CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Manufacturers around the world constantly strive for lower cost solutions in order
to maintain their competitiveness on machined components and manufactured
goods. Globally, part quality has been found to be at acceptable levels and it
continues to improve, while the pressure for product cost is enormous and is
constantly being influenced downward by competition and buyer strategies. The
trend is toward higher quality, lower cost and smaller batch sizes. In order to
compete against producing countries with low wage structures, it is necessary to
seek out appropriate new technological solutions that can help to level the
bussiness playing field.

The origin of metal cutting can be traced to the middle ages. It was not until the
middle of the 18th century, that the major developments in metal cutting were
found. The introduction of the steam engine led to the advent of the first industrial
revolution. This resulted in the establishment of the machine tool industry which
generated cutting machines for making cylinders and flat surfaces, threads,
grooves, slots and holes. The turning lathe, milling machine, shaper, saw and other
machines were developed to fulfill industrys need for mass production at low cost
and high accuracy (Trent and Wright, 2000).

Today metal cutting has become a very large segment of the industry and
indispensable to modern man. Wherever metal is used in any man-made objects,
one can be sure that it must have reached its final stage through processing with
machine tools. In terms of annual expenditure, machining is the most important of
the manufacturing processes.

1.2 Manufacturing Processes

The word manufacturing is derived from Latin, manus = hand, factus = made
manufacturing is the economic term for making goods and services available to
satisfy human wants. Manufacturing implies creating value to a raw material by

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applying useful mental and physical labour. Whether from nature or industry,
materials cannot be used in their raw forms for any useful purpose. The materials
are then shaped and formed into different useful components through different
manufacturing processes shown in Figure 1.1 to fulfill the needs of day-to-day
work. Manufacturing converts the raw materials to finished products to be used for
some purpose. Manufacturing process is a very fundamental subject since it is of
interest not only to mechanical engineers but also to engineers from other
discipline of engineering. There are various manufacturing processes by which a
product can be made. Each process however has its own limitation and restriction
and due to this reason a particular process is adopted to certain specific
applications. Thus while a product can be manufactured by two or more processes,
the real problem is to select the most economical out of them. A detailed
understanding of various manufacturing processes is thus very essential for every
engineer. This helps in designing the proper product required for him. He would be
able to assess the feasibility of manufacturing from his designs. He may find that
there are more than one process is available for manufacturing a particular product
and he can make a proper choice of the process which would require lowest
manufacturing cost.

Manufacturing
processes

Casting Forming Joining Machining

Figure 1.1 Types of manufacturing processes

1.3 Machining

Machining is the process in which a tool removes material from the surface of a
less resistant body, through relative movement and application of force. The
material removed, called chip, slides on the face of tool, known as tool rake face,
submitting it to high normal and shear stresses and, moreover, to a high coefficient
of friction during chip formation (Ackroyd et al., 2001). In other words machining
is the broad term used to describe the removal of material from a workpiece and is

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one of the most important manufacturing processes. Parts manufactured by other
processes often require further operations before the product is ready for
application. Machining operations can be applied to work metallic and non-
metallic materials such as polymers, wood, ceramics, composites and exotic
materials. Merchant (1945) has described that in the industrialized countries, the
cost of machining amounts to more than 15% of the value of all manufactured
products in those countries. For this reason and others, machining as part of
manufacturing science and technology is very important for modern manufacturing
industries. Machining can be defined as the process of removing material from a
workpiece in the form of chips. The term metal cutting is used when the material is
metallic. Most machining processes have very low set-up cost compared to
forming, molding and casting processes. However, machining is much more
expensive for high volumes. Machining is necessary where tight tolerances on
dimensions and finishes are required.

A closer observation of the metal cutting tool in operation reveals that chip is
thicker than the actual depth of layer removed and the chip correspondingly
shortened which means plastic deformation takes place and thus cutting involves
shearing mechanism. A plane separates the deformed and undeformed regions, that
is, separating the work material from the chip. The material above this plane is
deformed by concentrated shearing process. This plane is known as shear plane
and makes an angle called shear angle with the direction of cut. Flow lines on back
and side of chip indicate that cutting involves shearing mechanism.

Metal cutting involves concentrated shear along a rather distinct shear plane. The
region around the shear plane is called the primary shear zone. As metal
approaches the shear plane, it does not deform until shear plane is reached, it then
undergoes substantial amount of simple shear as it crosses a thin shear primary
zone, and there is essentially no further plastic flow as chip proceed up the face of
the tool. The chip is in intimate contact with tool rake face and is subjected to a
substantial amount of shear stress sufficient to cause secondary subsurface to shear
stress. The friction between the chip and the tool plays an important role in the
cutting process, when tool face friction is decreased there is a corresponding

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increase in shear angle and an accompanying decrease in thickness of chip. The
plastic strain in chip decreases as shear angle increases.

Metals are shaped into usable forms through various processes. The processes in
which no chip formation takes place and the metal is shaped under the action of
heat, pressure or both are called metal shaping processes. The processes in which
the components are brought to the desired shape and size by removing the
unwanted materials from the parent metal in the form of chips through machining
are called Metal Cutting Processes.

Metal cutting is one of the important and widely used manufacturing processes in
engineering industries. The study of metal cutting focuses, among others, on the
features of tools, input work materials, and machine parameter settings influencing
process efficiency and output quality characteristics.

Metal cutting is a forming process taking place in cutting system components that
are so arranged that, by their means, the applied external energy causes the
purposeful fracture of the layer being removed. Machining, however, occupies a
prominent place in engineering industries as it enjoys one supreme advantage over
the other processes i.e. machining is a versatile process. Nearly 70 to 80% parts are
machined before they are put into the use (Trent and Wright, 2000). In the recent
years the manufacturing environment has undergone a dramatic change. Owing to
the market pressure, the current trend of manufacturing is to adopt modern
technology in developing newer manufacturing methods and processes with the
ultimate objective of cost reduction. The cost of machining is dependent on the rate
of material removal, and may be reduced by optimizing the cutting parameters
such as cutting speed, feed and depth of cut. However, there are limits to the
cutting parameters above which excessive cutting forces and tool tip temperature
may lead to tool life reduction. Moreover, surface integrity is also considerably
influenced by cutting parameters.

