Communication Principles PDF

COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES
www.eiilmuniversity.ac.in
Subject: COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES Credits: 4
SYLLABUS
Features of Indian English, Correction of sentences structures Tenses ambiguity Idiomatic distortions.
Informal conversation Vs Formal expression Verbal and non Verbal communication, barriers to effective
communication kinesics, Types of Communication Oral, aural, Writing and reading Word Power
Vocabulary Jargon rate of speech, pitch, tone Clarity of voice
Management presentations types of presentation video conferencing participation in meetings chairing

sessions. Formal and informal interviews- ambience and polemics interviewing in different settings and for
different purposes e.g. eliciting and giving information, recruiting, performance appraisal.
Written communication differences between spoken and written communication features of effective
writing such as clarity brevity, appropriate tone clarity, balance etc. GMAT , TOEFL models
Letter writing business letters pro-forma culture format style effectiveness, promptness Analysis of
sample letters collected from industry email, fax, Business and Technical report writing: types of reports
progress reports, routine reports Annual reports format Analysis of sample reports from industry
Synopsis and thesis writing
Suggested Readings:
1. Meenakshi Raman, Technical Communication: Principles And Practice, Oxford University Press
2. Dalton Kehoe, Effective Communication Skills, The Teaching Company
3. Kitty O. Locker, Business Communication: Building Critical Skills, McGraw-Hill Companies
COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES
Communication Principles
COURSE OVERVIEW
Communication is a fact in the world of human beings, animals letterpads, intaglio, lithography, stereotyping, photocomposition
and plants, and is an ever- continuing process going on all the system) Electronic Media-Radio, Television (growth and develop-
time. It is a process of mutual participation in a common struc- ment), Satellite Communication, Cable television, VCR,
ture of rhythmic patterns by all members of a culture. This unit Tele-communication services, Computersinternet, web design-
provides a concise and in-depth understanding at the elements ing etc.
that comprise all forms of human communication. The Module will lay emphasis on the power of media to influence
The module enables the student to have a sound understanding the mass audiences. The student will acquire an in depth under-
of basic elements of various communication processes (source, standing of the media projections about the various sections of
encode, message, symbol, receiver, decoding, feedback {positive the society and their counter effects, for example-portrayal of
and negative}, barriers), linear communication and Interactive women by the various medias and its impact on society. Also, the
communication, factors creating distortion. contribution of new technologies in reaching the large number of
The student gains an insight on listening behavior that forms an audiences with greater impact. The student will also acquire knowl-
indispensable part of the communication process. Through class edge of the basic concepts of the developmental role of the mass
discussions, he/she will identify with what are the kind of barri- medias.
ers and misconceptions that impair listening. By the end of the programme the student will outline and discuss
The student will also learn the theoretical aspects of different the social and psychological effects on the audiences that recent
types of communication (interpersonal, intrapersonal, group, technological developments have had on various sections of the
public, organizational and mass communication) society.
Interactive and participative dialogue will serve as an eye opener Salient Features
for the student to be able to appreciate the significance of leader- You would be going through various topics, which would give
ship and comprehend the key concept of Small Group you an insight of the basic concepts of communication
Communication. principles.
The unit will offer a range of theoretical perspectives to under-

Sociology of Communication
stand and analyse the role of communications and media
You have been communicating all your life; you might wonder
technologies in shaping modern society. The unit will also pro-
why you need to study communication? But before going into
vide sound understanding of the importance of communication
the deeper aspects of communication process you should know
and communicating medias in social life. It will brief them about
the relevance of learning communication principles. Introductory
the growth and development of new technologies in the area of
unit will equip you with basic communication terms such as lan-
mass communication for example Print Media (cold type
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Mass Media and Society
guage, speech, dimensions of communication- verbal- nonver-
Why society, because we are part of society. This unit will enable
bal, formal- informal, oral- written and intentional unintentional
us to understand the impact of media with reference to various
communication.
social issues like education, violence, and environment among
Types of Communication others. Also we will study special focus groups like women and
Once the base is clear you can move up. In near future you all children.
will enter into the field of mass communication. It is always
good to have strong background knowledge of this particular
field. This unit will give you a platform to stand. Platform in
form of the base of mass communication. It will start from
Intrapersonal to Interpersonal to Group and in the end mass
communication. Elements of mass communication and their
relevance to your life will be taught through this unit.
Communication Models
Till now we have the base of communication, types of
communication especially mass communication but unless we
know how the whole process flows our base knowledge is of
no use. Communication models help us in understanding each
step of communication process. The flow of each type of
communication can be understood easily with help of models.
Models are applicable to intrapersonal, interpersonal, group and
of course mass communication.
Mass Media
What do we mean by mass media? Why do we need them? Is
mass media one technology or software? You will find answers
to all these questions in this unit. Besides types of media their
effects on society as well as determing factors of media influence
will also be discussed.
Theories of Mass Media

In the earlier unit we discussed the models to understand the
flow of communication. But to understand the influence of
mass communication we need to go through the certain
theories which will explain step by step impact of media on us.
Media Audiences
Media audiences refer to we the people. Now the question arises
why should we learn more about us? This unit will answer all
your queries related to the audiences. It is important to study
media audiences as in future we will be communicating to
masses. To have a great impact we need to know more about
them.
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CONTENT
Lesson No. Topic Page No.
Lesson 1 What is Communication 1

Lesson 2 Dimensions of Communication 6
Lesson 3 The Process of Communication 10
Lesson 4 Intrapersonal Communications 14

Lesson 5 Interpersonal Communication 18
Lesson 6 Group Communcaion 21

Lesson 7 Mass Communication 24
Lesson 8 Aristotles Model & Laswells Model 28

Lesson 9 Shannon & Weavers MOdel and Osgood & Schramms
Circular Model 33
Lesson 10 Newcombs Model and Gerbners Model 37
Lesson 11 Media in Contemporary India 40
Lesson 12 Traditional Medias 50

Lesson 13 Effects of Media on Society, Determinates of Media Influence 54
Lesson 14 Two step Flow theory,

Diffusion of Innovations, Dependency theory 56
Lesson 15 Uses and Gratifications Theory,
Cultivation Theory 60
Lesson 16 Mass Audiences 67
Lesson 17 Communications for Development 74

Lesson 18 Media and Social Issues 80
Lesson 19 Media and Education 84
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CONTENT
Lesson No. Topic Page No.
Lesson 20 Role of Media in Science and Technology 89
Lesson 21 Media & Woman 92
Lesson 22 Media and Violence (Especially Television) 98
Lesson 23 Media & Children 103

Lesson 24 Media & Politics 105
Lesson 25 Environmental Journalism 108
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UNIT I
LESSON 1: LESSON 1:
SOCIOLOGY OF COMMUNICATION
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
INTRODUCTION TO THE CONSUMER
BEHAVIOUR
Contents: Introduction, Definitions, Features of communication, Communication is not only the basis of human thought, it is the

Significance of communication in human life- personal life, pro- means by which each of us develops an individual pattern of
fessional life, civic life, need for communication and Speech and beliefs, attitudes, and valuesthe personal attributes that bring
Language as foundation for society. us to understand, misunderstand, accept, or reject others who are
Learning Objectives like or unlike ourselves. In that sense, communication is the
foundation of an effective democratic and multicultural society.
To define communication
Defining Communication
To know the significance of communication in personal life
and relationships A definition is a useful and logical place to start our exploration of
communication. Definitions clarify concepts by indicating their
To know the importance of communication in professional
boundaries. They focus attention on what is important about
life
whatever it is we are defining. Unfortunately, no single definition
To know the importance of communication in civic life of communication does this to everyones satisfaction.
To learn how speech and language is base for any society. Communicating well or poorly can spell the difference between
What is Communication? success and failure in human relationships of almost every kind.
Most of us already have deeply established communication habits
Introduction that serve us well or poorly and may be difficult to change. But
You have been communicating all your life; you might wonder
whatever skill we may possess, we can always improve. Gaining in
why you need to study communication? One answer is that formal
the ability to communicate with and influence other brings
study can improve skill. Some people have a natural talent for
significant rewards.
singing or cricket. Yet they could be even more effective if they
took voice lessons or studied theories of offensive or defensive Communication is the act of transmitting verbal and non-verbal
play. Likewise, even if you communicate well now, learning more information and understanding between seller and buyer. The
can make you more effective. Theories and principles of process by which information and feelings are shared by people
communication also help us make sense of what happens in our through an exchange of verbal and non-verbal messages.
everyday lives, and they help us to have influence. In the context of medical education, its primary function is to
You are born with the capacity to communicate. You are capable establish understanding between patient and doctor. In an
of making utterances and gestures that enable us to send messages atmosphere of effective communication, patients improve faster,
to other people. Being able to communicate well is, however, a cope better with post-operative pain, require less psychotropic
skill. You spend more time communicating than doing anything drugs, and experience numerous other health benefits.
else. We talk, listen, think, share confidences with inmates, ask and
answer questions, participate on teams, attend public presentations,
exchange information with co-workers, watch television
programmes and so forth. From birth to death communication
is central to our personal, professional, and civic lives.
The creation of shared understanding through interaction among

two or more agents. Communication depends upon interpretation
of some message by the listener. Shared understanding is
constructed through the detection and repair of misunderstandings
(as opposed to a one-way transmission of data). The
understanding created through communication can never be
absolute or complete, but instead is an interactive and ongoing
Communication is a truly remarkable process. Clearly the most
process in which common ground, i.e., assumed mutual beliefs
complex form of behavior in which we engage, it sharply separates
and mutual knowledge, is accumulated and updated.
us from other members of the animal kingdom. Through the
use of words and other signs and symbols for which we share The interchange of ideas across space. Its fullest definition is the
meanings, we perceive, evaluate, and respond to the physical and consideration and action of impelling an impulse or particle from
social world around us. source-point across a distance to receipt-point, with the intention
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of bringing into being at the receipt-point duplication and
understanding of that which emanated from the source-point.

The process of transmitting and receiving messages. According to
Roman Jakobson and others, an analysis of this process yields six
factors: addresser, addressee, contact (or channel), context, code,
and the message itself. Corresponding to these factors are six
functions: emotive, conative, reference, metalinguistic (or
metacommunicative), and aesthetic or poetic.
Communication is also affected by the larger systems within which
it takes place. For example, different cultures have distinct
understandings of appropriate verbal and nonverbal behaviors.
Many Asian cultures place a high value on saving face, so Asians
try not to cause personal embarrassment to others by disagreeing
overtly. It would be inappropriate to perceive people from Asian
cultures as passive simply because they dont assert themselves in
the same ways that many Westerners do. Arab cultures consider it
normal to be nearer to one another when talking than most
Westerners find comfortable. And in Bulgaria, head nods mean
no rather than yes (Munter, 1993). Thus, to interpret
communication we have to consider the systems in which it takes
So far weve been using the word communication as if we agreed on place.
what it means. Yet the word has many definitions. In 1970, Symbolic Communication is symbolic. It relies symbols, which
communication theorist Frank Dance counted more than 100 are abstract, arbitrary, and ambiguous representations of other
distinct definitions of communication proposed by experts in things. We might symbolize love by giving a ring, saying I love
the field. In the years since that survey, even more definitions have you, or closely embracing the other person. A new title and a
surfaced. By drawing from these multiple definitions, we can define larger office can symbolize a promotion. Remember that human
communication as a systemic process in which people interact communication involves interaction with and through symbols.
with and through symbols to create and interpret meanings. Meanings Finally, our definition focuses on meanings, which are
Features of Communication at the heart of communication. Meanings are the significance we
The definition of communication has three important facets. bestow on phenomenon, or what they signify to us. We do not
Well discuss each of them. find meanings in experience itself. Instead, we use symbols to
create meanings.
Process - Communication is a process, which means that it is
ongoing and always-in motion. Its hard to tell when
communication starts and stops because
what happened before we talk with someone may influence our
interaction, and what occurs in a particular encounter may affect
the future. That communication is a process means it is always in
motion, moving forward and changing continuously. We cannot
freeze communication at anyone moment.
Systemic - Communication takes place within systems. A system
consists of interrelated parts that affect one another. In family
communication, for instance, each family member is part of the
system. In addition, the physical environment and the time of
day are elements of the system that affect interaction. People interact The Significance of Communication in Human Life
differently in a living room than they do on a beach, and we may No field of study has more important implication for our lives in
be more alert at certain times of day than others. The history of a contemporary society than that which looks systematically at the
system also affects communication. If a family has a history of process of human communication. Everything we do, from
listening sensitively and working out problems constructively, making friends to governing a nation, would be impossible if
when someone says, Theres something we need to talk about, human beings were unable to communicate with speech and
the others are unlikely to become defensive. On the other hand, if language. It is no exaggeration to say that communication is at the
the family has a record of nasty conflicts and internal strife, the heart of human existence, Indeed, all of the great advances in
same comment might arouse strong defensiveness. A lingering civilization that have occurred since prehistoric timesin
kiss might be an appropriate way to show affection in a private government, law, science, education, religion, the arts, and many
setting, but the same action would raise eyebrows in an office. othersdepended on improved systems of communication.
About 40,000 years ago our direct forbears, the Cro-Magnon,
developed the ability to speak. Earlier hominids, such as the
Neanderthal, were unable to do so because of the physiological
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structure of their tongue, facial muscles, and voice box.Developing

speech and language separated the Cro-Magnon from other
hominids and from related animal species. With the ability to
think, reason and communicate in complex ways, the human
species went on to invent writing, then printing, and in modern
times to develop our sophisticated electronic media. It was those
long and often difficult changesconstantly extending our ability
to communicate more swiftly, widely, and accuratelythat enabled
us to advance far beyond the level of our primitive forebears.
The need for Communication

A human beings need for communication is as strong and as
basic as the need to eat, sleep and love. It is both an individual and
a social need. It is both a natural demand and a requirement of
social existence to use communication resources in order to engage
in the sharing of experiences, through symbol-mediated
interaction. The severest punishment for a child is to be isolated,
to be left alone, not to be spoken to. Grown ups too and especially
the aged need company, need to communicate. Society punishes
criminals by locking them up in solitary cells, thus starving them
of basic need, and indeed the fundamental right to communicate.
Communication involves active interactions with environments-
physical, biological and social. Deprived of this interaction we
According to the social constructionist perspective, communication
would not be aware of whether we are safe or in danger, whether
is the collective creation of meaning. It is not something that goes
hated or loved, or satisfied or hungry. However, most of us take
on between us but, rather, something that surrounds us and
this interaction and this relationship for granted, unless, we
holds our world together. Communication is at the heart of our
experience some deprivation of it.
everyday lives. From the moment we wake in the morning, thinking
about the challenges of the day ahead, to the moment we drift off
to sleep last thing at night, we are constantly in the process of
communicating. We do so either as senders or receivers of messages.
In some cases, such as our early morning thoughts, the
communication is within and to our self. Just think how important
the process of communication is in so many everyday situations:
We speak to, listen to, and interact with other people. We do this
face-to-face or on the telephone. We communicate in formal
situations (such as sitting in class listening to a teacher) as well as
in informal situations (chatting with friends and family).
We use written language to communicate. We read and write letters,
notes, reports, essays, instructions and shopping lists. Many of
us use electronic technology to send and receive e-mails or to surf
the net.
Wherever we go we are the receivers of the messages. Newspaper
headlines, billboards, street signs, shop windows, public
announcements and traffic lights all send us messages. Ina media- The basic human need for communication can perhaps be traced
saturated society they compete for and demand our attention to to the process of mankinds evolution from lower species. Animals
the point where it is impossible to ignore them. for instance, have to be in sensory communication with their
We use the mass media as a source of messages that offer us both physical and biological surroundings to find food, protect
information and entertainment. We listen to the radio, to CDs; themselves and reproduce their species. A loss of sensation- the
we watch television and DVDs and read newspapers and inability to hear a predator, for instance- can mean loss of life.
magazines. The current revolution in our nations communication Similarly, to be lost from primitive social communication- from
processes is more than just replacing traditional paper based media the pack, from the herd or the tribe- is to be condemned to death.
with computer screens or other technological marvels. It is also a Those who have been isolated for a period of time from human
set of significant modifications in the way we collectively relate to company are known to have experienced nightmarish
each other. That is, the transition to new communication hallucinations. Indeed, social isolation can also be hazardous to
technologies has both personal and social consequences. the heart as much as to the mind. It is estimated that single men
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without close friends run two or three times the risk of developing interaction are the essence of relationships. Although dramatic
heart disease as their more sociable counterparts. moments affect relationships, it is unremarkable, everyday
However, lack of communication can be as disorienting an interaction that sustains the daily rhythms of our intimate
experience as too much of it. Indeed, the apparent effects of connections.
sensory deprivation and sensory overload are frequently similar: Professional Life
anxiety, apathy, impaired judgement, strange visions and
Communication skills are critical for success in professional life.
something akin to schizophrenia. The information explosion
The importance of communication is obvious in professions
brought about by satellite television, the Internet and other
such as teaching, law, sales, and counseling, where talking and
technologies is an instance of this sensory overload.
listening are central to effectiveness. Many attorneys, counselors,
Personal Life and businesspeople major in communication before pursuing
Personal LGeorge Herbert Mead (1934) said that humans are talked specialized training. Even highly technical jobs such as computer
into humanity. He meant that we gain personal identity by com- programming, accounting, and film editing require communication
municating with others. In our earliest years our parents told us skills. Specialists have to be able to listen carefully to the needs of
who we were: Youre smart, Youre so strong, Youre such a their clients and customers. They also need to be skilled in
funny one. We first see ourselves through the eyes of others, so explaining technical ideas to people who lack their expertise.
their messages form important foundations of our self-concepts. Developing communication skills is important no matter what
Later we interact with teachers, friends, romantic partners, and your career goals are.
coworkers who communicate their views of us. Thus, how we see
ourselves reflects the views of us that others communicate.
The profound connection between communication and identity
is dramatically evident in children who are deprived of human
contact. Case studies of children who were isolated from others
show that they have no concept of themselves as humans, and
their mental and psychological development is severely hindered
by lack of language.
Communication also directly influences our physical well-being.
Research consistently shows that communicating with others pro-
motes health, whereas social isolation is linked to stress, disease, Civic life
and early death (Crowley, 1995). People who lack close friends Communication skills are also important for the health of our
have greater levels of anxiety and depression than people who are society. From painting on the walls of caves to telling stories in
close to others (Hojat, 1982; Jones & Moore, 1989). Heart disease village squares to interacting on the Internet, people have found
is also more common among people who lack strong interper- ways to communicate with each other to build a common social
sonal relationships (Ruberman, 1992). world. To be effective, citizens in a democracy must be able to
express ideas and evaluate the ethical and logical strength of claims
other people advance. To make informed judgments, voters need
to listen critically to candidates arguments and responses to
questions. We also need to listen critically to speakers who make
proposals about goals for the institutions at which we work, as
well as those on which we depend for services.
Communication skills are especially important for effective, healthy
interaction in a socially divers world. In pluralistic cultures such as
ours, we need to understand and work with people who differ
from us. Healthy civic and social engagements depend on our
Personal Relationships ability to listen thoughtfully to range of perspectives and to adapt
our communication to diverse people and contexts.
Communication is a key foundation of personal relationships.
Communication is important for personal, relationship,
We build connections with others revealing our private identities,
professional, and civic and cultural well-being. Because
asking questions, listening to the answers, working out problems,
communication is a cornerstone of human life, your decision to
remembering shared history, and planning a future. A primary
study it will serve you well.
distinction between relationships that endure and those that
collapse is effective communication. People who learn how to Speech and Language as the
discuss their thoughts and feelings, adapt to each other, and manage Foundation for Thought and Society
conflict constructively tend to sustain intimacy over time.
The insight that speech and language provide the foundation of
human thought and the basis of societal life is very old men. As
Communication is important for more than solving problems or early as the 17th century it had become clear that the ability to use
making disclosures. For most of us, everyday talk and nonverbal words to convey ideas from one person to another was what
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separated human beings most sharply from animals. In 1690 the C S Rayudu: Communication, Himalaya Publishing House

English philosopher John Locke published an analysis of these
relationships in his famous Essay Concerning Human
Understanding. Although his style of writing now seems old-
fashioned by contemporary standards, what he said remains true:
God having designed Man for a sociable Creature made him not
only with an inclination, and under a necessity to have fellowship
with those of his own kind; but furnished him with language,
which was to become the great Instrument, and common Type
of Society. Man therefore had by Nature his Organs so fashioned,
as to be fit to frame articulate sounds, which we shall call Words. Notes
But this was not enough to produce language; for Parrots, and
several other Birds, will be taught to make articulate Sounds distinct
enough, which yet, by no means are capable of Language.
In other words, Locke saw that human beings are social by nature
and use language as a basis of their group life. In addition, while
the sounds people use in communicating can sometimes be
imitated, animals cannot use them to communicate in the way
human beings do.
Locke went on to point out that the process of thinking also
depends on the use of words because they stand as Signs of
Internal Conceptions, that is, as Marks for the Ideas within his
own Mind. Thus, Locke concluded that the use of speech and
language is a necessary condition for organizing human society on
the one hand, and for engaging in imagination and individual
thought on the other. These remarkably accurate insights remain
consistent with our knowledge today.
To create meaning with language and to interact with others, we
follow rules of communication and we punctuate interaction.
Regulative rules, as we have seen, specify when, where, with whom,
and how we communicate. In addition, we follow constitutive
rules that define the meaning of specific forms of communication
within particular social groups. A final aspect of creating the
meaning of communication is punctuating beginnings and endings
of interaction. The ability to use language allows human to create
meaning in their lives. By defining, evaluating, and classifying
phenomenon, language allows us to order our experiences and
feelings. We increase the effectiveness of our communication when
we strive for accuracy and clarity in language, own our thoughts
and feelings, and qualify language appropriately.
Review questions
Define Communication and explain its significance in human
life?
Describe how Language is integral part of communication
process?
Suggested Readings
Sarah Trenholm: Thinking Through Communication,
Second Edition, Allyn and Bacon
Julia T Wood: Communication Mosaics, Second Edition,
Wadsworth
DeFleur/ Kearney/ Plax: Fundamentals of Human
Communication, Mayfield Publishing Company
Keval J kumar: Mass Communication in India, Jaico
Publishing House
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LESSON 2:
DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATION
Dimensions of communication such, verbal communication may be spoken or written. These

The human species is hard-wired for communication. There is spoken or written verbal symbols are known as words. For example
literally nothing we can do to NOT communicate. Why? Because our name is a symbol that represents us. Democracy is a symbol
communication is the fundamental means by which humans have for a particular political system. Additionally, verbal
evolved into the dominant species on the planet. In other words, communication is highly structured and uses formal rules of
communication enhances, if not guarantees, our survival. By the grammar. Nonverbal communication involves the use of symbols
age of four all normal children have acquired the rules of their other than the written or spoken word, such as gestures, eye
native language with literally no formal instruction beyond day- behavior, tone of voice, use of space, and touch. Although
to-day interaction. As a matter of fact, infants and toddlers in all nonverbal symbols have socially shared meanings, they have no
cultures acquire language at the same rate, and no matter what the formal structure or rules of grammar.
language, all of them make exactly the same grammatical mistakes. Non-verbal Communication
Watch people interact at work, in the grocery store, at the bank. Meaning and Nature:
Start paying attention. Communication is always and everywhere
Communicating a message without using arbitrary symbols i.e.,
occurring. There is literally nothing we can do, short of dying or
words or meaning of words, is termed as non-verbal
dropping into a coma, to NOT communicate. Now consider how
communication. In other words, non-verbal communication is
much of what youre observing about the communication in the
word less communication. You can use many ways of
world is absolutely unconscious, automatic and unintentional.
communication, both verbal and non-verbal. Non-verbal
Communication surrounds and pervades us, like water surrounds
languages consist of hidden messages; it is the cues, which convey
and pervades fish. And we dont even notice.
message. These messages are necessarily wordless or non-verbal,
conveyed through without restoring to words or meaning of
words, but conveyed through other media like spatial, kinesics,
oral cues, objective language action, etc. Kinesics is the most
generally used medium of communication. Actions like stroking,
hilling, holding, patting and hand shaking convey meaningful
messages.
There is more to communication than just exchanging and sharing

the ideas. Human communication processes are quite complex.
We differentiate verbal and nonverbal, oral and written, formal
and informal, and intentional and unintentional communication.
In addition, there is human-animal communication and human-
computer communication. That leaves me to wonder what might
happen if we all started paying attention to how we communicate,
instead of just babbling like four-year-olds. Could we, if we started
communicating intentionally, impact violence in the world?
In todays society a command of effective communication is far Behavioral expressions or cues that do not rely on words or word
more critical than at any previous time in history. Skills in symbols are known as non-verbal communication. Words alone
communicating with others and managing human relationships in many cases, not adequate to express our feelings and reactions.
have become more important than those related to working with When someone remarks that he does not know how to express
ones hands. In fact, shortly after the mid 20th century, we emerged himself in words, it can be concluded that his feelings are too
into what scholars call the information society. That is, we now intense and complex to be expressed in words. Non-verbal
collectively spend more time and energy manipulating symbols messages express true feelings more accurately than the spoken or
words and numbersthan we do manufacturing things. written language. Both kinds of data can be transmitted
intentionally or unintentionally. Evan smile symbolizes
Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
friendliness; in much the same way as cordially is expressed in
When we think of communication, we usually think of spoken words. Verbal and non-verbal behaviour may be duplication of
messages. However, experts usually divide communication into one another. If a person says: Please have a seat and points
two primary categories: verbal and nonverbal communication. towards chair, they can be complimentary. For example, a person
Verbal communication involves the use of symbols that generally smiles and explains Come in, I am pleased to see you. The two
have universal meanings for all who are taking part in the process. codes, verbal and non- verbal- can be contradictory.
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Nonverbal messages usually complement verbal messages, such Action Language: It is a language of movements. Action speaks

as a service station attendant usually points and uses other gestures louder than words. By action, one may knowingly or unknowingly
while giving directions to a stranger from out of town. At other be communicating with others. Included in the category of actions
times, nonverbal symbols completely replace verbal messages. are general motions such as walking, as well as the specific gestures
Teachers with cold, fixed stares can easily tell students to be quiet like shaking hands, namaste, facial expressions etc. The study of
without uttering a word. When nonverbal messages contradict body movements including gestures, postures and facial
what you say verbally, others usually believe the nonverbal message. expressions is called Kinesics. Gesture comprises an entire subset
For example, when a woman tells a man that she is interested in of behaviors involving movement. Some are cultural indicators
hearing about the motivational sales seminar he attended, but she and are specific to a particular group. Others may be connected to
continues reading her computer screen, she communicates a lack job or an occupation as in signals used at airports or the hand
of interest. signal used on a noisy construction site or traffic signals etc.
Forms or Media of Non-Verbal Communication:
Different experts and specialists have classified non-verbal
communication into various categories. However, the media of
non-verbal communication are discussed in the following
paragraphs classified appropriately:
Sign Language: (sign language) NOUN: A language that uses a
system of manual, facial, and other body movements as the means
of communication, especially among deaf people. The manual
communication used by people who have hearing impairments.
The gestures or symbols in sign language are organized in a
linguistic way, and each sign has three distinct parts: the hand
shape, the position of the hands, and the movement of the
hands. Sign language is not universal. American Sign Language
(ASL or Ameslan) is not based on English or any other spoken
language and is used by the majority of deaf in the United States.
Two sign systems, which are based on English, are Signed Exact
English (SEE sign) and Signed English (Siglish). Marks or symbols Everyday, you may be using gestures constantly and without much
used to mean something is termed as signs of language. Language thought- wrinkling your nose when discussing something
of hand shapes, facial expressions, and movements used as a unpleasant or shrugging your shoulders when a friend asks for
form of communication. Method of communication for people your opinion and you are sure you have one. A persons overall
who are deaf or hard of hearing in which hand movements, body orientation or posture typically communicates his or her
gestures, and facial expressions convey grammatical structure and level of interest, liking, and openness. Hand and body movements
meaning. demonstrate and reinforce meanings intended by verbal messages.
For example, pointing to your sweater on the chair while explaining
that it is lying over there. Others include stretching your arms
over your head to emphasize your fatigue, slapping your hands
against your head in effort to recall a thought etc. Unintentional
hand, arm, leg or other bodily movements used to reduce stress
or relive boredom. For example, waiting endlessly for your turn at
the doctors office may elicit such actions such as pencil tapping,
nail biting or chewing eyeglasses or frame or file etc.
Objective language: (Artifacts) Objective language medium of non-
verbal communication indicate display and arrangement of material
things. If you have the largest office in a building all to your self,
and other people find themselves crowded four or five in a same
size or smaller room, you can be sure that the status and power
implications of your space are clear to everyone.Objective language
with reference to silence or non-verbal communication refers to
dress and decoration, which communicate a great deal about the
speakers feelings emotions, attitudes, opinions etc. Clocks, jwellery,
hairstyle, they all communicate something especially about that
person. Dress of army men differs from civilians, land army, air
force and naval personnel according to their rank. The executive
look is different between men and women.
7
Cultural patterns regulate personal space and interpersonal
communication. They are unspoken and invisible rules governing

personal distance. People who stand too near when they are more
intimate. When they are not so close, they should be at a distance.
Time: Use of time is also as chronemics as an important non-
verbal method of communication. Time also conveys the
message. Time speaks. Punctuality or delay speaks pleasant or
unpleasant feelings and attitudes. Late arrival to attend a meeting
conveys something. In certain circumstances, arriving at an
appointed place on or before time communicate something. A
telephone call at too early hours or late night conveys, significant
message. For instance, a telephone call at 1.00am or 2.00 am,
This method may include intentional or unintentional communicates something of urgency, unusual message to be
communication of material things like clothing, ornaments, books, attended to on a priority basis.
buildings, room furniture, interior decorations etc. Objective Paralanguage: Another important dimension is paralanguage.
communication is non-verbal message communicated through Sounds are the basis of paralanguage. It includes tone of voice,
appearance of objects. These objects exist in a particular cultural power or emphasis, pitch, rhythm, volume, pause or break in
setting only. sentence, speed of delivery, loudness or softness, facial expressions,
Spatial or Environmental: It is relating to the place or environment gestures, body movements, postures, eye contact, touch etc.
in which the actual process of communication takes place. It may To sum up: Ray Birdwhistell is a notable authority on non-verbal
be physical or psychological. The environment for communication communication. According to his estimate in face-to-face
must be congenial and conducive to effective communication. For communication the words spoken account less than 35% of the
example, in group communication it is the responsibility of the total meaning produced while remaining 65% is obtained by non-
group leader verbal cues. A persons behaviour has a message potential. Thus
non-verbal cues perform useful purposes to restate the verbal
message, contradicting the spoken messages, complementing
Silence: In many circumstances, silence also is an effective
verbal messages, accenting and regulating the flow of conversation.
medium of communication. Through silence, people evoke
response from others. In a number of situations if no Verbal communication
response or reply is received within a specific period or happen- Whenever you communicate to yourself- listener, thinker, and
ing of a situation, the silence on the part of respondent person aware of nonverbal communication- has many of the
signifies communication. The practice of silence is usually taken tools that you need to be effective in a variety of situations. Even
as approved in number of personal, business and social though you spend most of your communication time listening
transactions as practice, custom, tradition or understanding. and thinking, your most frequent interaction with others will
Sometimes, silence itself is considered equivalent to speech. In probably focus on verbal messages. To be complete, those
some cases, silence is considered as fraud and in some other interactions and messages will be carried in both non-verbal and
cases it is not fraud. Thus silence is likely to affect the willing- verbal form. Earlier you learned about non-verbal communication.
ness and consent of another person also. However, silence as a Now it is time to look closely at another component: verbal
medium of communication is considered as a dangerous mode communication.
of communication.
Verbal- the dictionary meaning of the word verbal is of words, in
Demonstration: It is a process of showing how something works. words, expresses in words, oral spoken, said, voiced, vocal, uttered,
It indicates a display or exhibition of how something works. It is or written. The way we use words- that is, verbal communication-
a public expression of opinion by holding meetings and is one of the distinguishing characteristics of our species. To
processions showing play cards. Demonstration is made and create some meaning out of the words we need to follow certain
dramatised as a means of emphasis on the subject under rules of particular language. Language is first thing people think
consideration. Take foe instance, a salesman giving a demonstration about when discussing communication.
to a person or group pf persons as to how to operate the product.
To simplify matters, let us say that like non-verbal symbols we do
Such demonstrations naturally work out to be more effective than
use some verbal symbols to communicate. Verbal symbols are the
providing written or oral description of the same. Demonstration
words we speak or write. These words belong to one or more
as to how to use or operate a particular product provides a clear
languages such as Bengali, Tamil, Japanese, French or English.
and better understanding of a product.
There is a general belief that words have clear and specific meanings
Proximics: The distance that the people keep themselves between compared to non-verbal symbols. This belief is misplaced. Words
the speaker and the listener is termed as Proximics. Generally, are no better than non-verbal symbols in projecting specific
people are not conscious and aware about Proximics but the distance meanings because words have no fixed meanings either.
affect interpersonal communication. Personal space is an invisible Dictionaries help us get a rough idea of what semantic areas they
factor or rule. Space between persons indicates relations at the stand for. But what a word really means for an individual depends
same time and is a dimension of interpersonal communication. on several factors including his knowledge in general, background,
8
personal experiences and even the mood he is in. Vast differences The job is delicate because one wrong letter of the alphabet or

in the perception of word-meanings are applicable not only to one wrong punctuation mark and the message could be
things and events specific to certain cultures or regions (e.g. oasis, interpreted differently. To make matters worse, you wont be
snow, monsoon, bandh) but also to everyday things and events around to correct them if they misinterpret what youve put in.
allover the world (e.g. food, mother, death, wedding, school).
Oral and Written Communication
Each word triggers a large number of images in our minds. A few
of them are the same as or comparable to the images triggered in Oral communication refers to messages that are transmitted aloud.
others minds; the rest are different. Take death for example. For Generally they involve both verbal and nonverbal messages.
someone who hasnt lost a loved one, death is cessation of life, Written communication is taking place right now as you read this
a process all living beings have to go through. For someone who book. Although this type of communication is primarily verbal,
has lost a loved one, or for someone who knows he is suffering it also has a nonverbal dimension. For example, you probably get
from a terminal illness, or for someone who has been sentenced a different feeling when you receive a personal, hand-written
to death, it has vastly different meanings. Christmas card than when you are given a mass-product printed
one from your insurance company. Although oral and written
It is not only common words that display variations in meaning.
communication involves the creation and sending of messages,
Even well defined scientific words are prone to this phenomenon,
they differ in a number of ways. Wallach (1990) argues that these
but to a smaller extent. Take molecule or plasma. A scientists
two forms of communication have three primary differences:
notion of these words is very different from and richer than that
processing, style, and form.
of an undergraduate students although both follow the same
definitions.
Verbal & Non- Verbal Constellation
Most of our communication depends on a combination of verbal
and non-verbal symbols. Of these, verbal symbols can be totally
eliminated from certain acts of communication without any loss
in the reconstruction of the intended message provided the non-
verbal component is rich. Imagine, for example that you want to
buy a railway platform ticket. You approach the exclusive counter
for it. You push the exact price of one ticket through the counter. Processing differences lie in the nature of the two types of messages
The counter clerk takes the cash and hands you a single platform themselves. Oral messages are continuous, with words and
ticket. The whole series of communication acts is accomplished sounds spoken in a connected way. Thus, when we talk, we
without either party displaying generally do not focus on individual words or sounds, unless (1)
a single verbal symbol. Desirable aspects of politeness may, a communication breakdown occurs; (2) the speaker talks with an
however, be missing in this process. For the usual verbal accent; or (3) the source or receiver stops and asks about a given
accompaniment, A platform ticket, please, doesnt add any sound or word. On the other hand, written communication
vital information here. All it does is to make the transaction a little involves the processing of segmented or discrete letter units,
polite. marked by boundaries of white space on the page. Thus, when
The richer the non-verbal components, the less the need for we learn to read, we have to figure out how individual letters and
verbal symbols. The weaker the nonverbal component the words go together to reflect the continuous sounds we are used
greater the need for elaborating the verbal symbols. We have to hearing orally. This processing difference is one of the main
already seen in the example above that verbal symbols can be reasons why we cant read just because we can talk. To read, we
totally eliminated if the non-verbal symbols can do the job on must become a linguist of sorts and bring our knowledge of
their own. Let us see what happens when the non-verbal spoken language to the surface in order to analyze and understand
symbols are progressively reduced. Imagine that you are at the written language.
current booking counter of a railway station- the counter from Written messages often use a more formal style of language, while
where you can get second class tickets for train journeys starting oral messages are more conversational and informal, depending
from that station within twenty-four hours of purchase. You on our audience, however, oral and written communications are
want a second-class ticket to Bangalore. Handing in the exact not mutually exclusive. Many television commercials use written
fare will not be enough for the clerk to give you what you need. reinforcement of an oral message, for example showing a graphic
So you supply a few verbal symbols-One ticket to Bangalore while stressing the effectiveness of a new toothbrush design.
please. If you can get first and second-class tickets from the
same counter, you elaborate the verbal symbols further-One
second-class ticket to Bangalore, please. The greater the need for
elaborating verbal symbols, the more abstract, and therefore, the
more difficult the process of communication. Of all forms of
communication, writing is the most difficult and least liked
because it generally demands the highest levels of elaboration.
While writing the communicator has to systematically find
words that will take the place of the absent non-verbal symbols.
9
Oral and written communication also differs in form. While oral Review questions
messages are generally personal, spontaneous, and shred within What are the various dimensions of communication
some context, written message are less personal and more literate process?
in form. In contrast, oral communication is participant and
Describe how body language compliments verbal symbols?
situation-oriented, while written communication generally is
associated with the public sphere. If you think for a moment Suggested Readings
about these differences in form, you will understand why humans Sarah Trenholm: Thinking Through Communication,
have difficulty putting their feelings on paper. By making the Second Edition, Allyn and Bacon
switch from a whispered thought or spoken dialogue to a letter or Julia T Wood: Communication Mosaics, Second Edition,
poem, indeed, we are able to preserve the moment for posterity. Wadsworth
In almost every instance, however, the spontaneity and life
DeFleur/ Kearney/ Plax: Fundamentals of Human
associated with the message will be lost.
Communication, Mayfield Publishing Company
Formal and Informal Communication
When we are involved in formal communication such as public Publishing House
speaking or mass communication, we pay more attention to both
C S Rayudu: Communication, Himalaya Publishing House
verbal and nonverbal messages. For instance, we use language
more precisely and pay more attention to grammar. Additionally, Matthukutty M Monipally: Business Communication
we use language more precisely and pay more attention to grammar. Strategies,
Additionally, we are more concerned about the image that our Barker/ Gaut: Communication,
dress, posture, and eye contact help convey. Formal communication
usually occurs in the context of status differences. For example,
during an appointment with a university dean, a student probably
would avoid using slang, sit up straight, dress neatly, and make
eye contact.
Notes
In informal communication, such as interpersonal and small-

group communication, people are more at ease and can be
themselves. Observers would notice more hesitations and slang
in verbal messages and less attention to nonverbal messages such
as clothing, posture, and eye contact. When going to a party at a
friends house, you probably wouldnt hesitate to sit on the floor,
go to the refrigerator for something to eat, or use the telephone.
At a party at your bosss house, however, you probably would be
hesitant about taking any of these actions.
Intentional and Unintentional Communication
Intentional communication occurs when messages are sent with
specific goals in mind. Comedians such as Rita Rudner and Sinbad
tell jokes to get laughs and entertain audiences. Radio spots are
designed to persuade people to vote for local candidates, buy
products, or donate time and money.
Unintentional communication takes place without the
communicators being aware of it. The greatest number of
unintentional messages is nonverbal. Our nonverbal behaviors
often speak louder than words. Students or employees who are
continually late for class or work might be communicating that
they are moonlighting, are irresponsible, or have unreliable alarm
clocks.
10
LESSON 3:
THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication Process
There have been several attempts by scholars to explain the process
of communication. Depending on their background and
objectives, different scholars have viewed the process of
communication differently and have developed different models.
You may have formed the impression that communication is
difficult, if not impossible, to study and understand. If it is
ongoing, how do we stop it? If it has no beginning or end, how
do we get hold of it? Although the task is difficult, it is possible.
The Source/Encoder
The sender begins the communication process by forming the
ideas, intentions and feelings that will be transmitted. As the
sender, you are required to filter out the details that are unimportant
and focus your energy on the most relevant information. The
source, or encoder, makes the decision to communicate. The source
also determines what the purpose of the message will be to inform,
persuade, or entertain. You may ask how the message gets from
Communication establishes relationships and makes organizing the source to the receiver. First, the source must encode, or create,
possible. Every message has a purpose or objective. The sender a message. That is, the information that the source wishes to
intends whether consciously or unconsciously to accomplish convey must be put into a form that can be sent to the receiver.
something by communicating. In organizational contexts, The source generates a message through his or her past experiences,
messages typically have a definite objective: to motivate, to inform, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings. Every ounce of your being
to teach, to persuade, to entertain, or to inspire. This definite may tell you that you are in love, but until you code those feelings
purpose is, in fact, one of the principal differences between casual into a form that can be sent to the person you love, communication
conversation and managerial communication. Effective cannot take place.
communication in the organization centers on well-defined Message
objectives that support the organizations goals and mission. The second element of the communication process is the
Communication is the process of passing information and message, or that information which is being communicated.
understanding from one person to another. The communication The source encodes an idea and then determines whether or not
process is a system that involves an interrelated, interdependent to inform, persuade, or entertain. After deciding what message
group of elements working together as a whole to achieve a desired to send, the source uses symbols to get the message across to
outcome or goal. We can study communication in much the same others. These symbols stand for other things. The eagle, the
way we study biological systems within our own bodies. flag, and Uncle Sam are all symbols of the United States, for
We can determine the elements involved (circulatory and digestive example. But the most important symbols are words, which
systems, for example), analyze how those elements affect one can represent objects, ideas, and feelings. These words permit us
another, and thus determine the nature of the process as a whole. to share our thoughts with other members of our species.
Applying this approach to the communication process, we find Important as words are to us, they can be tricky. We must
eight elements (1) a source/encoder of communication, which remember that words are symbols. They represent things, but
sends (2) a message (3) through a channel to (4) a receiver/ are not the things themselves. That lanky, bearded old man we
decoder, which (5) responds via feedback with (6) possibilities call Uncle Sam represents the United States, but he is not the
of communication breakdowns (Barrier ) in each stage of United Statesin fact, he doesnt even exist. The letters a-p-p-l-
communication. However, these elements must be understood e p-i-e represents an All-American pastry, but they are not an
and analyzed in relation to (7) the situation or context, and (8) apple pie.
the system (such as relationship), which is created and maintained To increase the likelihood of successful communication, the source
at some level by the communicators. must try to encode in a way that the receiver understands, so that
the receiver can properly decode (interpret) the message. For
example, many American tourists in Paris have discovered that
even though their command of French is minimal, it is sometimes
easier to communicate in halting French than in English. Some
11
Parisians, despite their fluent knowledge of English, refuse to receive a message, we must interpret it and then encode a response.
decode an inferior tongue. The response may be silent, noisy, or somewhere in between,
depending upon the situation and the existence of any barriers to
Channel
communication.
Channels are the means (that is, pathways or devices) by which
messages are communicated. Channels may be described and Feedback
analyzed in two different ways. The first involves the form in Another element in the communication process is feedback.
which messages are sent to receivers. Forms include both verbal Each party in an interaction continuously sends messages back
and nonverbal channels of communication. We use our five senses to the other. This return process is called feedback. Feedback
to receive messages from others. We may hear a call-in talk show tells the source how the receiver has interpreted each message.
on the radio, watch a soccer match on television, smell fresh break For example, if at the airport you ask your departing friend
baking as we drive past the local bread industry, taste the flavors in about his itinerary, and he replies that he didnt pack one, you
a fresh cappuccino, or hug a friend to console him when his dog know your message has not been understood. This kind of
died. feedback, which conveys lack of understanding, is known as
negative feedback. Positive feedback, on the other hand,
Channels may also be described according to the manner of
indicates that the receiver has understood the sources message.
presentation employed in communication. The source may speak
It does not necessarily mean that he or she agrees with the
face-to-face with the receiver, use a public address system to talk
source, just that the message was interpreted accurately. Feedback
with a hundred listeners, or talk over radio or television to million
can also be ambiguous, not clearly positive or negative. I see
of receivers. Each of these examples would demand different
and mm-hmm can be examples of ambiguous feedback. The
manners of presentation. Depending on the situation, the source
effective communicator is always sensitive to feedback and
would concentrate on verbal and/or nonverbal channels of
constantly modifies his or her messages as a result of the
communication. If the speaker were on radio, physical appearance
feedback received. After a discreet pause, for example, you might
wouldnt matter, but if he or she were performing on a cable
ask your friend not about his itinerary but about the cities he
network program or before a live audience, personal appearance
plans to visit.
could easily influence the reception of the message. For example,
when we go to watch a circus, we expect the clowns to have painted Feedback doesnt have to come from others. We can and do get
faces and appropriate costumes. If they were dressed in regular feedback from our own messages. The fact that we can hear the
street clothes, their performance wouldnt be as effective. Whatever words we speak and see the sentences we write sometimes lets us
channels of communication are used, the source must learn to correct our own mistakes.
adapt the message to make use of the most appropriate channels Barriers/Noise
available for the situation. The human communication system can be compared with a radio
Receiver/Decoder or telephone circuit. Just as in radio transmissions, where distortion
The person (or persons) who attends to the sources message is can occur at any point along the circuit (channel), there can be
the receiver. The act of interpreting messages is called decoding. similar barriers in human communication. The sources
Receivers decode messages based on past experiences, percep- information may be insufficient or unclear. Or the message can be
tions, thoughts, and feelings. We receive messages through all ineffectively or inaccurately encoded. The wrong channel of
our senses, but most often we decode messages by listening or communication may be used. The message may not be decoded
seeing. We first have a physiological reception of stimuli (a noise the way it was encoded. Finally, the receiver may not equipped to
causes sound waves to hit our eardrum or a movement catches handle the decoded message in such a way as to produce the
our eye). We then pay attention to both the verbal and nonver- response (feedback) expected by the source.
bal stimuli and reduce all the stimuli bombarding us to one or Barriers are any obstacles or difficulties that come in the way of
two we can cope with more easily. Next, we try to understand communication. They may be physical, mechanical, psychological
the stimuli and interpret them into messages (we decide that cultural or linguistic in nature. In business communication, for
the noise is a telephone bell or that the movement is a friend instance, the major obstacles arise because of the set-up of an
waving to us across campus). Finally, we store this information organisation - the organizational barriers. The size of an
for later use so that next time we will be able to respond to the organisation the physical distance between employees of an
stimuli more quickly. It is important to remember that receivers organisation, the specialization of jobs and activities, and the
make immediate decisions about what they will respond to in a power and status relationships, are the main organizational
given situation. During a lecture, an audience member may barriers. Besides, then are the barriers, raised by interpersonal
decide to take a nap. During an argument with your boyfriend relationships between individual and groups, the prejudices of
or spouse, you may listen only to negative comments. During a both individuals and groups and the channels they use to
crowded party you may watch the nonverbal behaviors of your communicate. Barriers to communication also occur if the sender
date (yawning, standing off in a corner alone, and so on) to and receiver are not on the same wavelength. This is as true in
decide when its time to leave. As sources of communication, human communication as it is in radio transmission. On the
we need to learn to analyze our prospective receives to deter- human level, being on the same wavelength involves shared
mine which communication messages will be most effective. experiences. That is, the source can encode only in terms of the
Of course, all of us are both encoders and decoders; that is, we are experiences he or she has had. This is why two people from
capable of both transmitting and receiving messages. When we
12
completely different cultures may find it difficult, if not impossible, and wrong placement of loudspeakers are disturbances which are

