically.
• Personnel will be trained in H2S procedures and personal breathing
apparatus usage. (Refer to TSF HS&E manual Section 4.3.4.)
• When H2S is expected to surface, personal breathing apparatus will
be worn.
151
8.2.4 Emergency Procedures

In the event of an emergency situation involving the release of H2S
into the atmosphere, if either the visual or audible alarm is triggered,
all off duty and non-essential personnel must immediately don their
personal breathing apparatus and proceed to the designated briefing
area upwind of the wellbore.
8.2.5 Special H2S Precautions

If drilling known H 2S zones the following should be considered:
• All primary pressure containment equipment will be selected for
H2S service (including casing, drillpipe, BOP’s and wellheads). For
example, all casing and tubing strings should be L-80 or softer
material (J-55, K-55, C-75) or special H2S resistant grades.
• Use Grade ‘E’ or ‘X’ drillpipe whenever possible. Higher strength
grades, such as ‘G’or ‘S’, can be used providing the mud has been
treated to combat the effects of H2S on steel.
• Increase the pH of the mud to 10.5-13 and treat with a sulphide
scavenger to prevent hydrogen embrittlement and corrosion of the
drillstring.
8.2.6 Well Control Operations

If H 2S is detected during a well control operation the well should be
shut-in immediately and the kill procedure re-evaluated. Reference
must be made to the Offshore Emergency Response manual, which
will detail actions to be taken when H2S is encountered.
Since H2S is heavier than air if, due to local circumstances, the influx
is circulated to surface, consideration has to be given to the position
of the gas vent line, which normally exits at the top of the derrick. This
could have serious implications when there are no prevailing winds.
Bullheading is the preferred well control procedure whenever

significant levels of H 2S has been detected.
152
Contents
8.3.1 Horizontal Well Control Procedures 154

8.3.1.1 Detection 154
8.3.1.2 Prevention 154
8.3.1.3 Lost Circulation 157
8.3.2 Deviated/Horizontal Well Kill Sheet 157
8.3.2.1 Completion of Kill Sheet 157
8.3.2.2 Static Component of Circulating Pressure 157
8.3.2.3 Dynamic Component of Circulating
Pressure 158
8.3.2.4 Circulating Pressure 158
8.3.2.5 When to Use Deviated/Horizontal
Kill Sheet 159
8.3.2.6 Driller’s Method 160
8.3.2.7 Flushing Gas Downwards in an Upwards
Sloping Horizontal Well 160
8.3.3 Multilateral Wells 161
8.3.3.1 Indications of a Kick from the Active Well
(containing the drillstring) 161
8.3.3.2 Indications of a Kick from the Static Well 161
8.3.3.3 Kill Method 161
8.3.3.4 Calculation of MAASP for Active and Static
Wellbores 162
8.3.3.5 Multilateral Well Kill Procedures 163
153
8.3 HORIZONTAL/DEVIATED WELLS

8.3.1 Horizontal Well Control Procedures
Horizontal and highly deviated wells use the same basic well control
principles as those used for vertical holes. Downhole equivalent mud
weights are calculated using the true vertical depth. However, there
are several additional points to consider.
8.3.1.1 Detection
Kick warning signs are basically the same as for a vertical well as is
the required action (refer to Chapter 5).
8.3.1.2 Prevention
The following points should be noted:

• The purpose of drilling a horizontal well is to improve well produc-
tivity/hydrocarbon recovery by maximizing reservoir exposure (see
figure 8.1). Therefore influx flow rates, in the event of a kick, will be
considerably greater than for a well drilled vertically through the
same reservoir.
Length of
Exposed
Reservoir
Length of Exposed Reservoir
VERTICAL WELL HORIZONTAL WELL
Figure 8.1: Potential Capacity for increased kick size with Horizontal Well
154
• It is possible that shut-in pressures may be identical on both

drillpipe and annulus even though a large kick has been taken. This
would depend on the length of the horizontal open hole section but
it does mean that it is not possible to use all of the kick data.
• Flow from a horizontal well may be slow at first, increasing very
rapidly once the influx moves into the build section (see figure 8.2).
At this point the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the annulus may
have been lowered enough to induce a much larger kick into the
well.
As a result, it is essential that:

- The pit(s) are closely monitored for small gains in volume.
- Flow Checks are extended to a minimum of 15 minutes.
(1) (2)
TIME
No kick. Kick occurred.

Hydrostatic Pressure = Hydrostatic immediately
Mud Hydrostatic reduced by Kick/mud
hydrostatic differential
VERTICAL WELL
(1) (2) (3)
TIME
Potential for Potential for

Additional influx additional influx
at same rate as at much higher
original influx. rate than
original influx.
No kick. Initial kick occurred. Kick occurred.

Hydrostatic Pressure = Hydrostatic stays the Hydrostatic now
Mud Hydrostatic same because vertical reduced by kick/mud
height of kick is zero. hydrostatic differential
in vertical or rear
vertical section.
HORIZONTAL WELL
Figure 8.2: Difference in Unloading: Vertical Well Versus Horizontal Well
155
There is greater potential for swabbing when a large surface area of

reservoir is exposed. Proper tripping procedures must be rigorously
adhered to. When tripping out of the hole, a flow check should be
made once the bit gets out of the horizontal section (see figure 8.3).
To avoid swabbing, pump out of the open hole section to some point
within the build section where cuttings beds will not form and
swabbing is less likely to occur.
If a cuttings bed is allowed to

form behind the bit, then swabbing
is more likely to occur.
Pump out of the hole
(with rotation) to mitigate risk.
Cuttings Bed Cuttings Bed

40 deg + greater “Pile Up” Behind
Bit as POOH
Figure 8.3: Effect of Tripping without Circulation in Horizontal Section
It is quite possible for the horizontal section to be full of reservoir fluid

and yet the well is ‘dead’. It is recommended that extreme caution
should be paid when tripping back into the reservoir after a round trip.
When back on bottom it is recommended to do a flow check after a
partial bottoms-up as an influx may then be high enough in the well to
be detected.
In the event of a kick while tripping it may not be possible to drop or

pump down a dart. This will depend on the hole angle at the dart sub
position. If it is not possible to install the dart into the dart sub the
“Gray” valve can be used.
156
8.3.1.3 Lost Circulation
Lost circulation may be more likely in a horizontal well for two

reasons:
• Fracture gradient at the casing shoe may be reduced because the
formation stability stresses are greater at 90° compared with those
of a vertical well. This problem is usually addressed by setting the
last casing shoe as near to horizontal as possible e.g. ±80°.
• The ECD experienced on bottom is directly related to the length of
the horizontal section drilled. For a long horizontal section, APL,
and hence ECD, increases with measured depth, whereas the
fracture gradient will remain largely unchanged over the length of
the section. Higher flow rates needed to clean the hole and longer
cuttings residence also tend to increase ECD.
8.3.2 Deviated/Horizontal Well Kill Sheet

8.3.2.1 Completion of Kill Sheet
(Refer to Appendix 2 for a worked example of a horizontal kill sheet).
If we were to stop the pump when the kill mud is at the total vertical
depth of the well then the SIDPP would be zero. At any time the kill
mud is being pumped the SIDPP, with the pump off, would depend
only on how close the kill mud was to the total vertical depth.
8.3.2.2 Static Component of Circulating Pressure
The static pressure can be found at any time during the kill from the
following equation.
Static Pressure
= SIDPP - [(KMW-OMW) x 0.052 x TVDp] ➱ psi / ppg / ft
= SIDPP - [(KMW-OMW) ÷ 102 x TVDp] ➱ kPa / kg/m 3 / m
= SIDPP - [(KMW-OMW) ÷ 10.2 x TVDp] ➱ bar / kg/l / m
Where,
TVDp is the vertical depth of the kill mud at the time
157
8.3.2.3 Dynamic Component of Circulating Pressure
Dynamic pressure at any time in the kill is related to the MD of the kill
mud. The dynamic pressure will increase as the mud is pumped. It
can be found at any time in the kill from the following equation.
Dynamic Pressure = SCRP + (FCP-SCRP) x MD P

MDT
Where,
MDT is the total measured depth of the well, MDP is the measured
depth of the kill mud at that time.
As the kill mud is pumped along the pipe, the heavier mud will
increase the dynamic pressure. This will increase from the initially
recorded slow circulating pressure to the calculated final circulating
pressure and depends only upon how far along the drillpipe the kill
mud is. The FCP - SCRP is effectively the calculated increase in
pump pressure. When MD P = MDT, kill mud is at bit, and the dynam-
ic pressure will be the same as the FCP. When MDP is small then the
dynamic pressure is similar to the SCRP.
8.3.2.4 Circulating Pressure
The circulating pressure while the kill mud is being pumped to the bit
is simply the sum of the static and dynamic pressures.
Circulating Pressure = Dynamic Pressure + Static Pressure
It is important to ensure that when adding up the Dynamic and the

Static pressures in the well, both calculations are made for the same
physical point in the string.
The correct relationship for circulating pressures versus pump strokes

is then plotted on the Deviated/Horizontal Kill sheet.
We can look at how this would work in practice with the completed
sheet in Appendix 2.
158
8.3.2.5 When to Use Deviated/Horizontal Kill Sheet
The deviated kill sheet can be used for all deviated or horizontal wells
but in many wells there will not be a large difference between the
required circulating pressure and the values produced by the
standard kill sheet.
The difference between the circulating pressure (∆ P) calculated by

the standard kill sheet and the deviated kill sheet can be calculated at
any point in the well by the following equation.
∆ P = SIDPP x [TVDP - MDP]

TVDT MDT
It can be shown that the largest difference in pressure between the

deviated and standard kill sheets in this case would be 127 psi. This
is shown graphically in figure 8.4.
Pump Pressure Schedule

2100
Standard Kick
Sheet
2050
Extension
Circulating Pressure (psi)
2000
1950
1900
1850
1800
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Total Strokes
Figure 8.4: Pump Pressure Schedule
159
The following guidelines can be used to determine when the deviated

sheet should be used:
• A vertical kill sheet should be used if the initial, stable SIDPP is
100 psi or less, regardless of well profile.
• If the maximum difference between the circulating pressure
calculated by the standard kill sheet and the deviated kill sheet is
found to be less than 25 psi, the standard kill sheet should be used.
• A deviated kill sheet should be used if MAASP - SICP < 2 ∆ P.
• This will depend on the field situation, such as shoe strength and
casing pressure. If there is a risk of lost circulation the deviated kill
sheet should be used in order to impose the least pressure on the
wellbore.
8.3.2.6 Driller’s Method
The first circulation of the Driller’s Method requires no changes to be

used in a highly deviated or horizontal well. However, the pumping
drillpipe pressure schedule (circulating pressures versus strokes
graph) referred to in the procedures will be completed as described in
above.
8.3.2.7 Flushing Gas Downwards in an Upwards Sloping

Horizontal Well
Gas can be trapped in the upward sloping section of a horizontal well.

A high pump rate will be required in order to flush it into the vertical
section. This high pump rate should provide a downward mud
velocity that is greater than the likely upward gas migration velocity.
Once the gas has been flushed above the heel, it is essential to slow
the circulation rate down.
If the kick is gas which has dissolved in OBM then it should be

pumped at a very slow rate down the section and into the less
deviated or vertical section of the well.
160
8.3.3 Multilateral Wells

Provided reliable hydraulic isolation is maintained, existing well
control methods can be applied and each wellbore treated separate-
ly. Otherwise, calculations need to account for the weakest formation
in either bore, possible kick from both bores and the different mud
weights in both bores. Kick detection relies on the existing warning
signs, pit gain and increased return flow.
8.3.3.1 Indications of a Kick from the Active Well

(containing the drillstring)
Indicators are:
• A drilling break.
• SICP greater than SIDPP, if the wellbore is not horizontal.
• SIDPP remains relatively steady while SICP increases due to influx
migration.
8.3.3.2 Indications of a Kick from the Static Well
Indicators are:
• SIDPP = SICP, providing the Active well is not horizontal.
• Both SIDPP and SICP increase due kick migration.
8.3.3.3 Kill Method
Either the “Wait and Weight” or “Driller’s Method” can be used

depending on specific well. It should be noted that if the kick is from
the static bore then the depth of kick should be taken from the
junction.
The maximum allowable annular surface pressure (MAASP) should

be calculated based on the weakest formation in all wellbores.
Possible influxes from all wellbores should be considered.
161
8.3.3.4 Calculation of MAASP for Active and Static Wellbores
For the Active wellbore (i.e. the bore containing the drillstring)
MAASP1 can be calculated by the following equation.
MAASP1 = LOT - [(MW1 - MWLOT) x 0.052 x TVD 1 weak point ]

➱ psi / ppg / ft
MAASP1 = LOT - [(MW1 - MW LOT) ÷ 102 x TVD1 weak point]

➱ kPa / kg/m 3 / m
MAASP1 = LOT - [(MW1 - MWLOT) ÷ 10.2 x TVD 1 weak point ]

➱ bar / kg/l / m
For the Static wellbore(s) (i.e. without drillstring) the possibility of

different mud weights between the static and active wellbores must
be considered. MAASP2 can be calculated using the following
equation.
MAASP2 = LOT - [(MW1 - MWLOT) x 0.052 x TVDcasing window] -

[MW2 x 0.052 x (TVD casing window - TVD2 weak point )]
➱ psi / ppg / ft
MAASP2 = LOT - [(MW1 - MWLOT) ÷ 102 x TVDcasing window] -

[MW2 ÷ 102 x (TVD casing window - TVD2 weak point )]
➱ kPa / kg/m3 / m
MAASP2 = LOT - [(MW1 - MW LOT) ÷ 10.2 x TVD casing window] -

[MW2 ÷ 10.2 x (TVD casing window - TVD2 weak point )]
➱ bar / kg/l / m
The final MAASP that should be used is the smaller of MAASP1 or

MAASP2.
Caution should be taken when re-entering the main wellbore after

completing the lateral, as by then the fluid may have been in the main
bore for a long time and its condition unknown. Any leak at the shoe
track creates the potential for hydrocarbons to be directly below the
junction. In this case an under balanced situation could occur when
running in the hole.
162
8.3.3.5 Multilateral Well Kill Procedures
Once the well has been shut-in upon detecting a kick, a decision must
be made regarding the most appropriate action to kill the well. As in a
conventional single wellbore well, an attempt should always be made
to use one of the standard kill techniques. This is particularly true
when the influx is taken from the active wellbore. A flow chart (see
figure 8.5.) has been prepared to help in determining the proper
course of action.
Well Kicks
NO Is kicking
Circulate bottoms up with
wellbore
original mud across choke
known?
YES
Determine kill mud weight

Is kick in
based on SIDPP and TVD at
active wellbore
NO junction of main and lateral
wellbores
YES
Circulate active wellbore Will kill mud

to kill mud weight
NO YES Recalculate highest kill
Use standard kill techniques weight exceed weak point mud weight which won't
(Multilateral kill sheet) fracture pressure fracture wellbore
New SIDPP and SICP
YES Are new SIDPP

Circulate active well
Trip string into static wellbore bore to kill mud
and SICP same?
(Multilateral kill sheet)
NO
Determine new kill mud

weight based on pore pressure Consider killing well
and TVD of kick information by bullheading
Circulate both wellbores

Kill complete
to second kill mud weight
Figure 8.5: Multilateral Well Kill Decision Tree
163
Contents
8.4 Deepwater 166
8.4.1 Deepwater Well Control Equipment 166

8.4.1.1 Control Systems and Accumulators 166
8.4.1.2 BOP Pressure Testing 166
8.4.1.3 BOP Stack and Riser 166
8.4.1.4 BOP Rams 167
8.4.2 Shallow Water Flows (SWF) 168
8.4.2.1 Causes of Shallow Water Flows 168
8.4.2.2 Combating Shallow Water Flows 168
8.4.3 Hydrates In Deepwater 169
8.4.3.1 Hydrate Prevention 170
8.4.3.2 External Hydrates in Wellhead Connector 172
8.4.3.3 Hydrate Removal 172
8.4.4 Temperature Effects on Mud Density
and Rheology 173
8.4.4.1 Density Effects 173
8.4.4.2 Rheology Effects 174
8.4.5 Riser Margin 175
8.4.6 MAASP in Deepwater 176
8.4.7 Deepwater Well Control Theory and Procedures 178
8.4.7.1 Kick Prevention 178
8.4.7.2 Kick Detection 179
8.4.7.3 Circulating Schedule for Kill
and Choke Lines 180
8.4.7.4 Shut-In Procedures 180
8.4.7.5 Kill Procedures
(includes Instrumented BOP) 180
8.4.8 Handling Gas in the Riser 186
8.4.8.1 Volumes And Flow Rates 187
8.4.8.2 Equipment for Handling Gas in
the Riser 188
8.4.8.3 Procedures For Handling Gas
in the Riser 190
8.4.8.4 Riser Collapse 190
164
8.4.9 Emergency Disconnect Procedures

and Contingencies (DP RIGS) 192
8.4.9.1 During Drilling or Tripping Operations 192
8.4.9.2 During a Well Control Situation 193
8.4.9.3 With BHAAcross BOP 193
8.4.9.4 With Casing Across BOP 194
8.4.9.5 Testing Operations 194
165
8.4 DEEPWATER
Wells drilled in deepwater use the same basic well control principles
that are used on more standard wells. However, some situations
which are considered “special” on standard wells may be encoun-
tered routinely on deepwater wells and these are highlighted in this
chapter.
8.4.1 Deepwater Well Control Equipment

8.4.1.1 Control Systems and Accumulators
The working pressure for control systems in deepwater are often

5,000 psi (34,500 kPa, 345 bar) for water depths greater than 5,000
ft (1500 m).
Due to the necessity to pre-charge subsea bottles at the surface,

working pressure of the bottles can be quite high. Accumulators
charged to 5,000 psi (34,500 kPa, 345 bar) differential on the sea
floor must be vented before retrieving the BOP stack to the surface.
8.4.1.2 BOP Pressure Testing
In deepwater, consideration must be given to the effect that mud

weight has upon BOP pressure ratings when testing.
The differential pressure between the mud column and seawater

gradient must be considered when pressure testing the BOP’s.
For example, a well in 8,000 ft (2,400 m) of water with 15 ppg

(1800 kg/m3, 1.8 kg/l) mud has a differential pressure across the
BOP’s of 2,700 psi (18,600 kPa, 186 bar). For a BOP rated to 15,000
psi (103,400 kPa, 1034 bar), the maximum surface test pressure for
these conditions would be 12,300 psi (85,000 kPa, 850 bar).
8.4.1.3 BOP Stack And Riser
It is recommended to have pressure monitors placed on the BOP

stack while operating in deepwater, as follows:
166
• A low-pressure monitor (rated to the maximum anticipated hydro-

static mud weight) may be placed above the uppermost annular
preventer. This monitor will give an indication of cuttings build up in
the riser and, upon shutting-in the well, will indicate if gas is rising
in the riser annulus.
• A high-pressure monitor (rated to the BOP stack working pressure)
may be placed in the choke/kill line to monitor pressure below the
lowermost rams.
• It is preferable to have an instrumented BOP stack with direct read-
ings of pressure and temperature. These gauges provide a more
accurate indication of the conditions at the BOP stack and remove
uncertainties that arise from estimating pressure drops from a fluid
at low temperature and high pressure.
Note: Special consideration must be given to well activities which

result in a negative pressure differential on the BOP stack (ie. when
external seawater hydrostatic pressure is greater than internal BOP
pressure). Negative differential pressures of as low as 500 psi can
result in BOP damage and subsequent leaks. Check your BOP rating
for such circumstances.
If a large negative pressure differential is suspected to have occured,
then the integrity of the BOP should be confirmed prior to continuing
operations.
8.4.1.4 BOP Rams
In deepwater wells, ECD’s, ESD’s and hole (or riser) cleaning can
become critical with the resulting use of tapered drillstrings. When
such strings are used the following should be noted:
• The number and size of pipe rams required will be determined by
the drillstring geometry.
• The BOP stack will be equipped with ram configurations that allow
for 2 sets of rams capable of closing on the pipe that is across the
BOP while drilling and 1 set for the other size of pipe.
• Caution needs to be taken when using variable bore rams (VBR)
since, for some of the smaller ranges of pipe, the amount of weight
that can be hung off on them is limited. For DP operations it’s
important that the rams are capable of supporting the weight of the
drillstring should the rig need to disconnect.
167
VBR HANGOFF CAPACITY (POUNDS)

BOP Size Description Pipe Pipe Pipe
5” 31/2” 27/8”
11” 15M 5” to 27/8” 450,000 150,000 40,000
163/4” 10M 5” to 27/8” 450,000 294,000 70,000
183/4” 15M 5” to 31/2” 450,000 140,000
Figure 8.6: Typical VBR hang-off capacities
The hang-off capacity of the rams being used must be known - refer
to the manufacturers recommendations.
8.4.2 Shallow Water Flows (SWF)

8.4.2.1 Causes of Shallow Water Flows
Shallow Water Flows (SWF), or the flow of water and entrained sand
from sub-seafloor strata past the drill bit or surface casing, is a
phenomenon typically found in deepwater drilling.
Shallow water flows are due to rapid sedimentation in river delta

areas overlain by shale which prevents any water and gas from
within the sands escaping during compaction caused by further, rapid
sedimentation. These sand deposits grow in thickness at a rate of 500
-7,000 feet (150-2100 m) per million years, creating shallow pressure
zones near the surface.
8.4.2.2 Combating Shallow Water Flows
Weighted Fluids
The most common method of drilling these intervals requires the use
of weighted fluids and the following should be noted:
• This can be expensive since these sections are drilled riserless and
the fluid is not recovered.
• Remote Operated Vehicles (ROVs) should be deployed to observe
the seabed when drilling in areas where SWFs may occur to enable
the detection of flow as soon as possible.
168
• The most common WBM used to drill the intermediate intervals of

deepwater wells is a sodium chloride-based system. The salt con-
centration is normally maintained at levels of 20% or greater. These
levels yield some degree of shale inhibition and gas hydrate control.
Chemical Alternatives
• Polymers or resins may provide a means of sealing off the SWF

zone and adding strength to the sediments.
Once the SWF zone has been drilled and the casing run and landed,
the well needs to be cemented in order to isolate the problem forma-
tion(s). Successful cement jobs have been achieved using foamed
cement, which continues to transmit original hydrostatic pressure
throughout the thickening process, unlike conventional cement
slurries, which undergo a reduction of hydrostatic pressure while
setting, which in turn may allow the well to start flowing.
8.4.3 Hydrates In Deepwater

Figure 8.7 below shows the average water temperatures versus water
depth for various parts of the world. This graph shows that the
conditions for hydrate formation almost always exist in wells drilled in
more than 820ft (250m) of water.
Water Temperature, deg. C
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0 x
x
x
x
200 x
West Africa
400 x Malaysia
Water Depth, m
Brazil
x Gulf of Mexico
600 x
800 x
Potential hydrate No hydrate

formation formation
1000 x
Figure 8.7: Regional Water Temperature vs Depth
169
8.4.3.1 Hydrate Prevention
Hydrate formation while circulating is less likely due to the heat

brought up from the wellbore.
Any delay in circulating out gas will allow the mud throughout the well
to cool, thereby increasing the potential for hydrate formation. This
factor favours the use of the Driller’s method for well kill.
Prior to drilling each section a decision should be made as to which

of the following kill methods will be used:
1. Have available a sufficient volume (hole volume but not riser
volume) of reserve kill mud, pre-mixed to a selected density. With
kill weight mud already prepared there would be no delay in start-
ing the kill process, so a ‘No-Wait and Weight’ Method could be
used. Unless other factors are known, the kill mud density should
be 1 ppg (120 kg/m3, 0.12 kg/l) over current mud weight. The mud
weight can be reduced quickly by dilution if necessary and permit
the kill procedure to begin with a minimum of delay.
2. Kill the well using the Driller’s Method, i.e. can start circulating
immediately.
3. Use the conventional Wait and Weight Method. (Note. well cool-
ing rate.)
Fill the kill line with hydrate inhibitor and inject into well during the kill
operation.
To calculate the proper amount of hydrate inhibitor to be used while

circulating, the following procedure should be followed:
1. From figure 8.8, calculate the degrees of hydrate suppression
required (DHSR). The DHSR is the difference between the actual
seabed temperature (TSB) and the hydrate formation temperature
(TH) at the seabed. DHSR = TH - TSB.
For example, for a well being drilled in 2000 ft (600 m) of water in
the Gulf of Mexico (see figure 8.8 for data):
- TH = 16°C, taken from the curve at the right side of the
“Potential for Hydrate formation” zone at 2000 ft/600 m.
- TSB = 6°C, taken from the water temperature curve for at 2000
ft/600 m depth.
- So DHSR = 16°C - 6°C = 10°C.
170
2. Look up the concentration of inhibitor necessary to provide the

proper level of hydrate suppression (see figure 8.8) for the amount
of hydrated suppression that is provided by different concentra-
tions of common chemicals.
Mixtures of inhibitors can be more effective than using single
components, but have not been tabulated here.
Simulators are available to make these calculations. So, for the
example, the following would be acceptable:
- 17 Wt% NaCl, or
- 23 Wt% CaCl, or
- 26 Vol% Methanol, or
- 26 Vol % Ethylene Glycol
Note: These are the inhibitor concentrations for the fluid that is return-
ing up the choke line, which will be a blend of the inhibitor and the
drilling fluid. Circulation rates of the drilling fluid and the inhibitor must
be balanced so that the proper concentration is maintained in the
choke line.
Hydrate Suppression Provided by Common Chemicals

