EXTRACT A CONFESSION LIKE THE CIA

What to do if you think you have been lied to p39

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 On the cover Vol. 7 Issue 8

EXTRACT
EX
E X A CONFESSION LIKE THE CIA
SCIENCE

What
Wha
Wh
h a to do if you think you have been lied to p39
ha

ASIA EDITION Vol. 7 Issue 8

SCIENCE HISTORY NATURE FOR THE CURIOUS MIND

39 The Whole Truth And Nothing

But The Truth
HISTORY

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THEE PL
TH PLAG
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AGUE
UE p75 ON TTHE
HE M
MOVE
OVEE p64
OV A BULLET
B p58

64 Microbes On The Move

SCIENCE

58 How To Make Anything Bulletproof 26 Is There Really Such A Thing As Free Will?
Vol. 7 Issue 8 3
Contents Vol. 7 Issue 8

FEATURES
ON THE COVER
SCIENCE

26 Free Will: The Greatest Illusion?

Magicians or illusionists are the greatest advocates of
this, knowing full well the end result yet misleading
their audience into thinking otherwise. Hence you will
read this feature

34 The Death Of Caesar

HISTORY

Betrayal by one of your own trusted supporters is the

hardest to anticipate and comprehend. Did the fall of
Caesar lie with two Roman senators or is the mastermind
of the conspiracy one of his greatest allies?

ON THE COVER
SCIENCE

39 Truth Will Out

What makes someone more likely to lie? How to
spot when someone is lying and if they are, how
do you uncover the whole truth, try these CIA-style
26
Free Will: The Greatest Illusion?
techniques summarised into ve simple steps

46 Can We Make A Real Tricorder?

SCIENCE

Probably the greatest medical device concocted by

Hollywood, but as with most things on the big screen, reality
has to play catch-up. However, medical technology proves
that cool is no longer the preserve of Dr Bones McCoy

50 Urban Monkey
NATURE

Hanuman langurs can be seen throughout the city of

Jodhpur in Rajasthan and are revered by the locals. Their
sacred status ensures their safety from persecution; see
how they differ from their rural cousins

ON THE COVER
SCIENCE

58 How To Make Anything Bulletproof

Kevlar has revolutionised the way we protect soldiers as
well as law enforcement teams, there is no doubt this
polymer has saved many lives since 1971. Scientists are
now looking at other alternatives beyond Kevlar
ON THE COVER
SCIENCE

64 Microbes On The Move

Despite meticulous and regular cleaning, you may
instead be spreading your own family of bacteria within
your home. And nd out why good bacteria may be our
best allies in ghting dangerous pathogens

70 The Black Death

HISTORY

Was it inevitable that plague would sweep Europe

in the Middle Ages? How long did it take sufferers
to die? And what was life like in its aftermath? Read
what our panel of experts have to say
8 Snapshot
4 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 ON THE COVER

HISTORY
75 Portraits Of The Plague
After more than 500 years since the medieval Black Death,
a new plague epidemic spread across the globe, leaving a
death trail of about 12 million people. These rare images
vividly depict the catastrophe

79 The Future Of Gadgets

SCIENCE
Reliable renewable energy the next big leap in battery
technology and nally, nanotechnology that will begin to
revolutionise our lives

82 Travel Transformers

SCIENCE
Who doesnt like gadgets or fancy tech thingamajigs?
Check out these nifty devices before you embark on your
next work or holiday trip

REGULARS
6 Welcome
A note from the editor sharing his thoughts on the issue and
other ramblings

8 Snapshot
Stunning images from the elds of science, history and nature

UPDATE
50 Urban Monkey 14 The Latest Intelligence
The rst step towards choosing your childs eye colour, bats
extraordinary ying skills revealed, astronomers nd a volcanic
planet, the precise moment the brain makes a decision

30 Comment & Analysis

How cappuccino foam holds up a spoon

85 Q&A
This month: Why do cats love boxes?
Why do people lie? What are constellations?
When will supersonic ghts make a comeback?
Find out here!

RESOURCE
94 Reviews
The latest, and perhaps more fascinating, books reviewed

96 Time Out
Stretch your brain cells with our tricky crossword

34 The Death Of Caesar 98 Last Word

Habitable planets may turn up in surprising places

Vol. 7 Issue 8 5
Welc me  Send us your letters
[email protected]

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Free will, what is it really? Is it the stimulus that Includes selected articles from other BBC specialist magazines, including
drives certain people to devote their lives to Focus, BBC History Magazine and BBC Wildlife Magazine.
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of thievery and crime? In more simplistic terms, SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY FUTURE

does free will mean the options you choose www.sciencefocus.com

to execute the rst thing you wake up in the
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Lets just say you have decided the night before
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Experts in this issue

Simon Jo Christine Tom

Crompton Carlowe Evans-Pughe Ireland
Simon, a former health Jo writes for numerous Christine is a science Tom is the managing
editor for The Times, titles, including the and technology writer editor of The Biologist,
was always going The Guardian, BBC Good who has written for the magazine of the
to write for BBC Focus it was Food and Cosmopolitan. She speaks to a The Independent, The Guardian and The Society of Biology. On p64, he looks at
inevitable. Or was it? Simon examines former CIA agent about how to get Economist. On p58, she looks at the the personal colony of microbes that
the war against free will on p26. someone to tell the truth on p39. future of bulletproof materials. follows us everywhere we go.

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SCIENCE

Toxic beauty
In central Poland, coal ash leaks Chukwunonye Ezeah, a researcher in
from the Bechatw power station waste and environmental management
through outlets into nearby clear at the University of Wolverhampton.
waters, painting the surface with Water run-off from coal washeries
sinister grey veins. Bechatw is the carries heavy metals that contaminate
largest coal-fuelled plant in Europe groundwater, rivers and lakes, affecting
and emits more than 30 million tonnes aquatic ora and fauna.
of CO2 every year, more than any other Most importantly for human health,
in the continent. he adds, the combustion of coal
The shot was taken from a paraglider releases emissions of harmful gases
by Polish photographer Kacper such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
Kowalski, as part of a project named oxides and carbon monoxide, and
toxic beauty that features images of various trace metals like mercury, into
chemical plants, mines and landll sites the air through stacks that can disperse
taken from a birds-eye perspective. this pollution over large areas.
Coal-red power generation
comes with signicant costs to the PHOTO: KACPER KOWALSKI/
environment and human health, says PANOS PICTURES

8 Vol. 7 Issue 8
Vol. 7 Issue 8 9
NATURE

Making waves
Sliding down this 30m-tall wall of
water as it cascades towards Praia
do Norte beach in Nazare, Portugal, is
the tiny gure of Garrett McNamara, a
thrill-seeking surfer famous for riding
monstrous waves.
The colossal swells begin when
storms arising in the North Atlantic
during winter push vast quantities of
water towards the European coast.
The unique features of the Praia do
Norte coastline then transform this
mass of water into the spectacular
breakers pictured here.
A deep water canyon offshore
of Nazare allows the wave to travel
towards the coast without losing too
much energy along the way, explains
Matthew Lewis from the School of
Ocean Sciences at Bangor University.
When a wave approaches the
shoreline, the bottom of the wave
starts to feel the seabed, which slows
its speed, resulting in energy loss. The
headland also focuses the energy,
says Lewis.
The wave starts to slow down
as it reaches shallower water, which
changes its direction and focuses the
mass of water and energy together,
resulting in very large waves.

PHOTO: CORBIS

10 Vol. 7 Issue 8
Vol. 7 Issue 8 11
HISTORY

Remembering
Mr Lee Kuan Yew
On August 9th 2015, Singapore will celebrate her 50th
anniversary of independence. A relatively short period
when compared to other more developed nations around
the World, but her progress was no less challenging for
an island state with no natural resources, economy or
infrastructure to begin with.
Singapores progress from mudats to a modern
metropolis is due in no small part to Mr Lee Kuan Yew.
For it was due to his leadership, vision, persistence,
tenacity and incorruptibility that Singapore is able
to punch above her weight on the World stage. As
a testament to the respect that the people whom he
fought and thought for all his life have for him, over
450,000 braved the elements to attend the lying in state
at Parliament House and another 1.2 million went to
18 condolence centres set up across the island to pay
their nal respects and to give thanks to an outstanding
individual who gave his entire life for Singapore, so that
her citizens are proud to be known as Singaporeans.

PHOTO: AFP

12 Vol. 7 Issue 8
Vol. 7 Issue 8 13
 Update THE LATEST INTELLIGENCE

p17 p16 DAVID p16 BAT FLIGHT pp20 VOLCANIC

SHUKMAN EXPLAINED PLANET
Why air pollution is How bats perform Why exoplanet
a growing problem their in-ight 55 Cancri e has
worldwide, and not acrobatics is a astronomers
just in China mystery no longer all in a lava

T H E B I G S T O RY

DARK MATTER
MAY NOT BE SO

DARK
PHOTO: NASA/ESA/D HARVEY/EPFDL/R MASSEY/HUBBLE

ark matter makes gravity, making it invisible to Now, an international team of

D up a whopping 85 telescopes. It can, however, be astronomers, led by researchers
per cent of matter detected indirectly due to the at Durham University, believes
in the Universe, but no one distorting effect of its mass on they might have observed
knows exactly what it is. It the light from background the first signs of dark matter
Galaxy clusters are is called dark because it is galaxies, via a technique interacting with
helping researchers to thought to interact only with known as gravitational lensing. another kind of force.
study dark matter

14 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 The Hubble Space
Telescope allows
astronomers to
view collisions of
GOOD MONTH/
distant galaxies
BAD MONTH
Its bbeen good for:
FAST FOOD
LOVERS
Usain Bolt
confessed to eating
1,000 chicken
nuggets throughout
the Beijing
Olympics. But he might be on to
something. Small amounts of fast food
can be just as effective as sports
supplements in restoring muscle energy
stores after a workout, according to a
study at the University of Montana.

It is currently thought that all of the We used to think that dark matter sat
Universes galaxies exist inside clumps of around, minding its own business, explains lead ARTSY TYPES
If you enjoy painting or sewing, you may
dark matter.Without the constraining effect of dark author Dr Richard Massey. But if it slowed
be helping your memory. In a study carried
matters extra gravity, galaxies such as the Milky down during this collision, this could be the
out by the Mayo Clinic, those who engaged
Way would fling themselves apart as they spin. first dynamical evidence that dark matter notices in arts in both middle and old age were 73
The research team used the Hubble Space the world around it. Dark matter may not be per cent less likely to develop mild cognitive
Telescope to view the simultaneous collision completely dark after all. impairment than those who did not.
of four distant galaxies at the centre of a There is more work to be done in
cluster of galaxies 1.3 billion light-years away. determining exactly what is happening. Similar
They noticed one such clump of dark matter observations of more galaxies and further Its been bad for:
appeared to be lagging behind the galaxy it computer simulations of galaxy collisions are SHORT PEOPLE

PHOTO: NASA, PRESS ASSOCIATION, ISTOCK, WEIZMANN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE

surrounds by 5,000 light-years. To put this in under way to confirm the interpretation and As well as being denied rollercoaster rides,
context, it would take NASAs Voyager craft 90 to investigate it further. And if the observations it seems short people are also more at risk
million years to travel that distance. are confirmed, the work could lead to the of heart disease. A team at the University
Computer simulations run by the researchers emergence of new physics, the researchers say. of Leicester analysed genetic data from
show that this lag can be explained if dark matter Our observation suggests that dark matter 200,000 people. They found that for every
interacts, even very slightly, with forces other might be able to interact with more forces 6.35cm (2.5 inches) difference in height,
than gravity. The extra friction caused by such than just gravity, says team member Prof the risk of coronary heart disease increases
interactions would make the dark matter slow Liliya Williams. The parallel universe going by 13.5 per cent. Compared to a 168cm (5ft
down, and eventually begin trailing behind on around us has just got interesting. The dark 6in) person, a 152cm (5ft) person has a 32
its parent galaxy. Exactly what force this could sector could contain rich physics and potentially per cent higher risk, on average. The exact
be, however, is unclear. complex behaviour. reasons still remain unexplained.

Timeline NIGHT OWLS

Rise and Shine! Night
A history of dark matter
owls are more likely
1933 1970 1981 2009 to develop diabetes
and degenerative
Swiss astronomer Fritz Cornell Universitys Vera Physicist Mordehai Construction on LUX muscle loss than early
Zwicky proposes dark Rubin notices that Milgrom (right) disagrees. experiment begins in risers, even when they
matters existence after galaxies at the edge of He says the measured South Dakota. It aims
noting a discrepancy the Universe move mass is correct, but to detect weakly get the same amount
between the mass of faster than expected. Newtonian mechanics interacting massive of sleep, Korean researchers have found. The
visible matter and the She suggests that needs updating. He dubs particles (WIMPs), a effect could be due to unhealthy behaviour or
calculated mass of the dark matter could be the theory Modified hypothetical particle
Coma galaxy cluster. causing this. Newtonian Dynamics. candidate for dark matter. poorer sleep quality.

Vol. 7 Issue 8 15
 Update
ZOOLOGY
THE LATEST INTELLIGENC
INTELLIGENCE
NC
N CE

Bats extraordinary
ying skills revealed
When it comes to airborne rne Now, a team at Johns Hopkins to their brains, allowing them to
The mystery of bats
acrobatics there are few animals University think they have the make split-second adjustments in-ight acrobatics has
that can rival the agility of answer.Touch-sensitive cells in mid-flight. been solved!
bats. However, quite how w they clustered around tiny hairs Until now, no one had
achieve this has so far been
en that cover the bats wings send investigated the sensors on the They also found that the
a riddle. information about airflow directly bats wing, which allow it to serve pattern of nerves in the bats
as more than a propeller, a flipper, wings is different from that of
an airplane wing or any simple other mammals. Neurones within
airfoil, said researcher Cynthia F the wings skin connect not only
Moss.These findings can inform to the area in the animals spinal
more broadly how organisms use cords that is typically associated
touch to guide movement. with forelimbs, but also to an area
The team studied the big brown normally connected to the trunk.
bat, a common species found The findings lay the
throughout North America thats groundwork for understanding
able to fly at speeds up to 32km/h. how bats use sensory information
They found that the evolutionary to fly with incredible precision in
process which allowed bats to the dark and catch prey in mid-air.
form wings resulted in unusual Looking further forward, the new
tactile circuitry that not only knowledge could even lead to
enhances control during flight, but engineers one day being able to
also allows bats to use their wings design aircraft that can manoeuvre
to climb, cradle their young and around obstacles by adjusting to
Nerve cells on the brown bats wings connect to more than one area on the animals spine capture insects. air turbulence.

NEUROSCIENCE

Colour may set your bodys internal clock

As well as providing the perfect backdrop for a romantic meal were successful, said lead researcher Tim Brown. Whats
or holiday snap, the stunning colours of sunset may be a signal exciting about our research is that the same findings can be
for our bodies to reset our internal clocks. Its been known for applied to humans. So in theory, colour could be used to
a long time that light plays a key role in governing the circadian manipulate our clock, which could be useful for shift workers or
rhythm - the 24-hour cycle that affects everything from sleep travellers wanting to minimise jet lag.
PHOTO: FLPA, ISTOCK, KARA MARSHALL/COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

patterns to appetite. Now, a team at the University of Besides the changes in light intensity that occur as the Sun
Manchester has discovered that changes in the colour of light rises and sets, twilight is bluer than regular daylight. The team
can set the internal clocks of mice, a finding they think will created an artificial sky that mimicked the daily changes in
also prove true in humans. colour and brightness and exposed the mice to their model. By
This is the first time that weve been able to test the theory recording activity in an area of the mices brains called the
that colour affects the body clock in any mammal. Its always suprachiasmatic nucleus, or SCN, the researchers found that
been very hard to separate the change in colour from the many of the neurones were more sensitive to changes in colour
change in brightness, but using new experimental tools we between blue and yellow, than to changes in brightness alone.

The colours of sunset may

play a role in governing our
internal body clocks

16 Vol. 7 Issue 8
Wheres worst
for pollution? DAVID SHUKMAN
The science that matters

The airport tanno

tannoy announcement
confirming a del delay to our flight
mentioned weather
weat conditions as
the cause.We were we in the western
Chinese city of rmqi, and
what looked like fog blanketed
the runway. But it wasnt fog. It
was something much m denser and
more toxic, a cloud
clo of pollution,
and it paralysed the airport for
hours. Step outside and the smell
was unmistakable: acrid but also
slightly sweet.
China has attracted the most
headlines for the appalling state
of its air. In some cities, readings
for key pollutants go far beyond
World Health Organization limits
and reach the highest point on the
scale. But air quality is a problem
that afflicts cities around the world:
Delhi now has the unenviable title
of being the worlds worst. And
while Britains air is far cleaner Smog is an issue in big Chinese
than in the days of the pea soup cities, from rmqi in the west to
Qingdao in the east (pictured)
smogs that gripped London until
the 1950s, there is still a problem.
In one form of pollution, nitrogen Most shocking of all was is homegrown, but a lot also blows causes an estimated 29,000
dioxide, a dozen British cities visiting a pollution monitoring in from the Continent a mix of extra deaths every year, and a
have breached EU standards for station in central London and gases and microparticles produced forthcoming study may raise
years. Since I started reporting holding a pair of filters: one was by everything from Parisian traffic that estimate.
on pollution, Ive become far new and white, the other had to German farmers spraying One piece of advice from
more sensitive to it. Film beside a been sampling the air for 24 hours their fields.The evidence about pollution scientists: dont stand
major road for more than a few and was dark grey.That grey is in health effects is mounting up, too. beside busy roads any longer than
minutes and you cant miss the air we breathe. Pollutants can enter the lungs and you have to.
the odour.Wash your hands Researchers are getting better the bloodstream, and are linked
afterwards and the dirt in the basin at working out where this stuff is to respiratory and cardiovascular DAVID SHUKMAN is the BBCs Science
can be shocking. coming from. Most UK pollution conditions. In Britain, pollution Editor. @davidshukmanbbc

WHOS IN Bio-what was that again?

Biogerontology.
Bio Essentially, its
How so?
He argues that current advances
So what does he suggest we
should do to live longer?

THE NEWS? the study of the biological aspects in biochemical technologies can Zhavoronkov recommends that
PHOTO: PRESS ASSOCIATION

of ageing, otherwise known as keep us healthy and youthful until we should prioritise health and
Alex senescence.
se future developments in regenerative knowledge over material assets,
Right. Whats he said or done medicine and gene therapy further monitor our cell counts and blood
Zhavoronkov to get people talking? extend our lifespans. He also says biochemistry, store tissue samples
Director of
Zhavoronkov
Zh has raised a few that, historically, many people have in a biobank for future access,
the Biogerontology
eyebrows
ey by claiming publicly that lived beyond 100, despite enduring and take geroprotector drugs. He
Research
he,
he as well as many others, will live tougher times than we are currently practises what he preaches, too,
Foundation
to be 150 years old. going through. popping more than 100 pills a day.

Vol. 7 Issue 8 17
 Update THE LATEST INTELLIGENCE

DISCOVERIES Making trees

grow faster
Mighty oaks from little acorns grow,

THAT WILL SHAPE THE FUTURE the old saying goes. The only trouble
is that its a very slow process. Now, a
team at the University of Manchester
has identified two genes that are able
Solar storage
torage
10 material
al
to increase the growth rate of a poplar
tree by speeding up cell division in
the stem. The work could increase
PHOTO: UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN, PROFESSOR SIMON TURNER, ALTERMUNE TECHNOLOGIES, PETRA DITSCHE/UW, NIDDK.NIH.GOV, COLUMBIA ENGINEERING

supplies of renewable resources and

help trees cope with the effects of
climate change.

University of
Copenhagen researcher
cher
Anders Bo Skov showsws
off the new molecule
e

Imagine carrying sunshine in your when they change back. The system
pocket. Danish researchers are isnt particularly efficient, but with
developing molecules known as further refinement it could prove to be
Dihydroazulene-Vinylheptafulvene an environmentally friendly alternative
that store energy from the Sun by to current lithium-ion batteries, the
changing their shape, and release it researchers say. A section of poplar tree with its cells modified

Self-powering Centimetre- An end to

camera
amerara accurate GPS hunger pangs?
Cameras as If your sat-nav has ever led you into a If you find that extra slice of cake
that runn out muddy field, read on. Researchers at too hard to resist, blame your AGRP
of battery
ery the University of Texas have built an neurones. Researchers at Howard
just as youre inexpensive consumer GPS system Hughes Medical Institute found they
about to o take a thats 100 times more accurate than its generate negative feelings that cause
snap may soon Forget never lying this current equivalent. The GRID system us to seek food. With further study,
be a thing of the camera never runs out reduces location errors from the size the researchers say they may be able
of battery power, either
past. A team of a large car to the size of a pound to manipulate this process and put an
at Columbia coin. It could be used for delivery end to hunger pangs.
University has created a pixel that drones, self-driving cars, and even
can harvest the energy of the light virtual reality gaming. The system uses
that falls on it, as well as measuring an inexpensive
it to create an image. Currently the receiver to
camera can produce one image per harvest accurate
second, indefinitely, in a well-lit room. location
Eventually the technology could information from
lead to cameras that can function antennas found in
with no need for external power, the mobile phones.
researchers say. AGRP neurones in the brain manage feelings
of hunger

18 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 The flexible
robots are coming!
The days of stiff, immobile robots may soon
be numbered. A team at the University
of Pittsburgh has designed a synthetic
polymer gel that mimics Euglena mutabilis,
a single-celled, pond-dwelling organism.
The gel can change shape and move using
chemical energy. Scaled up, the gel could
be used to create robots that are lighter and
have an improved range of motion.

