Maps, lakes and citizens

HARINI NAGENDRA

URBANIZATION is increasingly of the local king Kempe Gowda’s

emerging as one of the most signifi- kingdom.4 These settlements, along
cant drivers of global environmental with the surrounding agricultural
change.1 The impacts of city growth landscape that sustained their pre-
are especially noticeable in India, sence, required the availability of a
where urban landscapes have grown continuous supply of fresh water.
at unprecedented rates over the last However, unlike many other old settle-
two decades, converting a predomi- ments, the city of Bengaluru was
nantly rural population to one which located in the rain shadow of the
is rapidly becoming dominated by city Deccan hills, and lacked the presence
dwellers. Bengaluru, India’s third of a large river to provide fresh water.5
largest city with a population of over Fortunately, the undulating topo-
six million and a decadal growth rate graphy of this region gives rise to a
of 38% between 1991-2001,2 is a case number of small streams, which were
in point, providing a characteristic dammed to form a multiple series of
example of rapid expansion at the tanks throughout the larger region.6
expense of natural ecosystems. Inscriptions found near the lakes indi-
While Bengaluru has undoub- cate that some of them date at least as
tedly experienced an explosion in far back as the 5th century.7
growth in recent decades, the settle- Indeed, for those of us living in
ments around the city have a recorded concrete dominated city environ-
history that dates at least as far back ments today, the network of lakes in
as the 5th century CE.3 Urban settle- the Bengaluru area was unimaginably
ments, however, made their first
appearance only in the 16th century 3. B.L. Rice, Epigraphica Carnatica
Volume IX: Inscriptions in the Bangalore Dis-
when it was established as the capital trict. Mysore Government Central Press,
Bangalore, 1905.
* The author greatly appreciates inputs pro- 4. B.L. Rice, Mysore: A Gazetteer Compiled
vided by the BBMP Chief Engineer (Lakes) for Government, revised edition, volume II –
and his team, M.B. Krishna, S. Subramanya, Mysore, by districts. Archibald Constable and
Ramesh Sivaraman, Gladwin Joseph, Rohan Company, Westminster, UK, 1897(b).
D’Souza, Priya Ramasubban and Vinay 5. B.L. Rice, Mysore: A Gazetteer Compiled
Sreenivasa during multiple discussions on for Government, revised edition, volume I
Bengaluru’s lakes. Funding for these activities – Mysore in General. Archibald Constable
was provided by a Ramanujan Fellowship and Company, Westminster, UK, 1897(a);
from the Department of Science and Techno- S. Srinivas, Landscapes of Urban Memory:
logy, and is gratefully acknowledged. The Sacred and the Civic in India’s High-Tech
1. N.B. Grimm and S.H. Faeth, N.E. Golu- City. Orient Longman, Hyderabad, 2004.
biewski, C.L. Redman, J. Wu, X. Bai and 6. B.L. Rice, 1897(a), ibid.
J.M. Briggs, ‘Global Change and the Ecology 7. B.L. Rice, 1905, op cit.; T.V. Annaswamy,
of Cities’, Science 319, 2008, 756-760. Bengaluru to Bangalore: Urban History of 19
2. H.S. Sudhira, T.V. Ramachandra and Bangalore From the Pre-historic Period to the
H.S. Bala Subrahmanya, ‘City Profile: Banga- End of the 18th Century. Vengadam Publica-
lore’, Cities 24, 2007, 379-390. tions, Bangalore, 2003.