(in Degrees C)
25
20
Hydrate Suppression (Degrees C)
x
x
x
15 x
x
x
x
x
x
10 x
x
x
x
x
x x NaCI
x
5 x CaCI
x
x KCI
x
xx Methanol
xx E Glycol
0 xx
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Weight % for Salts

Volume % for Methanol and Ethylene Glycol
Figure 8.8: Hydrate Supression Provided by Common Chemicals

(in Degrees C)
171
8.4.3.2 External Hydrates in Wellhead Connector
In areas where gas may percolate up from outside the conductor,

hydrates can build up within the wellhead and riser connector
cavities.
Once hydrates have formed inside the wellhead connector cavities,

cycling the unlock and lock function repetitively will exacerbate the
problem by compacting the solid slug and allowing new hydrate to
form.
To prevent hydrates from collecting in the wellhead connector, one or

more additional hydrate seals should be added to the connectors.
New connectors can be built with flush ports built into the connector
to circulate seawater, glycol or methanol through the connector inter-
nal cavities. (Note: Methanol is preferred; glycol is effective to -6°C).
Also available is a “gas mat” that seals around the conductor casing
to divert any leaking gas away from the connector.
8.4.3.3 Hydrate Removal
Several methods may be used to remove hydrates once they have

formed:
1. One method is to pump a chemical mixture of HCL down one
string and caustic down another string. Allowing them to mix at the
bottom and generate heat. This solution involves pumping two
chemicals that are dangerous to handle. These chemicals are
also very corrosive and can damage equipment if not properly
inhibited.
2. A similar approach is a chemical system in which sodium nitrite
mixes and reacts with an ammonium salt. The reaction yields a lot
of heat and the final products are nitrogen gas and sodium
chloride, both of which are environmentally friendly. This process
is called “SGN”.
3. The most commonly used hydrate inhibitors for deepwater wells
are methanol and glycol. On a weight basis, methanol provides
the greatest inhibition. However, methanol is generally more toxic
172
than glycol, has a lower vapor pressure and flash point tempera-
ture and because of these properties requires special provisions
for its storage. Care must also be taken when using brines as
alcohols, such as methanol and ethylene glycol, lower the solubil-
ity of most inorganic salts in water.
6
5 x
Vol. of Methanol/Vol. of Brine
Salt will Precipitate

3 x
2
x
1 x
Salt will stay in Solution x
x x
0
15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Figure 8.9: Salt solubility with methanol mix
8.4.4 Temperature Effects on Mud Density

and Rheology
In deep, cold water the temperature profile along the well path
decreases from surface to the sea floor and can fall as low as the
normal freezing point of water.
The reduced temperature has a marked effect on the circulating

temperature for the whole well and will affect both the density and
viscosity of the mud.
8.4.4.1 Density Effects
The cooler mud in a deepwater well will be more dense than in wells
in shallow or moderate water depths. Figure 8.10 illustrates the effect
of temperature on the density of mud:
• Mud density increases with increasing pressure and decreases with
increased temperature.
• As pressure and temperature both increase with depth (below the
mud line), mud density may increase or decrease with depth,
173
depending on the relative contribution of the pressure and

temperature effect.
• In WBM the pressure effect is very small. In the example shown
(figure 8.10) it can be seen that the nominal 14.5 ppg varies from
14.35 ppg to 14.65 ppg as the temperature changes along the flow
path indicating that the temperature effect is predominating.
In low temperature wells drilled with OBM the pressure effect may
predominate.
14.7 250
Temperature (deg F)
Casing shoe
Mud density (ppg)
200
Seafloor
14.6
150
14.5
100
14.4 50
14.3 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Depth (ft)
Figure 8.10: Temperature effect on mud density
8.4.4.2 Rheology Effects
The cooler mud in a deepwater well will be more viscous than in wells
in shallow or moderate water depths.
Figure 8.11 illustrates the effect of temperature on the viscosity of mud.

70 50
60
Casing shoe
40
YP (lbf/100 ft2)
50
PV (cP)
40 30
Seafloor
30
20
20
10
10
0 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Depth (ft)
Figure 8.11: Temperature effect on mud viscosity
174
The cumulative effects of temperature on density and rheology can

lead to errors in determining several key parameters:
• Leak Off Test (LOT) recording.
• Slow Circulating Rate (SCR) pressures.
• Choke Line Friction Loss (CLFL) pressures.
• Shut-in Pressures.
The above information demonstrates the importance of circulating

through the choke line prior to beginning a well kill operation.
8.4.5 Riser Margin
Water Line
1000 ft MW with Riser

(305 m) Margin = 12.6 ppg (1.51 kg/l)
2000 ft MW with Riser

(610 m) Margin = 13.4 ppg (1.61 kg/l)
MW with
3000 ft Riser
(914 m) Margin =
14.6 ppg
(1.75 kg/l)
TD = 7000 ft (2133 m)
Formation Pore
Pressure = 12 ppg (1.44 kg/l)
Figure 8.12: Riser Margin
Riser margin is the increment of mud weight that is added to the mud
weight required to drill the well, in order to compensate for the
removal of the riser (and the effect of the mud column contained
within it) and so provide sufficient hydrostatic pressure to maintain
primary control of the well from the mud line to TD.
175
Riser margin is calculated as follows:
MW2 = (MW1 x TVD - L2 x SW) ÷ (TVD - (L1 + L2))
where,
MW2 = MW with Riser Margin (ppg, kPa, kg/l)
L1 = Air gap (ft, m)
MW1 = Mud weight (ppg, kPa, kg/l)
SW = Density of seawater (ppg, kPa, kg/l)
L2 = Water depth (ft, m)
TVD = True vertical depth from flowline (ft, m)
• When the riser is disconnected the hydrostatic pressure of sea-

water replaces the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column from the
rig to the wellhead.
• As water depth increases so does the riser margin mud weight. See
figure 8.12 as an example.
• As we drill in increasingly deeper water, sometimes it may not
be practical to carry a riser margin as it becomes too large to
effectively drill a well. In such a case, the BOP’s will be closed to
maintain bottom hole pressure if the riser is removed.
8.4.6 MAASP in Deepwater

CLFL in deepwater complicates a well kill operation.
In the following example, assume gas is swabbed into a well.
176
Figure 8.13: Example to show MAASP in deepwater
• Assume the SCRP pressure is 500 psi (3450 kPa, 34.5 bar) and
that the choke is opened enough to compensate for the CLFL so
that the bottom hole pressure is held constant at the original
pressure of 5,000 psi (34500 kPa, 345 bar).
• The well is then circulated until the influx just reaches the choke
line.
• Now assume the gas bubble enters the choke line:
- With a water depth of 3280 ft (1000 m) and a mud weight of 10ppg
(1200 kg/m3, 1.2 kg/l) the casing pressure would need to increase
by 1705 psi (11760 kPa, 117.6 bar) just to offset the loss of hydro-
static pressure to maintain a constant BHP of 5000 psi (34500
kPa, 345 bar).
Pressure = SICP + (0.052 x 3280ft x 10ppg)

= 50 + 1705 = 1755 psi.
SICP + (9.81 x 1000 m x 1200 kg/m3)
= 345 + 11755 = 12100 kPa
177
SICP + (1000 m x 1.2 kg/l) ÷ 10.2

= 3.5 + 117.5 = 121 bar
- If we assume that the CLFL can also drop significantly, since gas
can flow with much less friction, then the pressure could increase
another 200 psi (1380 kPa, 13.8 bar) to 1955 psi (13480 kPa,
134.8 bar).
• As the gas clears the choke line and is replaced with mud, the
casing pressure should be adjusted back down to zero.
• If the well is being killed with a high SCR, these pressure fluctua-
tions could occur very quickly and the choke operator needs to be
very skilled to maintain the proper pressures.
This example demonstrates the increased magnitude of pressure

fluctuations that may occur during well control operations in deep-
water. Therefore, influxes need to be circulated out at slow rates to
simplify well control operations in deepwater.
8.4.7 Deepwater Well Control Theory and Procedures

As water depth increases there is a reduction in the difference
between the mud weight required to balance the formation pore pres-
sure and the weight causing formation fracture. As a result, wells
drilled in deepwater tend to have much lower kick tolerances than
wells in shallower water. This fact, in addition to the problems that can
occur if gas enters the riser, makes it very important to prevent kicks
and, should one occur, detect and control it at an early stage.
Another problem that occurs with increasing water depth is the impact
of increased annular fluid density (riser cuttings) in creating higher
than assumed hydrostatic pressures. Higher pressures can lead to
fracturing of low strength casing shoes (or weak zone) which can lead
to a kick. Boosting the riser becomes more important with increased
water depths.
8.4.7.1 Kick Prevention
The standard kick prevention methods apply in deepwater as in

shallow water (refer to Chapter 4). However, due to the narrow
margin between pore pressure and formation fracture pressure, the
178
overbalance safety margin will be minimal.
Therefore, special care must be exercised during trips to prevent

swabbing and surging.
8.4.7.2 Kick Detection
Surface Detection
The same warning signs, pit gain and increased return flow, apply in
deepwater wells.
Prior to drilling each section the required kick detection sensitivity and
primary detection method to be used for that section should be deter-
mined.
• The kick detection sensitivity will usually be based on the calculat-
ed kick tolerance i.e. the detection sensitivity will be less than the
kick tolerance (allowing for shut-in time).
• The detection method will depend on the drilling fluid type, hole
geometry, rig equipment, etc. For example, in a horizontal well pit
gain would be the primary method of kick detection, while flow
checks would be used for vertical wells.
Modern kick detection systems using computers and a variety of

sensors are also available.
• One such example is acoustic kick detection. Acoustic kick
detection is a method of identifying gas influxes based on the
phenomenon that gas effects the propagation of pressure waves
within the mud circulation system.
Downhole Detection
Downhole influx detection can provide data that cannot be collected

with surface equipment and should significantly shorten warning
times. In general downhole sensors should be near the bit but there
is no guarantee that the influx will not occur up the hole above the
sensors.
Because many kicks occur on trips, MWD sensors may be of no use

unless tripping practices are modified.
179
8.4.7.3 Circulating Schedule For Kill and Choke Lines
If glycol or base oil (when using OBM) is inside the choke and kill lines
while drilling with weighted mud, they should be circulated to the
same mud as the drilling mud in the hole prior to starting the kill
operation.
If the choke and kill lines are filled with drilling mud, they are to be
circulated every tour to prevent settling that can plug the choke and
kill lines.
8.4.7.4 Shut-In Procedures
Standard shut-in procedures also apply to deepwater with some

additional requirements.
• Pumps may be stopped first to prevent pumping influx higher up the
hole and possibly into the riser.
• The riser will be monitored for flow.
• If gas is detected in the riser, the decision may be taken not to
hang-off the drillpipe on a set of rams but, with the annular
preventer closed, continue to suspend the pipe with the Drillstring
Compensator (DSC) unpinned and overpressured.
• This will eliminate any relative motion between the rig and the
drillpipe that could create a leak between the diverter element and
the drillpipe.
• After the riser is cleared of gas, the pipe should then be hung off.
8.4.7.5 Kill Procedures (includes Instrumented BOP)
Before beginning each phase of drilling operations, the well geome-

try, kick tolerance and the potential for hydrate formation need to be
carefully reviewed to determine which kill procedure should be used
(Driller’s, No Wait and Weight, or Wait and Weight).
• If removing the influx ASAP is the preferred option, the Driller’s
Method can be used for wells where the drillpipe volume is greater
than the open hole volume, since the maximum pressure at shoe
will be the same as for the Wait and Weight Method.
180
• Prior to starting the kill procedure and if the BOPstack arrangement

permits, the kill and choke lines should be circulated in order to
break the mud gels.
• A single line kill should be used in most instances (especially for
instrumented stacks) with the circulation rate slowed at the end of
the kill.
• Two line kills, using the uppermost outlets on both the choke and
kill sides, may be used in cases where the kill speed using a single
line would be too slow.
• The beginning kill rate selected should be chosen so that the CLFL
is less than the shut-in casing pressure (SICP). Prior to the start of
the kill procedure the relative magnitudes of the pressures involved
need to be determined and if the CLFLis not less than the SICP the
actions described below should be taken.
SIDPP and SICP > MAASP
Under these circumstances, attempting to circulate out an influx will

probably fracture the formation and may result in an underground
blowout. The following may indicate that an underground blowout has
occurred:
• A sudden break in surface pressures during the initial build up to
equilibrium.
• Rapid fluctuations in casing pressure.
• Drillstring is on vacuum.
SICP < CLFL
• If it is not possible to reduce the SCR to a value where associated

CLFL is less than the SICP, then the casing shoe must be able to
withstand the overpressure amount of CLFL - SICP.
SIDPP < CLFL
• The CLFL will be sufficient to keep the well in overbalance. When

most of the influx is circulated out the choke will be opened
completely and the pump pressure will start to increase from its
measured SCR pressure.
181
Pre-recorded information Shut in well with annular

1. SCR's (several rates) Record pit gain
SIDPP
2. Open hole volume greater
SICP
than drillpipe volume
Monitor riser for flow
3. Potential for hydrates
NO Riser YES Divert riser

Continue monitoring
Hang off string flowing
Calculate YES Positive NO

Use OMW
KMW SIDPP
DP volume > Open hole

YES Drillers method
or potential hydrates recommended
NO
If riser flow starts, Select SCRmax
Wait and Weight method riser may be circulated based on
should be used through MGS while CLFL < SICP
weighing up mud
Single line kill
preferred but may
require 2 line kill
Calc. new static MAASP
based on kill mud weight
Determine SCRmin or YES Does CLFL at SCRmax NO

Kill at SCRmax
CLFL = MAASPnew exceed new MAASP
at end of kill
Is YES
SCRmin speed Kill at SCRmin
acceptable
Kill at SCRmax with
NO pump speed reduction to
SCRmin at end of KILL
Figure 8.14: Decision tree for deepwater kill
182
Beginning Kill - Bringing Pump Up to Kill Speed
On BOP stacks equipped with pressure sensors, the pressure sensor

should be used to maintain a constant pressure at the BOP stack
while bringing the pump to kill speed.
This will remove the inherent uncertainty that exists if the CLFL
pressure schedule as described in 4.3.3.
Finishing Kill (Accounting for Choke Line Friction)
Since the kill mud’s density is selected to just balance the formation
pressure while static, at the end of the kill process the CLFL caused
by circulation acts to overbalance the well.
There will come a time when the kill mud reaches sufficient height in
the annulus such that the hydrostatic pressure added to the CLFL
pressure will balance the formation pressure and the choke will be in
the fully open position.
• As the mud rises the hydrostatic pressure will continue to increase.
• If the rate is kept constant and heavier kill mud is being pumped,
the friction pressure will also increase.
Figure 8.15 below demonstrates this effect. The first diagram shows
the effect on a well in shallow water. The second diagram shows that
the effects can be greater in deepwater.
183
Drill Pipe Schedule for Shallow/Moderate Water Depth Well

Overbalance due to CLFL minor
KMW
ICP
Overbalance = CLFL ( OMW )
FCP held constant by
choke adjustments
Circulation
Kill mud to bit -
Pressure
SIDPP Not a straight line
Choke wide open
if deviated well
Drill Pipe Schedule for Deep Water Depth Well

Overbalance due to CLFL significant
KMW
ICP
Overbalance = CLFL ( OMW )
FCP held constant by
choke adjustments
Circulation
Kill mud to bit -
Pressure
SIDPP Not a straight line
Choke wide open
if deviated well
Pump Strokes
Figure 8.15: Comparison of drillpipe pressure schedules
Two options exist to eliminate exposing the formation to the over-

pressure at the end of the circulation.
Option 1. If kill mud has been circulated up to the BOP stack, then
the following may be considered. At the point the choke is fully
opened, close the lowermost ram below the choke outlet to isolate the
open hole. Circulate kill mud down the kill line and up the choke line
at any rate and then proceed with clearing any gas trapped below the
stack.
Option 2. At the point the choke is fully opened, the pump pressure
will continue to rise. If the well is being killed at a rate where the
CLFL > New MAASP, the casing shoe fracture pressure will
eventually be exceeded.
184
FCPadm = SCRP X (KMW/OMW) + New MAASP
Where FCPadm = Maximum admissible FCP
• To eliminate this problem the pump rate can be reduced.

- After the pump pressure has risen to near the FCPadm, (i.e. to
within about 25 psi) the pump rate should be reduced until
whichever occurs first; the pump output pressure drops to the
original FCP value, or the rate is reduced to SCRmin (see figure
8.16).
FCPadm exceeded unless circ. slowed

FCPadm @ SCR 2
FCPadm @ SCR 3
Pressure
FCP @ SCR 1
Slow pump to SCRmin

until pressure drops to FCP @ SCR 1
Annulus pressure = 0
Choke wide open
Time
Figure 8.16: Pressure approaches FCPadm
• When the rate is reduced to SCRmin no other adjustments should

be required to finish killing the well.
• If the pressure drops to FCP @ SCR 1 with a rate still exceeding
SCRmin, the process will need to be repeated until the rate is
reduced to SCRmin.
• The circulating pressure should be kept as close as practical,
slightly above FCP until the rate is reduced to SCRmin.
• This situation will occur before kill mud reaches surface and care
must be taken to ensure the kill mud circulation is completed.
185
For situations where meaningful drillpipe pressure is not available, the

Dynamic Volumetric Method can be used (refer to 6.4). This may be
required when one of the following occurs:
• Drill bit is plugged.
• Drillstring has failed allowing communication between drillstring and
annulus.
• Drillstring is off-bottom, causing drillpipe and casing pressures to
read the same until the kick has migrated above the bit.
• Drillstring is out of the hole entirely.
8.4.8 Handling Gas in the Riser

When a kick is taken while drilling with a marine riser (particularly in
deepwater) there is a possibility that the gas will have migrated or
been circulated above the BOP stack before the well is shut-in. If this
occurs, the choke manifold and MGS may no longer be available to
control the flow rates when the riser gas reaches surface.
Special precautions and procedures are necessary to avoid the

effects of the rapid expansion of this gas:
• An early flow check in the riser, immediately after shutting in the
well, may indicate that bubbles are still rising and dissipating.
• The source of this flow may be due to a leak at the BOP’s or gas
expanding in the riser. Confirm that it is not the BOP’s.
• Once all the small gas bubbles have become suspended in WBM,
or dissolved in OBM a flow check in the riser will be negative.
- This should not be assumed to indicate that there is no gas in the
riser. Factors such as bubble fragmentation and suspension,
which have little effect in a shallow water situation, begin to have
a significant effect as the water depth increases.
- Under certain conditions, the gas bubbles stop migrating. The gas
is then held static by the yield stress of the mud, and must be
circulated out of the riser.
- Two factors that become significant in deepwater wells are gas
bubble geometry and fluid rheology.
- Large bubbles can rise quickly through the mud [up to 110 ft
(33 m)/min] but they tend to break up and shed a trail of small
bubbles as they rise. Small bubbles rise much more slowly and
continue to leave a bubble trail until they are small enough to
be held in suspension in the drilling fluid.
186
- The amount of gas left in the bubble trail can vary from 0.5% to
5% by volume of mud, depending on the yield point of the mud.
- For commonly used drilling fluids, it is typically between 1% and
2% but will be more if the fluid has high or progressive gelling
properties.
- This is a significant volume of gas that is within the accuracy of
a well calibrated pit volume totalizer (PVT) system.
- There is approximately 4 times the mass of gas in a 15-bbls
(2.4 m3, 2400 l) influx in 6000 ft (1800 m) of water as there is in
a 15-bbls (2.4 m 3, 2400 l) influx in 1500 ft (450 m) of water.
• Hardware is available to handle gas at the surface by allowing
backpressure to be held on the riser.
- There is a possibility of creating a pressure inversion, where
bottom hole pressure is brought to surface, if the gas migrates
and is not allowed to expand while the annular element is closed
at the surface.
- Risers are usually not designed to handle this pressure, so could
burst.
• Early kick detection is key to shutting in the well before the gas
enters the riser. The use of advanced kick detection equipment is
suggested. If possible, an additional sensor that can detect free gas
in the annulus at or near the BOP stack should be installed.
8.4.8.1 Volumes And Flow Rates
Large amounts of gas above the BOPstack can rise rapidly and carry
a large volume of mud out of the riser at high rates.
The key to managing gas in a riser is to avoid situations where large

volumes of gas have gotten above the BOP stack. If the volume of
gas above the BOP stack is kept small by detection equipment and
shut-in, then the gas can be safely handled at surface by allowing the
gas bubbles to disperse and then controlling the rate that the mud is
brought to surface.
• When the gas in the riser has been allowed to migrate and disperse
to its maximum extent, the gas and liquid flow rates seen at the
surface during circulation are minimized.
• Even if the gas reaches the surface without being circulated, the
rates are minimized if the gas has been allowed to disperse.
187
• By circulating in stages, the expansion or dissolution of the gas can

be controlled. There may be some mud loss through the overboard
line with this approach, but with patience and control, all surface
equipment will remain effective. Assuming that the speed of a
bubble travelling upwards is 6000 ft/hr (1830 m/hr), at least 10
minutes migration time should be allowed for every 1000 ft (300 m)
of riser.
• This allows the gas to disperse as much as possible, minimizing the
gas and liquid rates seen at the surface.
• The use of a second PVT system on the riser should be considered
while circulating the riser. This provides a better indication of an
approaching large gas bubble and its associated liquid slug.
• However, if large volumes of gas have entered the riser, it will flow
rapidly on its own and there will be no way to control it by adjusting
the circulation rate. Then, the surface gas and liquid rates become
very high, especially as the gas bubble reaches surface and the
flow must be diverted overboard.
8.4.8.2 Equipment for Handling Gas in the Riser
The diverter system above the telescopic joint with two (2) overboard
lines and a system to remove gas from large volumes of mud and
return it to the mud system (such as a mud box on the overboard line)
is preferred.
The diverter and overboard lines should be designed to handle high

flow rates and be as straight as possible.
This system is not designed to choke or control high gas or liquid flow.
Rather, it is a system to keep combustible gases safely away from
sources of ignition and to remove gas from the mud.
At any time, if there is a rapid expansion of gas in the riser, the

diverter will be closed (if not already) and the flow will be diverted
overboard.
This is true for water based mud as well as for oil based mud. An
alternate system using the MGS to remove gas from the mud is
shown below.
188
Either the mud from the riser or from the well can be circulated
through the MGS to remove the residual gas (but only one at a time).
Automatic valve switching is suggested such that the closing of the
12” valve and the opening and the 6” valve are co-ordinated.
An override switch should be available that will allow the manual

opening of the 12” valve if the need arises.
Also, automatic opening of the 12” valve should be tied to the

separator pressure so that the separator rating is not exceeded or an
automatic pressure relief bypass should be included.
A small volume circulating system should be isolated so that a volume

totalizer can be used while circulating and monitoring the riser. This
could be the trip tank if available.
Figure 8.17: Using Existing MGS to Clean Gas from the Mud
189
8.4.8.3 Procedures for Handling Gas in the Riser
These procedures are to be conducted along with the shut-in

procedures for Subsea BOP’s as described in Chapter 5.
• Limit the volume of gas that may be taken above the BOP stack
(early detection).
• If an influx is suspected, shut off the mud pumps. This will help
avoid circulating the gas above the BOP stack.
• Shut-in the well as quickly as possible.
• Conduct a riser flow check. If the riser is flowing, divert the flow
overboard. If so equipped, the flow can be diverted through a gas
handling system or MGS.
• If the riser is not flowing or has stopped flowing, continue to
monitor it for flow. Do not leave it unattended.
• If so equipped and if the MGS is not being used for the primary well
control operations, the riser fluid may be circulated through the
MGS at slow rates to remove the gas from the fluid.
• Circulate the riser at slow rates. Stop circulation and conduct a riser
flow check after every 100 bbls (16 m3) pumped or equivalent
volume to +/- 250 ft (75 m) of riser.
• If gas is seen at surface, stop pumping and watch for flow. Allow the
flow to deplete before continuing.
• If the flow rate increases, be prepared to open up the diverter line
to send the mud overboard.
• Continue to circulate in stages at slow rate until the complete riser
volume has been circulated.
After killing the well and removing any gas trapped in the BOP stack,
as described in Chapter 6, there is still the possibility that some gas
trapped under the BOP stack may be released into the riser after
opening the BOP. If this occurs, then the above procedures should be
repeated.
8.4.8.4 Riser Collapse
In deepwater the potential for riser collapse exists if the level of drilling
fluid in the riser drops due to gas unloading the riser, drive-off, loss of
circulation or accidental line disconnection.
190
Assuming the worst case to be during an emergency or accidental

line disconnection, the pressure at the bottom of the riser would equal
the seawater hydrostatic.
The fluid level in the riser would fall until this equilibrium is reached.
This is shown in the figure 8.18 below.
Riser Collapse Pressure Resulting

from an Emergency Disconnect
Sea Level
Maximum Collapse Pressure

Final
Mud
Height
Sea Water Gradient
on Outside of Riser
Depth
Mud Gradient
on Inside of Riser
Mud Level
Pressure
Figure 8.18: Riser Collapse Pressure Resulting

from an Emergency Disconnect
The maximum collapse pressure that the riser would be subjected

to resulting from an emergency disconnect can be found by the
following equation:
CP = SW x 0.052 x Dw x (1 - SW) ➱ psi / ppg / ft

MW
CP = SW ÷ 102 x Dw x (1 - SW) ➱ kPa / kg/m3 / m
MW
CP = SW ÷ 10.2 x Dw x (1 - SW) ➱ bar / kg/l / m
MW
191
Where:
CP = Collapse Pressure (psi, kPa, bar)

Dw = Depth of water (ft, m)
MW = Mud weight (ppg, kg/m3, kg/l)
SW = Density of seawater (ppg, kg/m3, kg/l)
A riser fill-up valve should be used if the collapse pressure could

exceed the collapse pressure rating of the riser.
8.4.9 Emergency Disconnect Procedures and

Contingencies (DP RIGS)
Each rig shall have an emergency disconnect procedure specific to
the rig.
Emergency disconnect procedures shall be posted in the Driller’s

house for each of the following situations.
The procedures shown below are intended only as a general

example. Actual rig emergency disconnect procedures may vary.
8.4.9.1 During Drilling or Tripping Operations
If DP alert sounds while drilling.
YELLOW 2.5% of water depth
• Pick up off bottom to 5 ft (1.5 m) above hang-off position (depend-

ent on heave).
• Shut down mud pumps.
• Hang-off on middle pipe rams.
• Adjust DSC to mid-stroke and bleed pressure down to string weight
above the pipe rams plus 10,000 lbs. so that drillpipe will clear the
lower stack upon disconnecting.
• Inform DPO and prepare for emergency disconnect.
192
RED 4.0% of water depth
• Confirm with DPO that you have a red light.