to communicate. mechanical in nature. (the communicator who stands too close or
In the jargon of communication, all barriers whatever their natural too far from the mike is another matter). In mass communication,
are clubbed under a common label- noise. A term from modem mechanical barriers would include such disturbances as static on
physics it denotes not only atmospheric or channel disturbance, the radio, smeared ink in a newspaper, a rolling screen on television,
but all barriers that distort communications in any manner. a barely readable point-size, or a film projector or video that does
not function perfectly.
Physical Barriers
Review questions
Four main kinds of distractions act as physical barriers to the
communication process. These are: Identify and discuss the basic elements of communication
process?
1. The Competing Stimulus in the form of another
conversation going on within hearing distance, or loud music Describe how the whole process of communication gets
or traffic noise in the background. The cawing of crows or a disturbed if any of the elements is changed or tampered?
plane passing overhead can, for example, drown out messages Exercise
altogether. Construct a diagrammatic model of the essential elements
2. Environmental Stress: A high temperature and humidity, poor and processes involved in one of the following
ventilation, vibrations felt, a strong glare - all can contribute to communication situations. The models primary function
distortions in the sending and receiving of messages. should be to describe what elements are involved and what
3. Subjective Stress: Sleeplessness, ill health, the effects of drugs processes are operative in the specific situation chosen. It may
and mood variations give rise to forms of subjective stress be useful to define the situation chosen in more detail before
that often lead to great difficulties in listening and interpretation. constructing the model.
4. Ignorance of the Medium: The various media for Communication situation:
communication are: oral, written, audio, visual and audiovisual. Sitting silently in a bus.
The use of a medium with which the communicators are not
Watching TV commercial
familiar would turn the medium itself into a barrier.
Conversing with a very close friend.
Psychological Barriers
Delivering a lecture to a class.
Each of us has a certain frame of reference, a kind of window
Persuading an angry crowd to disband.
through which we look out at the world, at people, and events
and situations. A frame of reference is a system of standards and Reading a newspaper.
values, usually implicit, underlying and to some extent controlling Telephonic conversation with bank representative.
an action, or the expression of any belief, attitude or idea. No two Window Shopping.
individuals possess exactly similar frames of reference, even if
they are identical twins. To a large extent our experiences, particularly Suggested Readings
our childhood experiences, and the cultural environment we have Sarah Trenholm: Thinking Through Communication,
grown up in influence our frames of reference. Second Edition, Allyn and Bacon
Linguistics and Cultural Barriers Julia T Wood: Communication Mosaics, Second Edition,
A language is the expression of the thoughts and experiences of Wadsworth

people in terms of their cultural environment. When the same DeFleur/ Kearney/ Plax: Fundamentals of Human
language is made use of in a different culture, it takes on another Communication, Mayfield Publishing Company
colour, another meaning. Keval J kumar: Mass Communication in India, Jaico
Mechanical Barriers Publishing House
Mechanical barriers are those raised by the channels employed for C S Rayudu: Communication, Himalaya Publishing House
interpersonal, group or mass communication. Channels become Matthukutty M Monipally: Business Communication
barrier when the message is interfered with by some disturbance, Strategies,
which (1) increased the difficulty in reception or (2) prevented Barker/ Gaut: Communication,
some elements of the message reaching its destination or both.
The absence communication facilities too would be a mechanical
barrier.
This type of barrier includes any disturbance, which interferes
with the fidelity of the physical transmission of the message. A
telephone that is in poor working order, making demands on the
yelling ability of Sender and Receiver, is a mechanical barrier in
interpersonal communication. So also is cross-talk often heard
over an intercom link in an office, or during long-distance calls.
In Group Communication, a rundown or whistling microphone,
13
UNIT II
LESSON 4: TYPE OF COMMUNICATION
INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS
Types of Communication attitudes and beliefs, as well as our perspective on social life. Today
Communication has been classified into several types: in terms of mass communication is a major source of information,
the verbal-nonverbal, oral- written, intentional- unintentional etc. companionship, and entertainment. Yet mass communication
One of the most common typology relates to the size of the does more than report information and entertain us. It also
social group or the number of people involved in the experience presents us with views of human beings, events, issues, and
of communication. Such a typology ranges from the intrapersonal cultural life. Mass communication also grants a hearing and visibility
and interpersonal and transpersonal, to the group and the mass. to some people and points of views, whereas it mutes other
voices and viewpoints. Thus mass communication affects our
Intrapersonal communication perceptions of issues, events, and people.
You can probably guess that this means communicating within
Communication is part of your social self. Because we are using a
yourself. When you think, daydream, solve problems, and
person-centered definition of communication, not one related to
image, you are in the realm of intrapersonal communication.
machine or animal communication, it is important to see how a
Some investigators also include in this area all physical feedback
persons self is at the heart of all communication interactions.
mechanisms, such as the sensations of hunger, pain, and
You think, you listen, you respond, and you speak and you do all
pleasure.Intrapersonal communication is individual reflection
of these things from your self-perspective. You need to look at
contemplation and meditation. Transcendental meditation, for
the self- your self- to understand the key to any communication
instance, is an example of such communication. Conversing
event. Intrapersonal communication is basis of the entire
with the divine, with spirits and ancestors, may be termed
communication-taking place in variety of settings.
transpersonal communication. This is a vital experience in the
religious and monastic life, in ashrams and places of prayer, and Intrapersonal Communication- A Definition:
among aboriginal and tribal communities. Intrapersonal Communication is communication within your
Interpersonal communication self. You engage in intrapersonal communication when you are
This form of communication describes the interactions of two thinking, listening, daydreaming, studying, creating, contem-
or more people. The most significant setting for interpersonal plating or dreaming. You are both source and destination of
communication is direct face-to face communication between this type of communication. You use your brain waves as a
two persons. An interview, a conversation, and intimate channel; and the outcomes are thoughts or ideas, sometimes
communications come under this heading. It is more persuasive decisions, and sometimes actions or behaviors. You still
and influential than any other type of communication, for it communicate within the context or environment. Your
involves the interplay of words and gestures, the warmth of language and other social considerations shape the environ-
human closeness and in fact all the five senses. Feedback is the ment.
key word here. Feedback is instantaneous. Intrapersonal communication takes place whenever we evaluate
and react to internal and external stimuli- and involves messages
Group communication
that are sent and received within ourselves. Thus it involves not
Group communication shares all these qualities, though in a
only our intellect self but also our physical and emotional self. As
much less measure. The larger the group the less personal and
you can see, intrapersonal communication is more far reaching
intimate is the possibility of exchange. In fact, as the group
than just talking to yourself. Intrapersonal messages reflect
grows in size communication tends to become more and more
your habits, self- concept; self related roles, and your attitudes,
of monologue, for participation becomes problematic. The
values, and beliefs. This type of communication takes place every
degree of directness and intimacy, therefore, depends upon the
moment that we live.
size of the group, the place where it meets, as also the relation-
ship of the members of the group to one another, and to the The most basic level of communication is intrapersonal
group leader. Group communication requires the following communication. It is a function of the physical self, the intellectual
conditions: leadership, equal sharing of ideas, peer pressure, self, habits, and private versus public situations. In addition, the
roles and norms, and focus on a common goal. need for a unified conceptual system and the picture that you have
of yourself- your self concept- also strongly influence these self-
Mass Communication communications. Your past experiences, reference groups, and
When a message needs help to get from its source to its destination, accustomed roles combine in ever-changing relationships to form
mass communication begins to function. Usually some form of this self concept. At the same time, internal and external stimuli
medium- one meaning of which is between- is needed to connect affect the cognitive, emotional, and physiological processing of
the sender to receivers. These media may be print (newspapers or intrapersonal communication.
magazines) electrical (radio, TV or video), or even electronic The process of intrapersonal communication
(computer modems). Mass communication powerfully affects our
14
Intrapersonal communication is the foundation upon which to be processed. Stimuli that are perceived subconsciously are

interpersonal communication rests. Therefore, it is necessary to usually stored in your memory for later processing.
understand how you communicate with yourself before you Cognitive Processing. Cognitive processes are associated with the
approach the process of communicating with others. The elements intellectual self and include the storage, retrieval, sorting, and
that set the process in motion are called stimuli. assimilation of information. We dont know exactly how such
The brain is made aware of the state of the body by nerve processing occurs; our goal here is simply to describe these processes
impulses, internal stimuli that can prompt you to respond by on both the conscious and subconscious cognitive levels.
communicating. Lets say you have the flu. Your muscles ache, Memory The storage of information that we choose to remember
your fever is high, and you are depressed. Such a miserable state is called memory. There are three forms of memory: (1) sensory
may prompt you to call a doctor to relieve your physical ills and storage, in which the information is held for only an instant (2)
friend to relieve your depression. The internal stimuli in this short-term memory, in which the information is stored for several
situation have resulted in communication. seconds; and (3) long-term memory, in which the information is
External stimuli, of course, those stimuli that originate in the stored indefinitely. Sensory storage refers to our ability to hold
environment outside of your body. There are two kinds of external some information for a fraction of a second after the stimulus
stimuli. Over stimuli are received on the conscious level. They are disappears. For example, you are not aware of the gaps between
picked up by the sensory organs and then sent to the brain. More frames when you watch a movie because each frame is held in
than one overt stimulus usually affects a person at any given sensory storage until the next appears. The major difference
moment. For example, the pizza being advertised on TV and the between sensory storage and short-term memory is that in the
sounds and aromas coming from the kitchen can prompt an eager, latter, data are analyzed, identified, and simplified so that they can
Whats for dinner? be conveniently stored and handled. Short-term memory is a kind
Cover stimuli are external stimuli that are received on the of holding device in which you keep information until you are
subconscious level. Lets say you are getting dressed for work. One ready to use or discard it. If such information seems useful, you
of your favorite songs comes on the radio, so you turn the volume may transfer it to the permanent storage of long-term memory is
up. The song ends and the news begin, just as you discover a that in the latter, data are analyzed, identified, and simplified so
gaping hole in your sock. You find another pair and finish dressing, that they can be conveniently stored and handled. Short-term
but you are running late. Is it too cold for your lightweight jacket? memory is a kind of holding device in which you keep
You suddenly realize that the weather report has just ended, but information until you are ready to use or discard it. If such
you have no idea what was said, despite the blaring volume. information seems useful, you may transfer it to the permanent
storage of long-term memory for future reference.
The stimulus of the weather report was received and stored in
your brain, but it was below the threshold of consciousness. Retrieval Information is stored so that it can be used to help
Thus, you were not consciously aware of what was said, even establish the meaning of later incoming stimuli. However, stored
though you recognized that you were hearing the weather report. information is relatively useless unless it can be retrieved from
Such covert stimuli have been shown to affect behavior and memory. Such retrieval takes the form of either recognition or
communication. recall. Recognition involves awareness that certain information is
familiar, having been experienced previously. Recall is more difficult,
Reception in that it requires reconstruction of the information that has been
The process by which the body receives stimuli is called reception. stored. For example, while we may recognize a certain word whose
In intrapersonal communication, both external and internal meaning we looked up last week, we may be unable to recall its
receptors send information to the central nervous system. External definition.
receptors for the five sensessight, sound, smell, taste, and touch
Sorting your mind contains countless bits and pieces of
receive stimuli that are changed into nerve impulses and then
information. In any particular processing situation, you must first
sent to the brain. These external receptors are located on or near
select or sort the most relevant information from your entire
the bodys surface and react to physical, chemical, and mechanical
storehouse of knowledge. Here again we know very little about
stimuli to provide you with information about the environment.
the actual workings of our individual selection systems. We do
Internal receptors such as nerve endings, on the other hand, convey
know, however, that such selection processes occur. For example,
information about your interior statethe dryness of your mouth
when we read, we sort the letters until we are able to make words
or the fullness of your stomach, for example.
of them.
Processing
Assimilation Cognitive processing is not simply the sum of
Processing of internal and external communication occurs at three
memory storage, retrieval, and sorting functions. Rather, it involves
levels: cognitive, emotional, and physiological. At each level of
assimilation, the process of incorporating some aspect of the
processing, some stimuli receive more conscious attention than
environment into the whole set of mental functioning in order to
others. This attention is a function of the particular stimulus and
make sense out of what goes on around us. To continue our
of the context in which it is presented. Some stimuli are perceived
reading example, your ability to read was first learned, then stored
with full awareness (traffic lights, sirens, TV programs), while
in long-term memory. Whenever you open a book, you retrieve
others may not be consciously noticed (background noise during
this information, use it to sort the letters on the page into words,
a lecture, the hum of fluorescent lights in a room). Stimuli that are
and then assimilate the words into sentences and ideas that have
perceived consciously, or at least with some awareness are the first
meaning for you.
15
Emotional Processing. As mentioned at the beginning of this calm, you might have been able to analyze and profit from the
chapter, intrapersonal processing also involves emotional information? On the other hand, some individuals insist on
processing, or the nonlogical response of an organism to a processing information on the cognitive level when an emotional
stimulus. Later in this chapter we will take a closer look at the response would actually be more helpful. Often a good cry can
different variables that operate in emotional processing. However, relieve the pressure of a bad day better than a careful rehash of the
it is important to mention here that variables, ranging from days events.
attitudes, beliefs, and opinions at the subconscious level to The effects of intrapersonal variables on communication
emotions at the conscious level, all interact to determine our
Even though a particular communication may focus on the here
response to any particular communication.
and now, your personality and past experience influence your
Physiological Processing. The third type of processing occurs at interpretation of it. Thus, it is important to consider the
the physiological level and is associated with the physical self. intrapersonal factors that influence the communicators. For
Although physiological processing is of obvious importance in example, the experiences of someone who has recently lost a close
staying alive, its significance to intrapersonal communication is friend will no doubt affect that persons communication on the
only beginning to be recognized. Some of the subconscious subject of death.
variables in this process are heart rate, brain activity, muscle tension,
blood pressure, and body temperature. Personal Orientation
The way you react to the following situation will be determined by
Transmission :
your personal orientation. Warren and Jerry are interviewing for
The process by which messages are sent from a source to a receiver the job of advertising copywriter in a large advertising agency.
is called transmission. In intrapersonal communication the source Neither of them has had any experience, but both come to the
and the receiver are the same person. Thus, transmission takes interview prepared to show samples of the kind of work they are
place through nerve impulses in their brain rather than through capable of producing. Jerrys samples much talent but very little
sound waves in the air or words written on a page. The intrapersonal efforthe lifted them almost word for word from a textbook.
communication cycle is completed when the brain reacts to these How do you feel about Jerry and Warren? Do you respect Jerry for
nerve impulses by transmitting a message to smooth muscles, his honesty and hard work, or do you appreciate Warrens craftiness
which regulate the movements of the body. Putting a hand on a in trying to get the kind of job he wants? Your reaction to this
hot pan causes the individuals touch receptors to send a neural situation reflects the values, attitudes, beliefs, and opinions that
transmission to the brain, saying, Its hot, which causes the make up your personal orientation.
brain to transmit a message to the muscles in hand, ordering,
Values. Each of us maintains a set of values moral or ethical
Move away from the pan immediately.
judgments of things we consider important. Values can be a source
Feedback of conflict within an individual as well as a barrier between people
We usually think of feedback as information from another person. of opposing standards. Fearing a malpractice suit, for instance, a
In intrapersonal communication, however, there are two kinds of doctor who comes upon an accident victim may be reluctant to
self-feedbackexternal and internal. offer assistance. The doctors values will determine what action is
External self-feedback is the part of your message that you hear taken. Sometimes an individual will voice one set of values and be
yourself. This kind of feedback enables you to correct your own guided by another. For example, parents may scold their children
mistakes. For example, you would surely backtrack if you heard for dishonesty but think nothing of cheating on their income tax.
yourself say something like external self-feed back. Attitudes. An attitude is a learned tendency to react positively or
Internal self-feedback is usually picked up through bone negatively to an object or situation. It implies a positive or negative
conduction, nerve endings, or muscular movement. For example, evaluation of someone or something. Attitudes operate at three
you might perceive an awkward facial gesture without actually different levels: (1) cognitive, (2) affective, and (3) instrumental.
seeing itsimply by feeling the muscle tension in your face. Again, The cognitive level involves a particular belief, the affective level
perceiving this information enables you to correct yourself. involves a particular feeling, and the instrumental level involves
overt behavior or action.
Interference
Lets examine a specific situation. Carlotta Ramirez, a member of
Interference is another important variable in the communication the state board of higher education, is a strong opponent of free
process. Interference refers to any factor that negatively affects tuition. Her negative attitude toward the topic can be broken
communication. It can occur at any point along the communication down in this way:
network and at any level of communication. For example, the
Cognitive (belief): People who value a college education should be
blast of your roommates TV or a splitting headache might make
willing to pay for it, even if it means going to work to go enough
it impossible for you to read.
money for tuition.
A special form of interference occurs intrapersonally when stimuli
Affective (feeling): People who try to get something for nothing
are processed at one level, although another level is better suited
make me angry.
to dealing with them. For example, many people react emotionally
to information that should be processed on a cognitive level. Instrumental (action): I vote no on the proposal for free tuition at
Have you ever started crying or gotten angry in response to a state universities.
teachers comments on your paper, when if you had remained
16
Beliefs, Opinions, and Prejudices. A Belief is anything accepted as Notes

true. Note that this definition does not imply either a positive or
negative judgment. For example, you may believe that there is life
on other planets, yet this belief does not indicate a positive or
negative attitude toward that idea. However, if you were to take
your belief one step further to say that since you believe there is
life on other planets, it would be in our best interests to increase
space exploration programs, you would then be voicing an opinion.
An opinion lies somewhere between an attitude and a belief. It
implies a positive or negative reaction.
Not all out beliefs and opinions are well founded. Sometimes
they are based on preconceived ideas and not on our own actual
experiences. In this case they are, in fact, prejudicespreformed
judgments about a particular person, group, or thing. None of us
is free from prejudice, but certain prejudices are more harmful
than others. Think for a moment about your own experiences
with prejudice, when you were either guilty of prejudice or were its
victim. Or consider this example of how foolish our prejudices
can be:
Although it was against her principles, Ruth had agreed to help a
good friend out of a tight spot by accepting a blind date with the
friends uncle from Louisiana. Ruth, who had never been south
of Philadelphia, just knew that an evening spent with this hick
was going to be one of the of the most boring of her life.
He arrived, and, sure enough, his accent was unlike anything Ruth
had everheard. By evenings end, however, she had changed her
mind. Full of administration for the most interesting and
beautifully mannered man she had ever met. Ruth eagerly awaited
their next date.
He never called again. A few weeks later, Ruth learned from her
friend that he had returned to New Orleans and, before leaving,
had announced: All Yankee women are alikehard to please!
Think about the groups toward which you may be prejudiced.
Does this example suggest ways in which you may be
oversimplifying to the point of prejudice?
Review questions
What are different types of communication?
Explain how intrapersonal communication is basis of all
communication-taking place in variety of settings?
Suggested Readings
Publishing House
Raymond Zeuschner: Communicating Today, Allyn and
Bacon
Barker/ Gaut: Communication, Allyn and Bacon
17
LESSON 5
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Introduction occurs when two people interact face-to-face. This limited definition
The social self-meets anothers self as you take your internal suggests that if two people are interacting, then they are
messages and send them out. When you turn from thinking, interpersonally communicating. Today, interpersonal
dreaming, and other internal forms of communication, its time communication is defined not just by the number of people who
to step out and face the world and connect with other people. Of today, not just the number of people who communicate but
course, you never leave the self behind, just as you can often recall define interpersonal communication also by the quality of the
your dreams during the day. Interpersonal communication is like communication. Interpersonal communication occurs not just
breathing; it is requirement for life. And, like breathing, it is when we interact with someone, but when we treat the other as a
inescapable. Unless you like to live in isolation, you communicate unique human being. It describes more intimate level of
interpersonally everyday. Listening to your roommate, talking to communication in which we disclose personal information that
teacher, meeting for lunch with a friend, or talking to your father cannot be known by another unless we tell him or her. When to
are all examples of interpersonal communication. Even before we ask a waiter in a restaurant for a glass of water, you communicate.
are born, we respond to movement and sound. With are first cry But you interact with the role not with the individual. You know
we announce to others that we are here. Without interpersonal nothing about personal about him, and he knows nothing
communication, a special form of human communication that personal about you. Although interpersonal communication is
occurs as we manage our relationships, people suffer and even die. more intimate and includes revealing more of yourself than
Most people spend between 80-90% of their waking hours impersonal communication, not all-interpersonal communication
communicating with others. It is through these interactions with involves sharing closely guarded personal information.
others that we develop interpersonal relationships. Because these Interpersonal communication involves simultaneous interaction
relationships are so important in our lives, we develop, sustain between individuals. When you communicate with someone
and sometimes end them. interpersonally, both participants are acting on information that
Interpersonal communication can be viewed in a variety of ways, has originated with the other person at the same time. This
each of which can help us to better understand the overall simultaneous interaction may or may not involve words. The
communication process. Interpersonal communication can occur interaction may be fleeting or enduring. While you are talking and
in any environment, be it formal or informal. Most of the your mother is listening, you are also observing your mothers
Interpersonal messages are informal, however, and stem from nonverbal expression. Just because she is not speaking does not
everyday, face-to face encounters. With the exception of telephone mean she is not communicating. A simultaneous exchange occurs
conversations, most of the Interpersonal communication involves as you talk and she listens. She not only hears what you have to
people close enough to see and touch each other. This makes say, but also observes how you say it. Or, suppose you catch
sending and receiving messages much easier and eliminates the someones eye in a crowded bus and you both smile at each other
need for the kind of formal rules followed in debates, news at the same time. Without exchanging words, you have
conferences, or other public speaking situations. communicated simultaneously. Interpersonal communication is
not a one-way process of sending information to others back and
Interpersonal communication is the sharing of feelings and ideas
forth in a linear fashion, but a process in which both individuals
with other people. Most interpersonal messages are informal
simultaneously affect each other. Affecting each other points to
exchanges. The potential of sending, receiving and evaluating
the third element in our definition of interpersonal
messages is shared between the people. Managing interpersonal
communication, mutual influence.
relationships involves a number of factors. For example, the
people involved often bring personality and environmental factors Interpersonal communication involves mutual influence between
into the interpersonal setting. individuals. Mutual influence means that both partners are affected
by the interactions, not just one person. For example. Suppose
Defining Interpersonal Communication your bus traveling companion doesnt see you smile. This is not
Interpersonal communication is a special form of human really interpersonal, because there is no mutual interaction; only
communication that occurs when we interact simultaneously with you have been affected by the communication. Interpersonal
another person and mutually influence each other, usually for the communication is that special circumstance in which both
purpose of managing relationships. Four elements of this individuals are affecting the other. When both you and the other
definition determine the unique nature of interpersonal bus passenger see and respond to each other, there is mutual
communication apart from other forms of human influence; each of you is changed as a result of the other persons
communication. action. Interpersonal communication has occurred. The degree of
Interpersonal communication is a special form of human mutual influence varies a great deal from interaction to interaction.
communication. For several years many scholars defined You probably would not be affected a great deal by a brief smile
interpersonal communication simply as communication that from a bus traveling companion, but would be greatly affected by
18
your lover telling you he or she is leaving you. Every interpersonal interpersonal communication may not unravel all of the mysteries

communication interaction influences us. Sometimes it changes of romantic love and friendship, but it can offer insight into our
our lives dramatically, sometimes in small ways. Long-lasting behaviors.
interpersonal relationships are sustained not by one person giving Being skilled in interpersonal communication can improve our
and another taking, but by mutually satisfying communication. relationships with colleagues.
Interpersonal communication is the fundamental means we use In many ways, our colleagues at work are like family members.
to manage our relationships. An interpersonal relationship is the Although we choose our friends and lovers, we dont always have
ongoing connection we make with others through interpersonal the same flexibility in choosing those with whom or for whom
communication. Later in this chapter we describe fundamental we work. Understanding how relationships develop on the job
principles of interpersonal relationships, and Chapters 9 and 10 can help us avoid conflict and stress and increase our sense of
more fully describe the nature and development of our satisfaction. In addition, our success or failure in a job often hinges
relationships with others. It is through our interpersonal contacts on how well we get along with supervisors and peers.
with others that our relationships go through a series of
Being skilled in interpersonal communication can improve our
developmental stages. The initial stages of a relationship often
physical and emotional health. Research has shown that the lack
involve sharing less intimate or personal information. Later stages
or loss of a close relationship can lead to ill health and even death.
evolve to include more intimate conversations and behaviors. We
Physicians have long observed that patients who are widowed or
initiate and form relationships by communicating with those
divorced experience more medical problems such as heart disease,
whom we find attractive in some way. We seek to increase our
cancer, pneumonia, and diabetes than do married people.
interactions with those with whom we wish to further develop
relationships, and we continually interpersonally communicate to How to Improve Interpersonal Communication?
maintain the relationship. We also use interpersonal Now that we have previewed the study of interpersonal
communication to end relationships that we have decided are no communication, you may be asking yourself, Well, thats all well
longer viable. We can usually identify the stage of a relationship by and good, but what do I have to do to improve my own
simply observing the interpersonal communication we interact interpersonal communication? I suggest a five-part strategy.
differently as we move toward or away from intimacy. Your
Be Knowledgeable
interactions with a new acquaintance are different from those with
Competent communicators are knowledgeable. They know how
a close friend. When interacting with a stranger you stand farther
communication works. They understand the components,
apart, use different words, are more likely to feel awkward, and are
principles, and rules of the communication process. Understanding
less certain about how to interpret body language than when you
these things is a necessary prerequisite for enhancing your
interact with a good friend.
interpersonal effectiveness, but this kind of knowledge alone does
The Importance of Interpersonal not make you competent. You would not let someone fix your
Communication to Our Lives cars carburetor if he or she had only read a book. Knowledge
Why learn about interpersonal communication? Because it touches must be coupled with skill. And we acquire skill through practice
every aspect of our lives. It is not only pleasant or desirable to Be Skilled
develop quality interpersonal relationships with others; it is vital Competent communicators know how to translate knowledge
for our well-being. Learning how to understand and improve into action. You can memorize the characteristics of a good listener
interpersonal communication can improve our relationships with but still not listen well. To develop skill requires practice and helpful
family and loved ones; friends, and colleagues and can enhance the feedback from others who can confirm the appropriateness of
quality of our physical and emotional health. your actions. Learning a social skill is not that different from learning
Being skilled in interpersonal communication can improve how to drive a car or operate a computer. To learn any skill, you
relationships with our family. Learning principles and skills of must break it down into sub skills that you can learn and practice.
interpersonal communication can give us insight as to why we Hear it, see it, do it, correct it is the formula that seems to work
relate to others as we do. Our interaction with our parents deeply best for learning any new behaviors.
affected our self-concept. Did they praise or ignore achievements
Be Motivated
and accomplishments? As we will learn in the next chapter, our
Practicing skills requires work. You need to be motivated to use
self-concept plays a major role in determining how we interact
your information and skill. You must want to improve, and you
with others.
must have a genuine desire to connect with others if you wish to
Being skilled in interpersonal communication can improve become a competent communicator. You may know people who
relationships with our friends. We dont choose our biological understand how to drive a car and have the skill to drive, yet are
families, but we do choose our friends. Friends are people we reluctant to get behind the wheel. Or maybe you know someone
choose to be with because we like them and usually they like us. who took a course in public speaking but is still too frightened to
For unmarried people, developing friendships and falling in love stand in front of a crowd. Similarly, someone may pass a test
are the top-rated sources of satisfaction and happiness in life.6 about interpersonal communication principles with flying colors,
Conversely, losing a relationship is among lifes most stressful but unless that person is motivated to use those newfound skills,
events. Most individuals between the ages of nineteen and twenty- his or her interactions with others m not improve.
four report that they have had from five to six romantic
relationships and have been in love once or twice? Studying
19
Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication
1. Interpersonal communication is fully transactional. As

communicators, each party uses verbal and nonverbal symbols
and signs to construct messages around his/her intended
meanings. At the same time the receiver brings similar, or
possibly different, meanings to task of receiving and
interpreting that message. Information is sent back in the form
of feedback and each communicator adjusts by role- taking for
next phase of the process. Thus, each party simultaneously
influences the others behavior while being affected in return.
2. Interpersonal communicators share physical proximity.
Interpersonal communication takes place with two individuals
engaging in face-to- face interaction. This rules out all forms of
impersonal exchanges or those in which interaction is carried
on over longer distance. By being in close physical proximity,
communicators are able to increase their chances for
understanding each other accurately and efficiently.
3. Interpersonal communication is shaped by social roles. When
people are engaging in interpersonal communication, what they
are saying- that is, content- can be interpreted only within the
context of the roles that define their overall relationship. One
has to understand the nature of the relationship between the
two people- the role that each is playing and the relation between
them.
4. Interpersonal communication is uniquely irreversible. This is
particularly significant feature of messages in an interpersonal
context. There is no way to erase a regrettable message.
5. Interpersonal communication is unrepeatable.
Review Questions:
What are the three basic theories of Interpersonal
communication? Discuss how the theories help us in
understanding the functions of interpersonal
communication?
Suggested Readings
Publishing House
Bacon
Notes
20
LESSON 6
GROUP COMMUNICATION
What is a group? there is little escape. They, much more than mass media, are the
Communication scholars have provided many answers to this agents of change as well as of resistance to change.
deceptively simple question. Most groups consist of two or more Types of groups
people who repeatedly interact together, regulating their conduct Clearly, a dimension of groups is their longevity, whether they
and communication within some set of rules that they mutually are short term or long term. Another dimension is their
recognize and follow. significance to us and the resulting frequency of interaction that
What is a Group ? entails. Those groups that you spend most time with are
referred to as primary groups, with secondary groups as those
A group is any number of people who have a common goal,
with which you have intermittent contact.
interact with one another to accomplish their goal, recognize one
anothers existence, and see themselves as a part of group. To test The group that is most intimate and close is known as the primary
our definition lets consider one example- people in que outside a group. Such for instance are the family, the peer group, the gang or
theatre. Is this a group? Certainly these people have a common the clique. The three conditions that give rise to primary groups is:
goal; they all are waiting to see a particular film. But these people (1) a close physical proximity, (2) the small size of the group,
need to interact with one another to accomplish their goal, although which makes for face to face association and co-operation, and (3)
each may be very aware of the presence of other in line. Now, if the lasting nature of the bond or a relationship like that between,
someone were to try to sneak in at the front of the line and people wife and children.
made a unified effort to keep the crasher out, we could say during The secondary or peer group, on the other hand, is characterized
that period of time the random collection of people became a by a less close relationship between members. Although secondary
group. Looking at our definition, the unified effort to block the groups sometimes provide pleasant human relationships,
line crasher would call for group interaction and awareness of sociability is ordinarily not their goal. So, while primary groups are
others. relationship oriented, secondary groups are goal-oriented and much
Groups are collections of people we habitually communicate with, less cohesive. Examples of secondary groups are: the college, the
often limiting and specific contexts. Hartley identified three types school, the various organizations and unions among others.
of the groups namely- family, friendship and work groups. Work Why do people join a group?
groups tend to be rather more formal than the other types. Some People join groups for a variety of reasons. Some group
groups are ascribed (like our families) and some are achieved members are motivated by task concerns and others are
(like the membership of clubs/teams). Some groups are large motivated by interpersonal attraction to other group members.
and others are small. Moreover, within friendship groups there is
Group Synergy
considerable variation of intensity and commitment, which may
Group synergy refers to the idea that two heads (or more) are
result partly from how well we established these groups are.
better than one. You may have also heard the phrase, The
Group can be termed as descriptive term that can be applied to a whole is greater than the sum of its parts, which also refers to
wide variety of communication practices. In terms of personal group synergy. Put simply, groups are often capable of produc-
communication, it is fair to say that we are mostly engaged in- ing higher quality work and better decisions that can an
group communication, communication with or within groups. individual working alone.
There is a significant amount of redundancy or predictability in
personal communication in groups- established routines, patterns, Support and Commitment
even networks of communication that we occupy. A group may be more willing to take on a large project than
would an individual. In addition to its increased ability to
According to Burton and Dimbleby (1995) if there is no interaction
perform work, the group can provide encouragement and
between the individuals, then a group cannot be formed. Group
support to its members while working on a big project.
shares common interests, goals and purposes. Groups share
common values and norms. OSullivian et.al. (1994) define norms Interpersonal Needs
as those sets of social rules, standards and expectations that both Individuals often join a group to meet their interpersonal needs.
generate and regulate social interaction and communication. In William Schutz2 has identified three such needs: inclusion, control,
most of the groups these norms are unwritten and unspoken. and affection.
A social group is any number of people who share a consciousness Inclusion is the need to establish identity with others.
of membership and of interaction. Thus we belong to social Control is the need to exercise leadership and prove ones abilities.
groups like family, the community, the caste, the trade union, the Groups provide outlets for this need. Some individuals do not
professional associations, political parties, student bodies, want to be a leader. For them, groups provide the necessary control
graduates, teachers and the like. Groups are vital reality from which over aspects of their lives.
21
Affection is the need to develop relationships with people. Groups from trivial to critical aspects of groups life. Norms grow directly
are an excellent way to make friends and establish relationships. out of interaction. More inconsequential norms may regulate
meeting time and whether eating is allowed during meetings.
Features of group
We need to understand influences on participation in groups as Potential Limitations and Strengths of Groups
well as the influence of communication itself on group process Limitations
and productivity. Well consider five features of group that affect The two most significant disadvantages of group are the time
and are affected by participation. required for group process and the potential of conformity
Cohesion pressures to interfere with high-quality work from groups. In a
Cohesion is the degree of closeness among members and sense group discussion, however, all members have an opportunity to
of group spirit. In highly cohesive groups, members see voice their ideas and to respond to the ideas others put forward. It
themselves as tightly linked and committed to share goals. This takes substantial time for each person to describe ideas, clarify
results in satisfaction than members of non-cohesive units feel. misunderstandings, and respond to questions or criticisms. In
High cohesion and satisfaction it generates tend to increase addition, groups require time to deliberate about alternative
members commitment to a group and its goals. Cohesion grows courses of action.Groups also have the potential to suppress
out of communication that builds group identity and creates a individuals and encourage conformity. Members have ethical
climate of inclusion for all members. Cohesion and participation responsibility to communicate in ways that encourage expression
are reciprocal in their influence. Cohesion is promoted when all of diverse ideas and open debate about different viewpoints.
members are involved and communicating in the group. At the Strengths
same time, because cohesiveness generates a feeling of identity
The primary potential strengths of groups in comparison to
and involvement, once established it fosters participation.
individuals are greater resources, more thorough thought,
Although cohesion is important for effective group heightened creativity, and enhanced commitment to decisions. A
communication, excessive cohesion can actually undermine sound group exceeds any individual in the ideas, perspectives, experiences,
group work. When members are too close, they may be less critical and expertise it can bring to bear solving a problem. Groups also
of each others ideas and less willing to engage in analysis and tend to be more thorough than individuals, probably because
arguments that are necessary to develop the best outcomes. members check and balance each other.
Members tend to perceive their group so positively that they assume
it cannot take bad decisions. Consequently, members do not Challenges of communicating in groups
critically screen ideas generated in deliberations. The predictable For groups to realize their potential strengths members must
result is group outcomes that are inferior and that often fail. meet a number of communication challenges.
Group size Participating constructively- There are four kinds of communication
in groups- task, procedural, climate and egocentric. First three are
The number of people in-group affects the amount and quality
constructive in nature because they foster good group climate and
of communication. In a group of five people, each idea must be
outcomes. Task communication focuses on the problem, issues,
received and interpreted by four others, each of whom may respond
or information before a group. It provides ideas and information,
with comments that that four others must receive and interpret.
clarifies members understanding, and critically evaluates ideas.
As the group size increases, the contributions of each member
tend to decrease. It can be hard to get your ideas in, and the sheer If you have ever participated in a disorganized group, you
number of people contributing ideas can mean that no idea receives understand the importance of Procedural communication. It helps
much feedback. Because participation is linked to commitment, a group get organized and stay on track in its decision-making.
larger groups may generate less commitment to group outcomes Procedural contributions establish an agenda, coordinate comments
than smaller groups. of different members, and record group progress.
With too few members a group has limited resources, which A group is more than a task unit. It is also people who are involved
diminishes a primary value of group decision-making. in a relationship that can be more or less pleasant and open.
Climate communication focuses on creating and maintaining a
Power structure constructive climate that encourages members to contribute freely
Power is the ability to influence others to reach their goals. People and to evaluate ideas critically.
who empower others do not emphasize their status. Instead they Egocentric communication or dysfunctional communication is
act behind the scenes to enlarge others influence and visibility and used to block others or to call attention to one. It detracts from
to help others succeed. It builds team spirit so that group members group progress because it is self-centered rather than group
are productive and satisfied. With in groups power may be earned centered. It doesnt contribute to enjoyable group interaction or
and distributed in distinct ways. Power may result from position high-quality outcomes.
(CEO, president, professor, best friend of the boss etc), or it may
Providing Leadership- all groups need leadership in order to be
be earned (demonstrated competence or expertise).
effective. Leadership may be provided either by one member or by
Group Norms several members who contribute to guiding group process and
Norms are guidelines that regulate how members act, as well as ensuring effective outcomes. Leadership exists when one or more
how they interact with each other. Group norms control everything members communicate in order to establish a good working
22
climate, organize group processes, and ensure that discussion is

substantive. The person who guides the group at the outset may
not be the one who advances the groups work in the later phases.
Depending on what a group needs at a specific time, different
leadership functions are appropriate and may come from different
members. Even when an official leader exists, other members
may contribute much of the communication that provides
leadership to a group.
Managing conflict constructively- in-group communication conflict
stimulates thinking, helps members consider diverse perspectives,
and enlarges members understanding of issues involved in
making decisions and generating ideas. Constructive conflict occurs
when members understand that disagreements are natural and
can help them achieve their shared goals. Communication that
expresses respect for diverse opinions reflects this attitude.
Members also emphasize shared interests and goals. To encourage
constructive conflict, communication should demonstrate
openness to different ideas, willingness to alter opinions when
good reasons exist, and respect for the integrity of other members
and views they express.
Review questions
Discuss types of groups in detail. Explain why do people
join groups?
Explain what are the difficulties people normally face while
communicating in a group?
Suggested Readings
Publishing House
Bacon
Notes
23
LESSON 7
MASS COMMUNICATION
Introduction forms and convey multiple messages. He introduced the two types
Mass communication can be defined as the process of using a of communication content,
mass medium to send message to large audiences for the purpose cognitive and affective, and discussed intrapersonal, interpersonal,
of informing, entertaining or persuading. and mass
The transmission of messages, which may be processed by communication as the three levels of communications. Professor
gatekeepers prior to being sent to large audiences via a channel of Trotter described the
broad diffusion.
different functions of mass communication, including
Communication from one person or group of persons through entertaining, informing,
a transmitting device (a medium) to a large audience or market.
persuading, providing economic support, and developing a
Includes journalism, programmes in radio and television
common foundation. As he
broadcasting, public relations, communications arts, library science,
programmes for technicians in museums and similar repositories, explored these functions of media, Trotter raised several
documentation techniques. provocative historical and
The term mass communication, which was coined at the end of philosophical issues.
the 1930s, has too many connotations to allow of a simple agreed The requirement of communication is to have a common
definition. The word mass is itself value laden and controversial, understanding or
and the term communication still has no agreed definition- experience on the subject matter; and historically, it has been a role
although Gerbners (1976) social interaction through messages of the media to help
is hard to beat for succinctness. The term mass denotes great
in developing this common understanding or experience.
volume, range, or extent (of people or production), while
However, the media are in
communication refers to the giving and taking of meaning, the
transmission and reception of messages. threat of demassification. The messages that are being sent are
becoming more
One early definition (Janowitz, 1968) reads as follows: mass
communications comprise the institutions and techniques by specialized, focusing on smaller groups and are no longer
which specialized groups employ technological devices (press, radio, establishing that common
films, etc.) to disseminate symbolic content to large, heterogeneous ground for large and diverse audiences to understand. Trotter
and widely dispersed audiences. In this and similar definitions, expressed regret at this
the word communication is really equated with transmission, trend, but he seemed to see it as inevitable. How will this affect
as viewed by the sender, rather than in the fuller meaning of the media? Will it cause
term, which includes the notions of response, sharing and
media to become weaker and lose its influence on large groups?
interaction.
The philosophical issue that he introduced without really intending
Everyday experience with mass communication is extremely varied.
to is the
It is also voluntary and usually shaped by culture and by the
requirements of ones way of the social environment. The diversity existence or nonexistence of truth. The media that we are exposed
of technology- mediated communication relationships is increasing to on a daily basis all
as a result of new technology and new applications. have a level of bias, whether its from the motives of companies
Life in a modern society is impossible without constant exposure that are trying to
to mass communication. persuade us to buy their products or from the mindsets of
reporters who are informing us
An Overview of Mass Communication
Gaining a common understanding is the basis of all successful of current events. Professor Trotter made the comment that there
communication. To prepare us for a semester-long discussion of is no such thing as truth.
the impact and responsibility of media and mass communica- He explained that the truth and meaning behind everything that
tion, Professor Trotter gave a presentation that laid the foundation is communicated to
for our understanding and evaluation of media and mass com- audiences, from the intention of the sender(s) to the interpretation
munication. His presentation also provoked questions about these of the receiver(s) is
broad topics. Professor Trotter provided an overview of media
relative. He also mentioned that messages are delivered in a variety
and mass communication by introducing several concepts in com-
of social contexts,
munication. As a communication professor, he made sure to stress
that media is not a collective noun; that the media take different and messages are interpreted differently depending on the social
context they come out of
24
and become a part of. Mass audiences The size and diversity of mass audiences add

Professor Trotter did a great job of developing that common complexity to mass communication. Only indirectly do mass
understanding of media and mass communication to prepare us communicators learn whether their messages have been received.
for the rest of the semester and the Townhall Meeting; however, Mass communicators are never sure exactly of the size of audiences,
his presentation did bring up some questions that we would like let alone of the effect of their message. Mass audiences are fickle.
to see further discussed : The challenge of trying to communicate to a mass audience is
even more complex because people are tuning in and tuning out
Are the purveyors of mass communication aware of and
all the time, and when they are tuned in, it is with varying degrees
adequately prepared for the growing role they are assuming in
of attentiveness.
the child-rearing process, particularly in America?
Mass media the mass media are the vehicles that carry mass
If the media (rather than actively involved parents) are
messages. The primary mass media are, newspapers, television,
responsible for raising many of our countrys youths, what
radio, movies, web books and magazines. The people who are
types of morals and values do you think are being instilled?
experts at media include technicians who keep the presses running
Do the media, the news in particular, focus too much on and who keep the television transmitters on the air. Media experts
entertaining their audiences and not enough on actually also are tinkers and inventors who come up with technical
informing them? Are the news stories we see guided by the improvements, such as compact discs, AM stereo radio and
importance of the situation, or are they simply after ratings? newspaper among others.
Would the American public remain engaged in the news if it
Today there is no doubt the importance of mass communication
were not as entertaining?
in society. Both layman and social scientists typically document
Is it possible that the media is responsible for the deterioration this by three forms of measurement: (1) the media as setters of
of societys morals and ethics by distorting the prevalence of public opinion and political agendas, (2) the place of media in
crimes and violence, thereby causing the perpetuation of the everyday life, (3) the share of mass and telecommunication in the
perception that violence and crimes are more common than national economies. Each of these offers impressive data, and
they really are? taken together they show how central a role mass communication
If big businesses and corporations primarily control media, indeed plays in society today.
does this imply that the information that the publics receive
Functions of mass communication
even news and magazinesare adjusted to the motives of the
Mass media usually are thought of as sources of news and enter-
CEOs and Board of Directors? New FCC regulations allow
tainment. They also carry messages of persuasion. Important,
companies to own larger portions of media; how will these
though often overlooked, is how mass messages bind people
regulations affect the content and messages from the media?
into communities, even into nations. The mass media serves
Why is it a bad thing that medias function of developing a many functions for our society. The five elements the theorists
common basis of experience is fading away? put together describe the audiences use for the media. Surveil-
Components of mass communication lance means that the media provides news and information.
Mass communication is the process that mass communicators Correlation means that the media presents the information to us
use to send their mass messages to mass audiences. They do after they select, interpret, and criticize it. The cultural transmis-
this through the mass media. Think of these as the five Ms: sion function means that the media reflects our own beliefs, values,
mass communicators, mass messages, mass media, mass and norms. Media also entertains us in our free time and provides
communication and mass audience. an escape from everyday life. Mobilization refers to the media
function of promoting societys interest especially in times of
Mass communicators- the heart of mass communication is the
crisis.
people who produce the messages that are carried in the mass
media. These people include journalists, public relation Surveillance & Information-
practitioners, and advertisers among others. Providing information about events and conditions in society
Mass communicators are unlike other communicators because and the world.
they cannot see their audience. This communication with an unseen Indicating relations of power
audience distinguishes mass communication from other forms Facilitating innovation, adaptation and progress.
of communication. Sales people do presentations of their stories
Of all the media functions, this one is probably the most obvious.
face to face, and they could adjust their pacing and gestures and
Surveillance to what we popularly call the news and information
even their vocabulary to how they sensed they were being received.
role of the media. The have taken the place of sentinels and
Mass communicators dont have the advantage.
lookouts. Correspondents for wire service networks, and
Mass messages a news item is a mass message, as are a movie, a newspapers are located across the globe. These individuals collect
novel, a recorded song and billboard advertisement. The message information for us that we couldnt get for ourselves. Their reports
is the most apparent part relationship to the mass media. It is for are funneled back to mass media organizations that, in turn,
the messages that we pay attention to the media. We dont listen produce a radio or TV newscast or newspaper or magazine.
to the radio, for example, to marvel at the technology but to hear
The surveillance function can be divided further into two main
music.
types. Warning or beware surveillance occurs when the media inform
us about threats from hurricanes, erupting volcanoes, depressed
25
economic conditions, increasing inflation military attack. These hand to interpret for us the meaning behind what is going on.
warnings can be about immediate threats (a television station During the Gulf War, CNN and the networks brought in dozens
interrupts programming to broadcast a tornado warning), or they of experts on topics ranging from military hardware to oil field
can be about term or chronic threats (a newspaper series about air operation to interpret the meaning of the days events. The
pollution or unemployment). There is, however, much interpretation function can also be found in media content that at
information that is not particularly threatening to society that first glance might appear to be purely entertainment. Free Willy
people might like to know about. The second type, called contained a certain viewpoint about ecology and the ethics of
instrumental Surveillance, has to do with the transmission of keeping wild animals in captivity.
information that is useful and helpful in everyday life. News about What are the consequences of the mass medias performing this
what films are playing at the local theaters, stock market prices, function? First, the individual is exposed to a large number of
new products, fashion ideas, recipes, and so on, are examples of different points of view, probably far more than he or she could
instrumental surveillance. Note also that not all examples of come in contact with through personal channels. Because of this,
surveillance occur in what we traditionally label the news media. a person (with some effort) can evaluate all sides of an issue
Readers Digest performs a surveillance function (most of it before arriving at an opinion. Additionally, the media make available
instrumental). to the individual a wide range of expertise that he or she might
Interpretation & Correlation- not have access to through interpersonal communication. Should
Explaining, interpreting and commenting on the meaning of we change the funding structure of Social Security? Thanks to the
events and information. media, a person can read or hear the views of various economists,
political scientists, politicians, and government workers.
Providing support for established authority and norms.
Closely allied with the surveillance function is the interpretation Continuity & Socializing-
function. The mass communications do not supply just facts and Coordinating separate activities. Consensus building. Setting
data. They also provide information on the ultimate meaning and orders of priority and signaling relative status. Expressing the
significance of those events. One form of interpretation is so dominant culture and recognizing subcultures and new cultural
obvious that many people overlook it. Not everything that happens developments. Forging and maintaining commonality of values.
in the world on any given day can be included in the newspaper or The transmission of the social heritage from one generation to
in a TV or radio newscast. Media organizations select those events the next. The function to perpetuate values and cultures of the
that are to be given time or space and decide how much prominence society.
they are to be given. Those stories that are given page-one space The transmission of values is a subtle but nonetheless important
and eight-column headlines are obviously judged to be more function of the mass media. It has also been called the socialization
important than those items that are given two paragraphs on function. Socialization refers to the (ways in which an individual
page twelve. In a TV newscast, those stories that are given two comes to adopt the behavior and values of a group. The (mass
minutes at the beginning of the show are deemed more media present portrayals of our society, and by watching, listening,
newsworthy than the item that gets two minutes toward the end. and reading we learn how people are supposed to act and what
Stories that ultimately make it into the paper or the newscast have values are important. The mass media also teach us about people;
been judged by the various gatekeepers involved to be more they show us how they act and what is expected of them. In other
important that those that didnt make it. words, the media present us with role models that we may observe
Another example of this function can be found on the editorial and perhaps imitate. A study in America once indicated that many
pages of a newspaper. Interpretation, comment, and opinion are adolescents learned about dating behavior by watching films and
provided for the reader so that he or she gains an added perspective television programs that featured this activity.
on the news stories carried on other pages. Perhaps an elected It is this function, which helps us in relating ourselves with our
official has committed some impropriety. An editorial might call past and present. Our role in society, our country, its history and
for that persons resignation, thus demonstrating that the the most important cultural values. Indian culture is valued
management of the newspaper considers this impropriety to be through out the world. Mythology based serials like Ramayana;
serious. A newspaper might endorse one candidate for public Mahabharta etc help us and our children to learn more and more
office over another, thereby indicating that at least in the papers about Indian history and culture. Also, such programme helps in
opinion, the available information indicates that this individual is clarifying the basic concepts of religion and customs.
more qualified than the other.
Linkage & Mobilization-
Interpretation is not confined to editorials. Articles devoted to an
Campaigning for societal objectives in the sphere of politics, war,
analysis of the causes behind a particular event or a discussion of
economic development, work and sometimes religion.
implications of a new government policy are also examples of the
interpretation function. Why is the price of gasoline going up? The mass media are able to join together by interpersonal channels
What impact will a prolonged dry spell have on food prices? different elements of society that are not directly connected. For
Treatment of these topics may deal with more than the factual example, mass advertising attempts to link the needs of buyers
information that might be contained in a straight news story. with the products of sellers. Political leaders may try to keep in
Radio and television also carry programs or segments of programs touch with common man through various media. Voters, in turn,
that fall under this heading. At special events such as political learn about the doings of their elected officials through the same
conventions, rocket launches, and elections, commentators are on or other media. Mobilizing people for any social cause is also
26
comes under linkage function. For example, Times of India group,