SEMINAR 613 – September 2010

 dense. In 1830, for instance, a mind fishing, drinking water and domestic festivals were initiated or concluded
boggling 19,800 lakes were recorded uses.11 All were rain fed. The small at local lakes.13 Critical for conserva-
in the surrounding region of Mysore.8 and medium tanks were seasonal; only tion, lakes also supported a range
The surface water provided by these large tanks were perennial. of important local flora and fauna,
lakes earlier constituted over 50% of Lake ecologies were connected including a rich diversity of birds,
the water supply of Bengaluru.9 Yet to and maintained by human manage- insects and aquatic life.
this lake network now lies disrupted ment in a closely linked social-
and in decay, with many lakes con-
verted to urban land uses, and others
polluted and choking with waste, or
ecological system. Wetlands, orchards
and agricultural fields surrounded the
lake, and were in turn irrigated by
A s the city began to import piped
water from the Cauvery river in the
completely dry and weed infested. water from open wells that were early 20th century, lakes lost their
dependent on the groundwater table importance as suppliers of fresh

O ver the past three years, we have

been engaging with the Greater
recharged by nearby lakes. Water was
used for drinking, for domestic pur-
poses such as washing, and to replen-
water, and instead started being
blamed for a host of ills such as flood-
ing and malaria. Many of the city’s
Bengaluru Municipal Corporation, or ish the groundwater table. In the lakes were drained and converted to
the Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara monsoon, rain water overflowed from other land uses, including bus stands,
Palike (BBMP), in an effort to under- lakes into adjacent wetlands, and was golf courses, malls and residential
stand how lakes can be managed and used for agriculture. When water areas.14 With urbanization, much of
restored for urban use, while still levels began to recede, cattle grazed the wetland agricultural landscape
maintaining their significance for on the wetlands, which were largely around lakes has been converted to
conservation. An examination of the designated as gomala – common impervious concreted surfaces. Ins-
traditional uses of these lakes, their property wetlands where community tead of rainwater precipitation, sew-
ecology, and structure is helpful in grazing took place. There was exten- age and effluents fill the few lakes that
understanding how it may be possible sive fishing in the wetlands and lakes. remain, converting them from sea-
to develop urban oriented, yet ecologi- Idols were immersed in the tanks sonal to perennial ecosystems and
cally and socially inclusive, lake res- during festivals. drastically altering their biodiversity.
toration plans. Most surviving lakes are heavily pol-
The original network of lakes in
Bengaluru was created by checking
the flow of rainwater through earthen
T he wetland-agricultural-grazing-
orchard landscape surrounding the
luted with sewage and industrial
waste and have significantly reduced
water levels. Due to the disruption of
embankments along a topographic lake acted as a natural watershed this previously well-planned and
gradient, such that the outflow of basin to recharge the lake with fresh maintained extensive network into a
water from a lake at a higher level sup- precipitation. Since most lakes were few isolated and disconnected lakes,
plied water to the lakes at a lower level seasonal, and pollution levels were significant flooding is often reported
through canals.10 Lakes were linked low, it was easy to control siltation. in the monsoon season.15
through a web of canals or kaluves, The silt was extracted annually in the The change from agrarian to
connected to the surrounding agricul- smaller lakes, and every few years for urban land use has moved in parallel
tural wetland landscape. They ranged the large lakes in the dry season, for with changes in lake management
in size from small ponds (kuntes or use by local communities as inputs and administration. Historically, lakes
donnes) less than a hectare, used for into agriculture.12 These lakes also were managed by the village commu-
cattle washing and drinking, to exten- constituted important sacred spaces, nities living adjacent to the lake,
sive large lakes (keres) of hundreds of and many important local religious sometimes with financial support
hectares in area, used for agriculture, from the kings.16 Specific families and
11. F. Buchanan, A Journey From Madras
Through the Countries of Mysore, Canara,
8. B.N. Sundara Rao, Bengalurina Itihasa and Malabar. Volume I, reprinted in 1999. 13. S. Srinivas, 2004, op cit.
(A History of Bangalore). Vasanta Sahitya Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1807. 14. K. Gowda and M.V. Sridhara, ‘Conserva-
Granthamala, Bangalore, 1985. tion of Tanks/Lakes in the Bangalore Metro-
12. F. Buchanan, 1807, ibid.; BBMP, Namma
20 9. S.U. Kamath, Karnataka State Gazetteer:
Bangalore District. Lotus Printers, Bangalore,
Bengaluru Nisarga: An Action Plan for politan Area’, Management of Environmental
Quality 18, 2007, 137-151; BBMP, 2010,
Development of Bangalore’s Lakes. Bruhat
1990. Bangalore Mahanagara Palike, Bangalore, op cit.
10. B.L. Rice, 1897(a), op cit. 2010. 15. BBMP, 2010, op cit.