• If DPO confirms, or fails to reply immediately then shear pipe and
function emergency disconnect.
• Only if Captain or OIM instructs not to disconnect, then stand by the
Driller’s panel and wait for further instructions from DPO.
8.4.9.2 During A Well Control Situation
If DP alert sounds during well control situation.
• Shut down mud pumps.

• Close all fail-safe valves on BOP.
• Confirm with DPO that you have a red light.

• If DPO confirms yes, or fails to reply immediately then function
emergency disconnect.
• Only if Captain or OIM instructs not to disconnect, then stand by the
8.4.9.3 With BHA Across BOP
If DP alert sounds with BHA across BOP.
• Close an annular preventer.

• Slack off on the blocks to lose as much string weight as annular will
support.
• Unlatch elevators. If string weight still exists, unlatch elevators with
a tugger using slow and even pull on the latch.
• Open the annular preventer to drop the string.
193
• Confirm DPO that you have a red light.

• If DPO confirms yes, or fails to reply immediately then function
emergency disconnect.
• Only if Captain or OIM instructs not to disconnect, then standby the
8.4.9.4 With Casing Across BOP
• If DP alert sounds with casing across BOP stack equipped with

rams capable of shearing the casing, follow procedures as
described for drillpipe.
• If casing cannot be sheared follow procedures same as drill collars
across BOP’s.
8.4.9.5 Testing Operations
If DP alert sounds while well is flowing.
YELLOW 2.5% of water depth.
• Close SSTT ball valve at control panel.

• Disconnect SSTT.
• Pick up inside LMRP (close DSC).
• “U” tube drillstring contents using riser hydrostatic.
• Close SSTT ball valve at control panel.

• Disconnect SSTT.
• Pick up inside LMRP (close DSC).
• Activate the emergency disconnect.
194
Contents
8.5 HP/HT 196
8.5.1 Planning 196

8.5.2 Preparation 197
8.5.3 Operating Procedures 197
8.5.3.1 Mud Weight Measurement 198
8.5.3.2 Kick Prevention 198
8.5.3.3 Kick Detection 199
8.5.3.4 Solubility of Gas in OBM 199
8.5.3.5 Kill Procedures 200
8.5.4 Equipment 200
8.5.4.1 Auxiliary Equipment 200
8.5.4.2 BOP Stacks 202
8.5.5 Materials 202
8.5.6 HP/HT Tripping Procedures 203
195
8.5 HP/HT
A high pressure/high temperature (HP/HT) well is one in which well-
head pressure could exceed 10,000 psi (68,950 kPa/689.5 bar) when
shut-in on a full column of gas originating from the zone of highest
pressure or, in which wellhead temperature could exceed 300°F
(149°C) under conditions created by an uncontrolled flow from the
zone of highest pressure.
HP/HT wells are usually deep and their most notable characteristic is
the narrow margin, or ”Drilling Window”, between formation pressure
and fracture gradient. Because of the small tolerance between mud
weights and the fracture gradient, circulating rates, ECD’s and trip-
ping speeds can become a significant cause of downhole problems
(losses, swabbing etc.). A further complication is provided by the
behavior of the mud under high pressures and high temperatures.
Drilling HP/HT wells requires special planning, operating procedures

and equipment, in particular when OBM is used. The following lists
some of the most important precautions, procedures and equipment
required that must be jointly addressed by the Operations/Rig
Manager and the Operator before the HP/HT drilling phase
commences.
8.5.1 Planning
A simulation can be made to estimate the maximum gas and fluid flow
rates and wellhead temperature that could result from an uncontrolled
flow from the zone of highest pressure through the open choke
manifold.
At the beginning of the HP/HT section, the maximum kick volume

(kick tolerance) should be calculated to ensure that gas liberation
rates at reasonable kill rates will not overload the MGS.
Specific plans must be made and written instructions given prior to

spud, to all personnel concerning non standard actions/procedures to
be done to prevent or react to any well control problems.
196
The casing program will incorporate plans for a contingency casing

string.
Planning to include a contingency for the drilling of relief well(s).
BOP’s to be fitted with casing rams to run production casing.

Note: VBR’s may only be rated to 180°F (82°C) for continuous
service.
8.5.2 Preparation
A Shut-in Circulating (choke drill) and Stripping drill will be held before
drilling out of the deep intermediate casing. If possible, the drill should
be held over a shift change, so that both crews can operate and
become familiar with the equipment.
Conduct ‘fingerprinting’tests before drilling out the casing shoe above

the reservoir to establish the effect of temperature and pressure on
the properties of the mud. These include:
• ‘trapped pressure’ test to establish if pressure is trapped in the
system following a hard shut-in after circulation and rotation.
• ‘dummy’ flow check to establish the thermal effects on flow back
due to the mud column moving from a dynamic to a static state.
Slow Circulating Rates (SCR’s) through the cement unit, the kill head,
and the high pressure hose will be taken at least once after having set
the deep intermediate casing.
Use the largest practicable jets in the bit to enable LCM pills to be
spotted without plugging the bit.
8.5.3 Operating Procedures

Consideration will be given to the following procedures (applicable
only when drilling the HP zone) and specific instructions will be
provided to the crew by the Senior Toolpusher.
197
8.5.3.1 Mud Weight Measurement
The mud weight will be measured with a pressurized mud balance at

surface temperature and corrected for the effect of bottom hole
temperature. Other mud properties will also be reported at given
datum temperature.
The mud balance calibration will be checked daily.
The temperature of the mud returns will be constantly monitored.
8.5.3.2 Kick Prevention
If well stability is in question, or at the start of the HP/HT section, limit

ROP to ensure that there is no more than 1 connection gas in the
annulus at any one time.
Once drilling in a continuous reservoir, and having established that a

static overbalance exists at the top of the reservoir, the restriction can
be lifted.
Additional points to be noted:

• Flow check all connections.
• All flow checks will have a minimum duration of 15 minutes and the
drill stringdrillstring will be rotated throughout when in open hole.
• Use of a float should be discussed with Operator for particular well.
• Have a drop in sub in the string. Consider dropping the dart before
tripping out (except for a wiper trip). Ensure that the dart will pass
through the FOSV (full opening safety valve) and other components
of the drillstring above the landing sub.
• To avoid differential sticking and to assist in breaking the gels,
slowly rotate the drillstring prior to starting the pump(s).
• The Senior Toolpusher or his designee will be on the rig floor when
POOH in open hole.
• Complete a bottoms-up circulation through the choke if a swabbed
influx is suspected.
• If a drilling break occurs, the Driller will stop drilling immediately and
flow check. Bottoms-up will then be circulated, with the last 3,000 ft
(1000 m) of annular volume below the BOP’s routed through the
choke.
198
• Use a ‘working’/’drilling’ stand of drillpipe fitted with 3 full opening

safety valves (1 at the bottom, 1 between each joint) if drilling with
a TDS to allow easy disconnection and installation of a kick
assembly at rig floor level.
• Supervisory personnel to undergo special HP/HT well control
training course prior to spud.
• If the reservoir characteristics are unknown, limit coring to short
intervals 30 ft (9 m) and circulate several times while POOH to limit
risk of kick due to gas from the core coming out of solution.
8.5.3.3 Kick Detection
• Detection methods and procedures described in Chapter 5 also

apply to HP/HT wells. However, it is recommended that additional
equipment such as MWD tools to detect the top of the HP/HT
formation be used.
• All efforts will be made to ensure that pit level indicators and flow
sensors are properly installed and calibrated.
• Use the minimum surface area in active pit volume to improve pit
gain kick detection.
• Transfers to and from the active system should not take place while
drilling ahead in the reservoir section. The mud conditioning
equipment should not be used while drilling through the reservoir.
• Mixing of chemicals and/or barite in the active mud system while
drilling is permitted if the volume change rate is less than 10 bbls.
(1.6 m3)/ hr.
• All pit volume discrepancies will be investigated before drilling ahead.
• If the normalized levels of background, connection or trip gasses
rise above 100% of their normal values, circulate bottoms-up.
8.5.3.4 Solubility of Gas in OBM
• Swabbed kicks in an HP/HTsection should be seen on the surface.

• Kicks caused by drilling into higher pressured formations in an
HPHT section should be seen on the surface
• “Low permeability” kicks may not be seen on the surface until the
bubble point of the mixture is reached and gas comes out of
solution.
Refer to 4.4.2.
199
8.5.3.5 Kill Procedures
• All influxes (or suspected influxes) will be assumed to be gas until

they are circulated out.
• Control slow circulation rate in order not to exceed surface equip-
ment capacity; in particular, procedures will be prepared to cover
the situation where the mud gas separator capacity or the down
stream choke temperature limits are reached or likely to be
reached. Gas expansion downstream of the choke could lead to low
temperatures causing blockages in the choke manifold or mud gas
separator.
• If the formation pressure is very close to the fracture gradient use
the Driller’s Method to circulate out a ‘drilled’influx and increase the
mud weight incrementally with succeeding circulations.
• Consider Bullheading for influx volumes greater than a specific
value.
• When BOP’s are equipped with lower kill valves, these valves will
not normally be used for any reason other than emergency kill.
Using them, in static mode to monitor annular pressure is permissi-
ble but not recommended.
8.5.4 Equipment
8.5.4.1 Auxiliary Equipment
• A 15,000 psi (103,000 kPa/1030 bar) working pressure kill pump

will be available, capable of slow circulation rates of as little as
0.5 bbls/min. (0.08 m3/min., 80 l/pmin) and preferably have a
remote control adjacent to the choke console at the Driller’s station.
• A 15,000 psi (103,000 kPa/1030 bar) working pressure kill line shall
be installed between the kill pump and the rig floor.
• A 15,000 psi (103,000 kPa/1030 bar) working pressure kick assem-
bly [comprising kelly cock(s) and side-entry sub] will be made up
and pressure tested and must be easily accessible.
• All primary pressure containment equipment will be selected for
H2S service.
• The Choke and Kill manifold must have an antifreeze injection
facility.
200
• The Choke and Kill manifold should have mud temperature

measurement probes upstream of chokes to help evaluate well-
head temperature (unless BOP’s are equipped with the same) and
down stream of chokes to help assess risk of hydrate formation with
remote reading at choke panel.
• The Choke and Kill manifold should be fitted with high pressure
overboard lines [5000 psi (35,000 kPa/350 bar) minimum rating]
and remotely operated valves to open same and close the mud/gas
separator line.
• A dedicated stripping tank of 5-7 bbls (0.8-1.1 m3) capacity is
recommended.
• The MGS must be equipped with a means of monitoring pressure
(normally a low pressure differential sensor, typically 20 psi/1.4 bar
with a remote reading at the choke panel).
• The MGS pressure and temperature measurement system and
alarms will be function tested weekly.
• The MGS will be flushed daily if it contains mud.
• The facility to heat and to inject low pressure mud into the MGS is
a useful option.
• MGS design and size must be reviewed to ensure adequate capac-
ity for reasonable circulating rates and kick sizes (refer to Appendix
10). An additional separator must be provided if necessary. Note:
8" to 10" (203 mm- 254mm) diameter vent lines with 15 to 20 ft
(4.5-6 m) mud seal have been found necessary in some instances.
• To monitor casing, wellhead and BOP wear, ditch magnets should
be used. The ditch magnets should be cleaned and inspected at
regular intervals not exceeding 12 hours of rotation. A base casing
caliper log should be run prior to drilling out of the casing set above
the HP/HT formations. If excessive metal particles are collected by
the ditch magnets and/or abnormal wear on the drillpipe wear
bands are noted, the casing should be re-pressure tested and/or
further casing caliper surveys run. The casing should be pressure
tested when the BOP’s are pressure tested as per Chapter 9.
• If a liner is run or the open hole plugged back the casing will be
tested.
201
8.5.4.2 BOP Stacks
The minimum BOP standards required by Transocean SedcoForex

for surface and subsea stacks are described in Chapter 9.
HP/HT recommended standards:

• Surface BOP’s on Jack-up or platform rigs - a minimum of one (1)
10K psi annular preventer and four (4) 15K psi ram type preventers
should be utilized.
• Subsea BOP’s - a minimum of two (2) 10K psi annular type
preventers and four (4) 15K psi or greater ram type preventers are
required.
• HP/HT BOP seals need not be used if it can be proven that under
maximum expected BOP temperatures the temperature rating of
the seals will not be reached.
• Choke and kill lines must be flushed at least once per tour in the
HP/HT section of the well.
8.5.5 Materials
The temperature rating of all BOP elastomers exposed to well fluids
shall be higher than the maximum anticipated temperature at the
wellhead/BOP stack for continuous exposure of at least the expected
duration of the well. The elastomers shall also be certified to
withstand the anticipated peak temperature/pressure for at least one
hour. (The peak temperature is the temperature that could be reached
when uncontrolled flow through the choke line has to be allowed for
one hour).
• If BOP temperatures are estimated or measured to be approaching
maximum rating of the elastomers, either the fluid flow rate should
be reduced or the well shut-in.
• A sufficient quantity of kill weight mud to kill the well and maintain a
full wellbore until additional mud material can be delivered should
be kept on board until after the well is plugged and abandoned or
the completion phase is finished.
202
• Stocks of mud material (barite, bentonite, chemicals) and

cement will be maintained to the levels required by the
drilling programme. Efforts will be made to keep these levels
as close to maximum as possible during this stage of the
well.
8.5.6 HP/HT Tripping Procedures

Note: these are supplementary to ‘standard’ tripping procedures
(refer to 4.4.1).
• When not in use, the trip tank will be kept half full at all times and
flushed during each shift.
• The slug volume should be limited to 12-18 bbls (2-3 m3).
• Two independent calculations of swab/surge speed will be made
(e.g. Mud Loggers, Mud Engineer, Client’s Drilling Engineer) and a
print-out of the more accurate schedule provided to the Driller.
• Hole fill will be monitored and recorded by both the Driller and the
Mud Loggers. Any discrepancies will be flow checked immediately.
Before the first trip to surface after drilling into the HP/HT zone
make a short trip to gauge the hole’s tendency to swab (refer to
figure 8.19).
• Flow check.
• Do not pump the DISV dart.
• Do not drop a survey barrel.
• Do not slug the pipe.
• POOH at the ‘swab reduction speed’.
• Flow check after pulling the required number of stands.
• RIH to bottom at the ‘surge reduction speed’.
• Circulate bottoms-up. Check for swabbed gas.
POOH to surface (refer to figure 8.20).

• Flow check.
• POOH to the shoe ‘wet’ or pump out to the shoe if swabbing is a
concern.
• Flow check.
• Pump dart (if required).
• Pump slug and measure mud returned.
• Continue to POOH.
203
Specific
Policies,
Environments
Practices & Responsibilities
• Flow check mid way out of the hole and when the bottom hole
assembly (BHA) is just below the BOP.
RIH to bottom.
• RIH at ‘surge reduction speed’.
• Break circulation just inside the shoe.
• Continue RIH to bottom.
• Circulate bottoms-up before drilling ahead or, if there is any doubt,
the last 3,000 ft (915 m) below the BOP’s will be circulated through
the choke.
If unable to pull out of the hole without swabbing, then pumping

out of hole must be considered:
• Do not pull faster than the annular velocity of the mud that is being
circulated.
• After pulling the required number of stands, whether into the shoe
or not, attempt to POOH without pumping.
• If the hole is still swabbing, continue pumping out of the hole,
checking every 10 stands for swabbing.
• After being able to pull 10 stands without pumping, flow check for
15 minutes.
• RIH to bottom.
• Circulate bottoms-up and check for gas. If it is suspected that an
influx has been swabbed in, circulate bottoms-up through the
choke.
• Pump out of the hole to the point where previously tripping
without pumping was possible.
• Continue to POOH at ‘swab reduction speed’.
204
Stop Drilling
Flowcheck
NOTE: This is to be Circ (at least

IF IN DOUBT THE WELL MAY BE SHUT IN AT ANY TIME
performed as a minimum. bottoms up
Additional flowchecks/ + 20%)
circulations, etc,
may be done.
Close In Well and
Flowcheck/ Not Follow HP/HT Kick
Loss/Gain?
Gas Levels Acceptable or Loss/Gain
Procedures
Acceptable
Pull X Stands X = No of stands required to trip to ensure safe round trip
RIH to Bottom
Circ B/UP + 20%
Observe
Trip Gas Level Not
- Flowcheck Acceptable
YOL Check
Acceptable
Pump Back
10 Stands
Inside Show
(5 mm/Stand)
Complete
Bottoms Up
Flowcheck/
Acceptable Check Gas Levels/ Not
Vol Check Acceptable
Pull Wet to ?
- 10 Stds at 4 min/std
then increase gradually to be at normal speed
Flowcheck
Circ Out Pull Out

Heavy Slug to BHA
Pump Heavy
Slug
Flowcheck
Check Back Not
Flow Vol Acceptable
Acceptable Pull Out

to Bit
Pull Out to
3500 ft
Monitor
Well
Flowcheck Acceptable
Not
Acceptable
205
Figure 8.19: Tripping out procedure #1 (first trip out)

206
Stop Drilling
Flowcheck
NOTE: This is to be IF IN DOUBT THE WELL MAY BE SHUT IN AT ANY TIME

Circ Clean (at
performed as a minimum. least bottoms
Additional flowchecks/ up + 20%)
circulations, etc,
may be done.
Flowcheck/ Revert to
Not Tripping Out
Check Gas Levels/ Acceptable
Vol Check Procedure 1
Acceptable
Close In Well and

Follow HP/HT Kick
or Loss/Gain
Procedures
Pump Back 10
Stands Inside
Shoe 5 mm/Stand
Complete Circ
Bottoms Up
Circ Out Flowcheck Not

Heavy Slug Vol Check Acceptable
Gas Levels
Not
Acceptable
Acceptable
Pull Wet to ?
then increase gradually
to be at normal speed
Flowcheck
Check Back Pump Heavy

Flow Vol Slug
Pull Out
Acceptable to BHA
Pull Out Flowcheck

to 1000 m
at Normal
Speed
Pull Out
to Bit
Flowcheck Acceptable
Monitor
Well on Trip
Tank
Not
Acceptable
207
Figure 8.20: Tripping out procedure #2 (subsequent trips out)

208
Contents
8.6 Slim Hole 210
8.6.1 Principal Causes of Kicks 210

8.6.2 Kick Detection and Prevention 211
8.6.3 Slim Hole Well Control Methods 214
8.6.3.1 Slim Hole Wait and Weight Method 214
8.6.3.2 Slim Hole Driller’s Method 217
8.6.4 Slim Hole Well Control Decision Tree 219
209
8.6 SLIM HOLE

‘Slim hole’ refers to hole sizes of 43/4” in diameter or smaller and
drilled by jointed pipe. Annular volumes in these wells can be a 1/5th
or less than those of ‘conventional’ wells with the result that the small
drillstring/hole clearances produce higher annular pressure losses
(and hence higher ECD’s) while drilling, so increasing the risk of lost
circulation. In addition, these reduced clearances are more likely to
induce swabbing when POOH and, should a kick be taken, it will
occupy a significantly greater height in the annulus, resulting in
higher shut-in casing pressures.
The greater influx height results in higher choke pressures at surface

to maintain constant bottom hole pressure. Higher choke pressures
are applied directly to the casing shoe as the influx is circulated out.
The result is that slim hole wells have a much smaller kick
tolerance compared with conventional wells.
For the same reason, early and rapid shut-in (i.e. hard shut-in) on slim
hole wells is critical to reduce the kick volume. By this, the related
choke pressures and the chances of losing returns during subsequent
kill procedures are reduced.
8.6.1 Principal Causes of Kicks

Insufficient Mud Weight
The increased ECD can mask the penetration of an over-pressured

section and prevent a kick as long as the pumps are running. When
the pumps are shut off, the loss of ECD reduces the hydrostatic
pressure and a kick can occur. Similarly, the high rotational RPM
common to slim hole drilling can cause a significant increase in annu-
lar pressure losses and ECD. Slowing down or stopping pipe rotation
will reduce ECD and can allow a kick to occur.
210
Lost Circulation
The higher ECD’s can cause lost circulation in areas where conven-
tional drilling practices and densities would not. If these result in
massive losses and loss of hydrostatic, then a kick could be taken.
Swabbing
The hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore will always be reduced to

some extent when the drillstring is being pulled from the hole. This is
particularly so in slim hole wells where the annular clearance between
the drill collars and wellbore is smaller making swabbing a common
cause of kicks in slim hole.
8.6.2 Kick Detection and Prevention

Differential Flow
The use of highly sensitive instrumentation on the standpipe and flow

line (in order to measure differential flow) will identify an influx more
quickly than monitoring the mud pits for indications of a gain.
Flow Checks
If there is a positive indication of a kick occurring, dispense with a flow

check and shut-in the well immediately in order to limit the size of the
influx.
Drilling Breaks
Drilling breaks should be treated as potential kick situations. After

each drilling break, the well should be shut-in immediately after
circulation is stopped and observed for any pressure build up.
Drilling Connections
When the rotating and circulating frictional losses are removed from
the annulus during a connection, the probability of an influx or kick
occurring will be increased. Unfortunately, this is also the time that
211
tank levels fluctuate most making detection difficult. To increase the

detection capability and reduce potential kick sizes, all connections
in the reservoir sections should be flow checked in the following
manner:
• Prior to making the connection and with the pumps still running at
full circulating rate, stop rotating the string and observe for a gain.
• If no gain occurs, over a period equivalent to that of a conventional
flow check, shut down the pumps. Observe the well a second time.
• Proceed with making the connection.
Circulating Bottoms-Up
When circulating bottoms-up, the well should be closely monitored for

any kick indications (e.g. increased mud returns, pit level increase).
At the first positive indication, stop circulating and shut-in the well.
Pump Pressure Decrease/Pump Stroke Increase
In slim hole wells, providing the underbalance is sufficiently high, an

increase in pump pressure may be seen due to the rate of flow of the
kick into the well producing an increase in the annular pressure loss.
Such an indicator should be carefully assessed as it could also be
generated by hole pack off problems such as mild wellbore collapse
or rapid accumulation of drilled cuttings. However, the latter causes
will be accompanied by a noticeable increase in torque.
Pre-Recorded Information (SCR’s)
A modified set of SCR readings will be taken for all slim hole wells
prior to drilling out the surface casing shoe and before tripping into the
hole each time the bit, BHA, or nozzles are changed.
Use the following procedure:

1. Make up and run in the bit and first stand of drill collars and, using
the appropriate XO cross over, install the topdrive/kelly.
2. Circulate at three SCR rates (e.g. 15, 30, 45 SPM) and record the
standpipe pressures. These values will be called the surface
equipment and bit friction pressure losses (SPL+ BPL). The annu-
lar pressure loss along the stand of collars will be negligible.
212
Record these SCR readings on the Annular Pressure Loss (APL)

Calculation Sheet that can be found in Appendix 8. The SCR will
be chosen to kill the well that results in an APL less than that
required to cause formation breakdown and lost returns.
3. Take a second set SCRs at the same pump rates once the bit is
on bottom and record these on the APL Calculation Sheet.
Another significant reason for using a low SCR in slim holes is that
the extremely small annulus results in much more rapid changes
in influx height and annular pressure requiring rapid adjustments
of the choke to maintain constant bottom hole pressure.
4. Calculate the APL using the following method. Assuming the APL
is distributed evenly from the surface to TD, start with the highest
SCR and calculate the ECD at the shoe and at TD or any known
weak zone. If there appears to be a chance of formation break-
down, go to a lower SCR rate.
5. Select the fastest SCR that will not cause well problems. If the one
selected is not the slowest possible, and choke operational control
is difficult to maintain, consider changing to a lower rate. If the
SCR-APL does not pose significant risk of formation breakdown or
is less than 100 psi then a conventional well control method can
be used.
Determination of Annular Pressure Losses
The primary complication in circulating out an influx in a slim hole well

is the fact that the APL is high even at slow circulating rates.
Figure 8.21 below illustrates the difference in APL between a 43/4"

slim hole well and a 63/4" conventional well design.
APL Conventional vs Slim Hole Well

(8,500 ft with 9.5 ppg mud)
1000
800 63/4" Hole
APL (psi)
600 43/4" Hole

400
200
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
SCR (gpm)
Figure 8.21: APL Conventional vs Slim Hole Well
213
The determination of annular pressure losses at the reduced circula-

tion rates is critical for two reasons. First, if the APL is above the
threshold value that will cause lost circulation while circulating out a
kick, it will have to be accounted for in the well control process. This
is achieved by slightly modifying either the Driller’s Method or the
Wait and Weight Method in such a way that the APL is accounted for
by the choke adjustment. Much the same way CLFL’s are accounted
for in deepwater drilling.
8.6.3 Slim Hole Well Control Methods

To accommodate the unique features of slim hole well designs we are
required to slightly modify the two circulating methods to arrive at:
• The Slim Hole Wait and Weight Method.
• The Slim Hole Driller ’s Method.
8.6.3.1 Slim Hole Wait and Weight Method
The slim hole Wait and Weight Method includes additional steps to
account for higher APL’s. As with the conventional Wait and Weight
Methods, the starting point on the pump drillpipe pressure schedule is
the ICP. The drillpipe circulating pressure will decline on a straight line
basis as the kill mud is pumped down the pipe. After the kill mud
reaches the bit, the circulating pressure will start to rise.
The fundamental difference between a conventional and the slim hole

Wait and Weight Method is the magnitude of the final pressure rise
due to the APL. This APL is much higher in the slim hole case and
must be accounted for.
The significant increase in drillpipe pressure is accounted for by using

slightly modified names for the process concerned. The term FCP 1 is
used to identify the pressure that will be maintained as the kill weight
mud exits the bit and rises up the annulus.
FCP2 will be the pressure that will occur when kill mud reaches the
choke.
214
The procedure is as follows:
After the well has been secured and pressures have stabilized:
1. Calculate the kill mud weight:
KMW (ppg) = [SIDPP (psi) ÷ 0.052 ÷ TVD (ft)] + OMW (ppg)
KMW (kg/m 3) = [SIDPP (kPa) x 102 ÷ TVD (m)] + OMW (kg/m3)
KMW (kg/l) = [SIDPP (bar) x 10.2 ÷ TVD (m)] + OMW (kg/l)
Trip Margin will not be included in the calculation for kill weight
mud. The main reason for this is to avoid unnecessary additional
wellbore pressure that could result in formation breakdown.
2. Calculate the Initial Circulating Pressure:
ICP = (SCRP + SIDPP) - APL
3. Calculate Final Circulating Pressure (one):
FCP1 = (SCRP - APL ) x KWM

OMW
4. Calculate Final Circulating Pressure (two):
FCP2 = SCRP x KWM

OMW
5. Calculate surface to bit strokes:
Strokes = Drillstring Volume

Pump Output
6. Calculation time to pump from the surface to the bit:
Time = Total strokes from surface to bit

Strokes per minute
215
7. Once the calculations are completed, fill out a kill sheet by plotting
drillpipe pressure versus pump strokes.
• Plot ICP at left of graph.
• Plot FCP1 at right of graph.
• Connect points with a straight line (assuming a vertical well).
Kill Mud to the Bit
Once the kill sheet graph has been completed and the mud weight
has been raised to the desired value, prepare to circulate through the
choke; open choke manifold valve(s) upstream of choke (or down-
stream if applicable), zero stroke counters, ensure good communica-
tions between choke operator and pump operator.
Once pressures have stabilized, bring the pump to kill rate speed
while adjusting reducing the choke pressure by an amount equal to
the previously determined annular friction pressure losses (APL).
(Less CLFL for subsea BOP’s.)
Once the pump is up to at kill speed and the pressures have

stabilized, record the actual circulating drillpipe pressure.
If the actual circulating pressure is equal to, or reasonably close to the

calculated ICP, continue pumping and adjust the pressure according
to the drillpipe pressure schedule. If the actual circulating pressure is
significantly different from the calculated ICP, stop the pump, shut the
well in, and investigate the reason. Ensure there is no trapped
pressure.
Kill Mud to Surface
After the kill mud reaches the bit and starts to fill the annulus, the
drillpipe pressure should be held constant FCP1 using choke
adjustments. If the pressure rises close to maximum values then
consideration should be given to gradually reducing the pump speed
to a lower circulating pressure or until such time the choke is wide
open. Thereafter the circulating pressure will rise automatically to a
final circulating pressure FCP 2.
216
Once the uncontaminated kill mud returns are at surface the well will
be flow checked through the choke before opening the BOP’s.
Note that during the circulation, there will come a time when the kill
mud reaches sufficient height in the annulus that the hydrostatic
pressure added to the APL will balance the formation pressure and
the choke will be in the fully open position. This will occur before kill
mud reaches surface and care must be taken to ensure the kill mud
circulation is completed.
8.6.3.2 Slim Hole Driller’s Method
First Circulation
Once the pressures have stabilized, prepare to circulate through the

choke; open choke manifold valve upstream of choke (or downstream
if applicable), zero stroke counters, ensure good communications
between choke operator and pump operator.
Bring the pump to kill rate speed while adjusting the choke in a way
that reduces the casing pressure an amount equal to the previously
determined annular friction pressure (APL) losses. This choke adjust-
ment should take place over the same duration of time it takes for the
pump to get up to the SCR and for the outflow to stabilize.
When kill rate speed is established, the choke operator should switch
to the drillpipe gauge and hold this pressure (calculated ICP) constant
until the influx is removed from the wellbore. Note the casing pressure
just prior to shutting down pumping. This casing pressure should stay
constant, if all the influx was removed during the first circulation, until
the kill mud reaches the bit using the drillpipe pressure schedule.
When all influx is circulated out, stop the pump and close the choke
to check the SICP and SIDPP. At the end of the first circulation, the
SICP and SIDPP should be the same and equal to the initial SIDPP.
The active mud system should be adjusted to the proper kill mud
weight.
217
Kill Mud to the Bit
Bring the pump to kill rate speed while adjusting the choke in a way
that reduces the casing pressure an amount equal to the previously
determined annular friction pressure (APL) losses. This choke adjust-
ment is identical to that used when initiating the first circulation.
When kill rate speed is established, switch to the drillpipe gauge and
follow the drillpipe pressure schedule until heavy mud reaches the bit.
This will occur while dropping from the initial circulating pressure
(ICP) to the intermediate circulating pressure (IntCP).
Kill Mud to Surface
When the kill mud enters the annulus, hold the drillpipe pressure
constant until the choke is full open. Continue circulating until heavy
mud reaches the surface. The drillpipe circulating pressure will
increase to the same FCPas was determined for the Wait and Weight
Method and the choke pressure will steadily decrease as the kill mud
replaces the original mud in the annulus.
218
8.6.4 Slim Hole Well Control Decision Tree
Estimate annulus friction

losses at kill rate from SCR's
Estimate maximum weak point

pressures during conventional
well control
Will conventional well control

NO
cause wellbore losses?
YES
Is estimated annulus pressure NO USE CONVENTIONAL

drop greater than 100 psi? WELL CONTROL
YES
Can the annulus pressure YES

drop be reduced to 100 psi
by reducing kill rate?
NO
USE SLIM HOLE

WELL CONTROL
Figure 8.22: Decision tree for slimhole well
219
Contents
8.7.1 UBD Well Control 221

8.7.1.1 Formation Pressure Below
Normal Pressure Gradient 222
8.7.1.2 Formation at Normal Pressure Gradient 222
8.7.1.3 Formation Above Normal Pressure
Gradient 222
8.7.1.4 Types of drilling fluids/gases
used in UBD 223
8.7.2 Equipment 223
8.7.3 Operational Procedures 225
8.7.4 General Safety Points for UBD 226
8.7.5 Procedure For Killing an Underbalanced Well 226
220
8.7 UNDERBALANCED DRILLING

In ‘conventional’ drilling one of the principal objectives is to prevent a
kick being taken by means of primary well control. In Under Balanced
Drilling (UBD) the well is encouraged to flow by reducing the
hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid to below that of the formation
pressure.
Among the benefits derived from UBD are:

• Reduced ‘skin’ damage and reservoir impairment.
• Increased production rates.
• Increased ROPs.
• Increased bit life.
• Reduced drilling problems such as lost circulation, differential stick-
ing, high torque and drag.
8.7.1 UBD Well Control

Primary well control is not provided by the drilling fluid but by a
Rotating Head or Rotating BOP (RBOP) and associated pressure
control equipment.
The fluid influx is controlled at all times from the time it enters the well-
bore until it exits at the surface by regulating the flow rate and thus
the BHP. Well control is an integral part of the drilling operation and
not as separate and distinct an issue as it is in overbalanced drilling.
Wells drilled under balanced or while flowing must have surface and
well control equipment specially designed for these operations.
In almost all UBD operations, there should be available a means of

returning the well to a static condition (i.e. killing the well and
circulating out any formation kick). The means of doing so will depend
on how the under balance was originally achieved.
221
8.7.1.1 Formation Pressure Below Normal Pressure Gradient
For the well to flow, either gas lift or foam must be used to reduce the
annular hydrostatic pressure. Parameters can be adjusted as needed
and the well can be killed easily by reducing the gas injection rate.
Down hole conditions must be controlled to ensure circumstances do

not arise where sections of the wellbore are subjected to higher pres-
sures than they can withstand, which could result in an underground
blowout.
8.7.1.2 Formation at Normal Pressure Gradient
The well should flow if light fluids such as diesel, base oil or crude are
used as a base for the drilling fluid (within the obvious constraints on
pumping flammable fluids).
Killing the well in an emergency can be achieved by having a suitable

kill fluid ready to pump into the well. Again, the pressures encoun-
tered are not likely to cause problems within the wellbore.
8.7.1.3 Formation Above Normal Pressure Gradient
The well will flow simply by decreasing the fluid density below that
which would normally be used in overbalanced drilling. However,
there may be a risk that sections of the wellbore may experience high-
er pressures than they can withstand if the flow rate and BHP are
allowed to fluctuate significantly.
Killing the well will require a higher density fluid and circulating a kick
from the well would entail similar risks as those for overbalanced
drilling. The use of UBD for wells of this nature should not be
considered unless there is a high degree of certainty relating to the
pressures that are likely to be encountered and the overlying
formation strengths.
Common to all these cases is the possibility of wellbore collapse.

Some formations are highly unstable (e.g. sloughing shales) and
require hydrostatic pressure to maintain their stability.
222
Should UBD be attempted in such conditions, there is a significant

risk of losing the well and the drilling assembly. Also, depending on
the pressure characteristics of the well, wellbore instability could
contribute to an underground blowout or undesired cross-flow
between formations of dissimilar pressure.
8.7.1.4 Types of drilling fluids/gases used in UBD
• Low density mud or brine.

• Air, gas (exhaust or natural gas), nitrogen (cryogenic or membrane
separation).
• Foams.
• Aerated fluids.
8.7.2 Equipment
The selection of equipment will depend on the magnitude of the
surface pressures expected, the method of pipe rotation (i.e. top
drive or rotary table), the nature of the reservoir fluids to be encoun-
tered and the type of drilling fluid/gas to be used.
Specialized surface equipment and procedures will be required for

handling hydrocarbons returns from the well while drilling.
Depending on the fluid/gas used, the equipment spread could consist

of:
• Compressors and boosters.
• Rotating BOP/Rotating Head/Diverter Preventer.
[All of the above are terms used to describe a rotating, low pressure
(700-2500 psi/4800-17200 kPa/48-172 bar WP) device used in
drilling operations to seal around the drillstring above the top of the
BOP stack.]
• At least two (2) non-ported floats or flapper valves to prevent back-
flow from the well should be installed near the bottom of the drill-
string while drilling under balanced.
• PWD sub to determine bottom hole annulus pressure.
• Special bits and motors (depending on fluid/gas used).
• Choke manifold.
• Under balance drilling manifold.
223
• Two-, three- or four-phase Separators or Gas busters.

• Skimmer.
• Diverter (blow down) line and flares.
• Solids control equipment.
• Surface instrumentation.
• Bypass lines and bleed off lines.
• Fire stop and fire floats.
• Chemical (mist, foam) injection system.
Quick-change Kelly driver assembly

packer assembly
Hydraulic
fluid inlet
Inner packer
Surge Bottle
Outer packer
Bearing
Mechanical seal
Hydraulic
fluid return
Outlet flange
Casing flange
Figure 8.23: Rotating BOP
The BOP stack as a minimum will comply with the requirements set
out in Chapter 9 of this manual and, in addition, may consist of:
• RBOP and diverter line with remotely controlled valve(s).
• The capability to bleed off pressure to a flare or through a manifold
in the event of a diverter line obstruction or any other operation that
requires by-passing the Separator.
• The capability to equalize pressure between the diverter line on the
RBOP to below the lowest ram type preventer.
• The accumulator system used to control the RBOP will be
independent of the rigs standard accumulator system.
224
Flare Flare Arrestor Auto Igniter
Flare Arrestor
Gas Boot (Open on Bottom)
Water to Rig
Gas Separator Skimmer Tanks
Rotating BOP
Annular Preventer
Oil Tank
Choke Manifold Pipe Rams
Blind Rams Oil for Treatment
Pipe Ram
Figure 8.24: UBD Surface Equipment
8.7.3 Operational Procedures

No primary well control equipment (preventers other than the RBOP)
will be used for stripping, snubbing or drilling.
When the top float sub is at the rotary table, there must be procedures
and equipment for safely venting trapped gas from below the float
before removing it from the drillstring.
A pressure indicator, with a readout visible at the Driller’s station,

should be installed below the blind/shear rams to monitor wellhead
pressure while the drillpipe is out of the hole.
For tripping under balanced, BHAs should be designed to take into

account the need to strip some of the components through the RBOP
in order to close or open the blind/shear rams.
225
8.7.4 General Safety Points For UBD

The nature and complexity of maintaining adequate control of
wellbore conditions requires a thorough understanding of the factors
which influence the flow and pressure of formation fluids in a
wellbore.
This is necessary to ensure that changing wellbore or fluid conditions

are detected early enough to allow appropriate responses that will
maintain the wellbore conditions within the design limits.
The following factors apply to the majority of UBD operations:

• A comprehensive risk/failure analysis should be developed,
concerning the specific conditions of the well to be drilled under
balanced.
• From the analysis, specific contingency plans should be developed
for emergencies relating to equipment failure or unexpected
pressures.
• All BOP and flow equipment should be tested prior to going under
balanced and on a periodic basis thereafter.
• Procedures should be developed for routine well kill operations as
well as emergency well kill responses.
• Frequent emergency drills should be conducted.
8.7.5 Procedure For Killing an Underbalanced Well

It may be necessary to kill the well if the volume of formation fluid/
gas being produced is greater than the surface equipment can
handle.
This procedure outlines the steps to be taken when circulating kill fluid
in a well and is not intended to be a procedure that covers all well
control situations.
Upon detection of excessive production:

• Pick up off bottom.
• Stop pumping.
• Stop gas lift to the well.
226
• Shut-in the well with diverter line auto valve, open the HCR valve
on choke line.
• Record shut-in casing pressure every minute until it stabilizes.
Note: It will not be possible to ‘read’ the SIDPP due to the two
flapper/float valves in the BHA unless the procedure in 5.4.4 is
used.
• If the bit is in open hole, the string must be kept moving at all times.
If in cased hole, the bit should be kept below the deepest Gas Lift
Mandrel.
Line up the returns to the choke manifold to route the flow through the
choke to the Test Separator via the Sand Separator.
Confirm the pump is lined up to the crude oil in the Low Pressure
Separator. Ensure crude temp is >20°C.
Bleed back the SICP to 200psi (this is “normal” flowing pressure + 50

psi safety factor).
Open the choke and bring the pump up to Slow Circulating Rate
(SCR) and pressure while manipulating the choke to maintain a
constant SICP.
• When the pump is up to speed switch to monitoring the DPP and
maintain the pressure at this value.
• With circulation established, start pulling back into the sanctuary of
the cased hole while keeping the bit below the lowest Gas Lift
Mandrel.
• Circulate the complete annulus volume (open hole volume +
drillpipe/production completion annulus volume) and closely
monitor the returns to the Test Separator (it is unlikely that any
liquid returns will appear at surface).
• Shut down the pump and close the choke. If the influx has been
circulated out, SICP should equal zero.
Bleed off any trapped pressures through the choke to the Test
Separator. Monitor Test Separator for well fluids.
• Close choke and monitor pressures for further build up. Bleed off
any additional pressure through choke until there is no further
build up.
227
• Close in choke and blow down Test Separator.

• Flow check the well for a minimum of 15 minutes, or until certain
that the well is dead.
228
Contents
8.8.1 Types of Formations in Which Losses can Occur 230

8.8.2 Causes of Lost Circulation 231
8.8.3 Severity/Categories of Losses 233
8.8.3.1 Seepage Losses
(up to 20 bbls/hr (3m3/hr)) 233
8.8.3.2 Partial Losses
(20 - 50 bbls/hr (3-8 m3/hr)) 233
8.8.3.3 Severe Losses (50 - 500 bbls/hr
(8-80 m3/hr)) and Complete Losses
(500 bbls/hr (80 m 3/hr) - No returns) 233
8.8.4 Classification of LCM 234
8.8.5 Restoring Full Circulation 235
8.8.5.1 Seepage/Partial Losses 235
8.8.5.2 Severe/Total Losses 235
8.8.5.3 Sealing the Loss Zone 235
8.8.5.4 Balanced Plug 235
8.8.5.5 Non-Balanced Plug 236
8.8.5.6 Reasons for Failure to Cure
Lost Circulation 236
8.8.6 Drilling Blind 237
8.8.7 Lost Circulation Decision Analysis 237
229
8.8 LOST CIRCULATION

Lost circulation occurs when whole mud is lost to a formation and
should be distinguished from the small loss of volume attributable to
the deposition of filter cake or mud not recovered from drilled cuttings
at the shakers.
If there is a strong possibility of a kick resulting from lost circulation, it

may be prudent to install a circulating sub in the BHA to enable the
coarsest LCM to be pumped down the drillstring without plugging the
jets or the pipe.
The main hazards of lost circulation are:

• The loss of hydrostatic head may result in a kick.
• The drop in mud level prevents accurate measurement and
monitoring of the fluid level in the hole.
8.8.1 Types of Formations in Which Losses can Occur

Unconsolidated Formations
These occur mainly at shallow depths and normally consist of sands

but can also occur in gravel, shell beds or reef deposits. The rate of
loss is normally low but can increase if left untreated.
Highly Permeable/Low Pressure Formations
These are mainly sands and are often depleted reservoirs. The loss
of mud to these formations of high permeability requires that the inter-
granular passages be of a sufficient size to allow whole mud entry
and that the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a column of drilling fluid
is greater than the formation pressure.
Natural Fractures
Natural fractures can occur in many rock types (particularly lime-

stone) and requires only that the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling
fluid exceeds that of the fluid within the formation. Initial losses may
be gradual but if drilling continues and more fractures are exposed,
losses can be total.
230
Cavernous Formations
These normally occur in Limestone and Dolomite formations and

usually result in sudden and complete losses.
8.8.2 Causes of Lost Circulation

Induced fractures can occur when the drilling operation creates
conditions where the pressure on the formation exceeds the fracture
gradient of the rock. Research suggests that as much as 90% of
down hole losses are induced.
Excessive Mud Weight
The weight should be maintained no higher than the safe minimum to

hold back formation pressure and stabilize the wellbore. Drilling into
a normally pressured zone with a mud weight required to control an
abnormally pressured zone or raising the mud weight to control
formation pressure can exert sufficient force to induce a losses.
These losses can vary from seepage to total and where a reduction
in mud weight is possible and practical, such a reduction may cure the
losses.
High ECD’s
While the hole may remain full when the mud is static, the pressure
losses associated with circulation up the annulus may be sufficient to
induce mud losses to the formation. It may be possible to cure these
losses by reducing the mud weight, lowering the rheology, reducing
the pump rate or a combination of the all three. Should any of these
remedies be used, the impact on hole stability and hole cleaning
should be taken into account.
Poor Filtration Control
A high water loss may result in a thick filter cake building up against
the formation. This reduces annular clearances, leading to higher
velocities for a given flow rate and an increase in the ECD. In extreme
cases bridging can occur.
231
Pressure Surging
Pump surging can produce pressure increases equivalent to 1.0 ppg

(120 kg/m3, 0.12 kg/l) or more.
Rapidly lowering drillpipe or casing can result in a pressure peak high

enough to break down the formation.
Circulating/Cementing Casing
Down hole losses often occur while circulating or cementing casing

due to the higher pressures that result from the reduced annular clear-
ance. In addition, cement slurry densities may exceed the fracture
pressure of the formations in which the casing is being cemented.
Disturbing a Cuttings Bed
In deviated wells combination Hi-Vis/Low Vis pills, with significantly

differing rheologies, may be pumped to improve hole cleaning when
drilling. It is possible for these cutting beds, when disturbed, to slide
down the hole, packing off the drillstring.
Hole Enlargement
Hole enlargements can reduce the mud velocity to the point that
cuttings are no longer transported out of the well but accumulate and
bridge where the hole size is normal, resulting in pressure surges.
Annulus Loading
Losses often occur (particularly in large diameter, surface hole

sections) due to cuttings build-up in the annulus. This could be due to
high ROP’s and/or poor hole cleaning and results in increasing the
EMW in the annulus.
Hole in the Casing
A hole in the casing can lead to a loss of circulation by subjecting a

formation, previously protected by the casing, to a mud weight that
exceeds its fracture gradient.
232
If any loss of circulation is encountered, the Toolpusher and the

Operator Representative must be informed and the options
discussed before any action is taken.
8.8.3 Severity/Categories of Losses

8.8.3.1 Seepage Losses (up to 20 bbls/hr (3m3/hr))
This takes the form of very slow or sometimes undetectable losses to

a permeable formation. Occasionally this may be due to filtration
losses due to poor fluid loss control.
Tripping is permitted with seepage losses.
Note: The identification of seepage losses may be confused with the

removal of cuttings from the mud at the shakers.
If hole stability is critical, the losses may have to be cured.
8.8.3.2 Partial Losses (20-50 bbls/hr (3-8 m3/hr))
Because these losses are more severe the potential problems with
the re-supply of stocks becomes more important.
Tripping is not permitted with partial or severe losses.
8.8.3.3 Severe Losses (50-500 bbls/hr (8-80 m3/hr)) and

Complete Losses (500 bbls/hr (80 m3/hr) - No returns
If complete or severe loss of returns occurs immediately pump

the lightest fluid available down the annulus, recording the
volumes required to fill the hole.
The hydrostatic pressure that the hole will support should be

calculated.
Because of the reduction in hydrostatic head the hole must be

monitored very carefully.
233
When drilling top hole sections with high ROPs, overloading the
annulus may cause complete losses. If this is the case, consider
pulling out and circulating in stages to clean the hole.
8.8.4 Classification of LCM

Confirm that the drilling programme specifies the type and
quantity of LCM to be held on board for each hole section.
Conventional lost circulation materials are supplied in three grades -

Fine, Medium and Coarse.
• Fine - under most circumstances will pass through the shaker

screens and remain in the mud system.
• Medium - will be screened but will not plug jets or MWD tools.
• Coarse - may plug off everything except open-ended drillpipe.
Other specialist materials are graded according to particle size or the

mesh opening through which they will pass.
Common Types of LCM:
• Fibrous - Materials that have little rigidity and are thought to mat
across the surface or within a formation that is taking fluid.
• Granular - Materials, capable of taking mud, that have rigidity and
thus can bridge and wedge either at the face of or within formations.
• Flaked - Materials with a scaly, layer like appearance which may
have limited or no rigidity.
Other LCM:
• Shear activated gels - these cross-linked polymers are easy to

pump (no plugging) and set-up once sheared through, for example,
bit nozzles.
• Specialist cements - easier to place than normal cement and less
prone to flash setting/planting drillstrings.
234
8.8.5 Restoring Full Circulation

8.8.5.1 Seepage/Partial Losses
• Drill ahead carefully while adding fine lost circulation materials to

the mud.
• Reduce the mud rheology values and circulation rate and reduce
the pressure on the loss zone.
• After all other factors have been assessed consideration should be
given to reducing the mud weight.
8.8.5.2 Severe/Total Losses
• Fill the annulus with a measured volume of light mud or water.