Indian Express and all other media houses raised charity fund
when gujaratis lost their homes and belongings.
Another type of linkage occurs when geographically separated the
media links groups that share a common interest. The outbreak
of hostilities in the Persian Gulf linked together a whole nation
concerned about the safety of their friends and relatives in the
armed forces. Media usage reached record levels during the war as
people turned to TV; radio, newspapers, and magazines to learn
the latest war news. Similar function media performed on and
after 9/11.Social campaigns like AIDS awareness, Pulse Polio,
National Integration, Female infanticide are all examples of
mobilizing function.
Entertainment-
Providing amusement, diversion, and the means of relaxation.
Reducing social tension.
Another obvious media function is that of entertainment. Even
though most of a newspaper is devoted to covering the events of
the day, comics, puzzles, horoscopes, games, advice, gossip, humor,
and general entertainment features are there to entertain us.
Television is primarily devoted to entertainment, with about three-
quarters of a typical broadcast day falling into this category. Now a
day we do have complete 24-hour audiovisual channels devoted
for entertainment purpose only. In television we have MTV,
Channel V, B4U, Zee Music among others for music purpose
only. Similarly we have specialized movie channels like- Zee Cinema,
STAR movies, HBO, AXN etc. Even radio is not far behind. We
have Radio Mirchi, Red FM, Vividh Bharti among others
successfully and sincerely performing their function.
Review questions
Discuss types of groups in detail. Explain why do people join
groups?
Explain what are the difficulties people normally face while
communicating in a group?
Suggested Readings
Publishing House
Raymond Zeuschner: Communicating Today, Allyn and Bacon
Notes
27
UNIT III
LESSON 8 COMMUNICATION MODELS
ARISTOTLES MODEL
& LASWELLS MODEL
Introduction : The model proposed by Aristotle is a linear one. In his Rhetoric,

Technically communication is a process where a sender sends the Aristotle tells us that we must consider three elements in
message to a receiver through the various channels and with the communication:
same or the other channel sender gets the feedback from The speaker
receiver. In our previous lessons we learned about the different
The speech
types of communication, i.e., intrapersonal, interpersonal,
group and mass communication. Each type of communication The audience
includes few basic elements namely- sender, receiver, message,
channel, feedback and barrier. To simplify and understand the
process of communication different models are interpreted. A
model is a representation of real world phenomenon in more
abstract terms, which can be applied to different forms. This is a model that focuses principally on public speaking; we will
Students of communication often use models to try to present turn next to explore the Rhetorical Situation. This model will also
a simplified version of communication, containing the essential provide a basis for judging how effectively a speaker responds to
ingredients only. With a bit of luck, these models should help the requirements of a speaking situation. Aristotles model has a
us to tease out the factors, which are common to all forms of Speaker, so the emphasis is on personal debate. Rhetoric or
communication. Communication theory models offer a persuasive communication is based on the Greek model. Many
convenient way to think about communication, providing a models and theories of communication stem from this early one.
graphical checklist, which one can use to create anything from a If you just think for a moment about the variety of
speech to a major advertising campaign. Communication communication acts, you shouldnt have too much difficulty seeing
models are visualizations of communication process. They are those elements. In some cases, of course, Aristotles vocabulary
basic theories concerning the elements of communication and doesnt quite fit. In the example of you reading the newspaper,
how they operate and interact. no one is actually speaking as such, but if we use, say, the terms
writer and text, then Aristotles elements can still be found.
3 basic components that are part of all communication models:
SOURCE MESSAGE RECEIVER The Audience includes those who are listening to your speech.
Yet, not all audiences are the same. An astute speaker will carefully
S > M > R (linear)
assess the nature of the audience at hand to determine the best
Aristotles model of communication ways to address the audience. In thinking about the audience who
Formal communication theory (rhetorical theory) goes back 2500 will be listening to your speech, consider some of the following
years ago to Classical Greece when Plato, Aristotle, and the Soph- audience demographics:
ists were speech teachers. Classical Rhetoric . Early Greek society age
(Plato, Aristotle) began the study of communication. The social
sex
context, the societys structure leads to a certain picture of com-
munication. The study of communication in Greek society was family affiliation
called RHETORIC, and this was how Greek philosophers sexual orientation
thought about communication. Most politics then were based on cultural diversity
the oral tradition, you had to defend yourself before a court of
racial background
law, and nothing was really written. Public speaking was the basis
of society and effective public speaking was important. The word economic and social standing
SOPHIST (or applied communicator) comes from these times. political identification
These were clever people who were very effective debaters (nowa- religious or philosophical orientation
days it means someone who can trick you in a debate, someone
Depending on who makes up your audience, you will select and
sophisticated).
shape your topic. To be responsive to the unique audience gathered
The Greek tradition was continued and improved upon by the for your speech you will need to take into account how your
Romans, after which it remained static until the twentieth century. audience is predisposed on an emotional and psychological level
Indeed, Classical Rhetoric was and still is being taught today. to respond to you or your topic.
However, as a result of the proliferation of mass communications
It is also meaningful to consider the attitudes, beliefs and values
via radio, movies, and television, and of empirical scientific
of the audience that constitute the frame of reference members
methods, communication theory changed in the latter part of the
of the audience bring to the situation:
twentieth century.
An attitude is the predisposition to respond favorably or
unfavorably toward a topic.
28
A belief is a position or standard that audience members medium to a destination (audience) that, hopefully, creates the

hold as valid or truthful. desired effect. Claude Shannons model is similar, but more
A value is a deeply seated attitude commonly rooted in core graphical.
beliefs, usually about the intrinsic worth of something. Main characteristics of the model are:
Aristotle speaks of a communication process composed of a It is based on effect of the senders message on receiver.
speaker, a message and a listener. Note, he points out that the There is no feedback for the message.
person at the end of the communication process holds the key to
It is very linear in nature (researchers say communication is always
whether or not communication takes place. Our failure to recognize
in circular motion because of feedback element)
what Aristotle grasped thousands of years ago is a primary cause,
if not the primary one, for communication failure. We fail to It presents communication as more of persuasive process rather
recognize the importance of the audience at the end of the than an informative.
communication chain. We tend to be more concerned about Lasswells model sees communication as the transmission of
ourselves as the communications source, about our message, and messages: it raises the issue of effect rather than meaning. Effect
even the channel we are going to use. Too often, the listener, implies an observable and measurable change in the receiver that
viewer, reader fails to get any consideration at all. Aristotles words is caused by identifiable elements in the process. Changing one of
underscore the long interest in communication. They also indicate these elements will change the effect: we change the sender, we
that man has had a good grasp of what is involved in change the message, we change the channel: each one of these
communication for a long while. So we might even wonder: If we changes should produce the appropriate change in the effect.
know so much about the communication process, and if weve Lasswells was primarily concerned with mass communication. In
known it for so long, why do we still have communications every form of communication, though, there must be someone
problems? Its unlikely we will ever achieve perfect communication. (or something) that communicates.
The best we can hope for is to provide improved communication.
Being concerned with the mass media, Lasswell was particularly
Hopefully, well be more aware of the process and work harder to
concerned with the messages present in the media. This relates to
minimize problems with communications.
an area of study known as content research. Typically, content
research is applied to questions of representation, for example:
how are women represented in the tabloid press? or: how are
blacks represented on television? Or: how is our society represented
to us in the movies? Content research will often be a matter of
counting the number of occurrences of a particular representation
(for example, the housewife and mother who does not work
outside the home) and comparing that with some kind of
objective measure, such as official statistics.
One of the earliest attempts to describe the communication process
was Harold Lasswells Who says what to whom with what effect.
(Given our definition of communication and the General Systems
Lasswells model (1948) Theory, can you identify weakness in this model?). Lasswell was
Harold Lasswell a political scientist studied very carefully the attempting to describe his observations about the process and
American presidential Elections (1948). Based on his studies on effect of newspapers on readers. The newspaper reporter or editor
the process of political campaigning and propagandas he is the who, the story content is the says what. The format and
introduced an important model, elements of which survive in form of the newspaper item is the in what way. The to whom
more developed modern models. is the reader and the with what effect refers to actions motivated
Who in the reader from exposure to the newspaper item. Some people
might say this model doesnt include any provision for feedback
Says What
to determine the degree of understanding achieved in the process,
In Which Channel an important component of our definition.
To Whom Think about this a minute. If someone were to stop you in the
To What Effect parking lot and ask you directions to the nearest restaurant, you
might say, Go down this street to the traffic light. Turn left for
two blocks, then turn right. You have said something in a certain
way to the person who asked you for directions. This is what
Lasswell was describing. Then, he or she turns to leave. Can you
determine the degree to which they understood your message?
As we see, Lasswells communication model is similar to the other You can, to some extent, as Lasswell suggested in the last
models we will discuss. The Who is the Source; Says What, component. If you observe the person beginning to follow your
the message; and To Whom, the destination. Communications instructions, you might see him or her travel down the street to
have a source that communicates a message through a channel or the traffic light. If he or she turns left, you can assume she or he
29
understood your directions to some degree. If he or she turns sort of question when, reflecting on a comment someone has
right at the traffic light, you can assume he or she didnt understand just made.
or chose to ignore your direction. So by observation, you can
Lasswell: The Message
detect some level of understanding and compliance.
Being concerned with the mass media, Lasswell was particularly
The Lasswell Formula is typical of what are often referred to as
concerned with the messages present in the media. This relates
transmission models of communication. For criticisms of such
to an area of study known as content research. Typically, content
models, you should consult the section on criticisms of
research is applied to questions of representation, for example:
transmission models.
how are women represented in the tabloid press? or: how is
lower caste represented on films? or: how is our society
represented to us in the TV serials? Content research will often
be a matter of counting the number of occurrences of a
particular representation (for example, the housewife and
mother who does not work outside the home) and comparing
that with some kind of objective measure, such as official
statistics.
The sociologist, Harold Lasswell, tells us that in studying Interpersonal communication
communication we should consider the elements in the graphic What about our everyday communication, though? Do you spend
above. much time thinking about how best to formulate your messages?
Lasswell was primarily concerned with mass communication and In much of our everyday interpersonal communication with our
propaganda, so his model is intended to direct us to the kinds of friends, we probably are not all that conscious of thinking much
research we need to conduct to answer his questions (control about our messages. Still, you can probably think of certain
analysis, effects research and so on). In fact, though, it is quite a messages you are communicating now to anyone passing by as
useful model, whatever category of communication we are you read through this. Think about it for a minute -
studying. Note, incidentally, that the Lasswell Formula consists What clothes are you wearing?
of five major components, though this is by no means obligatory. How is your hair done?
You might be interested to look at the comments on Maletzkes
Are you wearing specs?
model to see which components a selection of other researchers
have considered essential. What about that deodorant?
Lasswell: Communicator The answers to those questions may not be the result of a lot of
Lasswell was primarily concerned with mass communication. In thought before you left home this morning, but they are the
every form of communication, though, there must be someone result of a variety of decisions about the image you want to
(or something) that communicates. project of yourself - the messages about you, your personality,
your tastes in music etc.
How appropriate is the term communicator? You might say that
you cant really talk about communication if the audience for the No doubt also during the day, therell be certain messages you will
message dont respond appropriately. Maybe thats a reason that think about more carefully - that thank you letter youve got to
many communication specialists refer to the communicator as send; that excuse youve got to find for not handing in your essay;
source or transmitter or sender of the message - at least that doesnt that way of telling that person you wish theyd really leave you
presuppose that communication does actually take place. alone.
Control analysis Lasswell : Channel
Because of the application of Lasswells Formula to the media, The channel is what carries the message. If I speak to you my
his question Who? has come to be associated mainly with control words are carried via the channel of airwaves, the radio news is
analysis: carried by both airwaves and radio waves. I could tap out a
message on the back of your head in Morse code, in which case
Who owns this newspaper?
the channel is touch. In simple terms, messages can be sent in
What are their aims? channels corresponding to your five senses.
What are their political allegiances? This use of the word channel is similar to the use of the word
Do they attempt to set the editorial policy? medium when we talk about communication. The words are
Does the fact that they are a republican account for the sometimes used interchangeably. However, strictly speaking, we
newspapers repeated attacks on the Royal Family? often use the word medium to refer to a combination of different
channels. Television for example uses both the auditory channel
Are they subject to any kind of legal constraints?
(sound) and visual channel (sight).
How does the editor decide what to put in the paper?
Media analysis
and so on. The question of which channel or medium to use to carry the
Can you see, though, how that sort of question can be applied message is a vitally important one in all communication. Can
to, say, interpersonal communication? Youre asking a similar you think of any examples of when you might have chosen the
wrong channel to communicate with someone? An obvious
30
example of the possible pitfalls would be trying to use the single channel - hence the need to think about channel redundancy

telephone to communicate with a profoundly deaf person. For as a means of carrying more of the message of your practical
some time I taught a blind person how to use a computer. As work.
you can probably imagine, it was incredibly difficult to use the
Lasswell: The Receiver
auditory channel only.
Many Communication scholars use the rather technological-
The choice of medium for your practical work
sounding terms: sender , source or transmitter to refer to the
You could, for example, produce very polished videotape for your Communicator. Youll also come across the technological receiver
practical work, but is it appropriate? Can you think why it might to refer to what we might ordinarily call audience or readership.
be the wrong medium? If you dont know how to distribute it to This whole question of audience is vitally important to successful
the intended audience, or if your audience cant afford to buy it, communication.
you could well have wasted your time. You might well have been
Audience research
better advised to produce a leaflet - less impressive perhaps, but
cheaper and easier to distribute. Video is also a very linear medium Professional broadcasters use the ratings figures and other data
- you start at the beginning and work your way through to the end from TRP and advertisers in the print media use information
- if youre communicating information which your audience already from IRS & NRS and a range of other sources to find out as
know a lot of, maybe they would have been better off with a much as they possibly can about their audiences.
booklet that they can skim through to find something they dont Audience research and your practical work
already know. Video isnt easily portable either - if your audience When you come to do your practical work, youll probably need to
need to refer back to your information, then a booklet they can demonstrate that you have found out as much as you reasonably
stuff in their pocket might be a better bet. can about your audience, using the appropriate techniques. Because
When you produce your practical work, youll have to investigate its so important, we have a unit devoted entirely to Researching
the possible media available for the message you want to Your Audience.
communicate, asking questions like: Interpersonal communication
What are the conventions of this medium? Its not only the mass media, though, where knowledge of our
Is this medium appropriate to my audience? audience is vitally important. The same applies in everyday life in
Does it appeal to them? our contact with other people. In many cases, we dont have to
know a lot about the person were dealing with because we each act
How will they get hold of it?
out the appropriate role. I dont have to know anything about the
Can they afford it? shop assistant who sells me a packet of fags - I ask for the fags, he
Is this medium appropriate to my message? gives me them, I give him the money, he gives me the change, we
Can it explain what I want it to explain? smile briefly, say Cheerio and thats it. I dont need to know
anything about him.
Do I need to show this in pictures or words?
But there are numerous occasions when we do need to know
and so on. more, or we make unjustified assumptions about what our
These are all questions of media analysis. Advertising agencies audiences are like. Can you think of any examples from your
employ Media Buyers who decide what is the most suitable everyday life where communication has broken down because
medium, or combination of media (newspapers, billboards, you didnt know enough about your audience or because you
flysheets, TV ads etc.) for the type of message they want to made the wrong guess as to what they were like? What about
communicate. They will also have decided on a particular target the teacher who waffles on incomprehensibly because she makes
audience they want to communicate it to and so, using, say the the assumption that you know nearly as much about the
TGI, the NRS etc., will decide what is the most appropriate subject as she does? Or that you actually remember what she
magazine, newspaper to reach that audience. told you last lesson? Or that youre actually interested in the
A classic example of using the wrong channel is that of research subject?
conducted by an American newspaper on the eve of the Presidential Lasswell: Effects
elections in the 1940s. The message was simple: Who will you Lasswells model also introduces us to the question of media
vote for? The audience was easy to define: a random sample of effects. We dont communicate in a vacuum. We normally
voters. The newspaper duly conducted a telephone poll of voters communicate because we want to achieve something. Even if we
chosen at random from the phone book and announced that the just pass someone in the corridor and say hello without really
Republicans would win. In fact the Democrats won with a massive thinking about it, we want to have the effect of reassuring them
victory. The reason they got it wrong was quite simple: at that time that were still friends, we are nice people, and so on.
only the wealthier members of society would have telephones
and the wealthier members of society would vote Republican. Practical work
You should also give some thought to the notion of channel Lasswell was concerned not with interpersonal communication,
capacity, which is quite clearly defined in information theory, but but with the effects of the mass media. The question of whether
less clear in everyday communication. Certainly, though, its clear the media have any effect or not and, if so, how they affect their
that there are limits to the information which can be carried in a audiences, is not just a large chunk of most communication and
media courses, its also a question you have to answer about your
31
practical work and, of course, its a constantly topical issue in
society.
Feedback
To find out what kind of effect our communication has, we need
some kind of feedback. If I speak to you, I listen to your responses
and watch for signs of interest, boredom etc. In other words, I
use feedback from you to gauge the effect of my communication.
If you give me positive feedback by showing interest, Ill continue
in the same vein; if you give me negative feedback by showing
boredom, Ill change the subject, or change my style, or stop
speaking. When broadcasters transmit a programme, they use the
services of research units to gain feedback in the form of ratings.
Advertising agencies use a variety of services to find out whether
their campaign has worked. These are all forms of feedback.
The principle criticism of the model is that it only describes

one-way communication. The linear model is limited to explaining
how messages are sent to a destination. While that may let us see
how the speaker gets through to the listener, it does not account
for the way that the listeners may affect the speaker. It thus does
not deal in a realistic way with how communication is a two-way
process of give and take between a speaker and an audience of
listeners.
Review Questions:
Explain how do the models of communication help us in
understanding the process of communication?
What are salient features of Aristotles model? Explain the
drawbacks of the model.
What is Laswells model of communication?
Suggested Readings
Keval J kumar: Mass Communication in India, Jaico Publishing
House
Raymond Zeuschner: Communicating Today, Allyn and Bacon
Notes
32
LESSON 9
SHANNON & WEAVERS MODEL AND OSGOOD
& SCHRAMMS CIRCULAR MODEL.
The Shannon-Weaver Model (1949) a decoder

The Shannon-Weaver model is typical of what are often referred a receiver
to as transmission models of communication. For criticisms of
These six elements are shown graphically in the model. As Shannon
such models, you should consult the section on criticisms of
was researching in the field of information theory, his model was
transmission models. If you have looked through the examples
initially very technology-oriented. The model was produced in
of typical everyday forms of communication, you will have noticed
1949, a year after Lasswells and you will immediately see the
that some of the examples refer to less immediate methods of
similarity to the Lasswell Formula.
communication than face-to-face interaction, e.g. using the radio,
newspapers or the telephone. In these cases, technology is The emphasis here is very much on the transmission and reception
introduced. When, for instance, the telephone is used, you speak, of information. Information is understood rather differently
the phone turns the sound waves into electrical impulses and from the way you and I would normally use the term, as well.
those electrical impulses are turned back into sound waves by the This model is often referred to as an information model of
phone at the other end of the line. Shannon and Weavers communication. (But you dont need to worry about that if youre
mathematical model of communication is widely accepted as one just starting.)
of the main seeds out of which communication studies have Apart from its obvious technological bias, a drawback from our
grown. Their work developed during the Second World War in point of view is the models obvious linearity. It looks at
the Bell Telephone laboratories in the US; their main concern was communication as a one-way process. That is remedied by the
to work out a way in which the channels of communication could addition of the feedback loop, which you can see in the developed
be used most efficiently. version of the model:
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver produced a general model
of communication:
This is now known after them as the Shannon-Weaver Model. A further drawback with this kind of model is that the message is
Although they were principally concerned with communication seen as relatively unproblematic.
technology, their model has become one, which is frequently Shannon-Weaver: The Source
introduced to students of human communication early in their All human communication has some source (information source
study. However, despite the fact that it is frequently used early in in Shannons terminology), some person or group of persons
the study of human communication, I think its worth bearing in with a given purpose, a reason for engaging in communication.
mind that information theory, or statistical communication theory Youll also find the terms transmitter and communicator used.
was initially developed to separate noise from information-carrying We have discussed sender in detail in our previous lessons.
signals. That involved breaking down an information system into Shannon-Weaver: The Encoder
sub-systems so as to evaluate the efficiency of various When you communicate, you have a particular purpose in mind:
communication channels and codes. You might ask yourself how
You want to show that youre a friendly person
viable the transfer of Shannons insights from information theory
to human communication is likely to be. The concepts of You want to give them some information
information theory and cybernetics are essentially mathematical You want to get them to do something
and are intended to be applied to technical problems under clearly You want to persuade them of your point of view
defined conditions. After youve read this section, which, I think, and so on. You, as the source, have to express your purpose in the
is a reasonable attempt to loosely apply Shannons ideas to human form of a message. That message has to be formulated in some
communication, ask yourself whether you feel enlightened. kind of code. How do the sources purposes get translated into a
The Shannon-Weaver Model (1947) proposes that all code? This requires an encoder. The communication encoder is
communication must include six elements: responsible for taking the ideas of the source and putting them in
a source code, expressing the sources purpose in the form of a message.
an encoder Its fairly easy to think in terms of source and encoder when you
a message
are talking on the phone (transmitter in Shannons terminology).
You are the source of the message and the phone is the encoder
a channel
33
which does the job of turning your sounds into electrical impulses. communication. Meanings are assumed to be somehow contained
The distinction is not quite so obvious when you think of yourself within the signs used in the message and the receiver can, as it
communicating face-to-face. were, take them out again. Matters such as the social context in
In person-to-person communication, the encoding process is which the message is transmitted, the assumptions made by source
performed by the motor skills of the source - vocal mechanisms and receiver, their past experiences and so on are simply disregarded.
(lip and tongue movements, the vocal cords, the lungs, face muscles In this respect, models, which incorporate such factors, are probably
etc.), muscles in the hand and so on. Some peoples encoding more revealing of the complexity of the communication process.
systems are not as efficient as others. So, for example, a disabled Shannon-Weaver: The Channel
person might not be able to control movement of their limbs You tap on a membrane suspended above a steadily flowing jet
and so find it difficult to encode the intended non-verbal messages of water. The air under the membrane causes slight deflections in
or they may communicate unintended messages. A person who the jet of water. A laser is aimed at a receiver. The jet of water
has suffered throat cancer may have had their vocal cords removed. flows through the laser beam, deflecting it from its target. Every
They can encode their messages verbally using an artificial aid, but time the movement of the air deflects the water jet, the laser beam
much of the non-verbal messages most of us send via pitch, hits its target. The laser receiver is connected to a computer, which
intonation, volume and so on cannot be encoded. takes each hit and turns it into a 1 and each miss and turns it into
Shannon was not particularly concerned with the communication a 0. The computer sends this etc. etc....
of meanings. The inclusion of the encoding and decoding You get the idea: the air waves, the jet of water and so on are all
processes is very helpful to us since it draws our attention to the channels. The words channel and medium are often used
possibility of a mismatch between the operation of the encoding interchangeably, if slightly inaccurately. The choice (a pretty stupid
and decoding devices, which can cause semantic noise to be set up. one above) of the appropriate channel is a vitally important choice
With good reason, the source of the message may wonder whether in communication. Its obvious that you dont use the visual
the picture in the receivers head will bear any resemblance to whats channel to communicate with the blind or the auditory channel
in his/her own. with the deaf, but there are more subtle considerations to be taken
Shannon-Weaver: The Message into account as well. A colleague of mine was clearly much more
The message of course is what communication is all about. responsive to visual communication than I. To elucidate his
Whatever is communicated is the message. Denis McQuail arguments he would inevitably grab a pencil and a piece of paper
(1975) in his book Communication writes that the simplest way and sketch out complex diagrams of his arguments. Though they
of regarding human communication is to consider it as the may have helped him to clarify his ideas, they merely served to
sending from one person to another of meaningful messages. confuse me, who would have preferred a verbal exposition. Its
The Shannon-Weaver Model, in common with many others curious that in the college where I work many students who are
separates the message from other components of the process of dyslexic or have other learning difficulties end up studying
communication. In reality, though, you can only reasonably information technology in so-called flexible learning centres. Bearing
examine the message within the context of all the other interlinked in mind the statement above that the choice of the appropriate
elements. Whenever we are in contact with other people we and channel is a vitally important choice in communication, its less
they are involved in sending and receiving messages. The crucial than obvious how a student who has difficulty reading and writing
question for Communication Studies is: to what extent does the can have their needs met by a learning model which boils down in
message received correspond to the message transmitted? Thats essence to read this; it will tell you what to write.
where all the other factors in the communication process come Shannon-Weaver: Physical noise
into play. The Shannon-Weaver model and others like it tends to Shannon is generally considered to have been primarily concerned
portray the message as a relatively uncomplicated matter. Note with physical (or mechanical or engineering) noise in the chan-
that this is not a criticism of Shannon since meanings were simply nel, i.e. unexplained variation in a communication channel or
not his concern: random error in the transmission of information. Everyday ex-
Frequently the messages have meaning that is they refer to or are amples of physical noise are:
correlated according to some system with certain physical or A loud motorbike roaring down the road while youre trying
conceptual entities. These considerations are irrelevant to the to hold a conversation
engineering problem. Your little brother standing in front of the TV set
This was particularly emphasized in Warren Weavers introduction Mist on the inside of the car windscreen
to Shannons paper:
Smudges on a printed page
The word information, in this theory, is used in a special sense
Snow on a TV set
that must not be confused with its ordinary usage. In particular
information must not be confused with meaning. It might seem odd to use the word noise in this way, unless
In fact, two messages, one of which is heavily loaded with meaning perhaps youre a hi-fi buff, in which case youll be familiar with
and the other of which is pure nonsense, can be exactly equivalent, looking up the claimed signal-to-noise ratio for the various bits
from the present viewpoint, as regards information. of equipment you buy. In this technical sense, noise is not
necessarily audible. Thus a TV technician might speak of a noisy
It may however be a criticism of the application of Shannons
picture. Generally speaking, in this kind of everyday
model to the more general area of human-to-human
34
communication, were fairly good at avoiding physical noise: we and receivers must be similar systems. If they are not, communi-

shout when the motorbike goes past; you clout your little brother; cation cannot occur. (Actually Shannon used the term destination,
cars have demisters. reserving the term receiver for what we have called decoder. How-
However, it is possible for a message to be distorted by channel ever, I think the terminology I have been using is more common
overload. Channel overload is not due to any noise source, but in the broader understanding of communication theory as dis-
rather to the channel capacity being exceeded. You may come across tinct from Shannons information theory.)
that at a party where you are holding a conversation amidst lots of What that probably meant as far as he was concerned was that you
others going on around you or, perhaps, in a Communication need a telephone at one end and a telephone at the other, not a
lesson where everyone has split into small groups for discussion telephone connected to a radio. In rather more obviously human
or simulations. terms, the receiver needs to have the equipment to receive the
Shannon and Weaver were primarily involved with the message. A totally blind person has the mental equipment to
investigation of technological communication. Their model is decode your gestures, but no system for receiving messages in the
perhaps more accurately referred to as a model of information theory visual channel. So, your non-verbal messages are not received and
(rather than communication theory). Consequently, their main youre wasting your energy. See also the Lasswell Formula for a
concern was with the kind of physical (or mechanical) noise more detailed discussion of receiver.
discussed above. Shannon-Weaver: Feedback
Shannon-Weaver: The Decoder Feedback is a vital part of communication. When we are talking to
Just as a source needs an encoder to translate her purposes into a someone over the phone, if they dont give us the occasional
message, so the receiver needs a decoder to retranslate. The de- mmmm, aaah, yes, I see and so on, it can be very disconcerting.
coder (receiver in Shannons paper) is an interesting and very useful . This lack of feedback explains why most of us dont like to
development over, say, the Lasswell Formula. answer phones. In face-to-face communication, we get feedback
in the visual channel as well - head nods, smiles, frowns, changes
If you take a look at our discussion of the receiver, youll see that
in posture and orientation, gaze and so on. Advertisers need
we considered how, for example, a blind person would not have
feedback, which they get in the form of market research from
the equipment to receive whatever non-verbal messages you send
institutions like ORG MARG, IMRB and other individual research
in the visual channel.
agencies.. How else would they know if their ads are on the right
The notion of a decoder reminds us that it is quite possible for a track? Broadcasters need feedback, which they get from TRP ratings.
person to have all the equipment required to receive the messages Politicians need feedback, which they get from public opinion
you send (all five senses, any necessary technology and so on) and polls and so on.
yet be unable to decode your messages.
Why do people often have difficulty when using computers, when
An obvious example would be : they find it perfectly easy to drive a car? Youd think it should be
easier to operate a computer - after all there are only a few keys and
a mouse, as against levers, pedals and a steering wheel. A
You can see it. You probably guess that its a language, maybe computers not likely to kill you, either. It could be due to the lack
even that its Arabic. You probably dont understand it, though. of feedback - in a car, youve the sound of the engine, the speed
In fact, it is Arabic and it does mean (but nothing very interest- of the landscape rushing past, the force of gravity. Feedback is
ing). You cannot decode my message, encoded to you in that coming at you through sight, hearing and touch -overdo it and it
short sentence, by you. You have the appropriate receiving equip- might come through smell as well! With a computer, theres very
ment, but no decoder. You dont understand the code. Can you little of that.
think of where you might come across a similar inability to de- However, it has to be said that the models separation of the
code where the English language is concerned? Suppose youve communication process into discrete units has proved fruitful
been reading around Communication Studies and have come across and has formed the basis of several other models, which provide
a reference to the philosopher Immanuel Kant. So you ask your some more insightful elaboration of the human communication
teacher about him. She replies, Well, the Critique of Pure Reason process. However, in disregarding meaning it may well be
is essentially all about answering the question: how are synthetic downright misleading. Those researchers who take this model
judgments a priori possible? Eh? You probably have a meaning and simply slap meaning on top of it are probably even more
for every one of those words, except perhaps a priori. You might misleading. Some models developed upon the basic constituents
perhaps guess that she is using the title of one of Kants works in of the Shannon-Weaver model are linked to below under related
her answer. But the statement is incomprehensible unless you articles. I would refer you also to the article on criticism of
know the technical jargon of philosophy. You cant decode the transmission models.
message - and your teacher is a pretty lousy teacher for having
failed to predict your inability to decode it (or for having accurately The Interactive Model of Communication
predicted your inability and using it as an excuse to show off!). Osgood & Schramm Circular Model
Shannon-Weaver: The Receiver The Osgood and Schramm circular model is an attempt to rem-
For communication to occur, there must be somebody at the edy that deficiency: The model emphasizes the circular nature of
other end of the channel. This person or persons can be called the communication. The participants swap between the roles of
receiver. To put it in Shannons terms, information transmitters source/encoder and receiver/decoder.
35
Human beings pay attention to incoming messages selectively,
and base their responses on prior experience and anticipation of

future events. Theorists who support the social relationships on
communication say that communication only occurs through social
interaction. Each persons definition of and experience with objects,
events, other people, and even oneself, is determined through a
network of interpersonal relationships. The meanings each person
forms are products of social negotiation with other people and
through these relationships the symbols we use to communicate
and meanings of those symbols are determined. The key to this
theory is that the symbols, objects, events, and self-images that
make up our world are the creation of a shared meaning through
social communication.
OR
Osgood and Schramm provide a simple, but effective, graphical
illustration of the importance of feedback in interpersonal
communication. The Osgood and Schramm Circular Model
emphasizes:
The two-way flow of dyadic communication
The active role of interpreter which each participant in the
communication act plays
That neither participant will be simply either encoder or
decoder
Even a person who doesnt say anything will
Decode the message she receives according to her own, more
Schramm stated: or less highly developed, set of communication skills
In fact, it is misleading to think of the communication process Interpret the message according to her own complex set of
as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really values, attitudes, beliefs etc.
endless. We are little switchboard centers handling and rerouting
Then encode her reactions in the form of non-verbal signals,
the great endless current of information....
which provide feedback to the other participant
(Schramm W. (1954) quoted in McQuail & Windahl (1981)
That person then has to decode and interpret that non-
Osgood & Schramm: Interpreting verbal message... and so on.
The model is particularly helpful in reminding us of the process
Review Questions :
of interpretation, which takes place whenever a message is de-
coded. The more mechanical models, particularly those concerned Explain the difference between linear and circular models of
primarily with machine communication, tend to suggest that fi- communication.
delity will be high as long as physical noise is reduced to a minimum What are salient features of Shannon and Weavers mode?
or strategies (such as increasing channel redundancy) are adopted What is Osgood and Schramms circular model of
to counter the noise. This circular model reminds us that receiving communication?
a message is not simply a matter of decoding, but also of inter-
preting the message. Suggested Readings
Whenever we receive data from the world around us, even in, say,
the apparently very simple act of seeing whats in front of us, we House
are engaged in an active process of interpretation, not simply Raymond Zeuschner: Communicating Today, Allyn and Bacon
taking in information, but actively making sense of it. An Barker/ Gaut: Communication, Allyn and Bacon
important question is: what criteria are we using to make sense of
what we are receiving? Since the criteria we use will inevitably differ
from one person to another, there will always be semantic noise.
If we can answer that question about our audience, then we stand
a chance of communicating successfully.
36
LESSON 10
NEWCOMBS MODEL AND GERBNERS MODEL
New combs ABX model share an orientation towards him or it. Of course, X may not be
Theodore Newcomb (1953) developed a Co orientation Model as a a thing or a [person: it may be any part of their shared environment.
helpful tool in relational analysis of dyadic pairs. This simple yet A May be the government, B the labour, and X pay policy: in this
insightful model consists of two communicators, A and B, and case we can see, to oversimplify for the sake of clarity, that a labour
their orientation toward some object of communication, X. government (a) and the labour (B), who in theory like each other,
The object of communication could be an actual physical object will be under pressure to hold frequent meetings to try and agree
(such as a house which the couple is considering purchasing or a on X, the pay policy. But if A is Anti labour government who is
painting in a museum), an event (such as baseball, a rock concert not friendly with the b, the Labour, there will be less pressure for
or a christening), an activity (such as playing cards or watching them to agree on x. If the AB relationship is not of liking they can
football on television every Sunday), an attitude (such as loving differ over X: the system is till in equilibrium.
action movies or being opposed to abortion), or a behavior (such Another example of the way equilibrium increases the need to
as selling Aunt Mollys antique quilt without conferring about it communicate can be seen when X changes. Immediately A and B
first or donating uniforms to the local little league baseball team). need to communicate to establish their co-orientation to the new
Any subject, behavior, attitude, belief, event, or object, which is X. In time of war, peoples dependence on the media is increased,
the focus of communication for the two participants, has the and so too is the governments use of the media. This is because
potential to be the object of communication. Each communi- the war, X, is not only of crucial importance but is also constantly
cator, A and B, has a simultaneous co orientation toward his or changing. So government and people (A and B) need to be in
her communication partner (usually the level of attraction and constant communication via the mass media.
feelings toward the partner) and toward the object of communi-
This model assumes, though does not explicibly state, that people
cation (the degree of positive or negative attitude about X).
need information. In a democracy information is usually regarded
as a right, but it is not always realized that information is also a
necessity. Without it we cannot feel part of the society, We must
have adequate information about our social environment in order
both to know how to react to it and to identify in our reaction
factors that we can share with the fellow members of our peer
group, subculture, or culture. In simpler terms this model suggests
the interaction between sender and receiver for any common goal
or cause. Both sender and receiver are at the same level but their
interpretation for the common goal or cause may or may not
Newcomb (1953) - ABX Model is based on psychological view differ.
of communication. Newcomb saw communication as a way in Newcomb sees four basic components of this relational system:
which people orient to their environment and to each other. Base (1) As attitude toward X, (2) As attraction to B, (3) Bs attitude
on the concept of balance between ones attitudes and beliefs and toward X, and (4) Bs attraction to A. According to the model,
those that are important to an individual. If the balance is disturbed, both A and B have a natural propensity toward balance in their
communication is used to restore it. coorientation toward X and their partner. If A has a negative
Newcomb is the one that introduces us to fundamentally different attitude toward smoking (X) and a very positive attraction toward
shape. It is triangular. Its main significance, however, lies in the B, but B has a positive attitude toward smoking (X) and toward
fact that it is the first of our models to introduce the role of A, then A will experience an imbalance resulting in a push toward
communication in society or a social relationship. For Newcomb revision of attitudes to regain balance. This strain toward balance
this role is simple it is to maintain equilibrium within the social can be resolved by one or a combination of (1) A decreasing the
system, The way the model works is this, A and B are amount of liking for B, (2) A changing his attitude toward X, and
communicator and receiver; they may be individuals, or group. X (3) A changing Bs attitude about X to align with As. As actions
is part of their social environment. ABX is a system, which means are dependent on As own orientations as well as As perceptions
that its internal relations are interdependent: if A changes, B and of Bs orientations, and vice versa for B. Thus, both communicators
X will change as well; or if A changes her/his relationship to X, B are continually making predictions or estimates of their partners
will have to change his/her relationship either with X or with A. orientations. A has perceptions of what B is thinking and feeling,
If A and B are friends, and X is something or someone known to just as B has perceptions of what A is thinking and feeling. Based
both of them, it will be more important that A and B will be on this model, Wilmot (1987) concludes that at the very minimum,
under pressure to communicate until the two friends arrive at any thorough index of a dyadic relationship should include the
broadly similar attitudes to X. The more important a place X has following two items of information: (1) each persons orientation
in their social environment, the more urgent will be their drive to (that is, their attitude toward the object of communication and
37
their attraction toward their communication partner) and (2) what not supposed to be in your soup in another. Shouting, ranting
each person perceives their partners orientations to be. and raving means this mans very angry in one context, raving
loony in another.
Gerbners General Model
Gerbners General Model emphasizes the dynamic nature of Availability: how many Es are there around? What difference
human communication. It also, in common with other models, does availability make? If there are fewer Es around, we are likely
gives prominence to the factors, which may affect fidelity. to pay more attention to the ones there are. They are likely to be
perceived by us as more meaningful. What sort of Es are there -
for example, in the media house can be pro government or anti
government.
Gerbner: E1 and M
E1 is the event-as-perceived (E) by the man (sic) or machine M. In
terms of human communication, a person perceives an event.
The perception (E1) they have of that event is more or less close
to the real event. The degree of correspondence between Ms
perception of event E (E1) will be a function of Ms assump-
tions, point of view, experiences, social factors etc.
Gerbner: Means and Controls
In the next stage of the model, M becomes the Source of a mes-
sage about E to someone else. M produces a statement about the
event (SE). To send that message, M has to use channels (or
media) over which he has a greater or lesser degree of control. [For
comment on channels, see the Lasswell Formula.] The question
of control relates to Ms degree of skill in using communication
The model shown diagrammatically is to be read from left to channels. If using a verbal channel, how good is he at using
right, beginning at E - Event. Please click on the model for further words? If using the Internet, how good is he at using new tech-
details. nology and words? And so on? Control may also be a matter of
access - does he own this medium? can he get to use this me-
Gerbner: E & Perceptual dimension
dium? Think of teachers in classrooms controlling the access to
E is an event, which takes place in the reality. The event (E) is
communication channels, parents at home, owners of newspa-
perceived by M (the man (sic) or machine). The process of percep-
pers, editors of letters pages etc.
tion is not simply a matter of taking a picture of event E. It is a
process of active interpretation (as Schramm & Osgood empha- Gerbner: SE
size in their circular model). The way that the E is perceived will be SE (statement about event) is what we would more normally call
determined by a variety of factors, such as the assumptions, atti- the message. S stands for Signal in fact, so in principle an S can be
tudes, point of view, and experience of M. It draws our attention present without an E, but in that case it would be noise only. The
to the way that attitudes, knowledge level, communication skills, process can be extended ad infinitum by adding on other receivers
culture and social position affect the encoding and decoding of (M2, M3etc.) who have further perceptions (SE1, SE2 etc.) of the
messages. E can be a person talking, sending a letter, telephoning, statements about perceived events.
or otherwise communicating with M. In other words, E could be McQuail and Windahl (1981) suggest that the generality of the
what we conventionally call the Source or Transmitter. Equally, E model makes it useful both for the analysis of interpersonal and
can be an event - a car crash, rain, waves crashing on a beach, a mass communication. For example, on an individual-to-individual
natural disaster etc. In this case, we could be applying the model to level,
mass media communication, say the reporting of news. It is this it may......be useful to illustrate communicative and perceptual
generality in the model, which makes it a useful starting point for problems in the psychology of witnessing before a court: How
the analysis of wide variety of communication acts. Note that the adequate is the perception of witness M of event E, and how well
model, besides drawing our attention to those factors within E, is E1 expressed in SE and to what degree does the perception of
which will determine perception or interpretation of E, also draws SE1 of judge M2 correspond to SE? Where the mass media are
our attention to three important factors: concerned, they suggest E could be potential news, M the mass
Selection: M, the perceiver of the event E (or receiver of the media, SE media content and M2 the media audience. That then
message, if you prefer) selects from the event, paying more allows us to ask: How good is the correspondence between reality
attention to this aspect and less to that. This process of selecting, and the stories (between E and SE) about reality given by the
filtering is commonly known as gate keeping, particularly in media (M)? and How well is media content (SE) understood by
discussion of the medias selection and discarding of events or the media audience (M2)?
aspects of them. Gerbner adds in the contextual elements of perception, culture,
Context: a factor often omitted from communication models, the medium, and power.
but a vitally important factor. The sound represented by the Person #1 perceives an event, E. This perception is filtered:
spelling hair means an animal in one context, something thats (physical ability to experience the event, personal and cultural
38
selective perceptions), and is therefore one step removed from the

original event (E1).
Person #1 selects a channel to send the message. (Signal or S)
The message = the FORM + its CONTENT (SE1 or Signal +
E1).
Person #2 receives and decodes the message, also filtering the
message (physical ability to receive the message, cultural and
personal selective perceptions), and therefore receives a perception
of a statement about an event (SE2) The message understood
by Person #2 is now several removes from the original intent.
Key points:
1. Every person involved in the communication has perceptions
and filters which structure how they send or receive a
message.
2. A message is content PLUS form both convey meaning.
Consider the differences in how you declare, I love you
Over a private candlelight dinner
On the run as you dash out the door to work
Writing it by hand on homemade paper
Sending an email
Spray-painting it across a railroad overpass.
Or with a graphic in an email :-)
Furthermore, the model accounts for power difference by noting
that those with greater access to various media have more options
and channels to send messagesthey can afford to pay a plane
with an I love you banner fly over the football stadium... (Or
more seriously, the ability to put messages out in national and
international media).
Review Questions:
What are salient features of Gerbners model? Give two real
life examples for the same.
What is Newcombs model of communication?
Suggested Readings
Publishing House
Bacon
Notes
39
UNIT IV
MASS MEDIA
LESSON 11
MEDIA IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Mass Media good reason is that, more often than not, the State as a productive
Mass Media. Our window to the present world that we live in. We enterprise is inefficient. Heavy subsidising of AIR and DD by the
depend on it to know what happened yesterday, whats going on government is a huge drain on the exchequer - the money
today and how events of the present could mould our tomorrow. ultimately coming from the taxpayers pocket. A third reason is
Our perspective of the world around us depends greatly on what quality: governmental agencies offer very good job security, thus
we see, hear and read. We look to radio, television and newspapers the incentive to perform, especially in the light of low wages, is
to provide us with news, entertainment, cricket scores, stock minimal. Government appointed bureaucrats, who are accountable
exchange figures and much more. We also expect this information to almost no one, run these organisations. Result: bureaucratic
to be accurate and unbiased. Most of the time we trust information red tape, unaccountability, corruption and siphoning of public
that is gathered through these means.Any form of communication funds. It is you, the consumer, who ends up getting a raw deal.
produced by a few people for the consumption by many people. Your tax money goes to support a behemoth that falls far short
Mass media are channels of communication through which of your expectations and worse still, does not allow anyone else
messages flow. As the messages go through the channels, they are to provide you with an alternative means of quality information.
distorted. When people receive media messages they have no Besides, the greater the governments control over mass media,
opportunity for immediate feedback with the producers of the the stronger the tendency to use it for purposes of propaganda.
messages. Means of communication that reach the mass public. For decades, India has adopted a socialist attitude towards industry.
The mass media include newspapers and magazines, radio, In the beginning years after independence these policies were
television, (broadcast, cable, and satellite) films, recordings, books, implemented by our well-meaning founding fathers. The public
and electronic communication. In India, the major disseminators sector was intended to occupy commanding heights of the
of information through electronic media are the All India Radio Indian economy. However, time has proved us wrong.
(AIR) and Doordarshan (DD). In the last decade, private Government interference, in areas that are best handled by the
companies have entered the arena but the state-run networks still private sector, has been a disaster. The information and
retain significant control in many areas of broadcasting. For broadcasting arena is no different. In an age when all over the
instance, the government still retains a monopoly on direct world, governments are moving to unleash the job creating
uplinking by satellite. The so-called invaders from the skies have potential of the broadcasting industry, India is being left behind.
to transmit their programmes from beyond Indias boundaries. If we are to truly honour our Constitution and bestow upon
As of this writing they do not have permission to set up satellite ourselves real freedom of speech, we must unshackle our mass
uplink facilities from within Indian shores. FM rebroadcasting media from the clutches of the government.
deals, which, in many countries, have allowed broadcasters to
Characteristics of Mass Media Channels
achieve a wider reach, are not yet permitted in India. All India
Radio is the countrys only radio network. Even though AIR has Television
offered commercial broadcasters timeslots on its FM frequencies, Potentially largest range of audiences, but not always at times
with a few entrepreneurs taking up the offer, it still does not allow when public service announcements (PSAs) are most likely to be
these private companies to provide a full news service. On the broadcastDeregulation ended government oversight of station
television side, though Doordarshan now allows private Indian broadcast of PSAs, public affairs programmingOpportunity to
companies to apply for programming slots on a first-come-first- include health messages via news broadcasts, public affairs/
served basis, there still is an insistence by the Information and interview shows, dramatic programmingVisual as well as audio
Broadcasting ministry on running these channels itself. Every now make emotional appeals possible; easier to demonstrate a
and then, the government announces new plans on further behaviorCan reach low income and other audiences not as
opening up this sector. The truth is far from it. When nudged by likely to turn to health sources for helpPassive consumption by
Supreme Court directives and other such forces, it haltingly takes viewer; viewers must be present when message is aired; less than
a step, apparently in the needed direction, by introducing new bills full attention likely; message may be obscured by commercial
such as the Broadcasting Bill or Prasar Bharathi. Needless to say, clutterPSAs can be expensive to produce and distribute; feature
these are intended to maintain government control rather than to placement requires contacts and may be time consuming
free up this huge market. Why shouldnt government have a Radio
monopoly over the airwaves? For one, non-governmental news Various formats, offering potential for more audience targeting
radio and television helps citizens look through the on-stage than television (e.g., teenagers via rock stations); may reach fewer
political behaviour of inaugurations and speeches to the hidden people than TVDeregulation ended government oversight of
backstage agendas of politicians and bureaucrats. It points out stations broadcast of PSAs, public affairs
reasons behind failing policies and exposes motives behind actions programmingOpportunity for direct audience involvement via
of parties, especially those that often result in violent outcomes, call-in showsAudio alone may make messages less intrusiveCan
thus weakening an inefficient governments authority. Another
40
reach audiences who do not use the health care systemGenerally means that some media support professionals while others do