Artificial
photosynthesis
Biodegradable plastics can now be The membranes are
made using artificial photosynthesis. inserted into the
honeycomb structures
The system, developed at the used in aircraft
University of California, is made of
tiny bacteria-coated wires that absorb
solar energy and use it to convert
Quieter
CO2 into acetate. flights
As anyone whos ever tried to get 40 winks The material can be placed into the cabin
during a long haul flight knows, riding in walls and could block 100 to 1,000 times
aeroplanes can be a noisy experience. more sound energy when installed. It
Help may be on the way, however, in the works by causing soundwaves created by
form of a thin rubber membrane thats been airflow on the outside of the aeroplane to
designed by a team at Massachusetts bounce off, rather than pass through into
Those bacteria-coated nanowires up close Institute of Technology. the cabin.

Safer Homing beacon

suction to beat bacteria
A molecular homing beacon that
attracts antibodies has been developed
and used to tag bacteria by a team at
the University of California. One end of
the molecule has a DNA aptamer that
attaches to an invasive bacteria, while
alpha-Gal, a sugar molecule, is at the
other end. The alpha-Gal triggers the
release of antibodies which then attack
The clingsh got
its name for a the bacteria. The technique may
very good reason eventually be
used to attack
Meet the Northern clingfish, disc on their bellies that is covered in a any type of
a tiny fish with serious suction power. A microscopic hair-like structure. Similar bacteria or virus,
team at the University of Washington is technology could lead to a bio-inspired or perhaps even
investigating the biomechanics of how device that could stick to organs or t cancer cells,
its suction force can hold up to 150 issues without harming the patient, or be researchers say.
times its own bodyweight even in wet, used to tag whales and track them, the
slimy environments. The key is an elastic team says. Homing molecules at work

Vol. 7 Issue 8 19
 Update THE LATEST INTELLIGENCE

1 MINUTE EXPERTT
Methyl-adenine

That sounds nasty.

What is it?
A sixth DNA base. Maybe..

Hang on, I thought

there were only four
DNA bases?
Thats partly right. DNA is the main
component of our genetic material
and is made up four bases:
adenine, cytosine, guanine and
thymine, or A, C, G and T. These
can combine in thousands of ways, s,
giving rise to the incredible genetic
variation we see in living beings.

So whats all this

business about
other bases?
In the 1980s, a fifth base, methyl-
cytosine or mC, was found to exist
alongside the classic four. The
methyl bit means the cytosine
molecule has an extra carbon atom m
and three hydrogen atoms. It is SPACE
able to switch genes on or off and
is involved in many diseases,
including cancer.
Astronomers nd volcanic planet
Its perhaps the closest thing These emissions swung tidally locked, so it doesnt rotate
and the sixth? to Mordor ever discovered: between 1,000C and 2,700C like the Earth does instead
Now, researchers think researchers at the University over a two-year period. theres a permanent day side
methyl-adenine, mA, may of Cambridge have observed 55 Cancri e is a rocky that receives all of the radiation
also play a role in the expression a planet so teeming with exoplanet about twice the from the star, and a night side.
of certain genes. However, further volcanic activity that it can size and eight times the mass Due to its relative proximity to
PHOTO: NASA/JPL-CALTECH/R HURT, RICE UNIVERSITY, STAFFAN LARSSON, ISTOCK

study is needed to determine swathe itself in great clouds of of Earth.The so-called super Earth, 55 Cancri e is also among
exactly what it does. ash and smoke. Earth is found 40 light-years the best candidates for detailed
Using NASAs Spitzer Space away, in the constellation of observations of the surface and
Telescope, the team recorded Cancer, and orbits so close to atmospheric conditions on
thermal emissions coming its parent star that a year lasts rocky exoplanets.
from the planet 55 Cancri e. just 18 hours.The planet is This is the first time weve

THEY DID WHAT?! virtual reality displays, set up so

that when they looked down at
empty space where they saw the
paintbrush move, making them feel
Neuroscientists make their bodies they saw empty space. as if their body was invisible.
volunteers invisible They then touched the participants
bodies with a large paintbrush, What did they find?
while imitating the movements They also got subjects to perform
What did they do? with another brush in full view of in front of an audience both before
A team at the Karolinska the subjects. It took less than a and after they underwent the
The structure of DNA may be more complex Institutet in Sweden had minute for the subjects to transfer invisibility session. The volunteers
than was previously thought volunteers wear head-mounted their sensation of touch to the heart rates were lower and they

20 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 55 Cancri e is so
volcanic that at times it
disappears behind an
PATENTLY OBVIOUS with James Lloyd
enveloping cloak of ash
Inventions and discoveries that will change the world
For those terrified of
injections, relief may
be on the way

Pain-free pricks
Those who dread the doctors needle may soon be in for a nice
surprise. Students in the US have created a device that rapidly numbs
the skin, reducing the pain of an injection. The three first-year students
at Rice University have called their gizmo Comfortably Numb.
Its a 3D-printed, single-use device consisting of two sealed
seen such drastic changes blanket the planet, making it chambers containing ammonium nitrate and water. When the device
in light emitted from an look like a great ball of ash. is twisted, the contents of the two chambers come into contact,
exoplanet, which is particularly When we first identified triggering an endothermic (heat-absorbing) reaction. Placing the metal
remarkable for a super this planet, the measurements device against the patients skin produces a numbing effect within 60
Earth, said researcher Nikku supported a carbon-rich seconds, after which they can receive a shot painlessly. The invention
Madhusudhan. No signature model, said Madhusudhan. will be useful for those who are about to receive an injection in a
of thermal emissions or surface But now were finding sensitive area.
activity has ever been detected that those measurements are Patent application underway
for any other super Earth. changing over time.The most
Researchers believe this recent observations open up a No more spoilers Smart wipers
drastic change in thermal emissions new chapter in our ability to
could be due to intense study the conditions on rocky Its always the same you Heres another step towards
volcanic activity on the surface exoplanets using both spend ages carefully avoiding making cars fully automatic.
spewing out huge volumes of current and next-generation details about your favourite TV Jaguar Land Rover has invented
gas and dust which sometimes large telescopes. series, then someone goes and a system that automatically
blurts out the killer plot twist on clears the rear windscreen
Facebook or Twitter. Well, Google whenever you look in the
feels your pain. The tech giant rear-view mirror. Sensors track
reported feeling less stressed has patented a system that will your gaze and head movements,
during the performance when they keep track of the films and series triggering an extra wipe of the
had undergone a short period of that youre watching, flagging windscreen when you check
invisibility beforehand. up a warning if someone posts your mirror. Itll save you fiddling
something that could include a with the wiper settings, and the
Why did they do it? spoiler. Unfortunately, though, window will be free of rain and
The results of the study could be of it wont stop your friends from muck at just the right time. Next
giving the game away in the pub. up: wipers that dont make that
value in developing new therapies
For that, youll need gaffer tape. horrible squeak?
for conditions such as social anxiety The VR headset created a sensation of Patent number: US 9,002,942 Patent application number:
disorder, the researchers say. invisibility surprisingly quickly
US 20150066293

Vol. 7 Issue 8 21
 Update
NEUROSCIENCE
THE LATEST INTELLIGENCE

MICROBIOLOGY

Observed: the precise moment Microbe may be missing link in

the brain makes a decision the evolution of complex life
Its one of the most many pieces are still missing.
fundamental questions in We hoped that Loki would
Sometimes we make a
decision, then change science: how did complex life reveal a few more pieces of
our minds at the last evolve? Now, a team from the puzzle, but when we
minute
Uppsala University in Sweden obtained the first results, we
has moved one step closer to couldnt believe our eyes. The
the answer after discovering a data looked spectacular,
new group of microorganisms says researcher Thijs Ettema.
that represents a missing link By studying its genome,
in the evolution from simple to we found that Loki represents
complex cells. an intermediate form between
Dubbed Lokiarchaeota, or the simple cells of microbes
Loki for short, the microbe and the complex cells of
was found in Lokis Castle, a eukaryotes.
2,350m-deep hydrothermal Despite having a very
vent located between Norway simple structure, the microbe
and Greenland. was found to share many
All organisms on Earth are genes in common with
either prokaryotes, such as eukaryotes. This suggests
bacteria, which have simple cellular complexity emerged
cells, or eukaryotes, such as in an early stage of evolution,
Sunny side up or over easy? Train one target was blocked, resulting mammals, which have more the researchers say. However,
or bus? Cappuccino or latte? Life is in a forced choice. complex cells. However, as further investigation is
full of decisions. Now, researchers By monitoring the monkeys the two cell types are so required to determine what
at Stanford University have motor and premotor cortex using different in composition, functions the genes perform.
successfully recorded the changes electrodes, the team were able biologists have long We are just getting started.
in brain signals that occur when a to analyse brain activity during wondered how one evolved There is still a lot to discover,
monkey makes a choice. each individual decision. In a from the other. and I am convinced we will be
PHOTO: SUSANICA TAM, KIM EINAR ANDREASSEN/UIB/UNDERSEA PHOTOS/CENTRE FOR GEOBIOLOGY/UIB

The team trained laboratory sense, they were able to read the The puzzle of the origin of forced to revise our biology
monkeys to perform a decision- monkeys mind during the free the eukaryotic cell is textbooks in the near future,
making task that involved choices, when each decision may extremely complicated, as says Ettema.
choosing between two targets be different.
on a computer screen.They then We can now track single
tracked the monkeys brain signals decisions with unprecedented
as the decisions were made. precision, said Stanford
Sometimes the monkeys were neuroscientist Matthew Kaufman.
able to reach either target, giving Brain activity for a typical free
them a free choice; at other times choice looked just like it did for
a forced choice. But a few of
the free choices were different.
Occasionally, he was indecisive
for a moment before he made
any plan at all, and about one
time in eight, he made a plan
quickly but changed his mind a
moment later.
The work could lead to more
effective control algorithms for
neural prostheses, which enable
people with paralysis to drive a
brain-controlled prosthetic limb
Lokis Castle. Missing link
or guide a neurally-activated microbe and Norse god of
Matthew Kaufman, monkey mind-reader cursor on a computer screen. mischief not pictured

22 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 Comment & Analysis
How can milk foam hold up a spoon
when its only made of water and air?
he cappuccino looked all right to
T me, but then Im not much of a
coffee drinker. It had a pretty pattern
in the foam on top, and it had apparently
been made using fairly swanky coffee beans.
But that wasnt good enough for the friend I
was with. She picked up the accompanying
metal teaspoon and placed it flat on top of the
foam, with the handle of the spoon resting on
the side of the cup. We watched in silence as
the spoon sank slowly beneath the bubbles.
Rubbish, she sniffed. The waitress returned
with my hot chocolate, which was more than
half milk foam, and we repeated the test. The
spoon sat there quite happily, and apparently
this foam passed the test. Isnt that odd? Spoons
fall through air and they fall through milk. So
how is it that when you mix those two things
together, they make something that behaves
like a solid and can hold up a spoon?
I have a small milk-frothing device at
home, and its always hot chocolate oclock,
so the next day I roped my in neighbour to
assist and we did some experiments. We tried
cold semi-skimmed milk first. Milk contains
both protein and fats, and as the air was
whisked in, the cup filled up with foam really
quickly. The secret to a foam is a molecule
with both a water-loving and a water-hating
end. These coat the surface of each bubble,
making a sort of cage around it. In the cold
milk, the fats were playing that role, but there cappuccino. There was too little air and the
werent very many of them. As we watched, Im still not a bubbles could easily move out of the way
the bubbles joined together to make bigger
bubbles, and these eventually burst. The foam
coffee drinker, but of the spoon.
Like richer hot chocolate? Full-fat milk isnt
vanished almost as quickly as it arrived. I love the thought so good for foam, because the fats and
Then we tried heating the milk. Cold proteins stick to each other and not to the
protein molecules are wound up into little that you can build a bubbles. But add a bit of cream, and fat takes
balls, with their hydrophobic (water-hating) over from protein to make even more
ends tucked safely away inside. But as the solid structure out of decadent foams. So, to finish the experiments,
milk was warmed, the proteins unwound to
reveal those ends. Suddenly, there were far
a liquid and a gas we made some more milk foam using our
most successful technique, and turned it into
more molecules that could act as a coating. hot chocolate.
The foam grew just as quickly, but this time it the bubbles are spherical squishy packages Im still not a coffee drinker, so Im not
stayed put because there were lots of stable that pack together just like ping-pong balls going to turn into a coffee snob. But I love
ILLUSTRATOR: ANDREW LYONS

little cages for the bubbles. But it doesnt tell in a bucket. Pushing on them just squashes the thought that you can build a solid
us why the mixture could hold up the raisins the bubbles a bit, so theyll push back and structure out of a liquid and a gas. And even
that we scattered over the surface. can hold an object up. But if you push a bit more, I love the idea that you can add this
In really smooth milk foam, the bubbles harder, the bubbles squish enough to start structure to chocolate and drink it.
are too small to see each one measures sliding past each other. The more liquid
about one-tenth of a millimetre in diameter there is between the bubbles, the less hard DR HELEN CZERSKI is a physicist, oceanographer
and the coating stops them from joining you have to push to get them to shuffle and BBC science presenter whose most recent
together. These foams are quite wet, and around. This was the issue with the failing series was Super Senses

Vol. 7 Issue 8 23
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SCIENCE

Neuroscientists peering into our brains are becoming

ever more convinced that free will is an illusion; simply
a creation of our mind that allows us a sense of control.
Simon Crompton delves into the science to find out more

ou were always going to start this discoveries in neuroscience have freshly going to make many seconds before you
Y article. It was theoretically
predictable from the moment of
stoked the fires of debate about
determinism versus human free will that
believe you make it. If were not conscious
of our decision-making, how can we be
the Big Bang. You were always going to have been crackling among scientists, said to be acting voluntarily, to be willing
read this sentence. And this one each act philosophers and religious figures since at our every deed? And if were acting
the inevitable result of everything that least the days of Socrates. And consciously, exactly what is determining
preceded it. Every bumping together of determinism, most famously advocated by what we do?
atoms and molecules, the exact structure of Sir Isaac Newton, currently seems to be Scientific inquiry, it seems, is killing the
ILLUSTRATOR: ANDY POTTS

your DNA, the precise combination of gaining the upper hand. very idea of free will. Or is it?
chemical and electrical signals that make The reason for this is a sequence of brain
you do what you do has been determined experiments stretching back to the 1980s,
by the laws of science from the beginning which have indicated with increasing Decisions, decisions
of time. authority that our brains make decisions Imagine looking at a clock on a computer
That is what is known as determinism, before we even become aware of them. with a rapidly rotating hand, and being
and it cuts through traditional ideas of free Scientists today can wire you up to a asked to push a button at any point
will like a knife. In the past 30 years, computer and predict what choice you are decided by yourself. You have to

26 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 Scan this QR Code for
the audio reader

Vol. 7 Issue 8 27
SCIENCE

note the position of the hand on the clockface

at the moment you decide to move your
finger. All the while, your brains electrical activity
is monitored using an electroencephalogram (EEG).
This was the experiment carried out by American
neurologist Benjamin Libet in 1983 which caused a
free will re-think. Libet calculated participants
precise conscious decision time, using the times they
noted as their decision time and the time the button
was actually pushed. Then he compared this
decision time with a surge of brain activity that
earlier research had shown indicated decision-
making. He found that the brain activity started, on
average, 300 milliseconds before subjects were
conscious of making the decision. This change in
brain activity that precedes conscious decisions,
called readiness potential, has been deemed a blow
to free will, suggesting that the brain prepares to do
something well before we decide to do it.
Libets experiments were simple, but his findings
have been elaborated on by his followers. In 2010,
Steven Pinker,
neurosurgeons and neuroscientists from UCLA and
Harvard repeated Libets experiment, this time psychologist
inserting electrodes into the brain to record activity Speaking in 2011
youtu.be/VQxJi0COTBo
from individual neurones. They detected readiness
potential up to 1.5 seconds before a decision.
Whats more, brain-scanning research by Berlin
neuroscientist John-Dylan Haynes in 2007 showed
that some decisions we make can be predicted up to
seven seconds in advance. He placed study
PHOTO: UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE, D WEGNER/T WHEATLEY, MAX GERBER

participants into a brain scanner and asked them to

push a button to their left or right side whichever
they wanted, whenever they wanted. The patterns
of brain activity leading up to right decisions
were found to be different from left decisions,

I dont believe theres free will in the sense of a spirit or soul that reads the TV screen of the
senses and pushes buttons and pulls levers of behaviour. Behaviour is the product of
physical processes in the brain. But when you have a brain consisting of 100 billion neurones
connected by 100 trillion synapses theres a vast amount of complexity, so human choices will not be
predictable in any simple way from a given set of stimuli. We also know the brain is set up so that there are
at least two kinds of behaviour: choosing how to move a chess piece is different from your iris
closing if I shine a light in your eye. Its that kind of behaviour, that has a mental model of the
world which can predict the consequences of certain behaviours, that carves out the realm of
behaviour that we call free will.

28 Vol. 7 Issue 8
A volunteer undergoes an
EEG during an experiment at
The University of Melbournes
Decision Neuroscience Laboratory

and became clear seconds in advance of the button think we are. Wegner demonstrated this with a kind
being pushed. of reverse seance. He fixed a small board on top of a
Perhaps most controversial are the experiments computer joystick, and asked two participants to sit
and views of American psychologist Daniel Wegner, on either side with their fingers on the board, causing
who before his death in 2013 argued that our sense a cursor to roam over pictures on a screen. They were
of control over what we do is self-delusion. He told to stop the cursor whenever they liked. After the
pointed out that there were constant examples of cursor stopped, the participants were asked how
us being mistaken about being the authors of our strongly they felt that they, individually, had chosen
own actions. the stopping place. Invariably, participants believed
Sometimes we do things but dont think were they had controlled the landing place. The trick was
doing them: for example, moving a glass around a that one of the two participants was, in fact, an
ouija board, twitching a stick when divining water or experiment coordinator who had complete control of
accomplishing tasks under hypnosis. On the other the cursor all the time. The movements of the true
hand, sometimes we arent doing anything when we test subject didnt control the cursor at all.

In Wegners famous experiment, volunteers believed they were

controlling the movement of a cursor on a screen even though their
input actually had no effect whatsoever on the cursors movement

In other words, said Wegner, we fool ourselves

constantly and have what he called the illusion of
conscious will. This has led to other psychologists
and neuroscientists taking the idea further saying
that the feeling of intention is something humans
always attribute to their actions after the fact. We
make up stories so that we can take ownership of
actions that would have happened anyway.
Even for the most pragmatic of scientists, this
sounds like a troubling vision of humans as
programmed automata, our deeds the products
of unconscious processes rather than thought.
But that is by no means the whole story. If science
has taken debates about free will beyond the
traditional arenas of independent action, the
new understanding it has brought about human
consciousness is revealing the inadequacies of
talking about free will in the first place. As a
result, scientists and philosophers alike are

Vol. 7 Issue 8 29
SCIENCE

In Patrick Haggards lab, muscle activity in the hand is measured as part of an experiment to determine if we have free will

Free will is our capacity to see probable futures in time to take steps so that something else
happens instead. What happens is determined, but it isnt as important as people have
thought: it doesnt imply inevitability. We have to recognise that there are varieties of free
will. The traditional varieties who cares if weve got them? The varieties that matter, the
varieties worth wanting, are perfectly compatible with determinism.
Do we have to give up something? Yes, we have to give up some of our ideas and ideology about freedom
and blame and responsibility. That will scare some people, who want to be absolutist about responsibility. I
mean, the idea of in the eyes of God, thats a sin that has to go. What we replace it with is
still a very rich and familiar concept, and that is: we are not deluded about our own capacity.
PHOTO: MARTIN POPE CAMERA PRESS, PRESS ASSOCIATION, UCLA

We are determined to be masters of our fate, to a surprising and gratifying degree.

now engaged in framing new ways of looking A neuroscientist has to believe that all our
at what it might actually mean to be free. thoughts, feelings and experiences are the result of
electrical and chemical events in the brain, he says.
The great debate That throws out of the window the idea that there is
Patrick Haggard is a British neuroscientist who has an I telling the brain what to do.
collaborated with Libet and examines issues of free But at the same time, he believes that ideas that
will and voluntary action as a professor at the we simply deceive ourselves into believing we have
Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University conscious will are going too far. He points to recent
College London. Until recently characterised as work by Aaron Schurger in France, which has
anti-free will, he acknowledges his views have brought into question whether the readiness
evolved as traditional debates seem increasingly potential that Libet identified in the brain actually
irrelevant. One thing is clear, says Haggard: a represents the brain planning what to do next. For
scientific outlook can no longer accommodate some it has brought free will back into the Daniel Dennett,
dualist ideas the belief held by religions and neurological picture. Schurger developed earlier
philosophers such as Ren Descartes that a soul or research indicating that when we make a decision philosopher
Speaking in 2014
mind can exist separately from the brain and body. based on, say, visual input, groups of brain cells start youtu.be/joCOWaaTj4A

30 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 Free will as a concept is so incoherent that it cant be mapped onto
any conceivable reality. Many people agree that free will doesnt
make any sense, and that its some kind of illusion, but they think
that nothing important changes, and in my view that is untrue. Most
people imagine that a belief in free will is necessary for morality and its necessary
therefore for getting what we want out of life. I think thats clearly untrue.
The popular conception of free will rests on two assumptions. The first is that
each of us is free to think and act differently than we did in the past. The second
assumption is that you are the conscious source of your thoughts and actions.
Now, unfortunately, we know that both these assumptions are false. We live in a
world of cause and effect. Everything that could possibly constitute
your will is either the product of a long chain of prior causes, and
youre not responsible for them, or its the product of randomness,
and youre not responsible for that.