SEMINAR 613 – September 2010

communities were designated to main- implement new public-private-part- increasing urbanization they also play
tain lake canals, bunds and desilting, nership (PPP) approaches to lake a new role as urban recreational
and specific groups were given per- management met with widespread spaces, and locations for reconnecting
mission to use the lake for fishing, col- resistance from civil society, environ- with ‘nature’ in the city.24
lection of fodder, agriculture, washing mentalists and activist groups, and
of clothes and so on.17 These specia-
lized, locally varying and adaptive
roles played by different communities
resulted in a number of public inter-
est litigations which have for the time
being arrested this process. Currently,
A lthough lake restoration pro-
grammes have been undertaken in the
were gradually replaced by formal lake governance is in the process of past, they have not only been expen-
governance structures imposed by the being consolidated, with the BBMP sive but lake condition has often
Mysore princely state and British gov- assuming responsibility for the main- deteriorated soon after in many cases.
ernment agencies.18 Later, a bewilder- tenance of a majority of the lakes Restoration has often been piecemeal
ing array of government departments within city limits, along with the LDA – one lake is treated, but the upstream
became involved with aspects of lake and BDA which continue to manage and downstream lakes remain pol-
management, with overlapping juris- a small number of lakes. luted, and kaluves continue to be
dictions. These included the Depart- blocked, so the lake soon returns to
ment of Minor Irrigation, Department
of Fisheries, Ecology and Environ-
ment Department, Karnataka Forest
C urrently, there are about 210 lakes
located within the administrative
its original polluted condition. Lake
dredging is largely based on consi-
derations of engineering and cost,
Department, Lake Development boundary of greater Bengaluru. 22 with lakes dredged in a u-shaped
Authority, Karnataka State Pollution Given the terrible condition of most bowl. Yet most of these lakes have
Control Board and the Bangalore of these lakes, the BBMP and BDA a completely different profile, with
Development Authority.19 are planning large-scale restoration deep water storage areas near the
and rejuvenation programmes. These downstream bund, and shallow water

I n 1983, in response to increased

public concern about the condition of
need to be carefully designed.Although
these lakes are of human origin, they
have over centuries acquired natural
storage in the upstream areas.
Waterspread areas of the lake
have been encroached upon to create
lakes in the city, the state government characteristics and become nature water intensive, ornamental gardens
constituted an expert committee to preserves. Yet their transformation and play areas, and extensive planta-
investigate this issue. The recommen- into urban landscaped spaces is per- tions of water hungry species such
dations of this committee, popularly haps the most significant change in as Acacia auriculiformis, casuarina,
known as the Laxman Rao Commit- their recent history. While these lakes eucalyptus and silver oak have been
tee, led to the transfer of administra- are undoubtedly critical sources of planted around several lakes, drying
tion of most of the city’s lakes to the water supply, and important nature up the water table. There is a clear
Karnataka State Forest Department.20 preserves, they also form vital social need to treat each lake as a unique
While this resulted in the survey, fenc- spaces in a cramped, concrete domi- individual entity, with its own appro-
ing and protection of several of the nated city environment. priate method of restoration based
city’s lakes, the situation continued to Given the high levels of socio- on the size of the lake, its drainage
deteriorate. economic, cultural and linguistic pattern with reference to the sub-
In 2002, the Lake Development diversity in the city, lakes can become watershed in which it is located, the
Authority was constituted as an auto- contested public spaces, especially land use and vegetation in the peri-
nomous body responsible for the in locations such as Bengaluru, whose phery, the biodiversity, and current
maintenance and restoration of lakes historic use and design have changed patterns of human use.
in Bengaluru.21 The LDA attempt to over time. For instance, for many of A number of urban researchers,
the earlier inhabitants of the city, lakes naturalists and concerned citizens
16. B.L. Rice, 1897(a), op cit. continue to have a significant role in have engaged in extensive discussions
17. F. Buchanan, 1807, op cit.; B.L. Rice, religious and sacred rituals23 – but with with the BBMP over the past three
1897(a), op cit. years, seeking to develop guiding
18, S.U. Kamath, 1990, op cit. 21. Ibid. 21
24. J. Nair, The Promise of the Metropolis:
19. K. Gowda and M.V. Sridhara, 2007, op cit. 22. BBMP, 2010, op cit. Bangalore’s Twentieth Century. Oxford
20. Ibid. 23. S. Srinivas, 2004, op cit. University Press, New Delhi, 2005.