1.4 Surface Integrity

The term surface integrity was coined in 1964 and has since received growing
attention in manufacturing circles around the world. Surface integrity is defined as
the inherent or enhanced condition of a surface produced in a machining or other

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surface generating operation (Field and Kahles, 1971) and is quantified by the
mechanical, metallurgical, chemical and topological state of the surface. These
states are measured by hardness variation, residual stress, surface roughness,
structural changes corrosion resistance etc. (Jang et al., 1995). Surface integrity is
the topographical, mechanical, chemical and metallurgical worth of a
manufactured surface and its relationship to functional performance (Griffiths,
2001). Good service performance will appear when surface integrity is high. Thus
the control of surface integrity is of considerable significance in manufacturing
processes. Therefore, the process effects on significant engineering properties of
work materials have to be carefully analyzed.

Material removal processes introduce structural changes to the surface of a

workpiece. This surface modification occurs because of rapid thermal working
resulting in metallurgical transformation and with possible chemical interactions.
The worked surface can exhibit a vastly different structure compared to that of the
bulk of the material. This type of problem has attracted substantial effort in the
field of so-called surface integrity, a term including all aspects of; surface finish,
white layers, metallurgical change and residual stresses (Chou and Evans, 1999).

Surface roughness, residual stresses, and white layers as parts of surface integrity,
are functions of the machining parameters and of the machinability of the cutting
edge, i.e. of the tool wear as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Machining and cutting parameters effect on Surface Integrity

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1.4.1 Surface roughness

In machining of parts, surface quality is one of the most specified customer

requirements. Major indication of surface quality on machined parts is surface
roughness. The surface quality is an important parameter to evaluate the
productivity of machine tools as well as machined components. Hence, achieving
the desired surface quality is of great importance for the functional behavior of the
mechanical parts (Benardos and Vosniakos, 2003).

Surface properties such as roughness are critical to the functionality of machined

components. Increased understanding of surface generation mechanisms can be
used to optimize machining processes and to improve component functionality. As
a result, numerous investigations have been conducted to determine the effect of
parameters such as feed rate, tool nose radius, cutting speed and depth of cut on
surface roughness in turning operations (Mittal and Mehta, 1988, Basu et al., 1993,
Miller et al., 1995 and Grzesik, 1996).

Surface roughness is used as the critical quality indicator for the machined
surfaces and has influence on several properties such as wear resistance, fatigue
strength, coefficient of friction, lubrication, wear rate and corrosion resistance of
the machined parts (Feng and Wang, 2002). Surface roughness is the most
frequently investigated characteristic of hard machining processes, mainly due to
the continuous competition between hard turning and grinding, and appropriate
data has been compiled by many researchers (Tonshoff et al., 2000; Klocke et al.,
2005). These data deal with different grades of hardened steels (alloy, bearing,
tool, hot-work and cold-work steels) mostly used in the automotive and die/mould
industries.

In todays manufacturing industry, special attention is given to dimensional

accuracy and surface finish. Thus, measuring and characterizing the surface finish
can be considered as the predictor of the machining performance (Reddy and Rao,
2005).

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1.4.2 Residual Stresses

After machining processes, the work piece material is released of the thermo
mechanical load on top of it due to the machining, but not all of the energy can be
retrieved. Some of it is spent to plastic deformation, which causes the material to
exhibit some stresses, especially at its free ends: the surface. These stresses that
remain in the material after the loading is removed are called residual stresses (Guo
et al., 2009). These residual stresses present potential risk in terms of crack
initiation, propagation and fatigue failure of end products, and it is necessary to
remove tensile surface residual stresses or prevent them from occurring during
machining processes.

Residual stresses are induced in the material of structures in almost all

manufacturing processes, as machining, grinding, forming, casting, welding, shot
peening, etc. Knowledge of residual stresses (sign, value, and orientation, gradient)
is important from many reasons, as for determination or prediction of fatigue life
or of limit state of structure. In most cases and due to nature of the methods of
setting up residual stresses, it is difficult to determine such stress analytically.
Therefore experimental methods are very important for determination of residual
stresses up to present day.

There are many researchers working on the methods of prediction and prevention
of residual stresses. There are several reports from research works describing the
effects on the residual stress and the improvement of the fatigue life of hard turned
products. It is easier to control the surface integrity of a product by using hard
turning instead of grinding. The generation of residual stresses in hard machining
has been investigated by many researchers (Field et al., 1971; Brinksmeier et al.,
1982; Mittal and Liu, 1998; Jacobson, 2002). Especially important is the research
showing that fatigue life is improved by inducing compressive residual stresses
into the surface region (Matsumoto et al., 1999). Thiele and Melkote (1999) have
shown that cutting edge geometry have a direct impact on the stress levels
generated in finish hard turning. The residual stresses are hard to measure, and it is
also hard to model this phenomenon, which create diversity in the results found in
the literature. Many researchers claim that surface residual stresses are tensile
(Chevrier et al., 2003; Arunachalam et al., 2004; Axinte et al., 2006; Sharman et

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al., 2006; Ulutan et al.; 2007; Zel et al., 2007), while some claim these are
compressive (Mantle and Aspinwall, 2001; Hua et al., 2005; Hua et al., 2006).
These different results can be due to different workpiece materials and cutting
conditions used as well as the differences in tool parameters.

The selection of process parameters in turning is usually performed without

considering the residual stress problem, although it is well known that if tensile
residual stresses are left in the surface layer of a turned component, several
functional aspects can be deeply compromised (Brinksmeier et al., 1982, Sigwart
et al., 1995; Leis, 1996; Zahavi and Turbilo, 1996). The level of residual stresses
left by machining depends on the process parameters adopted and on the
mechanical characteristics of the material that undergoes machining.

1.4.2.1 Factors that cause residual stresses

Residual stresses can be present in any mechanical structure because of many

causes. Residual stresses may be due to the technological process used to make the
component. Manufacturing processes are the most common causes of residual
stress. Virtually all manufacturing and fabricating processes such as casting,
welding, machining, molding, heat treatment, plastic deformation during bending,
rolling or forging introduce residual stresses into the manufactured object. Residual
stress could be caused by localized yielding of the material, because of a sharp
notch or from certain surface treatments like shot peening or surface hardening.
Among the factors that are known to cause residual stresses are the developments
of deformation gradients in various sections of the piece by the development of
thermal gradients, volumetric changes arising during solidification or from solid
state transformations, and from differences in the coefficient of thermal expansion
in pieces made from different materials.