The dress illusion (above and assembling evidence in favour of various outcomes.
below) showed how neural noise When this neural noise rises to a peak, it crosses a
leads to different conclusions
about the dresss colour scheme threshold and tips into a conclusion. The famous dress
optical illusion that took the internet by storm in
March, for example, shows that different brains tip
over into different conclusions on the basis of
ambiguous evidence.
Schurger proposed that this constant neural noise is
involved in all decision-making. He created a
computer model of electrical activity as the brain
assembled information, and found it looked similar to
the patterns of Libets readiness potential. He argued
that what looked like a pre-conscious decision- Sam Harris,
making process might indicate a readiness to make a neuroscientist
conscious decision, rather than the decision itself. In
and author
an experiment, he showed that participants who had Speaking in 2012
built up the most neural noise were quickest in youtu.be/_FanhvXO9Pk
making spontaneous choices.

If its true that there is really no such thing

A WORLD WITHOUT FREE WILL

What do you mean actually have conscious and Minnesota found
as free will, what are the implications for our
day-to-day lives, and our society?
discouraging further Manchester University,
I dont have free control over our that the more people crime. However the many philosophers
will? Many of us will thoughts and actions. doubted free will, the researchers, Azim believe that it is
tend to recoil at the And what about ideas of less they favoured Shariff and Kathleen precisely because free
very idea, because moral responsibility? If punishments that make Vohs, also found will does not exist that
such a suggestion we know we dont have offenders suffer for their that people who are we have to build social
threatens many of free will, does that lead crimes suggesting convinced that we do institutions and laws
the assumptions and to a world where we that a world that not have free will are to stop us killing each
institutions that can behave as we want, knew it had no free more likely to cheat, lie other. They see this as
our societies are because we cannot be will might be more and harm others during a pale imitation of moral
founded on. held responsible for compassionate. They experiments. responsibility, she
Religions that involve whatever we do? wanted rehabilitative According to Helen says. However,
divine judgment make Psychology punishments Beebee, Professor Id see it as real
little sense if we dont researchers at Oregon instead, focusing on of Philosophy at moral responsibility.

Vol. 7 Issue 8 31
SCIENCE

Magicians and mind-

readers have long known
that free will is an
illusion. In fact, weve
been using that knowledge to our
advantage for centuries. Any good
performer can create the perfect illusion
of free choice and yet secretly
manipulate events so that the choice is
anything other than free. Its fascinating
to me that neuroscientists are only now
discovering the science behind why this
is possible. Choices only feel free
because of a psychological principle
called cognitive dissonance. Good
performers use this to give an audience
the feeling that theyve made decisions
for themselves, but in some tricks these
choices are largely irrelevant as the
performer has already decided on the
outcome or knows what choices are
likely to be made. An audience will
swear theyve exercised free will,
and thats what
makes this principle
so perfect for us.
PHOTO: SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, ISTOCK, UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER

Schurger is interesting, says Haggard. brain that seem to give us a sense of control over
You could say that his theory is compatible what were doing. The posterior parietal cortex at
with free will because this crossing of the threshold the back of the brain seems to have a role in
is the decision to act, but I think hes rightly planning and monitoring our actions. And the
cautious about whether the process is conscious. fronto-median cortex, where the two hemispheres
Indeed, it is the big question of consciousness meet, is active before movement. When doctors
that needs to be addressed, because questions of free stimulate this area with electricity, patients have
will are irrelevant without understanding it better. reported feeling the urge to move their arm.
I do think we have a conscious experience of That sounds a little bit like will, says Haggard.
what we are about to do, Haggard continues,
but its for others to decide whether that is free The broader picture
will. Its this stream of experience that our Philosophers, too, are accommodating advancing
research is concentrating on. We need to know if neuroscience into their enduring debates about free
theres a difference between conscious actions will. The fact is, says Helen Beebee, Professor of
making a cup of tea, say and those you can do Philosophy at Manchester University, that what
Marc Paul, unconsciously like walking. That will help us neuroscientists are saying hasnt come as a particular
psychological understand how consciousness affects our control of surprise to many.
magician our actions. Theres a great philosophical tradition, one
www.marcpaul.com Neuroscientists are looking at two areas of the which I am part of, which says that even if

32 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 Philosophy professor Helen Beebee says that it is possible to act
freely and that we do not feel as if we are in a zombie-like state

Do we have free will? Yes, I believe we still do. It doesnt matter

that we live in a deterministic universe in which the future is, in
principle, fixed. That future is only knowable if we were able to view
the whole of space and time from the outside. But for us and our
consciousnesses, embedded within space-time, that future is never knowable. It is
that very unpredictability that gives us an open future. The choices we make are,
to us, real choices, and because of the butterfly effect, tiny changes brought about
by our different decisions can lead to very different outcomes and different
futures. So, thanks to chaos theory, our future is never knowable to
us. You might prefer to say that the future is preordained and that our
The brains posterior
parietal cortex seems to free will is just an illusion, but our actions still determine which of
have a role in planning and
monitoring our actions
the infinite number of possible futures gets played out.

everything we do has a cause that can fully explain a gun to our head, are being coerced into making
that it is going to happen, its still perfectly possible our cup of tea or are in the grip of some hypnotic,
to act freely. Before Libet, most of us thought there zombie-like state.
were prior causes anyway we just didnt know The real lesson from recent research on human
what they were. consciousness and decision-making is that
Beebee believes that a rounded look at human neuroscientists and philosophers alike know that we
experience reveals that neuroscience is only part of are not robots, emptily fulfilling pre-ordained roles.
the picture. Say, for example, you looked at the last We know that to accommodate the infinitely rich
million years on a purely molecular level: you experience of being human, the brain has infinitely
wouldnt see evolutionary processes, or animal complex processes, and that current research is only
behaviour. Youd have your story of how one thing scratching the surface of the simplest of these.
led to another in terms of physics and chemistry, but Deciding whether to push a button is one thing;
youd have missed out on some other very important deciding whether to marry someone is another
stuff. If you look at the brain as a neurological thing entirely. The case against free will is definitely
machine, of course youre not going to find free will not proven.
there, because its not the level of description at Jim Al-Khalili,
which free will crops up. physicist
Why do we require determinism to be false to Writing in 2013 SIMON CROMPTON is a science journalist, and a former health
have control over our lives? None of us feel we have bit.ly/1aNFooC editor for both The Times and The Daily Telegraph

Vol. 7 Issue 8 33
HISTORY

Marked man
A bust of Gaius
Julius Caesar. By
March 44 BC, the
great general had
made some powerful
enemies by
ALAMY

increasingly acting Scan this QR Code for

like a monarch the audio reader

34 Vol. 7 Issue 8
New research
The death of Caesar
For centuries weve been told that two Roman senators called Brutus and Cassius
masterminded the plot to butcher Julius Caesar on the Ides of March. But is that the whole
story? Did the brains behind the conspiracy reside somewhere else entirely with one of
Caesars greatest allies?
By Barry Strauss

hat do you say, Caesar? Will IN CONTEXT who Shakespeare misnames Decius and
W someone of your stature pay
attention to the dreams of a Caesar
mentions only in the scene described above.
Yet Decimus was key. His motives are less
woman and the omens of foolish men? So opaque than most think and his behaviour
said Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus to Gaius By 44 BC Gaius Julius Caesar was shows just how well organised the
Julius Caesar. The 36-year-old Decimus the most famous and controversial conspirators were.
spoke frankly to a man his elder by nearly 20 man in Rome. A populist political The earliest surviving, detailed source
years, a man who was not only his chief but star and great writer, he excelled in for Caesars assassination makes Decimus the
also Romes Dictator for Life. Yet Caesar was the military realm as well, pulling off leader of the conspiracy. Sometime within a
fond of Decimus, a longtime comrade-in- a lightning conquest of Gaul few decades of the Ides of March, Nicolaus of
arms and a trusted lieutenant, and so he let roughly, France and Belgium as Damascus, a scholar and bureaucrat, wrote a
him speak. They met in Caesars official well as invading Britain and Ger- Life of Caesar Augustus that is, of
residence in the heart of Rome. many (5850 BC). When his en- Augustus, Romes first emperor (reigned 27
It was the morning of 15 March 44 BC emies, the old guard in the Senate, BCAD 14). A later abridgment of this work
the Ides, as the Romans called the removed him from command, survives and it focuses on the assassination.
approximate middle of each month: the Ides Caesar invaded Italy. He went on to Until recently, scholars have tended to
of March. The Senate was in session that day, total victory in a civil war (4945 BC) dismiss Nicolaus because he worked for
its members eagerly awaiting the dictators that ranged across the Mediterra- a- Augustus and so had a motive to attack
arrival. Yet Caesar had decided not to attend nean. His challenge now was to the conspirators. But recent work suggests
allegedly because of bad health but, in fact, reconcile his surviving enemies and that Nicolaus was a brilliant student of
the real cause was a series of ill omens that to convince staunch republicans s to human nature who deserves more
had terrified his wife, Calpurnia. accept his power as dictator. It was s attention.
Decimus changed Caesars mind. Caesar a daunting task. A series of letters between Decimus and
decided to go to the Senate meeting after all, Cicero, all written after the assassination,
if only to announce a postponement in also shed light on the plot, but they too
person. What he didnt know was that more have been neglected.
than 60 conspirators were waiting for him
there, their daggers ready. Decimus, Things turn sour
however, was all too aware he was one Unlike Brutus and Cassius, Decimus
of the plots ringleaders, and his actions was Caesars man. In the civil war
that morning were about to change the between Caesar and the Roman general
course of history. Pompey (4945 BC), Brutus and Cassius
Despite this, most historians have both supported Pompey and then later
traditionally cast Brutus and Cassius as the changed sides. By contrast, Decimus backed
brains behind the conspiracy. In doing so, Caesars killers used the pugio Caesar from start to finish. During the
AKG-IMAGES

theyve followed the lead of Plutarch, who dagger, like the one shown conflict, Caesar appointed Decimus as his
wrote 150 years after the assassination, and here, as it was easy to smuggle lieutenant to govern Gaul in his absence. At
Shakespeare, who drew most of his story into the Senate House the wars end in 45 BC, Decimus left
from Plutarch. They tend to omit Decimus, Gaul and returned to Italy with Caesar.

Vol. 7 Issue 8 35
HISTORY

In for the kill A posse of senators stab Caesar to death in Vincenzo Camuccinis painting, completed in c1798. The plot succeeded, says
Barry Strauss, because it was planned with military precision: after isolating their victim, the assassins acted rapidly and ruthlessly

Then things turned sour. Between aimed to change Romes government. He showed to Octavian raised the terrifying
September 45 BC and March 44 BC behaved in ever-more dictatorial ways, prospect of a dynasty.
Decimus changed his mind about Caesar. summed up in his adoption of the Some Romans responded to Caesars
We dont know why but it probably had unprecedented title of Dictator for Life. growing power with flattery. They voted
more to do with power than principle. He maintained Romes traditional him a long stream of honours including,
Decimuss letters to Cicero reveal a polite republican magistracies but elections most egregiously, naming him a god, with
if terse man of action with a keen sense increasingly became mere formalities plans afoot for priests and a temple. Others,
of honour, a nose for betrayal, and a thirst Caesar had the real power of appointment. however, decided that he had to be stopped,
for vengeance. Consuls, praetors (magistrates) and senators and so they decided on assassination. True,
Perhaps what moved Decimus was the saw power shifting to Caesars secretaries and they acted in the name of the Republic and
sight of the two triumphal parades in Rome advisors some of them had only recently liberty and against a budding monarchy but
in autumn 45 BC that Caesar allowed his become Roman citizens; some were even they also saw in his growing influence a
lieutenants in Spain to celebrate, against all freedmen (former slaves). Caesar was not a threat to their own power and privilege.
custom. Caesar did not, however, grant a king, but he had acquired the equivalent of Plans to assassinate Caesar are attested
similar privilege to Decimus for his victory royal power. as early as the summer of 45 BC but the
over a fierce Gallic tribe. There was another issue at play here conspiracy that struck on the Ides of March
Or perhaps it was Caesars appointment of the prospect of what would happen after did not gel until February 44 BC. At least
his grandnephew Octavian (as Augustus was Caesars death. To his critics, the favour he 60 men joined it (of whom we can identify
then known) as his second-in-command in a just 20 today and some of them are little
new war in 44 BC against Parthia (roughly, more than names). According to a later
ancient Iran), Romes rival in the eastern
Mediterranean. Decimus meanwhile had to
Decimus was writer, Seneca, the majority of the
conspirators were not Caesars enemies
stay behind and govern Italian Gaul. the plotters chief former allies of Pompey but his friends
Whatever his motives, once he turned on and supporters.
Caesar, Decimus was indispensable. He was of security, and That certainly cant be said for Brutus and
both the plotters chief of security and their Cassius, the best-known conspirators. Cassius
leading spy. As the only conspirator in Caesars their leading spy. was a military man and a former Pompey
inner circle, Decimus was a mole, able to
report on what Caesar was thinking. Whats
He was able to supporter who despised Caesars dictatorial
ways. As for Brutus, he was hardly the friend
more, Decimus controlled a troupe of
gladiators, which played a key role on the Ides.
report on what of Caesar whom Shakespeare depicts.
Brutuss mother was Caesars former mistress.
GETTY IMAGES

Caesar remained in Rome between Caesar was However, Brutus supported Pompey until
October 45 and March 44 BC his longest the latter lost to Caesar on the battlefield in
stay there for years. He never revealed a thinking 48 BC, at which point Brutus switched sides.
programme but his actions betrayed that he He promptly betrayed his ex-chief by

36 Vol. 7 Issue 8
providing Caesar intelligence about the likely the chair while others surrounded him as if
whereabouts of Pompey, who had escaped trying to grab his attention. The truth is that
after the battle. Afterwards, Caesar rewarded they were forming a perimeter.
Brutus with high office. Then the attack sprang into action. Tillius
This, however, was to prove the high point Cimber, a hard-drinking scrapper of a soldier
of Caesar and Brutuss relationship. In the whom Caesar favoured, held his hands out
summer of 45 BC, Brutus divorced his wife disrespectfully and pulled at Caesars toga. At
and remarried. His new bride was Porcia, his this signal, his co-conspirators struck, led by
cousin and, far more pertinently to this story, Publius Servilius Casca.
daughter of Caesars late archenemy Cato. Caesar immediately called out to Cimber,
Crucially, in the winter of 44 BC, Caesars Why, this is violence, and hurled an oath at
opponents began calling on Brutus to uphold Casca, labelling him either impious or
the tradition of his ancestors, who included accursed. However, he never said: Et tu,
the founder of the Roman Republic, Lucius Brute? (You too, Brutus?) that phrase is
Junius Brutus, the man who had led the This coin, issued by Brutus, one of the a Renaissance invention. Ancient authors
expulsion of Romes kings hundreds of years plots ringleaders, displays the military report a rumour that Caesar said to Brutus,
daggers employed against Caesar
earlier. And so, through a combination of in Greek: You too, child. But they doubt
pride, principle and, perhaps, love for his that he even said that.
wife Brutus turned on Caesar. Caesar, the old warrior, tried to fight back.
He stabbed Casca with his stylus a small,
Military precision Before the end, pointed, iron writing utensil and managed
The plot to assassinate Caesar succeeded to get back up. Two of his supporters among
because it was meticulously planned, and Caesar wrapped the senators, Lucius Marcius Censorinus and
flawlessly executed. With generals such as Gaius Calvisius Sabinus, then attempted to
Decimus, Cassius and Caesars veteran his toga around his reach him but the conspirators blocked their
commander Trebonius involved, one would way, and forced them to flee.
expect nothing less than military precision. face and fell at the Meanwhile, Trebonius had been assigned
The assassins chose to end Caesars life
themselves rather than by hiring killers
foot of the statue of to buttonhole his old comrade Mark Antony
and engage him in conversation outside the
a decision that showed their seriousness of
purpose. And by striking at a Senate meeting
his great rival, Senates door. Antony was a veteran soldier,
strong, dangerous and loyal to Caesar. If hed
they made it a public act rather than a private Pompey entered the Senate room, he would have sat
vendetta an assassination and not a murder. on the tribunal with Caesar and could have
That this was a professional operation is come to his aid.
even reflected in the killers choice of great rival. It was part of a huge complex With Mark Antony detained by
weapon. Caesars assassins attacked him with including a theatre, a park, a covered portico, Trebonius, there was little Caesar could do to
daggers and not, as is sometimes imagined, and shops and offices. Gladiatorial games defend himself. It probably took only
with swords. The latter were too big to sneak took place in the theatre on the Ides of minutes for him to die succumbing to what
into the Senate House and too unwieldy for March, which gave Decimus an excuse for most of the sources state were 23 wounds.
use in close quarters. In particular, the killers deploying his gladiators near Pompeys Before the end, he wrapped his toga around
used a military dagger (the pugio), which Senate House. Their real purpose was as a his face and, in an ironic turn of events, fell
was becoming standard issue for legionaries. backup security force. at the foot of a statue of his rival, Pompey.
Military daggers were not only practical As a general, Caesar had a bodyguard but For all its brilliance, the plot to kill
weapons but also honourable ones. Caesars he made a point of dismissing it after Caesar didnt prove the panacea that the
supporters later called the assassins common returning to civilian life in Rome. He assassins hoped. Civil war soon broke out
criminals and accused them of using sicae, a wanted to seem accessible and fearless. again and, to a man, they were to suffer
short, curved blade that had the negative Whats more, only senators could enter a violent deaths. Whats more, the Republic
connotation of a switchblade or flick knife. Senate meeting, so most of Caesars retinue that they aimed to defend perished and
So, in 44 BC, Brutus issued a coin that would have had to remain outside the gave way to an empire. That, however,
celebrated the Ides of March with two building. This made the dictator uniquely does not brand them as foolish idealists. It
military daggers. Again, he wanted to show vulnerable inside the Senate House. Still, merely shows that their political acumen
that the assassins were no mere murderers. Caesar had appointed many of the senators did not match the military skill they
The Roman Senate House still stands in personally, and they included military men. displayed on the Ides of March.
the Roman Forum and most visitors assume If they came to Caesars aid, they could
that Caesar was killed there but he was not, overwhelm the assassins.
nor on the Capitoline Hill, as Shakespeare The assassins response to this threat was to BARRY STRAUSS (@BARRYSTRAUSS) is a professor
of history and classics at Cornell University. His latest
TOPFOTO

states. The assassination took place about half attack at speed, isolating their target before
book, The Death of Caesar: The Story of Historys Most
a mile away from the Forum in Pompeys striking. Even before Caesar took his seat on Famous Assassination, is published by Simon
Senate House, ironically built by Caesars the tribunal, several assassins stood behind & Schuster.

Vol. 7 Issue 8 37
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 P S YCHOL
SPAC
OG Y
E

SCIENCE

In a new book, a former CIA

officer reveals how to get
anyone to tell you the truth.
Jo Carlowe uncovers the
tricks of the trade

ocial psychologist Jerald Jellison

S famously claimed that humans are
lied to 200 times a day. Little
wonder, then, that reams have been written
on how to spot a liar. But what do you do if
you think someone has told you a fib? How
do you convince them to tell you the truth
when it may be in their best interest to lie?
Well, former CIA officer Philip Houston,
co-author of Get The Truth, believes he
knows how.
In his 25-year career with the CIA,
working as both an investigator and a
polygraph examiner, he has eked confessions
from some of the most entrenched liars,
including terrorists and spies. And he says the
techniques he uses in real-life
counterterrorism and criminal investigations
are applicable to all of us in our daily lives.
There are methods that we can use in real-
life situations to get a partner to admit to an
infidelity, or a child to confess to a
misdemeanour.
Surprisingly, the way to the truth has its
roots not in relationship psychology, but in
the science of persuasion. We obtain the
truth by getting people to use short-term
thinking. A shopping channel presenter, for
example, will never say, pick up your
chequebook because that will get
viewers thinking about their finances

Vol. 7 Issue 8 39
SCIENCE

(or lack of them). Instead, they will

say, pick up the phone. Likewise,
agents in pursuit of the truth will do
everything in their power to stop you
thinking about the long-term consequences
of your actions. And both salespeople and
investigators use a sales pitch to get you to
switch focus away from your own goals and
onto theirs.