SEMINAR 613 – September 2010

 principles for lake restoration and a separate path has been created to proper biodiversity support, it is
management that are geared towards allow cattle to approach the lake for a important that lakes provide as many
conservation in urban environments, wash. At the western end, a children’s micro-habitats as possible. Thus, lakes
while paying attention to the need for playground has been designed in a should not be dredged in a u-shape, as
urban recreation, social inclusion, location adjacent to a nearby school happens in most current restoration
maintenance of cultural diversity, and for children from less wealthy, periph- programmes, but with a sloping basin
providing space for traditional liveli- eral city areas. This play area will having a deep and a shallow end,
hoods and the urban poor. serve a dual purpose, with the children such that species adapted to different
from the school utilizing it during water depths can be supported.

I n one lake in Bengaluru, the Kai-

kondanahalli lake, which is located
weekdays, while enabling access to
lake visitors during mornings, eve-
nings and weekends. I n urban areas, given the serious
on Sarjapur road at the south-eastern dearth of large open spaces for exer-
periphery of the city, a group of inter-
ested and committed local citizens
formed the Kaikondanahalli Kere
B ased on this experience, the group
has also developed guidelines to facili-
cise and recreation for both adults
and children, paths have been pro-
vided around the lake periphery for
Abhivruddhe Samasthe (the Kaikon- tate a larger rejuvenation programme walking, jogging and exercise, and
danahalli lake development organiza- aimed at restoring and conserving a with play areas for children. Unfortu-
tion), interfacing with the BBMP to network of lakes in south-eastern nately, this development of recrea-
develop an integrated plan for lake Bengaluru. What are the guiding prin- tional areas has usually been at the
restoration that incorporates attention ciples that we can follow? Lakes have expense of conservation. Thus, recom-
to conservation, water rejuvenation, different uses and benefits, and there mendations have been made that pro-
urban recreation, and socio-economic are synergies and trade-offs between tection for the lake biodiversity be
requirements of a wide strata of soci- these factors. Instead of valuing one provided by keeping a buffer distance
ety. This group not only includes a benefit, e.g. water recharge, or bird of 150-300m to separate the walk-
diversity of representation from origi- diversity, above all other factors, an ways, play areas and other areas of
nal inhabitants of peri-urban villages integrated approach needs to be fol- human use from lake habitat, and
around the lake and from recently lowed that incorporates a proper screening these areas from the lake
built high-end apartments and resi- consideration of all these different by planting trees, bamboo, and tall
dential layouts, but also incorporates factors. shrubs. The marshy and shallow
considerations of engineering, eco- Groundwater recharging cons- water section of each lake, where
logy, education, communication, and titutes probably the most critical use biodiversity levels are maximum,
governance. of lakes in water-starved Bengaluru. should also be separated from human
Once heavily polluted with sew- In addition, however, lakes act as disturbance, without walkways or
age from nearby residential areas, this green spaces, lung spaces and areas for play areas. Boating also creates severe
lake has now been restored by dredg- micro-climate control. Consequently, disturbance to bird life, and should
ing the basin to remove silt, diverting many previous lake restoration pro- not be allowed.
sewage, restoring the bund, and plant- grammes have converted part of the Unfortunately, most lake resto-
ing a rich variety of locally suited, waterspread area into islands, gardens ration programmes pay little or no
biodiversity friendly trees and plants and tree parks – a well-meaning exer- attention to the traditional and cur-
around the periphery. Based on inputs cise that unfortunately results in reduc- rent uses of lakes by local residents
from this group, the lake waterspread tion of the primary benefit of the lake and the urban poor. While lakes cons-
area has been maintained during reju- as a body for storage of fresh water. titute a public commons and should be
venation to the maximum possible Lakes also act as an important accessible to all, several of the lakes
extent without uprooting existing refuge for birds, insects, amphibians,
25. M.B. Krishna, B.K. Chakrapani and
trees, and a walkway created around reptiles, fish, planktons, and other T.K. Srinivasa, Water Birds and Wetlands of
the lake which avoids the marshy, water and wildlife. Over 140 species Bangalore: A Report on the Status, Water Qual-
biodiversity rich southern end. of birds, 66 forms of phytoplankton, ity, Plankton and Birds of the Lakes in and
22 Taking into account the require- 62 forms of zooplankton, 16 species Around Bangalore and Maddur, Karnataka,
India. Birdwatchers’ Field Club of Bangalore
ments of cattle owning households of amphibians and 41 species of fish and Bangalore Urban Division, Karnataka
from the nearby peri-urban villages, inhabit Bengaluru’s wetlands.25 For State Forest Department, 1996.