Several researchers investigated relationships between the machining parameters

and the developed subsurface residual stresses. They found that the residual stress
profiles produced in hard turning is strongly influenced by the cutting edge
geometry, the properties of workpiece material (such as hardness) and the cutting
conditions (Liu et al., 2004; Ramesh et al., 2005). Especially important is the

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research showing that fatigue life is improved by inducing compressive residual
stresses into the surface region (Matsumoto et al., 1999). Thiele and Melkote
(1999) have shown that cutting edge geometry have a direct impact on the stress
levels generated in finish hard turning. Thiele and Melkote test covered mainly
different edge hones on the inserts and they concluded that increased edge hone
radius on the insert generated higher cutting forces. A higher passive force
tangential to the surface generates higher compressive residual stresses. When
using a large hone radius together with low feeds and depths, solely the radius cuts
the material. An effective rake angle can therefore be fitted. Tests on insert with
different rake angles were not performed. In tests performed by Capello et al.
(1999), the influence of feed rate and nose radius was reported to have an impact
on residual stresses at the surface. However, this was not tested below the surface.

1.4.2.2 Role of Residual stresses

Residual stresses have the same role in a structures strength as common

mechanical stresses. However, while stress due to external loads can be calculated
with a degree of accuracy, residual stresses are difficult to foresee. It is, therefore,
very important to have a reliable method able to measure them directly with
minimum damage to the surface. Residual stresses can play a significant role in
explaining or preventing failure of a component at times. It has been shown that
residual stresses may be compressive at the surface and tensile just below the
surface or vice versa (Noyan and Cohen, 1981; Liu et al., 1982; Mittal and Liu,
1998). Residual stresses can have a wide variety of profiles depending on the
manufacturing procedure. The magnitude and sign of the residual stress will have a
significant effect on functional performance. Residual stress may be tensile or
compressive and the stressed layer may be shallow or deep, depending upon the
cutting conditions, work material, and tool geometry. A common idea is to prefer
compressive residual stresses in the external layer because they tend to close
surface cracks.

Compressive residual stresses are generally improve component performance and

life because they reduce service (working) tensile stresses and inhibit crack
nucleation. On the other hand, tensile residual stresses can significantly increase

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service (working) stresses which can lead to premature failure of components (El-
khabeery and Fattouh, 1989; Lin et al., 1991; Kuang-Hua and Chih-Fu, 1995; EI-
Axir et al., 1999; Thiele and Melkote, 2000). The residual stresses are measured by
X-ray diffraction methods, Ultrasonic methods, Magnetic methods, Electronic
Speckle Pattern Interferometry, Hole drilling and strain gage technique, Core Hole
drilling and strain gage technique.

1.4.3 White Layers

The term white layer originated from the fact that the surfaces appear white under
an optical microscope or featureless in a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
Thus, in hard turning, the term white layer is used as a generic phrase referring to
very hard surface layers formed in ferrous materials under a variety of conditions,
which appear white under the microscope (Grifiths, 1987). Although the term
white layer has become the customary way of referring to such layers, other
terms such as white etching layer, non-etching layers, white phase, phase
transformed materials are also used.

White layers formed during machining have negative effects on surface finish and
fatigue strength of products. The white layer is generally a hard phase and leads to
the surface becoming brittle causing crack permeation and product failure. Surface
integrity studies for hard turning reveal the existence of white layers and suggest
that martensitic white layer formation is primarily caused by thermal effects, white
layer formation as a dimension of surface integrity was first discovered on the
surfaces of used steel wire rope by Stead as early as 1912 (Griffiths, 1985). He
described a white layer as a hard surface layer formed in a variety of ferrous
materials under a variety of conditions and this layer resists etching compared to
the bulk material (Griffiths, 1985; Griffiths, 1987). This surface layer was found to
be of high hardness compared to the bulk and featureless when observed under a
low power microscope. The high hardness white layer is brittle and often possesses
a tensile compressive stress which influences engineering properties such as
fatigue life, stress corrosion and wear resistance. In general, there are three cases
where white layers can be formed i.e., materials in engineering service, laboratory
pin on disk wear experiments and material removal processes (Griffiths, 1985).

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Most of the research has concluded that the hard turning process results in a thin
rehardened surface layer of material that may be followed by an overtempered
region just beneath the white layer. Due to the microstructural changes to the
material, the rehardened layer appears white in an optical micrograph after
chemical etching, while the tempered region appears darkthus the terms white
etching areas and dark etching areas (Brinksmeier and Brockhoff, 1999). While
most research has shown the existence of white layers on hard turned surfaces, the
cause, magnitude, and effect are still not well understood. Most research has shown
that the white layers are typically associated with residual tensile stress at the
surface, while others have produced white layer surfaces with residual compressive
stresses (Thiele, 1998). Obviously, the residual stress on a surface will affect the
performance of a workpiece in service. However, there are differing results, for
example, on the fatigue lives of hard turned surfaces compared to ground surfaces
(Abrao and Aspinwall, 1996). There are also differing thoughts on the effect of
cutting coolant on the generation of white layer. Because white layer is thought to
occur as the result of a phase transformation on the surface (very similar to the
bulk heat treatment of steels), it would be expected that cutting coolant could help
to eliminate thermal damage by keeping the workpiece surface cool. There are
reports of cutting coolant eliminating white layer (Koenig et al., 1993), but other
studies have shown that coolant has no effect (Tonshoff et al., 1995). Tool
condition is also believed to be an important factor, with new tools producing
undamaged surfaces, while white layer increases with increasing tool wear. The
cause of this increase is not clearly defined, but may be the result of increased heat
generated by friction between the tool and workpiece as the flank land increases, or
possibly as a result of increased plastic deformation associated with the increased
friction.

1.5 Tool Wear

Tool wear has been one of the most studied subjects in metal cutting, Wear
minimization has been pursued by different means, beginning with tool steels and
heat treatments, going later to new tool materials and, more recently, to coatings.
(Taylor, 1907) Tool wear and breakage has been an issue with cutting tools since

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they were created. Tool wear weakens the cutting tool, increases the forces used in
cutting and causes a lack of consistency in material removal. Parts and time lost to
scrap and rework from tool wear are costly to manufacturing companies.