Sell the truth

In the case of the criminal investigator,
the sales pitch is actually the interrogation.
This differs from the initial interview,
which is a dialogue in which the
investigator asks questions and the suspect
responds. By contrast, the interrogation
is a monologue in which the investigator
does most of the talking. It is akin to
the marketers sales pitch, but instead
of a product, the investigator is selling
the idea that telling the truth is the only Beating up suspects
and instilling fear is
way forward. not an effective way
The interview is often not effective to achieve a truthful
confession
because each question is another opportunity
to lie. With every lie the person tells, they
become more psychologically entrenched
[committed] in maintaining the lie,
The more you question
Houston explains.
To overcome this, the interrogator can
someone who is lying, the more
switch to a monologue to lead the person
into short-term thinking, causing them to psychologically committed to
become temporarily more focused on the
rationale provided in the monologue than their lie they become
the long-term consequences.
If a person is truly thinking clearly and Philip Houston, former CIA officer and co-author of Get The Truth
logically, they should never confess
confession is a losing proposition for them,
admits Houston. When we are training
law enforcement officers, we often joke that
in the interrogation, they have to become
an 8ft x 10ft [2.4m x 3m] condominium
salesman. That is extremely difficult real
estate to sell, but the concept of short-term
thinking is so psychologically powerful
that it makes their monologue effective
PHOTO: ISTOCK, GETTY

and successful.
The methods are universal and can be
used to elicit the truth from anyone not
just hardened criminals. And it turns out
Know someone is
that the truth is not so hard to reach, lying? You might not
because humans actually like to unburden need to dust off the old
polygraph machine to
themselves. Indeed, a Canadian get a confession

40 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 WHAT MAKES SOMEONE MORE LIKELY TO LIE?
THEIR SOCIAL CLASS
US scientists have found that the upper classes lie more in negotiations and cheat to
win money more than the lower classes. When asked about values, the upper class
participants had more favourable attitudes towards greed, which may go some way to
explain the correlation between social nobility and ethical ignobility.

THEY ARE PRESSURED FOR TIME

Psychologists asked participants to roll a dice and to report the result to determine
their pay. Those given a short amount of time to report the outcome were more likely to
lie. Experts suggest that when given more time, individuals are unable
to inwardly justify lying and so they tell the truth.

THEY WERE RAISED BY LIARS

Children lied to by adults are also more likely to lie. In one study, children were
told there were sweets in another room. When the kids discovered there werent any
sweets, they were more likely to cheat and lie in a subsequent task than
children who were not lied to at the outset.

ITS THE AFTERNOON

We are more likely to lie in the afternoon than the morning. Studies show that
we are 20 to 50 per cent more likely to be dishonest in the afternoon, by lying and
cheating more in various tasks. Experts put this down to psychological depletion
as the day wears on we become cognitively weaker.

THEY WANT PEOPLE TO LIKE THEM

Studies show that 60 per cent of people lie at least once during a short conversation
with someone new and on average tell two to three lies. Women are more likely
to lie to make the other person feel good, while men are more likely
to lie to make themselves look better.

neuroimaging study from 2014 revealed that example being: Something is clearly on
our cortical reward system is more active your mind.
when telling the truth than when lying. In The DOC is critical. It sends the simple
other words, we get more satisfaction from message in a non-adversarial tone that
being honest. everything the person has done to try to get
We tap the very same principle in every away with the act of wrongdoing has failed.
interrogation scenario we encounter, It psychologically orientates the persons
whether the aim is to get a terrorist to thinking to the realisation that they need a
disclose the details of a bomb plot, a serial new game plan, and the interrogator is
killer to confess to a murder or a child to perfectly positioned to provide that game
admit they didnt do their homework, plan via their monologue. In essence it
says Houston. The key to success is to says: You have failed so dont think your
transfer to the monologue the moment you way any more think my way.
are confident that you are not being told In the interrogation phase it is more
what you need to know. effective to use statements rather than
Remember, the more you question questions. If you ask a question, it signals
someone who is lying, the more that you still dont know if theyre guilty, so
psychologically committed to their lie they still have a chance to convince you
they become, warns Houston. theyre not, says Houston.
Statements suggest that the truth is
a given. As more facts come into play, you
Good cop can make your proclamations stronger.
So how do you switch from a friendly I know the who, I know the what, now
dialogue into the more serious monologue? I need to understand the why, is an
During his 25-year CIA career, Houston recommends you make whats especially useful statement.
Philip Houston extracted known as a transition statement that is a This particular approach is very
confessions from seasoned
spies and terrorists Direct Observation of Concern (DOC), an effective because it causes the person

Vol. 7 Issue 8 41
 SPAC E
SCIENCE

to ask themselves why is the why so

important? The answer is often a
realisation that the why could inf luence
the severity of the consequences, says
Houston. As a result, the person often
initially fabricates or fudges on the why.
Thats okay, because virtually any
explanation of why equals an admission of
guilt. Once we have the confession, we can
coax the real motivation out of them.

Guilt trip
In a professional interrogation, the
investigator may introduce a Direct Want the truth?
Dont shout and yell
Observation of Guilt (DOG) such as: at people it will only
We cant eliminate you from our suspects. make them jump on
the defensive

Lessening of fear by relying effective at getting suspects to open up.

Houston believes these techniques are
on the monologue and short- permissible but must be tailored to
suit the seriousness of the situation and
term thinking is more powerful likely outcome.
I would encourage parents to avoid
and effective than instilling or using minimisation to the degree that they
leave their child feeling they have been
increasing the fear hoodwinked. They also dont want to leave
their child with the impression that this is
Philip Houston, former CIA officer and co-author of Get The Truth how normal life is handled. This approach
is reserved when there is significant
deception and the truth is critical to
resolution, he says.
However, Houston only recommends the bring the person closer to a confession. Unlike Houston, few of us will be faced
PHOTO: ISTOCK X4

layperson uses the DOG if they have Statements like: Weve all been there or with situations in which getting to the truth
irrefutable evidence on which to base it. Its not the end of the world are not is critical to national security, but there will
When giving their monologue, CIA unusual. A study from the University of be plenty of other times when these
interrogators will minimise, rationalise and Montreals School of Criminology found methods can come in handy. Some useful
generalise the act of wrongdoing in order to that methods such as minimisation are transition statements to elicit the truth in

42 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 5 STEPS TO GET ANYONE TO TELL YOU THE TRUTH
1 2 3 4 5
KEEP THEM IN SOCIALISE THE FOCUS THEM ON MAKE A DIRECT SLOW YOUR SPEECH,
SHORT-TERM SITUATION TELLING THE TRUTH OBSERVATION OF TALK SOFTLY AND
THINKING RATHER THAN ON CONCERN BE POLITE
Make the person THE ACTION ITSELF
You need the person feel that there are Ask questions such as: If you rant, the person
not to dwell on the others in the same The person needs to be Something is clearly will focus on your
consequences of their boat, so they dont convinced that the only on your mind or Help behaviour rather than
actions, otherwise feel isolated. This way out of their current me understand what their own and become
theyll worry about job can be done with predicament is to be I am missing. With resistant. Choose your
loss, divorce etc. To a monologue that completely truthful to more facts, make the words carefully. For
achieve this, minimise includes statements you. Here is an example transition to a direct example, you took
the seriousness of such as: Its nothing of a useful statement: observation of guilt: I rather than you stole,
the situation with I havent dealt with This is a xable know the what and the otherwise youll conjure
statements such as: Its before or In our problem. To x it, we who, but I need to know fears of job loss
not the end world, this is the sort need to get everything the why. Or stronger or prison and the person
of the world or Its a of thing that happens onto the table. Thats still: Based on the facts, will quickly become
xable problem. all the time. the only way. it is clear you did it. defensive.

your personal life include the following:

1. You suspect your partner of cheating
on you. Everyone makes mistakes, were all
human, we all make mistakes. What
determines the future is not the mistake but
how one handles it.
2. You suspect your child of hiding
something from you. Before you say
anything, you need to understand that
I need the whole story here. Anything less
isnt going to work.
3. You feel a colleague has been
deceptive. I understand how things happen,
however, it would be really helpful for me
to have real and candid feedback regarding
this situation.
In all cases, the statement has to be
delivered in a respectful and low-key
manner. Houston says that we should SEL
ourselves if taking this approach. That Good cop CIA
techniques can help
means Slow your rate of speech, Engage by you extract the truth
from anyoneno
orientating your body and your focus on the matter how young
person (but not in a challenging way) and
Lower your voice by speaking softly.
In short, what you are doing is compelling against torture is its ineffectiveness. Montreals School of Criminology found
the other person to move from wanting to In December of last year, The Senate suspects were more likely to confess if they
deceive you to feeling compelled to tell you Intelligence Committee concluded that had a good rapport with their interrogator.
the truth. And it is all done without threats the CIAs enhanced interrogation According to the researchers, getting
or violence. techniques produced either no intelligence criminals to admit their guilt is an art form
In recent years, the CIA has been accused or fabricated information that resulted in that relies on finesse rather than coercion.
of using much more brutal methods in its faulty intelligence. Getting physical might elicit a confession
interrogations, particularly with al-Qaeda The lessening of fear by relying of sorts, but it wont bring you the truth.
suspects following the September 11 attacks. on the monologue and short-term thinking Convincing a person through charm and
is more powerful and effective than instilling guile will.
or increasing the fear, agrees Houston.
Torture truths Indeed, the notion that good cop is better
Torture is prohibited under the Geneva than bad cop is supported by science. A JO CARLOWE is a science journalist who
Conventions and in international human study by Michel St-Yves and Nadine writes for The Times and The BMJ
rights laws. But perhaps the greatest argument Deslauriers-Varin from the University of

Vol. 7 Issue 8 43
SCIENCE

A St
Staarr Tre ekk-- styl
stt yl
y e sc
s can
ca
ann ne
n e r w ouo u ld
d e llii mi
minna
a ttee rou
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off u
uss t o cl
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a i m:
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hcc ar
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he crew of the USS Enterprise

T became ill with alarming
regularity. From Andorian shingles
to Zanthi fever, all manner of intergalactic
diseases were waiting to pounce on the crew
whenever they set foot on alien planets.
Mercifully, the ships doctor always had a
tricorder to hand, which could diagnose all
manner of alien ailments in seconds. A quick
once over was all it took to find out if a
patient had a case of choriocytosis (a deadly
disease for Vulcans) or just a common cold.
There were no lab tests, no needles and no
waiting. Its an idea that seemed more
science fantasy than fiction, but that might
be about to change.
Last year, a new US$10m X Prize was
launched that challenged inventors to build a
real-life tricorder. The X Prizes
philanthropic backers are offering to fund a
team that can design a device weighing less
than 2.3kg that is capable of capturing key
health metrics
ILLUSTRATION: ANDY POTTS

44 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 Scan this QR Code for
the audio reader

Vol. 7 Issue 8 45
SCIENCE

There hasnt
to accurately diagnose 16 health conditions
been innovation in
[and] five real-time health vital signs: blood tracking your health
pressure, heart rate, oxygen saturation,
respiratory rate and temperature. Okay, so at home since the
it might not be smart enough to take to an
alien planet any time soon, but could it
thermometer
launch a revolution in personal medicine?
The X Prizes 10 finalists were announced
in September 2014, and one of the front-
runners and favourites is Scanadu, a medical
RIght and below:
technology company based at the NASA Star Treks Dr McCoy
Ames Research Center in southern and the shows vision
of a medical scanner
California. The group is led by Dr Walter de the tricorder
Brouwer, a Belgian inventor who says he wants
to build a Google for health. This would be Bottom right: Unlike its
Star Trek equivalent,
a global shared brain of digital health data the Scanadu Scout
that inventors, researchers, doctors and the has no display,
public could all benefit from. instead sending data
to a smartphone
The device, the Scanadu Scout, is a vital
signs monitor that takes your readings when
you hold it to your left temple. In seconds, it
measures your heart rate, temperature,
oxygen saturation and blood pressure. It
sends the data to your phone via a Bluetooth
connection allowing you to view and track
your vitals wherever you are. If you add the
Scanaflo, you can pee on a stick to test your
levels of glucose, protein, leukocytes, nitrites
and more.

Pow
wer to the people
This concept is long overdue, de Brouwer
says. Shockingly, there hasnt been
innovation in tracking your health at home
since the thermometer.
Being able to wave a device at someone
and get potentially lifesaving information
about their health could drastically shift the
dynamic between medics and patients, and
make amateur doctors of us all. You may be
used to giving your symptoms a quick
Google before visiting the doc, but a
tricorder-style device could refine your
knowledge and arm you with richer and
PHOTO: QUANTUMDX, CORBIS

more accurate data. My goal is to make this

the last generation to know so little about
their health, de Brouwer states. And it working on modern tricorders. The jewel in QuantuMDxs crown is the
seems the demand is definitely out there, as In the UK, the biotech company Q-POC, a handheld laboratory that
the Scanadu Scout raised more than QuantuMDx makes diagnostic devices that analyses DNA and delivers the results of
US$1.6m in funding during a 2013 the company says could play a role a battery of diagnostic tests in a few minutes.
crowdsourcing campaign. in addressing humanitarian health The device reads and sequences DNA and
Away from the prestige of the X Prize, challenges, such as malaria, cancer and converts it into binary code using a tiny
there are other research companies quietly drug-resistant tuberculosis. computer chip. The sequence is then

46 Vol. 7 Issue 8
The rst generation of the Q-POC 2. BREAKDOWN 3. CAPTURE
will be built to detect malaria in The blood is then broken down in a process The DNA needs to be separated from
blood, but the team is also working called lysis. For this to take place, the sample all this molecular junk, so a special
on other versions that could diagnose is channeled into a chamber containing molecular filter is added. This gets rid
tuberculosis from spit. They are even a small motor the kind that makes your of the all the rubbish, leaving only the
considering a device that would be able smartphone vibrate that has a blade genetic material behind. The traditional lab
to detect cancer in biopsies. attached. This miniature blender breaks approach involves rinsing the junk away
down the cells into a soup (called a lysate) from the DNA, which requires clean water
1. THE SAMPLE containing DNA and the rest of the molecular and takes one to two hours. The Q-POC
A drop of blood is taken from junk, such as cell membranes and proteins. can do it in three minutes.
the finger of a patient. This is then loaded
onto a cartridge and inserted
into the Q-POC device.
4

5
2
1 3

CARTRIDGE

4. AMPLIF
FIC
CATION 5. ANALYSIS
The DNA moves into a channel where it is This solution is passed over a series of
heated and cooled. This separates the two nanowires embedded onto a chip.
strands of the DNA helix, allowing a special The wires are so tiny that 100,000 could be
enzyme to copy the DNA. There could squeezed onto a human hair. These wires
be lots of different strands of DNA from act as biosensors. Malarial DNA binds to
pathogens inside the sample; the enzyme the wire when it passes over it, causing a
is selected to only reproduce the DNA change in resistance. This tells the Q-POC
sequence relating to one disease, in this that malaria is present. The whole process
case malaria. takes 15 minutes.
THE FU
UTURE
Without Q-POC, a sample would need to
be sent to a lab, wasting days at a time. The
traditional process takes a lab technician an
entire day to complete. The goal is for the
Q-POC to be able to test specific symptoms.
If a patient reported a fever, for example, a
cartridge could confirm that the pathogens
responsible for inducing fever were present.
The company also hopes to charge the
Q-POC with solar-powered battery packs
so testing can be done even if electricity
isnt available. The system doesnt require
5 water, making it perfect for helping deliver
treatment to developing countries.

Vol. 7 Issue 8 47
SCIENCE

translated into a simple message for the

user to read and interpret what the DNA
analysis actually means. You simply place
a sample into the cartridge, insert the
Cant wait for your tricorder? These high-tech health helpers are available now cartridge into the device and press Go.
In around 15 minutes your results are
presented on the screen.

Hea
altth helper
The Q-POC does the work of four
different machines in one handheld device
and generates an output that can be used for
diagnosis, explains QuantuMDxs chief
executive Elaine Warburton. It might
sound like the sort of thing that you see on
23andMe First Derm CSI Miami, but we took that technology,
23andMes test analyses the DNA in saliva If youve got a skin complaint that youre then re-engineered and miniaturised it into
and tells you if youre at low, typical or high concerned about, simply snap a picture, fill a cassette the size of a credit card.
risk of diseases such as Alzheimers and in a form and send it off to First Derm via The Q-POC can also be used to track
Parkinsons. It also tells you if you have the website or the iPhone app. Within 24 outbreaks of infectious diseases, by sending
genes that are linked to inherited conditions hours a dermatologist will let you know what up-to-the-second test results via GPS and
like cystic fibrosis. to do next. mobile networks. In developing countries
where resources and healthcare professionals
are scarce, the impact of this kind of device
could be profound.
The makers of both devices say that the
aim is to eventually make their tricorders
available direct to consumers. But both still
need to be tested in clinical trials and
approved for accuracy and safety by the US
Food and Drugs Administration in the case
of the Scanadu Scout, and by the UK CE
marking body for the Q-POC before its
Cloud DX Pulsewave Peek Vision slated soft launch in late 2016.
The Pulsewave is worn as a wrist cuff so The Peek Vision app and adapter turns De Brouwer is convinced that giving
you can check your heart rate and blood your phone into an eye examination kit. It everyone this level of information about
pressure, and test for heart anomalies. can check visual acuity, scan the retina and their health is an empowering force for
The data is stored by Cloud DX and can be identify cataracts. It gives quick and easy good. Having that knowledge empowers
accessed and tracked, allowing you to look access to the tools needed to you to have more informed conversations
for trends and patterns. prevent blindness. and more productive visits with your
doctor, de Brouwer states.
And Warburton agrees with him.
Were working with clinicians on the
nature of the output the actual results the
Q-POC generates on-screen. They need to
be accurate, of course, but also presented
in a way that is most useful to the user, be
that a pathologist, a healthcare professional
or Joe Public.
PHOTO: KOBAL COLLECTION, GETTY

But theres scepticism from the medical

community about whether the tricorder
Cardiio Cellscope Oto Home could ever be useful. Dr David Warriner,
The Cardiio app transforms your iPhone The Oto Home device is inserted into the a member of the Royal College of General
or iPad into a heart rate monitor. ear, and the app guides you through the Practitioners overdiagnosis group (and
When your heart beats, more blood rushes process of taking an examination. Itll offer a Star Trek viewer in his youth), says the
to your face. Cardiios software is able to a doctors response in just two hours. At tricorder pretenders are some way off being
detect these tiny changes when your device the moment, Oto Home is only available in diagnostic devices in the clinical sense.
is held in front of you. California, but may be rolled out further. Warriner argues that when it comes
to our health, more information

48 Vol. 7 Issue 8
Below: X Prize finalist Above: Elaine Warburton at
the Dynamical Biomarkers Downing Street with
Group created this an early Q-POC prototype
tricorder concept with
accessories that can test Right: The Scanadu Scout
blood, breath and urine is held against the head to
take health readings

patterns, which emerge over time, that

indicate the presence of significant
pathology. Simply measuring and recording
the data is not enough, he explains. If a
test is negative, then there is a danger the
patient will be falsely reassured and will then
smoke, drink and eat to their hearts
discontent. Or if it is positive, then a patient
may live the rest of their life with the Sword
of Damocles hanging over them.
Despite the doubters, de Brouwer is
convinced the potential for the Scanadu
Scout is limitless. He states that consumers
want to be more informed, so the potential
market is huge. This is backed up by the
diverse group of prospective customers that
Warburton says is already interested in the
Q-POC. These include Western
governments interested in detecting
biological weapons, forensic police units
wanting them for crime scene investigations,
is not always better. By giving everyone and archaeologists identifying fossil species.
access to their health data out of context and But its in the medical field that a tricorder
without any medical counselling, it could It is patterns, could really create a fundamental change in
mean that doctors are left to deal with the how we think about our health. Checking
fallout from these devices when worried which emerge over your symptoms online could become a vastly
patients incorrectly interpret the results
and rush to their GPs for reassurance
time, that indicate different experience, and it could soon be
the norm for your GP to take a look at your
Nevertheless, de Brouwer insists that the presence symptoms with their smartphone. Dr
being aware of your health data can McCoy would be proud.
alleviate anxiety. of significant
While Warriner agrees that the devices
will empower patients, he cautions that one-
pathology
LILIAN ANEKWE is a medical journalist and editor
off measurements are seldom of use. It is at Pharmafocus

Vol. 7 Issue 8 49
NATURE

An hour after sunrise this troop

of about 100 Hanuman langurs
Semnopithecus entellus run
along a cliff edge outside the city
of Jodhpur, in the Indian state
of Rajasthan. The word langur
comes from the Sanskrit langulin
which means having a long tail
Hanuman langurs have longer
tails than any other primate.
Measuring up to 87cm, they
have evolved to aid balance as
the monkeys move through the
forest canopy

50 Vol. 7 Issue 8
Urban
monkey
From high mountains to arid desert, Hanuman langurs live in the
widest habitat range of any non-human primate and because they
are revered by Hindus they ourish in cities, says Gautam Sharma

Vol. 7 Issue 8 51
NATURE

52 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 In Hindu myth the monkey god Hanuman
is said to have rescued King Rams wife anuman langurs (or grey langurs) thrive around
Seeta from the king of Lanka (modern-day
Sri Lanka), by setting the island alight with
his tail. The langurs black faces have been
H the city of Jodhpur on the fringes of Indias
Great Desert, thanks to the countrys spirituality
linked to the charred monkey god and legends. The Hindu belief in the sacredness of all
life and the weaving of monkeys into ancient mythology
have helped to create a climate of tolerance, explains
Gautam Sharma, a zoologist at Jodhpur University.The
langurs are believed to be the descendants of the re-
wielding monkey god Hanuman, and are often treated as
sacred beings.
So its no surprise that urban langur troops tend to be
bolder than their rural cousins, and their behaviour can
alter dramatically as they move from one part of their
range to another. In forested areas they forage for their
natural diets of leaves, owers and insects, but in the city
FAR LEFT This female is being the same troop will scavenge for leftovers and accept the
groomed by a subordinate food that people give them.
female. It seems likely that
We see a marked increase in social tension in the
a langurs rank is inherited
from its mother. However, study groups during periods of provisioning in the
though hierarchy is important, city, which usually manifests as enhanced aggression
researchers have seen among the adult females of the troop, explains Sharma.
subordinate females display a Research into higher-provisioning troops found
surprising level of aggression
towards those of higher status
increased levels of aggression.Threats, chases and attacks
when there is stiff competition were recorded up to six times more frequently during
for provisioned food feeding periods.
In the wild the monkeys sacculated (chambered)
LEFT This troop are sitting on
stomach allows them to break down a high-cellulose
a cliff overlooking the suburbs
of Jodhpur. There are an diet of leaves and unripe fruit, and troops living at over
estimated 2,400 langurs in and 4,000m in the Himalaya can survive on a nutritionally
around the city, organised in poor diet of bark and mature leaves.The very same
approximately 40 groups with morphology allows the langurs to survive the perhaps
just one adult male (uni-male)
plus 20 all-male groups. Urban
equally challenging diet they have in cities, though an
troops tend to be smaller than unhealthy urban lifestyle does take a toll.
those in more rural habitats

