ramid fiber characteristics

Fiber structure: A series of synthetic polymers in which repeating units containing large phenyl rings are
linked together by amide groups. Amide groups (CO-NH) form strong bonds that are resistant to solvents
and heat. Phenyl rings (or aromatic rings) are bulky six-sided groups of carbon and hydrogen atoms that
prevent polymer chains from rotating and twisting around their chemical bonds.

Fiber properties: They are characterized by medium to ultra-high strength, medium to low elongation and
moderately high to ultra-high modulus with the densities ranging from 1.38g/cm3 to 1.47g/cm3. Heat-
resistant and flame-resistant aramid fibers contain high proportion or meta-oriented phenylene rings,
whereas ultra-high strength high-modulus fibers contain mainly para-oriented phenylene rings.

Chemical properties: All aramids contain amide links that are hydrophilic. However, not all aramid
products absorb moisture the same. The PPD-T (poly-phenylene terephthalamide) fiber has very good
resistance to many organic solvents and salt, but strong acids can cause substantial loss of strength.
Aramid fibers are difficult to dye due to their high Tg. Also, the aromatic nature of para-aramid is
responsible for oxidative reactions when exposed to UV light, that leads to a change in color and loss of
some strength.

Thermal properties: Aramid fibers do not melt in the conventional sense but decompose simultaneously.
They burn only with difficulty because of Limited Oxygen Index (LOI) values. It should be mentioned that
at 300 degrees Celcius some aramid types can still retain about 50% of their strength. Aramids show high
crystallinity which results in negligible shrinkage at high temperature.

Mechanical properties: Aramid yarn has a breaking tenacity of 3045 MPa, in other words more than 5
times than this of steel (under water, aramid is 4 times stronger) and twice than this of glass fiber or nylon.
High strength is a result of its aromatic and amide group and high crystallinity. Aramid retains strength
and modulus at temperatures as high as 300 degrees Celcius. It behaves elastically under tension. When
it comes to severe bending, it shows non-linear plastic deformation. With tension fatigue, no failure is
observed even at impressively high loads and cycle times. Creep strain for aramid is only 0.3%.

To sum up, aramid general characteristics are:

 High strength
 Resistance to absorption
 Resistance to organic solvent, good chemical resistance
 No conductivity
 No melting point
 Low flammability
 Excellent heat, and cut resistance
 Sensitive to acids and ultraviolet radiation
Manufacturing Methods