• Pump a fluid of an equivalent density to the composite fluid column
in the annulus, mixed with lost circulation material. Ensure this mud
weight will control all other exposed formations.
• In case of massive losses, continue to fill the hole with seawater
while deciding upon the best corrective action.
8.8.5.3 Sealing the Loss Zone
If circulation cannot be restored by using Lost Circulation Material

(LCM), try to seal the loss using “soft plugs” such as salt gel, diesel
oil - bentonite ‘gunk plugs’etc. Alternatively the use of a cement plug
may be considered.
After sealing a loss zone, consider setting the casing when a non-
permeable zone is penetrated.
8.8.5.4 Balanced Plug
A balanced plug should have the correct volume of spacer pumped

behind the slurry. This ensures the hydrostatic pressure in the annu-
lus is balanced with the pipe before the pipe is pulled out of the plug.
If it is decided to squeeze the plug, 2 bbls (0.3m3) of mud should be
pumped down the pipe, the BOP closed and then squeeze pressure
applied on the annulus below the rams. Balanced plugs may enter the
formation under the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid column alone or
235
may need to be squeezed. Depending on squeeze pressure, reverse

circulate the pipe contents if possible, after pulling out of the plug.
To calculate the volume and displacement of a balanced plug:
• Calculate the plug volume from the height it will occupy in the open
hole.
• Calculate the spacer ahead and spacer behind the plug.
• Calculate the volume of fluid required to displace the plug and
spacers into their final position.
• Calculate the height of the plug before the pipe is withdrawn.
If spotting cement through a bit, do not use the balanced plug

technique. The bit should be tripped into the casing and the non-
balanced plug technique used.
8.8.5.5 Non-Balanced Plug
Where the loss zone depth is known with certainty then the pipe can
be placed approximately 100 ft (30m) above it. The slurry is displaced
to the end of the pipe and the BOP is closed. For a downhole mixed
plug, pump simultaneously down the annulus and pipe at 2 bbls/min
(300l/min). For a spotted plug pump the slurry out of the pipe plus
5 bbls (0.8m 3) excess, then pump down the annulus only.
8.8.5.6 Reasons for Failure to Cure Lost Circulation
• Unable to identify the depth of the loss zone.

• Type and concentration of lost circulation material not matched to
the severity of the loss.
• Technique not matched to the severity of the loss.
• Insufficient information.
• Unbalanced columns in cementing operations.
236
8.8.6 Drilling Blind

In certain circumstances it may become necessary to drill ahead with-
out any returns at the surface, i.e. ‘drilling blind’.
Drilling ahead without mud returns is forbidden unless

approved by the Operations Manager.
This may be required if all other attempts to drill as described above

have failed. Once the decision to drill blind or use a floating mud cap
has been made, the main objective will be to set casing in the first
competent formation penetrated.
Although no cuttings will be obtained while drilling blind, the casing

seat can be located by logging, MWD tools or by keeping up a pene-
tration log while drilling ahead. The hole has to be logged frequently,
for example every 100 ft or whenever the penetration rate suggests a
formation change. Once a competent formation has been identified,
the new formation has to be penetrated by at least 50 ft to set and
cement the next casing string successfully.
8.8.7 Lost Circulation Decision Analysis

Figures 8.25, 8.26 and 8.27 can be used as a guide in determining
the most suitable method of dealing with a lost circulation problem.
237
238
Flow check
Formation YES NO Adjust flow rate,

pressure Static losses? RPM, mud
known parameters, etc
YES
Reduce mud
NO weight until
optimal
Observe
while
circulating
Cure losses
with LCM
Observe NO Losses <0.3 bbls/

while min (<50 l/min)
circulating
Losses <0.3 bbls/ YES

min (<50 l/min)
NO
Consider
option with
onshore base
YES
Cement plug
Drill plug
Losses <0.3 bbls/ YES

min (<50 l/min)
NO
Consider
option with
onshore base
Continue
Liner operation with
action to avoid
further losses
239
Figure 8.25: Losses While Drilling

240
Flow check
RIH to last casing YES NO

Losses <130 l/min Consult
shoe or stay in
(0.8 bbls/min) onshore base
same level in OH
Observe
while
circulating
Losses <65 l/min YES

RIH to bottom
(0.4 bbls/min)
NO
Spot LCM YES

pill
Losses <65 l/min

(0.4 bbls/min)
NO
Consider
option with
onshore base
Cement plug
and squeeze
Follow losses
Wash to bottom
while drilling
Figure 8.26: Losses While Tripping
241
TYPE OF SYNTHETIC RESERVOIR INDUCED OPTIONS

LOSS /OBM EXPOSED LOSS (Refer to option descriptions)
Requirement: ALL CASES

Fill hole with light fluid
YES
reduce mud weight
chemical block/cement
NO
reduce mud weight
NO
YES reduce mud weight

YES chemical block/cement
address reservoir requirements
YES
reduce mud weight
TOTAL NO chemical block/cement
(no returns) address reservoir requirements
Requirement: ALL CASES

Fill hole with light fluid
YES
reduce mud weight
chemical block cement
NO
reduce mud weight
NO
NO
(WBM)
reduce mud weight
YES chemical block/cement
YES
reduce mud weight
NO chemical block/cement
KEY INFORMATION TO BE CONSIDERED
1. Potential Well Control Ramifications

2. Formations Exposed
3. Suspect Loss Zone
4. Potential BHA Limitations
Figure 8.27: Complete Loss Circulation - Options
242
Well Control Equipment
Contents
9.1 Minimum BOP Requirements 245
9.1.1 Surface BOP’s 246

9.1.2 Subsea BOP’s 250
9.1.3 Wellhead and LMRP Connectors 254
9.2 Minimum Diverter Requirements 255
9.2.1 Swamp Barges and Jack-Up Rigs 255

9.2.2 Floating Rigs 256
9.3 Closing Units and Accumulator Requirements 257
9.3.1 Surface BOP Systems 257

9.3.2 Subsea BOP Systems 260
9.4 Choke and Kill Manifold Requirements 264
9.4.1 Choke Manifolds 264

9.4.2 Kill Manifold 268
9.5 Other Well Control Equipment 269
9.5.1 Safety Valves 269

9.5.2 Inside BOP’s 269
9.5.3 Float Valves 270
9.5.4 Kelly Cocks 270
9.5.4.1 Upper Kelly Cock 270
9.5.4.2 Lower Kelly Cock 271
9.5.5 Topdrive Safety Valves 271
9.5.6 Storm Packers 271
9.5.7 Mud Gas Separator (MGS) 272
9.5.8 Vacuum Degasser 272
243
9.6 Well Control Equipment Testing Requirements 273
9.6.1 Pressure Test Frequency 273

9.6.2 Function Test Frequency 274
9.6.3 Equipment to be Tested 275
9.6.4 Pressure Test Values 275
9.6.5 Accumulator Tests 276
244
An important aspect of well control is the proper selection and

utilization of the blowout preventers, chokes and choke manifolds,
mud-gas separators, degassers, mud-monitoring equipment and all
other well control related equipment.
Only with correctly selected equipment, which has been properly

maintained and serviced, can successful well control procedures be
conducted.
9.1 MINIMUM BOP REQUIREMENTS

The BOP stack contributes to only a part of the integrity of a well, and
the wellhead equipment, casing and the competence of the open hole
must also be considered for the purposes of pressure containment.
Casing, wellheads and pressure control equipment will, as a

minimum, meet the working pressure requirements determined
by well conditions and activity.
Well control equipment can be considered available in five (5) work-

ing pressure categories:
• 2,000 psi/13,800 kPa/138 bar (2M)

• 3,000 psi/20,700 kPa/207 bar (3M)
• 5,000 psi/34,500 kPa/345 bar (5M)
• 10,000 psi/69,000 kPa/609 bar (10M)
• 15,000 psi/103,500 kPa/1035 bar (15M)
Although not very common, 20M equipment also exists.
245
The following well control equipment and procedures will be

regarded as a minimum requirement:
• The pipe rams, shear ram, spool pieces, gate valves and any
component attached to the BOP stack must have a working
pressure rating that exceeds the maximum anticipated
surface pressure under ‘worst case’ operating conditions.
• The working pressure rating of the BOP stack is dependent
upon the maximum anticipated continuous temperature to
which it is likely to be exposed (e.g. ram rubbers).
• The annular preventer should have a working pressure rating
of at least 50% of the working pressure rating of the ram type
preventers.
• The elastomeric and metallic components of the BOP stack
must be compatible with the anticipated well fluids.
9.1.1 Surface BOP’s

The minimum requirements for the following systems are as follows:
246
2M Stacks
One (1) annular type preventer and one (1) ram type preventer.
Figure 9.1: 2M Stack
247
3M and 5M Stacks
One (1) annular type preventer and two (2) ram type preventers
Figure 9.2: 3M/5M Stack Figure 9.3: 3M/5M Stack
248
10M and 15M Stacks
One (1) 5M or 10M annular type preventer and three (3) 10M or 15M ram type
preventers (of which one [1] will be a blind/shear ram), respectively.
Figure 9.4: 10M/15M Figure 9.5: 10M/15M

Stack with spool Stack without spool
249
Choke and Kill Outlets
• There will be at least one (1) kill and one (1) choke outlet with
at least two (2) full opening valves on each choke outlet.
• On 5M, 10M, and 15M stacks at least one valve will be a remote
hydraulically operated valve.
• For 5M, 10M and 15M stacks there will be at least two (2) full
opening valves plus a check valve, or two (2) full opening valves
(one of which is remotely operated) on each kill inlet.
• For 2M and 3M stacks there will be at least one (1) full opening
valve plus a check valve, or two (2) full opening valves (one of
which is remotely operated) on each kill inlet.
Blind/Shear Rams
• There will be at least one (1) set of blind/shear type rams.

• The blind/shears rams will be capable of shearing the highest
grade and heaviest drillpipe used on the rig (HWDP
excluded).
Ram Locks
• All ram type preventers will be equipped with ram locks.
9.1.2 Subsea BOP’s

The minimum requirements for the following systems are as follows:
250
2M Stacks
One (1) annular type preventer and two (2) ram type preventers.
251
5M Stacks
One (1) annular type preventer and three (3) ram type preventers.
252
10M and 15M Stacks
One (1) 5M or 10M annular type preventer and four (4) 10M or 15M psi ram type
preventers (of which one [1] will be a blind/shear ram), respectively.
Figure 9.8: 10M/15M Stack
253
Choke and Kill Outlets
• There will be at least one (1) kill and one (1) choke outlet with
two (2) fail-safe valves per outlet on 2M and 5M stacks.
• There will be at least one (1) kill and two (2) choke outlets on 10M
and 15M stacks.
• These configurations will allow circulation beneath the blind/shear rams.
Blind/Shear Rams
• There will be at least one (1) set of blind/shear type rams.

• The blind/shear rams will be capable of shearing the highest
grade and heaviest drillpipe on the rig (HWDP excluded).
Ram Locks
• All ram type preventers will be equipped with ram locks.
9.1.3 Wellhead and LMRP Connectors

• An integral part of the subsea BOP’s are the Wellhead and Lower
Marine Riser Package (LMRP) Connectors.
• The LMRP Connector will have a pressure rating equal to or greater
than that of the annular preventer.
• Both the Wellhead and LMRP Connectors will be run with ring type
gaskets designed to provide a metal-to-metal seal. A Hy-Car type
ring gasket will be used only when a metal-to-metal seal cannot be
achieved but is not considered a permanent alternative to the
metal-to-metal seal.
• BOP equipment will not be run on wellheads at an angle

greater than 1.0 (in order to avoid keyseating damage to the
bore of the BOP and/or the riser.
Care should be taken to monitor casing wear whenever the well

profile has a shallow kickoff or doglegs just below the mudline.
If the BOP is landed on a wellhead that has an angle of more
than 1.0°, approval from the Operations Manager or Region
Manager is required before the operation may resume.
254
9.2 MINIMUM DIVERTER REQUIREMENTS

Closing time will not exceed 30 seconds for diverters smaller
than 183/4" (476 mm) nominal bore and 45 seconds for diverters
of 18 3/4" (476 mm) nominal bore and larger.
9.2.1 Swamp Barges and Jack-Up Rigs

The diverter packer(s) will be capable of closing and sealing
around the kelly, drillpipe or casing.
The diverter system must have a minimum working pressure

rating of 500 psi (3,450 kPa/34.5 bar).
Overboard lines
At least one (1) overboard line will be installed to permit vent-

ing of the wellbore returns away from the rig and personnel.
The overboard line(s) may extend from a common line that connects
to the diverter housing. The common line will be at least 8" (203 mm)
nominal diameter/schedule 80 as will the nominal diameter of the
overboard line(s).
The overboard line(s) will be installed with a minimum number of

bends and all lines well secured.
Special care should be taken to protect pipe bends from erosion by:
• The use of long radius pipe bends.
• Targeted “T”.
• Providing extra metal thickness at bends.
Diverter system
Each diverter line will be equipped with a remotely operated, full

opening, unrestricted valve.
255
The diverter system will be equipped so that (at least one of) the
diverter overboard line(s) automatically opens to vent when the
diverter packing closes. If there are 2 lines, a means of switching flow
from 1 line to the other without closing in the system must be
provided.
If the flowline and the diverter overboard outlet from the well share a
common line or if the flowline is connected to the diverter housing, a
remotely operated valve must be installed to automatically shut off
mud returns to the pits when the diverter is closed.
All lines in the system are to be fitted with welded or flanged connec-
tions. Sleeve-type connections will not be used.
9.2.2 Floating Rigs

A diverter that is capable of closing and sealing around either
the kelly or drillpipe will be installed and locked into the divert-
er housing to prevent the slip joint from extending upwards
through the rotary table should pressure be encountered.
The diverter system must have a minimum working pressure

rating of 500 psi (3,450 kPa/34.5 bar).
A fill-up line to the diverter housing will have a non-return valve

installed in the line near the diverter housing that is rated to the same
pressure as the diverter system, i.e. minimum 500 psi (3,450 kPa/
34.5 bar).
Overboard lines
One (1) overboard line of 12" (305 mm) nominal diameter will be
installed to permit venting of the wellbore returns safely at
opposite ends or sides of the rig.
The overboard lines may extend from a common line that connects to
the well beneath the diverter head. The common line should be at
least 12" (305 mm) nominal diameter/schedule 80.
256
The overboard lines will be installed with the minimum number of

bends and will be securely anchored.
Special care should be taken to protect pipe bends from erosion by:
• The use of long radius pipe bends.
• Providing extra metal thickness at the bends.
Diverter system
Only full opening, unrestricted valves will be used in the diverter relief
system and these will be remotely operated.
The diverter system will be equipped so that at least one diverter

overboard line automatically opens to vent when the diverter packer
is closed. A means of switching flow from one overboard line to the
other without closing in the system must be provided.
If the flowline and the diverter relief outlet from the well share a
common line or, if the flowline is connected to the diverter housing, a
remotely-operated valve must be installed to automatically shut off
mud returns to the pits when the diverter is closed.
Sleeve-type connections will not be used in the diverter system.
9.3 CLOSING UNITS AND ACCUMULATOR

REQUIREMENTS
9.3.1 Surface BOP Systems
The closing unit will consist of an independent automatic accumulator
unit rated for at least 3,000 psi (20,700 kPa, 207 bar) working
pressure with a control manifold clearly showing ‘open’ and ‘close’
positions for each preventer and the pressure operated choke line
valve(s).
BOP operating units must be equipped with 0-3,000 psi (0-20,700

kPa, 0-207 bar) or 0-5,000 psi (0-34,500 kPa, 0-345 bar) (as appro-
priate for the accumulator working pressure) regulator valves,
complete with a manual override, which will not fail open causing a
257
total loss of operating pressure. This unit will be located in a safe

area, which is defined as a position where the unit can be operated
with the well on fire, or out of control.
If operating pressures are set high for closure, it must be readjusted

to the manufacturer’s recommended pressure after closure and/or
prior to running casing, routine pressure testing and stripping
operations.
The closing unit must be capable of operation using a minimum of

two independent power sources e.g. electricity, compressed air,
compressed nitrogen.
The closing unit manifold must be equipped with a full opening valve
and fittings to enable attachment of an external charge pump.
The facility must exist to by-pass the ram preventer pressure regula-
tor in order to enable full accumulator pressure to be applied to the
ram operating piston.
Accumulator Capacity/Response Time
The accumulator volume of the BOP systems will be sized to keep

a remaining stored accumulator pressure of 200 psi (1380 kPa,
13.8 bar) or more above the minimum recommended pre-charge
pressure after conducting the following operations (with the pumps
inoperative):
• Close all ram and annular functions and open all HCR valves.
• Open all ram and annular functions and close all HCR valves.
• Close the annular.
• Open the remotely operated choke line valve.
The BOP control system will be capable of closing each ram

preventer within 30 seconds.
Closing time will not exceed 30 seconds for annular preventers

smaller than 183/4" (476 mm) nominal bore and 45 seconds for
annular preventers of 18 3/4" (476 mm) nominal bore and larger.
258
Response time for remotely operated choke and kill valves (either
open or close) will not exceed the minimum observed ram closing
time.
Accumulator Pre-charge
Accumulators fitted with bladders will have a pre-charge equal to 1/3rd

of the rated pressure, i.e.: 1000 psi (6900 kPa, 69 bar) for 3000 psi
(20,700 kPa, 207 bar) systems and 1500 psi (10,345 kPa, 103 bar)
for 4500/5000 psi (31,000 kPa, 310 bar/34,500 kPa, 345 bar)
systems.
The pre-charge pressure will not exceed 100% of the accumulator

rated working pressure.
Only Nitrogen (N 2) gas will be used for accumulator pre-charge.
Four-Way Valves
All four-way valves will be in either the ‘open’ or ‘close’ position dur-
ing normal operations and should not normally be left in the neutral
position.
Remote Panels
There will be two (2) remote control panels, each one clearly showing
‘open’ and ‘close’ positions for each preventer and the remotely
operated choke line valve(s). Each of these panels will include a
master control valve and controls for the regulator valves and for a
by-pass valve.
One panel must be located near the Driller’s station, the other panel
is to be located in a safe area. If the accumulator closing unit is in a
safe area, it may be considered as the other panel.
Accumulator Charging Pumps
The unit will include a minimum of one (1) electric pump and two (2)
backup air pumps for accumulator charging.
259
With the accumulator system removed from service, the pumps will
be capable of:
• Closing the annular preventer on the minimum size drillpipe being
used.
• Opening the remotely operated choke line valve.
• Maintaining a minimum of 200 psi (1380 kPa, 13.8 bar) pressure
above Accumulator pre-charge pressure on the closing unit
manifold.
• Functions to be completed within two (2) minutes or less.
The combined output of all pumps will be capable of charging the

entire accumulator system from pre-charge pressure to the maximum
rated control system working pressure within 15 minutes.
9.3.2 Subsea BOP Systems

The closing unit will consist of an independent automatic accumulator
unit rated for at least 3,000 psi (20,700 kPa, 207 bar) working
pressure with a control manifold, clearly showing ‘open’ and ‘close’
position for each preventer and the choke and kill ‘fail-safe’ valves.
BOP operating units must be equipped with 0-3,000 psi (0-20,700

kPa, 0-207 bar) or 0-5,000 psi (0-34,500 kPa, 0-345 bar) (as
appropriate for the accumulator working pressure) regulator valves,
complete with a manual override, which will not fail open causing a
total loss of operating pressure. This unit will be located in a safe
area.
Due to the large volume required to close the annular preventer which
can result in slow closing time, the hydraulic pressure for the initial
closure of the annular preventer will be set at the maximum operating
pressure during normal drilling operations. However, it must be
readjusted to the manufacturer’s recommended pressure after
closure and/or prior to running casing, routine pressure testing and
stripping operations.
Region Managers have the option to modify this recommended

closing pressure, especially when floating rigs are operating in
conditions of significant heave.
260
The closing unit must be capable of operation using a minimum of

two independent power sources e.g. electricity, compressed air,
compressed nitrogen.
The closing unit manifold must be equipped with a full opening valve
and fittings to enable attachment of an external charge pump.
The facility must exist to by-pass the ram preventer pressure regula-
tor in order to enable full accumulator pressure to be applied to the
ram operating piston.
Accumulator Capacity/Response Time
The accumulator volume of the BOP systems will be sized to

keep remaining stored accumulator pressure of 200 psi (1380 kPa,
13.8 bar) or more above the minimum recommended pre-charge
pressure after conducting the following operations (with pumps
inoperative):
• Close all ram and annular functions and open ‘fail-safe’ valves.
• Open all ram and annular functions and close ‘fail-safe’ valves.
• Close one (1) annular preventer.
• Close two (2) ram preventers.
The BOP control system will be capable of closing each ram

preventer within 45 seconds or less.
• Closing time will not exceed 60 seconds for the annular preventer.
• Response time for choke and kill ‘fail-safe’ valves (either open or
close) will not exceed the minimum observed ram closing time.
• Time to unlatch the LMRP on moored rigs will not exceed 45
seconds.
Dynamically Positioned Floating Rigs
On dynamic positioned rigs the stack-mounted accumulators will

provide the hydraulic fluid for all functions selected for emergency
disconnect plus a 50% reserve.
261
The functions typically selected for emergency disconnect include:

• Close an annular preventer.
• Close lower pipe ram.
• Shear drillpipe with shear ram.
• Engage ram locks.
• Close choke and kill valves.
• Retract pod stabs.
• Unlock riser connector.
• Unlock riser connector secondary.
In the event that BOP functions are inoperative due to a failure of the
main control system, stack-mounted accumulators activated by an
acoustic signal or ROV intervention will provide the hydraulic fluid for
all functions selected for an emergency operation plus a 50% reserve.
The functions typically selected for an emergency operation include:

• Close lower pipe ram.
• Close middle pipe ram.
• Shear the drillpipe with the shear ram.
• Engage ram locks.
• Retract all stabs.
• Unlock riser connector.
Moored Floating Rigs
On moored rigs the stack-mounted accumulators will provide the

hydraulic fluid for closing the largest annular BOP plus 50% reserve.
The stack-mounted accumulators also help minimize the response
time to close the annular.
Accumulator Pre-charge
Accumulators fitted with bladders will have a pre-charge equal to

1/3rd of the rated pressure, i.e.: 1000 psi (6,900 kPa, 69 bar) for 3000
psi (20,700 kPa, 207 bar) systems and 1500 psi (10,345 kPa, 103.5
bar) for 4500/5000 psi (31,000 kPa, 310 bar/34,500 kPa, 345 bar)
systems plus hydrostatic and temperature compensation.
262
A gradient of 0.445 psi/ ft (10 kPa/m, 0.1 bar/m) is used to calculate

the hydrostatic compensation.
Nitrogen (N2) gas will be used for accumulator pre-charge.
Four-Way Valves
All four-way valves on the accumulator manifold will be in either the

‘open’ or ‘close’ position during normal operations. They will not
normally be left in the ‘block’ position.
Redundancy
There will be 100% redundancy of control for all BOP stack functions.
Remote Control Panels
There will be two (2) remote control panels, each one clearly showing
‘open’, ‘close’ and ‘block’ (‘vent’) positions for each preventer and the
choke and kill ‘fail-safe’ valves.
One panel must be located near the Driller’s position; the other panel
is to be located in a safe area.
For two stacks systems there will be an overlay on both panels.
Accumulator Charging Pumps
The unit will include at least two pump systems, each having
independent dedicated power sources.
With the accumulator system removed from service, the pump system
will be capable of:
• Closing the annular preventer on the minimum size drillpipe being
used.
• Opening the remotely operated choke line ‘fail-safe’ valves.
• Maintain a minimum of 200 psi (1380 kPa, 13.8 bar) pressure above
Accumulator pre-charge pressure on the closing unit manifold.
• Functions to be completed within two (2) minutes.
263
The combined output of all pumps will be capable of charging the

entire accumulator system from pre-charge pressure to the maximum
rated control system working pressure within 15 minutes.
9.4 CHOKE AND KILL MANIFOLD REQUIREMENTS