PHOTOS BY THE LOCATION

PA K I S TA N CHINA
ANUP SHAH AND JODHPUR, RAJASTHAN
FIONA ROGERS Jodhpur Jodhpur, the second-largest
N E PA L
city in Rajasthan, is located
on the edge of Indias Thar
Desert. Hanuman langurs can
INDIA
be seen throughout the city,
often moving across rooftops.
This husband and wife team Their sacred status ensures
of wildlife photographers have their safety from persecution;
contrasting styles. Their work Arabian Bay of
Sea Bengal in fact both tourists and
concentrates on various primate locals feed the monkeys.
projects in the wilds of Africa and There is also a plentiful diet
Asia, and has appeared in many of leftovers to be scavenged
international publications. SRI LANKA and food stalls to be raided.
shahrogersphotography.com

Vol. 7 Issue 8 53
NATURE

Hanuman langurs can be found across

the Indian subcontinent, in Sri Lanka,
Bangladesh and Pakistan. Researchers
have identied 170 plant species that
they feed on around Jodhpur, though they
increasingly eat processed food meant for
humans. The monkeys are revered in Hindu
society but will raid crops, and growing
secularisation has increased the conict
between langurs and humans

54 Vol. 7 Issue 8
ABOVE Langurs are often seen
grooming cows, sheep and
feral dogs. When the males of
rival troops meet at territorial
boundaries, there is a lot of
running and chasing though
physical contact is kept to
a minimum. Dogs that have
attached themselves to one
troop often act aggressively
towards the enemy group
during these conicts

LEFT Big Boy is the alpha male

of his troop langurs outside
of a troop regularly test the
dominant male to identify
any weaknesses. If a new
male takes over as alpha, his
rst move is often to kill any
unweaned infants, which brings
females into oestrus sooner. So
females mate with a variety of
outsiders to confuse the issue
of paternity, because males do
not kill their own offspring

Vol. 7 Issue 8 55
NATURE

ABOVE Juveniles within the

troop are very playful. Males
tend to leave their natal troop
at about two-and-a-half years
old, but females remain with
the group and deliver their rst
young at around four years old

RIGHT The food that is offered

by local people can impact on
langurs health, as can a lack
of exercise some females
are overweight. Heart disease
is prevalent and infections
from human food have been
identied. Tuberculosis has
been found in the langurs, as
well as the human SRV-6 virus

56 Vol. 7 Issue 8
Births peak between February and April,
when there is plenty of food after the
rains. Babies have dark fur that turns a
greyish gold after a few months, while
their faces have pink skin that gradually
darkens until it is black at 10 weeks of
age. A young langur starts eating solid
food when around three months old

LEFT Here the monkeys

are foraging for plants and
insects. Langur troops practise
alloparenting, where females
allow others within the troop
to hold and care for their
young, but the maternal bond
is still strong. During his time
studying Jodhpurs langurs
Gautam Sharma recorded one
older mother carrying her dead
offspring for 27 days.

Vol. 7 Issue 8 57
SCIENCE

Since its invention half a century ago,

Kevlar has saved many lives.
But according to Christine Evans-Pughe,
a new generation of materials could offer even
more protective applications

58 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 ifty years
rs ago, a chemist working at DuPont in the US
F created a plastic that was light, flexible and seriously
ser
In fact, Stephanie Kwolek had invented a substance
subs
strong.
that was
five times stronger than steel of the same weight, making it tough
enough to stop bullets and deflect blows from knives. Poly-
paraphenylene terephthalamide, or Kevlar as it is more commonly
known, has since been used in everything from bulletproof vests to
soldiers helmets. Its even used for protective shielding on the
International Space Station. But half a century since its creation, can
Kevlar keep up with advances in science and engineering to retain its
crown as the go-to protective substance? Or will a new generation of
materials allow us to make anything bulletproof?
Kevlar is a polymer. Polymers are substances made from a large
number of repeating units monomers that are joined together. In
Kevlar, these monomers are arranged in ring-like structures similar
to those seen in benzene. It is this structure that is key to the
materials properties.

Bullets and benzene

Kevlar was revolutionary because the chemical structure of the
polymer chains forces them to align in one direction, explains Asa
Barber, Professor of Advanced Materials Engineering at the
University of Portsmouth. If you think of a tangle of rope fibres as
A DuPont worker adjusts the valve on a Kevlar spinning machine
similar to randomly arranged polymer chains, these are easy to pulll
apart. But once you arrange the rope fibres side-by-side, the structure ure
has great strength. Thats how Kevlar works. The bulky benzene
groups are also part of the deal. Its like having a series of big knots
hanging off the sides of a piece of string the string cannot be KEVLAR IS
flexible because they stop it from bending. These side groups also
force the main chain to be ordered in one direction.
FIVE TIMES
But for a material to be resistant to bullets, it also needs to be ablee STRONGER THAN
to absorb energy over a large volume in order to spread out the
impact of the force. Kevlar is a stiff, low-density material, so it
STEEL OF THE
does this extremely efficiently. To make a bulletproof vest from SAME WEIGHT

PHOTO: DUPONT, GETTY ILLUSTRATOR: MAGIC TORCH

ORCH
Kevlar is lightweight, yet it
can still protect soldiers from
bullets, grenades and fires

Vol. 7 Issue 8 59
SCIENCE

Kevlar, the polymer fibres are first

spun into yarns and then woven into
fabrics. Multiple layers of fabric are then
hot-pressed with resin to form composites.
You can boost the bullet-stopping ability by
using finer yarns to make a closer-knit,
denser fabric.
PHOTO: DEBORAH BAY, SERGEANT A KOWALYK/EDMONTON POLICE SERVICE, BRANDON COLE/FLPA, JENNIFER CORBETT/THE NEWS JOURNAL ILLUSTRATOR: ACUTE GRAPHICS
PHICS

The protection works in three phases: first

the bullet or fragment punches into the
composite, then the impact causes the layers
to start to separate and finally the fibres
break to stop it. Together, these stages slow
down and catch a projectile.
In circumstances where high velocity and
armour-piercing bullets might be
encountered, hard ceramic plates made from
silicon carbide or alumina are added to
bulletproof vests to cover vital organs. These
panels squash projectiles on impact while the
Kevlar absorbs the impact shock. In case
youre wondering, you cant cover the whole

When hunting,
the creature
smashes its claw
into its prey with
the speed of a .22
caliber bullet
Kevlar thread can be woven into fabric to make light and strong body armour
body in ceramic material because it would
be too stiff and heavy.
However, black diamond looks like it may
well be the bullet-squashing ceramic of the To make a tougher vest, layers of Kevlar fabric 3 Fibres break to
future. Black diamond is also known as and resin are hot pressed to form composites.
stop bullet
boron carbide and is the third hardest When struck by a bullet, these layers separate
and the fibres break, which slows the bullet
material on Earth (diamond and boron
nitride pip it to the post). It has a density of 2 Kevlar layers
2.52g/cm3 in comparison, steel is 7.8g/ separate
cm3 while Kevlar is 1.44g/cm3. So far,
black diamonds downside has been its high
price. But Dr Isaac Chang, an expert on 1 Kevlar bonded
with resin
materials processing at the University of
Birmingham, has recently patented a way to
make it much cheaper.
Instead of heating the raw ingredients to
2,500 C and then spending weeks grinding the
resulting ingot [a block measuring 2.5m x 1.5m]
into powder, this new process uses a
temperature under 1,500C, he explains. By
first dissolving the ingredients into a special
solution, we get a precursor material that when
heated results in a ready-to-use powder.

60 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 THE BIRTH OF KEVLAR
One chemists discovery is used
for body armour, motorcycling
clothing and even oven gloves

Stephanie Kwoleks
invention keeps soldiers
safe, but also protects
keen cooks from burns

Kevlar fibres woven into fabric

Hagfish slime is being researched as a Kevlar successor

US chemist Stephanie early 1960s she was given fluid. This was in contrast to
Kwolek developed Kevlar the task of looking for a the clear, treacle-like form
in 1965 while working as lightweight but durable of most of the previously
a research scientist for fibre that could be used in discovered polymers. When
DuPont. Kwolek specialised the manufacture of tyres. spun into a fibre, the material
in low-temperature Many of the materials she proved to be very strong.
polymerisation, which is created were too unstable She realised at once that she
a process used to make to remain for more than had discovered something
plastics by linking together a few seconds. But one special. In 1971, her creation
molecules known as combination caught her eye reached the market under
monomers. During the when it turned into a cloudy the name Kevlar.

Imagine what this bullet could have done

Hes currently working with the US Army Research sea temperature) rather than requiring the
Laboratory (ARL) and the UKs Defence Science and high temperatures of a furnace. The hammer
Technology Laboratory (DSTL) on developing and testing this has an impact region made of precisely
material for ballistic use. aligned hydroxyapatite crystals. Behind this
is an area of spiralling layers that act as shock
Fierce creatures absorbers. Each layer sits at a slightly
Designs inspired by the natural world are also looking like key different angle from the layer below and this
players in the future of armour-plating. Prof Barbers group A SINGLE helical structure prevents cracks from
recently published work on goethite, which is an incredibly HAGFISH spreading. Last year, researchers at the
strong material found in the tiny teeth of limpets. Limpets rasp University of California, Riverside, the
their strong teeth over rock surfaces to remove the algae on
CONTAINS University of Southern California and
which they feed. The fibres of goethite are just the right size to HUNDREDS OF Purdue University received a $7.5m grant
make up a resilient, hardwearing structure, and could potentially from the US Department of Defense to
be copied for use in high-performance engineering applications.
KILOMETRES develop this work further.
Another natural structure capable of resisting ballistic type OF SLIME A number of research teams have also
impacts is the hammer-like claw of the peacock mantis shrimp.
When hunting, the creature smashes its claw into its prey with
THREAD proposed novel successors to Kevlar. These
substances are based on spider silk, graphene,
the speed of a .22 caliber (diameter in inches) bullet. The nanocellulose and even the gloopy slime
crustaceans claw is made from an incredibly hard material and produced by a sea creature called a hagfish.
can withstand similar pressures to silicon carbide. However, it Nevertheless, it is ultra high molecular
has the advantage that it can be formed at room temperature (or weight polyethylene (UHMWPE)

Vol. 7 Issue 8 61
SCIENCE

AMMO IN ACTION Some of the high-tech weaponry

that Kevlar and other bulletproof
materials are up against

HOLLOW-POINT BULLETS
These have a cavity on the front that makes them expand when
they strike an object, creating more damage than a round-nosed
bullet. This fragmentation also decelerates the bullet to reduce the
penetration depth. While hollow-point bullets are banned for military
use, they are widely used by police and law enforcement agencies in
Europe and the US as a way of instantly stopping hostile subjects.

XM25
This 25mm grenade is designed to
explode into fragments. It is aimed close
to, rather than at, the target and a timed
fuse tells it when to explode based on the
calculations of a small computer located
inside the grenade.

EXACTO
DARPA has developed this device for snipers.
It uses a real-time guidance system to change
its path and home in on a target. Inside
the .50 caliber round is an 8-bit computer,
which steers the device by moving small fins
attached to its body.

ARMOUR-PIERCING BULLET
These are generally created for rifles and pistols. They
have a pointy penetrator thats usually made from
tungsten, tungsten carbide or steel. The high-density
material is designed to keep its shape to carry the
maximum quantity of energy deep into the target.
The project
involves building
DEPLETED URANIUM BULLETS
computer models of
These are pyrophoric, which means that
they ignite spontaneously in air. They are
all kinds of ballistic
self-sharpening on impact, resulting in materials down to
intense heat and energy focused on a
minimal area of the targets armour. an atomic scale

that is gaining the most attention. UHMWPE fibres) were tidier, explains Lorenzo Iannucci,
is similar to the polymer used in plastic bags. Royal Academy of Engineering Chair in
But whereas the polymers in bags are arranged in a multi-scale armour design and Professor in
higgledy piggledy fashion, the fibres in UHMWPE Advanced Aerospace Structural Design at
are spun from a gel to stretch and align the strands. US MILITARY Imperial College. They currently look like
Made in this way, the material has a strength-to- HELMETS curly spaghetti, which weakens the structure.
weight ratio 8 to 15 times higher than steel, although Everyone is looking to gain better control of
one disadvantage is that it starts to break down at CONTAINS 19 the mass production process to improve this.
temperatures over 130C. LAYERS OF If this was possible, we could raise the
UHMWPE could be made even stronger if the strength of the fibres two-fold, he says.
lengths and ends of these aligned polyethylene
KEVLAR Iannuccis laboratory has facilities to fire
molecules (the fundamental building blocks of the projectiles with speeds up to 1,400m/s, more

62 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 Limpet teeth
than four times the speed of sound, using a gas gun. High-speed cameras have to be strong
take photographs at one million frames per second to show the progress to allow them
to scrape rocks
of fragments and the damage they cause to a sample even as far while feeding
as seeing the evolution of damage and individual shockwaves.
Iannucci is one of a number of British scientists working with the
DSTL and ARL to design new protective materials for perceived
future threats as far ahead as 2040. Dubbed MEDE (Materials in
Extreme Dynamic Environments), the project involves building
computer models of all kinds of ballistic materials polymers, metals,
and ceramics right down to an atomic scale. project. In contrast, commonly used
computer models of ballistic performance are
Dress to impress currently based mainly on experimental data.

BIRMINGHAM
MI GHAM
We want to be able to simulate the performance of an entire ballistic This data comes from firing bullets at various
vest based on models that came from information at an atomic level, materials rather than knowledge of

O TH, UNIVERSITY OF BIRMIN

explains ARLs Dr John Beatty, who is in charge of the MEDE how atoms behave.
Beattys researchers have recently made a
breakthrough in developing fast and accurate
Dr Isaac Chang has
patented a cheaperway
equations for how individual atoms in
to make boron carbide polymers interact. This makes it feasible to
simulate millions of polymer atoms
interacting at once on a computer.

PORTSMOUTH,
Previously, it was only possible to look at

SMOU
roughly a thousand atoms in this way.
These new models seem very accurate

O PORT
when we compare them with quantum
mechanical calculations as well as with O: DARPA, US ARMY, GETTY, UNIVERSITY OF PO
experimental data, says Beatty.
The US Army Research Laboratorys own
polymer processing plant will be starting up
this year. In 10 years, Beatty expects to have
developed the fundamental science for
designing most classes of protective materials.
But what of the threats Beatty and his
colleagues are expecting to be combatting in
2040? Theyre classified.

CHRISTINE EVANS-PUGHE is a science

PHOTO:

and technology journalist who has written for

PHOT

The Guardian and The Economist

PH

Vol. 7 Issue 8 63
SCIENCE

MICROBES
ON THE MOVE
A new study paints a surprising picture of the
microbes found around the home. Tom Ireland
discovers that each family has their own
personal zoo of bacteria
uman beings are increasingly microbiome and compare how
H seen by scientists as walking
microbial ecosystems. Our
genetically similar bacteria were to
those found elsewhere.
bodies contain up to 10 times as many The bacterial flora of each household
bacterial cells as human ones, and we was so unique that researchers were able
each deposit a unique blend of bacterial to accurately match individuals to their
cells everywhere we go. dwellings even when their home was
Microbiologists are only just in fact a hotel room theyd only recently
beginning to understand how the moved into. Not only did all the houses
trillions of organisms that live in and on contain very different bacteria from
our bodies affect our digestion, immune each other, the study also showed that
response and behaviour. And an when families moved, their microbial
emerging area of study is looking at signature quickly re-established itself in
how bacteria we deposit around us the new location.
interact with the buildings we inhabit. Simon Lax, a co-author of the study
After all, some studies suggest people from the Department of Ecology and
now spend between 22 and 23 hours a Evolution at The University of Chicago,
day indoors and nearly 70 per cent of says the reason our bacteria dominate
that time is spent in our homes. the places we live is simply because
Researchers from the Home there are few other routes by which
Microbiome Study recently assessed the bacteria enter those buildings. Almost
microbial communities associated with all of the bacteria in the home can be
ILLUSTRATOR: ROBIN BOYDEN

seven families and their homes over six traced back to the inhabitants. If you
weeks, including three families that have humans constantly coming into a
moved house. They found that we home, then they are the most common
quickly spread our own microbial source of bacteria, he says.
signature throughout the places we live. Whats more, obsessive cleaners might
By sequencing the DNA of bacteria in want to rethink their strategy: the study
the home, the researchers were able to suggests that the more people potter
create a picture of the genetic diversity around the house cleaning,
of microbes in each environment its the more bacteria they

64 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 Scan this QR Code for
the audio reader

Vol. 7 Issue 8 65
SCIENCE

deposit. The best thing they could do Obsessive cleaners might want to rethink
to reduce the amount of microbes in
their strategy: the study suggests that the
PHOTO: BIOLOGY & BUILT ENVIRONMENT CENTER/UNIVERSITY OF OREGON/CAMERON

their homes, Lax says, is not be there. When

you think of what peoples homes are made
from, they are mostly relatively new
more people potter around cleaning, the
materials that bacteria havent evolved to live
and thrive on. These homes would normally
more bacteria they deposit
have quite a low bacterial biomass until
someone comes in, he says.
The idea of stepping into someone elses hands, and feet, and from various places in
house, knowing its teeming with the their homes: the kitchen floor, worktop and
SLAYDEN/COSMOCYTE ILLUSTRATOR: ROBIN BOYDEN

microbes of its inhabitants, may be unsettling light switch, the bedroom floor, bathroom
to some. The way we constantly share doorknob and front door.
microbes with people is something few We may like to think certain places in our
people think about, but anyone spending a houses are cleaner than others, but the team
long time in a room full of people is likely to actually found that different places within
come out with a microbial flora more like family homes were more alike microbially
the crowds than their own. However, it than the same locations in different houses.
might also be strangely comforting to know In other words, the bacteria on your kitchen
that the bacteria in any room you inhabit is table are more similar to the ones in your
likely to be 99 per cent yours within 24 bathroom than the ones on your neighbours
hours of you moving in. The colonisation kitchen table.
of a room is almost instant, says Lax. Then
a few days after a family leave, their bacterial Its a family affair
signature diminishes again. Who we live with and what we do also plays
As part of the study, researchers took a key role in determining which bacteria take According to Simon Lax at The University of Chicago, we can
thousands of samples from inhabitants noses, up residence in our homes. The study found only reduce the microbes in our home by not being there

66 Vol. 7 Issue 8
that people sharing a home are more We are all a seething
microbially similar to each other than those mass of microbes that
we spread around as we
not sharing a home. The hands of young go about our lives
couples and couples with children were
especially similar, thanks to regular physical
contact. But theres one area of the body
where we are each more individual: the nose.
The nose is fairly stable environment that
may be more unique to each person, says
Lax. But for places like the hand, it really
comes down to what youve been in contact
with, what you do for a living, who youve
met, whether you live in the country or in
the city. Its more of a lifestyle thing than
anything genetic.
Although the bacteria found on people
and their homes were always highly
correlated, houses were not necessarily
closely matched with the bacteria of their
pet. The presence of a pet does, however,
hugely expand the diversity of bacteria found
in a home. Samples from homes with pets more we find that it helps us in more ways more unhygienic than the other, says Lax.
contained more proteobacteria, a class of than it harms us. Exposure to varied bacteria But what we know isnt good for babies and
microbe that contains many well-known at a young age is important for the young children is only experiencing the
pathogens including Salmonella and E. coli. development of a healthy immune system, microbiome of their own environment and
While that may sound like a bad thing, the for instance. the bacteria of their parents, he says.
more we understand microbial diversity the Its not really a case of one house being Its a bewildering concept not only

Vol. 7 Issue 8 67
SCIENCE

MICROBIAL HOTSPOTS IN OUR HOMES

Dish sponge/rag (321,629,869)

Our perception of hygiene often bears little relation to the reality of what microbes live
where. Heres a rundown of some of the most colonised areas

Kitchen
Countertop sink
Stove Cutting
knobs board
32% 45%
14% 18%

Percentage of
homes where
coliforms (faecal
bacteria) were
found on Dish
kitchen items. sponge

77%

10 X
more bacteria is in the human
digestive tract than there are
cells in the human body.
1.5ml of human saliva has 150 million bacteria equivalent to
the amount found in one litre of Thames water.
MICROORGANISMS ON
HOUSEHOLD OBJECTS

