Gamma Radiography with Iridium 192

ADVANTAGES IN THE NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

OF CASTINGS AND WELDED STRUCTURES

By R. A. Mintern and J. c. Chaston, Ph.D., A.R.S.M.

Gamma radiography was introduced twenty normally be beyond the range of
years or so ago as a supplement to X-ray radio- ordinary X-ray equipment, the radia-
graphy to provide a means of inspecting tion from which is generally less
castings, welded assemblies and other engi- penetrating than that from the gamma
neering structures for internal defects such as ray sources so far employcd.
blowholes and cracks. This method of non- Originally the source of radiation was of
destructive testing has been developed along- course a naturally radioactive material. In the
side X-ray inspection and in general has been early days of gamma radiography it was usual
of special service where to employ either permanently active sealed
( a ) radiographic examination has to be radium sources or short-lived sources filled
carried out in positions that would be with the radioactive gas radon drawn from a
inaccessible to bulky X-ray apparatus radium source. The radiation emitted from
(b) relatively thick and dense metal parts radium or radon is of a strongly penetrating
are to be examined, since these would character and experience showed that it was

Gamma ray inspection, using iridium 192, of one of the welds in a tubular steel
structure by Stewarts and Lloyds Ltd.

Platinum Metals Rev., 1959, 3, (l), 12-16 12

An iridium 192 source in use f o r the
non-dwtructive testing of a welded
steel shell at the works of G. A .
Harvey & Go. (London) Ltd.

particularly suitable for the ex-

amination of thick castings of
steel or copper alloys,
Both these sources are still
available but, since radioactive
isotopes made artificially by irra-
diation in an atomic pile havc
become available, it has been
more customary to employ cobalt
60, which is an isotope of rela-
tively long half life (5.3 years)
and has proved a most attractive
alternative to radium. The radia-
tion emitted from cobalt 60
approximates to X-radiation
generated at 1-18 million volts
and, like that from radium, is
suitable for examining heavy
steel and iron castings up to six
inches in section.
More recently other radioactive isotopes radiation from this isotope becomes negligible
have become available, including iridium 192, at the end of about one week. Iridium 192
tantalum 182, caesium 137 and thulium 170. which then remains, has a half life of 74.4
Of all these, the isotope iridium 192 has been days.
found to have many particularly attractive The nature of the radiation emitted by
characteristics. It is prepared by a neutron- iridium 192 has been discussed by R. Halm-
gamma reaction which takes place when a shaw (I) who points out that the energy
sample of metallic iridium of the required distribution in the gamma ray spectrum is
shape is inserted in the atomic pile. At the complex and is probably not far removed
same time iridium 194 is also produced hut, from that quoted by Muller (2) and his
as this has a half life of only 19 hours, the colleagues and shown in the table.
The work of Halmshaw suggests that a
slightly larger proportion of the higher energy
Gamma Ray Spectrum of Iridium 192
spectrum lines than are indicated by this
inergy of Spectrum Line
(MeV)
I Relative Intensity table may be present, and from experiments
with exposure curves he concludes that the
radiation from iridium 192is roughly equiva-
0.207 I
0.206 7.5 lent to that from an X-ray tube running at a
0.296 38 peak voltage of 800 to 900 kV.
0.308 37
0.316 I00 From theoretical reasoning it is very
0.468 30 difficult to compare the value of different
0.485 1.1
0.588 1.1 sources of gamma radiation, hut Halmshaw
0.605 I.4 has shown that the radiation from iridium 192
0.6 I 3 0.5
is, as would be expected, inferior to 200 kV

Platinum Metals Rev., 1959, 3, (1) 13

or 400 kV X-rays for detection of fine cracks, He further points out that “it may be said
but that the flaw sensitivity, when considered from experience, with some degree of
in terms of contrast alone, is actually com- certainty, that, in spite of the considerably
parable with 400 kV X-rays for thicknesses longer exposures necessary with an iridium
from 14 to 3 inches of steel and, although 192 source of medium or low strength (the
considerably less than that with zoo kV exposure times with a high-strength source
X-rays, remains reasonable for thicknesses may be very close to the corresponding X-ray
down to about 4 inch steel provided that good exposure), the actual volume of work over a
film processing technique is followed. given period is little different from that
More recently, W. H. Sansom (3) has achieved by the use of X-rays-in some cases,
confirmed from considerable experience that it may actually be higher. This comparison
there is “a relatively high, and rather un- is set in terms of a relatively small department
expected, degree of image contrast obtained with a staff of three or, at the most, four
when radiographing comparatively thin sec- operators working each unit. The reason for
tions of steel [with iridium 1921-even down this is to be found in the great bulk and
to 7 Ib plate, which, with reinforcement, is weight of an X-ray unit, with its necessary
approximately inch”. Sansom reports that ancillary services of coolant and power,
in the radiographic examination of the shell as compared to an isotope container or
or hull of a ship the use of an iridium 192 bomb”.
source “in conjunction with a medium-speed
non-screen film between four and six Radiographic Technique
thousandths lead screens, has produced I n order to derive the full advantage from
results which, for all practical purposes, bear the use of a gamma-ray source of iridium 192
very favourable comparison with exographs it is important that attention should be given
taken under similar conditions. I n the case of to all details of radiographic technique.
steel sections in excess of one inch, there For a radiograph to give the maximum
becomes progressively less and less to choose information the exposure given must be
between the exograph and gammagraph in sufficient to penetrate the thickest part of the
terms of contrast and sensitivity and, if time object and to produce a good density on the
allows, with the use of a fine-grain non-screen film when developed. Film processing must
film for the gammagraph, the difference be closely controlled to obtain the maximum
becomes negligible”. contrast and minimum graininess, but this is