To remain in business manufacturing companies have to machine the components

at required quality with minimum possible cost and hence the life of cutting tool
becomes utmost important aspect for manufacturing engineers and researcher.
There are numbers of reasons for tool failure. The unavoidable reason is gradual
wear which is the result of interaction between work and tool (Bhattacharyya,
1984).

The change of shape of the tool from its original shape during cutting, resulting the
gradual loss of process. They are in metal-to-metal contact between the chip and
workpiece, under conditions of very high stress at high temperature. The situation
is further worsened due to the existence of extreme stress and temperature
gradients near the surface of the tool. During machining, cutting tools remove
material from the component to achieve the required shape, dimension and surface
roughness (finish). However, wear occurs during the cutting action, and it will
ultimately result in the failure of the cutting tool. When the tool wear reaches a
certain extent, the tool or active edge has to be replaced to guarantee the desired
cutting action. The control of the tool wear and its effect on the machined surfaces
physical properties represent a major technical challenge.

The important types of tool wear are flank wear, nose wear, crater wear and notch
wear as shown in Figure 1.3. Most of studies on Tool condition monitoring (TCM)
in the past have been focused on flank wear and crater wear as shown in Figure 1.4
and Figure 1.5. This can be due to the recommendation of ISO 3685 (1993)
standard that introduced the flank wear and crater wear as the criteria of tool life
(Bothroyd et al., 1989 and ISO Standard 3685:1993).

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1.5.1 Crater Wear

The chip flows across the rake face, resulting in severe friction between the chip
and rake face, and leaves a scar on the rake face which usually parallels to the
major cutting edge. The crater wear can increase the working rake angle and
reduce the cutting force, but it will also weaken the strength of the cutting edge.
The parameters used to measure the crater wear can be seen in Figure 1.6. The
crater depth KT is the most commonly used parameter in evaluating the rake face
wear.

Figure 1.4 Typical wear types in CBN

Figure 1.3 Tool Wear phenomena finish hard turning (Chou and Evans,
1997 ; Chou, 2003)

Figure 1.5 Description of geometrical

Figure 1.6 Effects of cutting speed V and
indicators of tool wear (ISO Standard
cutting time T on crater wear depth KT
3685:1993and Bothroyd et al.,1989)

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1.5.2 Flank Wear (Clearance Surface)

Wear on the flank (relief) face is called Flank wear and results in the formation of
a wear land. Wear land formation is not always uniform along the major and minor
cutting edges of the tool. Flank wear most commonly results from abrasive wear of
the cutting edge against the machined surface. Flank wear can be monitored in
production by examining the tool or by tracking the change in size of the tool or
machined part. Flank wear can be measured by using the average and maximum
wear land size VB and VBmax. The Effects of cutting speed V and cutting time T
on flank wear are as shown in Figure 1.7. Tool flank wear length is generally
regarded as the tool life criterion or an important index to evaluate tool
performance in hard turning (Takatsu et al., 1983, Abrao et al., 1995)

Figure 1.7 Effects of cutting speed V Figure 1.8 The typical stages of tool wear
and cutting time T on flank wear in normal cutting situation

1.5.3 Stages of Tool wear

The different stages of tool wear in normal cutting conditions are initial wear,
steady wear and severe wear as shown in Figure 1.8. Initial Wear Region is caused
by micro-cracking, surface oxidation and carbon loss layer, as well as micro-
roughness at the cutting tool tip in tool grinding (manufacturing). For the new
cutting edge, the small contact area and high contact pressure will result in high
wear rate. Steady Wear Region: After the initial (or preliminary) wear (cutting
edge rounding), the micro-roughness is improved, in this region the wear size is
proportional to the cutting time. The wear rate is relatively constant. Severe (or

14
Ultimate or catastrophic) wear is the one, when the wear size increases to a critical
value, the surface roughness of the machined surface decreases, cutting force and
temperature increase rapidly, and the wear rate increases. Then the tool loses its
cutting ability. In practice, this region of wear should be avoided. Flank wear and
chipping increases the friction and the total cutting force increases. The component
surface roughness increases, especially when chipping occurs. Flank wear also
affects the component dimensional accuracy. When form tools are used, flank wear
changes the shape of the component produced.

1.5.4 Factors affecting the tool life

Tool life is dependent upon a number of factors but the most prominent are tool
material composition, cutting conditions and tool geometry. Tool materials
composition characteristics affecting tool life include binder materials, applied
coating material and coating thickness, while cutting conditions include feed rate,
depth of cut, cutting speed. The tool geometry characteristics affecting tool life
include rake angle for up-sharp tool, chamfer length and angle, rake angle for
chamfered tool, hone radius, rake angle for honed tool, tool nose radius.

1.6 Machining Processes

Machining processes, which are defined as the shaping of a part by the removal of
material, are used to produce metal parts in countless applications. The definition
of machining encompasses three subsets of processes that can be called abrasive
processes, cutting processes, and nontraditional machining processes. Several
processes of each type are listed in Figure 1.8 (Dawson and Kurfess, 2000).

Design engineers continually desire new materials with improved strength,

hardness, thermal characteristics, and wear resistance. However, the same
properties that make these materials desirable also make them difficult to machine.
Examples are hardened steel alloys that provide strength and wear resistance in
automotive/rolling mill applications. Because these materials are often used in
applications where some degree of precision is required, at least one of the
machining processes listed in Figure 1.8 is required after casting or forging to

15
achieve desirable dimensional accuracy and surface finish. For removal of bulk
material and hence enhance productivity, cutting processes are normally used in
industrial practice and turning is one of the most commonly employed cutting
processes.

(Astakhov, 1999) points out that there is a major difference between machining
and other metal forming processes, in that there must be physical separation of the
layer to be removed from the work material, and that the process of separation
forms new surfaces. (Shaw, 1954) in his pioneering studies of machining was the
first to consider whether the energies associated with chip momentum change and
with the formation of new surfaces were likely to be as signi4cant as the
components of total work in cutting associated with chip plastic flow and friction.
He calculated that the inertial item was negligible under normal conditions of
cutting and, using chemical surface free energy values of a few J=m2 for the work
to create new surfaces, concluded that work was negligible too. That view has been
the received wisdom ever since, and subsequent algebraic (as opposed to Finite
Element) analyses of metal cutting have involved plasticity and friction only.