Coffee reservoir
An iPad typically The microorganisms found

Tennis ball/pet toy

houses 30 included Staphylococcus
times more 100,000 aureus, yeasts, moulds, and

Kitchen sink
Staphylococcus coliforms such as E. coli and
80,000
Tap handle

aureus, the Salmonella, as measured by

Concentration of microorganisms per 10cm2

bacteria that can 60,000 the US National Sanitation

cause MRSA, than 40,000 Foundation.
a toilet seat.
20,000
10,000
Countertop

One sneeze 1,000

Stove knobs

can increase
800
Toilet seat

the amount of
Gearstick

Staphylococcus 600
aureus in the air
400
Cutting board

by five times.
ILLUSTRATOR: ROBIN BOYDEN

200
Toilet handle

Pens

100
Keyboard

80
iPod

1,000,000,000,000 60
40
Money

bacteria are harboured on human skin,

which is 10 per cent the total number of 20
cells that make up the human body. 0
Household object
68 Vol. 7 Issue 8
What we know isnt good for babies be a more effective way of preventing
dangerous human pathogens from taking
is only experiencing the microbiome of hold in certain places.
More projects measuring the impact of
their own environment and their parents microbes in the built environment are
planned. Some even involve architects, who
Simon Lax, Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago hope that future buildings can be built to
encourage a healthy microbiome, or species
that absorb pollutants from the air.
For Lax, the results of his study have
opened his eyes to the unseen microbial
that we are covered head to toe in this approach and applying it to environments mark humans make wherever they go. Im
strange microbial mixture, but that it where the health implications are much not grossed out by it, but it definitely makes
might actually be a vital part of a growing higher, says Lax. Weve seen hospitals you think. Am I leaving my signature behind
familys health. with identical layouts and identical cleaning when I visit this house? Am I changing what
The Home Microbiome Project is the first methods, so it can only be the different bacteria live here?.
study to try to see families, their microbes people that affect the bacterial samples In time, perhaps we will all come to see our
and their homes as complex interacting found there. And in a hospital environment, houses bacteria not as dirty intruders, but
ecosystems. Research has traditionally focused there really are such a thing as good and welcome guests perhaps even tiny members
on where and for how long bacteria survive in bad microbiomes. of our extended family. On the sofa tonight, sit
the home, and also how to eradicate them. back and relax in the knowledge that its just
This new approach may contribute towards a A new understanding you, your family, and a trillion bacteria that
fuller understanding of what a healthy home As our understanding shifts from a fear of all seem to enjoy your company in particular.
is for example, what levels of bacteria can bacteria to an understanding of their role in Its true what they say there really
help develop a healthy immune system and ecosystems, our approach to tackling is no place like home.
what levels may constitute a health hazard. infection is likely to change. Attempts to
The teams next aim is to scale up its simply wipe bacteria away seem increasingly
investigation and survey the microbiome futile. Indeed, some bioscience companies TOM IRELAND is managing editor of The Biologist,
of hospitals. We are now taking this believe sprays containing good bacteria may the Society of Biology magazine

Vol. 7 Issue 8 69
HISTORY

THE BLACK
THE HISTORIANS VIEW
Was it inevitable that
plague would sweep
Europe in the Middle
Ages? How long did it
take sufferers to die?
And what was life like
in its ftermath? Here, a
panel of experts reect
on some of the big
questions of a disease
that repeatedly ravaged
Europe over hundreds
of years
Words by Charlotte Hodgman

Two women do the

dance of death in a
15th-century woodcut.
The grim reaper of the
plague stalked Europe
RAFFAELL-LEEMAGE
AKG-IMAGES

for centuries, breaking

out like earthquakes,
unheralded and
randomly, says
Professor Tom James

70 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 The panel

DEATH Carole Rawcliffe

is professor emerita
of history at the University
of East Anglia. She
co-edited Society in an Age
of Plague (Boydell Press,
2013) with Linda Clark

Tom James
is professor emeritus in
archaeology and history at
the University of
Winchester. His books
include The Story of
England (Tempus, 2003)

Mark Ormrod
is professor of history at
the University of York. He
co-edited The Black Death
in England, 13481500
(Paul Watkins Publishing,
1996) with Phillip Lindley

Ole Jrgen
Benedictow
is professor emeritus at
the University of Oslo. He
is author of The Black
Death 13461353: The
Complete History
(Boydell Press, 2012)

Vol. 7 Issue 8 71
HISTORY

People ee London during the Great Plague of 1665 in a contemporary illustration. That
same year, the disease killed 260 out of 350 residents of the Derbyshire village of Eyam

Was an epidemic like the early 1300s, the probability that plague would
plague inevitable during the arrive in Europe was rapidly increasing; the
medieval period? commercial and demographic requirements
Ole Jrgen Benedictow: No, it was not for its dissemination were all in place.
inevitable, but the requirements for its arrival
and devastating long-time presence in Europe Mark Ormrod: Some people have a
increased with rising population density and deterministic view of population history,
local and regional trade. believing that, in pre-industrial societies,
The development of long-distance trade population generally tended to grow at a faster MO: It is agonisingly difficult to get good
by galleys and cogs from the late 1200s was rate than the economy and that some external population data for medieval Europe: even for
crucial to plagues spread, because it linked factor be it famine, disease or war would England, where the information is especially
Europe together and with distant trading then intervene to re-establish the balance. rich. No one took death tolls so we have to
stations and commercial hubs near plague focal There is plenty of evidence that parts of develop models of mortality from sources like
points in north Africa, the near east, the Europe were becoming calamity-sensitive clergy lists, manor court rolls and tax records.
Middle East, and in southern Russia. In the around 1300 and that the plague acted to The conventional view is that around a third
restore equilibrium. But this is a long way of the population of Europe died in the first
from saying the plague, in its form and timing, outbreak of the plague between 1347 and
Rising was a historical inevitability. 1350. But it returned on a regular basis and
became endemic for the following 300 years.
population Carole Rawcliffe: Famine-related epidemics
were a fact of life for people who lacked the
The second outbreak of the Black Death, in
the early 1360s, became known as the
density and benefits of modern medicine and whose levels
of resistance were often compromised by poor
childrens plague because of the high mortality
among the generation born since the first
growing trade diet and unhygienic living conditions, as well
as by endemic diseases such as tuberculosis and
visitation. By the end of the 14th century the
population of some parts of Europe may have
made Europe malaria. Several serious outbreaks of infectious
disease are recorded across Europe in the
been only half what it had stood at two
generations earlier.
vulnerable to decades before the Black Death, and although
none rivalled it in severity, there can be little CR: Local studies prove instructive when
the arrival doubt that conditions favoured the spread of a
major pandemic.
ascertaining the death toll. In cities like
Norwich, where we have a reasonably good
of plague Do we know how many people
idea of population levels before and after the
first two national epidemics (about 25,000 in
actually died from the Black Death 1330 and around 8,000 in the early 1370s),
Ole Jrgen Benedictow in the 14th century? mortality seems to have been sufficiently high

72 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 Franciscans treat plague victims in an
Italian illustration from c1474. Religious
guilds proliferated in the wake of
the Black Death, offering care both to the
Panic, ight
aficted and to lonely, destitute survivors
and the mass
burial of
abandoned
corpses were all
common
responses to
the outbreak
Mark Ormrod

Evidence from London suggests that at first the

dead were buried in coffins. As the disease got
worse the bodies were placed in pits. However,
the excavations show that the bodies were laid
out in orderly rows with respect. A pit in
Hereford, by contrast, is suggestive that the
bodies were thrown in more higgledy-piggledy.
Elsewhere, contemporary evidence from
Rochester relates that the pits were left open and
the weeping parents brought their children to the
open pits and laid their bodies there.

CR: Levels of care varied dramatically

from callous disregard to selfless devotion,
although fear that the disease might be
to justify at least some of the claims made by accompanied by a feeling of cold and stiffness, communicated through the gaze, breath
contemporary chroniclers. Florence, which is which would so weaken and torment the or even the clothes of victims made most
better documented, lost about two-thirds of its victim that he or she could no longer remain people understandably wary about close
inhabitants in 1348 alone, but staged an standing. Chill then gave way to a burning contact. In continental Europe (but not
effective demographic recovery. By contrast, fever and searing pain as the buboes grew in England), towns and cities engaged the
many German cities escaped untouched. size and the lungs became infected. By this services of surgeons and physicians
stage, the victim would be coughing up blood whose duty was to care for the sick, but
OJB: My research indicates that very few and vomiting incessantly until death who sometimes took flight at the first
mortality rates were as low as one third, and intervened approximately four days after the sign of infection. In Italy, religious guilds
many were as high as 60 per cent or more. For first signs of infection. undertook to provide support for the
example, studies of 7,655 householders in sick poor and the many destitute widows
Provence exhibit a mortality rate of 52 per How were the afflicted treated by and orphans who were left behind after
cent, while 79 studies of customary tenantry their families and communities? each epidemic.
on manors across England show an average MO: Responses were many and various, with
mortality rate of about 55 per cent. If we take panic, flight and the mass burial of abandoned What was life like for the survivors
into account the very high death rate among corpses all common. One consequence was of the Black Death?
the poor, women and children, a general the growth of religious guilds, which aimed to TJ: Medieval people knew what to do in time
mortality rate of over 60 per cent is indicated. provide some level of security for people of plague and other disasters. Disposal of
worried they would have no kin to attend to bodies in pits is well attested from earlier
What would the disease have been them in illness or remember them after death. disasters, for example a volcanic eruption in
like for those who contracted it? the tropics in 1258 that led to widespread
CR: Even allowing for the exaggeration often Tom James: Some were abandoned. In famine in Europe. More than 10,500 skeletons
found in medieval chronicles, first-hand Winchester in 1349, for example, townspeople have been recovered from the Spitalfields
descriptions of the Black Death make for grim attacked a monk conducting a burial service. market area of London alone since the 1990s,
reading. One account by a Franciscan friar The townspeople also took over parts of the probably a proportion of a higher number
from the Isles of Scilly describes the initial burial ground around the cathedral priory so dating to that disaster.
GETTY

appearance of small pustules or buboes, that plague burials could not take place there. There were set prayers and Bible extracts

Vol. 7 Issue 8 73
HISTORY

designated for use in time of plague. A special because it returned in 1361, 1374, 1389 and
Mass of St Sebastian was used, for example then in 1665 with the Great Plague of London
Sebastian being one of the patron saints of and elsewhere. At Eyam in Derbyshire, for
plague, the arrow wounds of his martyrdom example, it is reckoned that 260 out of a
being a trope for the buboes of the plague population of 350 died when they cut
which broke out on victims bodies. themselves off from the outside world.
Plague continued in France until around
MO: The first outbreak of plague must 1720 prompting Daniel Defoes fake Journal
have been an incredibly terrifying moment of the Plague Year (1722). In that sense, the
in human history. But medieval society was
much more inured to natural and human In Rochester grim reaper of the plague stalked Europe for
centuries, breaking out like earthquakes,
disasters than is the case in the west today, and
there is every sign that people re-established weeping unheralded and randomly.

their lives remarkably quickly.

It was generally assumed that the plague was parents brought MO: The Black Death had a very different
impact on western and eastern Europe
a result of poor air quality arising from high
humidity or poor sanitary conditions. their children to largely due to the response of the respective
elites. In the west, the scarcity of population
Although it took a long time to understand
that the key cause of infection was the open pits and and the resulting increase in the economic
capacity of the peasants meant that feudal lords
presence of rats, the idea of moving into the
cleaner environment of the countryside did, in laid their were unable to enforce their traditional rights
and had to engage in an open labour market.
effect, provide some protection against
infection for those lucky enough to escape the bodies there As a result, serfdom the idea that peasant
families were tied to the manor and had to
overcrowded towns. perform unpaid service to their lord simply
Tom James became irrelevant.
CR: In England, the crown, parliament and In eastern Europe, conversely, the elites
local authorities did their best to contain such ABOVE: These lead crosses, found responded by reinforcing serfdom. The
dangerous behaviour as the pollution of water during the excavation of a London cemetery, divergence was to be evident for centuries to
may have lain with victims
supplies. Advice literature, increasingly of the Black Death come and had huge consequences for the levels
produced in the vernacular rather than Latin, of commercialisation and industrialisation
helped individuals and communities to avoid experienced across Europe between the 16th
unnecessary risks. Spiritual health remained and the 19th centuries.
paramount, however, and although people The sanitary reforms introduced by urban
may have grown less fatalistic in the face of authorities also made towns and cities cleaner What do you think about recent
disease they still regarded prayer and penance and more pleasant places to live or at least research suggesting that gerbils,
as their first line of defence. aimed to do so. not rats, spread the disease?
OJB: The theory that the Black Death
How did the epidemic change What was the Black Deaths impact and subsequent plague epidemics arose among
medieval society? on European history? gerbils in east Asia according to climatic cycles
MO: If we take the long view, we can say that OJB: The historical impact of the Black Death should not be taken seriously. It is based on a
for at least a proportion of the survivors of and subsequent plague epidemics resulted in series of erroneous or false historical assertions,
plague, there was a real improvement in the a temporary halt in the development of the like many other plague theories, such as that it
quality of life. By the 15th century we find early Renaissance, which was not resumed was carried by human fleas and/or lice, or that
that people who survived to maturity tended until about 1450. It oriented the mental focus it was, in fact, a viral disease that spread much
to live longer than earlier generations because and energy of the time towards death and like influenza.
they were better fed, clothed and housed. salvation ars moriendi, the way of achieving
The drop in the population resulted in a a good death, became of paramount MO: The gerbil theory is a fascinating idea but at
redistribution of wealth: workers could importance. This found expression in the the moment it is just a hypothesis. Its worth
demand higher wages, and tenant farmers movement towards the Reformation, which noting that the scientists involved are assuming
could demand lower rents. This gave the poor broke down the authority of the Catholic the Black Death was indeed bubonic plague
more expendable income. church as a guarantor of salvation, and borne by fleas living on the backs of rodents: the
conferred to the individual the decisive task of only difference here is that the rodents may have
CR: Such a dramatic and sustained fall achieving salvation through a pious and been gerbils rather than rats.
in population levels brought distinct benefits righteous life. Other researchers in the past have suggested
for ordinary people. On the whole, English that the disease could have been anything
men and women ate more meat and dairy TJ: Theres no doubt the Black Death was from influenza to anthrax. All of this is a
produce than before and, in a rental market devastating when it first struck Europe reminder of the many uncertainties that
that favoured tenants rather than landlords, between 1347 and the early 1350s. However remain around the nature and spread of the
they were able to afford better quality housing. the impact of the plague was exacerbated Black Death pandemic.

74 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 HISTORY

RARE IMAGES

PORTRAITS OF THE

PLAGUE Words by Charlotte Hodgman

Between 1855 and 1959 more than 500 years after the medieval Black Death
a new plague pandemic ravaged the globe, killing some 12 million people.
Images collected in a new project vividly depict the outbreaks

Death watch CENTRE FOR THE STUDY OF WORLD CHRISTIANITY/UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH

Shenyang, China, 1911

Plague struck north-east China
between 1910 and 1911, killing
60,000; the fatality rate among those
infected was 100 per cent. These men
at the gates of Shenyangs plague
hospital have covered their faces with
white cloth, and the hospital wall has
been whitewashed, probably with a
lime solution used as a disinfectant.
Improvements in public health
reduced casualties in a 1920
outbreak by four-fths.

Vol. 7 Issue 8 75
HISTORY

Conicts in care
Hong Kong, summer 1894
The arrival of plague in Hong Kong in 1894 saw British colonial
authorities and Chinese elites clash over anti-plague measures
and treatment of the aficted. The issue of where to hospitalise
patients was a particular bone of contention as this image,
showing patients lying in a makeshift facility at the Kennedy
Town Glassworks factory, demonstrates. The open windows
reected a British practice, yet Chinese doctors considered
drafts to be lethal.
KITASATO MEMORIAL MUSEUM/THE KITASATO INSTITUTE

IN CONTEXT

The Third Plague Pandemic

The Third Plague Pandemic (18551959) 54142 and 134653) had left society bafed the pandemic, causing distress and conict
was unprecedented for a number of reasons. as to its origins. Yet by the late 19th century across aficted areas.
For the rst time in history, bubonic plague scientists had a far greater understanding of As the rst epidemic of any infectious
reached all ve continents, striking major plague in fact, in Hong Kong in 1894, they disease to be photographed as it travelled
cities from Hong Kong (in 1894) to Bombay were able to isolate the bacillus that caused across the globe, the pandemic left an
(1896), Sydney (1900), Cape Town (1901) and it. By 1905, scientists had also acknowledged extraordinary legacy of visual material.
Los Angeles (1924). The pandemic left an the role of the rat and the ea in plague These images reveal the enormous,
estimated 12 million dead (including 10million transmission. Yet these discoveries did little and diverse, impact of the plague on
on the Indian subcontinent), and saw the to improve public health measures. communities from attempted regulation
implementation of extraordinary measures Quarantine, forced evacuations and through de-roong of houses and forced
for its containment. torching neighbourhoods, such as Honolulus segregation, to efforts to control the way in
The previous two plague pandemics (in Chinatown (1900), were all employed against which people dealt with the dead.

76 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 Last rites
Bombay (now Mumbai), 1897
Hindu and Muslim funerary rites in India
captivated the imaginations of colonial photog-
raphers. Images such as this, of a Hindu burning
ground at Sonapur, littered the pages of the
British press, relaying back news of the disease
to a Victorian audience fascinated by what was,
to them, the exotic social world in which plague
was thriving.

Fire ght
Honolulu, 18991900
Plague arrived in Honolulu in December 1899. In response, the
authorities closed down the harbour and Chinatown. They also
burned houses in Chinatown that were deemed to be insanitary, as
shown here. On 20 January 1900, the burning of plague-infected
buildings in this area of the city got out of control and an area of up
to 65 acres went up in ames.

WELLCOME LIBRARY/LONDON/HAWAII STATE ARCHIVES

Pioneering treatments
Karachi, June 1898
Paul-Louis Simond the French doctor who
discovered that eas are responsible for
transmitting plague from rats to humans
injects serum into a victim. Serum therapy
(which aimed to pass on immunity to the
victim) was a contested procedure that
sometimes killed the patient. As such, it
became a rallying point for Indian resis-
tance to the colonial governments
anti-plague measures.

Vol. 7 Issue 8 77
HISTORY

Doused in petrol
Liverpool, c190020
In a bid to prevent the spread of the disease,
men of the Liverpool Port Sanitary Authority
dip rats into buckets of petrol to kill the eas.
Though there was no widespread outbreak
of plague in Britain, deaths were recorded in
Cardiff, Glasgow and Suffolk. Cases were
also reported in Liverpool, most notably in
1901, 1908, 1914 and 1916.
WELLCOME LIBRARY, LONDON/HONG KONG UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

DISCOVER MORE

ONLINE
The images in this feature were
collated by the ERC-funded
project Visual Representations
of the Third Plague Pandemic,
Brush with death at CRASSH, University of
Harbin, China, 1921 Cambridge, led by Dr Christos
Protective measures were crucial Lynteris. For more details on
in restricting the spread of plague. their work, follow them
Here, a man in overalls, full face @visualplague or go to crassh.
mask, goggles and gloves washes cam.ac.uk/programmes/
his boots during the 192021 visual-representations-of-the-
epidemic in Harbin that caused third-plague-pandemic
3,000 deaths.

78 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 SCIENCE

THE FUTURE OF GADGETS

TECHHUB
EDITED BY DANIEL BENNETT

atteries are awful. For

B a start, theyre always
running out.
ON THE HORIZON I cant remember the last
time my phone didnt need
a charge at the end of the day.

TESLA Thats not to say batteries

havent improved over

POWERWALL the years. They have. The

trouble is theyve only
evolved just enough to cope
The battery that with our increasingly energy-
hungry gadgets.
could transform Clearly, the small
our energy use inconvenience of having to
charge my phone every night
isnt the biggest problem the
world is facing right now. But
there is a conundrum on the
horizon, and batteries will
need to take a massive leap in
order to solve it.
More and more homes and
businesses are starting to wean
themselves off fossil fuels,
either through green energy
suppliers or by installing
solar panels on their roofs or
windmills in their gardens.
Thanks in part to a subsidy
from the government, there
were 650,000 residential and
commercial solar installations
in the UK at the end of 2014,
powering the equivalent of 1.5
million houses. That gure is
expected to grow again this
year. The trouble with
renewable energy is

Vol. 7 Issue 8 79
SCIENCE

Tesla Powerwall and a

Tesla car compete in the
Whos Shiniest competition
TECHOMETER
WHATS HOT
DRONE DELIVERY
When Amazon announced
deliveries by drone, most
thought it was just a stunt.
But now, the company
has submitted a patent for
a system where a drone
tracks the location of
the person to whom its
delivering using data from
their smartphone. The
drones would also be able
to talk to one another.