Platinum Metals Rev., 1959, 3, (1) 14

comparatively easy compared with deter- steel arranged in steps from 1, to I+ inches.
mining the correct exposure required. The This was backed up by ;t inch strips to
exposure time will depend on the strength of obtain figures for thicknesses up to 2 inches.
the source, the distance it is placed from the The range of densities was read off on a film
film, the thickness, density and atomic densitometer for each of the radiographs
number of the material being radiographed which had been processed in Ilford PQX I
and the speed of the film, but the relationship developer for six minutes at 68'F. The
is complicated and is best dealt with by results are expressed in curie-hours for a film
preparing an exposure chart. density of 1.75. The exposure is expressed
in curie-hours to enable the chart to be used
Exposure Charts for any strength source. The film used was
An exposure chart prepared for steel will be Ilford type F, a slow fine-grained film which
of general use for copper and its alloys. will give the maximum sensitivity to flaw
The method usually employed for making detection. Faster films can be used in certain
an exposure chart is to take a series of radio- applications where maximum sensitivity is
graphs of a step-wedge of the metal con- not required and where a reduction in
cerned at the same distance from the source exposure time is an advantage.
for different exposure times. The wedge used A further series of exposures was made with
to produce the figures for the steel graph a lead step-wedge to illustrate the effect of
shown here consisted of strips of inch tool increased density and atomic number. The

A portable isotope carrier and time-rontrolled exposure unit in use fqr the
gamma radiography of a number of copper alloy castings in the foundry of
Mallory Metallurgical Products Ltd.

Platinum Metals Rev., 1959, 3, (1) 15

slope of the curves is very different for thin radiation received by carrying film badges or
sections, lead requiring much greater increase ionisation chambers. The maximum permis-
+
in exposure between and inch than steel. sible dose from iridium 192 for continuous
Over this range radiographs of far greater working is 0.3 rontgens per week. The
contrast can be obtained with lead and other radiation from an unshielded source is 0.5
metals of high density and atomic number milli-rontgens,/hour/milli-curie. A 2-curie
such as platinum and its alloys. The reason radiographic source would therefore give a
for this is probably that the gamma-rays from week’s radiation in 20 minutes at a distance
iridium cover a range of energies from 0.30 of one metre.
to 0.61 meV and as lead has a much higher
absorption coefficient than steel the lower Availability of Sources
energy rays are stopped more readily. Iridium sources are available from the
Atomic Energy Research Establishment,
Protection of Operators Hanvell, in four standard sizes in the form of
It is important that radio-active isotopes cylinders with their length equal to their
should be handled in such a way that radiation diameter, the sizes being 6 X 6 mm, 4 X 4 mm,
received by operators is kept to a minimum. 2 X 2 mm and I X I mm, and also as wire I mm
A check should be kept on the amount of diameter and as foil 0.05 inch thick.

References
I R. Halmshaw .. .. .. ..
The Use and Scope of Iridium 192 for the Radio-
graphy of Steel, Briz. J . Appl. Physics, 1954, 5,
2387243
2 D. E. Muller, H. C . Hoyt, D. J. Klein Precision Measurements of Nuclear Gamma Ray
and J. W. M. DuMond .. .. Wave Lengths, Phys. Rev.,1952,88,775-793
3 W. H. Sansom . . .. .. . . Some Reflections on the use of Radioisotopes in
Industrial Radiography, Shipbuilder, 1957, 64,
329-333

R H O D I U M PLATED
P R I N T E D CIRCUITS
Printed circuit techniques based on
conventional etched, copper-clad lamin-
ates are well established for the manu-
facture of multi-way switches. Such
techniques greatly simplify construction
and reduce manufacturing time and cost.
Electrodeposited rhodium is generally
accepted as the most satisfactory means
of providing such switches w i t h wear-
resistant, tarnish-free contact surfaces.
Used in conjunction with suitable gold-
alloy o r palladium-alloy brush materials
these switches give low values of contact
resistance and electrical noise coupled
with a surprisingly long life.
The illustration shows the nine-inch
stator of a 200-way switch t o be used in
telemetry equipment. The rhodium has
been deposited on the contact surfaces of the 200 sectors as well as on the t w o slip rings in
the centre. Originally the stator had an outside band of copper linking the sectors, as well
as a connecting strip t o the t w o slip rings, t o permit plating.

Platinum Metals Rev., 1959, 3, (1) 16