Figure 1.9 Material removal processes

1.7 Turning Process

Turning is one of the most common metal cutting operations performed on the
Lathe machine. In turning, a work piece is rotated about its axis as single-point
cutting tool is fed into it, shearing away-unwanted material and creating the

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desired part. Turning is the primary operation in most of the production processes
in the industry.

Turning is the most widely used among all the cutting processes. The increasing
importance of turning operations is gaining new dimensions in the present
industrial age, in which the growing competition calls for all the efforts to be
directed towards the economical manufacture of machined parts and surface finish
is one of the most critical quality measured in mechanical products. As the
competition grows closer, customer now have increasingly high demands on
quality, making surface roughness one of the most competitive parameters in
todays manufacturing industry. The turning operation produces the components,
which have critical features that require specific surface finish. The operators
working on lathe use their own experience and machining guidelines in order to
achieve the best possible surface finish. Due to inadequate knowledge of the
complexity and factors affecting the surface finish in turning operation, an
improper decision may cause high production costs and low machining quality.
The proper selection of cutting tools and process parameters for achieving high
cutting performance in a turning operation is a critical task (Nian et al., 1999).

1.7.1 Hard Turning

Hard turning is defined as the process of single point cutting of part pieces that
have hardness values over 45 HRC but more typically are in the 58- 68 HRC
range (Huddle, 2001).

In a traditional machining process, after a part is rough machined it is heat treated

and then finished via grinding. Grinding takes about three times the normal
processing time compared to hard turning, and the process is often manual. In
addition, for the hard materials; before rough machining can take place, the part
must be annealed to allow the soft turning of the part. Thus, finish hard turning
eliminates the two complex process steps i.e. annealing prior to rough machining
and hardening after rough machining apart from reducing the processing time of
the part. Work piece surface/subsurface deformation and residual stresses
produced in hard turning affect the fatigue life and tribological properties of the

17
machined component. Even though smaller depths of cut and feed rates are
required for hard turning, the material removal rate can be much higher than in
grinding for some applications (Tonshoff et al., 2000). It has been estimated that
resulting reduction in machining time could be as high as 60% (Tonshoff et al.,
1995). This would facilitate flexible manufacturing systems and reduced batch
sizes, which are becoming more important in industry. Aside from decreases in
machining time, a reduction in the number of required machine tools may also be
observed as a result of the increased flexibility of the turning process as
compared to grinding (Koenig et al., 1984; Tonshoff et al., 1996). A reduction in
the number of machine tools would also be likely to reduce part handling costs
and the cost associated with multiple operators and machine setups. Another cost
and environmental advantage of hard turning is the possible elimination of
cutting coolant.

There are many aspects of distinction between hard turning and grinding. Hard
machining has many advantages than grinding or polishing, such as short cycle
time, process flexibility, better surface finish, higher material removal rate and
less environment problems without the use of cutting fluid (Qian et al., 2006).

The contact length between the grinding wheel and the workpiece is usually
several times greater than that between the tool wear land and the workpiece in
hard turning. Further, the surface grinding speed is much higher than that in hard
turning. Therefore, there is a high chance of thermal damage in grinding. The
contact time and time for heat conduction are much longer in grinding than in
turning, which makes high temperatures penetrate deep into the workpiece,
resulting in a thick ground white layer. The average stress over the entire contact
length in grinding is less than in hard turning. High levels of compressive stress
occur only in the area around individual grain contact. These contact areas are
small in comparison with the tool wear land which occurs in hard turning
(Koenig et al., 1993).

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 Figure 1.10 Hard Turning

Hard turning is having some advantages over conventional turning like short
cycle times, low cost to machine investment, high accuracy if the green part is
accurate, good surface finishing; machining heat mostly dissipated with the chips;
high material removal rate (2-4 times); multiple operations in a single chucking;
good for wet or dry cutting. However, it also has some disadvantages like: fast
tool wear, high stiffness and high speed machine tools, requirement of advanced
machine controller and good tool holder for high speeds (dynamic balance and
chucking) and advanced cutting tool materials. Hard turning operations have
become more and more capable with respect to surface roughness and IT
standards. Additionally, these processes offer a high flexibility, increased
material removal rates and even the possibility of dry machining (Klocke et al.,
2005). Compared with grinding, hard turning is competitive in making a variety
of precision components with substantial potential benefits. However, resistance
to the use of hard turning is very real due to the existence of the white layer,
which is often presumed detrimental to components life. Nevertheless, white
layer properties are not clearly defined or well understood, especially the
properties of the white layer induced in hard turning as opposed to grinding. In
grinding, the multiple edges are randomly scattered on the grinding wheel, and
the effective rake angles vary over a large area, compared to turning when a
single point tool with known wear generates the surface (Koenig et al., 1993).

For successful implementation of hard turning, selection of suitable cutting

parameters for a given cutting tool; workpiece material and machine tool are

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important steps. Study of cutting forces is critically important in turning
operations (Shaw, 1984)

1.8 Cutting Tool and its characteristics

Cutting tool is a device, used to remove the unwanted material from given
workpiece. For carrying out the machining process, cutting tool is fundamental
and essential requirement. A cutting tool must have the following characteristics:

Hardness: The tool material must be harder than the work piece material.
Higher the hardness, easier it is for the tool to penetrate the work material.
Hardness defined as the resistance to indenter penetration. It is directly
correlates with the strength of the cutting tool material (Isakov, 2004). The
ability to maintain high hardness at elevated temperatures is called hot
hardness. Figure 1.10 shows the hardness of typical tool materials as a
function of temperature.

Hot hardness: Hot Hardness is the ability of the cutting tool must to maintain
its Hardness and strength at elevated temperatures. This property is more
important when the tool is used at higher cutting speeds, for increased
productivity.

Toughness: Inspite of the tool being tough, it should have enough toughness
to withstand the impact loads that come in the start of the cut to force
fluctuations due to imperfections in the work material. Toughness of cutting
tools is needed so that tools dont chip or fracture, especially during
interrupted cutting operations like milling.

Wear resistance: The tool-chip and chip-work interface are exposed to

severe conditions that adhesive and abrasion wear is very common. Wear
resistance means the attainment of acceptable tool life before tools need to be
replaced.