passive consumption; exchange with audience possible, but target not.
audience must be there when airedLive copy is flexible and
The Varieties of Transcriber/Recorder Role
inexpensive; PSAs must fit station formatFeature placement
Similar roles in different media may differ in name, skills, tools,
requires contacts and may be time consuming
and even in the details of what they accomplish and how they
Magazines accomplish it. A recording engineer (audio recording) and camera
Can more specifically target to segments of public (young operator (motion pictures and television) obviously use different
women people with an interest in health)No requirement for tools and different skills to accomplish the same task. The only
PSA use; PSAs more difficult to placeCan explain more complex real difference is the modality recorded. A courtroom stenogra-
health issues, behaviorsPrint may lend itself to more factual, pher uses very different tools to accomplish essentially the same
detailed, rational message deliveryAudience has chance to clip, task by translating verbal language into a written transcript that
reread, contemplate materialPermits active consultation; may can be reviewed and edited. A recording secretary who takes and
pass on; can be read at readers conveniencePublic service ads are types up meeting minutes accomplishes the same task at a lower
inexpensive to produce; ad or article placement may be time level of detail. Other transcriber/recorders include the police artist
consuming. who turns a verbal description into a picture of a suspect, the
Newspapers roommate who writes down a telephone message and tacks it up
Can reach broad audiences rapidlyPSAs virtually nonexistentCan next to the phone, the secretary who types up and mails out a
convey health news and breakthroughs more thoroughly than letter based on dictation from an executive, the rewrite desk that
TV or radio and more quickly than magazines; feature placement takes an account of an event from a correspondent over the phone
possible Easy audience access to in-depth issue coverage is and turns it into a newspaper article, the tribal griot who turns a
possibleShort life of newspaper limits rereading, sharing with bit of tribal history into a rhythmic rhyme that will be easier to
othersSmall papers may take public service ads; coverage demands both remember exactly and teach to others, and the answering
a newsworthy item machine that records a message when a phone cant be answered.
This particular role, which might be referred to as transcriber/
A Range of Roles in Media
recorder, entails the creation of a record of a communication event
This roles associated with personal media can be fairly simple.
that can be played back, reviewed, and even edited at a later time.
Dyadic face-to-face communication generally only entail partici-
As will be the case with other roles, the fundamental role can be
pants who act as both creator and consumer of messages. It is
elaborated in a wide variety of ways. Hence the record that is
easy to complicate the role mix of personal media, however. Me-
retained may be as limited and summary as Joe called: 234-5678
diations add the role of a director that controls the floor and
or as graphic and detailed as a sound and video recording of a
structures interaction. Personal messengers add a intermediary
building collapse. The transcription/recording role may require
who carries messages from one person to another. Public speak-
training, as it would for the court stenographer, executive secre-
ing formalizes the split between message creators and consumers
tary, police artist, and camera operator, or require no training at all,
while often adding such roles as director in the guise of a master
as would be the case for the corresponding secretary. The role may
of ceremonies, a transcriber/recorder who records or transcribes
require at least some measure of creativity, as would normally be
the speeches, production support that set up chairs, lecterns, mi-
the case for the rewrite desk, tribal griot, recording engineer, cam-
crophones, and other scenic elements, and critics who offer
era operator, and, in at least some cases, executive secretary, or
evaluations of or commentaries on what was said.
require at least the appearance of a lack of creativity, as would be
The roles associated with mass media, by contrast, is often more the case for the courtroom stenographer and answering machine.
complex. Book publishing generally involves a series of roles Indeed, as is the case with the answering machine, the role may
including a writer who normally submits a book to a publisher, not even be filled by a person. As will be seen, the dividing lines
an acquisitions editor who evaluates it, and, if the decision is between roles in media will not always be clean. The director of a
made to publish, a series of specialized roles, including editors, low budget film may also act as the scriptwriter, camera operator,
proofreaders, artists, contracts, marketing, layout, printers, trans- and film editor. A photojournalist will often use their own pho-
portation, wholesalers, retailers, and even critics, all of whom play tographs to illustrate the stories they write.
a role in enabling a consumers acquisition of the published book.
Transcriber/recorder is just one of a number of generic roles
Motion pictures, magazines, newspapers, radio, music recording,
that occur across a variety of media. Other roles that are
and television all entail similarly complex participation.
discussed below include creator, consumer, selector/gatekeeper,
It is possible to abstract many of the tasks that need to be accom- publisher/producer, director, performer, content editor,
plished within different media to a fairly small number of generic advertiser, content integrator, reproducer, distributor/carrier,
roles, each of which perform the same essential task. While these retailer, representatives/advocate, critic, regulator, investor,
tasks often correspond to jobs in commercial media, they are financial management, and general production support. These
simply tasks that have to be accomplished in order for the me- roles are intended as abstractions of the responsibilities
dium to work. There are some media in which no one is ever paid associated with the role name. Each name used is intended to
for what they do. There are others in which nearly every participant be applied flexibly; more as a statement of function and general
receives renumeration. The status of a role as a job changes responsibility that the name represents than as a statement of
neither the necessity nor the essential nature of the task. It simply specific responsibilities or activities that role represents in any
41
specific medium. Let us, then, consider the range and nature of is fairly common, or a book). In other cases the role will be an
these roles: expansive one in which an organization builds a business on its

publication or production of many content instances (e.g. a pub-
Creators
lishing house, a movie studio, a television network, etc.). In this
All communication media include some variant of creator of
latter case it is not unusual to see a layering of the role of pub-
messages. Common names associated with the creator role in-
lisher/producer, with the larger organization designating a set of
clude writer, composer, artist, designer, journalist, and interactant.
executive producers or series editors who organize a series of
There are many media in which content is created by one person
related content instances and a more local set of producers or
and performed by another (more on the performer role below).
editors that take responsibility for one or a few content instances
There are also a wide range of media in which the roles of creator,
at a time. Real world namings can be confusing here, especially in
performer, and consumer are combined such that most or all
publishing, where an editors role may be akin to executive pro-
participants take on all three roles. There are many possible varia-
ducer (e.g. managing editor), selector (e.g. acquisitions editor), or
tions in the combination of creator, performer, and consumer of
content editor depending on the exact nature of their responsi-
messages, and different media will normally support some one
bilities. The roles usually associated with real world namings in
of these combinations in preference to others. All performances
theatre, film, and broadcasting are, in general, cleaner in their divi-
entail some level of creation. All creations entail some level of
sions of responsibilities
performance. Hence while it may be desirable to separate creator
characteristics from performer characteristics, it is also entirely rea- Directors
sonable to view them as a single cluster of related characteristics. Many media entail the role of a performance director who takes
Consumers specific responsibility for guiding and coordinating performers
All communication media include some variant of consumer of and other production staff in their coordinated effort to interpret
messages. The consumer may be a reader, viewer, listener, audience, content for an audience. Other names that can be associated with
participant, or any one of a dozen other namings of people that the role of director can, depending on the medium, include con-
describe modes of message consumption. ductor, choreographer, managing editor, judge, moderator, and
chairperson, among many others. Note that the role of director is
Selector/Gatekeepers clearly distinct from that of publisher/producer. Where a pub-
Many media entail a generic role of content selector or gatekeeper. lisher/producer is concerned with organizing all of the details of
Specifically, there are buyers, content acquisition specialists, edi- a production, including preproduction issues like content selec-
tors, phone screens, reviewers, or other selectors of message content tion and postproduction issues like duplication and distribution,
who choose content for publication, performance, or other vari- a director is generally only responsible for coordinating the perfor-
ant of storage and/or delivery through the medium. Such selection mance to its completion. Completion may take the form of an
will, in general, reflect the editorial goals, preferences, and guide- actual performance, a finished newspaper ready for layout and
lines of specific media instances. The issues associated with these printing, directors cut film, a successfully completed meeting or
goals, guidelines, and preferences will include, in varying degree proceeding, or other integrated content.
according to the medium and instance, such things as subject
Performers
matter, entertainment value, fulfillment of submission require-
Many media entail a separable role of performer (i.e. a person
ments, and quality of content. This rooting of selection in
whose role within a medium is to perform message content that
instance-specific editorial policy is important in the definition of
has been created by others). The performer often can and will
this generic role, as selection is specifically not about censorship,
exercise some level of creativity in interpreting content for an audi-
which seeks to prevent specific kinds of content from being se-
ence and/or in enhancing the performance with planned or
lected for any instance within a medium or set of media. So long
improvised additions. The existence of the role generally implies
as every instance of a medium has a unique editorial policy based
a formal bifurcation of the roles of creator and performer, with
on the needs of the specific market niche it addresses, it can be
the creative role composing all or most of the message and the
reasonably presumed that all content has a potential home some-
performer enacting the message for consumption. The role of
where.
performer is common in dynamic art media like movies, theatre,
Publishers/producers and musical performance and broadcast media like television and
Many media entail a role of producer or publisher. Where associ- radio. It is not normally associated with a wide variety of other
ated with a medium, producers and publishers take organizational media, including books, letters, newspapers, talk radio, and face-
responsibility for organizing, managing, and funding the process to face interaction, among others. The name that is most often
of producing and/or publishing content. The nature of this pro- associated with the role of performer is actor, but such names as
duction/publishing role can and does vary by medium, as does musician, dancer, anchor, and news reader may apply.
the name applied. Indeed, some media may use entirely different
Transcriber/recorders
names to describe people whose role is to find and/or provide
Many media entail a transcription recording role in which people
the financing and organization required in order to enable the
and/or organizations act as intermediaries in capturing a perfor-
creation, manufacturing, promotion, and/or distribution of con-
mance to a recording medium and either transmitted live or stored
tent. In some cases the role of publisher/producer is a very limited
for later use (e.g. viewing, reference, editing, reproduction, etc.).
one in which a person or group decides to publish or produce a
Names associated with this role include stenographer, court re-
specific piece of content (a play or movie, for which this variation
porter, camera operator, recording engineer, and recording secretary.
42
Content Editors Distributors/Carriers

Some media entail a content editing role in which people take Almost all media involve some level of message transmission.
specific responsibility for editing content after it has been created For many media, however, this transmission is formalized
by the author, writer, or other creator or transcribed/recorded by a through a maintained message distribution system. Specifically,
cameraman, recording engineer or other recording professional. there are people and/or organizations who take responsibility for
Specific names for this role include copy editor, proofreader, and transmitting, transporting, sorting, storing, distributing, and/or
fact checker. The purposes associated with such editing can be delivering messages without, in general, regard for the specific
varied, and include such issues as meeting content length objectives, content carried. These distributors/carriers exist in a variety of
managing content to meet editorial guidelines, correcting errors, forms, ranging from individual messengers and independent truck
and even combining parallel or related messages obtained from drivers through long distance telephone companies, Internet
multiple sources into a single message. While content editors network service providers, overnight shipping companies,
frequently have little role in the creation, direction, transcription, wholesale distributors, and postal systems, among others.
selection, or performance of content, they do sometmes have
veto power, within the scope of a media instances editorial policy, Retailers
over the final publication/distribution of content. Many media involve the direct sale, via retailers, of access to the
medium or to specific media content. Specifically, there are people
Advertisers and/or organizations who sell access to the medium and/or its
Many media distribute advertising as part of the overall content content directly to participants in the medium, whether those
of the medium. The advertising space is generally sold to people participants act as net receivers of messages or as interactants within
and/or organizations who provide and pay for advertising con- the medium. A variety of forms of retailing fall within this ge-
tent that is presented in the medium. The relationship of neric role, including those associated with ticket sales, equipment
advertising to other content within specific media is likely to vary sales, subscription sales, network access charges, advertising sales,
considerably. Indeed, there may be generic differences in the na- and direct sales of publications, copies of performances, and other
ture of advertising content and presentation between different manufactured content representations.
instances in the same medium. In some cases (public television,
Collectors
programs at school plays) the advertisers may not even be for-
mally identified as advertisers, but as funders, sponsors, or grant There are a variety of media for which people collect messages.
sources. To the extent that a person, enterprise, or other organiza- The most obvious of these are individuals who collect messages
tion stands to get business or otherwise achieve organizational from art media such as oil paintings or sculpture. Less obvious are
goals as a result of exposure of its name and/or messages within collectors of publication messages like books, records, or comic
the content of the medium, and such exposure is contingent on books, dynamic art messages like movies, correspondence mes-
payments or other services, it can be regarded as an advertiser. sages like letters, or broadcast messages like recorded radio or
television shows. Many collectors maintain personal collections at
Content Integrators their home or office, but at least some collectors make collections
Many media entail a content integration role in which people and/ available for general viewing at museums, libraries, and web sites.
or organizations function as intermediaries in combining diverse Collection generally suggests a higher level of selectivity than would
content into a cohesive whole. Names for people who play this the role of consumer, a lower level of involvement in presenta-
role in various media include layout, paste-up, film editor, and tion than might normally be associated with a content editor or
others. Note that the role of content integrator differs from that content integrator. Labels associated with formal variants of the
of content editor even where the editors role is creating a single collector role include archivist, librarian, and curator.
message out of multiple parallel message (see the description of
content editor). The content integrators role is to turn a content Representative/advocates
from a variety of sources into a finished composite performance Many media involve the participation of representatives or other
(e.g. a publishable edition of a newspaper or a duplicable cut of a advocates who, independent of a performance role, act in the
film) after the performance has been completed. The role of the interests of one or another of the various participants in the
content editor would normally precede this role. In some cases medium. This includes, in many cases, the production itself. Spe-
the finished product of an editors effort will be a performance cifically, are there people associated with the medium whose job is
that can be content integrated into a final integrated edition. In to advocate and act as a representative for an individual or produc-
other cases, the role of the content editor will occur between initial tion associated with the medium. Names associated with the role
creation and performance. of representative/advocate in different media when an individual
is being represented include manager, agent, lawyer, publicist, re-
Reproducers ceptionist, and promoter. Names associated with this role when a
Many media entail some form of formal content manufacturing production is being represented include advertising, marketing,
in which people and/or organizations play an intermediate role in publicity, public relations, media relations, community relations,
manufacturing copies of a stored performance. A name normally and merchandising. The job of the representative/advocate, in
associated with this role, in publishing media, is printer. The general, is to translate the performance of an individual or pro-
name duplicator is more normally associated with film. Other duction in one medium into a favorable viewing in another. The
names probably apply in other media. marketing representatives for a motion picture, for instance, will
seek to place advertising in newspapers and on television. The
publicity function for the same picture will work to book the
43
movies stars on talk shows and in interviews. The movie stars medium they support, but all play key roles in coordinating the
agent, in seeking to limit the number of such appearances while efforts of others and ensuring the ongoing financial stability of
maximizing the stars salary, will almost certainly employ a lawyer the production, studio, publisher, or other media enterprise.
to ensure that there are no surprises in the contract. If, in fact,
Production support
there is a problem that requires litigation to resolve, a lawyer will
A wide range of other people act to support the production of
represent the star, and perhaps the agent, in court. Note, in par-
content in media in various ways.
ticular, the myriad media crossovers associated with this example.
Some production roles are fairly common in the production of
Regulators messages. A number of such roles are broken out separately above.
Some media entail a regulative role in which people, agencies, or Others roles are more difficult to classify as a generic role in pro-
organizations act in a regulatory capacity relative to the medium. duction, or occur in only one or a few media. These roles include
The nature of such agencies can vary, but would certainly include such namings as set designer, set dresser, makeup, wardrobe, elec-
agencies like: trician, painter, plumber, carpenter, property masters, act
the Federal Communication Commission, which allocates and development, artist development, touring department, engineer-
enforces restrictions on the use of radio frequency bandwidth ing, maintenance, crane operator, caterer, first-aid, copyboy, news
under U.S. Law assistant, telephone operators, help desk, librarian, information
voluntary organizations like the Motion Picture Association of retrieval specialist, polling, and research. The production support
America, through which the film and broadcast industries self- role is a critical one, but it is very much in the background. The
regulate in providing ratings of movie and television shows efforts of production support may be visible in the set that the
performance occurs on, the positioning of the camera, and the
and agencies that enforce formal censorship of content. An
performers makeup, wardrobe and accessories. They may also be
example might be found in the post World War II Allied Civil
as invisible as the food the cast and crew ate between takes or the
Censorship Office, which censored a wide range of informa-
electricity that the lights, camera, and other equipment consumed
tion in Japan between 1945 and 1949.
during takes. Many media do not entail any level of formal pro-
Critics duction support. Others could not function without efforts of
The critic or critical role acts specifically to critique and evaluate people in a wide variety of support roles.
content within the medium. While there can be several variations
Additional Roles?
on the critical role, including that of consultant, futurist, and (in
The twenty roles documented above should not be regarded as a
theatre, at least) fixer, the prototypic role of critic is to act as a
comprehensive list of the generic roles in media. This is a voyage
independent public witness to media content who will, after view-
of discovery for the author and, one hopes, the reader. Indeed, it
ing a performance, offer a considered evaluation of what they saw
is already possible to identify roles that one might want to add to
as a guide to other potential consumers of that performance or
this list. There is, for instance, an engineering role in media that
production. While critics sometimes create content for use within
may or may not already be covered to some extent in the generic
the medium they critique and evaluate, it will often be the case that
role of distributor/carrier. For the moment, the engineering role
the critiques and other evaluations they make of content within
is identified with production support, but it may warrant a dis-
the medium will be distributed within another medium. Note
tinct listing. It remains to be considered how important it may be
that critics generally serve their critical role in one medium as a
to distinguish the engineering, monitoring, and maintenance func-
function of playing a creator role in another.
tion from the distribution/carrier function it supports within the
Investors normal operation of media. It should be possible to identify
Some media involve an explicit and separable role of investor. other generic roles, and the interested reader is invited to suggest
Investors are people or organizations whose sole or primary rela- additions that are necessary to the operation of a variety of media
tionship to a medium is to provide the capital necessarily to and distinct from those outlined here.
produce content and/or distribute or enable the distribution of
Media in contemporary India
content. Investors may influence productions and performances
The capacity of our common media system to service and sup-
through their interaction and agreements with producers, but
port the democratic processes for the benefit of the people as a
they have no direct relationship to production, performance, or its
whole has strong validity even today. Printed newspapers and
management beyond their potential return on investment if the
magazines, the broadcasting media and the Internet are vital play-
production is successful.
ers in India today. Quantitatively and qualitatively, the information
Financial management being circulated has greatly increased. Progressive forces cannot
As productions become more complex and/or grow in number, dismiss some of these channels by simply stating them to be
the publisher/producer will inevitably need help in managing and trash. Popular does not imply irrational; entertainment can be
tracking the financials associated with production. Management informative, just as serious news can also be of great human
of the enterprise may entail such namings as company or studio interest.
president, vice president, director, manager, personnel, office man- As argued by Carl Bernstein, Good journalism is popular culture,
ager, business manager, and account services. Tracking of financials but popular culture that stretches and informs its consumers rather
will entail such namings as treasurer, controller, accountant, fi- than that which appeals to the ever descending lowest common
nance, payroll, and collections. None of these people will usually denominator. Todays media audiences are sociologically
be directly associated with the production of messages within the
44
sophisticated, active consumers, and interventions in all forms of Radio, which started as a Raj supported private enterprise, was

media by progressive forces are a must to keep democracy ticking passed on from one bureaucratic department to another, until it
and check authoritarianism. came under the Department of Information and Broadcasting in
One would simultaneously like to emphasize that whatever the 1941. It was expanded and exploited as a means of propaganda
strengths, advantages and weaknesses of the media in contempo- during the Second World War. Following independence, the Gov-
rary India, history has played a critical role in it, which is the struggle ernment of India kept broadcasting firmly in the hands of the
for independence and democracy. A sketchy knowledge of it is central government. This opened the way for more political access
vital for building a dynamic media in democratic India. by the government to the airwaves and a more vigorous use of
radio as an instrument of public policy. What I mean to say is that
What are these strengths of history that are still valid for us? Let
the broadcast media tradition seems to represent the antithesis of
me elucidate this through the case of the press. First, there is an
the press tradition.
extraordinary close association between modern Indias struggle
for political and social emancipation and the origins and develop- Television was first launched in India in the late 1950s, though it
ment of the Indian Press. A struggle between two groups with did not become a mass medium until the 1980s. Despite rapid
competing ideologies and goals marks the history of the press in Indian development in the 60s and 70s, Indian TV remained an
India: one group engaged in a continuing struggle against author- urban phenomenon confined to the well to do. It did not become
ity, whether British or Indian, to gain and maintain independence; a mass medium until the 1980s, the fillip coming with the Asian
and the other characterized by loyalty to the regime in power. Games held in Delhi in 1982. A decision was taken to go in for
colour TV. By the mid-1980s, India had become a television soci-
While the press has displayed strong signs of assertion in post
ety and thanks to the development of indigenous satellite
independence India, Indira Gandhis 1975-77 repressive Emer-
technology, Doordarshan became capable of broadcasting national
gency also revealed the vulnerability of newspapers to state coercion.
programmes for the first time.
But it learnt its lesson well and came out against the Anti-Defa-
mation Bill and the Bihar Press Bill. Second, we have seen an Then came an expansion of television, the like of which has rarely
impressive range of diverse opinions, interests and ideologies been experienced in the developing world. Economic liberaliza-
competing for space in the public discourse. There has been diver- tion, particularly from the 1990s, gave an entirely new meaning
sity in the ownership patterns and organizational forms of and opportunity to television. The onslaught from the skies, in
newspapers as business enterprises. Third, there have always been the form of international satellite-distributed television, radically
sharp ideological and political divides within the Indian press transformed the countrys broadcasting environment. Advertis-
tradition. In a sense, the contemporary division between newspa- ing agencies became the true midwives of satellite television.
pers in various languages that take a secular-democratic stand and Television advertising helped to create new markets in India. Look
those that have come out increasingly in support of the politics at the increase in revenue through television an increase from Rs
of the Hindu Right can be said to be similar to the divide between 82 crore in 1982 to Rs 572 crore in 1996-97.
the nationalist and the loyalist press during the freedom There was also a fresh context, shaped by the rising politics of
struggle. communal mobilization. A significant study by Arvind Rajagopal,
Politics after Television: Religious Nationalism and the Reshap-
Broadcasting In India
ing of the Indian Public (Cambridge University Press) shows
Colonial politics and its variations in post-colonial India have
how at one level the national television created a single visual
structured the nature of media ownership and control. Broad-
regime, right across the country, for the first time. At another level,
casting was deemed to be a privilege of the government, a tool to
the Congress party wanted to seize this advantage. However, by
better the sensibilities of Indias teeming masses. In the after-
playing the Hindu card, it was the Hindu Right that succeeded in
math of independence, the press, given its close association with
changing the terms of political debate, entering into an era of
the nationalist struggle, was allowed to retain its essentially pri-
authoritarian populism, more suited to the brave new world of
vate status as long as it was not seen to be consistently
economic liberalization.
anti-government. However, with its armoury of press and cen-
sorship laws, control over newsprint distribution, pricing and TV as a popular medium of Mass Communication
disbursement of public advertising, the government has a formi- To return back to television, it has of course emerged as the premier
dable hold over private sector media. After independence, mass medium. According to IRS 99, the reach of terrestrial
broadcasting, particularly radio and television, came under state television is close to 270 million; cable and satellite television reaches
control, and was used as a tool of national policy. However, this over 75 million. NRS 99 came up with an interesting finding that
scenario is fast changing with the emergence of satellite and cable. television has become the principal source of information and
The concerns regarding broadcasting in India have been contradic- entertainment in a growing number of urban homes: typically on
tory. There is anxiety that state regulation of the broadcasting a week-day, an average person spends 119 minutes watching
media may impinge upon the citizens freedom of speech and television, whereas he/she spends 23 minutes reading newspapers
that the Indian state may misuse broadcasting. At the same time, and 32 minutes reading magazines.
there is the fear that broadcasting freedom will get out of hand Here also, there are many interesting developments taking place
and destroy the countrys culture and polity. The government is cable and satellite are growing fast, and the state-controlled
anxious to be able to retain control in times of emergency. What Doordarshan is lagging behind. The governments attempts to
has been the history of broadcasting? rule the airwaves have been dealt a severe blow. The nature of the
new satellite media makes earlier notions of simple western
45
domination look oversimplified. Barriers of language and the different civil society formations have developed and are running
political and economic empowerment of a growing middle class their own medium of communications, like small magazines or
over the past 30 years have stood in the way of such a scenario. newsletters. But these do not have an impact on a macro level and
have not been able to develop a professional form. The challenge
Regional Channels
to develop a reliable TV channel, a TV programme, a radio
The regional private satellite channels are marching ahead in
programme or at least a magazine is before all those who are
Tamil Nadu, in Karnataka and Kerala. Sun TV emerged as the
engaged in various ways to promote and support alternative
satellite channel with the highest profit margin in India. There are
movements, alternative social groups and alternative models of
other exciting things happening. For example, take the case of Zee
development.
TV, which is Indias leading private Hindi channel. Between 1992
and 1999, it grew from the status of a small-time venture to a While it is true that a truly public media is essential for a live
commanding position, successfully combining entertainment, democracy, media is only one of many institutions and practices
infotainment and news operation. This is an example of how in of democratic life. No single institution can by itself bear the
the less developed world, local media can indigenise global prod- burden of furnishing democracy. Indeed, such centralization would
ucts and achieve a significant presence in a U.S. dominated global be profoundly anti democratic. For a peoples democracy, peoples
media market. participation, panchayats, local governance, schools, civil liberties,
forms of work life, freedom of faith and worship may be placed
New Media
above the media. Civil society needs a variegated array of
Globalization has further had a profound effect on Indias media,
institutions and necessities sanitation, electricity, water,
particularly the growth of Internet and on-line media. India is
neighborhoods, libraries, rule of law and above all a basic level of
one of the largest software producers in the world. It has an
security and welfare. An informative and critical media is a necessary
estimated 2.7 million computer users. While e-mail still accounts
condition for democracy but not a sufficient one. Democracy can
for the majority of Internet usage in India, Internet is fast
exist only when interwoven with the human and material condition
becoming a means for political communication as well. Many Indian
of life.
newspapers have gone on-line. The Indian Army web-site gives
its version of events in Jammu and Kashmir. The Bharatiya Janata The Global World of Internet
Party (BJP) set up Indias first party website during the 1998 What is Internet?
elections. This, I think, further complicates the discourse
The Internet is a network of networks. It is a massive collection
The Indian press is still the most pluralistic, and the most of computer networks that connect millions of computers, people,
independent among the developing world. In terms of the software programs, databases, and files. The parts and players are
number of newspapers published as also total newspaper spread around the world and interact continuously. Any two
circulation, India is among the top four countries. While connected computers can be considered a network. Any two
newspapers elsewhere struggle to hold readers, Indian daily connected networks become an internet (small i). Technological
circulation has increased by close to 500% in 20 years. Two all- advancements over the last few years have enabled virtually all
India readership surveys conducted in 1999-2000, estimate that computers to be networked together, giving birth to todays
the press as a whole reaches something between 200 and 240 internet (capital i).
million persons. Roughly, about 60% of urban Indians and one-
One way to describe the Internet is to say that it is the network
quarter of rural Indians read print media regularly.
formed by the cooperative interconnection of computing
Indian newspapers across a broad spectrum have been major networks. In fact, the word Internet is built from the words
winners due to economic liberalization; their growth rates have interconnection and network.
been remarkable in the 1990s. Robin Jeffreys study of the language
Interconnection + networks = Internet
press highlights this dynamic development. He underlines some
key factors behind this growth: improved technology, expanding Literally, it means the connecting of networks so that the parts
literacy, better purchasing power, aggressive publishing and appear to be a whole. These connected networks usually use the
political excitement. Added to this is the fact that all the top ten TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/Internet Protocol)
dailies in urban and rural India are Indian language newspapers, communications suite. These protocols are the rules that all
their readership ranging from 4.88 million to 9.45 million. networks use to understand each other.
Emerging trends What is Intranet

Over the years the corporate sector has developed its own press (Internal Communication Networks based on the Internet
and channels. The political parties have their own newspapers. Technologies)
The governments in this country have also promoted their own Many Internet users find the Web frustrating because few locations
medium of mass communication. But the voluntary organiza- provide complete indexes or effective search tools. Constantly
tions, groups engaged in movements, associations of the expanding and improving Internet technologies, however, are
oppressed castes and the citizens engaged in promoting alterna- showing that company-wide internets (called Intranet) can avoid
tive politics which have grown manifold in the post-independence these problems and offer significant benefits:
era in terms of its sheer number and the area of operation, have
They make text, graphics, video, audio available widely and quickly
not been able to develop their own press or television channels
(much faster than modem-based communications),
with a mass reach and sound credentials. It may be noted that
And
46
They allow employees to conduct usability tests, comment on most of its existence the internet was primarily a research and

works in progress, link work team materials in a word academic network. In the mid-1980s, the National Science Foun-
communicate. dation looked up to a form a shared resource of supercomputing
Benefits- centers (NSFNET) that could be used by researchers at multiple
institutions.
Intranets do not yet have the security or range features available in
expensive groupware systems, but they do offer quick, easy, and The most recent development in the Internets history is the rise
inexpensive access to many types of information. of commercial service providers. Commercial Internet exchange
(CIX) Association, Inc. is formed in 1991 by General Atomics
Quick Information (CERFnet). Performance Systems International, Inc. (PSInet) and
Companies are using intranets to provide employees with quick UUNET Technologies, Inc. (AlterNet).
access to compelling, interactive information. For example,
using a Web browser. Turner Broadcasting employees can access Who owns the Internet
animated clips and sound bites of up-and-coming cartoons and Nobody owns the Internet just as no one owns worlds
then flame or praise animators in real-time-an in-house focus telephone networks. Moving among networks of computers
group. Using Web browsers to fill out personal profiles stored works much the same way (not surprising since the telephone
on a Web Server, employees can customize newspapers they networks are being used to connect the computers). Each
receive in email. component is owned by someone, but the network as a whole is
Easy Setup and Use not owned by anyone. The Internet is a system that hangs together
To set up an intranet you need server and browsing software: through mutual interest.
Internet Explorer 2.0 & Microsofts Web Brower. Using an How is the Internet Administered?
Intranet is easy and intuitive. To access information with a Web To surprise of many people, there really is not central administra-
Browser. Using an Intranet is easy and intuitive. To access tion to the Internet. There is a network Information Center (NIC)
information with a Web Browser you simply point and click hot that is sponsored by the United States National Science Founda-
spots on Web pages you dont have to remember or type in tion (NSF) to register the domains, names, and addresses of new
server pathnames. Documents, graphics, and videos appear in computers being added to the network. Internet Service Provid-
the browser or in helper applications you designate. Users can ers are encouraged to provide registration service and assistance
also create and register Web pages on a corporate intranet as for each new connected network. Each individually-connected net-
painlessly as they navigate for information. work maintains its own user policies and procedures who can be
connected, what kind of traffic the network will carry, etc. Each
Easy Setup and Use
manages its own network engineering the network, choosing to
To set up an intranet you need server and browsing software:
provide particular services or not. And each network cooperatively
Internet Explorer 2.0 & Microsofts Web Browser. Using an
carries the traffic from its connected networks to gateways and
Intranet is easy and intuitive. To access information with a Web
from gateways to its connected networks. The technical rules, pro-
Browser you simply point and click hot spots on Web pages
tocols, are agreed upon after proposal, trial, and discussed in the
you dont have to remember or type in server pathnames.
networking community. No one person can lay down the law
Documents, graphics, and videos appear in the browser or in
to the rest of the community because there is not law and there is
helper applications you designate. Users can also create and
no one person.
register Web pages on a corporate intranet as painlessly as they
navigate for information. In addition, every computer- client or server on the Internet has
a unique IP (Internet Protocol) address to distinguish it from
Low Cost other computers on the Internet. The IP address is four sets of
Setting up an intranet doesnt have to cost you much or any- digits separated by dots, for example.
thing, you already have a network and you can download the
software you need from the WWW. 198.46.8.34
Since this string of numbers would be hard to remember and
Wide Compatibility
fraught with potential keying errors, the Domain Name System
Intranets are appealing to corporation with multi-platform
(DNS) was created so people wouldnt have to remember several
environments because browsers and server software are
confusing numbers. Domain names enable short, alphabetical
available for most systems. In addition. Intranets can connects
nicknames to be assigned to IP addresses to describe where a
PCs, Macintoshes, or Workstations, and allow users to access
computer is located. For the most part, domain names indicate
documents created with various applications.
who or what is located at this site and the type of the organization
Uncomplicated Management that owns or supports the site. In the URL example above.
Intranet management does not require specialized training. www.msn.com - domain name for the MSN Web Page.
Anyone can update documents, modify uppages, and build
Some common domain types with U.S. addresses are
Web database of information on a client or server computer.
Com Commercial organizations
History of Intranet Edu Educational Institutions
gov Governmental Organizations (except the military)
The Internet was created in 1973 by the U.S. Defense Advanced mil Military Organizations
Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to ensure that their commu- net

org
Network Service Providers
Organizations other than those above
nication systems would continue to work in the event of war. For
47
Some examples of international domains designations are Technological trends are radically privatizing or individualizing
how we spend our limited free time. The fundamental values of

Au Australia
Fr France both journalism and politics are being challenged, in part because
Uk
In
United Kingdom
India of the new technologies. Their problemsand their revitaliza-
Us United States tionare inextricably linked. The future of both depends on
how effectively they can revive their core standards and regain the
The InterNIC (Internet National Information Center) exists publics trust. Today, news especially electronic media news, many
to issue IP address and domain names so that duplicate names or times an artificial construct is under cloud. Unless journalists work
addresses do not proliferate. New users, or existing users requir- now to save it, ethics of objectivity that developed in journalism
ing additional Internet addresses, need to apply to the InterNIC in the seventies and eighties as both a reform effort and a re-
for these resources. sponse to market opportunities may be doomed.
So whats available? If the television news channels continue to cover the world
The services available to you on Internet are cynically and assume that everybody is Machiavellian and motivated
Electronic Mail (e-mail), Newsgroups, Gopher, File Transfer by their own self-interest, it might invite their viewers to reject
Protocol (FTP). Telnet, and journalism as a mode of communication
World Wide Web (WWW). The idea that these audiences simply have fled to television news
is not an adequate explanation. Latest NRS (National Readership
Table 1.1 Internet Services
Survey) figures prove that in spite of television news penetration
E-mail and mailing lists Send e-mail to anyone in the world having the newspaper readership has expanded. Indeed, the national tele-
an Internet E-mail account. You can also
subscribe to discussion groups vision networks, which once enjoyed the attention of a captive
nation, now compete with many alternative offerings on cable.
Now that legal obstacles have been removed, the new telephone
Newsgroups Thousands of discussion groups, on almost
any subject you can think of. companies are laying fiber optic networks, enabling them to trans-
Gopher A system that lets you wander through
computers on the Internet, searching for
mit their own news and classified services directly into the home.
documents.
A system that lets you wander through
Ironically, we are losing our gatekeepers just when we need them
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
computer. Its like a giant software library most.
millions of files that contains programs,
sound clips, music, pictures, video, and
documents.
People are overwhelmed by news products and imitations:
Telnet A system that lets you log in to someones infotainment magazine shows, infomercials, docudramas, home
else computer and run programs on it.
Some people actually invite the public into videos, talk shows, and Internet gossip, all competing with tradi-
their computers; you might get to play
chess, view a government job listing, or tional news stories in the old and new media. Citizens need a
search a NASA database.
trustworthy guide not just for reports about what officially hap-
World Wide Web A giant hypertext system. While you are pened around the nation each day but for the enormous flow of
viewing a document, you can link, and
another document appears. Travel around information that is gushing into their homes.
the world by pointing and cli cking. Sound,
pictures, video, even 3-D images enrich the News organizations have responded to the new media environ-
World Wide Web and make it the hot
Internet tool. ment in several ways. Many journalists, instead of beating their
entertainment and propaganda competitors, are joining them.
The increased competition spawned by the new technologies has
led some traditional news purveyors to go tabloid-increasing
There are currently two basic ways to physically connect to the coverage of celebrity gossip, bizarre crime, and sex scandals to try
Internet. to retain their mass audience. Television news and magazine
programmes on Indian news channels, in particular, have loos-
The first, and most widely used method is through a modem
ened their standards and definitions of what makes news.
which connects your computer to a normal analog telephone line,
which in turn connects to a modem at the host computer. As news organizations react to these new technologies, many are
Indian media should gear up for technology impact concentrating on the look and feel of their delivery systems, trying
By Alok Verma (14 January 2003) to figure out how they will sell what is basically the same old
content in new media formats. This may be the wrong focus.
The new technologies are accelerating a shift of power away from
Digital technologies now free the news from any fixed delivery
traditional voices of authority in journalism and politics. How-
medium, enabling consumers to convert content instantly into
ever, new media designers predict that the day-to-day mass audience
video, audio, or text. The journalists challenge isnt the medium
will splinter further into niches, because people will want to create
but the message. As consumers start experimenting in cyberspace,
their own customized flows of information.
journalists need to address more urgently not the delivery format
In politics, citizens already are treated as demographic niches, and but the quality of their core product: reliable and useful informa-
our common values rarely are addressed. Candidates and political tion on which citizens can act.
interest groups deepen our divisions by fashioning single-issue
Many journalists would vehemently deny that their product is in
appeals to narrow voter populations. If we are looking for a
trouble. Certainly some of the best journalism ever practiced is
national sense of citizenship, of shared interests and goals, we
the work of the current generation of news professionals such as
will have even more difficulty finding them in the niche media.
Rajdeep Sardeasi, Shikha Trivedi, Dibang, Deepak Chaurasiya,
48
Prabhat Shunglu, Nupur Basu, Rajesh Badal, Barkha Dutt in tele- more and more television news channels burn their brand into

vision and Sankarshan Thakur, Ritu Sarin, Shudiranjan Sen, each video frame to mark their scoops, the news consumer rarely
Rashmi Saxena, Basavi, Sreekant in newspapers. And some highly remembers who had a news item first as she surfs through scores
successful news offerings by NDTV on Star News, Aaj Tak, the of channels.
Indian Express, India Today, The Hindu and Business Standard A news organization will need something exclusive to offer if it is
prove that audiences still appreciate high-quality journalism. to occupy a distinct niche in the multichannel environment. A
News is Indias daily meal of politics and policy information. news channel with a trusted anchor and a newspaper with trusted
Instead of informing citizens in ways that might be useful to editor will have an advantage in the new marketplace, and a differ-
them, todays influential reporters often focus on interpreting ent kind of exclusive scoopa research or analysis piece that has
political and public policy news as if they were professional wres- been developed by the news organization alonewill sharpen
tling referees. It is common on any television news channel that the purveyors competitive edge.
the reporters provide narrow, superficial, pseudo-insider coverage (The writer was editor of Zee News and Star TV Interactive and is
of the governments actual business or activities. The citizens are currently working for the Community Media .)
never provided the real news on policies, reforms and public wel-
fare decisions. What you get to read or watch is nothing but neatly Review Questions:
packaged infotainment where even the most sombre or poignant Explain why TV is the most popular medium of mass
information is dramatized in the form of sensational revelation communication?
of innocuous information. Young journalists, taking cues from Radio an dyeing medium, comment.
their more prominent colleagues, instead of asking a contesting Discuss the latest trends of the Indian media industry.
political candidate, Why are you contesting for this Assembly or
Parliament seat? the question is often asked, How do you plan Suggested Readings
to win the election or how can you win? Keval J kumar: Mass Communication in India, Jaico Publishing
The journalist earlier used to gain status by dining yet not aligning House
with his subjects; now he gains status by just aligning with them.
Instead of highlighting problems in a way that would corner the
political system or administrative system, journalists now reward
the politicians, by not letting any relation to serious political argu-
ment, let alone to grown-up ideas about conduct and morality.
Instead of proving that journalists are unbiased guardians of the
public trust, this perpetual negativity may one day backfire.
If the television news channels continue to cover the world cyni- Notes
cally and assume that everybody is Machiavellian and motivated
by their own self-interest, it might invite their viewers to reject
journalism as a mode of communication because it must be cyni-
cal too. Increasingly, people see journalists as a special interest
group, like any other, which manipulates them in order to throw
its weight around or make a buck.
In the digital world, journalism is liberated not just from time
but also from space constraints. The reporters dream has come
true: now there is a bottomless news hole, thanks to new tech-
nologies and the Internet. Online news customers become
archaeologists; they can start at the surface with the headline, di-
gest, or summary of the news, and then click on words or pictures
to enter layer upon layer of longer stories, related features, analysis
pieces, and sound and video clips. Finally, they will reach original
documents and discussion groups on an issue.
The new technologies offer journalists not only the potential per-
ils of competition and scrutiny but also the potential benefits of
an expanded role: connecting citizens to information and to each
other. To succeed, journalists cannot connect simply for the sake
of connecting; they will have to deliver something of additional
value to the customer. Interactivity is only one of the dramatic
technologies now changing the television news. More significantly,
the hot scoop loses its commercial value in this competitive
environment. Reporters, who rate each other on who gets the
news first, prize scoops. However, the value of the time-sensitive
scoop is lost in the constant news marketplace. Even though
49
LESSON 12
TRADITIONAL MEDIAS
Traditional and Alternate Media dramas. The selection of the media depends on the message and
for Development the characteristics of the audience. The occasions such as fairs and
The folk and traditional arts have been used for moral, religious festivals are utilised to gather the people for the performances and
and socio-political purposes. India has a long tradition of mass displays.
communication, especially oral communication and folk arts. The The Song and Drama Division of Indian Government functions
folk art, typical of the tribal and rural life all over the world, is the at the three levels, at its headquarter in New Delhi, at eight regional
spontaneous expression of the people shaped by them, to suit centres in various parts of the country and there are nine sub-
their own needs. More than 2500 years back in India, the religious centres at the district headquarters. The division has departmental
leaders likes Buddha and Mahavir made use of the language of troupes, sound and light units and more than 400 registered
the people in order to preach their religion to the masses. Thereaf- parties, which are made up of eminent performers in the folk arts.
ter the art of telling stories of god (Harikatha) development so During 1991, it presented thousands of programmes all over the
that the rural masses could be educated with respect to the subtle country as it is mentioned in the Annual report of 1991-92.The
concepts of religion and social values. This is the reason why we Directorate of Advertising and Visual Publicity (DAVP) is a mul-
have a unique phenomenon in India that the illiterate peasants are timedia agency, which produces material for macro as well as micro
familiar with the fundamental tenets of Hinduism, Buddhism media. The specialised service is being offered in areas of exhibi-
Jainism etc. In the following centuries throughout the country, tions, designing and printing booklets, folders, posters, hoarding
there were such attempts through the Bhakti movement by great banners and kiosks etc. The important themes being covered are
leaders and philosophers. The great temples of India built through national integration, communal harmony, health and family wel-
the ages were not only the places of worship but are also full of fare, girl child and prevention of drug abuse etc. The departments
sculpture, which enlightened the masses about the episodes in such as National Saving Organisation, Life Insurance Corpora-
the epics. The temples were also centres of learning where great tion, Health and Family Welfare etc use the traditional and alternate
scholars held their discourses in the afternoons and evenings. media.The Field studies at the village level in two different states
Maharashtra and Tamilnadu have concluded that the most effec-
In the present century, Mahatma Gandhi possibly the greatest
tive method of communicating the message of the small family
mass communicator of all times aroused millions of illiterate
norm is through personal contact, demonstration and interac-
people to participate in the freedom struggle against the mighty
tion. These are the three important aspects of folk media.
empire through oral communication. He inspired to use other
traditional media of entertainment such as songs, dramas, pup- Drawbacks
pets and other folk arts for spreading the massages especially in Though the government made wide use of traditional and alternate
the rural areas. media there are several severe criticisms. The limitations are
Though there is a tendency of viewing the folk media as out- pertaining to the kind of message and the management of it.Too
moded, unchanging and extremely rigid form of mass media, it is much emphasis on publicising their own achievements and
far from the truth. Although the basic form and the structure of intention has lowered the credibility of the government media.The
the various folk art form have changed very slightly over the centu- structure of official media did not permit decentralisation in
ries, the messages conveyed have always moved with the times or production of material; as a result the urban and middle class bias
rather have been contemporary. seriously hampered the development objectives.
The message is transmitted by the staff of the project (sender) to
As Used By The Indian Government
the people (receiver) Sometimes, their opinions are taken but al-
There has been a phenomenal growth in media of mass commu-
ways at prescribed stages and feedback are taken without major
nication after independence.However, at the time of crisis and
consequences. This type of limited or nil participation has proved
national event like elections, the traditional ways and means of
incapable of bringing about social change. The process itself needs
communication have proved their importance. The Indian gov-
to aim at making people and more responsible if the goal is that
ernment being aware of the fact always tried to make use of small
of development. It needs to promote a dynamic of knowledge
and alternate media for the purpose of development. For
creation for all the protagonists in question. Though the govern-
publicising development schemes under the five-year plans, so as
ment has promoted folk media to some extent the mass media
to motivate the people to participate, programme called the Inte-
received much greater attention. They have been projected as if
grated Publicity Programme was launched in 1953. In the following
they are the only effective media in this society. In the process folk
years the sister organisation viz. Song and Drama Division was
media have been systematically and subtly destroyed. The mass
started for organising entertainment programmes with the help
media is so violent and forceful that it has impaired the senses of
of local theatrical group or parties of local or folk artists. The
common individuals to an extent they cannot receive any other
other popular media in other regions are also combined. They are
mild form.
printed words, exhibitions, photographs, puppet shows and dance
50
Media As Used By The Activists And The following forms have been widely used for development