9.4.1 Choke Manifolds
For all installations, the working pressure of the choke manifold will
equal or exceed the working pressure of the ram preventers.
In the case of 2M stacks, the working pressure of the choke manifold

will be at least equal to the working pressure of the annular.
Swamp Barges and Jack-up Rigs
Flow Paths
At least three flow paths must be provided that are capable of

flowing well returns through conduits that are 2" (51 mm)
nominal diameter or larger.
At least one flow path will be equipped with a remotely controlled

pressure operated adjustable choke. Simplified choke manifolds
without remote control choke may be acceptable on light rigs with 2M
or 3M stacks.
At least one flow path will be equipped with a manually operated

adjustable choke.
One flow path must permit returns to flow directly to the pit, discharge
manifold or other downstream piping without passing through a
choke. Two gate valves with full rated working pressure must be
provided in this unchoked flow path.
Component Specifics
The chokes, the two (2) valves controlling the unchoked discharge
flow path and all equipment upstream of these items must have full
264
rated working pressure and must be equipped with flanged, studded

or clamp hub connections.
Two gate valves must be provided upstream of the choke in each

choke flow path.
At least one gate valve must be installed downstream of each choke

ahead of any discharge manifold. This valve may or may not carry the
full rated working pressure of the choke manifold.
Hammer union fittings will be permitted externally to allow attachment

of high-pressure lines for remedial operations. The hammer union
fittings are to be welded or flanged where they tie into the choke
manifold.
A pressure gauge (or other means) to measure the inlet pressure to

manifold must be provided. The manifold outlet for this device must
be equipped with a flanged, studded or clamp hub type gate valve
with 1-13/16" (46 mm) minimum bore.
Only right angle, targeted block turns will be used in the choke mani-
fold and discharge piping.
All chokes will discharge directly into an erosion nipple. This nipple
will be at least 3 ft (0.9 m) long. It will have a wall thickness at least
as great as 3" (76 mm) XX heavy pipe.
A hydrate inhibition (i.e. glycol) injection system will be set up, if

necessary, for use on 10M and 15M stacks.
Under no circumstances will the kill or choke lines be utilized as hole

fill-up lines.
The choke manifold must have the facility to accept high pressure
fluids from the cementing unit or mud pumps, with appropriate valves
to permit pumping into the choke and kill lines individually or simulta-
neously.
265
Valve Positions (Drilling Mode)
Figure 9.9 below depicts an example of a manifold set up for a

surface BOP stack. The valves are shown in their normal, open or
closed position.
Choke manifold valve positions for surface systems
KEY
Open Valve
Closed Valve
Remote Operator Choke Line
Choke
At Stack
At Manifold
Full Working Pressure
Reduced Working
Pressure Allowable
To Mud/Gas Separator Bleed off Line to Flare To Mud/Gas Separator

Pits, Flare or Overboard or Overboard Pits, Flare or Overboard
Figure 9.9: Manifold set up for surface stack
Closing the valve downstream of the choke on the choke manifold,

instead of the valve upstream, is allowable provided that this
downstream valve is rated to the BOP’s full working pressure and
equipped to allow opening under full working pressure.
Floating Rigs
The choke manifold assembly for floating rigs serves the same
purpose and in general has the same components as those used on
rigs with surface stacks.
Flow Paths
At least three flow paths must be provided that are capable of

flowing well returns through conduits that are 3" (76 mm)
nominal diameter or larger.
266
At least one flow path will be equipped with a remotely controlled,

power-operated adjustable choke.
At least one flow path will be equipped with a manually operated

adjustable choke.
One flow path must permit returns to flow directly to the discharge
manifold or other downstream piping without passing through a
choke. Two gate valves with full rated working pressure must be
provided in this unchoked flow path.
Component Specifics
The chokes, the two (2) valves controlling the unchoked discharge
path and all equipment upstream of these items must have full rated
working pressure and must be equipped with flanged, studded or
clamp hub connections.
Two gate valves must be provided upstream of the choke in each

choke flow path.
At least one gate valve must be installed downstream of each choke

but ahead of any discharge manifold. This valve may or may not carry
the full rated working pressure of the choke manifold.
A pressure transducer (or other means) to measure the inlet pressure

to the manifold must be provided. The manifold outlet for this device
must be equipped with a flanged, studded or clamp hub type gate
valve with 1-13/16" (46 mm) minimum bore. The readout for the
transducers will be at the remote choke control station.
Only right angle block turns will be used in the choke manifold and
discharge piping.
The choke manifold must have the facility to accept high pressure
fluids from the cementing unit or mud pumps, with appropriate valves
to permit pumping into the choke and kill lines individually or
simultaneously.
267
On systems with flare booms permanently installed, a permanent

connection between the discharge manifold and flare boom will be
installed.
A hydrate inhibitor (i.e. glycol) injection system will be set up for use,
if necessary, on 10M and 15M choke/kill manifolds.
Valve Positions (Drilling Mode)
Figure 9.10 below depicts an example of a manifold set up for a

subsea BOP stack. The valves are shown in their normal, open or
closed position:
Choke manifold valve positions for subsea choke
KEY
Open Valve
Closed Valve
Choke
Remote Operator
Choke
At Stack
At Manifold
Full Working Pressure
Reduced Working
Pressure Allowable
Buffer to Mud/Gas Separator, Pits, Flares or Overboard
Figure 9.10: Manifold set up for subsea stack
Closing the valve downstream of the choke on the choke manifold,

instead of the valve upstream, is allowable provided that this down-
stream valve is rated to the BOP full working pressure and equipped
to allow opening under full working pressure.
9.4.2 Kill Manifold

The choke and kill (standpipe) manifold (surface and subsea) will be
isolated by two isolation valves and have the capability of being
connected to the cementing unit.
268
9.5 OTHER WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT

9.5.1 Safety Valves
A full opening safety valve (including a closing handle) with
bottom connections, XO’s or provisions to fit any section of
drillstring, tubing or casing being handled will be available on
the drill floor.
In addition:
• The valve will have a rated working pressure greater than or equal
to the BOP stack.
• The connection is to fit the bottom connection of the topdrive or
kelly.
• The outside diameter of the valve will be such that it may be run in
the hole (an inside BOP must be pumped in the string or installed
on top of the safety valve in order to run in the hole) with adequate
clearance.
• This safety valve will be equipped with a means for easy

handling to enable immediate connection to the drillstring in
the event of a kick.
Examples of full opening safety valves are:

• Hydril Kelly Guard
• T.I.W
• S.M.F
9.5.2 Inside BOP’S

An Inside BOP (IBOP) is a surface installed back-pressure check
valve. If this is a drop-in type, the landing sub must be positioned in
the drillstring at or near the drill collars. There will be one such valve
on the drill floor at all times.
Examples of IBOP’s are:

• Gray valves.
• Hydril drop-in valve.
269
If a Gray valve is to be used, it will be ready for installation locked in

the ‘open’ position.
If a drop-in type is used, the landing sub should be in the drillstring at

or near the collars and the correct size dart will be on the drill floor in
a protective box. The dart must be able to pass through all the
restrictions above the landing sub.
9.5.3 Float Valves

Float valves must be used while drilling and opening hole prior
to setting surface casing or any time the posted well control
plan is to divert and can also be used in deeper sections of
hole.
Their function is to:

• Prevent sudden influx entry into drillstring.
• Prevent back flow of annular cuttings from plugging bit nozzles.
Either plain or ported floats are acceptable.
9.5.4 Kelly Cocks

Both the lower and upper kelly cocks will have a working pressure
equal to or greater than the BOP’s.
9.5.4.1 Upper Kelly Cock
The upper kelly cock is a safety valve placed between the kelly joint
and the swivel. The kelly cock must be closed if drillpipe pressure
threatens to exceed the pressure rating of the washpipe packing or
rotary hose.
It will be functioned (Close, Open) on every trip.
A special wrench to operate the upper kelly cock is required and must
be kept on the drill floor.
270
9.5.4.2 Lower Kelly Cock
A lower kelly cock (a full opening safety valve) will be installed

immediately below the kelly.
It will be functioned (Close, Open) on every trip.
An appropriate wrench will be available on the drill floor for opening

and closing it.
When a mud saver sub is used, it will be installed above the lower
kelly cock.
9.5.5 Topdrive Safety Valves

When a topdrive system is in use there will be two safety valves
included in the drilling hook up:
• The upper safety valve will be remotely operated.
• The lower safety valve will be manually operated.
Both upper and lower safety valves will be functioned (Close, Open)
on every trip.
Should it become necessary to disconnect the TDS during well

control operations, the lower safety valve must be backed out from
the upper using the pipe handler. A sub to connect the upper safety
valve to the drillpipe in use and a sub to connect the lower safety
valve to the drillpipe in use will be installed temporarily. These subs
will be available on the drill floor.
Any item in the string, which may need to be removed through the top
of the string, such as a MWD drillpipe screen, must have an OD
smaller than the lower safety valve ID.
9.5.6 Storm Packers

A storm packer consists of a retrievable packer to support the weight
of the drillstring and seal off the casing/drillpipe annulus and above it
a combination back-off tool/valve to seal the ID of the drillstring.
271
When a subsea BOP stack is in use, consideration should be given to

having storm packers available, to match the size and weight of
casing and drillpipe in use.
9.5.7 Mud Gas Separator (MGS)

An atmospheric or low pressure separating vessel for handling
gas-cut returns must be provided where blowout preventers are used.
The main purpose of this vessel is to segregate the gas from the mud
and vent it a safe distance away from the drill floor.
Principal features include:

• A gas vent line exiting the top of the separator which must have a
nominal diameter of 6" (152 mm). Venting above the crown is
acceptable.
• A configuration such that a sufficient liquid seal is maintained to
hold back anticipated pressure within the MGS during a kill opera-
tion. This is to avoid a blowthrough of free gas into the mud system.
• A facility must exist for bypassing the mud/gas separator in the
event of system overload or malfunction. Well fluids should be
directed to an emergency overboard line.
• A pressure gauge is required to monitor the pressure within the
separator. A remote pressure transmitter may be used for this
purpose but will be capable of operation without dependence on rig
air supply or rig electrical power.
There are 4 critical design parameters:

• Separator capacity to segregate gas from the mud.
• Vent line capacity to vent free gas.
• Discharge line capacity to discharge degassed mud.
• Mud seal capacity to determine maximum MGS pressure.
(Refer to Appendix 10.)
9.5.8 Vacuum Degasser

The Vacuum de-gasser is designed to remove the small bubbles of
gas that are left in the mud after the mud has been through the MGS.
272
The Vacuum de-gasser will be lined up at all times during the well
control operation.
The gas exhaust line should not be connected to the MGS vent line.
It is important that the Vacuum de-gasser is working properly and as

such it should be tested every tour.
9.6 WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT TESTING

REQUIREMENTS
All stump tests are to be conducted with water or anti-freeze
solution. After the BOP’s have been landed, pressure tests may
be performed with the drilling fluid that is being used to drill the
well. All pressure tests are to be conducted with applied sur-
face pressure (not wellbore pressure).
9.6.1 Pressure Test Frequency

The pressure tests of all BOP’s, wellhead components and their
connections, BOP operating unit, choke manifold, kill and
choke lines, standpipe manifold, kelly and kelly cocks, safety
valves and IBOP’s will be made:
• Prior to installation where possible.
• After installation on wellhead (connector only, if previously
stump tested).
• When any component change is made.
• Prior to drilling into a suspected high pressure zone.
• After repairs.
• Prior to the initial opening of drill stem test tools.
• When bonnets have been opened solely for the purpose of
changing rams prior to running casing, a body test to ensure
the integrity of the bonnet seals will suffice.
The period between pressure tests of the BOP’s (excluding

blind/shear rams) and related equipment will not exceed a
maximum of 21 days.
273
As a minimum, blind/shear rams are to be tested at least every

42 days.
The stump test is valid for up to 21 days prior to installation on

the wellhead. The 21 day testing interval starts upon installa-
tion on the wellhead.
Every rig will have written BOP pressure testing procedures. All
pressure tests will be fully documented on the rig’s BOP equipment
test sheets. Tests performed will be recorded in the IADC report.
9.6.2 Function Test Frequency

Surface BOP’s
All rams, annulars, diverters, valves, etc., will be function test-
ed at the following frequencies:
• Upon installation on the wellhead from the Driller’s and the
remote control panel.
• Every week or during the first trip after the 7 day interval.
Under no circumstance will this interval exceed a maximum
of 14 days.
Subsea BOP’s
All rams, ram locks, annulars, fail-safe valves, diverters, or
other subsea items will be function tested at the following
frequencies:
• Prior to running the assembled BOP stack, function test all
components with both control pods from the Driller’s remote
control. The same will be done with functions on the hose
reel control panels. Operation of the acoustic pod will be con-
firmed during stack preparation.
• Upon installation of the BOP stack on the wellhead and after
any control components have been repaired or replaced.
• Function test all components (with the exception of any
equipment whose operation may affect the pressure integrity
of the system, e.g. Wellhead and Riser Connectors, choke
and kill line stabs etc.) using both control pods from the
Driller’s and remote control panels.
274
• Every week or during the first trip after the 7 day interval. This
interval will not exceed 14 days.
9.6.3 Equipment to be Tested

The following equipment will be tested:
• All components of the BOP’s, wellhead components and their
connections.
• The choke manifold valves, kill and choke lines and valves on the
side outlets.
• The topdrive safety valves/kelly and kelly cocks, tested to the
lesser of the following:
- Kelly cock rated working pressure.
- Drillpipe internal yield pressure.
- BOP stack rated working pressure.
• The standpipe manifold, tested to its rated working pressure.
• The safety valves and spare kelly cocks.
• Chiksans before use.
9.6.4 Pressure Test Values

Low Pressure Test
200-300 psi (1380-2070 kPa; 13.8-20.7 bar) for 5 minutes prior to

each high pressure test.
High Pressure Test
Ram type preventers and related control equipment (including

the choke manifold) will be tested to the anticipated surface
pressure.
If the cup-type tool is used, the additional load on the drillpipe due to
the piston effect needs to be determined and checked against pipe
strength.
Annulars will be tested to 70% of the rated working pressure or

maximum anticipated surface pressure, whichever is less.
275
All high pressure tests will be conducted for at least 5 minutes.
As a guideline of minimum standard, a test is considered to be

successful if:
• Pressure remains steady (draws a straight line) for 5 minutes.
• A drop of 5 % (five percent) of the test pressure up to 5,000 PSI and
then draws a straight line for 5 minutes.
• A drop of 3 % (three percent) of the test pressure above 5,000 PSI
and then draw a straight line for 5 minutes.
• Bumping up is acceptable if the mud is aerated.
9.6.5 Accumulator Tests

Low fluid level alarms will be tested weekly.
Surface Stacks
Accumulator performance tests will be done after initial installation on

the wellhead.
This test will include:

• Charge the system with fluid to its working pressure.
• Switch off the accumulator pumps.
• Close the annular, all rams (except blind or blind/shear rams) and
open all HCR valves (against zero wellbore pressure).
• Open the annular, all rams and close all HCR valves.
• Close the annular.
• Open the choke line HCR valve.
Observe that there is at least 200 psi (1380 kPa/13.8 bar) above the
pre-charge pressure on the accumulator gauge.
Switch on all the accumulator pumps. Record accumulator recharging

time, which should be less than 15 minutes.
Report all recorded information on BOP test forms.
276
Subsea Stacks
Accumulator performance tests will be done prior to installation on the

wellhead when all the accumulator bottles have surface pre-charge or
after initial installation when all stack-mounted accumulator bottles
have been pre-charged to compensate for the effects of water depth.
This test will include:

• Charge the system with fluid to the working pressure of system.
• Switch off the accumulator charging pumps.
• Close all annulars, all rams (except blind/shear rams) and open all
‘fail-safe’ valves (against zero wellbore pressure.)
• Open all annulars, all rams and close all ‘fail-safe’ valves (while
closing and opening functions, monitor accumulator pressure
closely).
• Close one (1) annular.
• Close two (2) rams.
Observe that there is at least 200 psi (1380 kPa, 13.8 bar) above the
pre-charge on the accumulator gauge.
Switch on all the accumulator pumps. Record accumulator recharging

time, which should be less than 15 minutes.
Report all recorded information on BOP Test Forms.
277
278
List of Appendices
Contents
1 Abbreviations and Definitions 280
1.1 Abbreviations 280

1.2 Definition of Terms 282
2 Forms and Procedures 288
2.1 Kill Sheets 289

2.2 Stripping Sheet 301
2.3 Diverting Procedures 305
2.4 Well Control Record 307
3 Well Control Formulae 310
3.1 Any Units 310

3.2 Oilfield Units 311
3.3 Metric Units 314
3.4 SI Units 317
4 Conversion Factors 320
5 Seismic Evaluation for Shallow Gas Survey 323
5.1 Optimize Preliminary Shallow Gas Investigation 323

5.2 Avoid Shallow Gas Where Possible 323
5.3 Reduce Risk to Rig in Case of Shallow Gas 323
6 Procedures for Conducting Lot/Fit 325
7 Choke Line Friction Losses (CLFL) 328
7.1 Pressure Losses in Subsea Kill Operations 328

7.2 Procedure for Recording CLFL 328
7.3 Bringing Pump up to Kill Rate Speed 329
8 Annular Pressure Loss (APL) Calculation Sheet 333
9 Bullheading Calculations 336
10 Mud Gas Separator (MGS) Design 338
279
Appendix 1 -
Abbreviations and Definitions
1.1 ABBREVIATIONS
APL Annular Pressure Losses
API RP American Petroleum Institute Recommended Practice
Bbls Barrels
BHA Bottomhole Assembly
BHP Bottomhole Pressure
BPL Bit & Nozzle Pressure Losses
BOP Blowout Preventer
BRT Below Rotary Table
Ca Annular Capacity
CLPL Choke Line Pressure Losses
CSG Casing
dc Drilling Exponent (corrected)
DC Drillcollar
DP Dynamic Positioning, or Drill Pipe
DSPL Drillstring Pressure Losses
DST Drillstem Test
ECD Equivalent Circulating Density
EMW Equivalent Mud Weight
ESD Equivalent Static Density
FCPadm Maximum Admissible Final Circulating Pressure
FCP Final Circulating Pressure
FIT Formation Integrity Test
Gfb Formation Breakdown Pressure Gradient
Gi Influx Pressure Gradient
Gmud Pressure Gradient of Mud
GPM Gallons Per Minute
Hi Height of Influx
HCR Hydraulic Controlled Remote
HDIS Hydril Drop In Sub
HP/HT High Pressure/High Temperature
H2S Hydrogen Sulphide
IADC International Association of Drilling Contractors
ICP Initial Circulating Pressure
ID Internal Diameter
kg/l Kilograms per Litre
kg/m3 Kilograms per Cubic Meter
280
Appendix 1 -
KT Kick Tolerance
LCM Lost Circulation Material
LMRP Lower Marine Riser Package
LOT Leak Off Test
LWD Logging While Drilling
MAASP Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure
MAMW Maximum Allowable Mud Weight
MD Measured Depth
MGS Mud Gas Separator
MODU Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit
MSL Mean Sea Level
MWD Measurement While Drilling
MW Mud Weight
NMAASP New MAASP, with KMW
NRV Non Return Valve
NSDPP New Static Drill Pipe Pressure
OBM Oil Based Mud
OD Outside Diameter
OIM Offshore Installation Manager
OMW Original Mud Weight
Pa Annulus pressure
Pchoke Choke Pressure
Pdp Drillpipe pressure
Pf Formation pressure
Ph Hydrostatic pressure
Pi Hydrostatic pressure of influx
Plot Leak off test pressure
POBM Pseudo Oil Based Mud
POOH Pull Out of Hole
PPB Pounds Per Barrel
PPG Pounds Per Gallon
PV Plastic Viscosity
RIH Run Into the Hole
RKB Rotary Kelly Bushing
ROV Remote Operated Vehicle
ROP Rate of Penetration
RPM Revolutions per Minute
RT Rotary Table
281
Appendix 1 -
SCR Slow Circulating Rate

SCRP Slow Circulating Rate, Pressure
SCRmax Circulating Rate when CLPL < SICP
SCRmin Circulating Rate when CLPL < New MAASP
SG Specific Gravity
SICP Shut-in Casing Pressure
SIDPP Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure
SPL Surface Pressure Loss
SSTT Subsea Test Tree
SPM Strokes per Minute
SWF Shallow Water Flow
TD Total Depth
TDS Top Drive System
TVD True Vertical Depth
TVDshoe Casing Shoe TVD
TVDwp True vertical depth of open hole weak point
UBD Underbalanced Drilling
WBM Water Base Mud
WOB Weight on Bit
WOC Wait On Cement
YP Yield Point
1.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Abnormal Pore Pressure - Pressure of a formation which exceeds
the normal pressure expected at a given depth.
Annular Pressure Loss (APL) - Pressure loss caused by the flow of

fluid up the annulus.
Bleeding - Controlled release of fluids from a closed and pressured

system.
Blowout - An uncontrolled flow of gas, oil or other formation fluids

from a wellbore.
Bottom Hole Pressure - The pressure exerted by a column of fluid

contained in the wellbore.
282
Appendix 1 -
Bullheading - A term for pumping into a shut-in well without returns.
Casing Burst Pressure - The amount of internal pressure that

causes the wall of the casing to fail.
Casing Seat - The lowest point in a well at which casing is set.
Choke - A variable diameter orifice installed in a line through which

high pressure well fluids can be restricted or released at a controlled
rate.
Choke Line - The high pressure piping between blowout preventer

outlets or wellhead outlets and the choke manifold.
Choke Manifold - The system of valves, chokes and piping to control

flow from the annulus and regulate pressures in the drillpipe/annulus
flow system.
Closing Unit - The assembly of pumps, valves, lines, accumulators

and other items necessary to open and close the blowout preventer
equipment.
Density - The weight per unit volume of a substance.
Differential Pressure - Difference between wellbore fluid pressure

and pore pressure or the opposing internal and external forces acting
on equipment.
Drilling Break -A significant increase in the rate of penetration by the

drill bit. It may indicate that the bit has penetrated a high pressure
zone, thereby warning of the possibility of a kick.
Displacement - The volume of steel in the tubulars and tools insert-

ed and/or withdrawn from the wellbore.
Drillpipe Safety Valve - A full-opening valve which, when installed in

the drillstring, can be closed to prevent flow through the bore of the
drillpipe.
283
Appendix 1 -
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) - The effective density at

any depth created by the sum of the total hydrostatic pressure plus
annular pressure loss.
Equivalent Mud Weight (EMW) - A pressure exerted at a depth of

interest which is converted into a density.
Final Circulating Pressure - Drillpipe pressure required to circulate

at a selected kill rate, adjusted for the increase in kill drilling fluid
density above the original drilling fluid density.
Flow check - A flow check is the observation of the well without

circulation. Flow checks are made to determine if the well is, or is
not flowing. The duration of a flow check must be whatever time
necessary to determine without question whether the well is static or
flowing.
Flow Rate - The volume of a fluid passing through any conductor,

such as pipe or tubing, per unit of time.
Formation Integrity Test - Application of pressure by superimposing

a surface pressure on a fluid column in order to determine the ability
of a subsurface zone to withstand a certain hydrostatic pressure.
Formation Pressure - Pressure exerted by fluids within the pore

spaces of a formation.
Fracture Gradient - The pressure gradient at which the formation

accepts whole fluid from the wellbore.
Geothermal Gradient - The rate at which subsurface temperature

increases with depth. The earth averages 1°C per 33m (1°F per 60 ft)
but may be considerably higher.
Glycol (Ethylene) - A colourless liquid when mixed with water lowers

its freezing temperature. Used as a desiccant in removing water from
gas.
Hard Shut-In - To close in a well by closing a blowout preventer with

the choke and/or choke line valve(s) closed.
284
Appendix 1 -
Hydrostatic Pressure - The pressure exerted by a column of fluid at

rest.
Initial Circulating Pressure - The sum of the drillpipe pressure at the

selected kill rate and the shut-in drillpipe pressure.
Inside Blowout Preventer - A device that can be installed in the drill

string that acts as check valve, allowing drilling fluid to be circulated
down the string but prevents back flow.
Intermediate String - Usually set in a transition zone of an abnor-

mally pressured formation or used to protect weak formations (loss
circulation zones, hole sloughing, caving formations) and to provide
pressure containment. Cementing program may be designed to
isolate hydrocarbon zones or flowing salt sections.
Kick (Influx) - The entry of oil, gas or water into the wellbore. When
the bottom hole pressure becomes less than formation pressure and
the permeability is great enough, formation fluid will enter the
wellbore causing a “kick”.
Kick Assembly - Assembly of full opening safety valve(s), circulating