Low friction: The coefficient of friction between the tool and chip should be
low. This would lower wear rates and allow better chip flow.

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 Thermal characteristics: Since a lot of heat is generated at the cutting zone,
the tool material should have higher thermal conductivity to dissipate the heat
in shortest possible time; otherwise the tool temperature would become high,
reducing its life.

1.9 Cutting Tool Materials

All cutting operations require tool materials that can withstand the difficult
conditions produced during machining. Many types of tool materials, ranging
from high-carbon steels to ceramics and diamonds etc., are used as cutting tool
materials in todays metalworking industry. It is important to be aware that
differences exist among tool materials, what these differences are and the correct
application for each type of material (Davis, 2005).

There are primarily three problems all cutting tools face: wear at the cutting edge,
heat generated during the cutting process, and thermo mechanical shock.
Characteristics that allow tool materials to stand up to the cutting process include
hardness, toughness, wear resistance, and chemical stability. In general, increased
hardness improves wear resistance but is associated with decreased toughness.
Depending on machining conditions and workpiece properties, different degrees
of hardness or toughness are required (Dawson, 2000). Various cutting tool
material employed/used in industrial practice are described below.

1.9.1 Carbon and Medium alloy steels

These are the oldest of the tool materials dating back hundreds of years. In simple
terms it is a high carbon steel (steel which contains about 0.9 to 1.3% carbon).
Inexpensive, easily shaped, sharpened. No sufficient hardness and wear
resistance. Limited to low cutting speed operation.

1.9.2 High-Speed Steels

The major difference between high speed tool steel and plain high carbon steel is
the addition of alloying elements (manganese, chromium, tungsten, vanadium,

21
molybdenum, cobalt, and niobium) to harden and strengthen the steel and make it
more resistant to heat (hot hardness). They are of two types: Tungsten HSS
(denoted by T), Molybdenum HSS (denoted by M). High-speed steels (HSS) find
extensive use in metal cutting. High-speed steels have the lowest hardness and
highest fracture toughness of general use tools. The primary reason why high-
speed steel tools are not used more extensively is that they soften significantly at
temperatures above 500C, as shown in Figure 1.10. This softening behavior
limits high-speed steels to relatively low cutting speeds on softer materials, and
has put forward the need for carbide and ceramic cutting tools that maintain
hardness at elevated cutting temperatures.

Figure 1.11 Hot hardness of several cutting tool materials (Kalpakjian, 2002)

1.9.3 Carbides

Carbide tools are basically of three types, tungsten carbide (WC), tantalum
carbide (TaC), and titanium carbide (TiC). The carbides or combined carbides are
mixed with a binder of cobalt. They are able to retain hardness to a temperature
of about 1000C. So they can be used at high speeds. Carbide tool are available
as brazed tip tools (carbide tip is brazed to steel tool) and inserts (inserts are of
various shapes- triangular, square diamond and round). To allow machining at
higher cutting speeds (and increased production rates), carbide tools were

22
developed in the 1930s (Kalpakjian, 2002). These tools now consume an
estimated 70% of the machining market. Because the tools are typically pressed
and sintered from ceramic powders (often with a cobalt binder material), they are
sometimes called sintered carbides or cemented carbides. There are two basic
subsets of carbide tools: tungsten carbide (WC) and titanium carbide (TiC), WC
tools being the most prevalent. The steps involved in processing a ceramic-coated
carbide tool are shown in Figure 1.11.

Pure WC is very hard, and at the same time also brittle. To improve toughness,
WC powder is mixed with 5-15% cobalt (weight percentage). Hardness and wear
resistance can be improved by reducing the grain size of the WC particles, which
are typically in the range of 0.5-5 m. An optimal grain size and cobalt
percentage must be determined to allow the hardness and toughness required for
a particular cutting operation. Even at relatively low cutting speeds around 45
m/min, WC-Co tools form significant craters behind the cutting edge because
cutting temperatures can exceed 1000C and steel workpiece materials can
absorb WC in solid solution.

Figure 1.12 Processing cemented WC cutting tools (DeGarmo et al., 1988)

To reduce cratering, 5-25% of titanium carbide (TiC) can be added to WC-Co

tools. TiC has a very low solubility in iron, and thus acts as a barrier to cratering
by the diffusion of WC. TiC being harder than WC, its addition improves the
abrasive wear resistance in addition to improving the chemical stability.

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1.9.4 Cermets

Cermets are ceramic material in metal binders. TiC, nickel, TiN, and other
carbides are used as binders. Cermets have higher hot hardness and oxidation
resistance than cemented carbides but less toughness. They are used for finishing
operation. The main problem with cermets is that due to thermal shock the inserts
crack.Cermets are carbonitride-based tools, with TiCN particles contributing
hardness and Co providing a softer binder material. Some manufacturers may
also include carbides such as Mo2C, WC, and TaC to alter properties. These tools
are less susceptible to diffusion in steels and more wear resistance, thus are
capable of machining at higher cutting speeds. However, they are more costly
than carbide tools coated with ceramic layers, which have similar machining
ranges. Figure 1.12 shows the properties of different classes of cutting tools,
where increased hardness and wear resistance is required for high cutting speeds
and increased toughness is required for interrupted cuts and large cutting depths.
Khan and Hajjaj (2006) illustrated capabilities of cermets tools for high speed
machining of austenitic steel. They found that when cermet inserts were used for
finishing cuts, very fine surface were produced. However, when used for
roughing cuts, they tended to fracture unpredictably rather than having gradual
flank wear. The similar view of point was expressed by Thamizhmanii and Hasan
(2006) in their research in illustrated analyses of roughness, forces and wear in
turning gray cast iron. They found that the surface roughness from various tests
shows a decrease in value at higher cutting speed and feed rate.

Figure 1.13 Comparison of cutting material properties (Kalpakjian, 2002)

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1.9.5 Sialons

Sialons are materials based on silicon nitride (Si3N4), and are formed by sintering
a mixture of SiO2, Al2O3, Si3N4, Y2O3, and MgO powders. Sintering causes the
SiO2 to react with Al2O3 and Y2O3 to form a liquid that reacts with the Si3N4 to
form silicon aluminum oxynitride. Due to chemical affinity, sialons diffuse
rapidly into steels and are not suitable for cutting these alloys. However, they
maintain hardness at very high temperatures, which makes them ideal for
machining heat-resisting super alloys at high cutting speeds. They are capable of
material removal rates 4 times higher than ceramic-coated carbide tools when
used to machine super alloys (Bilgi et al., 2004).