Non-Government Organization communication:
Government is not the only agency working for the development
Songs and Story telling
and social change. The other even more committed sector is of
Every work, act, festival and incident has a song for the expression
activists and voluntary organisations. The rulers and capitalists
of feelings. These are sung in a group with each and every partici-
control the mass media. Mass media without know how, the
pating in it. The tunes are familiar as and when required for better
infrastructure and funds cannot be used effectively. The change
expression and conveying desirable messages.The story telling is a
agents though committed but working with limited funds have
form where various methods are observed. The mythological
no reach to the mass media. They are left with the only option of
political and social themes are interwoven with the contemporary
using media, which is within their control. The alternate and
messages in an interesting way. Along with prose the poetry is
traditional media have provided the answer. There are certain in
also combined which makes the presentation more gripping. The
built advantages. They are:
musical equipment though used is limited in number and locally
The know-how is simple and associated with the old Indian made.
traditions hence expertise is available even in remote areas. It is
Dance, Drama and Dance-drama
not a gift of the western world.
There are different folk dances of different regions. There are
The finance involved is less and infrastructure is easily available in festivals and occasions when the whole community - rich and
the less developed areas. poor, small and big, men and women come together and enjoy
The poor people in the remote areas have familiarity with the collectively. This provides an opportunity for better understanding
media hence the messages get across easily. of each other; especially women find a platform where they can
They do not create the sense of powerlessness among the common express their feelings. (The known forms are Garaba of Gujarat,
people which in turn hampers the growth and development Bhangra of Punjab, Lavni of Maharastra etc.)
There are many traditional forms common through out the coun- Folk Theatre
try and special to a particular region. The other small media which In India there are communities traditionally occupied in the folk
are not traditional but possess the elements common to that of theatre. It is a family profession for them. They move from one
the folk art, and they are within the control of the common people. village to the other and arrange their performance. The format of
These media which can be described as micro-media is divided the theatre is well - known but the messages of different kind are
into three categories carried from place to place. They provide a link between different
communities in different regions and integrate the different culture.
Speech and meetings and Discussions
The folk theatre has played major role in political and social changes.
The country has rich traditions hence talk and speech is the life of
Through the form, messages are carried out and values are
rural India. This way of communication is totally in control of
perpetuated along with the popular entertainment. Normally the
the poorest person. Indian society is not individualistic like the
form has a loose structure, which allows lot of innovations and
western world. It is more community and family oriented. As a
improvisation. The use of satire and humorous presentation gets
result the art of interpersonal and group communication has
difficult messages across easily.
flourished. People like and enjoy talking. The techniques like use
(The popular forms are Bhavai of Gujarat, Tamasha of Maharastra,
of body, cultivation of voice and gestures are imbibed in the
Nautanki and Ramlila of northern part, Jatra in Bengal, Yakshagan
people through the cultural exposition.
in Karantaka and Therukoothu in Tamilnadu.)
Meetings and Group Discussions
There is a tradition in the rural areas to have informal meetings Puppetry:
where a lot of the information is shared, feelings are ventilated, This is a very exciting media. It attracts anybody from a child to the
doubts are raised, decisions are taken and problems are solved. aged. The content, which normally offends people in power, if
Informal meeting have proved to be much more productive than delivered by the actors can be put in the mouth of the puppets.
the formal ones. This is an indirect way of addressing the issues in question. There
are four popular styles of puppetry flourishing in different re-
Demonstrations and Exhibitions gions.
The Department of Health and Family Planning extensively use
String puppets or Sutradharika: This style is found in the states of
these media. Simple charts paintings and models can be conve-
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Orissa, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Andhra
niently carried into the rural areas. They provide an easy way of
Pradesh.
informing the illiterate people about the symptoms, the causes,
curing process and the prevention.
Though very little property is required a lot of preparation and
different talents are being used. If the exhibition material is pre-
pared with the local resources it is very useful for creating awareness
and dissemination of information.
Performing Arts
In the field of performing arts there are mainly two categories:
Traditional forms of art or folk art.
Indian adaptation of art forms of other culture.
51
Rod puppets: As it is discussed earlier folk dramas enacted in public squares as
These puppets are used in west Bengal. They are large in size and the street play. Folk media are intimate with masses, readily avail-
fixed to bamboo sticks, which are tied to the puppeteers waist. able at low cost. Also relished by different age groups and provides
instant feedback and so do the street plays. Hence though influ-
Shadow puppets:
enced by the western theatre it is accepted by common people in
The shadow puppets are flat figures made from tanned hide and
India readily.Womens groups in cities and rural areas have used
painted with vegetable dyes. They are illuminated from behind so
street theatre to raise social consciousness on the issues like dowry
that their shadows fall on a transparent cotton screen. The stories
deaths, exploitative advertisement, legal rights etc. In Kerala State
projected are taken from the epics Ramayan and Mahabharat. They
the Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP) has employed street
are popular in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Orissa.
theatre to popularise science and literacy.
Jatthas (A Group March)
When the goal is to mobilize people in large number of villages it
is more effective to combine different media. This is done by
organisation of Jatthas by walk. A group of people with relevant
media moves from one place to the other, mobilizing people on
Hand Puppets: the issue and building awareness. It is community effort where
Hand puppets or glove puppets are simple to prepare and perform different groups join together and conducts Jatthas. This needs
and hence they are very popular for educational use. This form has planning, public relation and publicity. But when entire commu-
flourished in Orissa, Kerala and Tamilnadu. nity is involved organizing does not become difficult. The very
fact of the involvement of the community ensures the success of
the programme. The combination of powerful and attractive micro
media assures the impact.
In 1990 Bharat Vignyan Jattha - a national movement was sup-
ported by the Ministry of Human Resource Development in which
more than 500 villages were covered in the country. The objective
of the march was to popularise science for cultivating scientific
temper among the common mass of the country. The success of
it initiated Jatthas on other issues in following the years.
There are other modern variations in the original forms, which do
not require elaborate preparation and highly skilled performance. The changing face of traditional media business
The voluntary organisations make wide use of puppet plays on The technology is changing fast. Take this. We can run our TV
alcoholism, unionization, environment and health education with through the mobile phone in year 2003. Dont believe it? Check
manageable funds by using such adaptations. out the latest Internet enabled products launched by LG in the
Indian market. That leads us to an interesting question where are
Street Theatres we headed towards in the future and how it affects a traditional
Drama performed on the street or in the open grounds is termed media company? The eTechnology Group of the premier market
as street theatre. It is a form of theatre, which goes to the people research company IMRB International has done a research on this
and is performance amongst them. It required minimum equip- subject and has come out with some interesting findings in its
ment yet provide two way communication by wiping out the line report released this year.
between the audience and the performers.Street theatre as it is
known today can be traced back to its direct lineage with the Rus-
sian Revolution in 1917. In India it appeared in the 20th century, as
the awareness of the freedom struggle. In 1944, Bijon
Bhattacharya, a founder of Indian peoples Theatre Association
(IPTA) gave momentum and spread the stories of the exploita-
tion of peasants by the landowners.The street theatre is greatly
influenced by Brechts epic theatre, peter Brooks Rough theatre The study indicates that the control would shift more and more
and Badal Sircar Third theatre. to customers. For example, today we use the remote to block ad
As it is written by a well-known activist, Safdar Hashmi, The breaks by shuffling channels. Tomorrow, we would use technol-
history points out very clearly that the theatre development as ogy to block ads if we do not want them. This is not to say ads
agitation propaganda (Agit-Prop) on the streets, at factory gates, would not work, as people would still like to be passive in receiv-
markets, dockyards, Playgrounds, Barnyard and so on. It is politi- ing info at some point of time. Secondly, the communication
cal in nature and became a voluntary instrument of the democratic channels will be more complex and fragmented and consumers
temper of the people. It is also an interpreter of daily events and will be more difficult to reach with a single message. The mobile
development. It has played a role in the process of national awak- phone will be combined with the web access. One can have micro-
ening in the countries like Spain, Vietnam, Japan, France, Cuba, wave with recipe download etc. So marketers can reach messages
USA and UK. through alternate channels. We have already seen increasing use of
SMS now in this context. Thirdly, the businesses will move to-
52
wards targeted and interactive communications strategies. A few have to be collected wherever they happen. The growing media

examples of these could be a call center by Asian Paints or the spends will be in interactive media (Internet, email, interactive
cross selling efforts of banks. TV/Radio when they happen, live events) & targeted media
The finding indicates towards number of changes taking place in (direct mail, email, mobile devices etc.).
the urban India. In 2-3 years horizon which is going to be a Review Questions:
technology comforting era, there will be experimentation of ben-
Explain the difference between traditional and modern
efits/delivery for both users & providers. There would be a marked
mediums of mass communication.
increase in Internet access at home and more specifically through
What are the different traditional or alternate media?
affordable methods in public places like schools, cyber cafes etc.
The mobile communication devices will be more mass with some What are the latest trends in traditional media?
part of web invading it (2.5G+ will start growing in 2-3 years). Suggested Readings
The support technologies like Bluetooth will happen in 3-4 years.
The traditional PC will start morphing with several support de-
House
vices (PDAs etc.) which will start blurring the line with mobile
communication devices. The cable industry is also expected to
grow dramatically aided by CAS but the latest in technology will
start invading this cottage industry. Thus, TV channels will be
significantly impacted.
If we look at 5-10 years period, which is going to be an interactive
media era, the true fragmentation of media would begin to hap-
pen. With better penetration of the Net, further fragmentation
of communication will happen with specific appliances taking on Notes
the special tasks. The audio devices could connect to your favourite
channel and play songs of your selected singers. More interactive
components will be added to TVs, refrigerator, microwave, and
washing machines. Even the traditional media like radio would
grow more interactive. The interactive TVs, video on demand,
education at home, telecommuting and other bandwidth hungry
demands will begin to grow near the end of year 8-10.
We are also going to get a broad delineation of the new customer.
But this will be a slow evolution which is already undergoing.
There will be a growing information sophistication. One just
needs to see the way young executives in office are handling mul-
tiple info channels to believe this. All this has been possible
through higher education, mastery of process of gathering, ana-
lyzing, integration and dissemination. We are also going to see
higher income levels. The new class of customers would have
better disposable income, less guilt to spend and willing to bet
more on their future capability to meet spends. They will be adept
at using the new technology. They would also have greater control
(read: privacy) and say on what they want. From the customer
point of view, the new technologies are aimed at giving control
and great say in what they want. So customers would have more
choices, ease of access to choices and ease of assessing the right
choices to make. Hence, communication channels have to be
adapted to this reality.
All these trends signify the change of equations for the
traditional media companies in the days to come. The IMRB
study recommends that the traditional media companies need
to be present in multiple channels to capitalize on changes. For
example, India Today Group which has successfully gone
beyond the print media to create a niche for itself in the TV
channel business besides making its presence felt on the
Internet platform. So they got to be more engaged with their
audience and progress to interaction as we move on. The media
spends (print will lose revenues the most!) will have to get
further fragmented across media options and hence revenues
53
LESSON 13
EFFECTS OF MEDIA ON SOCIETY, DETERMINANTS OF MEDIA INFLUENCE
The Meaning of Effects also the fact that there are a whole variety of people and group
Media effects mean different things to different people. A psy- listening, viewing, reading in a countless number of socio-cultural
chologist, for example, has psychological effects in mind when environments. Perhaps, the only safe conclusion on effects (or
talking about media effects; the sociologist, the social effects, the interactions) of the media is that arrived at by Bernard Berelson
anthropologist, the cultural effects, the political scientist the po- several years ago: Some kinds of communication on some kind
litical effects and so on. Parents too are concerned about the amount of issues, brought to the attention of some kinds of people
of time their children spend with television, music, comics, and under some kinds of conditions have some kinds of effects.
films, and the effects this might have on their childrens behavior
Determinants of Media Influence
and attitudes.
Attitude
Effects are of various types and various gradations too. They may
One conception is that an attitude is how positive or negative,
be short term, medium terms are long term; they may be deep or
favorable or unfavorable, or pro or con a person feels toward an
profound, or transient or superficial as in case of fashions,
object. This definition views attitude as a feeling or an evaluative
mannerisms, and life styles. Then there are influences of a passing
reaction to objects.
nature or a more permanent nature.
A second definition represents the thoughts of Allport, who
Can influences be termed as effects? How are influences, effects
views attitudes as learned predispositions to respond to an object
distinct from impacts, or are they mere synonyms for the same
or class of objects in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way.
social phenomenon. Few media sociologists have subjected the
This definition is slightly more complicated than the first because
inadequacy of everyday language to understand the complexity of
It incorporates the notion of readiness to respond toward an
media effects to any kind of critical scrutiny.
object.
Social scientists and media professionals rarely consider the infinite
A third definition of attitude popularized by cognitively oriented
variety of uses the different media and the different programmes
social- psychologists are: a enduring organization of motivational,
are put to, in different contexts. In most cases, the use of term
emotional, perceptual, and cognitive process with respect to some
effect is misleading because it suggests that the media do
aspect of the individuals world. This views attitudes as being
something to people, as though people are inorganic creatures,
made up of three components: (1) the cognitive, or knowledge,
who do not bring their own personalities to play in the
component, (2) the affective, or emotional, component, and (3)
communication process. It also implies that the media are active,
the cognitive, or _behavioral-tendency, component. Attitudes have
audiences are unresponsive if not passive. These assumptions
several important characteristics or properties; namely, they (1)
about media and audiences have their origin in Aristotelian linear
have an object; (2) have direction, intensity, and degree; (3) have
models of communication where persuasion is seen as the
structure; and, (4) are learned.
primary goal of all communications.
Attitudes serve four major functions for the individual: (1) the
The truth is that we have little precise knowledge or proven data
adjustment function, (2) the ego-defensive function, (3) the value-
about media effects since they invariably take place in combination
expressive function, and (4) the knowledge function. Ultimately,
with whole lot of social, economic and cultural variables. Do
these functions serve peoples need to protect and enhance the
effects relate to change, however slight, in attitude and behavior?
image they hold of themselves. In more general terms, these
Perhaps. The extent of change depends on the variations in the
functions are the motivational bases which shape and reinforce
desires and inclinations of individual members of an audience,
positive attitudes toward goal objects perceived as need-satisfying,
and in the way they as individuals and as members of different
and/or negative attitudes toward other objects perceived as
social and cultural groups respond to various types of stimuli
punishing or. threatening.
from the mass media. It has to be noted, moreover, that people
can be influenced without paying attention and without changing Motives
at all, that there is often no relationship between what a person Various concepts have been offered to explain how motives
learned, knew or recalled on the one hand and what he did or how exert their directional influences on audiences. Earlier views held
he felt on the other! It follows therefore that one can learn things that inborn instincts beyond the individual s control provided
without believing them, believe things without doing them, and the direction for behavior. Later it was stressed that basic needs
do things without learning or believing them! (hunger, thirst, and the like) impelled people toward action.
Functions of Motives
Interaction, Not Effects
The interaction (a much more accurate term than effects) between Defining basic strivings- Motives influence audiences to develop
media and human beings is an extremely complex phenomenon. and identify their basic strivings. They serve to guide behavior
It becomes even more complex when we realize that there are a in a general way across a wide variety of decisions and activities.
great variety of media offering numerous programme genres, and Identifying goal objectives.
54
Influencing choice criteria- Motives also guide audiences in

developing criteria for evaluating media and programmes.
Learning
Very simply, learning can be viewed as a relatively permanent change
in behavior occurring as a result of experience. The implications
of this definition are fairly, subtle and, therefore, require some
explanation. Elements of learning are motive, cues, response,
and reinforcement.
Memory
Short-Term Memory To a large extent, short-term memory can
be viewed as the workspace for information processing. That is, it
is a portion of memory activated to temporarily, store and process
information in order to interpret it and comprehend its meaning.
This is accomplished by combining incoming information with
other information (past experiences, knowledge, and the like)
stored in long term memory.
Although the duration of this memory register is considerably
longer than the of sensory memory, it still is very brief, lasting less
than one minute. In addition, the {capacity of short-term memory
is quite limited. Approximately seven items or groupings of items
are all that can be sorted at anyone time.
Material residing in short-term memory does not bear a one-to-
one correspondence with the real world. Instead, the process of
coding is used to organize, information into a more easily handled
and remembered format. The primary method of this coding is
termed chunking, which can be defined as the method of
assembling information into a type of organized unit having a
more understandable.
Long-Term Memory This memory system can be thought of as
the relatively permanent storehouse for information that has
undergone sufficient processing. Material can be maintained in
long-term memory for as little as a few minutes to as long as
many years. In addition, this system has the capacity to store an
almost unlimited amount of information. A predominant key to
coding material for storage in long-term memory is
meaningfulness; the personal understanding an individual can
derive from the information. That is, through elaborative rehearsal
the individual uses his existing knowledge to interpret incoming
information and code it in a way that is consistent with his existing
cognitive structure (knowledge base).
Notes
55
UNIT V
THEORIES OF MASS MEDIA
LESSON 14
TWO STEP FLOW THEORY, DIFFUSION OF
INNOVATIONS, DEPENDENCY THEORY
Two-Step Flow of Information
Introduction
Man has forever fought against the forces of entropy, working
very diligently at creating order and meaning, dissecting and
perusing until order is achieved. For civilization this has been
important. It has lent the world many fascinating theories
about our surroundings and the effect human beings can have.
As order driven beings, we seek to stretch and apply knowledge Lazarsfeld et al suggested ideas often flow from radio and print
gained in all aspects of life to situations and experiences very to the opinion leaders and from them to the less active sections of
different from the origin of the knowledge. It is through the the population. People tend to be much more affected in their
stretching and manipulating of old thought that new insights decision making process by face-to-face encounters with influential
are made, and new psychological mountains are tackled. It is peers than by the mass media (Lazarsfeld, Menzel, 1963). As Weiss
through this stretching and manipulating of one socio-political described in his 1969 chapter on functional theory, Media content
based theory that the field of Advertising has defined some of can be a determining influence. What is rejected is any conception
its capabilities and constraints in the area of mass communica- that construes media experiences as alone sufficient for a wide
tion. This theory involves the two-step flow of variety of effects. The other piece in the communication process
communication. is the opinion leader with which the media information is
This paper will address insights to the history and development, discussed.
the criticisms and praises, recent studies, and current applications The studies by Lazarsfeld and his associates sparked interest in the
of the two-step flow of communication theory. The ultimate exact qualities and characteristics that define the opinion leader. Is
goal is to answer one question: What does a theory based on an opinion leader influential in all cases, on all topics? Or is the
socio-political research have to do with advertising, anyway? influence of an opinion leader constrained to certain topics? How
Development of the does an opinion leader come to be influential?
Two-step Flow of Communication theory
The Opinion Leaders
As with most theories now applied to Advertising, the Two-
step flow of communication was first identified in a field Who are they? How have they come to be defined?
somewhat removed from communications-sociology. In 1948, A study by Robert Merton revealed that opinion leadership is not
Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet published a general characteristic of a person, but rather limited to specific
The Peoples Choice, a paper analyzing the votersi decision- issues. Individuals, who act as opinion leaders on one issue, may
making processes during a 1940 presidential election campaign. not be considered influentials in regard to other issues (Merton,
The study revealed evidence suggesting that the flow of mass 1949). A later study directed by Lazarsfeld and Katz further
communication is less direct than previously supposed. investigated the characteristics of opinion leaders. This study
Although the ability of mass media to reach a large audience, confirmed the earlier assertions that personal influence seems more
and in this case persuade individuals in one direction or important in decision making than media. Again, influential
another, had been a topic of much research since the 1920s, it individuals seem constrained in their opinion leading to particular
was not until the Peoples Choice was published that society topics, non-overlapping among the individuals. The opinion
really began to understand the dynamics of the media-audience leaders seem evenly distributed among the social, economical, and
relationship. The study suggested that communication from educational levels within their community, but very similar in
the mass media first reaches opinion leaders who filter the these areas to those with whom they had influence.
information they gather to their associates, with whom they are Katz and Lazarsfeld did not identify any particular traits amongst
influential. Previous theories assumed that media directly opinion leaders that stand out. The traits that characterize each of
reached the target of the information. For the theorists, the the opinion leaders in their niche did have things in common,
opinion leader theory proved an interesting discovery consider- though. For one thing, the opinion leaders were identified as
ing the relationship between media and its target was not the having the strongest interest in their particular niche. They hold
focus of the research, but instead a small aspect of the study. positions within their community affording them special
competence in their particular niches. They are generally gregarious,
sociable individuals. Finally, they had/have contact with relevant
information supplied from outside their immediate circle.
Interestingly enough, Katz and Lazarsfeld observed that the
opinion leaders receive a disproportionate amount of their external
information from media appropriate to their niche.
56
Studies by Glock and Nicosia determined that opinion leaders act

less likely to have their defenses up in preparation, they are more
as a source of social pressure toward a particular choice and as a likely open to the conversation.
source of social support to reinforce that choice once it has been
Flexibility to counter resistance In a conversation, there is
made (1966). Charles Glock explained that opinion leaders often
always opportunity to counter any resistance. This is not so in
develop leadership positions in their social circles. They achieve
media, a one sided form of communication.
these positions based on their knowledge of situations outside
their circles (1952). Trust Personal contact carries more trust than media. As people
interact, they are better able through observation of body language
Criticisms and vocal cues to judge the honesty of the person in the
Although the theory of indirect flow of information from media discussion. Newspaper and radio do not offer these cues.
to the target was quickly adopted, the original study performed by
Persuasion without conviction The formal media is forced to
Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet was not. It had a few faults. The
persuade or change opinions. In personal communication,
panel method by which they attempted to better understand the
sometimes friendly insistence can cause action without affecting
influences reaching a voter was unfaulted. It very effectively al-
any comprehension of the issues.
lowed the researchers to notice changes in a voters feelings almost
immediately. The resulting unit of change was an objective mea- Menzel introduced another strong point in favor of the two-step
surement that could easily be recorded and compared. The faults flow of information theory. First, there are an abundance of
lie in the manner with which the researchers addressed the flow of information channels choked with all types of journals,
influences. conferences, and commercial messages. These are distracting and
confusing to their target. With the barrage of information humans
Since the research was not designed to specifically test the flow of
are flooded with daily, it is not hard to understand why someone
influence, the experiment was decidedly lacking in explanations.
might turn to a peer for help evaluating all of it.
The first problem concerning the findings of the study were that
the data had to be collected in a random sample, but subjects in a Recent Studies Based on the Two-step Flow of Communication
random sample can only speak for themselves. For these reasons, theory
each person could only say whether or not they considered his/ The true test of a theory lies in its timelessness, its ability to spark
herself an advice giver. interest and provoke thought years after its introduction. The two
Lazarsfeld and his associates in the 1940 election study were unable step flow of communication theory has been able to remain relevant
to determine the specific flow of influence. They determined there throughout the years. This should not be difficult to believe
were a number of opinion leaders spread throughout the socio- considering it has fueled at least the past few pages this year, forty
economic groups; however, these leaders were not directly linked years after its debut. There have been several recent studies that
to particular groups within the socio-economic levels. have addressed issues arising from Lazarsfelds, Katzs, and
Mertons studies from the 1940s. In two such studies Gabriel
Even within studies specifically designed to determine who opinion
Weimann (1994) and Hans-Bernd Brosius (1996) addressed the
leaders are and how they are different from the average populace,
setting of agendas as a two-step flow of communication.
there have been problems born from experimental design. The
criticisms of the concept of opinion leaders has focused mainly In Weimanns paper addressing the re-emergence of the opinion
on its methodological deficiencies (Weimann, 1991). As Weimann leader theory into modern day (1991), he addresses several
suggested in his 1989 study of pervious research, much of the problems that have been overcome sparking the new interest in
design problems involved determining the opinion leaders while the old theory. As is further discussed in the section on theory
studying the flow of information. There seemed to be too many criticisms, the two-step flow of communication theory is difficult
factors to control. Despite the difficulties in qualifying the to witness in the field. Many researchers have attempted to design
influentials, the theory of a group of individuals that filter the credible models for testing the theory, but with only minor success
flow of media information has lived on. (Weimann, 1991). Brosius and Weimann set out to explain agenda
setting using the basis of the two-step flow of communication
Praises and Support theory determined by Lazarsfeld, Katz, and the many other
Although the empirical methods behind the two-step flow of researchers. To avoid the difficulties in studying the actual flow of
communication were not perfect, the theory did provide a very communication, Weimann and Brosius separated the opinion
believable explanation for information flow. The opinion leaders leaders from their two-step flow of communication theory.
do not replace media, but rather guide discussions of media. Participants were studied against a scale to determine the Strength
Brosius explains the benefits of the opinion leader theory well in of Personality.
his 1996 study of agenda setting, The opinion leaders should
not be regarded as replacing the role of interpersonal networks The Brosius-Weimann study attempts to describe the individuals
but, in fact, as reemphasizing the role of the group and interper- whose personal communication has impact on agenda setting.
sonal contacts. These individuals are the archetypal opinion leaders, who still
control the flow of information. Weimann and Brosius define
Lazarsfeld and his associates detailed five characteristics of personal agenda setting as a two-step flow, wherein certain individuals
contact that give their theory more validity: (influentials) collect, diffuse, filter, and promote the flow of
Non-purposiveness/casualness One must have a reason for information from media to the community. The difference
tuning into a political speech on television, but political between these influentials and the opinion leaders, as Weimann
conversations can just pop-up. In this situation, the people are stresses, is that these influentials are usually elitists, not spread
57
throughout the community as the old theory suggested (Weimann, dent on media that meet a number of your needs than on media
1991). Are these influentials a new breed? Or is there really a that provide just a few. The second source of dependency is social
difference between influentials and opinion leaders? This, as yet, stability. When social change and conflict are high, established
has not been addressed. Weimann and Brosius suggest the institutions, beliefs, and practices are challenged, forcing you to
influentials are a subsection of the opinion leaders. reevaluate and make new choices. At such times your reliance on
the media for information will increase. At other, more stable
Applications of the Theory
times your dependency on media may go way down.
To those who claim that there are no applications of a socio-
political theory in advertising, exhibit A is the barrage of articles Ones needs are not always strictly personal but may be shaped by
written daily on the very subject. No longer does the advertising the culture or by various social conditions. In other words,
industry doubt the existence or qualities of influentials, as they are individuals needs, motives, and uses of media are contingent on
most commonly referred to today. Instead, the discussion revolves outside factors that may not be in the individuals control. These
around effectively targeting messages to reach these influentials. outside factors act as constraints on what and how media can be
used and on the availability of other non-media alternatives.
For fifty years, the research organization Roper has considered the
Furthermore, the more alternatives and individual had for
group of influentials important enough to track. Regularly,
gratifying needs, the less dependent he or she will become on any
reports and studies are performed in an attempt to unlock the
single medium. The number of functional alternatives, however,
secret to reaching these influentials. Who are they? What has the
is not just a matter of individual choice or even of psychological
term influential come to describe? According to Diane Crispell,
traits but is limited also by factors such as availability of certain
these people are the thought leaders and pioneer consumers.
media.
Influentials are better educated and more affluent than the average
American, but it is their interest in the world around them and
their belief that they can make a difference that makes them
influential (Crispell, 1989).
The influentials today seem to be isolated in the upper class. They
are the trend-setters. It is this group that is first to adopt new
technology, and remains on the leading edge of trends (Poltrack,
1985). This is the group that advertising attempts to reach. Daily
articles are published on maximizing the market by reaching these
influentials. The idea remains that the most efficient media is
word-of-mouth, and it is by reaching the influentials with other
forms of media that this word-of-mouth is generated. It seems
the opinion leaders of yesterday have been overlooked for the
smaller subset of influentials.
Dependency theory
This theory states that the more dependent an individual is on the
History and Orientation media for having his or her needs fulfilled, the more important
Dependency theory was originally proposed by Sandra Ball-Rokeach the media will be to that person. People use the media for many
and Melvin DeFleur (1976). This theory merged out of the reasons. Information, entertainment, and Para social relationships
communication discipline. are just a few of them. The Dependency Theory says the more a
Dependency theory integrates several perspectives: first, it combines person becomes dependent on the media to fulfill these needs;
perspectives from psychology with ingredients from social categories the media will become more important to that individual. The
theory. Second, it integrates systems perspectives with elements media will also have much more influence and power over that
from more causal approaches. Third, it combines elements of individual. If someone is so dependent on the media for
uses and gratifications research with those of media effects information, and the media is that persons only source for
traditions, although its primary focus is less on effects per se than information, then it is easy to set the agenda. The individual falls
on rationales for why media effects typically are limited. Finally, a victim to Agenda Setting. As you can see, these three theories
contextualist philosophy is incorporated into the theory, which intertwine quite a bit.
also features traditional concerns with the content of media
Critique :
messages and their effects on audiences. Research generated by
Media Dependency Theory is Relatively Scientific in nature. It
this model had tends to be more descriptive than explanatory or
predicts a correlation between media dependence and importance
predictive.
and influence of the media, but each person uses the media in
Core Assumptions and Statements different ways. Also, the media affects each person in different
Dependency theory proposes an integral relationship among au- ways. According to Chaffee & Berger s 1997 criteria for scientific
diences, media and the larger social system. This theory predicts theories, this theory is a pretty good one.
that you depend on media information to meet certain needs and It has explanatory power, but more of predictive power because
achieve certain goals, like uses-and-gratifications theory. But you it predicts how dependency on the media correlates with importance
do not depend on all media equally. Two factors influence the of the media to a certain person.
degree of media dependence. First, you will become more depen- It is relatively simple to understand, so it is parsimonious.
58
It can be proven false. If a person is not dependent on the Theory is concerned with the manner in which a new technological

media, media will not be of great importance to that individual. idea, artifact or technique, or a new use of an old one, migrates
It is internally consistent, with meta-theoretical assumptions on from creation to use. According to the theory, technological
the same side of the continuum. innovation is communicated through particular channels,
over time, among the members of a social system.
It is a springboard to further research, especially so, since it came
from other theories. The stages through which a technological innovation passes are:
It helps to organize and relate other media effect theories. knowledge (exposure to its existence, and understanding of its
functions);
An explanation of the relationship between the content of mass
media, the nature of society, and the communication behavior of persuasion (the forming of a favorable attitude to it);
audiences. It states that people in urban industrial societies are decision (commitment to its adoption); and
dependent on mass communication for the information they need confirmation (reinforcement based on positive outcomes from
to make many kinds of decisions. it).
Propositions Early knowers generally are more highly educated, have higher
1. People in all societies need information in order to make social status, are more open to both mass media and interpersonal
decisions about such matters as food, shelter, employment, channels of communication, and have more contact with change
transportation, political issues, entertainment, and other aspects agents. Mass media channels are relatively more important at
of family life. the knowledge stage, whereas interpersonal channels are relatively
2. In traditional societies, people tend to pursue similar ways of more important at the persuasion stage.
life and are linked by word-of-mouth networks of extended Innovation decisions may be optional (where the person or
families, deeply established friendships, long-term neigbhors, organisation has a real opportunity to adopt or reject the idea),
and other social ties from which they obtain the information collective (where a decision is reached by consensus among the
that they need. members of a system), or authority-based (where a decision is
3. In urban-industrial societies, populations are composed of imposed by another person or organisation which possesses
unlike people brought together through internal migrations requisite power, status or technical expertise).
and immigrations from outside. They are greatly differentiated Important characteristics of an innovation include:
by such factors as race, ethnicity, occupational specialization, relative advantage (the degree to which it is perceived to be better
and economic class. than what it supersedes);
4. Because of their far greater social differentiation, people in urban- compatibility (consistency with existing values, past experiences
industrial societies have fewer effective word-of-mouth channels and needs);
based on deeply established networks of social ties through complexity (difficulty of understanding and use);
which they can obtain the information they need in daily life.
trialability (the degree to which itcan be experimented with on a
5. Thus, people in urban-industrial societies are dependent on limited basis);
mass communication for information needed to make many
kinds of decisions. From the media they obtain a flow of observability (the visibility of its results).
information, advice, and role models in the news, Important roles in the innovation process include:
entertainment, and advertising that they use as a basis for those opinion leaders (who have relatively frequent informal influence
decisions. over the behaviour of others);
Diffusion of Innovation change agents (who positively influence innovation decisions,
The process by which an innovation is communicated through by mediating between the change agency and the relevant social
different channels over time among members of a social system. system);
History and Orientation change aides (who complement the change agent, by having
Diffusion research goes one step further than two-step flow theory. more intensive contact with clients, and who have less competence
The original diffusion research was done as early as 1903 by the credibility but more safety or trustworthiness credibility).
French sociologist Gabriel Tarde who plotted the original S-shaped DoI Theory is at its best as a descriptive tool, less strong in its
diffusion curve. Tardes 1903 S-shaped curve is of current impor- explanatory power, and less useful still in predicting outcomes,
tance because most innovations have an S-shaped rate of and providing guidance as to how to accelerate the rate of adoption.
adoption (Rogers, 1995). There is doubt about the extent to which it can give rise to readily
refutable hypotheses. Many of its elements may be specific to the
culture in which it was derived, and hence less relevant in, for
example East Asian and African countries, and as time goes on.
Scope and Application
Diffusion research has focused on five elements:
1. the characteristics of an innovation which may influence its
adoption;
59
2 the decision-making process that occurs when individuals
consider adopting a new idea, product or practice;

3. the characteristics of individuals that make them likely to
adopt an innovation;
4. the consequences for individuals and society of adopting an
innovation; and
5. communication channels used in the adoption process.
Review Questions:
Explain the two-step Flow theory of mass communication.
Give two real life examples.
Explain how are society and media interdependent on each
other?
Explain the process of diffusion of innovation?
Suggested Readings
Publishing House
Uma Narula: mass Communication Theory and Practices
Notes
60
LESSON 15
USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY, CULTIVATION THEORY
Uses and Gratifications between the world and the media). So, for example, watching a
Denis McQuail sociologist did research on basis of viewpoint of TV soap gratifies our need for surveillance, too. British soaps, of
common man. Uses and Gratification is largely based on research course, in the public service tradition do generally give
that uses survey methods. This is an audience- centered theory information - on the latest social security developments, the
placed the audience in a more central role in our understanding of availability of pensioners Christmas bonuses and so on - but
mass communication. thats not the only kind of surveillance meant here. By watching
Audiences have their own needs; to fulfill those needs people soap, we learn about what is a major part of our and nineteen
depend on various medias. Needs originally generate from million other peoples worlds. This need is one we see reflected
psychological, physiological and social conditions. in the popular dailies, much of whose editorial space is given over
to news about the soaps and the actors in them.
Gratifying needs
The choices which people make are motivated by the desire to Personal identity
satisfy (or gratify) a range of needs. Hence the uses and gratifica- By personal identity we refer to finding out who we are, what
tions approach is concerned to identify how people use the media were like and how we compare with others. We do this in our
to gratify their needs. Generally, the needs (examples), which audi- interactions with other people of course, but we can use the media
ences seek to gratify, are taken to be as summarized by Denis to gratify that need as well.
McQuail, namely: Equally we could use the media to compare ourselves with valued
Surveillance others - a person in a soap, a sportsperson in our favorite sport
etc. We could use the news in the same way. Maybe when we
Personal identity
switched on the news, our main need seemed to us to be for
Personal relationships surveillance, but we can soon get into commenting on the
Diversion characters in the news, the newsreaders bushy moustache or dangly
As McQuail points out, its very difficult to connect a particular earrings etc. Again, here we see how the obvious use of the media
need with a particular type of media content, since media use may texts is not necessarily our primary use. News broadcasters
be considered to supply at one time or another all the benefits presumably see the news as imparting information.
named. In the sections, which follow, you will find a brief Personal relationships
discussion of each of the needs mentioned and some brief It might seem daft to talk about personal relationships in our use
suggestions as to how the media might be used to gratify them. of the media, but we can certainly gratify those social needs via our
However, you should bear in mind that those are only suggestions. media use:
Surveillance We can find out how other people live.
Surveillance means the need to find out whats going on in the We can identify with people in the media and thus gain a sense of
world around us. In terms of Maslows hierarchy of needs, this belonging.
can be seen as relating to the need for security, since knowledge
We can use the media as a source of things to talk to other people
brings security. The unknown is a source of danger. The more we
about - I can remember a highly intellectual colleague who refused
know about our environment, the more secure it is likely to be for
to have a TV in his home while his children were little. As soon as
us. This is not to say that the most natural course of action would
they started school, though, he went out and bought one because
be to stay indoors all day so as to avoid any danger to ourselves;
they were isolated from other schoolchildren, as they hadnt a clue
quite the contrary - since there is evidence that we are motivated by
about any of the programmes the others talked about.
a natural curiosity about the world around us. There would appear
to be a trade-off between the need to minimize the risks to You might perhaps also think that television can serve as a focus
ourselves by finding out about our environment and the risks, for interaction between family members, who sit together in front
which we inevitably subject ourselves to in the process of finding of the television, making rude comments about the people on it,
out. jointly engaging in criticism of the behaviour they see, swapping
anecdotes that the TV action has reminded them of and so on.
The need for knowledge suggests that we would probably be
most likely to use such media output as newspapers, news Diversion
programmes, specialist magazines, current affairs programmes, Diversion means escapism, entertainment, relaxing. Indeed,
science programmes, the Internet, arts programmes and so on, as McQuail lists emotional release and sexual arousal as well.
well as books, of course, in order to gratify this need. Clearly we could use the most obviously relaxing and escapist
However, its worth bearing in mind that the media themselves media products such as glam soaps, game shows, gossip pages
are part of whats going on in the world (indeed some postmodern and so on, as well as, say, pornography for sexual arousal. But it
thinkers would be prepared to say that theres no distinction would be quite possible to use other media products as well.
61
Uses and Gratifications: Criticism finding out about relevant events and conditions in immediate
The highly influential modern researcher Ien Ang criticizes the surroundings, society and the world seeking advice on practical
uses and gratifications approach to the media on the following matters or opinion and decision choices satisfying curiosity and
three grounds: it is highly individualistic, taking into account only general interest learning; self-education gaining a sense of security
the individual psychological gratifications derived from individual through knowledge.
media use. The social context of the media use tends to be ignored.
Personal Identity
This overlooks the fact that some media use may have nothing to
Finding reinforcement for personal valuesfinding models of
do with the pursuit of gratification - it may be forced upon us for
behaviouridentifying with valued other (in the media) gaining
example. there is relatively little attention paid to media content,
insight into ones self.
researchers attending to why people use the media, but less to
what meanings they actually get out of their media use. the uses Integration and Social Interaction
and gratifications approach starts from the view that the media are Gaining insight into circumstances of others; social empathy-
always functional to people and may thus implicitly offer a identifying with others and gaining a sense of belongingfinding a
justification for the way the media are currently organized. basis for conversation and social interactionhaving a substitute
for real-life companionshiphelping to carry out social rolesenabling
Uses and Gratifications one to connect with family, friends and society
One influential tradition in media research is referred to as uses
and gratifications (occasionally needs and gratifications). This Entertainment
approach focuses on why people use particular media rather than Escaping, or being diverted, from problemsrelaxinggetting
on content. In contrast to the concern of the media effects intrinsic cultural or aesthetic enjoymentfilling timeemotional
tradition with what media do to people (which assumes a releaseBlumler & Katz (1974) argued that audience needs have
homogeneous mass audience and a hypodermic view of media), social and psychological origins which generate certain expectations
U & G can be seen as part of a broader trend amongst media about the mass media, leading to differential patterns of media
researchers which is more concerned with what people do with exposure which result in both the gratification of needs and in
media, allowing for a variety of responses and interpretations. other (often unintended) consequences. This does assume an active
However, some commentators have argued that gratifications audience making motivated choices. However, McQuail suggests
could also be seen as effects: e.g. thrillers are likely to generate very that the dominant stance of recent researchers in this tradition is
similar responses amongst most viewers. And who could say that now that: Personal social circumstances and psychological
they never watch more TV than they had intended to? Watching dispositions together influence both... general habits of media
TV helps to shape audience needs and expectations. U & G arose use and also... beliefs and expectations about the benefits offered
originally in the 1940s and underwent a revival in the 1970s amd by the media, which shape... specific acts of media choice and
1980s. The approach springs from a functionalist paradigm in the consumption, followed by.... assessments of the value of the
social sciences. It presents the use of media in terms of the experience (with consequences for further media use) and,
gratification of social or psychological needs of the individual possibly... applications of benefits acquired in other areas of
(Blumler & Katz 1974). The mass media compete with other experience and social activity.
sources of gratification, but gratifications can be obtained from a Watching TV Soap Operas
mediums content (e.g. watching a specific programme), from A major focus for research into why and how people watch TV
familiarity with a genre within the medium (e.g. watching soap has been the genre of soap opera. Adopting a U & G perspective,
operas), from general exposure to the medium (e.g. watching Richard Kilborn (1992: 75-84) offers the following common rea-
TV), and from the social context in which it is used (e.g. watching sons for watching soaps: regular part of domestic routine and
TV with the family). entertaining reward for worklaunchpad for social and personal
U & G theorists argue that peoples needs influence how they use interactionfulfilling individual needs: a way of choosing to be
and respond to a medium. Zillmann (cited by McQuail 1987: 236) alone or of enduring enforced loneliness identification and in-
has shown the influence of mood on media choice: boredom volvement with characters (perhaps cathartic)escapist fantasy
encourages the choice of exciting content and stress encourages a (American supersoaps more fantastical)focus of debate on topical
choice of relaxing content. The same TV programme may gratify issues a kind of critical game involving knowledge of the rules
different needs for different individuals. Different needs are asso- and conventions of the genre.
ciated with individual personalities, stages of maturation, Watching TV Quiz Programmes
backgrounds and social roles. Developmental factors seem to be McQuail, Blumler and Brown (1972) offered the following
related to some motives for purposeful viewing: e.g. Judith van summary of clusters of uses that people made of TV quizzes:
Evra argues that young children may be particularly likely to watch
TV in search of information and hence more susceptible to influ- Gratifications of TV Quiz Shows: Selected Responses
ence (Evra 1990: 177, 179). An empirical study in the U & G Self-Rating Appeal
tradition might typically involve audience members completing a I can compare myself with the experts
questionnaire about why they watch a TV programme. Denis I like to imagine that I am on the programme and doing well
McQuail offers (McQuail 1987: 73) the following typology of I feel pleased that the side I favour has actually won
common reasons for media use: I am reminded of when I was in school
Information I laugh at the contestants mistakes
62
Basis for Social Interaction the importance of subcultural socio-economic differences in shap-

I look forward to talking about it with others ing the ways in which people interpret their experiences with TV
I like competing with other people watching with me (via shared cultural codes). U & G theorists tend to exaggerate
I like working together with the family on the answers active and conscious choice, whereas media can be forced on some
The children get a lot out of it people rather than freely chosen. The stance can also lead to the
It brings the family together sharing the same interest exaggeration of openness of interpretation, implying that audiences
It is a topic of conversation afterwards may obtain almost any kind of gratification regardless of content
or of preferred readings. Its functionalist emphasis is politically
Excitement Appeal
conservative: if we insist that people will always find some grati-
I like the excitement of a close finish
fications from any use of media, we may adopt a complacently
I like to forget my worries for a while
uncritical stance towards what the mass media currently offer.
I like trying to guess the winner
Having got the answer right I feel really good U & G research has been concerned with why people use media.
I get involved in the competition Whilst this approach sprang from mainstream research in social
science, an interpretive tradition has arisen primarily from the more
Educational Appeal
arts-oriented cultural (and critical) studies. The approach some-
I find I know more than I thought
times referred to as reception theory (or reception analysis) focuses on
I find I have improved myself
what people see in the media, on the meanings which people pro-
I feel respect for the people on the programme
duce when they interpret media texts (e.g. Hobson 1982, Ang
I think over some of the questions afterwards
1985, Seiter, Borchers, Kreutzner & Warth 1989). This perspective
Its educational
tends to be associated with the use of interviews rather than
(McQuail, Blumler & Brown 1972)
questionnaires. Such interviews are often with small groups (e.g.
Social class seemed to be related to gratifications here. McQuail
with friends who watch the same TV programmes). The empha-
et al. noted that most of those who watched quiz programmes
sis is on specific content (e.g. a particular soap opera) and on
for self-rating gratifications lived in council houses and were
specific social contexts (e.g. a particular group of working-class
working-class. Excitement was most commonly reported as a
women viewers).
gratification by working-class viewers who were not very
sociable. And those who reported educational appeal as the Cultivation Theory
major gratification were those who had left school at the Cultivation theory (sometimes referred to as the cultivation hy-
minimum age. John Fiske suggests that these could be seen as pothesis or cultivation analysis) was an approach developed by
compensatory uses of the media to gratify needs that the rest Professor George Gerbner, dean of the Annenberg School of
of social life frustrates (Fiske 1982: 136). In contrast, people Communications at the University of Pennsylvania. He began the
who reported having many acquaintances in their Cultural Indicators research project in the mid-1960s, to study
neighbourhood tended to see the quizzes as a basis for social whether and how watching television may influence viewers ideas
interaction. of what the everyday world is like. Cultivation research is in the
effects tradition.
Criticisms of Uses and Gratifications
Cultivation theorists argue that television has long-term effects,
The use of retrospective self-reports has several limitations. View-
which are small, gradual, indirect but cumulative and significant.
ers may not know why they chose to watch what they did, or may
They emphasize the effects of television viewing on the attitudes
not be able to explain fully. The reasons which can be articulated
rather than the behaviour of viewers. Heavy watching of television
may be the least important. People may simply offers reasons
is seen as cultivating attitudes, which are more consistent with
which they have heard others mention. More promising might be
the world of television programmes than with the everyday world.
the study of peoples engagement with media as it happens.
Watching television may tend to induce a general mindset about
Some degree of selectivity of media and content is clearly exercised
violence in the world, quite apart from any effects it might have in
by audiences (e.g. choice or avoidance of TV soap operas. How-
inducing violent behaviour. Cultivation theorists distinguish
ever, instrumental (goal-directed) accounts assume a rational choice
between first order effects (general beliefs about the everyday
of appropriate media for predetermined purposes. Such accounts
world, such as about the prevalence of violence) and second order
over-emphasize informational purposes and ignore a great deal in
effects (specific attitudes, such as to law and order or to personal
peoples engagement with media: TV viewing can be an end in
safety).
itself. There is evidence that media use is often habitual, ritualistic
and unselective (Barwise & Ehrenberg 1988). But more positively, Gerbner argues that the mass media cultivate attitudes and values
TV viewing can sometimes be seen as aesthetic experience in which which are already present in a culture: the media maintain and
intrinsic motivation is involved. propagate these values amongst members of a culture, thus
binding it together. He has argued that television tends to cultivate
The U & G approach has been criticized as vulgar gratificationism.
middle-of-the- road political perspectives. And Gross considered
It is individualistic and psychologistic, tending to ignore the socio-
that television is a cultural arm of the established industrial order
cultural context. As a theoretical stance it foregrounds individual
and as such serves primarily to maintain, stabilize and reinforce
psychological and personality factors and backgrounds sociologi-
rather than to alter, threaten or weaken conventional beliefs and
cal interpretations. For instance, David Morley (1992) acknowledges
behaviours (1977, in Boyd- Barrett & Braham 1987, p. 100). Such
that individual differences in interpretation do exist, but he stresses
63
a function is conservative, but heavy viewers tend to regard people involved in violence in a typical week. The same survey
themselves as moderate. showed that children who were heavy viewers were more fearful
Cultivation research looks at the mass media as a socializing agent about walking alone in a city at night. They also overestimated the
and investigates whether television viewers come to believe the number of people who commit serious crimes. One controlled
television version of reality the more they watch it. Gerbner and experiment addressed the issue of cause and effect, manipulating
his colleagues contend that television drama has a small but the viewing of American college students to create heavy- and
significant influence on the attitudes, beliefs and judgements of light-viewing groups. After 6 weeks of controlled viewing, heavy
viewers concerning the social world. The focus is on heavy viewers. viewers of action-adventure programmes were indeed found to
People who watch a lot of television are likely to be more influenced be more fearful of life in the everyday world than were light viewers.
by the ways in which television programmes frame the world than Cultivation theorists are best known for their study of television
are individuals who watch less, especially regarding topics of which and viewers, and in particular for a focus on the topic of violence.
the viewer has little first-hand experience. Light viewers may have However, some studies have also considered other mass media
more sources of information than heavy viewers. It may be that from this perspective, and have dealt with topics such as gender
lone viewers are more open to a cultivation effect than those who roles, age groups, ethnic groups and political attitudes. A study of
view with others. American college students found that heavy soap opera viewers
Gerbner sees television as dominating our symbolic environment. were more likely than light viewers to over-estimate the number
As McQuail and Windahl note, cultivation theory presents of real-life married people who had affairs or who had been
television as not a window on or reflection of the world, but a divorced and the number of women who had abortions.
world in itself. Gerbner argued that the over-representation of The difference in the pattern of responses between light and heavy
violence on television constitutes a symbolic message about law viewers (when other variables are controlled) is referred to as the
and order rather than a simple cause of more aggressive behaviour cultivation differential, reflecting the extent to which an attitude
by viewers. For instance, the action- adventure genre acts to reinforce seems to be shaped by watching television. Older people tend to
a faith in law and order, the status quo and social justice (baddies be portrayed negatively on television and heavy viewers (especially
usually get their just dessert). younger ones) tend to hold more negative views about older
Since 1967, Gerbner and his colleagues have been analyzing sample people than lighter viewers. Most heavy viewers are unaware of
weeks of prime-time and daytime television programming. any influence of television viewing on their attitudes and values.
Cultivation analysis usually involves the correlation of data from Cultivation theorists argue that heavy viewing leads viewers (even
content analysis (identifying prevailing images on television) with among high educational/high income groups) to have more
survey data from audience research (to assess any influence of homogeneous or convergent opinions than light viewers (who
such images on the attitudes of viewers). Content analysis by tend to have more heterogeneous or divergent opinions). The
cultivation theorists seeks to characterize the TV world. Such cultivation effect of television viewing is one of levelling or
analysis shows not only that the TV world is far more violent homogenizing opinion. Gerbner and his associates argue that
than the everyday world, but also, for instance, that television is heavy viewers of violence on television come to believe that the
dominated by males and over-represents the professions and those incidence of violence in the everyday world is higher than do light
involved in law enforcement. viewers of similar backgrounds. They refer to this as a
Audience research by cultivation theorists involves asking large- mainstreaming effect.
scale public opinion poll organizations to include in their national Misjudging the amount of violence in society is sometimes called
surveys questions regarding such issues as the amount of violence the mean world syndrome. Heavy viewers tend to believe that
in everyday life. Answers are interpreted as reflecting either the the world is a nastier place than do light viewers. Pingree and
world of television or that of everyday life. Respondents are asked Hawkins (1981, cited in Condry 1989, p. 127) studied 1,280 primary
such questions as: What percentage of all males who have jobs schoolchildren (2nd-11th grade) in Australia using viewing diaries
work in law enforcement or crime detection? Is it 1 percent or 10 and questionnaires. They found that heavy viewing led to a
percent?. On American TV, about 12 percent of all male characters television-biased view of Australia as a mean and violent place.
hold such jobs, and about 1 percent of males are employed in the The children with the bleakest picture of Australia were those
USA in these jobs, so 10 percent would be the TV answer and 1 who most watched American crime adventure programmes.
percent would be the real-world answer. Oddly, they did not judge the USA to the same extent by these
Answers are then related to the amount of television watched, programmes.
other media habits and demographic data such as sex, age, income Gerbner reported evidence for resonance - a double dose effect
and education. The cultivation hypothesis involves predicting or that may boost cultivation. This is held to occur when the viewers
expecting heavy television viewers to give more TV answers than everyday life experiences are congruent with those depicted in the
light viewers. The responses of a large number of heavy viewers television world. For instance, since on television women are most
are compared with those of light viewers. A tendency of heavy likely to be victims of crime, women heavy viewers are influenced
viewers to choose TV answers is interpreted as evidence of a by the usual heavy viewer mainstreaming effect but are also led to
cultivation effect. feel especially fearful for themselves as women. The cultivation
In a survey of about 450 New Jersey schoolchildren, 73 percent of effect is also argued to be strongest when the viewers
heavy viewers compared to 62 percent of light viewers gave the neighborhood is similar to that shown on television. Crime on
TV answer to a question asking them to estimate the number of television is largely urban, so urban heavy viewers are subject to a
64
double dose, and cultivation theorists argue that violent content realities, but cultivation analysis assumes too much homogeneity

resonates more for them. The strongest effects of heavy viewing in television programmes (though some commentators would
on attitudes to violence are likely to be amongst those in the high argue that there is increasing homogeneity in television
crime areas of cities. programmes which may make the cultivation case stronger).
Criticisms of cultivation theory Asking viewers for their estimations of crime statistics is a crude
Cultivation theory offers a very plausible case, particularly in its measure of their beliefs about crime. Doob & MacDonald note
emphasis on the importance of mediation and on the symbolic that there is evidence of a cultivation effect with social questions
function of television in its cultural context. However, the (e.g. How many muggings were there in your neighborhood last
theory is subject to a number of criticisms. Gerbner has been year?) but less so with personal questions (e.g. Are you afraid of
criticized for over-simplification. Denis McQuail argues that it is being mugged?). Even in the context of a symbolic function,
almost impossible to deal convincingly with the complexity of some critical theorists go further than cultivation theorists, argu-
posited relationships between symbolic structures, audience ing for instance that the relative absence of female characters on
behaviour and audience views, given the many intervening and television is a symbolic statement about their lack of importance
powerful social background factors (in Boyd-Barrett & Braham in current social reality: women are symbolically annihilated.
1987, pp. 99-100). Our attitudes are likely to be influenced not Viewers dont usually use people on television for social
only by TV, but also by other media, by direct experience, by comparison. We are not worried by contrasts between how people
other people, and so on. on television look and live and the way we do. If we were, then the
A correlation between television exposure and the beliefs of view- heaviest viewers would be most concerned about their appearance,
ers do not, of course, prove that there is a causal relationship, health and weight because television actors and actresses tend to
although it may suggest the possibility of one. There could be be young, thin and attractive. But the heaviest viewers are in fact
another common factor influencing the apparently associated ones. least concerned about their health and weight.
Hawkins and Pingree could not find conclusive proof of the There is relatively little evidence of cultivation effects outside the
direction of the relationship between television viewing and view- USA. Wober (1978, cited in Condry 1989, p. 130) found no British
ers ideas about social reality. Rather than heavy TV viewing leading evidence of a link between heavy viewing and insecurity. But this
people to be more fearful, it may be that more fearful people are may be because there is less violence on British television than in
drawn to watching more television than other people. There might the USA, and Condry suggests that there may be a critical level of
be a reciprocal relationship: television viewing causes a social real- the televisual distortion of social reality before it is reflected in the
ity to be constructed in a particular way, but this construction of attitudes of viewers. Or it may be that Britain has a more diverse
social reality may also direct viewing behaviour (Hawkins & Pingree media culture.
1983, cited in McQuail & Windahl). In any case, surveys cannot More recent theories stressing the active viewer downplay the power
establish causation. of television to influence viewers, which is assumed by cultivation
Cultivation research does avoid the artificiality of laboratory ex- theory. Cultivation theory focuses on the amount of television
periments - it is based on normal viewing over a long period - but viewing or exposure, and does not allow for differences in the
it is subject to the usual criticisms of both content analysis and ways in which viewers interpret television realities. Viewers do not
surveys. necessarily passively accept as real what they see on television.
Some studies have shown that careful controls of various vari- Television programmes are open to varying interpretations. The
ables tend to reduce or eliminate cultivation effects. In the study degree of identification with characters by viewers may play a part.
of the topic of violence, controls for neighborhood were more Motivations to view also vary greatly. Joseph Dominick comments
reliable than the controls for income used by Gerbner. Hirsch that individuals who watch TV simply to pass time or because it
(1980, cited in Livingstone 1990, p. 16), argued that an apparent becomes a habit appear to be more affected than people whose
relationship between exposure to violence on television and fear viewing is planned and motivated.
of crime can be explained by the neighbourhood viewers live in. Cultivation theorists tend to ignore the importance of the social
Those who live in high-crime areas are more likely to stay at home dynamics of television use. Interacting factors such as
and watch television and also to believe that they have a greater developmental stages, viewing experience, general knowledge,
chance of being attacked than are those in low-crime areas. Culti- gender, ethnicity, viewing contexts, family attitudes and socio-
vation theorists do tend to underplay the point that heavy and economic background all contribute to shaping the ways in which
light viewers do vary in other ways in addition to their TV viewing viewers interpret television. When the viewer has some direct lived
habits, such as in age, sex and education. experience of the subject matter this may tend to reduce any
Pingree & Hawkins have argued that breakdowns by content type cultivation effect.
are more useful than measures of total viewing, because viewers There is some evidence that lower socio-economic groups tend
are selective. More specifically content-based measures would show to watch television as a source of information more than other
stronger correlations in cultivation analysis (Condry 1989, p. 128). groups, but the viewers framing of television reality also
Over- reliance on content analysis misses subtleties and assumes needs to be considered here. It is often argued that cultivation
that meaning resides in television programmes (although Gerbner may be enhanced when the viewer interprets the content of
does emphasize connotative rather than denotative meaning un- programmes to be realistic; sceptical viewers may be less likely to
like many in effects tradition). Also, different genres - and even be affected. There is some evidence that ethnic minorities
different programmes - contribute to the shaping of different exhibit more sophistication in perceived reality than others do
65
(van Evra 1990, p. 169). There is also evidence that working class
mothers are more likely to confirm the realism of programmes

offering negative depictions of undesirable behaviour to
discourage such behaviour, whereas middle-class mothers may
tend to make less directive comments.
Review Questions:
Explain the Uses and Gratification theory. Give two real life
examples.
Explain how TV watching influences our minds?
Suggested Readings
Publishing House
Notes
66
UNIT VI
MASS AUDIENCES
LESSON 16
MASS AUDIENCES
Introduction them, the media has an unprecedented power to affect us in