SEMINAR 613 – September 2010

in the city are now surrounded by of sectors, including the government,
private landowners and lack public local citizens, researchers, NGOs, and
access. Traditional uses of lakes business is required to make effective
include idol immersion, irrigation, progress towards sustainable ecologi-
domestic use, grazing, washing of cat- cal and environmental planning. Yet,
tle, and silt extraction. Lakes also con- this is hard to achieve in the context
stitute important religious and sacred of life in an urban environment, where
spaces. Thus, sacred trees like the the social, cultural, and linguistic
banyan and peepal should be pro- heterogeneity, coupled with economic
tected where present around lakes. inequalities, make it particularly chal-
Further, there should be provision for lenging to create social capital and
washing of clothes and cattle washing facilitate collective action.
in a confined upstream enclosure,
without polluting the lake. Controlled
harvesting of grass for grazing should
be permitted at the marshy end, as
A series of ‘design principles’ out-
lining conditions that can facilitate
this will prevent the lake from being successful collective management of
encroached by grass. natural resources were formulated by
Elinor Ostrom.26 These include the

F inally, governance processes for

lake maintenance need to be clearly
need for the people affected by man-
agement of natural resources to pro-
vide some inputs into making rules
formulated. Lake monitoring and related to their management; for regu-
maintenance should involve local lar monitoring of the resource and
communities, elected representatives, prompt punishment of offenders; and
government officials, schools and for people who maintain the resource
colleges, researchers and NGOs, and to have the assurance that they will
disadvantaged groups. Regular moni- continue to have rights of management
toring of water condition, pollution over the long-term. None of these hold
and biodiversity needs to be con- true in the Indian city context.
ducted across all lakes, and nearby Yet, the experiences in Benga-
schools and colleges should be luru, and some other Indian cities
involved in such studies, resulting in indicate that sustained engagement by
greater local awareness and involve- citizens can result in change. While
ment, as well as in building local the progress achieved may not be opti-
scientific capacity. mum or ideal, it does represent a step
Conservation in urban settings forward, and the social capital and
requires concerted, committed action potential for collective action that has
from a number of sectors that takes been built can be capitalized on for
into account principles of ecology, future urban conservation initiatives.
along with a proper recognition of After many decades of neglect, lake
the role played by nature in an urban management in Bengaluru shows
setting, where recreation, access some signs of hope. If citizens of
to greenery, and considerations of Bengaluru can mobilize the adminis-
technical and economic feasibility trative and political will to sustain
must simultaneously incorporate the these programmes at a larger scale,
requirements of citizens from varied then there is truly some hope for a
socio-economic and cultural back- green urban future.
grounds. Consequently, the chal- 23
26. E. Ostrom, Understanding Institutional
lenges of urban conservation remain Diversity. Princeton University Press,
severe. Collective action by a number Princeton, New Jersey, 2005.

SEMINAR 613 – September 2010