1.9.6 Ceramics

Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) tools make up one of the most important classes of
ceramic cutting materials. They have very high hardness and wear resistance,
while also providing better chemical stability than carbides (Kalpakjian, 2002).
Al2O3 based tools can be divided into two groups: white ceramics that consist of
pure alumina mixed with 2% to 5% zirconia (ZrO2) and black ceramics that add
30% to 40% TiC or TiN to alumina. The zirconia in white ceramics is added to
improve fracture toughness compared to pure alumina, without significantly
compromising hardness and wear resistance. The TiC or TiN additions in black
ceramics improve hot hardness of these tools compared to white ceramics, but at
the expense of decreased fracture toughness. Thus, white ceramics can be used
for more aggressive cutting conditions where impact loading or thermal shocks
may occur, while black ceramics are reserved for finishing conditions on hard
workpieces where consistent mechanical and thermal loads are experienced.

Silicon nitride (Si3N4) can be used as a cutting tool, but does not sinter easily to
full density. Additions are often made to assist sintering, but hot pressing is
typically required to achieve good strength. Similar to sialon tools, diffusion into
iron makes Si3N4 tools unsuitable for machining steels. They are generally
restricted to grey cast iron and some nickel-based alloys.

25
1.9.7 Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (PCBN) Tools

Polycrystalline cubic boron nitride cutting tools have been developed to machine
hard materials in applications where carbide tools do not maintain hardness at
high cutting speeds and alumina based tools do not offer adequate toughness.
Boron nitride exists naturally in a hexagonal crystalline structure, but can be
converted into a cubic structure very similar to diamond by applying
temperatures in the range of 1400-1500C and pressures on the order of 5-7 GPa
producing the hardest known material, excluding diamond (Koenig et al., 1984).
PCBN tools are formed by sintering CBN particles mixed with cobalt, TiC, TiN,
and/or possibly other materials. Generally, CBN tools are referred to as either
low CBN content or high CBN content tools. The high CBN content tools are
typically formed by pressure sintering a mixture of CBN and cobalt particles,
where the cobalt is used to provide increased fracture toughness to the hard and
brittle CBN. Low CBN content tools are typically sintered with a mixture of TiC
and/or TiN. Although these materials are actually softer than CBN, the composite
tool materials exhibit improved wear resistance due to the complex wear
mechanisms. The main advantages of CBN tools are that they maintain hardness
even at very high temperatures (~1800 HV at 1000C), have low solubility in
iron, and good fracture toughness for a ceramic (Bossom, 1990).

1.9.8 Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) Tools

It has been possible to synthetically produce diamonds since 1958. Diamond

particles are produced by heating carbon to approximately 1500C and applying
pressures of 6 GPa, much like the process to convert boron nitride from
hexagonal to cubic form. To form a cutting tool, 1-30 m diamond particles are
sintered at high temperature and pressure onto a cemented carbide base
(DeGarmo et al., 1997). The carbide base provides a ductile support for the hard
and brittle diamond layer. This technique is also used often in the production of
PCBN cutting tools. Both PCD and PCBN tools are then finished to required
geometry by laser cutting and grinding. While diamond tools exhibit excellent
wear resistance in applications like machining high silicon content aluminum,
their performance on steel is poor. This is because the carbon that comprises

26
diamond tools is a major alloy element in steels, so at the high interface
temperatures that occur during machining, the very expensive diamond tools
diffuse rapidly into the workpiece.

1.9.9 Diamond

They are of two types - industrial grade natural diamonds, and synthetic
polycrystalline diamonds. Because diamonds are pure carbon, they have an
affinity for the carbon of ferrous metals. Therefore, they can only be used on non-
ferrous metals. Feeds should be very light and high speeds Rigidity in the
machine tool and the setup is very critical because of the extreme hardness and
brittleness of diamond.

1.10 Cutting Parameters

Cutting parameters those affect the surface integrity related to experimentation

are described below.

1.10.1 Cutting speed

Cutting speed is the distance traveled by the work surface in unit time with
reference to the cutting edge of the tool. The cutting speed, Vc is simply referred
to as speed and usually expressed in m/min. It is very important aspect in
machining since it considerably affects the tool life and efficiency of machining.
Selection of a proper cutting speed has to be made very judiciously. If it is too
high, tool gets overheated and its cutting edge may fail. If it is too low, too much
time is consumed in machining and full capacities of the tool and machine are
not utilized, which results in lowering of productivity and increasing the
production cost. Cutting speed has no major impact on surface roughness. It
affects the surface roughness when operating at lower feed rates, which leads to
the formation of a built-up edge. Higher speeds are important in yielding
accurate results (Lambert, 1983).

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1.10.2 Feed

The feed is the distance advanced by the tool into or along the workpiece each
time the tool point passes a certain position in its travel over the surface. In case
of turning, feed is the distance that the tool advances in one revolution of the
workpiece. Feed f is usually expressed in mm/rev. Sometimes it is also
expressed in mm/min. and is called feed rate. However, it is computed and
mentioned in different machine tools and different operations. Like in planning it
is the work which is fed and not the tool. Similarly, in milling work involving the
use of a multi point cutter, the feed is basically considered per tooth of the cutter.
Detailed description and methods of computing the speed and feed of cutting tool
or job in different operations are based on the factors such as material being
machined, cutting tool material, cutting tool geometry, surface roughness and
machine tool rigidity which influence it.

Feed rate is the major factor that has a direct impact on surface roughness
(Beauchamp et al., 1997). Surface roughness is directly proportional to the feed
rate. The feed rate produces effective results when combined with a larger nose
radius, higher cutting speed, and a smaller cutting edge angle (Groover, 1996).
Regarding the workpiece machined with a smaller feed rate, the machined
surface shows that extensive material side plastic flow existed (Kishawy and
Elbestawi, 1997).

1.10.3 Depth of cut

It is indicative of the penetration of the cutting edge of tool into the workpiece
material in each pass, measured perpendicular to the machined surface, i.e., it
determines the thickness of the metal removed from the bar, by the cutting tool in
one pass and is expressed in mm. Depth of cut is expressed as (D d)/2 where
D is the original diameter of the stock andd is the diameter obtained after
turning in mm. The product of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut gives the
material removal rate and is used for optimizing the machining variables.