It is virtually impossible these days to go through a day without negative ways.
encountering the media in some form. You may wake up to the
The audience as mass
sound of the radio, play a walkman on your way into college, pass
The key ideas about media audiences that you should remem-
billboards in the street and watch television or go to a film in the
ber from the last section are these:
evening. We are all therefore part of the audience for these differ-
ent kinds of media products, but what does this rather obvious People alone often experience the media. (Some critics have
statement actually mean? talked about media audiences as atomized- cut off from other
people like separate atoms)
Since the early days of the media this question has been discussed
Wherever they are in the world, the audiences for a media text
widely throughout the world. Some people have seen media
audiences as being easily manipulated masses of people who can are all receiving exactly the same thing.
be persuaded to buy products through advertising, or to follow As you will see from what follows, both of these ideas have been
corrupt leaders through propaganda. There have also been fears questioned.
that the contents of media texts can make their audiences behave These points led some early critics of the media to come up with
in different ways- become more violent for example. On the other the idea of media audiences as masses. According to many
hand there have been other critics who have seen the media as theorists, particularly in the early history of the subject, when we
having much less influence and working in more subtle ways. listen to our CDs or sit in the cinema, we become part of a mass
This lesson will attempt to explain the various different ways of audience in many ways like a crowd at a football match or a rock
looking at audiences and help you to come up with your own concert but at the same time very different because separated from
version of the relationship between the media and their audiences. all the other members of this mass by space and sometimes time.
As you read it, remember that there while the truth about the In the rest of this section I will trace the history of this idea and
media is probably in here somewhere, it has so far been impossible attempt to question how well it works.
for anyone to actually prove that any of these theories is right. If you look at the early history off the media, it is fairly easy to see
What is important is that you should make up your own mind where the idea of a mass audience came from. Within less than a
about all of this and then be able to back up your opinions with hundred years photography, Film, radio and television were all
examples from media texts and possibly your own research. invented. Each one of them allowed works of art or pieces of
First a bit of history entertainment that might once have been restricted to the number
All of the different media that we think of as The Media are of people who could fit into an art gallery or a theatre to be
actually quite recent inventions. If you were living a hundred and transmitted in exactly the same form to enormous numbers of
fifty years ago photography, film, television, radio and computers people in different parts of the world. It can be very easy, living in
as we know them would all have seemed like fantasies. The clich this media saturated world to forget how strange this might once
about pre- media times is that people made their own entertain- have seemed. These media quickly became extremely popular and
ment and there is obviously some truth in this. The kinds of at the same time there was an important difference between them
things that people did in their leisure time were either likely to be and older forms of entertainment. Whereas in the past, many
fairly independent things such as reading, or they would involve forms of entertainment were only available to those who could
mixing with many other people such as going to a play or musical. afford them, now suddenly films and radio particularly were
The arrival of the media changed a lot of this- while films are available to all. Early media theorists struggled to understand this
often watched in theatre-sized audiences. The vast majority of and found it easiest to compare the media audiences with the
our times with the media are spent on our own or in small groups kinds of crowds they were used to from the world before the
so in one sense the media can seem to split people up- you have media- they came up with the ideas of the mass audience. Here is
probably heard the worry from parents that since the arrival of how the sociologist Herbert Blumer described it in 1950:
video games and portable televisions, children dont go out as First, its membership may come from all walks of life, and from
much as they used to. On the other hand, there is an opposite all distinguishable social strata; it may include people of different
sense in which the media can be seen to bring us closer together- class position, of different vocation, of different cultural
if you watch a soap or look at a picture in the paper of Mike attainment, and of different wealth. ... Secondly, the mass is an
Tyson, the chances are that millions of people across Britain or anonymous group, or more exactly is composed of anonymous
even the world will have experienced the same media event. This individuals [Blumer means anonymous in the sense that unlike
brings with it another fear- that because so many people are seeing the citizens of earlier communities, the people who are members
the same things and because they are often experiencing them of the mass audience for the media do not know each other].
alone without anyone to explain what is good and bad about Third, there exists little interaction or change of experience between
67
members of the mass. They are usually physically separated from peoples individuality and yet it is still very popular in society
one another, and, being anonymous, do not have the opportunity particularly for politicians looking for reasons why society has
to mill, as do members of the crowd. Fourth, the mass is very become more violent, which cant be blamed on them. A good
loosely organized and is not able to act with the concertedness or example of this is Dumblane- there has never been a real
unity of a crowd. suggestion that Thomas Hamilton watched a lot of violent films
but a kind of woolly thinking has allowed newspapers and MPs
TASK
to link his dreadful crime to video violence.
It is worth thinking about some of Blumers ideas in more detail:
Another interesting example of the theory in action is the serial
1. Do you think the audiences for most media texts do come killer Jeffrey Dahmer. Before every one of his murders, he watched
from all walks of life or do different kinds of people a clip from his favorite film in order to get himself excited. This is
watch very different kinds of programme. Are there any the kind of fact that might seem to prove the hypodermic syringe
examples of media texts that you can think of that do seem theory but the film was Star Wars and no-one has ever suggested
to have audiences of all kinds of people? that that should be banned- clearly the film meant very different
2. How much of your media experience is when you are on you things to him to what it means for you or me.
own and how much when you are with others
TASK
3. Are there any ways in which you share your experiences of the It is obviously easy to find reasons why the hypodermic syringe
media with other people who werent around when you theory could never apply to everyone equally. But do you think it
experienced the text? could work sometimes? What about you- can you think of any
Another history lesson media texts, which you feel, have had a big effect on you and made
Blumer was writing bout the media in 1950, five years after the you behave in any way differently?
second world war. During the war and before it, Hitler in Ger- The Cultivation theory
many and Stalin in Russia had attempted to use the media as Because of the difficulty of proving the effects of individual me-
propaganda- through films, radio and poster art they had at- dia texts on their audience a more refined version of the theory
tempted to persuade mass audiences to follow their policies- to has been created called the cultivation model:
the critics of the time it is not surprising that the media must have
According to this, while any one media text does not have too
seemed like a dangerous weapon in the wrong hands, capable of
much effect, years and years of watching more violence will make
persuading millions to follow evil men. In the recent general elec-
you less sensitive to violence, years and years of watching women
tion, you will have found it difficult to avoid seeing similar, if less
being mistreated in soaps will make you less bothered about it in
offensive propaganda. How much influence do you think the
real life.
posters that covered Britains roadsides might have had on the
final outcome of the election? It is impossible to give a certain TASK
answer to this, but the different political parties obviously believe What do you think about this as an idea- can you think of anything
in their power, if you consider the millions of pounds they spend that upset you the first time you saw it on television which you
on them. now take for granted? It might be interesting to ask your parents
The hypodermic syringe their opinion on this one.
There have been a number of theories over the years about how One difficulty with both of these ways of looking at the media is
exactly the media work on the mass audience. Perhaps the sim- that they are very difficult to prove either way. Many people have a
plest to understand is the hypodermic syringe this has been very general sense that the media do affect our behaviour and advertisers
popular down the years with many people who fear the effects of certainly justify their fees by working on this assumption, but it
the media can be extraordinarily difficult to actually prove how much effect if
According to the theory the media is like a syringe which injects any a text might have on an audience. In fact researchers have
ideas, attitudes and beliefs into the audience who as a powerless spent enormous amounts of time and effort trying to prove the
mass have little choice but to be influenced- in other words, you validity of the cultivation theory with no success- this of course
watch something violent, you may go and do something violent, does not mean that there is no truth in it as an idea.
you see a woman washing up on T.V. and you will want to do the Criticisms of mass audience theory
same yourself if you are a woman and if you are a man you will Some critics of these kinds of theory have argued that the prob-
expect women to do the washing up for you. lem is not just with the idea that the media has such obvious
This theory has been particularly popular when people have been effects, but also about the assumptions that mass audience theory
considering violence in films and indeed you will be spending makes about the members of the audience. If you have discussed
longer later in the course considering this question. There have this earlier, you may have come up with some possible problems
been films such as The Exorcist and A Clockwork Orange which with it as a way of analyzing peoples behaviour. Critics of the idea
have been banned partly because of a belief that they might often claim that it is elitist- in other words that it suggests a value
encourage people to copy the crimes within them but on the other judgement about these masses- that they are easily led and not so
hand no-one has ever really claimed that every-one will be affected perceptive and self- aware as the theorists who are analyzing them.
by these texts in the same way. Many people have therefore seen Here for example is a 1930s advertising executive talking about
the theory as simplistic because it doesnt take any account of the radio audience of his day:
68
The typical listening audience for a radio program is a tired, bored, Bearing in mind the fact that reception analysis works best with

middle-aged man and woman whose lives are empty and who methods like the interview rather than a questionnaire, do a small
have exhausted their sources of outside amusement when they bit of research into how true the two-step flow model is. Choose
have taken a quick look at an evening paper.... Radio provides a a media text and try to find out how much members of your
vast source of delight and entertainment for the barren lives of familys views of it have been mediated by opinion leaders.
the millions. Note that even though you cannot spend time working out
The chances are that you have heard similar comments about the questionnaire type questions, you need to plan what you are going
viewers of soaps or quiz shows or even that you have made them to ask beforehand.
yourself. The phrase couch potato has this kind of idea behind it-
The Mass Market
that watching the television is in some way brain numbing
Before going on to look at some more recent approaches to audi-
compared with other possible forms of entertainment.
ences, it is worth considering one last use of mass audience theory.
TASK The idea of the mass market. It wasnt just academic theorists
Think about this for yourself- are there any forms of media that who were interested in audiences and their relationship with the
you think society gives greater status to. For example which do media texts they encountered. The producers of media texts and
people see as better: films or television, soaps or detective dramas. the advertisers who used them were if anything even more inter-
Do you have any feelings about the kinds of audience these ested in these audiences who they could contact through the new
different forms of media attract- are some likely to be more media. To investigate exactly how large their share of the mass
thoughtful and more intelligent than others? market was, television companies and advertisers pioneered new
techniques of market research which involved quantitative sur-
One problem that people have suggested with mass audience
veys where they attempted to count how many people they reached.
theory is that it relies on the assumptions of the people analyzing
The most obvious example of this is the system of television
the masses. The early theorists who came up with the idea were
ratings which still has enormous effect on the workings of TV
generally lovers of classical music and hated television and so they
stations. You may be able to think of a show that you enjoyed
tended to look down at the viewers of television who they saw as
which was taken off because it did not achieve high enough rat-
the mass.
ings. If so you may agree with the thinking of Todd Gitlin:
To try to make a final judgement about mass audience theory, you
The numbers only sample sets tuned in, not necessarily shows
really need to carefully question its main assumptions. If you
watched, let alone grasped, remembered, loved, learned from,
remember from earlier- these key ideas are that
deeply anticipated, or mildly tolerated
People alone often experience the media. (Some critics have
talked about media audiences as atomized- cut off from Quantitative and qualitative research
other people like separate atoms) Many of the people who use mass audience theory tend to back it
up with quantitative research. This kind of research is based around
Wherever they are in the world, the audience for a media text
counting the number of people who watch certain kinds of
are all receiving exactly the same thing.
programmes and making simple judgements about these
Lets look at these in turn. The first idea seems to be suggesting quantities. The criticisms of mass audience theory are made equally
that because we often watch the media independently, it has more about quantitative research- that it fails to take into account the
chance of affecting us. Certainly many parents think this is true differences in peoples experiences of the same texts. The opposite
and will make a point of sitting with their young children while of quantitative research is qualitative research. This involves the
they watch potentially disturbing programmes so that they can researchers looking not just at the numbers of people watching a
have some influence on the way the children take in the messages certain programme but also at the ways that they watch it and
and explain confusing issues, but do you feel adults need to be what they are doing while it is on. The idea of this is that it gives
protected in the same ways. Some of the critics of the idea of the them a clearer idea of what exactly the programme means to its
mass audience have pointed out the many ways that individuals audience and how important it is to them.
who watch programmes alone will then share their experience
In the remainder of the booklet, I will attempt to look at some
with others in conversations about what they have seen. One
theories of audiences that have used qualitative research to look
argument is that these kinds of conversations have much more
for a more subtle view of the audience and I will then look at the
influence on potential behaviour than the programme from which
ways the advertisers and media producers themselves have changed
they may have sprung.
their methods to go beyond the idea of a mass audience.
The two-step flow
Uses and Gratifications
A theory that springs from this idea is called the two-step flow.
This is probably the most important theory for you to know.
The idea of this is that whatever our experience of the media we
According to uses and gratification theory, we all have different
will be likely to discuss it with others and if we respect their
uses for the media and we make choices over what we want to
opinion, the chances are that we will be more likely to be affected
watch. In other words, when we encounter a media text, it is not
by it. (The theory calls these people opinion leaders.)
just some kind of mindless entertainment- we are expecting to
TASK get something from it: some kind of ratification.
Think about this honestly- are your opinions about television, But what does this actually mean? What kinds of gratification can
films or groups ever influenced by other people? we be getting? In general researchers have found four:
69
1 Information- we want to find out about society and the One of the difficulties of assessing uses and gratifications like this
world- we want to satisfy our curiosity. This would fit the is that people wont often be aware of the real uses of a text in
news and documentaries which both give us a sense that we their lives- how many people would admit for example that they
are learning about the world. watched a certain program because they were lonely even if that
2 Personal Identity- we may watch the television in order to were the truth
look for models for our behaviour. So, for example, we may Reception Analysis
identify with characters that we see in a soap. The characters In a sense, this is an extension of uses and gratifications theory.
help us to decide what feel about ourselves and if we agree Once you have come up with the idea that people are using the
with their actions and they succeed we feel better about media in different ways, it is just one stage on to actually look in
ourselves- think of the warm feeling you get when you more detail at how this happens. Reception analysis does this and
favourite character triumphs at the end of a programme. it concentrates on the audience themselves and how they come to
3 Integration and Social Interaction- we use the media in a three or the text.
order to find out more about the circumstances of other The most important thing about this that you should bear in
people. Watching a show helps us to empathise and mind is that reception analysis is based on the idea that no text has
sympathise with the lives of others so that we may even end one simple meaning. Instead, reception analysis suggests that the
up thinking of the characters in programme as friends even audience themselves help to create the meaning of the text. We all
though we might feel a bit sad admitting it! At the same decode the texts that we encounter in individual ways which may
time television may help us to get on with our real friends as be a result of our upbringing, the mood that we are in, the place
we are able to talk about the media with them. where we are at the time or in fact any combination of these and all
4 Entertainment- sometimes we simply use the media for kinds of other factors. So I may watch a television programme
enjoyment, relaxation or just to fill time. and enjoy every minute of it and you may hate the same show.
You can probably recognise yourself in some of these descriptions But of course, it goes way beyond just how much we enjoy the
and not surprisingly uses and gratification theory has become text. We will actually create a different meaning for it as well.
quite popular amongst media critics. It is important to remember Reception analysis is all about trying to look at these kinds of
with this theory that it is likely that with any media text you enjoy, differences and to understand them. What reception analysts have
you will be getting a number of Gratifications from it and not found is that factors such as a gender, our place inside society, and
just one the context of the time we are living in can be enormously
However, despite this popularity amongst critics, there have also important when we make the meaning or a text.
been criticisms made of some features of the theory. First of all, Take the example of a performance by the spice girls on top of the
it ignores the fact that we do not always have complete choice as to pops. A 12 years old girl watching this may find it very meaningful
what we receive from the media. Think, for example, about your for her personally - she may feel that the image of Girl Power
family who may end up having to listen to the same music as you that the group project has important things to say to her about
sometimes. Similarly, you dont have that much choice about the how she might behave. Her father, on the other hand, may create
posters that you see on your way to college however objectionable different meanings for the text - he may disapprove of their
you may find some of them. clothing or behaviour and so the same performance that the girl
a second problem relates to this last example. The poster that you finds so inspiring may be disgusting to him.
see on a billboard, may be extremely sexist. However, you clearly Often when our views of the media differ, it can say as much
cannot choose a different poster that you want to see that you about us as it does about the media text itself. In this example,
might find more pleasant. If you think about it, this problem the most important factor is probably how the spice girls trigger
also affects us in our other encounters with the media- we are off in the two peoples minds ideas that they have about their
generally having to choose the media that we consume from what own lives. The girl may relate to the group because they are of the
is available. This undermines the idea of uses and gratifications- same gender as her and because, while they are not the same age as
we may not all have the same potential to use and enjoy the media she is, they are probably more like the age she would like to be. For
products that we want. in society there are in fact plenty of the father, his views of the group are probably influenced by the
minorities who feel that the media does not provide for them the fact that his daughter likes them so much - the idea that she might
texts that they want to use. want to become like them, may make their performance seem
more frightening.
TASK
Of course this kind of thing is often closer to psychology- the
Fill in this chart for your own use of the media and compare it
study of personality- than media studies and can be very difficult
with others in the class. For the last column use the list of uses
to research. While quantitative researchers simply count the number
that I have given above
How often Do people I
of people watching a programme, reception analysts have to make
Programme Why watched Type of use
watched know watch it? use of interviews in order to get some kind of idea of the
News meanings that people attach to texts. This can be very time
Neighbours
consuming- a simple questionnaire is rarely enough and often the
Quiz
researchers will have to ask quite detailed and spontaneous
Soap
questions.
Adverts
70
The ideas that reception theorists come up with are also not so again, quantitative research cannot cope with this - it

neat and straightforward as those of other approaches. If you simply counts the number of texts encountered but
remember, Uses and Gratifications made up a simple list of four doesnt consider whether the audience have taken them
types of use for the media. Because reception theory concentrates in.
on the individual it can never do this - we are all different and no The media can become an important part of the routines
one theory can comprehend that. of our lives - you may want to watch Neighbours when
This can be seen as a strength of the theory - that it takes into you get in from college or listen to the Chart Show every
account the complexity of our response to the media. At the same Sunday when you do your homework. In these
time the theory has a weakness which has been pointed out. This examples, the exact time and the way that the media text
will be clearer if we return to our example of the Spice Girls. The fits in with the pattern of you day are almost as important
girls reaction to the programme may also have been affected by as what the media text actually is.
the day that she had had at school - the way that her teacher It is very rare for us to be completely alone when we
shouted at her may have made her particularly excited about the encounter a media text. If you think back to the mass
idea of girl power. Similarly, an encounter with a strong woman audience theorists, they talked about the media audience
who he was not keen on, may have affected the fathers reactions being isolated like atoms, but in fact, even when you are
to the programme. Reception analysis takes none of this into reading a newspaper, you are often surrounded by other
account it ignores the context of everyday life, something which people - even when you are in your room watching the
we will turn to in the final theory concerning audiences. TV, your family are close at hand.
This is possibly a good time to think about what you are doing
Gender differences
on the other side of the course in your study of film. As you may
have discussed, going to a film in the cinema is such a different One interesting thing that Morley found in his research was that
experience to watching the same film at home that the meaning there were clear differences in the uses that people made of the
can virtually change so that reception analysts would suggest that media in their everyday lives depending on their gender. He found
it is as good as being a different film. However, the theory does that men tended to prefer factual programmes eg News and sports
not explain all of the things that make cinema so different from while women preferred fiction Soaps and other drama series. Also,
television which are to do with the environment that you are in men preferred watching the programmes extensively while women
when you experience each kind of media- these are explained tended to be doing something else at the same time. Another
better by the next theory- the media in everyday life. thing that he found was that if someone had control over what
the family was watching, it was more likely to be the man - often
Uses and gratifications theory looked at why we make use of the
with the remote control in his hand.
media, Reception analysis looked at what we see when we watch a
media text- what both of them leave out is the question of how Of course, this does not necessarily mean that there are
the media fits in with our everyday lives - how do we live with the fundamental differences men and women. What it does relate to
media? is the kinds of lives they are often leading - for a man, working
during the day outside of the home, television is seen as a form
One researcher who has looked at this is David Morley. He has
of relaxation. For women, on the other hand, the home is often
come up with the idea of the politics of the living room- the
a place of work and so it is likely that that work will have to
idea that the media is just part of all the different things that may
continue during the evenings television as well. Of course, the
be going on in your home, that a television can become more than
account I have given of typical lifestyles of men and women is
just a form of entertainment but in a typical family can be a subject
now becoming quite out of date and so it is very likely that research
of argument or a symbol of power. This may be a concept that
such as Morleys, if carried out today, would come up with quite
you will find quite familiar. Imagine a situation where a man
different conclusions. What do you think? How does it relate to
comes home from a terrible day at work. He is in a bad mood and
your family?
does not want to talk to anybody in his family so he switches on
the TV. Anyone doing quantitative research would simply see him TASK
as the another viewer of whatever programme is on but in fact he The idea that the relationship between the media and audiences
is probably barely watching it - the television is simply a way of can only be truly understood if we look at the way the texts are
shutting the rest of the world out. This is one simple example of received in everyday life is worth considering in your own research
the media in everyday life - here are some more general principles task. In preparation for the kind of thinking you will have to do
We can never consider one example of the media on its for that- spend a bit of time considering here how Morleys ideas
own- we are always choosing from many different of gender differences in viewing patterns are reflected in your own
alternatives and more confusingly our understanding families. You can include in the space below your own experiences
of one text may be affected by our knowledge of another and also anything that you find out of the opinions of others in
- to go back to the earlier example the man watching the your family through interviews.
Spice Girls may have read about them in that mornings Choose a research task
Daily Mail. Choose from this list a research task that you think you will be
It is very rare for us to concentrate fully on any media able to follow successfully. In many cases you may want to change
text- we may skim read through a magazine or glance at the text referred to to something more current or interesting- you
various different channels while using the remote. Once can negotiate with your teacher an alternative.
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How much do audiences remember of adverts? important for media producers to have some kind of idea about
How does a teenage audience use and perceive the Sun? the people who are consuming their texts. This was confusing
Where do audiences get their ideas about style from? enough in the old days when they might have been trying to
How do teenagers read American and British T.V. differently? analyse a cinema audience - it is well nigh impossible today.
Why did audiences go to see Trainspotting? But advertisers do not give up easily and their need to find out
The viewing of horror and violence by children aged between 8-13 exactly who is consuming what and how is resulting in some new
Viewers response to the incest in Brookside techniques of surveillance. Our media use is being watched more
Attitudes towards violence on T.V. than ever before. One recent example can demonstrate how easy
How important are film posters in determining what people go this kind of thing is becoming - your parents may have recently
to see? got a loyalty card from the supermarket, the idea of this is not just
What do audiences do while adverts are on T.V? to give away lots of free goodies, but it also allows the supermarkets
Is there a demand for an indie music radio station? to keep an exact track of what you are buying week by week. They
Football magazines- for men only? can build up a profile of you as a consumer and then, by buying
What do boys really think of Just Seventeen? up advertising space in the magazines which they sell and which
It may well be that you can think of a good topic on your own, if they can see from your receipts that you buy, target you more
so you can again negotiate this with your teacher. directly. As Cable, and the Internet become more commonplace,
Stage one planning your methodology this kind of direct individual advertising will become much more
common and will affect us all as audiences.
On the following pages you will see a brief summary of various
different forms of methodology for research. You now need to Of course all of this is only possible now because of computers.
decide what will work best for your task- write a proposal for how In the past it might have been feasible to look in detail at the
you wish to carry out the research including any questions that you buying behaviour of people, but it would have been impossible
plan to ask. to come to any useful conclusions. Today, on the other hand, a
simple computer program could be written which would analyse
Note that you must have some quantitative questions even if the
your shopping receipts in detail and then produce a list of suitable
majority of what you will do is less formal.
adverts which could be sent to you alone during your evenings T
Stage two- carry out the research V viewing. This would mean that in the future, you could end up
Stage three- Analyse your results watching the same programme as your friends, but seeing different
You need to write an analysis of your results. adverts in the middle of it.
This must include graphs on Excel of all quantitative work- your Audiences as products
teacher will show you how to do this. Audience surveillance in extreme form is probably still a few years
away, but something that is very much very much with us already
New ideas about the audience
is the idea of audiences being the products of television compa-
What you have been reading about up to now are very much the
nies. This is a strange way of looking at the media - but quite a
classic ideas about audiences. You need to be familiar with these
useful one. It is usual to think of media texts as being made all
theories if you are to answer questions in the media studies exam
the audience - so, for example, match of the day is a show that has
successfully. However, there are other ways of looking at the audi-
been made for football fans - a group of people who already
ence which are a bit stranger, but maybe even more up to date. The
exists. The idea of the audiences as products theory is that the
rest of the booklet will cover these weirder ideas.
process works the opposite way round: the media producers will
A lot of what follows deals with the relationship between create a text in such a way that it will produce an audience which
advertisers and the programmes that you watch on the television. they can then sell to advertisers.
Obviously, the vast majority of the programmes that you watch
A good example of how this works is Friends. It might be normal
(with the single exception of those produced by the B.B.C) is
to think of this as just being a funny program that happens to be
made with money raised from advertising but it can be easy to
on on a Friday night. According to the theory, though, Friends is
ignore the effect that this might have on what you end up seeing.
actually a way of selling beauty products. In America where the
The theories that follow look at the relationship between
series started, the producers would have been looking for
advertisers, media producers and audiences in more detail.
advertising revenue and so they came up with the idea of a show
Audience Surveillance which would feature beautiful people in funny situations with
While you were reading about Morleys ideas about the politics of happy endings. They would have seen this as a great way of selling
the living room, you may well have thought that it was all very beauty products as the show would attract an audience of young
different from your own family life at home. The truth is that the people who would want to follow the fashions of the main
traditional idea of a family sitting down together to watch the characters particularly as the feel good endings would make this
same programmes on the TV is very much out of date. Many of audience want to lead the same lives as the beautifully manicured
you will have your own televisions, stereos and game consoles in main characters. To help them to attract this audience they would
your bedrooms. The result of this is that the mass audience is have scheduled the programme at a time when they could catch
even more divided than ever before. This is a problem for us these people.
when we try to analyse the media, but it is even more difficult for I have been talking about the producers attracting this audience as
the people who produce media texts. It has always been very if the bunch of people who watch the show were already there
72
beforehand as a recognisable group in society, but in fact, by An example of this is the enormous success of the various types

assembling such a group of people to watch the show, in a very of Star Trek over the years. The American producers of these
real sense they have produced this audience, and the same pattern programmes discovered a long time ago that although they did
has been repeated in Britain where the programme is now not produce large audiences, the particular niche they attracted
sponsored by a hair products manufacturer. included a high proportion of intelligent single men in quite well
You can probably think of almost any media text in the same way. paid jobs- a niche that was very attractive to advertisers.
It is rare today for texts to be created just for fun - much more A warped Indian media?
often, commercial companies are trying to produce a certain While there is no doubt that the ghastly murder of Graham Stewart
audience. This would be fine if we were all as attractive to the Staines, theAustralian missionary, and his two innocent sons,
advertisers - we would all get the programmes that we want. should be universallycondemned and that the culprits should be
Unfortunately, some types of people have more money and are severely punished, the massive outcryit has evoked in the Indian
therefore more attractive to advertisers- they therefore will get Press raises several important questions, which canonly be an-
more programmes tailored for them. Strangely enough, as swered by a Westerner, as any Indian who would dare utter the
teenagers, you are one of these groups. You may not feel as if you followingstatements would immediately be identified with the
have a lot of money, but as a group, compared to older people Sangh parivar:
who have their money tied up in mortgages and buying essentials,
1. Is the life of a white man more important and dear to the
you spend a much higher proportion of your money on consumer
Indian media than thelives of a hundred Indians? Or to put it
products.. This has meant that in recent years, media producers
differently: Is the life of a Christian moresacred than the lives
have been bending over backwards in order to try to produce
of many Hindus? It would seem so. Because we all
teenage audiences. The most recent example of this has been
remembernot so long ago, whether in Punjab or in Kashmir,
Channel 5 who have geared a lot of their programmes around the
how militants would stop busesand kill all the Hindus, men,
kinds of things they pink you are interested in - with not much
women and children. It even happened recently,when a few of
success so far!
the last courageous Hindus to dare remain in Kashmir were
TASK savagelyslaughtered in a village, as were the labourers in
Think of a programme that you watch regularly on a commer- Himachal Pradesh. Yet, very fewvoices were raised in the Indian
cial channel and try to think of what kind of audience it has Press condemning it; at least there never was suchan outrage as
produced for advertisers to market to. Watch the programme provoked by the murder of Staines. When Hindus are killed
and note down what kinds of adverts surround it- does the inpogroms in Pakistan or Bangladesh, we never witness in the
theory fit? Indian media the likeof the tear jerking, posthumous
Niche marketing interview of Staines in Star News.
Number of different media products available to us is increasing 2. This massive outcry on the atrocities against the minorities
constantly. So we have a situation where there are more and more raises also doubtsabout the quality and integrity of Indian
media texts and they are being targeted more and more precisely at journalism. Take for instance the rape of thefour nuns in
certain groups. This process can involve something called niche Jhabua. Today the Indian Press (and the foreign
marketing. A niche is a small part of the market and advertisers correspondentswitness Tony Cliftons piece in the last issue
have found that they can get a greater return on their investment if of Newsweek) are sitll reporting that itwas a religious rape. Yet
they produce an audience who although smaller can more easily be I went to Jhabua and met the four adorable nuns,
targeted. Another good example of this is computer magazines: whothemselves admitted, along with their bishop George
one company, Data Quest, produce dozens of different maga- Anatil, that it had nothing todo with religion. It was the doing
zines each aimed at one particular niche of computer users - there of a gang of Bhil tribals, known to perpetrate thiskind of
are magazines for people who use the Internet, for those who are hateful acts on their own women. Yet today, the Indian Press,
new to computers, or those who are experts and for those who the Christianhierarchy and the politicians continue to include
just play games on them. Once again, no single one of these the Jhabua rape in the list of theatrocities against the Christians.
magazines has a large enough niche to make lots of money, but In Wyanad in northern Kerala, it was reported that a priest and
the company has become very successful with all the magazines four women werebeaten up and a Bible was stolen by fanatical
combined. Hindus. An FIR was lodged, thecommunists took out
processions all over Kerala to protest against the atrocitiesand
TASK the Press went gaga. Yet as an intrepid reporter from the Calicut
Do any of the texts that you consume put you into a niche office of TheIndian Express found out, nobody was beaten
audience? up and the Bible was safe. Too late;the damage was done and
All off this might help to explain why programmes with quite it still is being made use of by the enemies of India. Finally,
high ratings can be inexplicably taken off the air and why at the even if Dara Singh does belong to the Bajrang Dal, it is doubtful
same time a minority show might flourish. The high rating texts if the 100others accused do. What is more probable is that like
might well have been popular with a part of society with little in Wyanad, it is a case ofconverted tribals versus non-converted
buying power- for example the elderly, while the niche for the tribals, of pent-up jealousies, of old villagefeuds and land
minority show might be much more attractive to the advertisers. disputes. It is also an outcome of what it should be said arethe
aggressive methods of the Pentecost and seventh Adventists
73
missionaries,known for their muscular ways of converting. Why
does the Indian Press always reflect a Westernised point of

view? Why doesIndias intellectual elite, the majority of which
happens to be Hindu, always comedown so hard on their own
culture, their own religion, their own brothers andsisters? Is it
because of an eternal feeling of inferiority, which itself is a
legacy ofBritish colonisation? Is it because they consider Hindus
to be inferior beingsremember the words of Claudius
Bucchanan, a chaplain attached to the East IndiaCompany:
....Neither truth, nor honesty, honour, gratitude, nor charity,
is to befound in the breast of a Hindoo! Is it because the
Indian Press is still deeplyinfluenced by Marxist and communist
thoughts like it is in Kerala, where thecommunists have
shamelessly and dangerously exploited the Christians issue
fortheir own selfish purpose? Whatever it is, the harm is done.
Because, even though it is not the truth whichhas been reported
from Jhabua, from Wyanad or from the Keonjhar district
inOrissa, it has been passed off as the truth and it has been
believed to be so by themasses. And the result is that it has
split India a little more along religious andcastes lines.And
finally, Christianity has always striven on martyrdom, on
beingpersecuted. Before the murder of Staines, the Christian
story was slowly dying; theculprits of the Jhabua rape would
have been condemned and the Wyanad fraudexposed. In one
stroke the burning of Staines has insured that it does not die
for along time. Was the joy of martyrdom for the cause he
fought for 34 years his lastthought before dying?
Review Questions:
Explain the concept of mass audiences.
Explain the role of mass audience in mass communication?
Suggested Readings
Publishing House
Notes
74
UNIT VII
MASS MEDIA AND SOCIETY
LESSON 17
COMMUNICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT
Introduction: ating industries are also found actively involved in the process. To

Concept of Development: be more specific the communication services have been found
[n] act of improving by expanding or enlarging or refining; invading on social and cultural values. All of us witness the mov-
Concept of development is used here in a wide sense so as to ies and TV serials very much instrumental in promoting the social
include, not merely the definition or explanation, but also the evils. The educational institutes, hospitals are also in queue. The
theory, experience and problems. We hope you will be able to have financial institutions in general and public sector banks and insur-
a broad understanding of the concept of development. ance corporations in particular are not contributing substantially
Development is perhaps one of the most fiercely debated con- to the process of motivating low-income group and mobilizing
cepts in the contemporary social sciences. The concept is often small savings. The social organizations, religious organizations
equated with modernisation, industrialisation, social change, and even Red Cross society often fail in creating public awareness
progress and growth, and like these other terms is invariably and sub serving social interests.
seen as something desirable and positive for society in general, Do we find any justification for endangering social interests just
and for the community in particular. Also, development as a for generating profits?
socio economic phenomenon is seen as necessary, even inevitable; Today or tomorrow, we have no option but to change our
as good and salutary. Rarely is development discussed as possibly attitudes. Whatever we think is for society, whatever we plan is
hazardous and destructive of the environment, or of social val- for society, whatever we produce is for the society and whatso-
ues and cultures. Development is in the main seen as absolute, ever we market is for the society. This makes it essential that we
inevitable, and universal; it is promoted as a laudable goal no are well aware of the multi-dimensional changes found in the
matter what the society, the culture, the people and their resources society.
and traditions. Development, understood as widening the range of peoples
We welcome economic development but our development choices, has to consider three interrelated and crucial dimensions:
programmes should not pave ways for the long-run dangers. If human, or people-centred development, global development
economic transformation processes start paving ways for the so- and sustainable development. Together they imply a radical change
cial dangers, the wave of development must be checked and be to the current development paradigm. If one or more of these
turned into right direction. Of course commercial considerations factors is missing in decision-making, then conflicts between people
are important to survival and prosperity but in no case, the com- and nations are inevitable. These three dimensions represent the
mercial motives should be successful in establishing an edge over conceptual base and necessary focus of action for peoples move-
the social, cultural and ethical values. ments, for policy making and for the missions of any private
In an age of environmental disaster, population explosion, socio- initiative.
cultural confrontation, tension and dissension, we need to review Human development of people, for people and by people means
the present philosophy of transformation of the industrial investing in human capabilities to empower individuals to take
economy. We cannot deny the fact that the present system of charge of their own destiny. People are the end goal. Therefore,
economic development, standing on the pillars of mechanized the benefits of development are to be directed toward them and
industrial economy, has helped sensing, serving and satisfying it should serve them. It means that economic growth is distrib-
customers fantastically but at the same time have also been instru- uted fairly and widely, that people benefit from their contributions
mental in inviting a number of social evils. to work and social life, and people are given the chance to partici-
Do we feel that the development activities channelised during the pate in the process.
20th century would open doors for social interests in the 21st cen- Global development has three dimensions: spatial, time and ho-
tury? listic. The spatial dimension refers to ensuring that actions have
Do we fee that the industrial development process of today is not applicability to the rest of the world. The time dimension pro-
to engineer a sound foundation for slow murder of the coming vides for a perspective of the continuity of events and facts. The
generations? holistic dimension ensures that development is not fragmented,
Do we feel planet earth will remain safe tomorrow? but analysed from an integrated viewpoint and as a part of the
same system.
In no case, the answer is to be positive.
Sustainable development utilizes resources to satisfy present needs
We do not find any justification for promoting the fast food without compromising the satisfaction of the needs of future
industry, especially when researches reveal that most of the food generations. Until the last quarter of this century, we have not
items served by them are harmful. The hamburger, fried chickens considered the worlds resources limited. Decision-making needs
are found gaining popularity the world over though these are to take greater responsibility for the implications in the lives of
found injuring consumer health considerably. The service gener- others, including future generations.
75
Development, therefore, is a whole; it is an integral value loaded, opment. Such applications are intended to either further develop-
cultural process; it takes in the natural environment, social rela- ment in a general way, such as by increasing level of the mass
tions, education, production, consumption and welfare. The media exposure among a nations citizens, in order to create a
approach to development depends upon the local cultural or na- favorable climate, for development, or to support a specific de-
tional situations, not on any outside model. In other words, velopment programme or project this type of development
development springs, from the heart of each society, relying on its communication is often termed as development-support com-
history and traditions, as also its own strengths and resources as munication DSC.
far as possible. The practice of Development Support Communication, DSC, is
Concept of Development Communication: a multi-sectoral process of information sharing about develop-
Sociologists, psychologists, economists and communication ex- ment agendas and planned actions. It links planners, beneficiaries
perts agree that the proper use of communication can foster the and implementers of development action, including the donor
pace and process of development. In general terms, communica- community. It obligates planners and implementers to provide
tion means interaction between two individuals or within a group clear, explicit and intelligible data and information about their
or a community or a nation. In communication, the four principle goals and roles in development, and explicitly provides opportu-
elements are communication source, a message, a channel or me- nities for beneficiaries to participate in shaping development
dium and a receiver or audience. But in development outcomes. It ensures that the donor community is kept con-
communication it becomes the process of affecting or influencing stantly aware of the achievements and constraints of development
behaviour of individuals or groups towards -certain desired goals efforts in the field.
and objectives, necessarily for the benefit of the entire society. Development Support Communication makes use of all avail-
Thus, the receiver is expected to show the behaviour desired by able structures and means of information sharing. Therefore it is
the source of communication. not limited to mass media alone. It also uses both formal group
Development communication is a relatively new field of study and non-formal channels of communication, such as womens
within the discipline of communication. Like the science of com- and youth associations, as well as places where people gather....
munication, development communication has come to stay. markets, churches, festivals, and meetings. But its contribution is
However, we should always remember that development com- in using these in a systemic, continuous, co-ordinated and planned
munication is only one of the elements or inputs for speedy manner, to perform linkage and enabling functions. It requires
progress and development. Development communication is analysis of the communication environment, of the available and
mainly concerned with the role of information and communica- needed communication competencies and resources (hardware,
tion in social and economic development of an individual, society software, financial and human), and clearly indicates expected re-
and nation. It identifies what mass media can do directly or indi- sults from specific resource inputs, so as to maintain accountability.
rectly to improve the quality of life to both urban and rural masses. In short, DSC is a legitimate function of development planning
This describes an approach to communication, which provides and implementation. DSC therefore needs to be examined as a
communities with information they can use in bettering their valuable technology for using the social communication process
lives, which aims at making public programmes and policies real, to foster and strengthen sustainable development at local and
meaningful and sustainable. Such information must be applied national levels. It should be taken more seriously in programs of
in some way as part of community development but it must also social change, and should be reflected explicitly in development
address information needs which communities themselves iden- policy and strategy. One way of doing so is through the enuncia-
tified. The outcome of this approach, in short, is to make a tion of a national information and communication policy, which
difference in the quality of life of communities. can be explicitly integrated into national development thinking
and practice.
Nora Quebral, a leading academic in this field defines Develop-
ment communication as the art and science of human Development communication has two primary roles:
communication applied to the speedy transformation of a coun- a) A transforming role, as it seeks social change in the direction of
try and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of the higher quality of life. The higher quality of life can be
economic growth that makes possible greater social equality and achieved in various ways. Might be by adopting all the required
the larger fulfillment of the human potential. (Quoted in Devel- vaccines for the infants of each family of the society. Some
opment Communication - rhetoric and reality by Pete Habermann countries might adopt techniques of producing enough food
and Guy de Fontagalland.) for the citizen. Some countries might systematically and
F. Rosario Braid is of the opinion that development communica- scientifically break all the myths surrounding various religious
tion is an element of the management process in -the overall and social customs. And communication could be a marvelous
planning and implementation of development programs. De- instrument to achieve these objectives.
velopment communication is, in a broad sense The identification b) A socializing role, by seeking to maintain some of the established
and utilization and utilization appropriate expertise in the devel- values of the society.
opment process that will assist in the increasing participation of
In playing these roles, development communication seeks to cre-
intended beneficiaries the grassroots level.
ate an atmosphere for change as well as providing innovation
Rogers says, development communication refers to the refers to through which society may change. Each and every society has
the uses to which communication is put in order to further devel- some traditional values. These values give the people of each
76
society an identity and a sense of belonging. The aspirations of a munity workers have to listen to the advice of communities and