head and hose used to circulate where pressures exceed the rating
of the Top Drive or Kelly.
Kill Line - A high-pressure fluid line connecting the mud pump and
the wellhead at some point below a blowout preventer. This line
allows heavy drilling fluids to be pumped into the well or annulus with
the blowout preventer closed.
Kill Rate - A predetermined circulating rate used to circulate out a kick

and usually a fraction of the circulating rate used while drilling.
Lag Time - Bottom’s-up circulation time. Time it takes for the mud to
reach surface from bit at a given pumping rate while circulating on
bottom.
Leak-Off Test Pressure - Pressure imposed at surface on the fluid

column to determine the pressure at which a formation will start to
take fluid.
285
Appendix 1 -
Liner - Installed as an intermediate casing string to permit deeper

drilling, to separate the productive zones from other reservoir forma-
tions or for testing purposes. Usually cemented to top of liner.
Marine Conductor - A pipe driven, jetted or cemented in pre-drilled

hole, to provide structural strength, to cover very soft formations
below the sea bottom, to serve as a circulation system for the drilling
fluid and to guide the drilling and casing strings into the hole.
Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP) - The

surface pressure which if exceeded, may either cause loss of mud
into a formation below the casing shoe or cause casing or other
equipment to fail, whichever pressure is least.
Mud Gas Separator - An atmospheric or low-pressure vessel for

separating the gas from liquid in well returns.
Normal Formation Pressure - Formation pressure equal to the

pressure exerted by a vertical column of water with a salinity normal
for the geographic area.
Non-Return Valve (Check Valve) - Device used to restrict the flow of

fluid to only one direction.
Overbalance - The amount by which pressure exerted by the hydro-

static head of fluid in the wellbore exceeds formation pressure.
Overburden Pressure - The pressure on a formation generated by

the combined weight of the rock and fluid above that formation.
Permeability - The ability of fluid to flow from one pore space to another.
Pit Volume Indicator - A device installed in drilling fluid tanks to

register the fluid level.
Porosity - The spaces within a rock. The ratio of the volume of

interstices of a material to its total volume.
Production String - Installed to separate the productive zones from

other reservoir formations or for testing purposes.
286
Appendix 1 -
Relief Well - An offset well drilled to intersect the subsurface

formation to combat blowout.
SCR max - The circulating rate at which the chokeline friction loss is
equal to the shut-in casing pressure (SICP).
SCR min - The circulating rate at which the choke line friction loss is
equal to the maximum allowable annular surface casing pressure
(MAASP).
Space Out - Procedure conducted to position a pre-determined

length of drillpipe above the rotary table so that a tool joint is located
above the rams on which the drillstring is to be suspended and that
no tool joint is opposite a set of rams after the drillpipe is hung off.
Specific Gravity - The ratio of the weight of a given volume of a

substance at a given temperature to the weight of an equal volume of
fresh water at the same temperature.
Subnormal Pore Pressure - Pressure of a formation which is below

normal pressure expected at a given depth.
Surface Casing - Installed to provide blowout protection, seal off

shallow sands and prevent loss of circulation. This string is normally
cemented to surface or at least up to the shoe of the conductor string.
Swabbing - The lowering of the hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore

due to upward movement of tubulars and/or tools.
Underbalance - The amount by which formation pressure exceeds

pressure exerted by the hydrostatic head of fluid in the wellbore.
Underground Blowout - Uncontrolled flow of formation fluids

entering the wellbore at one point and leaving the wellbore at any
point other than the surface. The flow is most likely to travel up the
wellbore before exiting, but can on occasion travel down the wellbore
to the receiving formation.
Viscosity - A measure of the internal friction or the resistance of a

fluid to flow.
287
Appendix 2 -
Forms and Procedures
NOTE: In order to avoid repetition, forms have been filled in using

oilfield units only. Blank forms in oilfield, metric and SI units are
available electronically on the intranet (TSFNet/Field Support/Well
Construction/Toolbox).
In addition to the forms included in this manual, the following forms

are available electronically on the intranet (TSFNet/Field
Support/Well Construction/Toolbox):
• TRIP SHEET
• ACCUMULATOR FUNCTION TEST WORKSHEET
• ACCUMULATOR CLOSING TEST WORKSHEET
• BOP TEST FORM
If you don’t have access to the intranet, contact the Well Construction
Group in Aberdeen.
288
Appendix 2 -
2.1 TRANSOCEAN SEDCOFOREX KILL SHEETS

The following 4 worked examples (oilfield units) are included:
Surface BOP: Vertical Well Deviated Well
Subsea BOP: Vertical Well Deviated Well
Wait & Weight Method

(Calculations required for completing Kill Sheet)
1. Calculate the kill mud weight using the stabilized SIDPP.
KMW (ppg) = [SIDPP (psi) ÷ 0.052 ÷ TVD (ft)] + OMW (ppg)
KMW (kg/m 3) = [SIDPP (kPa) x 102 ÷ TVD (m)] + OMW (kg/m3)
KMW (kg/l) = [SIDPP (bar) x 10.2 ÷ TVD (m)] + OMW (kg/l)
A trip margin will not be included in the calculation for kill mud
weight. The main reason for this is to avoid any additional well
pressure that could result in formation breakdown (refer to 5.4.8).
2. Calculate Initial Circulating Pressure.
ICP = SCRP + SIDPP
3. Calculate Final Circulating Pressure.
FCP = SCRP x (KMW ÷ OMW)
4. Calculate surface to bit strokes.
No. of strokes = Drillstring Volume

Pump Output
5. Calculate the time to pump from surface to the bit.
Time (mins) = Total strokes from surface to bit

Strokes per minute
289
Appendix 2 -
6. Once the preceding calculations are completed, plot pump

pressure versus pump strokes and time on the drillpipe pressure
schedule.
• Plot ICP at left of graph.

• Plot FCP at right of graph.
• Connect points with a straight line.
• The pressure drop per increment can be calculated as follows:
Pressure drop per pump stroke = ICP - FCP

Surface to bit strokes
Multiplying the result by ‘100’ will provide the required pressure

drop for every 100 strokes of kill mud pumped.
7. To determine when the influx is inside the shoe:
Bit to Shoe strokes = Bit to shoe volume

Pump output
8. To determine when the kill mud is at surface:
Bit to Surface strokes = Bit to surface volume

Pump output
290
Appendix 2 -
291
Appendix 2 -
292
Appendix 2 -
293
Appendix 2 -
294
Appendix 2 -
295
Appendix 2 -
296
Appendix 2 -
297
Appendix 2 -
298
Appendix 2 -
299
Appendix 2 -
300
Appendix 2 -
2.2 TRANSOCEAN SEDCOFOREX

STRIPPING SHEET
Pre-stripping Calculations
The attached data and calculation sheet should be completed prior to
stripping operations.
Worksheet
Column A Time: Note the time as every operation is done.
Column B Stand No: Note Stand No as every operation is

done.
Column C Bit Depth: Bit depth as pipe is being stripped.
Column D Trip tank volume (start): Note volume of mud in trip

tank prior to stripping of given stand.
Column E Volume bled to strip tank: Volume bled at a single

operation, if influx is left to migrate, write zero (0). When
the influx is at surface, stop bleeding process, because
BHP decrease at this point will lead to another influx.
Then proceed with the static volumetric process
described in 6.3.1.
Column F Trip tank volume (after bleed): Note volume in

trip tank once closed-end displacement volume is
bled off.
Column G Net gain: (Column F) - (Column D)
Column H Total gain: Cumulative of Column G. Once

volume reaches predetermined volume (W from
calculation sheet), the Pchoke is increased and
volume zeroed.
301
Appendix 2 -
Column I Pchoke: Choke Pressure used to monitor the well

pressure.
Note: When stripping procedures are completed, killing procedures

should be followed.
302
Appendix 2 -
Stripping Procedures - Pre-stripping Calculations
Well No: Rig: Date:
DATA
Hole Measured Depth (A) = ft OH Dia (G) = ins
Bit Measured Depth (B) = ft ODdc (H) = ins
Mud Weight (C) = ppg ODdp (I) = ins
Influx Vol (D) = bbls IDdp (J) = ins
Influx Gradient (E) = psi/ft Mud Gradient (K) = psi/ft

(use 0.1 psi/ft if unknown)
Pstep (L) = psi
SICP (F) = psi MAASP (M) = psi
CALCULATIONS
OH Capacity (N) = (G)2/1029.4 bbls/ft
OH: DC Capacity (O) = {(G)2 - (H)2}/1029.4 bbls/ft
DP Capacity (P) = (J)2/1029.4 bbls/ft
DP Metal Displacement (Q) = {(I)2 - (J)2}/1029.4 bbls/ft
Closed End Displacement (R) = (P) + (Q) bbls/ft
OH Influx Height (S) = (D)/(N) ft
Influx Height around DC’s (T) = (D)/(O) ft
Psaf (U) = {(T) - (S)} x {(K) - (E)} psi
Volume Increment (V) = (K)/(O) psi/bbls
Volume increase to change Pchoke (W) = (L)/(V) bbls
Pchoke = SICP (F) + Pstep (L) + Psaf (U) psi
303
Appendix 2 -
Stripping Procedures - Worksheet

*Pchoke Comments
J
I
Cumul G
Total
Gain
H
Trip Tank Net Gain
(F-D)
G
Vol After
Bleed
F
Vol Bled
to Strip
Tank
E
Bit Depth Trip Tank
Start
Vol
D
C
Std No
B
Time
A
Note: *Pchoke is kept constant until Total Gain (H) equals pre-determined volume
increase (W). Pchoke is then increased by Pstep (L).
304
Appendix 2 -
2.3 DIVERTING PROCEDURES (SURFACE)
TSF WELL CONTROL PROCEDURES

While posted Instruction are to divert
Surface BOP
While Drilling While Tripping
IF IF
Well starts to flow Well starts to flow
• Do NOT stop pumping • Stop tripping and set slips

• Open diverter line/ • Open diverter line/
close diverter close diverter
• Increase pump speed • Make up kelly or
• Switch to heavy mud reconnect the TDS
• Raise alarm • Start pumping at

maximum speed
• Keep pumping as long as
well continues to flow • Switch to heavy mud
• Raise alarm
• Keep pumping as long as
well continues to flow
305
Appendix 2 -
DIVERTING PROCEDURES (SUBSEA)
TSF WELL CONTROL PROCEDURES

While posted Instruction are to divert
Subsea BOP
While Drilling While Tripping
IF IF
Well starts to flow Well starts to flow
• Do NOT stop pumping • Stop tripping and set slips

• Open diverter line/ • Open diverter line/
close diverter close diverter
• Increase pump speed • Make up kelly or stab in
• Disconnect pin connector TDS
or open dump valve/ • Start pumping at
increase slip joint packer maximum speed
pressure as applicable • Switch to heavy mud
• Switch to heavy mud • Raise alarm
• Raise alarm • Keep pumping as long as
• Keep pumping as long as well continues to flow
well continues to flow
306
Appendix 2 -
2.4 WELL CONTROL RECORD

RIG: DATE:
COUNTRY /AREA T.V.D. WELL KICKED WHILE:

OPERATOR MD DRILLING
WELL LAST CSG SIZE FISHING
WATER DEPTH LAST CSG DEPTH TRIPPING
RISER SIZE FT. CSG GRADE WT/FT LOGGING
B.O.P. SIZE/RATING LEAK OFF TEST (PPG) CASING
MUD WT. GAIN BBLS CORING
MUD TYPE HEAVE OTHER
YIELD PT. PLASTIC VIS
A. DESCRIBE OPERATIONS AND ACTION TAKEN UNTILWELLSHUTIN
B. WELLSHUTIN WITH P.S.I. ON D.PAND P.S.I. ON CSG@ HRS
TIME ALLOWED FOR PRESSURES TO STABILIZE
307
Appendix 2 -
WELL CONTROL RECORD

C. DESCRIBE KILL OPERATION
PRESSURE, BBLS, TIMES, ETC.
TIME STROKES DPP CP PIT.VOL REMARKS

CHANGE
BBLS
308
Appendix 2 -
WELL CONTROL RECORD

D. GENERAL
1. ANYEQUIPMENT FAILURES (MALFUNCTIONS)
2. ATTACH ADDITIONAL PAGES IF REQUIRED

3. ATTACH KICK SHEETAS USED TO KILLWELL.
4. NOTE ANYDEVIATION FROM WELLCONTROLPOLICY.
5. GENERALCOMMENTS & RECOMMENDATIONS.
E. FOLLOWING PERSONNELWERE INVOLVED IN THIS OPERATION & THEIR

RESPONSIBILITY WAS:
NAME POSITION RESPONSIBILITY
COPY: OPERATIONS MANAGER / RIG MANAGER / REGION TRAINING CENTRE / RIG FILE
309
Appendix 3 -
Well Control Formulae
3.1 ANY UNITS

1. BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE
(General case)
Ph(DS) + PDP - PLosses (DS)
Ph(Ann) + PAnn + P Losses (Ann)
(Shut In Well)
Ph(DS) + SIDPP
Ph(Ann) + SICP
(Circulating)
Ph(DS) + PDP - PLosses (DS)
Ph(Ann) + APL
Plosses (DS) + APL
(Killing Well @ SCR)

Ph(DS) + PDP - SCRP
Ph(Ann) + PAnn (Surface BOP, assuming negligible APL)
Ph(Ann) + PAnn + CLFL (Subsea BOP, assuming negligible APL)
2. BOYLE’S LAW
P1V1 = P2V2, P2 = P1V1, V2 = P1V1
V2 P2
310
Appendix 3 -
3.2 OILFIELD UNITS

1. PRESSURE GRADIENT (psi/ft)
Mud Weight (ppg) x 0.052
2. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE (psi)

Mud Weight (ppg) x 0.052 x TVD (ft)
3. FORMATION PRESSURE (psi)

Hydrostatic Pressure in Drillpipe (psi) + SIDPP (psi)
4. EQUIVALENT MUD WEIGHT (ppg)

Hydrostatic Pressure of Mud (psi)
TVD (ft) x 0.052
5. EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY (ppg)

Mud Weight (ppg) + Annular Pressure Loss (psi)
0.052 x TVD (ft)
6. KICK TOLERANCE (ppg)

{MAASP (psi) - [Mud Weight (ppg)
x 0.052 x Height of Influx (ft)]}
TVD (ft) x 0.052
7. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR

SURFACE PRESSURE (psi)
LOT (psi) - [Mud Wt (ppg) - Mud WtLOT (ppg)]
x 0.052 x TVD SHOE (ft)
8. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE MUD WEIGHT (ppg)

Mud Weight (ppg) + Leak Off Pressure (psi)
TVDSHOE (ft) x 0.052
9. NEW MAASP WITH KILL MUD WEIGHT (psi)

[Max. Allowable Mud Wt (ppg) - Kill Mud Wt (ppg)]
x 0.052 x TVD SHOE (ft)
10. INITIAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (psi)

SCR or PL (psi) + SIDPP (psi)
311
Appendix 3 -
11. FINAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (psi)

SCR or PL (psi) x Kill Mud Weight (ppg)
Original Mud Weight (ppg)
12. KILL MUD WEIGHT (ppg)

SIDPP (psi) + Original Mud Weight (ppg)
TVD (ft) x 0.052
13. SHUT IN CASING PRESSURE (psi)

{[Mud Gradient (psi/ft) - Influx Gradient (psi/ft)]
x Influx Height (ft)} + SIDPP (psi)
14. HEIGHT OF INFLUX ALONG HOLE (ft)

Kick Size (bbls)
Annular Volume (bbls/ft)
15. GRADIENT OF INFLUX (psi/ft)

[Mud Weight (ppg) x 0.052] - [SICP (psi) - SIDPP (psi)]
Influx TVD Height (ft)
16. PUMP OUTPUT (bbls/min)

Liner Capacity (bbls/stk) x Pump Speed (spm)
17. ANNULAR VELOCITY (ft/min)

Pump Ouput (bbls/min)
Annular Volume (bbls/ft)
18. TRIP MARGIN/SAFETY FACTOR (ppg)

Mud Weight (ppg) + Safety Margin (psi)
TVD (ft) x 0.052
19. NEW PUMP PRESSURE WITH NEW PUMP STROKES (psi)

Current Pressure (psi) x New SPM 2 (approximate)
(
Old SPM )
20. NEW PRESSURE LOSS WITH NEW MUD WT(psi)
Original Pressure Loss (psi) x New Mud Wt (ppg)
Old Mud Wt (ppg)
312
Appendix 3 -
21. RATE OF GAS MIGRATION (ft/hr)

Increase in SIDPP (psi/hr)
Mud Weight (ppg) x 0.052
22. VOLUME TO BLEED TO MAINTAIN BHP (bbls)

Increase in Pressure (psi) x Original Kick Volume (bbls)
Formation Pressure (psi) - Increase in Pressure (psi)
23. BARITE REQUIRED TO RAISE MUD WT (ppb)

[Kill Mud Weight (ppg) - Original Mud Weight (ppg)] x 1500
35.5 - Kill Mud Weight (ppg)
24. SLUG VOLUME (bbls)

Length of Dry Pipe (ft) x DP Cap (bbls/ft) x Mud Wt (ppg)
Slug Wt (ppg) - Mud Wt (ppg)
25. PIT GAIN DUE TO SLUG U-TUBING (bbls)

Slug Wt (ppg)
Slug Vol (bbls) x (
Mud Wt (ppg)
-1 )
26. PIPE TO PULL BEFORE WELL FLOWS (ft)
Overbalance (psi) x [Csg Cap (bbls/ft) - DP Disp (bbls/ft)]
Mud Weight (ppg) x 0.052 x DP Disp (bbls/ft)
27. PRESSURE DROP/ FT TRIPPING DRY PIPE (psi/ft)

Mud Weight (ppg) x 0.052 x DP Disp (bbls/ft)
Csg Cap (bbls/ft) - DP Disp (bbls/ft)
28. PRESSURE DROP/ FT TRIPPING WET PIPE (psi/ft)

Mud Weight (ppg) x 0.052 x [DP Disp (bbls/ft)
+ DP Cap (bbls/ft)]
Annular Cap (bbls/ft)
29. DROP IN MUD LEVEL, POOH WITH DCs [DRY] (ft)

Length of Drill Collars (ft) x DC Disp (bbls/ft)
Casing Cap (bbls/ft)
313
Appendix 3 -
3.3 METRIC UNITS

1. PRESSURE GRADIENT (bar/m)
Mud Weight (kg/l)
10.2
2. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE (bar)

Mud Weight (kg/l) x TVD (m)
10.2
3. FORMATION PRESSURE (bar)

Hydrostatic Pressure in Drillpipe (bar) + SIDPP (bar)
4. EQUIVALENT MUD WEIGHT (kg/l)

Pressure (bar) x 10.2
TVD (m)
5. EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY (kg/l)

Mud Weight (kg/l) + Annular Pressure Loss (bar) x 10.2
TVD (m)
6. KICK TOLERANCE (kg/l)

{MAASP (bar) - [Mud Weight (kg/l) x Height of Influx (m)] x 10.2}
10.2 x TVD (m)
7. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE

(bar)
LOT (bar) - {[Mud Wt (kg/l) - Mud Wt LOT (kg/l)]
x TVDSHOE (m)}
10.2
8. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE MUD WEIGHT (kg/l)

Mud Weight (kg/l) + Leak Off Pressure (bar) x 10.2
TVDSHOE (m)
9. NEW MAASP WITH KILL MUD WEIGHT (bar)

[Max Allowable Mud Wt (kg/l) - Kill Mud Wt (kg/l)]
x TVDSHOE (m)
10.2
314
Appendix 3 -
10. INITIAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (bar)

SCR or PL (bar) + SIDPP (bar)
11. FINAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (bar)

SCR or PL (bar) x Kill Mud Weight (kg/l)
Original Mud Weight (kg/l)
12. KILL MUD WEIGHT (kg/l)

SIDPP (bar) x 10.2 + Original Mud Weight (kg/l)
TVD (m)
13. SHUT IN CASING PRESSURE (bar)

{[Mud Gradient (bar/m) - Influx Gradient (bar m)]
x Influx Height (m)} + SIDPP (bar)
14. HEIGHT OF INFLUX ALONG HOLE (m)

Kick Size (litres)
Annular Volume (litres/m)
15. GRADIENT OF INFLUX (bar/m)

Mud Weight (kg/l) - [SICP (bar) - SIDPP (bar)]
10.2 Influx TVD Height (m)
16. PUMP OUTPUT (litre/min)

Liner Capacity (litres/stk) x Pump Speed (spm)
17. ANNULAR VELOCITY (m/min)

Pump Output (litres/min)
Annular Volume (litres/m)
18. TRIP MARGIN/SAFETY FACTOR (kg/l)

Mud Weight (kg/l) + Safety Margin (bar) x 10.2
TVD (m)
19. NEW PUMP PRESSURE WITH NEW PUMP STROKES (bar)

Current Pressure (bar) x New SPM 2 (approximate)
(
Old SPM )
315
Appendix 3 -
20. NEW PRESSURE LOSS WITH NEW MUD WT (bar)

Original Pressure Loss (bar) x New Mud Wt (kg/l)
Old Mud Wt (kg/l)
21. RATE OF GAS MIGRATION (m/hr)

Increase in SIDPP (bar/hr) x 10.2
Mud Weight (kg / l)
22. VOLUME TO BLEED TO MAINTAIN BHP (litres)

Increase in Pressure (bar) x Original Kick Volume (litres)
Formation Pressure (bar) - Increase in Pressure (bar)
23. BARITE REQUIRED TO RAISE MUD WT (kg/m3)

[Kill Mud Weight (kg/l) - Original Mud Weight (kg/l)] x 4200
4.2 - Kill Mud Weight (kg/l)
24. SLUG VOLUME (m 3)

Length of Dry Pipe (m) x DP Cap (l/m) x Mud Weight (kg/l)
Slug Wt (kg/l) - Mud Wt (kg/l)
25. PIT GAIN DUE TO SLUG U-TUBING (m3)

Slug Wt (kg/l)
Slug Volume (m3) x (
Mud Wt (kg/l)
-1 )
26. PIPE TO PULL BEFORE WELL FLOWS (m)
Overbalance (bar) x [Csg Cap (l/m) - DP Disp (l/m)] x 10.2
Mud Weight (kg/l) x DP Disp (l/m)
27. PRESSURE DROP/FT TRIPPING DRY PIPE (bar/m)

Mud Weight (kg/l) x DP Disp (l/m)
Csg Cap (l/m) - DP Disp (l/m) x 10.2
28. PRESSURE DROP/FT TRIPPING WET PIPE (bar/m)

Mud Weight (kg/l) x [DP Disp (l/m) + DP Cap (l/m)]
Annular Cap (l/m) x 10.2
29. DROP IN MUD LEVEL POOH WITH DCs [DRY] (m)

Length of Drill Collars (m) x DC Disp (l/m)
Casing Cap (l/m)
316
Appendix 3 -
3.4 SI UNITS
1. PRESSURE GRADIENT (kPa/m)
Mud Weight (kg/m3)
102
2. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE (kPa)

Mud Weight (kg/m3) x TVD (m)
102
3. FORMATION PRESSURE (kPa)

Hydrostatic Pressure in Drillpipe (kPa) + SIDPP (kPa)
4. EQUIVALENT MUD WEIGHT (kg/m3)

Pressure (kPa) x 102
TVD (m)
5. EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY (kg/m3)

Mud Weight (kg/m3) + Annular Pressure Loss (kPa) x 102
TVD (m)
6. KICK TOLERANCE (kg/m3)

{MAASP (kPa) - [Mud Wt (kg/m3) x Height of Influx (m)]
x 102}
102 x TVD (m)
7. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE

(kPa)
LOT (kPa) - {[Mud Wt (kg/m3) - Mud Wt LOT (kg/m3)]
x TVDSHOE} (m)
102
8. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE MUD WEIGHT (kg/m3)

Mud Weight (kg/m3) + Leak Off Pressure (kPa) x 102
TVDSHOE (m)
9. NEW MAASP WITH KILL MUD WEIGHT (kPa)

[Max Allow Mud Wt (kg/m 3) - Kill Mud Wt (kg/m3)]
x TVDSHOE (m)
102
317
Appendix 3 -
10. INITIAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (kPa)

SCR or PL (kPa) + SIDPP (kPa)
11. FINAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (kPa)

SCR or PL (kPa) x Kill Mud Weight (kg/m3)
Original Mud Weight (kg/m 3)
12. KILL MUD WEIGHT (kg/m 3)

SIDPP (kPa) x 102 + Original Mud Weight (kg/m3)
TVD (m)
13. SHUT IN CASING PRESSURE (kPa)

{[Mud Gradient (kPa/m) - Influx Gradient (kPa/m)]
x Influx Height (m)} + SIDPP (kPa)
14. HEIGHT OF INFLUX ALONG HOLE (m)