 Hand lay-up: Most widely used, it is a simple but effective process which takes relatively low
capital investment but high labor cost. “Open” molds are tools that reproduce (or duplicate) only
one side of a product, or a component. For the other side another mold has to be used, and
another component has to be fabricated. The two components are glued back to back and the
outcome is a product with two finished “faces” (and a seem between them). Lay-up is performed
in the following steps: Pigmented gel coat is first applied by brush or spray. After gel coating, a
thin coat of resin (usually polyester) and a thin layer of reinforcement are placed on, and worked
by hand with brushes and rollers, so the resin fully impregnates the fabric. Other layers (usually
chopped strand mat) follow, until the desired thickness and strength are achieved. After cure, the
component is pulled out of the mold (or released) and trimmed. Post-curing at elevated
temperatures in or out of the mold may also take place. The mold is cleaned, re-released (if no
multiple release agent is used) and returned to use. Quality is relatively poor, mainly because high
resin/reinforcement ratio is incorporated in the finished product (higher resin/reinforcement
ratio implies lower strength/weigh ratio).
 Vacuum bagging: The previous process can be greatly improved by vacuum bagging, with a
small increase in capital investment. The gel coat and impregnating procedure is the same, but
before cure, the component is sealed on the mold under a vacuum bag. The air is drawn and the
component is compressed by the atmospheric pressure against the mold surface by the vacuum
bag (serving as the “upper tool”.) This pressurization drives the excess resin and most of the
entrapped air out of the component. The improvement in strength/weight ratio is so great, that
the product can be classified even as “aerospace quality”. The process is particularly useful for
small production runs and prototyping.
 Vacuum infusion: Similar to vacuum bagging, with the difference that reinforcement is laid
on the mold dry. The mold and the reinforcement are sealed and vacuum is drawn form one side.
Once air-tightness is assured resin and hardener are mixed and introduced in the dry
reinforcement by the sucking power of vacuum. A special “flow fabric” and network of “spiral
tube” facilitate the procedure and make sure that resin travels fast everywhere in the mold cavity,
and fully impregnates all the layers or dry reinforcement. The outcome is aerospace quality,
repetitive, featuring very low resin content and high strength. For further information you can
watch this video by Fibermax Composites.
 RTM: Some times called injection molding, this capital intensive process employs a coupling
(male and a female) metal mold that is heated. The reinforcement is cut with precision and placed
in the mold cavity. Usually instead of laying the pieces of reinforcement fabric one by one, a
preform is used (many different layers of reinforcement are pre-cut and held together in
particular pattern, according to the shape of the mold, with the help of a “binder”. This way
loading the reinforcement in the mold can be done with one move.) After loading the
reinforcement the two matching molds are closed tightly and catalyzed resin is pressed inside
through the carefully positioned openings or injection “gates”. The air is expelled through other
carefully positioned openings, the “vents”, and the reinforcement is saturated. The whole process
can be assisted by vacuum (Vacuum Assisted RTM.) When full cure is reached, the component is
ejected from the mold cavity. RTM is used for high production volumes. Quality is very good and
highly repetitive.
 RTM light: This process is a conjunction of RTM and resin infusion. Like RTM we have two
matching molds, but here they are made out of composites. Usually upper one is thinner and
more flexible than the lower. The two molds are closed (or sealed) air tightly by vacuum pressure
alone or vacuum and other mechanical claming. Catalyzed resin is pressed inside the mold.
Injection pressure is much lower that in RTM, where metal molds are used. Heat may be applied,
but usually, again, much lower than in RTM. However, much bigger components can be
manufactured with RTM light, mainly because composite molds can be constructed much bigger.
Also, it is less capital intensive that RTM.
 Press molding: Like RTM, two matching metal molds are heated. Instead of dry reinforcement,
prepregs or pre-impregnated preforms are used. Prepregs are fabrics that are pre-impregnated
with resin (sometimes resin and fillers) and treated with temperature in such a way that are
partially cured (the so called “B stage” of cure.) When reheated in hot press molding, the resin
becomes liquid again, and finally cures.
 Filament winding: is a capital-intensive process used mainly to manufacture small and large
diameter tubing and pressure tanks in medium to high production volume. As the name implies,
it involves the winding of continuous, pre-saturated reinforcing filaments around a rotating
mandrel, until the whole surface is covered at the desired depth. The filaments are saturated as
they pass through a resin bath just before they meet the mandrel. The winding, depending on the
complexity of the machine, can be performed in two or more angles. Also, towpreg or pre-
impregnated, B stage filament can be used (prepreg winding). After cure, at the final stage of
production the mandrel has to be removed, usually with the help of a hydraulic extractor. New,
computer controlled machines and the use of new, innovative mandrels (like inflatable or
sectional) and mandrel shapes have made possible the manufacture of surprisingly more complex
components. Quality of the finished products is usually very good, as the filament reinforcement
is continuous and price relatively low. However, most of the wound products are somewhat resin
rich, and lack longtitudinal reinforcement (mandrel rotation prohibits reinforcement to be placed
along the longitudinal axis of the component).
 Pultrusion: is a sophisticated, continuous, high capital and material intensive process for the
manufacture of composite profile. Unlike filament winding which mounts reinforcement in the
transverse (or circumferential) direction of the mandrel, pultrusion places the primary
reinforcement in the longitudinal direction. As a principle, it is similar to the production of
aluminum profile (although aluminum extrusion is a pushing action.) It is performed by pulling
continuous filaments together with chopped strand mat tapes through a resin bath to a heated
metal die cavity of the desired cross section and shape. This die serves as the mold and the curing
oven at the same time. The higher the temperature of the die, the larger the speed of pulling. It
is also possible, instead of using a resin bath for saturation, to inject the resin directly into the die
cavity. As with aluminum, the profiles produced can be very complex. As the profile is pulled out
already cured, a saw at the end of the production line cuts it to the desired length. Of course,
length of the product is unlimited. Quality of pultruted parts is very good and price very low. They
are used mainly in the construction industry. Their main disadvantage is the luck of transverse
reinforcement as the pulling mechanism makes its placement very difficult.