society sometimes are embedded in these values. Now, the values, change the views they themselves hold.
customs and beliefs of other societies might make inroads into Its about access and visibility of government where govern-
other societies. If, the people are not careful, they might be taken ment is no longer a distant and unknown entity in community
off their grounds by the new incoming sets of values. Commu- development experiences. This approach reverses the practice of
nication can play a very vital role by making the people aware communities having to travel long distances and at relatively
about this pitfall. It can also help immensely by drawing the atten- great cost to access government services and information. This
tion of the members of a society to the richness of their own is made worse when government is not clearly and properly
values, customs, beliefs and, above all, aspirations. identifiable and access is difficult because of inaccessible
Key elements of the development buildings, unfriendly and unprofessional staff etc. The
communication approach: development communication approach brings government
It is responsive - it does not provide useless information - that employees face to face with communities so promoting
which people did not want to know, but which central planners accountability at local level. This is not possible when civil
deemed as crucial. People understand their own needs better and servants are remote and impersonal.
through this approach communication becomes a tool in the plan- Its about the use of simple and relevant language where
ning and development process, not a mechanism to persuade concepts are packaged in the experiences of communities, in
communities once unpalatable decisions have been made (in their their own language and where communities themselves have
best interests!) played a major role in the development of material for develop-
It hinges on feedback - it is not a one-way process but involves ment communication programmes.
dialogue mechanisms about the information, which was trans- It is purposive one looks for specific behavioral objectives, such
ferred. It is also fundamentally about consultative processes being as getting farmers to go in for a specific variety of seed,
managed at community level. pesticide, etc.
Innovation and creativity - the message must not be dull and It is positive - positive value is attached to what one communi-
boring but show clearly how the information transmitted will cates about. Take the example of the high yielding -variety of
make a difference in the life of the recipient - it must not instill seed. Once adopted, the farmers can increase their harvest
doubt or disbelief, but trust and confidence (look for local adopt- manifold. This means more income, which can be utilised to
ers). Development Communication workers should, however, buy land, cattle or equipments. This is what we mean by
balance creativity with an understanding of what communities positive value attached to development communication.
would be prepared to accept and where consideration has been It is pragmatic In this context we might define pragmatic as
given to the norms and prevailing values of that community. practical and purposeful. In development communication, the
Independent validation - it is not about government speak. This purpose of communication is important. Let us assume that
approach builds participatory mechanisms and functional net- we want the farmers to plant a particular rice variety or the so-
works involving NGOs, CBOs, Traditional Leadership structures called miracle rice. The judgement or evaluation of
while also encouraging links with networks from across the coun- communication does not rest on the mere invention of
try and indeed all over the world. These can either prove or disprove communication activities performed, such as the number of the
the validity of the information transmitted. press releases issued or the number of farm visits made.
Its about sustainability and continuity - it is not about dumping Findings have showed that mere increase in the flow of
information in a community and never going back for months. information does not necessarily result in those behavioral
changes, which are desired to be achieved.
Its about establishing common ground with communities who
are to be the recipients of the information/message - it is not Development communication is a tool, and not a product.
about the public servant who swoops in and out of a community Development communication is goal-oriented. The ultimate
in his or her GG like some phantom expert to educate and goal of development communication is a higher quality of life
uplift communities. The standards, norms, values, habits of the for the people of a society. The role of the media also changes
community are paramount. (This may mean that those accus- in development communication. It plays the following four
tomed to a liaison style hinging on comfortable hotels with responsibilities:
prepared meals and warm fluffy duvets will need to make some Circulate knowledge that will inform people of significant
adjustments to their style!) events, opportunities, dangers and changes in their community,
Its about community participation - development programmes country and the world.
which plan for communities or supply information which plan- Provide a forum where issues affecting the national or
ners feel communities need, fail to be relevant initiatives and more community life may be aired.
often than not fail to be sustainable. A primary emphasis of this Teach those ideas, skills and attitudes that people need to achieve
approach is to plan with communities, create structures which for a better life.
offer communities and developers equal power, and use commu-
Create and maintain a base of consensus that is needed for the
nication methods which are fundamentally participatory in nature.
stability of the state.
This often requires that government planners, developers or com-
77
To perform these roles, the media keeps the development orien- needs can be known, and they might participate in the acts and
tation in its perspective. Three approaches have been identified in decisions of the nation- building; and information must also
relating communication to development. These are empathy, dif- flow vertically so that decisions may be made.
fusion, and multiplying of information. We shall discuss each
separately, individually.
3.Magic Multipliers
1.Empathy: Daniel Lerner in his book, Passing of Traditional
Wilbur Schramm extended the arguments of Lerner and Rogers
society, saw the problem of modernizing traditional societies.
in favour of modernization through the mass media - which
He saw the spread of literacy resulting from urbanisation as a
he termed the magic multipliers. His work was part of the
necessary precondition to more complete modernisation that
efforts of the United Nations and UNESCO for a programme
would include participatory political precondition to more
of concrete action to build up press, radio broadcasting, film
complete modernisation that would include participatory
and television facilities in countries in the process of economic
political institutions. Development was largely a matter of
and social development. UNESCO carried out the survey itself
increasing productivity.
on which the book was based, during a series of meetings in
According to D. Lerner, development failed to occur because Bangkok, Santiago and Paris.
peasants were unable to empathise or imaginatively identify
with the new role, and a changed and better way of life and so
remained fatalistic-unambitious and resistant to change. Every To Schramm, as to mainstream social scientists of the time, the
change in society must originate and begin in the hearts of the mass media were agents of social change, almost miraculous in
people. If the people would like to change, only then the their power to bring about that change. Schramm argued that the
development would begin. What is required is that some means mass media could help accomplish the transitions to new-customs
of providing such people with clues as to what better things in and practices (the innovations of Rogers) and, in some cases, to
life might be. Lerner saw the media as filling this need of different social relationships. Behind such changes in behaviour
promoting interest among the people for a better life. Not must necessarily lay substantial changes in attitudes, beliefs, skills
only that, he saw the media as machines, inspiring people for and social norms. The process, he elaborated was simple: first,
better things in life. He said empathy endows a person with the awareness of a need, which is not, satisfied by- present customs
the capacity to imagine himself as proprietor of a big grocery and behaviour; second, the need to invent or borrow behaviour
store in a city, to wear nice cloths and live in a nice house, to be that comes close to meeting the need. Hence a nation that wants
interested in what is going on in the world and to get out of to accelerate the process of development will try to make its people
his hole. more widely and quickly aware of needs and of the opportunities
for meeting them will facilitate the decision process, and will help
the people put the new practices smoothly and swiftly into effect.
2. Diffusion: Evertt M. Rogers approached this with a perspective -Schramm went further than Rogers in taking account of cultural
that had much in common with Lerner, but different with him linkages, in acknowledging resistance to change and in urging an
somewhat in emphasis. He saw the diffusion of the new ideas understanding participation. However, his model of
and their practice as a crucial component of the modernisation communication was still manipulative of behaviour towards the
process. He found that his home community less than desired end of innovation adoption; it still cited as empirical
impressed with his stock of innovations in agriculture; outside evidence a strong correlation between high media exposure and
his country he had marked influence in the field of agricultural development. Schramm argued forcefully that the mass media
extension, through his textbook on the diffusion of had the potential to widen horizons, to focus attention, to raise -
Innovations, which over the years has been expanded and aspirations and to create a climate for development. They also had
updated into the second and third editions. the potential to confer status to enforce social norms, to help
Rogers developed his concepts and theories of the diffusion form tastes, and could affect a: lightly held. He was optimistic
of innovations from a synthesis of diffusion research about the potential of the mass media (and also the educational
studies in United States, and in later editions, of diffusion media such as programmed instruction, language laboratories,
studies in the developing world as well. Rogers defined electronic digital computers) in all types of education and training.
innovation as an idea perceived as new by the individual. Unlike Rogers, he conceded though that the mass media can help
It really matters little, as far as human behaviour is only indirectly to change strongly attitudes and valued practices.
concerned, he added, whether or not an idea is objectively He therefore recommended that a developing country should
new as measured by the amount of time elapsed since its review its restrictions on the importing of informational materials,
first use or discovery. It is the newness of the idea to the should not hesitate to make use of new technical developments
individual that determines his reaction to it. By the third in communication, in cases where these new developments fit its
edition, Rogers begins to use technology as a synonym for needs and capabilities. The challenge, he concluded, was to put -
innovation, and to urge the adoption of a convergence resources and the power of modern communication skillfuIIy
model that stresses the intricacy of interpersonal and fully behind economic and social development.
communication networks that are in operation during the
process of diffusion. Role of Non-Governmental Organisations
The role of non-governmental organizations and voluntary agen-
People must be informed, persuaded, educated. Information cies in India has been very important. In situations of widespread
must flow, not only to them but also from them, so that their
78
poverty and deprivation, exploitation and discrimination, the State

has not been in a position to ameliorate everything. The Non
Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have stepped in to pro-
vide basic health and child care services, running home for the
destitute and distressed and providing education and training
opportunities. At the same time, these NGOs have also been
working towards building a more humane society free from ex-
ploitation and want. The partnership between NGOs and the
government has been of mutual benefit.
Some Major NGOs
Self Employed Womens Association (SEWA), Ahmedabad,
Gujarat
Society for Participatory Research in Asia (PRIA), New Delhi
Churchs Auxiliary for Social Action (CASA), New Delhi
SAHELI, New Delhi
NIRANTAR, New Delhi
Voluntary Action Network, India (VANI), New Delhi
ANKUR, New Delhi
Peoples Rural Education Movement (PREM), Mandiapally,
Orissa
LOK SHAKTI, Balasore, Orissa
UNNATI, Ahmedabad, Gujarat
Society for Promotion of Area Resources Centre (SPARC),
Bombay
PREPARE, Madras
ASMITA (Resource Centre for Women), Hyderabad
Child In Need Institute (CINI), Calcutta
Review Questions:
Explain the concept of development communication.
Explain the role of NGOs in development communication?
Suggested Readings
House
Notes
79
LESSON 18
MEDIA AND SOCIAL ISSUES
Media and Social issues has to become a mass habit in both town and country. We will
have to see the link between political excitement and media
Introduction
expansion. The dramatic expansion of the language press over
the last 15 years has a lot to do with political and social upheav-
als generated in many states of our country.
The designer suits of todays politicians may be sharp, but so
are the interviews, commentaries and editorials, which debunk
them. News management may be more intense than before, but
so is its journalistic deconstruction. There is populist excess, but
the democratic sphere should be dynamic enough to take it in
its stride. There are ethical lapses and resource constraints, which
Indias process of development since 1947 has been accompanied constantly threaten the quality of journalism.
by significant social changes and an increasing awareness about
It is also true that politics driven growth can be for better or for
issues affecting the poor, the women and the children in India.
worse. How to make it better? How to go against the manufac-
This period has also seen the burgeoning of the voluntary move-
ture of consent, a role that is now widely understood as
ment in India and the establishment of several non-governmental
something built into its character? How to build a culture of
organisations to protect and promote the interests of women
public service broadcasting? How to invest hope in the new
and children.
media, especially in the Internet? How to deal with national and
The Government has made constant attempts to promote transnational media monopolies, which will come sooner or
values like democracy, freedom from discrimination, self-reliance later? How to build a socially conscious media? How to realize
and independence of thought. It has also tried to improve the constantly the classic watchdog role of the media in liberal
lot of the poor and weaker sections of society. Women and democracy?
children have figured prominently in the governments agenda
In order for the public to renew their stake in media, it is
of social reforms and initiatives.
essential that media ownership and control be regulated so as to
Today, India is working towards a society where the poor, prevent existing media monopolies from increasing their stake
marginalized and underprivileged have equal opportunities in in the media industry. The government should increase its
all spheres of life. Partnership and collective action by the commitment for community radio and television at district and
voluntary agencies, government and other like-minded institu- local levels. Citizens movements that are committed towards
tions and individuals has been the key to a meaningful thrust in reforms in the media industry should be encouraged. It is a fact
this direction. that the press, television channels and the entire media could be
Social Issues a business. But the journalists per se are not for trade or
In Bihar there is widespread poverty, illiteracy, inequality and business. Journalism is a social responsibility. It is a struggle to
oppression. Despite this, over the past two decades there has gain public space within the private sphere.
been rapid politicisation of poor people in the garb of social Media education supports the creation of an informed media
justice. Land issues and social injustice have created a lot of public, a public that is able to critically judge between good and
disturbance. Even then there is a lack of broader public opinion bad media content. Simultaneously however, for a true
at the state level and the society at large for a better and more democracy, we also have to ensure that there is a strong stream
equitable society and good governance. of media free of any government control, with free speech and
Although here also different forms of media are growing free press.
rapidly, and people are interested to learn more about contem- Media shaping the society
porary issues, the media is behaving like a market product. It It is clear that in the present Indian context, media plays an
attempts to satisfy peoples thirst for news but basically keeps important role in the exertion of power and distribution of
in focus its profitability and market sentiments. It is clear that in values. Media affects the overall quality of public life and also
the contemporary context the media cannot become a mission shapes peoples engagement in the specific policy decisions in
towards the goal of social transformation on a large scale. It is the Indian democracy. To make greater impact within the broad
doubtful whether it can even become a leading agent in the socio-political context, media needs to create a space to
process of establishing a people based governance. effectively carry out its functions. The attempt by civil society
The implication is important for the rest of India. The organizations to assert the importance of issues like, gover-
formation of an authentic public opinion will not be possible nance for the people vis--vis media is an attempt to search for
in the absence of a newspaper, magazine reading culture, which its own public space and its own means.
80
There must exista relevant political consciousness so that a community sets in the country. These sets are located in a

democratic impact is possible. Media to be effective must form commonly accessible place like the school and provide
part of an ideological and political context -of attitude, feeling, viewership to persons who do not have TV sets at home. But
hope and critical democratic values and practice. obviously this number is very small.
Development Communication Considering the economic profile of the country, where the per
Intervention Programme capita income is approximately Rs.2400/- (US $ 1= Rs.40/-)
Television, like the radio, was introduced in India ostensibly for and the per capita GDP is Rs.14000/-. Even the cheapest
the purpose of information, education and entertainment and television set costing about Rs.3000/- would be well beyond
in that order. Television was introduced as an experimental the means of a very large population of the country. This also
service for school education in 1959. The scope was expanded means that the access to television programmes cannot be left
to include non-formal education for agricultural development. to market forces alone.
Television sets were specially provided in selected villages for the The market forces combined with satellite communication
farmers. technology have given impetus to the television industry in a
It was only in 1965 that the regular service of television was different way. Before the onset of the foreign satellite network
started. Doordarshan is the television authority in the country. companies since 1992 onwards, the only available channel for
It is responsible for all television broadcasts in the country. the Indian people was the Doordarshans primary channel or at
Doordarshan has been under the control of Ministry of most one more channel in some cities. Today, the situation is
Information and Broadcasting of the Central or Federal quite different. It is possible to watch nearly 40 channels from
Government. It was only in 1997 that it has been given different satellite networks both Indian and foreign. Approxi-
autonomy and it now functions under an independent mately 15 Million households are satellite television
autonomous board called Prasar Bharati. households. This forms about 25 per cent of television
The objectives of Doordarshan have been very well precisely households. Of these 15 Million, 11 Million households are
stated and have come to be known as the social objective of urban and only 4 Million households are rural. Considering the
Doordarshan. Some of the important social objectives of average urban-rural proportion of the Indian population, it is
Doordarshan are: create national integration, stimulate scientific obvious that a very large number of the rural population is
temper, aid development and social change, transmit deprived of watching any of the satellite networks and they can
programmes related to development activities in different facets watch only Doordarshans primary channel. As explained earlier
like agricultural extension, education, health and family welfare, even this facility is restricted to only 40 per cent households.
promote social change and welfare of the weaker sections of the A review of different channels transmitted from foreign satellite
society. These objectives make the role of the television networks, it is obvious that the major thrust is on entertain-
authority very clear. ment followed by news and current affairs and least for
In order that television is able to fulfil its assigned role, it is education. Majority niche channels like music channels, sports
necessary that the people be provided access to television sets. channels, movie channels or even general mixed-fare channels,
The access can be increased in two ways: (1) facilitating increased the emphasis is on entertainment. There are special 24-hour
television production and also increasing purchasing facilities news and current affairs channels. Admittedly there are a few
and capabilities utilising the market forces and (2) intervention channels solely directed towards non-formal education in the
of the state by providing television sets at community places field of environment, wildlife, culture, etc. but there is hardly
like the schools or local self-government offices in villages. Both any special channel for education or development. Similar is the
these modes of expansion have been used in India. The situation on Doordarshan. Though Doordarshan is one of the
growth of the number of television sets in the country has few channels to provide a very significant part of its program-
been phenomenal since the operationalisation of Indian Space ming time for education and development programmes,
Research Organisations INSAT satellite system in 1982. From a substantial portion of the prime time is devoted to entertain-
mere 84000 television sets in 1972, the figure had gone beyond ment, news and current affairs programmes.
the one Million mark by 1980. A significant growth indeed but Clearly market forces alone will not be in a position to fulfil the
it picked up speed even more after 1982. In 1985 there were 6.8 educational and development needs. Intervention other than by
Million television sets and the 1997 estimates are that there are the market forces becomes necessary. Such intervention can
about 60 Million television sets. Assuming that most of the come through either the State or institutes and organisations of
houses are one TV-set houses, out of the total 150 Million public good. This may include institutes of higher learning like
households in the country, nearly 40% are television house- universities, the open learning systems or through some non-
holds. But this will mean that over 60% of the households do government organisations. It is not as if the market forces do
not have a television sets. A closer look also indicates that the not provide any scope for educational and development
distribution of the sets is skewed. Nearly 70 per cent of Indias broadcasting. They certainly do. But the role is limited to some
population lives in the rural areas, but only about 30 per cent of specific types of education and training needs. A more sus-
the TV sets are located in these areas. This in turn means that tained effort can come only from the state. The state
even if the TV signals through satellite cover the entire country, intervention can come in several different ways. One mode of
the actual access is denied to an overwhelming majority of the intervention is to facilitate the market forces to develop
people. According to Doordarshan 1995, there were 64,600 technologies so that the TV sets are made more affordable
81
through appropriate policy decisions; so that the number of like Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), All
transmitters in the country are increased and through devising a India Management Association (AIMA), Non-Government
suitable communication and broadcasting policy to facilitate Organisations (NGOs) like Self Employed Womens Associa-
educational and development programmes. Another mode of tion (SEWA) and Ahmedabad Womens Action Group
intervention is through appropriate legislation and policy (AWAG).
guidelines that make transmission of such programmes The Jhabua Development Communications Project (JDCP) of
mandatory for Doordarshan. This will involve appropriate time ISRO combines the features of all the above and builds upon
allocation for these types of programmes. the experiences further. It has the feature of Direct Reception
Another major and more important mode of intervention is like SITE; it has localisation like Kheda and the interactive
through starting of specific development or educational training component like TDCC. However, the operational
programme experiments or projects. The earliest phase of features are adjusted to the changed technological and socio-
Doordarshan of school educational programmes or krishi economic context. A much higher degree of involvement of
darshan - agricultural programmes -for rural farmers were really private agencies, in maintenance, programme production and
attempts in that direction. Another very significant intervention research is attempted. It is proposed to try out new features like
is exemplified by the Satellite Instructional Television Experi- Telemedicine, Data Broadcasts, access to databases, etc. and
ment (SITE) by Indian Space Research Organisation in 1975-76. study the viability and effectiveness of these systems. It is also
SITE, described as the worlds largest socio-technical communi- proposed to try this in a few more States.
cation experiment, covered 2400 villages of six states through Jhabua is a district of the state of Madhya Pradesh in India. It
Direct Reception Sets (DRS) transmitting educational and has an area of about 6782 sq. kms. The population is 1.2
development programmes on a daily basis. Million. It has a predominantly tribal (86%) and rural (91%)
It is in the overall context of the above that this paper looks at population. The growth rate is very high at 42.65 as compared
an intervention programme called Jhabua Development to Indias growth rate of 23.79. It is one of the most backward
Communications Project (JDCP) of Development and districts of the country. Agriculture is near primitive. It has a
Educational Communication Unit (DECU), Indian Space very low literacy rate of 14.54 compared to Indias literacy rate of
Research Organisation (ISRO). As a backgrounder to it, it is 52.19 and the female literacy is even lower. It presents a rather
pertinent to quote (Bhatia; Pursuit; DECU-ISRO, Ahmedabad; depressing health profile with a very high infant mortality rate
1997): and low average life expectancy. The transport and communica-
The Indian Space Programme was propelled by the dream of tion facilities are very inadequate, many of the villages become
taking the benefits of space technology to Indian villages. It was unapproachable during monsoon. The conditions in Jhabua
a statement of a vision when Dr. Vikaram Sarabhai said We make development communication a very necessary, but at the
must be second to none in the application of advanced same time, a very challenging task. The situation is all the more
technologies to the real problems of man and society which we compounded by the fact that the village habitation pattern is
find in our country. typically tribal. A village actually consists of a group of about 5
to 6 scattered hamlets. Each hamlet may be distanced from each
It was in pursuit of this vision that ISRO undertook the
other by as much as 1 or 2 kms. The overall communication
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) in 1975-76.
profile is extremely backward. High illiteracy practically rules out
Through this experiment Satellite TV signal was received in
the print medium. The ownership of radio is also very small
2400 Indian villages for the first time. The experiences of SITE
and the ownership of television is about 6 per cent of the
led to the development of the INSAT system and also to
households predominantly located in the bigger and compara-
substantial education television effort in the form of University
tively more developed villages.
Grants Commission (UGC), National Council of Educational
Research and Training (NCERT) and Central Institute of It was in such a district that DECU initiated JDCP. The main
Educational Technology (CIET) telecasts. objective was to provide quality development programmes to
the deprived. This meant that Direct Reception Sets had to be
The Kheda Communications Project (KCP) was started as part
installed at a central place in the village accessible to majority
of SITE, and over the years evolved into a model rural oriented
villagers. This was done in 150 villages and plans are afoot to
local TV station. It demonstrated how participatory, and people
expand it to the rest of 450 villages. The software objectives of
oriented can a local TV system become. Indian Space Research
the project were to provide communication support to
Organisation (ISRO) shared these experiences with the opera-
development activities in the following subjects:
tional agency through a series of training programmes. These
efforts were followed by the application of one way video two Watershed Management including agriculture, forestry, animal
way audio teleconferencing for Education and Development husbandry, etc.
Training. This network has found very effective application in Health covering child and womens health, family welfare and
training of Panchayati Raj (Village Local Self-government) prevention of various diseases.
elected representatives, Aanganwadi (crche) workers, Primary Panchayati Raj (Local Self-government Administration)
School Teachers, Daais (mid-wives), etc. including the role of women and its function.
The Network is currently operational as the Training and Education including non-formal and adult education.
Development Communication Channel (TDCC) and is
spreading out to several states and distance education agencies
82
Socio Economic issues covering employment, government enjoyable television is possible provided one sees the need for it

development schemes, etc. and has the will to start such an intervention programme.
Culture covering folk and traditional aspects. Media spreading awareness through newspaper articles, print
The other objective was to organise intensive interactive and web magazines, documentaries, films, TV programmes,
educational programmes through a one way video and two way radio programmes.For example the following article highlights
audio talk back system from 12 block headquarters where the darker side of development projects.
development functionaries gather on specified days in the Chased by development
afternoons. CHIKAPAR (Koraput): Mukta Kadam wept as she herded her
The challenge was not only in installing the DRS but also five children in front of her, luggage on their heads, leading
making sure that proper electricity connections were available, them through a jungle in darkness and rain. Her village,
that there was an appropriate seating place, that there was a Chikapar, had been acquired for the MiG project of the
custodian who will operate the TV set everyday and the Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. (HAL) and her family was evicted
maintenance of the satellite dish antenna as well as the TV sets on an angry monsoon night.
had to be ensured. The greater challenge was to make the We didnt know where to go. We just went because the saab
programmes need-based and entertaining. The JDCP brochure log told us to go. It was terrifying. I was so frightened for the
(1996) aptly states the software approach: children on that night, she recalls. That was in 1968. Mukta, a
An innovative, and imaginative software approach using the Gadaba tribal, didnt know then that she, along with her entire
sophisticated modern tools and yet rooted in the cultural ethos village of 400-500 large joint families, would have to go
of the tribal people is the hallmark of TV programmes. The through the same experience two more times.
programmes are entertaining, enjoyable and educative. The When the villagers of Chikapar village found that they were to
information flow is two way: upwards as well as downwards. be evicted for a record third time, they werent quite sure what
The programmes are made with the active participation of the to do. What can we do? asks Pammia Das, a Gadaba tribal, in
local population. despair, Wherever we go, some project will come up and we
In order to make the programmes need based and useful, a will have to move again.
detailed formative research plan was put into action. Apart Chikapar is like almost any other village on the Koraput map.
from developing profile of the district and the audience, Almost. Perhaps no other village anywhere has the dubious
detailed needs assessment studies in all the selected subjects distinction of being targeted for displacement three times. In
were initiated. This was done through involvement of the the late 60s, it was the MiG project. In 1987, Chikapar resi-
social scientists from Madhya Pradesh State and others in the dents, many of whom had not even received the compensation
country. The needs assessment studies formed the basis to due from the first eviction, were dishoused from their
develop over 400 communication briefs that in turn were the second location - which, too, they had nostalgically named
basis of the programmes. Chikapar.
There is a transmission of two hours every weekday. It covers
the programme subject described earlier and uses a variety of
formats like drama, docu-drama, documentary, puppetry,
animation, etc. An important feature of the programming has
been that almost all the programmes are produced in Jhabua
district with active involvement of the local artists, script
writers, subject experts, etc. This makes the programmes
participatory and gives a strong sense of identification.
Detailed benchmark survey was carried out in 60 villages and
this was followed up with three during-transmission surveys
at equal time intervals. Detailed feedback studies have also been
conducted regularly. Several knowledge gain studies have also
been conducted. The results indicate a very satisfactory level of
effectiveness. The project was supposed to be a two year project
and was to end in November 1998, but has been extended by
another year. There are now plans to initiate similar projects in This time, Mukta wended her way down the road to nowhere
several other districts of different states of the country. with a grandchild. Once again, it was raining, we took shelter
The example of the Jhabua Development Communications under a bridge and stayed there for some days, says she.
Project clearly brings out not only the need but also the This time (in 1987), says Arjan Pamja, also from the same
effectiveness of an intervention programme that too in a tribe, we had to make way for the Upper Kolab multipurpose
difficult communication terrain. It also demonstrates that one project and the naval ammunition depot.
cannot leave development communication activities to market And now, the villagers, who have reorganised Chikapar once
forces alone. A participatory, need-based, educative and more in several little pockets in yet another area after the
83
second uprooting, have received eviction notices for the tribal, in despair, Wherever we go, some project will come
third time. Chikapar is being chased by development. up and we will have to move again.
Jagannath Kadam, one of the villages few educated mem- Actually, the problem is even more complex. This twice-evicted
bers, is a school teacher who works in another village (there village is unlikely to receive any compensation at all when it is
has been no proper school in Chikapar for years). He says, uprooted for a third time to make way for either a poultry farm
The reasons being given for the third eviction vary. Minister or a Military Engineering Service depot.
Harish Chandra Bakshi Patra, said at a public meeting here that Even in our second location, says Pakalu Kadam, also a
we had to make way for a poultry farm. Another explanation is Gadaba tribal, We have been told we are occupying land
that the present set-up of the village poses problems for the illegally. Actually, this is our land. But they want us to vacate
Military Engineering Service (MES) in the area. We dont in 60 days. Our ownership was never recognised on record.
know. We only know that the villagers are receiving eviction So we have no rights, no domicile certificate, not even caste
notices. certificates.
If the latter reason is true, says one official, Little Chikapar will But, asks Jyotirmoy Khora, What happened to the over 400
have, in succession, taken on the air force, the navy and the hectares they took from Chikapar in the 60s and the thousands
army. If it werent so tragic, it would be almost comical. And all of acres from 17 other villages? In the 60s too, Mr Biju
in the name of development. Patnaik was chief minister and he had this grand idea that all
Jagannath Kadam stayed on in what might be called the units of HAL would come to Koraput. So huge tracts of
Chikapar-2, the villages location after it was evicted the first land were acquired towards that project.
time to facilitate the MiG project, but before its eviction for the In fact, nothing of the sort happened. The other units came
Upper Kolab project. The waters of the Kolab did not quite up in Bangalore and elsewhere. As a result, much of the land
reach his house, so he defied orders and stayed put. Since my forcibly taken over from the 18 villages remains unutilised to
family has been alone here, weve had to face dacoities, but this day. They are neither returning the land, nor leasing it
Im not leaving again, he says firmly. for cultivation. We are prepared to pay such compensation as
Chikapar was not a village of very poor people. They comprised we received if we get back our land, says Khora.
Gadaba and Paroja tribals, some Doms (Harijans) and a few That, however, seems unlikely to happen. I cant move again,
OBCs. Originally located in Sunabeda (literally translated as let them do what they like, says Mukta Kadam, the oldest
golden land), the villagers owned big tracts of land. My joint woman in the village and one of the first to be evicted in
family of seven owned 129 acres in 1963, says Balram Patro. 1968. Why does this always have to happen to us?
Of these, we were compensated for 95 acres only and got a Possibly because they are Adivasis and Harijans and because this
total of Rs 28,000 many, many years later. But there was no is Koraput, which includes some of the poorest parts of the
help with house sites, materials or any kind of rehabilitation, country (two of which have emerged as new districts).
he says. When the National Aluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO) came
My family owned 60 acres of land, say Jyotirmoy Khora, up in 1981 in Koraput, more than 47.7 per cent of the 2,500
displaced families were tribals and 9.3 per cent were Harijans,
and we got Rs 15,000 - Rs 150 per acre of hilly land and Rs points out Prof LK Mahapatra, former vice-chancellor of
450 per acre of Class I land. Again, the money came much
later. And that was it: not a single paisa towards rehabilitation, Utkal and Sambalpur Universities. Over 55 per cent of the
3,067 families displaced by the upper Kolab project belonged
not even a home site. to either Scheduled Tribes or Scheduled Castes.
They promised us one job per house, one home for The Machkund hydro-electric project in Koraput district
each displaced family, says Narendra Patro, speaking to us at had displaced almost 3,000 families by 1960. Of these, 51.1 per
what can be called Chikapar-3. People did not even resist on cent were adivasis and 10.2 per cent were Dalits. It is a pity,
either occasion, but the authorities went back on every assur- notes Prof Mahapatra in a major study on the subject, that
ance. out of 2938 families displaced, only 600 were rehabilitated,
Less than 15 people found employment, at very menial levels, including 450 tribal families. Not a single Scheduled Caste
in HAL. Another group made it, with some difficulty, as casual family was rehabilitated. The list of such victims in Orissa is
labourers with no security of tenure. Khora, despite being endless. Of nearly 22 million people across the country
the villages first matriculate in 1970, and obtaining a diploma estimated to have been direct victims of displacement since
of proficiency from a technical training school, remained independence, over 40 per cent are tribals. In Orissa, that figure
unemployed for eight years before finding a placement with is probably much higher, though clear estimates are hard to
HAL. Even for casual labour, the contractors always bring come by.
people from outside, says Madan Khasla, a Harijan, and At the national level, less than 25 per cent of those displaced
the recruiting agents want payments from us for other jobs, by development have been rehabilitated in the past four
but what money do we have? We have lost our homes twice, decades. Again, the scenario in Orissa is probably worse.
but they want us to go yet again. Within this depressing picture, Koraput plumbs the depths. In
The revenue inspector of Sunabeda, Purnachandra Parida, a study funded by the Union ministry of welfare, Walter
confirmed that eviction notices had been issued for the third Fernandes and Anthony S Raj, of the Indian Social Institute,
time. They are encroachers and must go, he said. New Delhi, note that in Koraput, around one lakh tribals
have been deprived of their land, including 1.6 lakh hectares
Khora laughed when told of the inspectors assertion: Each of forests on which they had till then depended for their
time this village has been shifted we have moved, mostly, to livelihood.
our own lands. Remember, we owned a lot of acres in this More than six per cent of the district population, a majority of
region. They have made us encroachers on our own land by them tribals, have been displaced (by projects). This trend seems
declaring it the property of the state. If the government to continue even today.
declared your house as its property tomorrow, you would be
an encroacher in your own home, too. Exercise
Discuss with your class mates various development programmes
When the villagers of Chikapar village found that they were and medias role in them.
to be evicted for a record third time, they werent quite sure
what to do. What can we do? asks Pammia Das, a Gadaba
84
LESSON 19
MEDIA AND EDUCATION
Media and Education. Technology For Innovation In Education

Introduction Information technology facilitates sharing and influencing those
In December 1993, India hosted the Education for All summit, who are within a cultural and linguistic boundary. The electronic
which was attended by nine high population countries: media have high replicability and multiplying capacity. This has
Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Ni- attracted the attention of educational planners. UNESCO has
geria and Pakistan. Together these countries account for more stated conclusively that the broadcast media have made significant
than the worlds population. The summit adopted the Delhi contributions to the cause of education in many nations, both
Declaration and Framework for Action, which called for education the developing as well as developed. Many countries and a num-
for all children. ber of educational institutions, particularly open universities in
the developed countries have adopted new communication tech-
Earlier on the National Policy of
nology in a big way. Telidon, which is a Canadian video system, is
Education (1986) and the
a powerful educational tool. Cyclops another good innovation,
Programme of Action (1992) had
of television, was developed by open universities in England.
resolved to ensure free and com-
The British open universities also make wide use of television
pulsory education to all children
time over BBC to beam its various television programmes. Simi-
upto the age of 14 years before
larly Japan and us too have well-developed ETV service. The US
the beginning of the next century.
public television school programmes serve teachers and students
In 1988, the National Literacy Mis-
in classrooms as well as at residences. These universities of devel-
sion was launched by the late Shri
oped countries have embarked on aggressive marketing of their
Rajiv Gandhi, which saw Kerala
product of education and are searching markets for their
become the first state to achieve
programmes particularly in developing countries by employing
100% literacy.
communication technologies (Takwale).
The National Policy on Education was updated in 1992 to include
Many commercial houses in India are venturing into the field of
several key strategies which have two aims: universal access to
education and are offering professional and technological courses
education by opening new schools in unserved habitations and
by using communication technologies, prominent among these
improved school environment.
in India being NIIT, APTECH and Zee Education. They are
The Total Literacy Campaign, which is the major component of using television, computer communication, e-mail and networks
the programme for universal adult literacy, is operational in 338 - the Internet for reaching their students.
districts, either partially or fully, spread over the states of Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Television
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Television has been considered to be an effective medium for
Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. spreading education. That explains why some of the universities
of the world, such as Chinese, are named as TV Universities. The
About five million volunteers are engaged in teaching the alpha-
medium of television is extremely rich, expressive and powerful.
bets to about 50 million people in the 9-45 age group. It is estimated
The teacher can be seen and heard and his demonstrations and
that 15 million of them have become functionally literate. Post-
examples can be assimilated more quickly and more easily through
Literacy and continuing education programmes are also being
television. Television has democratised education. The disadvan-
launched. The objective is to make 100 million people literate.
taged group of learners living in remote and rural areas of the
Special attention is being paid to the four low-literacy and high-
country gets the same quality of education as their counterparts in
population states of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar
urban areas. In the UK, the Open University uses TV for 35 hours
Pradesh, which account for 48% of the illiterate population of the
a week. In China, it is used for 32 hours and Canada; it is used for
country.
12 hours a week. In Japan it is used on a large scale. (Haider 1998).
Doordarshan
The television was introduced in India for educational and devel-
opmental purposes by the government but the situation today is
different. As Ms. Smith said what matters now to Doordarshan
is survival, which means revenue, social relevance no longer hold
the place it did, and this resulted in adopting a new format.
However better approach is as put it by the CBA secretary-general;
the answer to the problem could be to impose regulation as it
was done in Britain. The commercial broadcasting organisations
85
in Britain supply educational material not because it was central to
Teleconference
their core function (which is making money), but because they Teleconferencing allows interactive television with one way video
were required to do so by regulation, it being a condition of their and two-way audio communication by using telephone lines. This
licence. (Countrywide Class Room1997). However in spite of hav- interactive talkback technology for distance education is used since
ing severe competition from the private TV, Doordarshan devotes 1991. Indian Space Research Organisation has pioneered by con-
quite a bit of time to educational programming. ducting series of experiments for different applications with
School Telecast different partners. The main thrust has been to add an interactive
Based on the previous experiences, satellite based programmes dimension reducing the limitations of one way mode inherent in
were initiated for school children in 1982-1983. At present regular broadcasting.
school television programmes are produced and telecast from CWCR carried out teleconferencing in broadcast situation first in
Bombay and Madras Kendras. Educational programmes are also 1991, later in 1994 it was repeated. The entire country was con-
telecast from a number of states in different languages covering nected through telephone lines. The students and learners from
both formal and non-formal education. The software for these all over the places including remote areas enthusiastically partici-
programmes are produced by central Institute of education Tech- pated with the help of organised viewing and individually (Reddy
nology (CIET) in Delhi and state Institute of education 1995).
Technology (SIETS) in various states.
Transmission for Higher Education Open University
On the higher education front, the country-wide classroom of The continuous and rapid expansion in all spheres calls for the
UGC was launched on 15th of August, 1984 with the objectives need for updating professional knowledge and skills of the hu-
of putting out quality education within the reach of students in man power. This can be referred as renewing intellectual passport.
small villages and towns by acquainting teachers and students (Panday 1996). For the purpose Indira Gandhi National Open
with latest developments in different disciplines. (UGC Credo for University was established.
CWCR). On May 20th, 1991, programmes for students enrolled in IGNOU
The centres opened in the universities of the various states pro- were also introduced thereby opening new vistas in the field of
duce the programmes. Initially, it was broadcast 1-2 p.m. 6 days a distance education. Programmes on subjects in the syllabus of
week (excluding Sunday) and from 4-5 p.m. 6 days a week only in various courses including management programmes are being
English. The study, carried out in February 1993, covered 27 cities telecast in Hindi and English. IGNOU has developed a network
and towns, spread across 6 regions with a sample size of 15,422 of open universities in India called OPENET- Open Education
persons. The study had indicated a viewership estimated at 194 Network. It offers teleconferencing facility, which is based on
Lakhs. analogue technology.
Since February 1994, the timing of the programme was changed Though TV has several advantages over print materials and Radio,
and additional slots including Hindi transmission was introduced. it is not within the reach of common man as the sets are very
The recent study (in 1997) was carried out in 50 cities and towns. expensive. Further, lack of adequate transmission facilities and
CWCR viewers account for 11.5% of the population of these dissatisfaction with the time slot available is some of the factors
towns/cities i.e. the urban CWCR audience can be estimated at responsible for using the television sparingly.
218 Lakhs. Though many of them are casual viewers, frequent or Non-Formal Education
dedicated viewers (4 or more days a week) number around 18 But television definitely has an important role to play in education,
Lakhs. A Large majority of CWCR viewers are students from not only television have helped many students to pass high-school
non-metropolitan towns, which is the primary target audience as and university exams without attending school or college, it can
defined by CEC. Apart from the students, viewership among also impart vocational training, technical agricultural skill and of a
academicians, senior citizens and young adults is quite significant. great help in the field of Adult literacy. (Bhatia 1980).
(CEC 1997).
Recently in 1996 an ambitious project called Jhabua Development
The telecast also includes the University Video Lecture Courses communication project has been launched by Indian space Research
(UVLC), besides the Countrywide Classroom (CWCR). These Organisation, which is planning to improve literacy rate, motivate
lectures were recorded in the 1980s for narrowcasting rather than for school enrolment, adult education, female literacy and
broadcasting. It was hoped that these lectures, in form of VHS functional literacy in tribal area. (DECU 1996).
cassettes, would help undergraduates (Madhu 1998).
Efforts by Commercial Sector
Though many claims are being made about the success of the use With the rising number of channels and concept of cable TV and
of television in education, many educationists have disputed them Pay-TV the use of television for educational purpose has achieved
vigorously on the count of it being a one way channel. Unless it is new dimensions. Today, even separate channels are being proposed
combined with correspondence or some special arrangement in for exclusive telecast of educational programmes. One such
classroom, it is impossible to tell how much the student has got example is of Discovery channel. Some non-government channels
out of the lesson. The student cannot control the pace of lesson as ZEE TV, which has already entered into the field of education
to suit his needs, which is formidable handicap. Experience so far at different, levels with its, channel of ZED (Zee Education).
suggests that TV stimulate teachers more than students do and
hence can be of immense help in improving a teachers
performance.
86
Problem Area immensely useful in providing individualised, repetitive or analo-

The production of software (programmes) for educational pur- gous practice to learner in problem solving exercises as well as
poses is a very costly affair, if it is not commercial in nature, and activities for developing a variety of skills in a training programme.
with limited amount of funds available it becomes very difficult Computers today not only assist some of the functions of edu-
to produce quality programmes. cation but also emerged as a rapidly growing field known as
The other impediments in the success of ETV in India have been educational computing. Computers can play a vital role in educa-
those of technical nature. The television sets can be operated in tional management. Educational computing is going to be part
electrified areas and large parts of the country having irregular or of educational management in the twenty first centuries. Com-
no supply of electricity; the use of television is restricted. More- puter helps in planning; organising, leading and controlling to
over, there have been problems of proper maintenance of achieve educational goals and also promotes process of meeting
television receiver and the unsatisfactory reception of the educational needs (Rajyaguru1998) Educational computing ap-
programme, apart from the cost factor of buying the television plications are classified into 1.Knowedge generation 2. Knowledge
set. dissemination 3. Information management (Knezek and others
Moreover, due to the pressure of time on transmission, the 1988).
organisation of the programmes is always tight. Learning through 1. Knowledge generation: Digital revolution has very much
satellite is basically learning by Guidance and hence satellite has facilitated the job of an author. So far he had to write the text
much less to offer by way of learning than by doing and personal in long hand or get it typed from a professional typist who
exploration. would commit a number of typographical mistakes to the
annoyance of the author. Now an author can prepare his
Audio-Video Cassettes
manuscript himself on a personal computer without anybodys
Mobile audio-visual media including cassettes and films have come help and make additions and alterations in the text as necessary.
into increasing use in development projects, because of their Computers have also given birth to digital or electronic
versatility, mobility and adaptability. Further such media are publishing called DTP, dispensing with hand and machine
becoming less and less expensive as technologies become more compositors.
and more sophisticated. Mobile media are specifically targeted to
2 Knowledge dissemination: The sector, which is greatly
local situations and are easily reproduced and distributed. They
influenced by the development of the computers, is libraries.
lend themselves well to discussion groups, investigation forums
We have been witnessing a transition from library and
and to repetition, yet carry the credibility of the electronic media
information service to data processing - the computing of the
and the excitement and liveliness of oral communication.
past to what is currently called Knowledge processing. The
In the field of education, audio/video cassettes have an edge over key tool of this speciality is the digital computer.
radio or television, which can be played and replayed at home by
3. Information management: Now most of the popular
the learner at his/her will. A learner can stop a particular tape at a
encyclopaedias, dictionaries, bibliographies, multi-media
point where more details are necessary and can play on slow motion
presentations, abstracting and indexing journals and their back
to understand a difficult point. He need not get up early in the
volumes are coming in the handy CD-ROM format, available
morning or wake up late in the night for Radio and TV broadcasts.
at one fourth the price of a hard cover copy. One CD-ROM of
The use of video enabled a good lecturer to be seen and heard all
550-MB storage capacity can store upped 2 million A4-size
over the country, without having to repeat his performance
pages of the text besides sound and graphics (Gupta1998).
(M. Tyrell and R. Davies, 1980). At the moment, the video
equipment is costly in India and even in other developing countries The uses of telecommunications along with computers have
and they are not within the reach of most of the students. That is completely changed the scene in the field of information and
why audio/video cassettes produced for each course by IGNOU education. Globally, the most important superhighway is Internet.
are kept at all study centres and regional centres. Students are Established in the United States in 1969, it today has over 40
advised to go to the nearest study centre to avail of audio/video million members spread over about 130 countries. It allows the
programmes facilities when they visit study centre for counselling individual to access 20,000 networks and thus link up with
(Haider 1998). organisations, academic institutions and research groups the world
over. Indian computers can hook-up groups with Internet
Computers
through NICNET of the National Informatics Centre or ERNET
Computers today, are used not only for mathematical purposes,
of the Department of Electronics, and other networks in operation
but are also emerging in the new role of communication and
(Kaula1997).
education. Computer as a tool is available to improve the process
of teaching and learning. Students of advanced nations are of the These technological developments, and those, which are in the
opinion that the computer is best suited for revision of the course, pipeline, are going to change the very complexion of libraries of
which had already been studied. It also stores student informa- all categories. These will be called electronic libraries. Electronic
tion required for distance education management. libraries will become realities only after all the books likely to be in
demand are available on optical disks.
Use of computers in education has resulted in computer Assisted
Learning (CAC) and Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI). A In India the important development in this line is an addition of
variety of computer languages, are designed for accounting, scien- Information Library Network (INFLIBNET), which provides
tific calculation, mathematical calculations etc. Computers can be various universities the know-how of commissioning computers,
87
installing application software, providing training and extending
all possible help to start computerised operations and networking.

The OPENET provides server-based classroom. The students
and teacher communicate amongst themselves through computer
connectivity by using e-mail with audio, video or print material
exchange.
The information super highways have revolutionised life in many
western countries and Japan, bringing work place to the home
and making Virtual Office, Virtual Class Room and Virtual
Library possible. This has been achieved because of the availability
of high-class technology. The question is whether it is possible to
duplicate this in developing countries. The outdated telecom
facilities, high cost of connection, a waiting list that never ends,
low technological awareness are serious problems faced by most
of the developing countries.
Review Questions:
Explain the role of Indian TV in spreading literacy.
Give highlights of efforts made by commercial sector in
education awareness.
What is Non Formal Education?
Suggested Readings
Publishing House
Notes
88
LESSON 20
ROLE OF MEDIA IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Introduction In spite of several achievements and gains made in the field of