Kick Size (m 3)
Annular Volume (m3/m)
15. GRADIENT OF INFLUX (kPa/m)

[Mud Weight (kg/m3)] - [SICP (kPa) - SIDPP (kPa)]
102 Influx TVD Height (m)
16. PUMP OUTPUT (m3/min)

Liner Capacity (m 3/stk) x Pump Speed (spm)
17. ANNULAR VELOCITY (m/min)

Pump Output (m 3/min)
Annular Volume (m3/m)
18. TRIP MARGIN/SAFETY FACTOR (kg/m3)

Mud Weight (kg/m 3) + Safety Margin (kPa) x 102
TVD (m)
19. NEW PUMP PRESSURE WITH NEW PUMP STROKES (kPa)

Current Pressure (kPa) x New SPM 2 (approximate)
(
Old SPM )
318
Appendix 3 -
20. NEW PRESSURE LOSS WITH NEW MUD WT (kPa)

Original Pressure Loss (kPa) x New Mud Wt (kg/m3)
Old Mud Wt (kg/m 3)
21. RATE OF GAS MIGRATION (m/hr)

Increase in SIDPP (kPa/hr) x 102
Mud Weight (kg/m3)
22. VOLUME TO BLEED TO MAINTAIN BHP (m3)

Increase in Pressure (kPa) x Original Kick Volume (m3)
Formation Pressure (kPa) - Increase in Pressure (kPa)
23. BARITE REQUIRED TO RAISE MUD WT (kg/m3)

[Kill Mud Weight (kg/m 3) - Original Mud Weight (kg/m3)]
x 4200
4200 - Kill Mud Weight (kg/m3)
24. SLUG VOLUME (m3)

Length of Dry Pipe (m) x DP Cap (m3/m) x Mud Wt (kg/m 3)
[Slug Wt (kg/m 3) - Mud Wt (kg/m3)]
25. PIT GAIN DUE TO SLUG (m 3)

Slug Wt (kg/m 3)
Slug Volume (m3) x (
Mud Wt (kg/m3)
-1 )
26. PIPE TO PULL BEFORE WELL FLOWS (m)
Overbalance (kPa) x [Csg Cap (m3/m) - DPDisp (m3/m)] x 102
Mud Weight (kg/m 3) x DP Disp (m3/m)
27. PRESSURE DROP/FT TRIPPING DRY PIPE (kPa/m)

Mud Weight (kg/m3) x DP Disp (m3/m)
Csg Cap (m3/m) - DP Disp (m3/m) x 102
28. PRESSURE DROP/FT TRIPPING WET PIPE (kPa/m)

Mud Weight (kg/m3) x [DP Disp (m3/m) + DP Cap (m 3/m)]
Annular Cap (m 3/m) x 102
29. DROP IN MUD LEVEL POOH WITH DCs [DRY] (m)

Length of Drill Collars (m) x DC Disp (m3/m)
Casing Cap (m 3/m)
319
Appendix 4 -
Conversion Factors
MULTIPLY BY TO GET
Depth
Feet 0.3048 Metres
Metres 3.2808 Feet
Volume
Gallon (US) 0.003785 Cubic Meters
3.785 Litres
Barrel (US) 0.15897 Cubic Meters
158.97 Litres
Cubic Meters 6.2905 Barrel (US)
Litres 0.0062905
Cubic Meters 264.2 Gallon (US)
Litres 0.2642
Pressure
Psi 6.895 Kilo Pascals (kPa)
Psi 0.06895 Bar
KPa 0.14503 Psi
0.01 Bar
Kg/cm2 98.1 Kilo Pascals (kPa)
Kg/cm2 14.223 Psi
Bar 100 Kilo Pascals (kPa)
Bar 14.5 Psi
Mud Weight
Kg/l 8.33 PPG
PPG 119.8 Kg/m3
PPG 0.12 Kg/l
Kg/m3 0.00835 PPG
Pressure Gradient
Psi/ft 22.62 kPa/m
Psi/ft 0.2262 Bar/metre
kPa/m 0.04421 psi/ft
kPa/m 0.01 Bar/metre
320
Appendix 4 -
Conversion Factors
MULTIPLY BY TO GET
Mud Weight to Pressure Gradient
PPG 0.052 psi/ft
Kg/l 0.433 psi/ft
Kg/l 0.0981 Bar/metre
Lb/ft3 0.006944 psi/ft
Kg/m3 0.000434 psi/ft
Kg/m3 0.00982 kPa/m
Flow Rate
Gallons/min 0.003785 m3/min
3.785 litre/min
Barrels/min 0.159 m3/min
159 litre/min
Cubic meters/min 6.2905 bbls/min
Litres/min 0.0062905 bbls/min
Cubic meters/min 264.2 gals/min
Litres/min 0.2642 gals/min
Annular Velocity
Ft/min 0.3048 m/min
m/min 3.2808 ft/min
Force
Pounds Force 0.445 Decanewtons
DecaNewtons 2.2472 Pounds Force
Mass
Pounds 0.454 Kilograms
Kilograms 2.2026 Pounds
Tons (long 2240 lbs) 1017 Kilograms
Tons (short 2000 lbs) 908.04 Kilograms
Tons (metric) 1000 Kilograms
Tons (metric) 2202.6 Pounds
321
Appendix 4 -
Conversion Factors
MULTIPLY BY TO GET
Pipe Weights
Lb/ft 1.49 kg/m
Kg/m 0.671 lb/ft
BUOYANCY FACTOR: 1 - (FLUID DENSITY ÷ STEEL DENSITY)

Steel: 7.85 kg/m3, 489.58 lbs/ft3, 3.412 psi/ft
322
Appendix 5 -
Seismic Evaluation for Shallow Gas Survey
The following is a quick summary reminder of things to check.
5.1 OPTIMIZE PRELIMINARY SHALLOW GAS

INVESTIGATION
• Seismic surveys.
• Soil sampling.
• Pilot holes (pre-spud).
5.2 AVOID SHALLOW GAS WHERE POSSIBLE

• Reposition drilling location.
• Re-arrange casing schemes and use BOP’s.
• Apply strict shallow gas procedures.
5.3 REDUCE RISK TO RIG IN CASE OF

SHALLOW GAS
• Divert subsea.
• Employ riserless drilling.
• Drill small diameter pilot hole.
Some of the seismic survey high resolution techniques available are

not reliable or suitable for shallow gas evaluation. The following flow
chart will help you evaluate whether the survey has been conducted
satisfactorily.
323
Appendix 5 -
Seismic Evaluation for Shallow Gas Survey
Figure A5.1: TSF Decision Tree for Shallow Gas Seismic Survey
IS THERE A MULTI-CHANNEL, HIGH

RESOLUTION DIGITAL SEISMIC SURVEY?
YES NO
WHAT SOURCE WAS USED?

IN THE ABSENCE OF THIS SURVEY
DATA THE OPERATOR MUST BE
REQUESTED TO CONDUCT THE
SURVEY PRIOR TO SPUDDING.
THE OPERATIONS MANAGER SHOULD
REFER TO THE REGION MANAGER IF
AIR GUNS OR SPARKER SURVEY THE SURVEY WILL NOT BE DONE.
WATER GUNS OLD TECHNOLOGY
POOR RESULTS
OKAY QUALITY DOUBTFUL
HOW MANY CHANNELS

WERE RECORDED AND AT
WHAT SAMPLING RATE?
48 CHANNELS;
0.5 TO 1 24 CHANNELS
MILLISECOND OR LESS
RATE
OKAY NOT GOOD
WHAT LENGTH OF
STREAMER WAS USED?
300 METRES,
600 METRES, OK
NOT GOOD
DO YOU MIND IF I HAVE A CONFIDENTIAL

COPY OF THE SURVEY FOR INDEPENDENT
COMMENTS WITH RESPECT TO SHALLOW GAS?
324
Appendix 6 -
Procedures for Conducting Lot/Fit
LOT Procedure
• Drill out float collar, shoe, ‘rathole’ and 10-15 feet (3-5 m) of new
hole.
• Circulate and condition hole until the mud weight is uniform
throughout.
• Pull bit inside casing shoe.
• Line up a high pressure, low volume pump such as a cement pump.
Rig pumps are not suitable for performing leak-off tests.
• Close BOP (hang-off string on floating units). Where practicable,
open annulus between last casing and previous casing strings to
avoid pressure build-up.
• Circulate down the drillpipe, up the annulus and through the choke
to confirm the correct line up and to flush air from the system. Close
the valve on the drill pipe and pressure test the surface lines.
• Pump down the drillpipe or the annulus (it is preferable to pump
down the string since the effects of mud gellation and drilled solids
will be less) in either of the following ways:
- 0.25-0.5 bbl (0.040-0.080 m3) stages with two minute stops
between each stage to allow the pressure to stabilize. Repeat
pumping the selected increment, plotting the stabilized pressures
until the trend of the final pumping pressure curve deviates from
that of the final static pressure curve. Plot final pump pressure
and final static pressure versus cumulative pumped volume on
the same graph.
- Continuously at 0.25-0.5 bbl (0.040-0.080 m3) per minute, plotting
the pressure versus cumulative volume pumped every 0.25 bbls
(0.040 m3).
• Monitor the final static pressure for 5-10 minutes.
• Bleed off the pressure by opening the return line back to the
displacement tank and record the volume of fluid returned.
The object of the above test is not to fracture the formation, but
rather to identify the “formation intake pressure”. This “intake
pressure” is identified as that point where a deviation occurs
between the trends of the final pump pressure curve and the static
pressure curve (see figure A6.1). Once the formation intake
pressure has been reached, further pumping should be avoided.
325
Appendix 6 -
If pumping is continued a fracture could occur, characterized by a

sharp drop in pressure. Once formation breakdown has been initiat-
ed any further pumping will cause loss of fluid at a lower pressure
referred to as the fracture propagation pressure.
Formation intake
x x x
Pressure
Pressure
x
Cumulative Volume
Figure A6.1: Consolidated Formation LOT
FIT Procedure
In consolidated hard rock areas a Formation Integrity Test, FIT (also
known as formation limit or shoe integrity test) should be performed
instead of a leak-off test. If the leak-off test is carried out a fracture
may be propagated causing a reduction in wellbore integrity. For such
areas, the formation of interest should be tested to the desired test
pressure for the well program. Pumping should be stopped when the
predicted fracture pressure is reached (see figure A6.2).
A FIT may also be performed where there is a sufficiently large kick

tolerance for the subsequent section without having to take pressures
near to leak-off.
326
Appendix 6 -
Desired Test
Pressure Test
Pressure
Cumulative Volume
Figure A6.2: Consolidated Formation FIT
In unconsolidated formation, the final pumping pressure will always

be higher than the final static pressure. Intake pressure can only be
approximated. Generally the information is adequate since the main
purpose of the test is to verify the competency of the cement bond
around the shoe.
Estimated
formation
intake
Pressure x x
Pressure x
x
x
x
x
Cumulative Volume
Figure A6.3: Unconsolidated Formation LOT
327
Appendix 7 -
Choke Line Friction Losses (CLFL)
7.1 PRESSURE LOSSES IN SUBSEA KILL

OPERATIONS
In subsea situations, a pressure loss exists
when circulating through the choke due to
the friction losses in the extended choke
line from the BOP to surface. This pressure
loss is not present when the SCRP is
measured by circulating up the marine riser
(see figure A7.1).
If the normal method of bringing a pump to

kill speed is followed (i.e. choke manifold
pressure maintained equal to SICP until kill
rate is achieved), BHP will be increased by
an amount equal to CLFL. This excess
pressure may result in lost circulation
problems during the kill operations.
Figure A7.1: Conventional
Since CLFL increases and fracture gradi- SCRP Flow Path
ents generally decrease with increased
water depth, correct handling of the CLFL becomes more critical as
water depth increases. Beyond approximately 500 ft (150 m) water
depths, CLFL should always be considered when planning well
control operations.
7.2 PROCEDURES FOR RECORDING CLFL

There are four recognised methods of recording choke line friction
losses at Slow Circulating Rates of 1-5 bbls/ min (0.16-0.8 m3/min).
• Take the difference between the drillpipe pressure required to

circulate the well through a full open choke with the BOP closed and
the drillpipe pressure required to circulate the well through the
marine riser with the BOP open.
328
Appendix 7 -
• Circulate the well through a full open choke with the BOP closed
and recording the pressure on the (static) kill line. The kill line
pressure will reflect the choke line pressure loss.
• Circulate down the choke line and up the marine riser with the BOP
open. The pressure required for circulation is a direct reflection of
the choke line pressure loss.
• Circulate down the kill line taking returns
through a full open choke with the well-
bore and riser isolated by closing the
BOP’s. Pressure observed is double the
choke line pressure loss.
The pressure readings provided by the

choke manifold pressure sensor, rather
than the pump pressure gauge, should be
recorded since the effect of the pressure
losses between the pump and the choke
manifold are eliminated.
7.3 BRINGING PUMP UP TO KILL

RATE SPEED (NON
INSTRUMENTED BOP) Figure A7.2
To accomplish constant BHP, a method

must be used to keep total applied casing
pressures relatively constant while bringing
the mud pump to kill rate.
If CLFL is not accounted for, casing pres-

sure varies from SICP at pump start-up to
(SICP + CLFL) with the pump at kill rate.
This results in BHP increasing by an
amount equal to CLFL, as shown in figures
A7.2 and A7.3.
To eliminate this problem, two methods

exist.
Figure A7.3
329
Appendix 7 -
Method 1 - Use known CLFL
By reducing choke pressure by an amount

equal to a known CLFL, the effect of the
CLFL is negated. This is accomplished by
reducing the original SICP by the amount of
CLFL while bringing the pump to speed
(see figure A7.4).
Reduced Choke Pressure

= SICP - CLFL
= 700 - 200 = 500 psi
A pressure chart must be created for

bringing the well up to kill rate. The
pressure vs. stroke relationship is not a
straight line effect and the following Figure A7.4
relationship should be used:
• 4 identical pressure drops relate to 1/2, 3/4, 7/8 and full kill rate
speed.
Using the example above with a kill rate speed of 50spm:
• 4 equal pressure drops = CLFL = 200 = 50 psi steps

4 4
Corresponding pump rates:
• 1/2 x 50 = 25 spm
• 3/4 x 50 = 38 spm
• 7/8 x 50 = 44 spm
• 1 x 50 = 50 spm
330
Appendix 7 -
This gives the following schedule:
SPM Pressure (psi)

0 700 (SICP)
25 650
38 600
44 550
50 500 (SICP-CLFL)
Once kill rate has been reached,

the choke operator switches over to
the drillpipe gauge and follows the
drillpipe pressure graph in the
usual way.
Method 2 - Use kill line for

pressure monitoring
If it is possible to use the kill line

(shut off down-stream of the gauge
outlet to prevent flow) to provide
a pressure reading at a point
upstream of any CLFL, then the kill
line gauge is kept constant while
bringing the pump to speed
eliminating the effect of CLFL (see Figure A7.5
figure A7.5).
The advantages of this method include:
• The gauge reading choke manifold pressure will show a decrease

after pump is up to speed. The amount of this decrease is equal to
the CLFL.
• No pre-calculated or pre-measured CLFL information is required.
• The kill line gauge can be subsequently used like the choke mani-
fold pressure gauge on a surface stack for the purposes of altering
pump rates or problem analysis.
331
Appendix 7 -
Note: If the second method of handling the CLFL situation is

preferred, it would be advisable to rig a remote kill line pressure
gauge which could be seen by the choke operator.
It is extremely important to note that regardless of which method is

used, they both accomplish the goal of maintaining constant BHP.
This is done without the need to alter any calculations on the kill
sheet. Thus ICP and FCP, which are read on the drillpipe gauge, are
unaffected by CLFL. CLFL is recorded on the Kill Sheet for conven-
ience only.
It should be noted that it will only be possible to use the above

recommended methods when SICP is greater than CLFL. If this is not
true, it will be unavoidable to apply excess pressure to the bottom of
the hole using standard well control procedures. Also, as kill mud
comes up the annulus, total casing pressure needed to maintain
constant BHP will eventually drop below CLFL. After this point,
drillpipe pressure will exceed planned FCP in spite of having the
choke wide open.
These situations can be mitigated by use of unusually slow pumping

rates or by taking returns up choke and kill lines simultaneously.
332
Appendix 8 -
Annular Pressure Loss (APL) Calculation Sheet
The annular pressure loss (APL) is calculated with the following

equation:
APL = SCRP - DSPL - SPL - BPL
Where:
APL = annular pressure loss.
SCRP = slow circulating rate pressure (measured).
SPL = surface pressure loss (measured).
BPL = bit and nozzle pressure loss (calculated).
DSPL = drillstring pressure loss (calculated).
The following example uses oilfield units:
1 Obtain the dimensional parameters required:
Drill pipe ID ddp (inches)

Drill pipe length Ldp (feet)
Drill collar ID ddc (inches)
Drill collar length Ldc (feet)
Kill mud plastic viscosity PV (centipoise)
Kill mud yield point YP (lb/100ft2)
Kill mud weight KMW (ppg)
Depth of bit TD (feet)
Measured SCRP @ TD SCRPTD (psi)
Measured SPL SPL (psi)
Flowrate Q (gpm)
Total flow area of bit A (in2)
2 Calculate the average fluid velocity (ft/sec):
Drill collars: Vdc = GPM ÷ (2.448 x ddc2)

Drill pipe: Vdp = GPM ÷ (2.448 x ddp2)
333
Appendix 8 -
3 Calculate the frictional pressure losses (psi) in the drillstring:
Drill collars: PLdc = (PV x V dc x Ldc) + (YP x Ldc)

(1500 x d dc2) (225 x ddc)
Drill pipe: PLdc = (PV x V dp x Ldp) + (YP x Ldp)

(1500 x d dp2) (225 x ddp)
➱ DSPL = PLdc + PLdp
Note: the effects of drill pipe internal upsets are considered

negligible. Additional pressure loss for motors, MWD, etc
needs to be added.
4 Calculate the pressure drop across the bit (psi):
BPL = Q2 x KMW
12031 x A2
5 Determine APL:
measured measured
➱ APL = SCRP - DSPL - SPL - BPL
calculated in #3 above calculated in #4 above
An example calculation follows:
334
Appendix 8 -
335
Appendix 9 -
Bullheading Calculations
Bullheading procedures are produced with reference to the particular

circumstances at the rig site. For example, during a workover
operation a procedure for bullheading will be drawn up along the
following lines:
• Calculate the surface pressure that will cause formation fracturing
during the bullheading operation.
• Calculate the tubing (or drill pipe) burst pressure as well as casing
burst (to cover the possibility of tubing/drillpipe failure during the
operation).
• Calculate static tubing head (or drillpipe) pressure during bull-
heading.
• Slowly pump fluid down the tubing/drillpipe. Monitor pump and
casing pressure during the operation.
As an example, consider the following well which is to be killed by

bullheading brine down the tubing:
Data
Depth of formation/top perforation = 10,000 feet TVD
Formation pressure, EMW pf = 9 ppg
Formation fracture pressure, EMW pfb = 14 ppg
Tubing 41/2", N80,11.6# Internal capacity = 0.0155 bbls/ft
Internal yield = 7,774 psi
Shut-in tubing head pressure = 3,650 psi
Gas density = 0.1 psi/ft
Calculations
• Total internal volume of tubing

= 10,000 ft x 0.0155 bbls/ft = 155 bbls
• Maximum allowable pressure at pump start up

= (14 ppg x 10,000 ft x 0.052) - (0.1 psi/ft x 10,000 ft) = 6,280 psi
• Maximum allowable pressure when the tubing has been

displaced to 9ppg brine
= (14 ppg - 9 ppg) x 10,000 ft x .052 = 2,600 psi
336
Appendix 9 -
Bullheading Calculations
• Static tubing head pressure at initial shut-in

= 3,650 psi
• Static tubing head pressure when tubing has been displaced to

brine
= 0 psi (i.e. the tubing should be dead)
The above values can be represented graphically (as shown in the

Figure A9.1 below). This plot can be used as a guide during the
bullheading operation.
9000
x x x x
8000 Static tubing pressure
Surface Pressure (psi)
that would fracture

7000 formation
6000
Include 500 psi safety
5000 factor (to avoid
fracturing formation)
4000
3000 Static tubing pressure
to balance formation
2000 pressure
1000 x Tubing Burst Pressure
0
0 50 100 150
Volume of tubing displaced (bbl)
Figure A9.1
337
Appendix 10 -
Mud Gas Separator (MGS) Design
The MGS can only operate effectively and safely if a sufficient mud
seal is maintained on the discharge line:
Figure A10.1: Circulating gas Figure A10.2: Circulating through

through MSG within design MGS outwith design capacity
capacity (unloading gas)
Note: The mud seal is often created by use of a ‘U-tube’.
Figure A10.3: Possible improvement

of mud seal height
338
Appendix 10 -
Mud Gas Separator (MGS) Design
To operate safely, the rig crew should have some means of

controlling the internal MGS pressure and procedures to follow if the
maximum operating criteria are reached or exceeded.
The most common method of measuring the internal MGS pressure

is installation of a very low pressure gauge 0-20 psig (0-150 kPa,
0-1.4 bar) or pressure transmitter on the separator vessel; the
maximum operating criterion in this case corresponds to the hydro-
static head provided by the mud seal
Should MGS overloading occur, consideration should be given to:

• Changing to a slower kill rate.
• Switching the choke and kill manifold outlet to a high pressure
overboard line or production facilities.
• Using the volumetric method to evacuate the gas from the annulus.
System Design
It is essential to verify that the system is capable of handling the

maximum amount of fluid and gas that could be produced by the well
in the case of a severe kick. That value should be obtained from the
Operator and should be compared to the system capacity that can be
obtained from TSF.
NO MODIFICATION SHALL BE DONE TO EXISTING SYSTEMS

WITHOUT PRIOR REVIEW AND APPROVAL BY THE REGION
OFFICE.
In case of doubt concerning the capacity of the MGS system on a rig,

the Operations Manager should contact the Regional office with the
following information:
• Maximum expected or required gas flow rate.
• Separator vessel drawing showing diameter, length and internal
arrangement
• Drawing or sketch of vent line showing line dimension, length,
position and number of elbows and other restrictions.
• Drawing or sketch showing the arrangements, length and size of
the separator discharge line and mud seal.
339

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Foreword

This manual presents the well control policies and procedures of

This manual must be discussed and reviewed with our customers

Whilst every attempt has been made to capture best industry

W. Dennis Heagney Jean Cahuzac

Transocean SedcoForex personnel can forward recommendations for

Throughout this manual, measurements and formulae have been

The most current version of the manual is available in TSFDocs.

Revision Description Date

1 Policies & Responsibilities 5

2 Well Planning Considerations 17

2.1 Formation Pressure 19

3 Well Control Principles 31

3.1 Primary Well Control 32

4 Preparation & Prevention 41

4.1 Preparation of Equipment and Materials 42

5 Actions Upon Taking A Kick 65

5.1 Detecting A Kick 66

6 Well Kill Techniques 81

6.1 Wait and Weight Method 83

7 Well Control Complications/Emergency 111

7.1 Complications 112

8 Specific Environments 137

8.1 Shallow Gas 138

9 Well Control Equipment 243

9.1 Minimum BOP Requirements 245

Appendix 1 Abbreviations & Definitions 280

Well Control Manual Index 340

1.2 Crew Responsibilities During Well Control Operations 11

1.2.1 Offshore Installation Manager (OIM) 11

1.3 Training Requirements 15

1.4 Exemption Process 16

The designated person-in-charge (nominated by OIM) will review the

The responsibilities of TSF personnel as described in this manual in

The term “Operations Manager” used throughout this manual refers

1.1.1.6 Slow circulation rates will be taken:

1.1.1.15 Automatic MAASP control devices will be disabled.

1.1.3.2 Drillers must be instructed in writing on whether to shut-in or divert if

1.1.3.3 Wells will be shut-in using the procedure described in Chapter 5 of

1.2 CREW RESPONSIBILITIES DURING WELL

Convenes a pre-kill meeting in order to establish and agree upon the

Delegates the responsibility for the well control operation to the

Prepares the installation for evacuation in accordance with the level

Informs all shore-based parties as required by the emergency

Arranges assistance as the situation may require.

Delegates someone to maintain a log of events.

Keeps non-essential personnel updated on a regular basis with

The Senior Toolpusher may delegate to the Toolpusher, as required.

Liaises with the Operator Representative throughout the well kill

The Senior Toolpusher, or designee, will operate the choke during

Communicates the status of the well kill operation to the OIM on a

Once the well is shut-in calls the Person-in-Charge.

Monitors the key parameters (e.g. pressures and volumes) and

Operates the mud pump during the kill operation.

Implements instructions from the Toolpusher.

1.2.4 Assistant Driller/Derrickman

Ensures the kick assembly is ready to be picked up, if required.

1.2.6 Operator Representative

Organizes assistance from the Operator’s shore-base, as required.