The depth of cut has a proven effect on tool life and cutting forces; it has no
significant effect on surface roughness except when a small tool is used.

28
Therefore, a larger depth of cut can be used to save machining time when
machining small quantities of workpieces. On the other hand, combining a low
depth of cut with a higher cutting speed prevents the formation of a built-up edge,
thereby aiding the process by yielding a better surface finish (Kwon and Choi,
2002).

1.10.4 Nose radius

The nose radius is rounded tip on the cutting edge of a single-point tool is known
as nose radius of the tool. The greater the nose radius, the greater the degree of
roundness at the tip. The nose radius area and minor cutting edge together shape
the surface profile of workpiece in a turning operation (ISO 3685, 1993). Thus,
the tool wear type that affects the nose radius area also affects the surface quality
of workpiece. The function of nose radius is as follows: Greater nose radius
clears up the feed marks caused by the previous shearing action and provides
better surface finish. All finish turning tool have greater nose radius than rough
turning tools. It increases the strength of the cutting edge, tends to minimize the
wear taking place in a sharp pointed tool with consequent increase in tool life.
Accumulation heat is less than that in a pointed tool which permits higher cutting
speeds.

Nose radius is another major factor that affects surface roughness (Beauchamp,
Y.et al., 1997). A larger nose radius produces a smoother surface at lower feed
rates and a higher cutting speed. However, a larger nose radius reduces damping
at higher cutting speeds, thereby contributing to a rougher surface. The material
side flow can be better defined when using a large nose radius (Kishawy and
Elbestawi, 1997).

1.11 Need for Optimization of cutting parameters

Machining process optimization not only remains an ongoing activity but also
becoming increasingly important in industry in the drive for reduced cycle time
and agile manufacturing. Since last ten decade, the manufacturing industries are
constantly striving to decrease its cutting costs and increase the quality of the

29
machined parts. The increasing need to boost productivity, to machine more
difficult materials and to improve quality in high volume by the manufacturing
industry has been the driving force behind the technological development and
optimization of cutting parameters in metal cutting field.

The optimization of machining processes is essential for the achievement of high

responsiveness of production, which provides a preliminary basis for survival in
todays dynamic market conditions (Kopac et al., 2002). The ratio between costs
and quality of products in each production stage has to be carefully monitored
and immediate corrective actions have to be taken in the case of deviation from
the desired trend (Montgomery, 1991).

In 1907, F.W. Taylor recognized the problem of economic (optimum) cutting

conditions for metal-cutting in his pioneering work On the Art of Cutting
Metals. Since then, optimization of machining processes remains an ongoing
activity, as evidenced by the optimization studies that were carried out over the
last century.Several optimization techniques have been tried by the researchers
with different combination of cutting as well as geometric parameters to enhance
tool life, minimize cutting forces, minimizing tool tip temperature and improving
surface finish which ultimately leads to enhance productivity and quality of the
manufactured product. Various types of methods/techniques which have been
employed for optimization of cutting as well machining parameters are, linear
programming, non linear programming, genetics algorithm (GA), neural network,
evolutionary algorithm and response surface methodology, since the introduction
of computers to machining systems. Optimum cutting conditions are important
since they determine to a great extent, the surface quality of the machined parts.
However, response surface methodology (RSM) has been successfully utilized
for determining the relationship between various cutting parameters and the
responses with the various desired criteria. RSM is a sequential experimentation
strategy for building and optimizing the empirical model. It is used to describe
and identify, with accuracy, the influence of the interactions of different
independent variables on the response when they are varied simultaneously. The
optimality will, however, be governed by a set of constraints involving
parametric combinations of cutting parameters (approaching angle, cutting speed,

30
feed, nose radius and depth of cut) and output variables (cutting forces, tool tip
temperature, residual stresses, tool wear and surface roughness). The criteria of
optimality can increase utility of goods and services and enhance productivity.

1.12 Organization of the Thesis

This thesis has been organized in 8 chapters. An overview of each chapter is as

follows.

CHAPTER 1: Introduction

It contains an introduction and background study related finish hard turning

process. The importance of this process as a substitute to grinding process has
been highlighted. The fundamentals of surface integrity, tool materials, cutting
parameters i.e cutting speed, feed rate depth of cut and nose have been discussed
in this chapter.

CHAPTER 2: Literature Review and Problem formulation

In this chapter literature review and proposed work is discussed. It gives

exhaustive account of past research in the area of machining behavior of different
tool/work piece material combination using different cutting / machining
parameters, gaps in the existing study, objectives, scope of study and
methodology.

CHAPTER 3: Experimental setup and Procedure

This chapter includes introduction, design of experiments, procedure adopted,

experimental setup for hard turning and an overview of equipments/instruments
used in study.

CHAPTER 4: Analysis and Modeling for Residual stresses

This chapter includes analysis and discussion of residual stresses generated while
turning AISI H11 tool steel with ceramic inserts for various combinations of
cutting parameters such as cutting speed, feed, depth of cut and nose radius.
Surface Response Methodology and ANOVA are used for modeling.

31
CHAPTER 5: Analysis and Modeling for Surface roughness and Tool wear

This chapter includes analysis and discussion of surface roughness and tool wear
while turning AISI H11 tool steel with ceramic inserts for various combinations
of cutting parameters such as cutting speed, feed, depth of cut and nose radius.
Surface Response Methodology and ANOVA are used for modeling.

CHAPTER 6: Optimization and Validation

This chapter gives optimization of the single response and multiresponse. The
experimental data of responses at optimized cutting parameters is validated with
the optimized responses.

CHAPTER 7: Modeling for Residual stress , Surface roughness and Tool

wear using an Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference (ANFIS)
In this chapter the comparison of regression model and ANFIS model for residual
stresses, surface roughness and the tool wear estimation has been done with
actual experimental values. To check the effectiveness of both the modelling
techniques a Chi-Square (2) test for goodness of fit was conducted.

CHAPTER 8: Conclusions and Scope of Future Work

This chapter contains the conclusions derived from the synthesis of the data in a
sequential manner. Future scope of the research has been presented.

32