WHATS NOT
3D TV
After five years, Sky is
scrapping its 3D channel.
Despite investing in original
programming, including
several David Attenborough
documentaries, the channel
failed to gain any real traction
its reliability. For example, solar power But Musk is probably the only person in the with viewers. It seems now
is only good until dusk, while wind whole world who could pull this feat off. For that there are fewer and
power relies on the weather.This is where a start, his battery-powered Tesla Model S has fewer options for getting 3D
Elon Musk, the creator of PayPal, SpaceX three times the range of most other electric content, but keen viewers
will still be able to access the
and Tesla wants his new battery to step in. cars. Musk is using the knowhow gained in channel through Skys
The device, called the Tesla Powerwall, developing the best electric car in the world on-demand service.
PHOTO: AMAZON, GETTY, MARC HALL/NC STATE UNIVERSITY

would be mounted in your home. It would to try and build the best battery in the world.
soak up all the excess power generated by Right now, his company is busily building the
your solar panels, waiting to feed it back biggest battery factory on the planet, named
into the home during the night. Musk says Gigafactory 1. Forecasts suggest that the
his battery could store enough energy to factory will reduce Tesla battery costs by about
power your home for an entire day. Indeed, 30 per cent. READER POLL
the entire launch event was powered just by The Tesla Powerwall will only be available Do you watch any 3D content?
his batteries. in the US for now and costs $3,000 dollars for
Its not just technology for the green- a 7kW battery and $3,500 for a larger 10kW
ngered either. The unit can be installed system. Incredibly, the batteries are already
into any home and programmed to sold out in the US until 2016. If Musks plans 44%
recharge during your energy providers are successful, he wont just be worrying No I dont 44%
have a 3D TV No I
off-peak hours, stufng itself with low-cost the motoring industry, hell have the energy have a 3D
electricity before regurgitating it back into companies panicking too. TV, but I
the house during peak hours, slashing your dont use
that feature
bills over the long-term. 12%
At rst, running your entire home off DANIEL BENNETT is the reviews editor Yes three
batteries might seem complete illogical. dimensions are
at BBC Focus Magazine better than two

80 Vol. 7 Issue 8
THE NEXT BIG THING A graphene sheet: this
material will bring us new,
more powerful processors

THE NANOCOMPUTERS
ARE COMING
It has been 50 years since Intels for glasses. For me, the exciting
Gordon Moore noticed that materials are those that can be
the power of computer chips used in computers, like graphene.
was doubling about every year. Graphene is a recently-
He coined this phenomenon discovered form of carbon. It
Moores Law. Since then, weve looks like it can support a new
seen enormous changes in the generation of powerful processors
way the world works and in that run cool and fast, letting us
the types of technology that extend the lifetime of Moores law
underpin our daily lives. by moving away from silicon-
The assumption that we based computing.
can rely on more computing And as that happens we can
power at less cost and with expect new possibilities to emerge,
reduced energy consumption just as the move from valves to
underpins many anticipated transistors transformed the sorts
changes in the world, such as of electronic devices we could
smart cities, self-driving cars and imagine. For example, we might
wearable computers. have smart fabrics with sensors
Yet we cant rely on existing built in, keeping track of pulse,
materials to deliver the sort of temperature and perspiration, and
performance we will need, so theyll also be responsive to the EDSAC used 3,000 valves that positive, and it will denitely not
we need to look elsewhere.The environment or your activity. were prone to burning out, so be easily predictable.There are
most promising developments are But the real impact will the machine would have to be already concerns over the impact
coming from nanotechnology come when we know how to repaired every few hours. In of some nanomaterials on the
the design, manufacture and use build these new types of device at contrast, todays processors run environment and on our bodies.
of materials at the scale of 1-100 scale, and to deploy them in ways trillions of instructions without But the new nanomaterials are
nanometres (one nanometre is we can depend on. I once asked error. For example, the laptop coming, whether we prepare
a billionth of a metre) to build Maurice Wilkes, who in 1949 led Im currently using hasnt been or not.
smart fabrics, intelligent roads and the team that built EDSAC, one rebooted for 15 days.
new forms of computer. of the worlds earliest computers, Before long it looks like well
BILL THOMPSON
Nanoparticles are already out what most surprised him about come to depend on these strange contributes to
there, in things like sunscreen modern processors. nanomaterials for computing. news.bbc.co.uk and
and scratch-resistant coatings He said it was their reliability. Their impact may not always be the BBC World Service

The boots that put a

FROM THE LAB spring in your step
The exoskeleton
helps people walk
more efficiently
WHAT IS IT? that catches the spring and keeps it taut
These boots are more like an exoskeleton when your foot is flat on the ground. With the
than shoes and have been developed at spring fully extended it holds elastic energy.
the University of North Carolina. They strap When the walker lifts their foot the ratchet
around your shins and calves, mimicking the releases the spring and its stored energy,
muscles and tendons. They make walking 7 literally putting a spring in every step.
per cent easier equivalent to taking 4.5kg
off your back. WHEN CAN I GET ONE?
The boots engineers are working on a
HOW DO THEY WORK? prototype that could help those with injuries
The boots are unpowered, instead relying on or the elderly. According to one of the authors,
simple mechanics. Inside, theres a ratchet we might see the boots someday soon.

Vol. 7 Issue 8 81
SCIENCE

ULTIMATE TEST

TRAVEL
Whether youre jetting away or planning a
staycation, heres our pick of the top tech that
can make your life better this summer
PHOTO: THESECRETSTUDIO.NET

82 Vol. 7 Issue 8
TRANSFORMERS
PANASONIC LUMIX DMC GF7
These days, taking a good selfie is as much a part of going on holiday
as getting sunburn, fighting over sunloungers and getting sand in your
shoes. To help you capture the perfect selfie, this cameras display
flips 180. In this mode, the devices AI takes a photo three sec-
onds after it sees you waving. Similarly, if it sees two or more faces
smushed together itll take a pic. And for its party trick, if you pair
it with a smartphone and activate Jump Snap mode, it will use the
phones accelerometers to calculate when your jump will peak and
take a picture at the perfect moment.
panasonic.com

OVERBOARD WATERPROOF
CAMERA CASE
This bag wont just protect your camera from water, sand, dust and
mud, itll also let you take pictures underwater. The camera case can
safely venture six metres below the waves and will float back up to
the surface if you accidentally drop it in the briny.
overboard.com

POLAROID ZIP INSTANT

Spare your pictures the fate of living permanently on your smartphone
with this minuscule printer. No bigger than a Nintendo DS, itll
connect to your phone or tablet via NFC and Bluetooth to print your
photographs, smudge-free, on 2 x 3 inch (5.08 x 7.6cm) sticky-
backed photo paper in under 60 seconds. polaroid.com

COBRA JUMPACK
Taking a road trip this summer? This mobile battery charger can give
your phone and your car a second lease of life. Plug the USB into
your phone and the 7500mAh charger will give it another days worth
of charge several times over. But if your cars battery gives out, you
can use the cables included to give your vehicle a jump start.
cobra.com

EYEFI CARD
Dont get strangled by cables. The Eyefi memory card has a built-
in Wi-Fi chip that will send your photos to your tablet, PC, Mac or
smartphone when both are connected to a trusted Wi-Fi network.
Best of all, itll also send those pics to the cloud, if you have a
subscription, so that all your photos are immediately backed up.
en.eye.com

Vol. 7 Issue 8 83
SCIENCE

BRAVEN
BRV-PRO
If youre taking a speaker with
you on holiday or to a festival,
youll want one that can handle
anything. Built out of aircraft-
grade aluminium, the BRV-
PRO will roll with the punches,
survive a dunk in water, and all
the dust, mud or sand you can
throw at it.
braven.com

NETATMO STEELSERIES
JUNE STRATUS
Keep tabs on the Sun with one Keep the kids occupied with
of the best-looking wearables this videogame remote for your
going. The June combines local iPad. It makes longer, more
weather reports and data from engrossing games like FFX or
LOTUS GRILL
its UV sensor to tell you what Need For Speed much more Heres a barbecue thats purpose-built for the British summer. It uses
factor sun cream you should be engrossing meaning that a battery-powered fan to stoke just a handful of charcoal, providing
wearing and how often youll your sanity is more likely to be enough heat to cook your burgers in the park. Best of all, the fat from
need to reapply it to avoid any intact by the time you reach your food cant reach the coals, so theres no smoke meaning you
lasting damage. your destination. can take it under cover when the rain clouds inevitably roll in.
netatmo.com steelseries.com cuckooland.com

SMART KEY OLLOCLIP

Never lose your keys on holiday! These interchangeable lenses for
Pop them on this key ring and your smartphone will give you
hook it up to your mobile via one more reason to just leave
Bluetooth. If the phone loses the your camera at home. Each
connection, it will start to sing. Olloclip kit comes with
If you miss the alert, your phone a selection of four different
logs the last GPS location where lenses that slide over your
it had a connection and shows smartphones camera: a fisheye,
you how to get there via Google a wide-angle and two macro
PHOTO: THESECRETSTUDIO.NET

Maps. elgato.com lenses. olloclip.com

PARROT ZIKS 2.0

Ziks are the most versatile, noise-cancelling headphones money can
buy. As well as drowning out plane engines, Ziks will customise audio
output for each track through its phone app. All the controls are on
the right can, so you dont have to fumble around for your phone to
change the track. parrot.com

84 Vol. 7 Issue 8
AND FOR YOUR NEXT HOLIDAY
DAY

BLUESMART
Meet the ultimate suitcase. Before you fly, its built-in n digital scale will tell your smartphone how
much your luggage weighs, and when youre packed d and ready to go you can lock the suitcase
from your smartphone. It also comes with a built-in battery charger should your phone run out of
juice. As well as logging your trip, itll ping you its GPS
PS location if you move out of range of the
bag. If its been lost, Bluesmart will track it down and d ask if you want your bag brought
brough
ghtt to you
you by
by
an Uber hire car. It cant arrive soon enough.
Bluesmart.com

GOJI SMART LOCK

Never leave a spare set of keys under the plant pot
again. This smart lock lets you open your door from
anywhere in the world, as long as your smartphone
or tablet has an internet connection. Alternatively,
you can give your friends and family access to your
house for a couple of weeks. And if someone visits,
Goji will take a picture and send it to you.
Gojiaccess.com

PETCHATZ
If you cant bear to be away from Fido or Snuggles, there will soon be a way to keep in touch. This
videophone drops a treat when you call to lure your cat or dog to the camera. Once theyre there
you can have a good chat or whatever it is you do with a cat on a videophone and you can even
instruct the device to dispense a soothing scent to reassure your furry friend.
Petchatz.com

SAMSUNG GEAR VR
Cramped seats, terrible food and air-con that dries you to a husk -
weve all sat on a long-haul flight counting the hours to touchdown.
Well, this mobile virtual reality headset could transform your flight,
letting you play games and watch movies from the comfort of your own
virtual world, leaving reality (and the plane) far behind.
Samsung.com

RE-TIMER
IMER
Jetlag is a killer,
killer but now it m
might
ight have met its match:
matc
maatc
tch:
ch: the
the Re-timer.
Re
Re-titim
ti
ime
mer.
mer
These specs shine a green UV UV-free
f lilight
ht iinto
t your eyes th
thats
t proven
to help rejig your circadian rhythms. The idea is that four days prior to
your next long-haul flight, you could wear the Re-Timer to slowly shift
your sleep patterns to match those of the country youre visiting.
Re-timer.com

Vol. 7 Issue 8 85
 YOUR QUESTI0NS ANSWERED
BY OUR EXPERT PANEL

& SUSAN
BLACKMORE
Susan is a visiting
psychology
professor at the
University
of Plymouth. Her
books include The
Meme Machine
DR ALASTAIR
GUNN
Alastair is a
radio astronomer
at the Jodrell
Bank Centre for
Astrophysics at
the University of
Manchester
ROBERT
MATTHEWS
After studying
physics at Oxford,
Robert became a
science writer. Hes
a visiting reader in
science at Aston
University
GARETH
MITCHELL
Starting out
as a broadcast
engineer, Gareth
now writes and
presents Digital
Planet on the BBC
World Service
LUIS
VILLAZON
Luis has a BSc in
computing and an
MSc in zoology
from Oxford. His
works include
How Cows Reach
The Ground

[email protected]

Where is the
PHOTO: STEPHAN GLADIEU/FIGAROPHOTO/CAMERA PRESS

biggest shipyard
in the world?
That accolade goes to the vessels per year, comprising
Hyundai Heavy Industries about 16 per cent of the global
shipbuilding facility in the South shipbuilding market. The massive
Korean city of Ulsan. Built in the Ulsan yard is incredibly versatile
1970s, the yard covers an area of too, producing oil tankers, military
7.2 square kilometres. Its 10 dry vessels, container ships and car
docks turn out on average 80 ferries. GM

86 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 In Numbers

750
is thought to be the max. numberr of
mature European sturgeon in the wild.
Will supersonic ights ever
make a comeback?
In the worst case scenario, the figure
gure
may be as low as 20

Why arent planets Within at least the next generation, achieve hypersonic speeds at subsonic

overcome by the Suns

uns the answer has to be very unlikely. To
understand why, one hardly needs to look
efficiencies by cruising at twice the
altitude of conventional aircraft where the

gravitational pull? further than the Airbus A380. The trend

in aviation is to increase efficiency of
air is thinner. Hypersonic is faster than
supersonic, and is generally defined as
aircraft, not speed. Its partly an equation Mach 5 and above.
The planets dont crash into thehe Sun of bigger planes, and thus less energy HyperMach plans to fly a prototype of
because they are moving too fast. Gravity per passenger per kilometre. But the its SonicStar plane in 2023. But
pulls the planets towards the Sun, but the massive A380 also gains economies with even then, it will not quite be the
planets are also moving around the e Sun. its light carbon fibre frame, advanced beginning of fast air travel for the
The sideways motion balances the e force avionics and engines with large air masses. The first planes would be
of attraction so that the planets dont
ont intakes that burn fuel more efficiently executive jets, which would open up
move appreciably in the Suns direction.
ection. than smaller turbofans. Yet firms such two-hour Atlantic crossings but only to
In effect, the planets are constantlyy falling as the UKs HyperMach believe they can the mega rich. GM
towards the Sun but always miss! Without
the Suns gravity to pull it down, the
h Earth
E h
would career off into space. Or, putting it
another way, if the Earth stopped moving it
would crash into the Sun. You can create Is there a way to walk across slippery
a similar effect by swinging a large spring
with a weight attached to one end. If you
swing it fast enough, the spring wont
surfaces without falling?
stretch, unless it goes faster. But if it slows Recent research at the Salk Institute
down, the spring will pull the weight in. AG for Biological Sciences in California found
that we balance on slippery or
narrow surfaces using clusters of
RORa neurones in the spinal cord.
These mini brains process the
huge amount of sensory information
coming from your skin, muscles,
inner ear and eyes and make
hundreds of tiny corrections per
second. Its a bit like the ABS in
your car constantly watching for a
skid and pumping the brakes before
it happens. You can also reduce
your chances of a fall by copying
penguins. When you walk normally, your
centre of gravity is only directly above
the weight-bearing foot for a small part
of each stride. If you waddle from side to
side instead, your centre of gravity always
stays above one foot or the other. This
reduces the sideways forces and makes
it much less likely that your foot will Walk like a penguin to
Thanks, Sun! avoid slippery mishaps
suddenly slip out from under you. LV

Vol. 7 Issue 8 87
 &

Why does turning a

device off and on often
solve issues?
Many devices run some kind of
computer code. The software often
runs in a loop, executing commands
repeatedly while the device awaits input.
For instance, your screen constantly
refreshes until you press a
button. Sometimes,
the code slips into a
non-functional permanent
loop that only breaks
when you reset everything
by switching the device off and on. GM

Why do cats like boxes?

Wolves, eagles, jackals, foxes and
snakes prey on wild relatives of the cat.
Cats hide in bushes or burrows during
the day to escape their predators and
to go to sleep. This behaviour lingers in
Theres a serious domestic cats. A study at the University
glitch in The Matrix of Utrecht in the Netherlands found that
cats in animal shelters were much less
stressed by their new surroundings if they
had a box to hide in. Even when cats

Can dj vu be explained? arent stressed, a box feels more secure,

cosy and comforting. LV

The phenomenon of dj wrongly setting off the feeling

vu is a sudden and intensely of familiarity. Another blames
convincing feeling that youve excessive or unusual temporal
PHOTO: ISTOCK X12, GETTY, SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

been somewhere before, or that lobe activity. The temporal lobes

it has happened before. Many handle many memory functions
people jump to the conclusion and are responsible for the
that they dreamt the scene and sense of familiarity. Temporal
now its coming true. But there are lobe epileptics often report dj
no documented cases of people, vu. People with highly variable
in this state, predicting whats temporal lobe activity tend to be
going to happen next. And many creative, believe in the paranormal
attempts to prove precognitive and have lucid dreams, spiritual
dreams have failed. An old theory and out-of-body experiences as
is that dj vu happens when one well as dj vu. Next time you
part of the brain senses something get this feeling, blame your
fractionally before another part, temporal lobes. SB

If I fits, I sits

88 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 TOP TEN
MOST VITAMIN C-RICH FOODS Why does the Moon appear larger than
normal on the horizon?
It has been known since ancient refraction due to the atmosphere, but
1. Guavas times (at least as far back as Aristotle in this is in fact erroneous. Although there
Vitamin C in 100g: 228mg the 4th Century BC) that the Moon can is no definitive explanation, it is generally
appear to be larger than normal when accepted that it is merely an effect of
close to the horizon. At the same time, perception. When the Moon is close
however, it can be shown that the Moon to the horizon, other objects such as
is in fact no different in size than when buildings and trees are included in the
2. Blackcurrants
it is at the zenith. This dichotomy is eyes field of view. Most authorities
Vitamin C in 100g: 200mg
known as the Moon illusion. suggest that this makes the Moon
Ptolemy and others have appear larger than when its
tried to attribute the surrounded by an expanse of
phenomenon to the empty sky. AG
3. Red peppers
Vitamin C in 100g: 190mg

4. Red chillis
Vitamin C in 100g: 144 mg

5. Parsley
Vitamin C in 100g: 120mg
Party time for werewolves

6= Kiwis
Vitamin C in 100g: 93mg
Why do we toss and turn when we sleep?
A typical nights sleep consists of Instead, most of the tossing and turning
REM and non-REM sleep. REM stands actually happens in the brief moments after
for Rapid Eye Movement and is named REM sleep when you wake up. This only
7= Kale after the way your eyes dart around under lasts a few seconds and we usually dont
Vitamin C in 100g: 93mg your eyelids. REM sleep is when you remember having woken, so it feels like we
dream. To prevent you acting out your are tossing and turning in our sleep. You
dreams, nerve impulses from your motor can have four or five REM/non-REM cycles
cortex are intercepted in the spinal cord every night and the wakeful interludes give
8. Broccoli and blocked. So youll never thrash about you a chance to change position or adjust
Vitamin C in 100g: 89mg
during a dream, no matter how vivid it is. the covers. LV

Stages of sleep over eight hours

Awake
9. Brussels sprouts REM
Vitamin C in 100g: 85mg
Brain activity

Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
10. Strawberries (Deep sleep)
Vitamin C in 100g: 80mg 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Time (hours)

Vol. 7 Issue 8 89
 &

If I throw a ball up
vertically in a moving
train, will it move away
from me?
No it will land just
as if you were standing
still. Thats because
the ball started off in
your hand, so was also
travelling forward with the
speed of the train. Once
airborne, it doesnt lose that
forward speed, so it keeps
up with you and lands in your
Play catch
hand. RM on the train

Why do people lie?

To gain fame, riches, approval can lower self-esteem, people who lie a
and attention; to refrain from hurting lot become less trusting of others, and
others or causing conflict; or to avoid children are harmed by even little lies. Its
admitting mistakes or seeming weak hard to discover how often people lie, but
there are many reasons. Liars prefer the one study of 2,000 British people found
consequences of lying to facing up to the that men tell six lies a day, while women
truth, but the consequences of telling fibs tell three. The most common lie was:
are rarely benign. Relationships can be Nothings wrong. Im fine. SB
ruined by even small lies, exaggerating
PHOTO: ISTOCK X2, CORBIS, GETTY, FERMILAB, SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

What do dogs hear when In reality, there are no scorpions and

prancing goats in the sky

we talk to them?
Theres good evidence that dogs
can recognise many of the subtleties
of human speech. A 2014 study at
What are constellations?
the University of Sussex found that Constellations are merely patterns
dogs use the right side of their of stars that were originally associated
brain for processing the emotional with mythological or astrological figures.
content of speech, such as tone Many of them probably date back to the
of voice, and the left side for verbal Sumerians. Usually, the only connection
commands. Dogs can tell when a between the stars in a constellation is
recognised command word is given, even that they appear in the same part of the
when said with an unfamiliar accent. And sky. They may, in fact, be located at very
they can tell the difference between correct different distances. In modern astronomy,
commands, such as Come on, then, the constellations are defined not by the
compared to one with jumbled syllables, Ate the Sunday roast? actual pattern of stars, but by a particular
Me? Never!
Thumb on, Ken! LV area of the sky with defined borders. AG

90 Vol. 7 Issue 8
Does excessive
screen time damage Do some areas of the
a childs brain? brain decline faster than
Serious screen addicts suffer sensory others due to old age?
overload, lack of sleep, and loss of
attentional control. Their brains show Yes, although the pattern varies
shrinkage of parts of the cortex, including depending on peoples health and
the frontal lobes. These are important lifestyle. Some decline is due to
for planning, organising and controlling shrinkage and loss of cells, while some
impulses. This is especially worrying in is down to chemical changes in
young people because the frontal lobes neurotransmitters and synapses.
grow slowly and keep developing until The cortex is the thick, folded,
their mid-20s. There are also changes outer layer of the brain and its
in the brains white matter, with long- grey matter begins thinning
range connections between neurones from our mid-20s onwards.
being interrupted. The arousal produced The brains white matter,
by exciting games affects the reward which consists of long axons
systems and alters levels of dopamine transmitting information
in the brain, which can have long-term between neurones, increases
effects on attention span. Relying so until about the age of 40
much on vision and movement may mean and then slowly declines. In
that other sensory areas are neglected, the cortex, age-related decline
and children may lose out on building is fastest in the frontal and
social skills and relationships. However, parietal lobes and this
some screen-based activities develop affects executive functions
new thinking skills, improve problem and memory systems.
solving, enhance memory, and help hand- Language areas towards
eye coordination, reaction speeds and the front of the brain
multitasking. All of these can improve the decline more quickly
growing brain. SB than those towards the
back. Decline is also
slower in the occipital
lobe at the back of the
brain, which is devoted
to visual processing. This
makes sense since the visual
cortex is so important to our
survival and it is constantly active
when our eyes are open. SB

Dad is just stroppy

because Jimmy is better
than him at Minecraft

In Numbers

316,600
people over 100 years old live around the
Synapses like this
allow neurones to
pass messages
world. By 2050, this figure could increase
through the body
to more than three million

Vol. 7 Issue 8 91
 &

What makes a persons

How much salt does it take to poison an adult? voice unique?
The medical literature lists an salt in your blood, not the amount that
estimated lethal dose of between you eat. Your body will remove excess
0.75g and 3g per kilogramme of body salt through your kidneys and your
weight. For a 75kg adult, that means sweat. If you have access to plenty
a minimum of 56g of salt or about 10 of fresh water, you can cope with a
teaspoons, taken all at once. But salt much higher salt dose than if you are
poisoning is about the concentration of dehydrated. LV

Op, op, op, op.

Oppa gangnam style

Like a musical instrument, the sound

of your voice is determined by the shape
and size of its parts. The length of your
vocal cords, the shape of your nose and
the contours of your throat all contribute.
The exact timing of the contractions of
muscles in your mouth, tongue, larynx
and diaphragm are different for everyone
even when they are saying the same
Mmm
Mmm
Mm m just
mm just
usst ab
aabout
bout
outt words. These things are affected by the
the
th ri
right
ight
ght am
aamount
moun
ounnt
oun nt for
for accents or cultures that surrounded us
our chchips
chips
ips
ip
when we learned to speak. LV

Have particles ever been detected travelling faster

than the speed of light?
According to S Special timing equipment was faulty,
Relativity, no particle with mass and the neutrinos had actually
can travel at the speed of light complied with Einsteins
around 300,000 kilometres per speed limit.
second let alone faster. But Physicist Robert Ehrlich of
in 2011, a European team of George Mason University in
scientists claimed to have found Virginia has argued that neutrinos
PHOTO: ISTOCK, GETTY, SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

evidence of particles breaking may still be able to exploit a

Einsteins speed limit. Known as loophole in Einsteins theory,
neutrinos, these particles were allowing them to travel faster
timed as they travelled over than light. To do this, they have
700km from their origin at the to possess so-called tachyonic
CERN laboratory in Geneva to a mass, which is utterly unlike the
detector in Italy, and they seemed conventional variety. According
to arrive around 60 billionths of to Ehrlich, evidence that neutrinos
a second sooner than a beam are particles consisting of this
of light travelling through empty stuff already exists in the results
space could manage. Unable of lab experiments and in esoteric
to explain the anomaly, the astronomical observations.
scientists asked for help. Nonetheless, his interpretation
It quickly emerged that their remains controversial. RM The paths of electrically-charged particles mapped in a bubble chamber

92 Vol. 7 Issue 8
Do some facial expressions cause Is it possible to take
too many vitamins?
more wrinkles than others?

When you smile or frown, the creases forehead so much. The only expression
in your skin begin as just temporary that creases the entire face is the kind of
features. But as you get older, these same horrified wince you make when you
creases eventually become permanent watch someone take a bad fall off a
wrinkles. Frowning mainly creases your skateboard (try it!). This suggests that
brow, whereas a good smile will crease watching a lot of YouTube videos might
your eyes and mouth but not your just give you wrinkles! LV Most definitely. The body normally
regulates your levels of vitamins A, D
and E, which you eat as part of a healthy
diet. If you consume the vitamins in
tablet form, you bypass this regulation
Is it possible to accurately predict earthquakes? mechanism and excess vitamins get
stored in the liver, gradually building
Scientists once believed they might more quake-resistant. The second up over time. A daily dose of 2,500
one day find telltale signs of an impending exploits the ultimate precursor: the micrograms of vitamin A for six months
earthquake sufficiently reliable to organise vibrations caused by the earthquake is enough to give you chronic vitamin A
evacuations in plenty of time. Since the itself. So-called P-waves spread out toxicity, with symptoms including blurred
1990s, however, the failure to identify from the site of the earthquake at over vision, hair loss and peeling skin. But
any such useful precursors has led to 18,000km/h giving about a minutes youd need to take more than 37 cod liver
growing attention on two other strategies warning of the impending arrival of the oil capsules a day to reach that quantity.
to minimise death and destruction. much more destructive seismic waves. Taking vitamin supplements may even
The first strategy accepts that the This is enough time for the authorities be bad for you even at doses well
time, location and size of an earthquake to switch off utilities and give the alarm below the toxic threshold. Probably the
can never be predicted precisely, and so that people can find shelter. Both of hardest one to overdo is vitamin C. The
focuses on identifying at-risk regions these strategies are now in use in Japan recommended daily intake for adults is
and making buildings and infrastructure and Mexico. RM 65 to 90mg (roughly one orange) but you
can tolerate up to 2,000mg a day without
any ill effects. At very high doses, vitamin
C eventually causes diarrhoea, heartburn
and kidney stones. LV

YOUR QUESTIONS
These days, recordings of ground
ANSWERED
movement are often displayed on Email to [email protected].
computers rather than on paper Were sorry, but we cannot reply to questions individually.

Vol. 7 Issue 8 93
Resource A feast for the mind

Hardback Paperback

The Vital
MEET THE AUTHOR
Question EDITOR'S
CHOICE
Why Is Life The Way It Is?
Nick Lane
Profile Books Nick
Every one of the millions of species on
Lane
Earth uses DNA to make the genes that
code for the proteins that constitute How did life make the leap from simple
our cells and bodies.This tells us that all bacteria to more complex forms?
life from single-celled bacteria to yeast, In my book I argue that it was a bit of a
mushrooms, jellysh, insects, plants, birds freak accident about 1.5-2 billion years
and mammals can be traced back to a ago. A bacterium somehow got inside
single common ancestor that, we now another single-celled organism, and this
know from fossils, arose some time around led to the development of mitochondria
3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago. the power packs of most of our cells
But why does all life on Earth have today. This event removed the energy
only this one common ancestor? Thats constraints that had kept bacteria simple.
the vital question at the heart of this Aft all,
After ll bacteria
b t i are notoriously
t i l versatile,
til
book.Why have simple bacteria evolved and theyve had 3.8 billion years to come So it was a lucky accident?
into complex life just once in nearly four up with a better solution. We know for a fact that complex life only
billion years? Why arent there other forms So how did bacteria make the leap to evolved once [in four billion years]. It
of life with different basic chemistries? becoming complex life? Lane suggests could be that [similar events] happened
In Nick Lanes carefully researched new that the breakthrough happened around on multiple occasions but that existing
book, he argues that the answer lies in the 1.5 to 2 billion years ago, when a single complex life outcompeted any nascent
way in which cells produce energy. bacterium took up residence inside life forms. However, we think that it was a
Lane identies a particular chemical another unicellular organism, creating the genuinely rare event.
process the proton pump that is shared little energy powerhouses mitochondria
across all life.This process a kind of that are found in most of our cells today. Do we have evidence for this event?
electricity, except with protons owing These mitochondria could then proliferate If we look at our own genomes, we can
instead of electrons is the principal in cells, liberating orders of magnitude see that a lot of our genes come from
source of a cells energy. Lane suggests more energy than a bacterium could bacteria, and almost certainly from the
that if other, more efcient processes were produce on its own. bacteria that went on to become our
possible, then natural selection should have Its no mere accident then, argues Lane, mitochondria. We also see evidence from
allowed bacteria to discover them by now. that we all stem from a common ancestor. the mitochondria themselves, which have
Complex life requires colossal amounts of always retained their own bacterial DNA.
energy, and the chemistry that allows our
cells to deliver it could not have happened How would you answer the question
Why have in any other way. He even goes as far as to in the books subtitle, after writing it?
PHOTO: WIDE-EYED ENTERTAINMENT LTD

say that were we to nd life elsewhere in Id say life is the way it is because there
simple bacteria the Universe, it would be fundamentally are energetic constraints on evolution that
similar to our own. have largely been overlooked. For the last
evolved into This readable account of lifes origins 60 years weve thought about evolution
complex life just is unlikely to be the last word on this
controversial subject, but it will intrigue
in terms of DNA only but that doesnt
predict why life has the peculiar history
once in nearly the scientically curious and challenge the that it does. If we bring the requirement
biochemically literate. for energy into evolution, we begin to see
four billion years? that life has taken its peculiar path for a
fundamental reason. This should apply to
MARK PAGEL is a professor at Reading University life elsewhere in the Universe, too.
and author of Wired For Culture

94 Vol. 7 Issue 8
The Wandering Mind Shrinks Fat Planet
What The Brain Doe The Untold Story Of Psychiatry The Obesity Trap And How We
Michael Corballis Jeffrey Lieberman Can Escape It
University of Chicago Press Weidenfeld & Nicolson Dr David Lewis and Dr Margaret Leitch
We spend at least half our lives off-task, In recent years, psychiatry has been Random House
our minds wandering into distant, under siege. In this book, former Fat Planet is a review of the science of
imaginary worlds.Were taught from a President of the American Psychiatric obesity and a look at the challenges
young age that this is a bad habit, that we Association Jeffery Lieberman admits people face when trying to losing weight.
must pay more attention. But Corballis that psychiatrys past is strewn with As the authors point out, the causes of
argues mind wandering isnt just dubious treatments like lobotomies, obesity are complex; we need solutions
important for creativity its an essential insulin coma and morphine therapies. that go beyond eat less, move more.
part of what makes humans unique. But he argues that the discipline We are born fat human babies have
Corballis uses the topic of the has cast off its unscientic past and nearly seven times as much fat beneath
wandering mind to explore hallucinations, matured into a scientic medicine the skin as elephant seals and get
memory, dreams, creativity and more. of the brain. ECT machines and fatter.Why? Primarily, it seems, because
Aptly enough, his prose style has an psychiatric medicines effectively we have big brains, and to fuel those
unfettered quality a constant stream of target discrete brain diseases; short- brains we need large energy stores.The
facts, observations and asides. He is term therapies reprogram cognitive ability to lay down lots of fat was a great
especially fascinating on the question of networks, while MRI scans record the advantage to our ancestors, but for us it
why we dream (perhaps its to simulate real causes of mental distress. can have unfortunate consequences.
real-life threats?) and on the drugs and The trouble is, this untold story is one Genes and the wrong gut bacteria
other situations, such as sensory we have heard many times. Lieberman can contribute to the problem, but it is
deprivation, that induce hallucinations. talks up the role of neuroscience in impulse control that the authors identify
Anyone who has studied psychology helping patients and oversells advances in as one of the key things to focus on.
will nd much that is familiar here, but treating mental disorders, while ignoring They point to research which shows that
there was certainly enough that was inconvenient truths such as the problem by improving sleep and exercise habits
new to stop my own mind from of over-prescription, the destructive and minimising stress, we can develop
drifting off. My favourite section is effects of taking psychiatric medications better self-control. But as they ruefully
Corballis demolition of the myth that long-term, or psychiatrys compromising acknowledge, bolster your cognitive
right-brained people are more creative. nancial ties to Big Pharma. His resources is not a great slogan.
We should relinquish our obsession selective, one-sided account should be Broadly, their solutions are centred
with brain duality, and let the whole read more as a PR exercise than as a on ways to reduce temptation at either
brain get on with it, he writes. serious evidence-based contribution to state or individual level though I found
Amen to that. the debate. some more convincing than others.

DR CHRISTIAN JARRETT is author of the Rough JAMES DAVIES is a reader in psychotherapy at the MICHAEL MOSLEY is a science writer, doctor and
Guide To Psychology University of Roehampton, London BBC science presenteris

We know more about the cosmos above our information about the first seismoscope and
heads than about whats beneath our feet. The so-called deep diamonds, he travels from the
closest weve come to Earths core is when three crust to the core, explaining everything from
men dived 10km to the bottom of the Mariana continental drift to the dynamo theory.
Trench. While volcanic lava holds mineralogical The book slightly lacks structure, and
clues, and seismographs and neutrinos reveal the chapter on underworld theories through
strata secrets, great unknowns remain about what the ages doesnt sit easily with the rest. But
Journey To The C
Centre lies beneath. What is the mantle made of? How overall, Whitehouse does a good job of
does the core generate Earths magnetic field? explaining how our planets internal organs
Of The Earth How deep can life survive? mould its continents.
The Remarkable Voyage Of Author and broadcaster David Whitehouse
Scientic Discovery Into The delves into these questions using Jules Vernes
Heart Of Our World Journey To The Centre Of The Earth as a JHENI OSMAN is a science author whose books
Dr David Whitehouse background narrative. Serving up intriguing include The Worlds Great Wonders
Weidenfeld & Nicolson

Vol. 7 Issue 8 95
SCIENCE

Killer robots in
Terminator
Genisys
He said heb be back and he only went and did it. Fresh
from his work placement as Governator of California,
this movie sees an ageing Arnold Schwarzenegger
return to his rightful role as the Terminator in the
franchises fifth instalment. In Terminator Genisys,
its humans against machines. There are melty metal
men, robots with guns, and accents so thick they
make Cheryl Fernandez-Versini sound like Mary
Poppins. You know the score. Yada yada yada.
In contrast to Arnie, killer robots of the future are
unlikely to look like a pair of tights stuffed with
walnuts. Instead, theyll come in the form of
unmanned aerial vehicles. Driven by computer
algorithms and armed with sophisticated tech, the
drones would detect, select and kill targets without
our involvement. Its a chilling thought. And if you
think the technology is too far off to worry about,

Lets hope legislation

gets here in time to and killing in a way that is morally repugnant,
says Nash. This is about human life and
avert Terminator 6: dignity. Machines will never understand that. We
need legal protection in place that says this is something that
Geriatric Day humanity as a whole doesnt want. With this in mind, the United
Nations recently held its second meeting on the subject, where
representatives of the worlds major military powers tried to thrash
think again. The Israelis already have autonomous radar-destroying out what constitutes meaningful human control the level of
drones, while the South Koreans use machine gun-wielding robots involvement that is needed to kill someone on the battlefield or in
ILLUSTRATOR: ALEXANDER WELLS

to defend their border with the North. Automatic target law enforcement. There are many instances where weapons such as
recognition, where computers determine the target but humans landmines and cluster bombs have been banned at the international
pull the trigger, is already under development. Next generation level, and discussions like this are a necessary first step towards
drones like BAE Systems Taranis or Northrop Grummans X-47B international legislation. But with the best will in the world, any
could find themselves hosting this tech. Were already blurring the treaty or formal ban is at least a year or two away. Lets hope the
lines between human- and machine-controlled decisions about legislation covers Hollywood and that it gets here in time to avert
attack, says Thomas Nash, Director of Article 36, a UK-based Terminator 6: Geriatric Day.
organisation campaigning to ban devices of this nature.
But the final step, removing all human involvement, is a line that
should never be crossed. It would de-humanise violence, conflict HELEN PILCHER is a science writer and comedian. She tweets from @Helenpilcher1

96 Vol. 7 Issue 8
Time Out
Crossword No.179
ACROSS
9 Health centre is initially round, sloping the same way (9)
10 Tempest not affecting Parliament buildings (8)
12 First man to encounter a barrier (4)
13 Hide display unit (6)
14 Article on beam gets pressure treatment (7)
15 Man United redesigned outer coverings (9)
17 Consider gold telescope (9)
18 Mother left song as a complaint (7)
20 Quiet and shy about one old form of exercise (6)
21 Growth of doctor on ship (4)
24 Longed to have a small drink, having flippers (8)
26 Mention about Roy breaking large mineral (8)
28 Hard-worker outside city of stone (4)
29 Fish, having no current at the surface (6)
31 Somewhat surrounded by fat cord (7)
34 Choose staff at eastern terminal (9)
36 Monotonous sound follows fire at plant (9)
38 Generous politician (7)
39 Wild dogs alternatively, a pointer (6)
40 Hand over new hostage (4)
41 New coins, say, causing skin discolouration (8)
42 Folds in hepatic development (9)

DOWN
1 One hesitation, following giant element (8)
2 Pool around the French territory (6)
3 A don can work with a snake (8)
4 Part of the eye clears differently (6)
5 No coordination when variable neutron turns grey (8)
6 Imaginary creature has time to wave hairy foot (5,5)
7 A couple of Frenchmen using tree gauge (7)
8 Child at home with fellow worker (6)
11 Conifer gives fancy ending to reporters (7)
16 River is in state of the sea (6)
19 Theyre not clerics and are upsetting Italy (5)
20 Cushion at home (3)
22
23
Only its a terribly old port (5)
Surface temperature on Mars, say (6) SOLUTION TO
25
26
Expert to use lamps to see contents of cell (10)
Copper gives daughter second-hand food (3) CROSSWORD
27
30
Heart all broken by cockatoo (7)
Honest actors are mine (8) 176
31 Girl has rods fixing spinal curvature (8)
32 Deterioration of soldiers in a diet experiment (8)
33 Directions have entry about volatile liquid (7)
35 Worried more by early development (6)
36 Father right to fetch plaster (6)
37 Scripture lessons have a lot about bridge (6)

Vol. 7 Issue 8 97
The Last Word
Habitable planets may turn up in surprising places
he study of planets orbiting distant stars is
T revolutionising our understanding of the
Universe. This year is the 10th anniversary
Could aliens be living on
the moons of exoplanets?

of the first discovery of a super-Earth, orbiting a star

called Gliese 876. The planets mass is larger than the
Earths, but smaller than that of Neptune or Uranus.
Such worlds and the other exoplanets present new
opportunities to find life.
It used to be thought that a liveable world had to
orbit in the habitable zone (HZ) of a Sun-like star,
at a distance that would allow liquid water to gather
on the planets surface. This seems plausible if you
look at the Solar System. Venus is an inferno just
inside the HZ. Mars, just outside, is frozen, while
Earth seems just right.
But a rule-breaker, whose plausibility has been
recently confirmed by astrobiologist Rory Barnes
of the University of Washington, was shown in
the movie Avatar. Pandora is a moon of the gas
giant Polyphemus, which orbits a star of the Alpha
Centauri system just outside the traditional HZ. But
Pandora is kept warm by complex effects that include
tidal heating from its parent world.
Even in our own Solar System we have found
liquid water far from the HZ. Jupiters moon Europa
has a crust of ice; beneath this lies an ocean, which
is kept liquid by tidal effects. There may be as many
as six of these roof worlds among the outer planets
moons. Future space probes will determine whether
these dark and briny seas are capable of hosting life.
On the other hand, the exoplanets show
us that having liquid
water is no guarantee Since 70 per cent of and can be affected by life itself. The film Jurassic World, out in
of habitability. The June, shows us creatures from an age when Earth was warmer
super-Earth GJ 1214b, stars are red dwarfs, and more oxygen-rich an ideal environment for huge land
42 light-years from this model multiplies animals. More dramatically, Earth was once perfectly habitable for
the Sun, may have anaerobic (oxygen-hating) bacteria. The evolution of photosynthetic
an ocean thousands the potential number bacteria, which released oxygen into the atmosphere, changed all
of kilometres deep.
The ocean floor is
of habitable worlds that. According to James Lovelocks Gaia model, over the five
billion years since its formation, the Sun has gradually increased its
comprised of an exotic in the Galaxy power output. Its HZ has therefore shifted across space, from well
kind of ice, which within Earths orbit to its current position. And yet Earths surface
is made solid by high pressure rather than cold. Its not clear if life temperature has remained stable, thanks to the action of immense
could evolve cut off from the minerals of the worlds rocky core. flows of mass and energy which act like natural thermostats. Life is
Meanwhile, we no longer even think the parent star has to be intimately involved in these systems in other words, life itself may
ILLUSTRATOR: ANDY POTTS

like our Sun. Red dwarf stars like Proxima Centauri (as featured in maintain habitability.
my novel Proxima) are small and dim. A habitable planet would So the definition of a habitable world is more tricky than it first
have to huddle so close that it would be tidally locked, like the appears. But the Universe as a whole looks a lot more hospitable to
Moon is to Earth, with a single face perpetually presented to the life than it did mere decades ago.
star. But since 70 per cent of stars are red dwarfs, this model
multiplies the potential number of habitable worlds in the Galaxy
many times over. STEPHEN BAXTER is a science ction author who has written over 40 books.
The habitability of a given world can also change with time, His latest is Ultima, published by Orion

98 Vol. 7 Issue 8
 The Mekong River with Sue Perkins
Premieres 21st August
Fridays at 8.00pm (JKT/BKK),9.00pm
00pm ((SIN/HK/MAL/TWN)
SIN/HK/MAL/TWN)
In this fascinating series, Sue Perkins travels down the Mekong, South East Asias largest river. From the high
peaks of the Himalayas, to the canyons of Chinese Yunnan, and Vietnams vast Mekong Delta, she uncovers
a region of hard-hitting social issues as well as some of Earths most incredible natural phenomena.

BBC Knowledge is available in Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mongolia,

Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam. Please call your
cable operator for more details or check out our website. www.bbc-asia.com BBC Knowledge Asia @BBCKnow_Asia
Enjoy a potpourri of unique cultural and historical experiences in the country
that offers a fascinating blend of traditional and contemporary flavours.

Cultural tours, historical sites, medical and aesthetics tours, 24-hour shopping,
amazing food, the K-pop phenomenon, and so many more await you!

Korea Tourism Organization and Korea MICE Bureau take pride in establishing Korea as the premier destination for MICE visitor.
For more information and assistance in holding your events in Korea, please contact KTO (Singapore office) at +65-6533 0441 or email: [email protected]