When India attained Independence, people faced gigantic prob- science and technology in the national laboratories, institutes and
lems of poverty, unemployment, social and economic industries, it is necessary to create awareness among the public and
backwardness and vast inequalities. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, disseminate the knowledge to them through mass media utilising
founder Prime Minister of India, opined that forward move- electronic, print and traditional media. Unless and until the people
ment possible only on the basis of science and technology. The are educated and influenced with the fruits of research,
credit for revitalizing and scientific tradition goes to Pandit communication of science and technology findings has no
Jawaharlal Nehru. He said: immense social and developmental value. Even after five decades
IIScience alone can solve the problems of hunger and poverty, of Independence, there is no change in the livelihood in relation
insanitation and illiteracy, of superstition and deadening customs to thE! basic needs of the greater majority of population living in
and traditions, of vast resources running to waste, of a rich coun- rural areas. Though the second most populous country in the
try inhabitated by starving people. world with over 86 crores of people, the literacy rate here is just
II.Nehru saw science not just as a toll for economic development over 52 per cent. Thirty per cent of population is below the poverty
but also as a means for emancipation of humankind. Consider- line without any exposure to modern media communication.
able progress has been achieved in the field of science and People belonging to different races, following diverse faiths,
technology. Important studies have also been made. in the space wearing clothes in different styles, with different fooc! habits and
programme, which is linked with the developmental needs of the life patterns represent India. Such diversity is a challenge to
country. Space technology, when put to use in various kinds of communicators of science and technology results.
development, touches virtually every fact of human life-commu- Further, D1ajority of rural people are still illiterate and require
nication, meteorology, agriculture, education, industrial, growth, awareness about the benefits of science and technology which is
resource management, environment, disaster mitigation, health useful to the society for day to day life but not for destruction
and entertainment. More important still, the benefits flowing purposes. Even in metropolitan cities and towns, illiterates are
from science and technology became available to both urban and still taking shelter of bridges, Railway track sides, banks of canals
rural areas, as well as to developing and under developed regions. etc. for survival. The government has to educate, motivate and
The basic objective of our policies is to bring about a broad based influence them properly and provide basic needs like, food and
improvement in the living conditions of our people breaking cloth and rehabilitate them in low cost houses. They must also
through the bonds of poverty, which still afflict majority of our educate them to be free from contagious diseases, polluted water,
population, and to put the economy on the path of accelerated air and environmental deficiencies, malnutrition etc. Research on
growth, technological change and modernisation which is necessary, science and technology is a continuous process and meant for
if India is to occupy her rightful place in the world. survival of men, animals and plants. Survival of animals and
People in India are privileged as they are able to produce scientists plants is to be made a prerequisite for protecting the global
and technologists and India is ahead in human development side, environment, so that people can live in healthy atmosphere.
and produced more a_le people than we need. The Government Therefore, the results and benefits have to be carried through a
of India have increased the budgetary allocation for expansion suitable medium to disseminate the knowledge including inter-
and strengthening research and development of science and personal communication keeping in view the com.mon man.
technology. The comparative figures of amount allotted during According to Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) nothing is more
the last two years are given below, which indicates how the important for Indias development today than the transfer of
government is keen on developing the science and technology. ideas from person to person. It is essential to discover effective
Now we have big and prestigious National Laboratories and channels of communication in rural India. A combination of
Institutes under the aegis of CSIR, ICAR, ICMR, ISRO, Non- media is the most effective way of reaching people with new
Conventional Energy Dept., ICTER and in addition we have ideas. Communication bridges the gap between what we know
research projects funded by FAO, WHO, UNICEF etc. It is also and what to know. It will bring change in the human mind towards
happy to note that from 15th August, 1993 India has six channels better prosperity. Media will playa vital role to exchange message
on Doordarshan. This is not a small achievement and our scientists from laboratories to the homes. We are in changing situation in
have performed a miracle in space. The INSAT 2B satellite designed the field of economy and industry for which liberalisation policies
and fabricated by our scientists has been stationed in the geocentric have been made for the benefit of people for providing
orbit and is working quite perfectly. Consequently, from 15th employment opportunities and better living conditions.
August 1993, six channels are in operation and more channels on
Unhealthy Practice
Doordarshan are sure to come in due course. This satellite is one
of the examples of our glorified reliance in the realm of science The habit or tradition of establishing number of laboratories,
and technology. institutes and industries at a place, where already majority of
89
industries or institutes are located, is not a healthy practice and not Central Government initiated the development and expansion
advisable in dumping industries in a particular place which will of electronic and print media for mass communication.
create over population, congestion, imbalances in supply of Another important role of PR is communication planning and
essential commodities, pollution and environmental problems. information dissemination. It involves the identification of target
It will be better, if the institutes/ laboratories/industries are spread audiences, careful planning of dissemination of research results
in different places where there is no such organisation which would aimed at bringing about positive respons_ and to dispel
provide employment, development in all aspects, better misunderstandings. Information dissemination, we have seen
community relations so that it could bring a change and new look being carried out through various media viz., electronic, print and
in the life styte of people living in that particular area leading to traditional media.
overall development of all the regions.
Medias Role in Awareness
Agents of Change
1. Electronic Media
Our scientists and technologists are the agents of change. It is
their ideas, findings in various fields that they work in, that help a. Doordarshan: Doordarshan is a very powerful and
the people in removing poverty. These scientists should come out popular medium particularly a colour TV which attracts
of their laboratories through an extension agency and go to the the attention of the illiterate, but they are not affordable
people to interact with them about the bet\efits of science and position to sE_cure, as it is costlier. Though the TV is a
technology. The opinion expressed by the people on the results relatively more expensive medium as compared to Radio,
and its advantages should work as feedback to the executive of its visual impact makes it much effective. H_nce the
the organisation, so that they can rectify the defects and problems, government has to provide Community TV Centres in
if any noticed by the majority of people. Opinion of the public is each Panchayat and see that it is in working condition.
necessary in a democratic country and its role will playa greater The programme on the TV relating to the science and
attention of the planners in designing. the research programmes technology should be telecast through regional centres
in their laboratories to meet the needs of people. So much for our frequently. Frequent repetition of these programmes
public relations and so much for our contact with the people. would yield good and useful results in bringing positive
Panditji told that science is meant for the poor millions of India. response in the minds of the public. Six channels
So how do we really interact, with whom do we interact while provided from 15th August this year can be utilised for
doing the work in laboratories and institutes. This aspect is very effective communication.
important to reconsider. It is better to avoid telecasting the commercial cinemas
Role of Public Relations which mostly covers violence, decoity, rape scenes,
The main tool of Public Relations is communication which has vulgarity in language etc. Instead of these unwanted and
to be handled -by a professionally qualified public relations per- unethical cinemas, the TV can take up the science and
son. P.R. person is a link between the management and media to technology programmes useful to the ,vomenfolk and
communicate messages to target group of public and bring opin- children through satellite channels in afternoon session
ion from them as a feedback. The main objective of the public in regional languages. The present day conditions
relations process is to establish mutual understanding between prevailed in the country requires change in the society for
an organisation and its publics. This understanding is possible the good cause but not polluting their minds through
only when appropriate messages or ideas or results of science and unethical cinE_mas.
technology are transmitted skilfully to the target people. The rel- b. Radio : Radio is another powerful medium and it
evance of media is linked to the message. Message and media are covers almost all the places including villages in the
integral parts of public relations. In fact, they are inseparables. The country. The Radio stations have also been increased to
media have great relevance to public relations in creating positive 185 to cover remote areas, to educate and influence the
feelings for the organisation or whose behalf they are used. illiterates. Time allotted for b_oadc_.ting the.e
It may not be of place here to stress the role of public relations, progr_nunes is in.adequate an.d it has to be increased.
which is now reg8rded 8S siJ(th estate of Democra_ after Press. Keeping in view the common people, time should be
The ambit of public relations is wider and covers various aspects increased in afternoon session for the benefit of women
ranging from individual progress to national development in all particularly housewives. Woman, as a mother, is the best
walks of life. suitable guiding force to bring change in the family, being
the first Guru (teacher) to her children to mould their
In order to achieve the desired goals set by government and the
future with good health and habits from their childhood.
planners, it is the primary responsibility of the organisation to
communicate the research benefits through a selective media to In this medium also, repetition and timely broadcasting
the public by utilising the expertise of public relations personnel such programmes may attract the attention of the
and. obtain feedback from the public about the organisation and listeners, if the programme is considered as beneficial
its policies. and Yield tangible results.
c. Documentary Films: The documentary film is an aid
Media Scene
of public education and enlightenment. Documentary
Many changes have been taken place in electronic and print media films are produced by government, industries and other
during the past 45 years. The following data will indicate how the organisations for educating the people. The Films
90
Division and scientific organisations have to plan and India and States for effective implementation ..:: consultation

produce on each theme for effective communication to with the scientific organisations.
the public for better awareness about-nutrition,
4. Open Houses
sanitation, child care, agriculture, non-conventional energy
programmes, pollution control, environmental Each scientific organisation/laboratory has to organise open
awareness, prenatal and post-natal care of pregnant houses for general ? _lic, periodically once in two years. People
women, eye and kidney diseases, AIDS, contagious living in neighbouring villages should _ be involved by
diseases etc. Prevention is better than cure should be providing free transport so that they will be in touch with the
basal theme while producing documentaries on sorne a:hievements of science and technology.
subjects. These programmes can be screened in local The achievements/benefits derived by them can be shown and
Cinema Halls, through Field Publicity Department of explained in the J.aboratory itself, which would enhance the
Central Government and State Government and value of the research findings and :mportance of the
telecasting them also through Doordarshan in regional organisation. During this period, a leaflet/booklet/pamphlet
languages. Frequent screening of these documentaries in :egionallanguages incorporating the scientific tips which are
with periodical intervals would attract the viewers for mostly useful for day _ day life, may be distributed to the
memory touching the mind stro_gly. Screening these films public at free of cost.
should be Inade compulsory in Cinema Halls. Periodical 5. Communication Centres
inspection is necessary by the Field Publicity Department
As in the case of Extension Education Institutes established
in this dIrection.
by the Indian Council af Agricultural Research for disseminating
d. Video-Films: Producing/Video-films is less expensive the latest agricultural technology and also :0 train the agricultural
and easy to carry the material viz., Cassette, VCP etc. scientists, it is also equally important to establish
Video-film can be played with the help of a house owner Communication Centres for Science and Technology for each
of a village/town by utilising his TV set so that State/region to take care of scientific information and to
communication could reach door step of the people. communicate the same to the public. Scientists and
2. Print Media technologists should also be trained at these Centres in such a
There is a tradition in any organisation, whenever the scientific befitting manner m disseminating scientific achievements and
results achieved will be released to the Press by organising also to acquire the skills of communication. The scientist or
Press Conference by the top Executive of the organisation. technologist must involve himself actively in the process of
These results will appear in newspapers of one day and. that two way communication.
too these will be useful to the literate people only, who in turn Communication playa key role for advancement whether it is
convey to the illiterates if occasion arises. These is a proverb to of individual or of nation.
mention, which may not be out of place, that Todays 6. Development of Human Resource
Newspaper is Tomorrows Waste Paper. Hence, public may
As the scientists and technologists are professionally qualified
not keep this
in their respective disciplines, it is necessary to train these
as a reference for future guidance. Therefore, it is necessary to scientists in acquiring skills and techniques in the areas of
publish the resultsj benefits in a form of leaflet/booklet/ communication and public relations.
pamphlet with photographs for distribution among the
The professionally qualified public relations personnel should
various target group of public. This informative material will
funcrion in these research establishments to lookafter the. matters
be a permanent one and it has immense value for reference.
connected to communication and public relations. He should be
3. Traditional Media made responsible in planning communication methods and in
Theatre, music and dance are the three traditional art forms disseminating research findings to the target group of public after
which have been part :: Indian culture. They are called identifying their needs. He is to be made responsible directly to
performing arts which made great impact on the =_1ds of the top executive of the organisation to have feedback from public.
the people. Traditional media were the only means of Finally, it is suggested that the Central/State Governments and
entertainment for the ;eople in rural India. Even in towns and Scientific organisations should evolve a combined communication
cities the people are enthusiastic to this =-..odia. These media policy in planning and preparing communicatiel1s methods
are-still alive in the villages and continue to provide through various media to disseminate the achievements of science
entertainment : fue people in remote villages who are not and technology, so that a desired goal can be achieved. This policy
otherwise exposed to other media of .:_mmunication. would reach the diversified population to bring change in the
The Traditional media are the most appropriate channels for minds of people to achieve the object of Healthy People and
changing the ::-aditional mind towards modernisation. Hence, Healthy Nation.
tbe achievements made for common _ple may be planned and Exercise
designed in such a manner to suit the traditional media -:;
Discuss the various programmes broadcasted in Television or the
convey the above achievements/results etc. This work can be
films which helped in creating awareness for science and technology.
entrusted to the Field ?-..:blicity Wing of the Government of
91
LESSON 21
MEDIA AND WOMEN
Media and Women According to Jawaharlal Nehru, If our nation is to rise, how can
Since Independence, the Government of it do so if half the nation, if your woman kind, lag behind and
India has enacted a constitutional and remain ignorant and uneducated?
legal framework and has developed Women are slowly emerging out of their centuries old darkness,
institutional mechanisms to enable shaking off their shakels of tradition and man determined and
improvement in the living conditions man imposed roles and are increasingly raising their voice to
of women and children in India. demand their rightful place in the society and their due from it.
Today women have become one of the potent forces of change.
The ongoing communication revolution has opened up new
possibilities of accelerating development especially for the
The Constitution and the Law upliftment of women and children. But if it remains uncontrolled
The basic provisions of the unguided, this revolution will have adverse effects on the bite of
Indian Constitution that women. This danger is still not very adequately perceived or
guarantee justice, liberty and appreciated by the promoters of the communication revolution.
equality to all citizens and the It is necessary to focus on modern communication and
specific articles and amendments development. This is because when we reflect on the human
that have been enacted to ensure conditions in general, we miss the aspects affecting specially women.
that women and children enjoy the Thus we may go on discussing the general problems of
constitutional rights that assure development without even touching on questions relating to
their participation in society as women.
equal partners provide the
The focus on women implies identifying the structural constrains
framework for women and child
which inhibit their fullest growth and development. There are
development in India.
major issues related to women in media and the other about the
Institutional Mechanisms image of women projected through these media. The contents
A separate Department of Women and Child development has of communication are reflective of the values of society, which, in
been established by the government to give due emphasis to this turn, are uttered and sustained through communication.
area and to ensure convergence of services and formulation of Construction of Feminity on Indian T.V.
policies. There are other bodies like the Central Social Welfare The role of television in Indian Society is that of Structured
Board and the Indian Council of Child Welfare, which are apex Subordination to the primary definers. (Woollacott, 1982). Being
bodies, concerned with the development of women and children. wholly state-controlled the primary definer is the state itself. Our
Supported by the efforts of NGOs and international organizations findings have shown that the mediums output is biased in favour
like UNICEF these form the core of programs and initiatives in of male elites. Further, masculine and feminine genders are con-
this field. structed as polar opposites. We are able to endorse through our
National Commission for Women findings the five basic characteristics of television output identi-
The National Commission for Women was set up by the fied as Gallagher (1981) as common to all cultures:
Government in 1992 with the mandate to study and monitor all Women are under-represented in general, and occupy less
matters relating to the constitutional and legal safeguards provided central roles than men in television programmes,
for women, reviewing existing legislation and suggesting Marriage and parenthood are considered more important to
amendments where necessary and looking into complaints women than to men; the traditional division of labour is
involving deprivation of the rights of women. Since its inception, shown as typical in marriage,
the Commission has taken up many issues and incidents.
Employed women are shown in traditionally female
Local Self Government occupations, as subordinates to men, with little status or
With the enactment of the 73rd Amendment to the Constitution power,
of India, the third tier of the government in the federal structure Women on television are more passive than men,
of government becomes enforceable. The provision of a 33 percent
Television ignores or distorts the womens movement.
reservation of seats for women in the Panchayati Raj Institutions
(PRI) will ensure the participation of women in the self-governance Such representation was the consequence of the development of
of districts in larger measure. a national-popular will, aided through centuries of religious and
cultural indoctrination. The television medium, now expanding
to reach the whole country, has immense possibility for
92
strengthening hegemony; in the context of the developing India is ideologically highly developed, and the sophistication of

countries which are oriented towards a communal outdoor culture, its ideological apparatuses goes a long may towards explaining
the institutionalization of studio based television is unleashing a why its, gross socioeconomic inequalities continue to persist. She
corrosive, coercive force. notes that welfare schemes secure hegemony, because the state is
The projection of a pan-Indian culture, which our findings viewed as beneficient. Thus a large part of the impact of the
support, will as the Joshi Committee Report (1985) notes, taint welfare state is ideological. Through programmes of news,
communities hitherto isolated from the hedonism and enrichment, and sectorals, the medium consistently projects India
consumerism of urban life. as a welfare state, with the government as the lead player,
benevolently in command of every situation. Another disturbing
The recent trend towards commercialization greatly expands the
trend: the sidestepping of local governments and bureaucracies in
hegemonial grip of the medium; on the one hand it consistently
favour of one individual. Development is presented as taking
devalues women, on the other it holds up as desirable the values
place therefore not as a planned, ongoing, long-term process, but
of bourgeois liberalism, individual gain and subsequent
in order to please one enlightened compassionate being. The basic
consumerism. Thus, educated articulate persons view their own
needs of the people are fulfilled through administrative fiat, a
and the countrys progress and development in terms of the goods
process that subverts democratic structures; the people obtain
and services available to the elite. Consumerism arouses desires,
that is justly theirs only through the intervention of the highest
which distort economic priorities and lure people into artificial
in the land. This throwback to feudalism not only concentrates
consumption patterns. Significant too is our finding that in the
power in one individual, but generates further dependency in the
case of fiction programmes and some sectorals, the text of the
people and cripples their ability to fight justice. Such a trend bodes
sponsoring commercial is an echo of the text of the programme
nothing but ill for women, who are struggling both as women
itself. At the time of writing, an exceptionally pernicious example
and as the poor. Are alternate media the only alternative? While
is also available of the mutual contradiction of these two texts. .
the outreach of such forms feminist journals, street theatre groups,
A television serial Swayamsiddha, which purports to deal with the
activist groups is cited, these media play an important role in
empowerment of a divorced women, is sponsored by a commercial
awareness. They assist in the process of arriving at a different
for Garden textiles. The woman in the commercial is completely
decoding of the message. Eco (1972) notes how crucial this activity
objectified; other than displaying her body and the fabrics, she
is, pointing out that it is not indispensable to change given
does nothing at all. Her face is barely registered, nothing of her
message; it would be enough if not better to change the attitude
personality and achievements is known. The textiles themselves
of the audience, so as to induce a different decoding of the
are extremely luxurious. So in the current climate of
message. Such decoding can isolate the intentions of the
commercialization, even feminist centred texts cannot be telecast
transmitter, and is the first step in the process of denying consent
without sponsorship, which effectively denigrates and demeans
to the hegemonial order. Without such consent and complicity
women. Since these commercials are the norm, and feminist texts
the order can only collapse. However important the movement
are rare, it is likely that the message of the text is processed as
media is, the struggle to alter the face of the mainstream media is
aberrant, and that of the commercial validated.
equally important for three reasons.
Whether or not this correspondence is accurate it is undeniable
First, since most of these are State-owned, the citizens, whether
that in our context serials such as HumLog, Khandaan,
women or the poor, have a right to equitable representation on
Karamchand and Buniyaad have massive following in
these media. Second, the relentless negative representation has the
metropolitan areas. Doordarshans total gross revenue from its
effect, as we have seen, of validating womens inferiority as real
commercial services was Rs. 31.43 crores during 1984-85; of this,
and natural. Under such conditions the messages of the
sponsorship of the serial Hum Log accounted for Rs. 363.63
movement media are likely to be decoded as aberrant.
lakhs (Information given by the Information and Broadcasting
Minister to the RajyaSabha). Gender Consciousness
The coercive values we have discerned within programmes of We have noted, in the context of the production of feminist self-
television fiction appear to be presented to viewers through the consciousness, that women communicators do not necessarily
feneotogy of pleasure associated with the narrative or story. In succeed in breaking away from the stranglehold of patriarchy. Thus,
this context, we have to take note of the numbing boredom the demand for associating more women at every level of policy
generated by most of Doordarshans on-house programmes; making and programming will bear fruit, only if these women are
particularly those in the non-fiction category. Though boredom is themselves enabled to develop and exercise a more equitable gen-
essentially a subjective response, certain factors pre-dispose der consciousness. Only the development of such consciousness
programmes to turgidity. Thus, heavy dependency on government can enable these women to ask crucial questions about the countrys
functionaries for expert comments, near-total emphasis on studio- development, instead of working to integrate women into the
based programmes, unimaginative choice of comperes and existing socio-political paradigm. Such activity will assist in infus-
participants static camera-work, near-total absence of visuals and ing a feminist consciousness into all areas of human endeavor.
worst of all, unwillingness to give time and space to divergent Harold Lasswell has described political behaviour as the displace-
points of view can all add up to very boring programmes indeed. ment of personal problems into public objects (Mackinnon, 1982).
The most hackneyed feature film or serial can attract more viewers Womens distinctive experience as women occurs, as we have seen,
than non-fiction programmes, a trend which helps to inscribe largely in the private realm. Hence there is need to demystify the
values, which are far from empowering to women. sanctity of this realm. Womens programmes assist in the
93
depoliticisation of the inhabitants of the private realm. In terms Though this was written with reference to images of women on
of content and adequacy of treatment they are a historical and television in the US, it applies equally, at this point of time, to the
succeed in representing women as a construct that is everywhere plethora of soaps and serials we are being bombarded with.
and eternally the same. For long, it was believed that women characters on cinema and
The representation of heroic women whether they are the Rani of television, much like women in real life would, with time, defy
Jhansi or the Super-Mum does nothing to counter this trend, for cultural expectations by insisting on relationships with men who
we have noted that such women are usually structured as redeemers want to only flatter them and flirt with them. It was also believed
of the patriarchy. Instead, the medium should present women that arrogance and toughness in a woman would somehow make
as compares and experts in all categories of programmes, as well her unfeminine and unattractive. These myths appeared to have
as focus on the struggles of women in diverse fields. The been exploded by the tremendous initial audience-pull of serials
infantilism that pervades most womens programmes, where like Junoon, Banegi Apni Baat, Tara and Parampara. But if the
easy ways are found to tackle everyday problems should be popularity of KSBKBT is anything to go by, if the mass hysteria
eschewed in favour of mature, incisive analyses into social created by the sudden death of Mihir, Tulsis husband, in the
problems. Many feminists such as Phyllis Mach (1986) suggest serial are anything to go by, then one can well bid goodbye to the
that feminine domestic habits of thought and activity may be New Woman on Indian television. This is dangerous because
transposed into the publis sphere and transformed into highly with a woman like Manisha in Saans or Mihirs earlier fianc in
effective forms of activism by both women and men. Based on KSBKBT, or the diabolic, avenging daughter-in-law in KGGK
her study of Francis of Assissi and Gandhi; Mach further on the one hand and all the Tulsis put together on the other, this
speculates that these feminine modes of behaviour gained moral could lead to a lot of confusion among the viewing audience
and political credibility for Francis and Gandhi because they were comprised of men, women and children.
being used creatively by men. The motion-picture industry has
Thus the rigid straitjacketing of the public and private realms recently witnessed a rise of
respectively coupled with the projection of a handful of heroic strong-chick flicks where
women subverts the womens struggle for empowerment. women are the ones initiating all
Equality can obtain only from the integration of women on equal the action and men play a
terms in the productive realm and the integration of men into the secondary role. Some examples
active care of the next generation (OBien, 1982). include Gulzars Maachis, the
Karisma Kapoor-starrer Zubeida
The Schizophrenic Representation of
and Mahesh Manjrekhars Astitva.
Women In Indian Television
Even mainstream films are coming out with the strong-woman
The emerging new woman on Indian television and on the satellite
type. The women in these films place their relationships with
channels had broken out of the straitjacket Hindi popular cinema
women as central to their lives, and they often blatantly reject
had trapped her in for ages. The Svetlana Banerjee of Swabhimaan,
current gender expectations for women.
Tara and her friends in Tara, Radha of Dard, Savi of Hasratein,
and others of their ilk were not in the least interested in playing These films seem to be a cautionary tale for feminists though :
the chaste wife whose suffering can only be made virtuous, the Aditi of Astitva leaves home and husband with the strong
nurturing mother who denies her own self, the avenging Kali or backing of the huge inheritance she has been bestowed with.
the titillating strumpet. But, the tremendous success of Kyonki Whether she keeps this or rejects it, is ambivalent till the end.
Saas Bhi Kabhie Bahu Thi seems to have upset the apple cart Zubeida breaks every rule in the Islamic book, only to end up as
completely. Along with its launch, every satellite channel and the convenient and marginalized second wife of a feudal lord, her
Doordarshan seem to have gone all out to flood the small screen ambitions to turn into a film star sacrificed for nothing. She dies a
with serials whose names are themselves giveaways of this sudden violent and premature death, effectively reducing to zero all the
and fanatic obsession for the ideal bahu theme. Kalash, Shagun, rebellion that went before.
Dulhan, Bahuraniyan, Mehendi Tere Naam Ki, Shehnai, Kabhi Do we find the portrayal of women in todays media wrought
Sautan Kabhi Saheli, Ghar Ek Mandir, Kahani Ghar Ghar Ki, are with the schizoid messages of the 1980s media? The 90s
some of the serials currently running on the idiot box. This clearly therefore, are not without their own collection of split personalities
underscores a conscious resurgence and upholding of the sati- about the roles and place of women writes Douglas.. Her analysis
savitri mode so faithfully perpetuated for all these years, by of contemporary mass media is on the mark. Although there are
mainstream cinema. certainly more powerful women in film, news, television, and
In a variety of ways the mass media music, it seems that these women are either tokens, some sort of
helped make us the c u l t u r a l exception, or their presence has been used as a means of criticizing
schizophrenics we are today, women feminism. This applies to Tulsi, her mother-in-law, her aunts-in-
who rebel against yet submit to law and almost every female character in KSBKBT.Sociologist
prevailing images about what a desirable, Yogendra Singh believes that viewer identification is linked to the
worthwhile woman should be. The basic question of human identity and the search for a role model
mass media has engendered in in the larger context. It has to do with the ideals, character, style
many women a kind of cultural identity crisis. We are ambivalent we would want ideally to have. So all those urban middle-class
towards femininity on the one hand and feminism in the other . women whose husbands are fooling around would actually want
94
to be a Priya (of Saans) he says. This somewhat explains the cult- today, the image of a scantily-clad woman will make them buy

fan following small screen stars like Neena Gupta have. This anything. (Savvy, August 2000).
contradiction, sanctioning the notion of women as autonomous This unashamed confession sums up the attitude of men behind
and equal citizens while also endorsing the idea that women are the Indian television screen. In what way is blatant and obvious
around to be gazed at, is the contradiction that lessened our better than exploitative? And how could scantily-clad women
potential during the days of Hum Log, Buniyaad followed by models who lie idly (and supposedly sensuously) on male power
Junoon and Swabhimaan. It has the same effect today. symbols like cars become better role models for women than the
newly constructed smart Indian woman who steps outside her
domestic domain only to add a convenient (for men of course)
dimension to her role of housewife? Both are stereotypes. The
modern housewife (modern in the sense that she dares/is
permitted to argue with the shop owner since a woman talking to
a stranger is not appreciated in traditional Indian households)
The television media does foster the spread of the liberation perpetuates the traditional roles allotted to women. The skimpily
movement through its vast amount of coverage of women dressed model creeps into many vulnerable heads as the ideal
through seemingly progressive talk shows, discussions, debate dream woman. The beauty queens mushrooming all over India
and detailed news reports. But it is also true that television has (thanks to the large international markets opening for cosmetics
done more harm than good to the womens movements potential manufacturers in developing countries) have already mesmerised
and womens potential as individuals by putting female conformity the minds of thousands of young women as to what should be
to convention and tradition at the forefront. the size and weight of an ultimate woman.
Television is a powerful tool. Its influence in shaping the Indian To the Indian mass media a womans body is not only a locale for
womans sense of herself and her future is more than significant. violence, exclusion and abuse but also the site for the construction
The medias ability to convey mixed messages to women that of modernity and an upper-caste (Brahminical) Hindu nation.
fragment their identities makes it extremely difficult for the women There is the prevalent perception of India and women as culture
to become unified selves. Schizophrenic methods that the media and history is denied to both through deliberate
has adopted to portray the roles of women in our society has just decontextualisation. The new woman is intrinsically related to
that effect on us: we are each an unorganized mixture of different the true identity of the nation and hence it becomes necessary
women who have learnt that we are always being watched. for the oppressive patriarchal tradition to patrol and monitor the
There is a need for women to re-define themselves in order to womans body and sexuality. A brief scrutiny of a few
begin the reversal of gender oppression. We cannot accept advertisements and pop albums reveals the popular conception
patriarchal definitions of our bodies and ourselves. We need a of the Indian woman as the lone bearer of Indian tradition and
new goddess, a new woman, and a new cultural female icon that the sign of the modern Hindu nation-state.
does not limit women. As Kim Chernin has written in Reinventing An advertisement for Parry candy begins with a shot focusing on
Eve: Modern Woman in Search of Herself, we need to reflect on a modern young Indian male and a Western woman with blonde
the Woman Who Is Not Yet hair, both of whom are engaged in a romantic interlude. The
young man approaches her with a string of flowers (a cultural
The Image of Women in Indian Television
commodity carried by an Indian male during his mission of
by Chitra Radhakrishnan proposing to a woman). When he attempts to place it in her hair
One is not born a woman but made.Simone de Beauvoir he is interrupted by an Indian woman dressed in the traditional
Hindu sari and with vermillion on her forehead, carrying a plate
This article is an attempt to analyse the construction of gender
of Parry candies. Seeing the candy and more importantly, her, the
and nation in Indian television channels and thereby to highlight
Son of Hindustan gets a radiant glow in his face. He offers the
the ideological beliefs and assumptions underlying and reinforcing
flowers to her instead, spurning the non-Indian. This alien cultural
these stereotypical definitions of Indian womanhood.
product stands alone with an expression of lament at having lost
Prahlad Kakkar, owner of an advertising agency in North India, an invaluable prize catch.
has observed, The household image of woman is truly
The blurb for the softdrink Asli Mango (meaning original
exploitative; showing women as dowdy, unattractive housewives
mango in Hindi) presents a young man in Western attire who
who slave for their families without any personal ambition is
boasts, in an American accent, of his female conquests abroad.
enslaving. While this observation is perfectly true the latter part
When his mother appears on the scene with the Asli i.e., true
of his argument is convoluted. He proceeds to proclaim, Lalitha
mango drink, multimedia techniques transform him into a
(a woman character made popular by the advertisement for Surf,
standing symbol of Indian heritage. He then expresses his
a detergent, where she is depicted as the smart housewife getting
unquenchable thirst for Indianism by imploring his mother to
the best soap powder for her family even while saving money) is
get a native fruit, a true good Hindustani bride for him. The
far more exploitative than a deadly bikini-clad woman on top of
fervent nationalist motto, Be Indian, buy Indian goods is
a Porsche. I truly believe that an ad that shows a woman as a sex
extended by the male-centred media as Be Indian, buy Indian
object is not exploitative, it is just blatant and obvious. Yes, I
women.
exploit women because they are far more aesthetically beautiful
than men. Since men are the main purchasing power of India
95
The advertisement for Harpic, a toilet cleaning liquid, begins vermillion and sacred ash on her forehead, after which the religious
with a grand sequence of shots showing a group of masked agent looks the woman over, assessing her suitability for the male.
commandos wearing thick protective attire. They land from a plane Fully satisfied, the priest cheerfully allows the obedient young
and search the entire locality with modern equipment. When they man to claim his stake and to institutionalise his desire (through
reach the toilet they find the place swarming with germs. At this a Hindu marriage). It is interesting to note that, cutting across
point their chief removes her facemask and we see an attractive boundaries of age and species, the women in this visual become
woman tossing her hair and smiling at the audience victoriously. the objects of the gaze not only of the male protagonist but also
Then comes the caption with the declaration Here comes the of an old man, a male child, a goat and a dog.
expert in cleaning toilets. After zooming in on the smiling face The pop video album Hum Hain Indian was produced by the
of the woman, the Harpic container is shown on the screen. Mumbai BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party) legislator Abhiram Singh to
In the commercial for Axe, a shaving lotion for men, a black celebrate Indias nuclear status (Pokhran tests) in May 1998. During
woman in a skin-tight dress dances before the sharp gaze of a the launch he remarked, This is to initiate the national celebration
man. When she comes near him she turns into the wick of a huge of our Shakti. Shakti, the Hindu postulate, is fascinatingly
candle. His face is now enlarged and covers the entire screen. He politicised to highlight Hindu superiority. This timely invocation
looks down at the candle in which the woman-turned-wick keeps of the seemingly ahistorical Shakti, a Sanskrit term meaning
flickering in a dance of its own. The word Voodoo appears on strength, always represented in India by a Hindu female figure, is
the screen along with the flame. With a look of contempt, he undoubtedly an attempt to mobilise all Indian women by
blows out the candle and as the candle smoke dissolves in the air, fabricating a classless, casteless homogenous Hindu category that
smiles smugly at the audience. He is satisfied at having put an end would be worthy of the respect of every Indian citizen, Hindu,
to a tempting woman, and the award for such a manly achievement Christian and Muslim alike.
is Axe, and now the conqueror from time immemorial grabs a The television serials are no better. Good women do not raise
bottle of the lotion with a celebratory look. their voices against ill-treatment and men take second wives only
The advertisement for Anandham (meaning happiness) gingelly because the first wife is a shrew (hence the sentiment that what
oil starts with a conversation between two women. One asks the else can the man do?). The husband and the mangalsutra (the
other what real happiness is like, and the latter replies that it is to holy thread tied around the brides neck during the wedding
interview her suitor before consenting to marry him. (This is an ceremony) are to be worshipped; the educated girl in jeans has
important ritual in the life of an Indian woman. Accompanied by loose morals and symbolises the corrupted youth who turn their
his parents and other relatives, the prospective bridegroom comes back on Indian culture. The producers and directors of these
to see the bride to ask for her approval. The bride would be asked serials, which capture the undivided attention of women who
to sing and her parents list her feminine skills such as embroidery, stay at home, ignore the care that has to be exercised by them
creating designs with coloured powder and cooking, while praising because they have the power to shape public opinion. And the
her docility and thus her eligibility to be an ideal daughter-in-law.) tragedy is that women allow themselves to be deceived and
The woman in the advertisement adds that she would derive demeaned by those who exploit them in the name of art or
happiness from asking daring questions such as whether he freedom of expression.
would drink liquor, if he would demand dowry and whether he
I end my analysis with a few observations:
would beat her. Aspiring to put such questions to a man, by itself,
is an act of revolution in the traditional Tamil context. The woman 1. It is interesting to note that whenever non-Indians prefer to
who is listening puts an end to this attempt at puncturing tradition exalt Indian culture they focus only on the high culture, i.e.,
and says with rapture that happiness does not lie in these but in the upper-caste Hindu culture with its Sanskrit leanings and
buying the particular brand of cooking oil. So, it is the feminine not on the other, supposedly low culture. And more
act of cooking that will bless an Indian woman with happiness, significantly, whenever the patriots attempt to resist Western
and not her forthrightness or her courage to question male cultural invasions they repeatedly invoke the superiority of
prejudices. The advertiser was clever indeed to choose a woman to Bharat Matha (Mother India) and the antiquity of Sanskrit
snub the impertinence of another woman. This strategy would and Brahminical culture (including their gods and prayer rituals)
prove effective in placing the responsibility or blame for womens thereby pushing once again low culture to the dark recesses
oppression on women themselves as has been the habit of men of history. The problem lies in what and whose ancient
whenever they wish to hit back at the idea of womens liberation. heritage becomes the focal point of all pride and admiration.
Mystic Rhythms, a pop album oft-telecast on Zee TV, visualises 2. The middle/upper-middle-class Hindu patriarchal morality is
a set of Indian men dressed in Western attire claiming to descend viewed as normalcy and any deviation is castigated.
from America and a group of women draped in half-saris (a typical Commercials in Indian television channels claim to redefine
South Indian attire). The young men chase the young women the discourses of womens liberation and modernity but end
and sing teasing songs, expressing their desire to possess them. up highlighting and reinforcing the prejudices of upper-caste
This East meets West encounter is presented as an essentially males. The advertiser does not question the privilege of male
Hindu national experience when the Westernised modern males domination but recasts it into the mainstream Hindu mould
claim upon the female is legitimised with the approval of the to secure approval from the majority.
Hindu religion. One of the men approaches a Brahmin priest and 3. There is allowance, however grudging, for appropriation of
points out the Hindu woman (carrying religious marks such as Western culture, however corruptive, by Indian men.
96
4. Upper-caste/class Hinduism is repeatedly presented as the

only good and the powerful way of living in order to be a
decent and patriotic Indian citizen. Indian women thus become
the nation to be conquered and retained.
The difference between the advertisements of the 1960s and the
1990s lies only in the portrayal of the modern woman. The
woman in the 1950s was either docile or a vampthe former
with a shy expression on a down-turned face, fully clad in sari,
with big vermillion and flowers; the latter in short indecent
attire, with a sensuous gaze and pouting smile and without
vermillion and flowers. Since the 1990s the modern woman is
one who no longer wears the sari; she appears without vermillion,
a Hindu marker, thus affirming her secularity, and she does not
necessarily sport a shy look (though it is the preferred pose). But
her societal status has not changed in any drastic way as her roles
are defined even now by men. Washing machines and microwave
ovens liberate Indian women by moulding them into perfect
homemakers (as the advertisement for a washing machine says,
You and Videocon, the perfect homemakers).
This seemingly modern, liberated image is more dangerous
since every woman aspiring to be modern identifies herself
with these willing carriers of nationalist, religious and feminine
sensibilities and ends up transforming herself accordingly. Women
models thus become models for women. Doesnt it remind us
of what Chinua Achebe has said, Stories define Us?
Exercise
Discuss in class both portrayals of women in Indian media as
well as role of media in upliftment of women.
Notes
97
LESSON 22
MEDIA AND VIOLENCE (ESPECIALLY TELEVISION)
Introduction that, while we do not expect the Indian economy to grow as fast
When it comes to it, what does television provide? One of the as China through to 2005, there will be sufficient growth in at least
most debilitating forms of narcotic addiction yet devised. A daily two components of the television industry growth equation -
dose of hypnosis containing an abundance of direct and indirect penetration and income - and through it, ad revenue and subscriber
suggestion, much of it negative and all of it absorbed subcon- revenue. The report estimated that the number of television
sciously, with unpredictable consequences. An artificial substitute households would grow from 65 millions in 1999 to 80 million
for everything real. The ultimate magic show in which nothing is in 2001, to 98 million in 2003 and would reach 120 millions in
what it appears to be. The modern equivalent of the Evil Eye, 2005. The Times of India, however, recently reported that the number
which, in the words of a historian of witchcraft, could harm of households owning TV has already crossed 82 million, out of
children simply by looking at them. The most pernicious and which about 70 per cent are connected through cable.
pervasive of all threats to the environment - and yet the only such The growth has been outstanding, considering the fact that in
threat that can be eliminated by the touch of a button. 1980, the number of TV sets in India was approximately 1.6
It is not possible to disentangle the influence of the experimental million, which then increased to 6 million in 1986, and to 32
stimulus itself from all the other interactive influences occurring million by 1994.
during an experiment. It is thus not possible to specify the extent Changing audience habits
to which the behaviour of research subjects is the result of the Parallel to increase in televisions reach, there have been changes in
intended manipulation of the experimenter, or the result of audiences watching habit. More and more people are today spend-
unintended interactions generated during the experiment. Any ing more time watching TV today. As the worldwide study by
experimental study, which claims to have found scientific evidence Unesco showed, children all over the world spend an average of 3
in support of TV viewing as a cause of specified effects is hours daily in front of the TV screen. That is at least 50 per cent
misleading, to say the least. more time spent with this medium than with any other out-of-
The two polarized views on the powers of television are indicative school activity, like home-work, being with family or friends, or
of the intensity of the discussion that the issue has generated. In reading. The Second World Summit on Television for Children,
general, the effects of mass media, especially portrayals of violence held in London in March 1998, was told that watching TV is now
in them, have been the subjects of worldwide public and academic the number one after-school-activity for 6-17 years olds.According
discussion for several decades now. But at the center of this to Washington-based TV-Free America Group, American chil-
discussion, almost invariably, is television as it has taken a significant dren spend an average of 4 hours a day watching TV; they spend
place in our lives more than any other mass medium. TV watching only 39 minutes a week in meaningful conversation with parents.
in todays household is as much basic in nature as is eating or According to the BBCs research department, the national average
sleeping. Its immediateness increases its effectiveness more than for 1989 among the British was 3 hours 46 minutes a day.
any other media - how common is our experience of switching on In India, the National Readership Survey 1997 shows that the
TV without any particular purpose of watching any specific time spent on watching television has increased to more than 13
programme and watching it without giving any particular attention hours a week amongst all television viewers. This is a 12 per cent
to what is playing on the screen, even while carrying out routine increase since 1995. Audiences of households with access to satellite
household chores. And this is how normally TV exists in our and cable channels spend 25 per cent more time - 16.5 hours in an
lives: occupying most of our subconscious most of the time average week - watching TV. The audiences in the top eight metros
when we are awake. watch more television than those in smaller towns.
The reach of television is today almost universal. Unesco conducted The amount of time todays audiences spends watching TV shows
a worldwide study on media violence between 1996 and 1997, the how important a place television has come to occupy in our lives.
largest ever-intercultural study on this subject. The study, which Not only it is the most important means of communication
involved more than 5,000 12-year-old pupils from 23 countries, among the mass media, crucial to viewers need for information
found that 97 per cent of the school areas in its sample could be and entertainment, but also it casts significant influence on their
reached at least by one TV broadcast channel. Ninety-one per cent behaviour, attitude and lifestyle. As Nilanjana Gupta points out,
of the children have access to a TV set, primarily at home.
Much of our knowledge, many of our attitudes, the topics of
While accuracy in measurements of television penetration is not conversation at work the next day, the brand of soap we pick up at
easy, available estimates show that television has had an equally the grocery store, the cartoon characters on our childrens clothes,
phenomenal growth in India too. The latest report of the our aspirations - almost every conceivable aspect of our lives is
international investment bankers Saloman Smith Barney, Asia- touched by this medium: yet, like eating or sleeping, we accept it as
Pacific Television - the Big Picture, put television penetration in just another part of our daily routine, uncritically and unknowingly.
India at about 31 per cent, not as high as in China. The report,
however, displayed optimism about the future growth, saying
98
It is this subliminal communication that television is capable Direct violence portrayed on the screen is more clearly identified

of which has worried social scientists and psychologists. as having a violent content than verbal violence.
Commenting on research into subliminal communication, Physical violence is more strongly experienced than psychic
Norman Dixon has written: The most striking finding to date violence.
is that subliminal effects appear negatively correlated with stimulus
Violence directed at people contains a higher violence content
energy. The further below threshold, the weaker or briefer the
for the viewing public than say violence directed at property
stimulus, the stronger its effect. Which means, the viewers state
and things.
of half-attention during the time they spend before or around
TV is ideal for insertion of suggestions into their subconscious. Real violence, as shown in the news and in documentaries, is
This fact is behind the commercials being shown in between perceived by the viewers as containing more violence than the
programs by advertisers who know very well that viewers use same violence shown in a fictional form.
breaks for brief work like going to toilet or fetching something Most of the violence we see in films and television programmes
from kitchen or refrigerator. Playfair explains the process of are crude not only in nature, but also in form also. The depictions
indirect suggestion that works here. include a wide spectrum of violence from direct physical assaults
on humans, animals and inanimate things to domestic violence
Faces of Violence
and verbal assaults, which may not be construed by many viewers
Violence obtains attention. Perhaps this is because attention is
as violence per se. Depictions of sex in otherwise non-violent
part of an old mechanism dating back to the early development
programmes too can be frightening for children for whom the act
of human beings. Early man learnt how to look closely at danger-
is beyond comprehension.
ous situations so as to be able to defend him and survive.
Television uses this for its own end. There is a danger that televi- The other less obvious forms of violence are: reality violence seen
sion, battling for the attention of the viewers, may place more in news, documentaries and real-life-based programmes; the
value on showing unusual pictures than pictures providing infor- aggressiveness of production techniques used in sound,
mation. Violence is a demonstration of power. Its principal lesson camerawork and editing; interactive video games that encourage
is to show quickly and dramatically who can get away with what users to shoot and kill enemies; and internet sites that offer
against whom. That exercise defines majority might and minority demo versions of such games and do-it-yourself information on
risk. It show ones place in what Gerbner calls the societal pecking assemble of bombs and weapons.
order. Most television and movie producers, who export their There is a vast array of approaches to presenting violent material,
products, need a dramatic ingredient that requires no translation, as there is to its perception. In terms of its visual presentation, the
speaks action in any language, and fits any culture. That ingredi- violence may occur in front of the camera and be shown with
ent is violence. As Gerbner points out, graphic details. Or it may occur off-screen but be clearly implied.
Formula-driven media violence is not an expression of freedom, Violent acts may be shown in clinical manner in close-up shots, or
popularity, or crime statistics. It is a de facto censorship that chills they may be shown from a distance, in long shots. Characters
originality and extends the dynamics of domination, intimidation, involving themselves in violent acts may be presented - through
and repression domestically and globally. The media violence various scripting tools - in many different ways and there may be
overkill is an ingredient in a global marketing formula imposed different reasons for different characters being violent. So also, the
on media professionals and foisted on the children of the world. results of violence shown may be widely different, including both
the pain and suffering of victims as well as the outcomes for the
Violence is a stable and integral part of the world seen on todays
perpetrator or perpetrators.
television. Even programmes targeted at children are not free of
violence. In the United States, violent scenes occur about 5 times Animation Films
per hour in prime time, and between 20 and 25 per hour in Saturday Animation films - or cartoons, as they are popularly known - and
morning childrens programmes. The depictions of violence are televised shows of the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) are
camouflaged in humor, so it is difficult for uncritical viewers - the leaders in violent content and sponsorship value in this genre.
especially children to realize what they are consuming. The Along with cartoons and WWF show, there are two major areas
commercial mechanism of violence - this is one of the two most that have recently turned into virtual battlefields: violent com-
important ingredients used in almost all forms of television puter games and the live coverage of violence.
broadcasting for attracting viewers, the other being sex - leads to In depiction of actual physical and behavioural violence, WWF
manipulated use of scenes depicting violence. The exploitation shows perhaps outclass the rest of porgrammes. A detailed Indiana
of violence occurs in many different forms - only some explicit University investigation of 50 WWF Raw episodes telecast in
and the others not so. 1998 on the USA Network found a staggering amount of profane
However, perceptions of violence can differ as widely as their or risque incidents. Researchers counted 1,658 instances of a
forms, depending on social and cultural contexts, viewers character grabbing or pointing to their own crotch - roughly eight
personality, age and environment, among other things. For every 30 minutes, not counting the slow-motion instant replays.
instance, a study carried out in Germany by Werner Fruh on violence On an average, there was less than 36 minutes of wrestling in a
perception also arrives at large perception differences such as in the two-hour show. There were 609 instances of wrestlers or others
case of age groups when differing types of violence and the form being struck by objects like garbage cans or nightsticks. Somehow
in which it is shown are included. they managed not to hurt each other, said Walter Gantz, a
professor at the Indianas Department of Telecommunications.
99
I am not certain that a 10-year-old realizes that they are skilled at television worldwide for the first time carried live war pictures.
doing this. Filmmaker Shyam Benegal condemns such coverage pointing out
Contrary to the parents conception, cartoon films can be equally that it leads to desensitisation of the viewer.
violent. And several studies have established that most cartoon I would say the most reprehensible thing that happened recently
programmes today seen on television contain violence in quantity was the air attacks on Iraq, and Clinton was watching it like it was
that may be unsafe for regular viewing by children. According to a a performance. Hundreds of thousands of people were suffering,
study conducted by Quebecs Laval University, cartoons have 68 thousands of tonnes of dynamite was exploding all around them.
per cent more violence than any adult show. While we were sitting in front of our television sets, impatiently
At their impressionable age, children love to watch the slapstick waiting for the bombings to begin. Now, that is the worst kind
humour, the fantasies and the actions in animation films. Watching of pornography of violence, and weve not stopped it, were not
cartoon characters being blown to pieces or run over by a bulldozer even capable of stopping it, are we?
make children laugh because they know after all these hazardous Documentaries and real-life crime-based programmes, on the other
attacks by the antagonists their favourite characters are going to hand, show personal violence and crimes, re-constructing events
return to life, as active and violent as ever. of the past. In these depictions, violence is predominantly physical
Mickey Mouse was a cute, well-mannered, little mouse that had and shown in graphic detail. Indian television has recently produced
very mild mannerisms and gestures. Mickey Mouse was the such programmes on almost all leading channels. Indias Most
epitome of peace and goodness. He was the protagonist to the Wanted on Zee (which was later withdrawn by the channel),
core and there were no shades of gray in him. People adored Bhanwar on Sony and Apraadhi on Star Plus are all based on real-
Mickey Mouse for being such a gentleperson. Walt Disneys life criminal cases, though they vary in treatment and focus. Indias
philosophy was to have characters as black and white with very few Most Wanted has often been compared to Americas Most Wanted,
traces of gray. The themes that he chose for his subsequent feature which mostly concentrates on actual police raids. But producer
films, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Pinocchio, Bambi and and director Suhaib Ilyasi points out that his serial is closer to
other short films just reiterated that fact as these films had characters BBCs crime feature of the early 90s, Crime Stopper.
which represented in black or white. The prince and the princess It is not just programmes that contain violence, but many of the
had to be good all through and the witch was an evil person with programmes promos and commercials utilize violence too. There
absolutely no goodness in her soul. Disney condemned the blacks are logical reasons why so many promotions feature scenes of
and glorified the whites in all his films. Violence did exist, but an violence. Promos have only a very short time to show something
acceptable level. interesting enough to attract the viewer. Most promos contain
The success of Bugs Bunny and Tom and Jerry led to rapid growth several scenes thus complicating efforts to explain the plot in 10 or
in animation films production. Fifty years after Bugs Bunny 20 seconds. With so little time, the easiest things to feature are
appeared, cartoon programmes are a popular ingredient of those that require little explanation: violence and sex.
television channels around the world. While the Cartoon Network Computer & Video Games
shows 14 hours of the stuff, Doordarshan and other channels But now with violent video games we have entered a realm where
like Zee, Star Plus, Sony and MTV too have their own slots. On instead of being the passive receivers of images of human death
their menu are various kinds of cartoons - some of them with and suffering, we are pushing the button that inflicts human
mindless violence - such as Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, G. I. death and suffering on another human being. The growing threat
Joe, Batman, Spiderman, Superman, He Man, Alladin, Flash to our children - and their parents - from violent video games is
Gordon, Defenders of the Earth, and Duck Tales. Two cartoon not just an extension of violent television and movies, it is a
shows The Simpsons, and The Flinststones - are of a different whole new world, and a quantum leap in danger.
class, with good stories told in interesting manner through good
Violent video games are the mental equivalent of putting an assault
clean humour and clever ideas, without resorting to violence to
rifle in the hands of every child - a friend of mine refers to them as
capture its audience. But these two cartoons use typical American
murder trainers. By sitting and mindlessly killing countless
humour, because of which children in other countries less watch
thousands of fellow members of our own species without any
them.
ramification or repercussions, we are teaching skills and concepts
Reality programmes and values that transfer immediately anytime they get a real weapon
Reality programmes, like news bulletins, documentaries and real- in their hand.
life crime-based programmes, often show real-life violence. Typical of the standard violent genres are: mythical adventure
Violence used in news for the most part do not have any link with (Dark Vengeance), war (Total Annihilation) and point and shoot
crime: rather politically motivated violence - such as demonstrations, - the most dehumanising kind - (Damage Incorporated and Blood
arsons, riots, clashes with police etc. - are more likely to be featured. Bath). There is a rating system, akin to the one for movies,
Because violence has more news and visual value, often political maintained by the Entertainment Software Rating Board. Dark
and extremist groups resort to violence to get noticed my mass Vengeance and Total Annihilation are Teen 13+ for animated
media. Personal crimes and violence are reported by media more violence; Blood Bath is Mature 17+ for realistic blood and
than any other form of violence, but what is shown in news violence. Damage Incorporated is not rated.
bulletins is mostly the effect of such crime and violence on victims.
Games where the death wish spills over in no measured
Television coverage of wars by implication contains a lot of violence. proportions and could very well overflow into real life.
How violent it can get was obvious during the Gulf War when
100
Psychologists say that with the increasing addiction of computer through thick and thin and expects to inherit the empire, is now

games, the bombshell of violence has already started to explode. incensed at Raos affection for his biological son. In the gangster
Teenage violence is expressing itself in the increased suicide rates films of the 1970s, it is the hero who, estranged from his real
and the preponderance of school bullies and instances of actual father, gravitates towards a surrogate one from the underworld.
physical violence in the campus. After the long spate of violence-oriented films upto the mid
Some internet sites that offer game demonstration programmes nineties, melodies, interspersed with stories of teen romance,
do not use ratings and do little to block childrens access to violent have made a comeback in commercial films. It was Maine Pyar
games. This added to weak adult supervision and poorly enforced Kiya that initiated the return to melodies in films. A record number
or displayed violence ratings bolster childrens access to such games. of audiocassettes of this film were sold and the popularity of the
songs outdid hits of the preceding decade. The film was produced
Community violence
by Rajshri Productions who were known for their small-budget,
Several films today, notable among which are Tezaab (1989), Angaar
modest-return films based on rural, non-violent themes and
(1993) and Gardish (1993), show the community participating in
featured new stars and a new director. The film became a super-
the fights between the hero and the villain as mute spectators.
hit, surpassing Sholay, mainly because of the popularity of the
This is an absolutely new and frightening aspect of mass culture
songs. But even in these successful comedies, the use of violence
that cinema has internalised. The spectators are mute and will not
is mandatory at least in resolving the conflict between the rich and
interfere or intervene, or even give evidence later. They watch within
the poor.
the frame and magnify the terror of the violence that is being
experienced. Their very passivity is a background against which Different types of violence
physical violence stands out in stark contrast. One of the most One of the biggest concentrations of violence is on Sonys sister
devastating of such mass scenes in recent times has been in Jigar pay channel AXN Action TV, which depicts nothing but mindless
(1993) where the protagonists sister is raped publicly in a square violence 24 hours a day. Some of the films aired on the channel are
to teach the brother a lesson. The mother runs from pillar to post B-grade action movies. WWF fights also contained a large quan-
and even tries to enlist the help of a policeman nearby, but to no tity of mindless violence: men and women throwing each other
avail. The girl then publicly commits suicide. Rape has always been around all over the place with gay abandon, kicking, punching,
a staple ingredient of the villains villainy, but it has always been hitting where you like it.
committed as an act away from public gaze: in the privacy of a In fact, even Discovery Channel, which is considered by many
room, in the jungle but always in a lonely, isolated spot. The parents to be harmless for children, shows violence in the form of
voyeuristic gaze in this particular instance also includes an incestu- animals chasing each other and killing them.
ous one, since the brother is tied up at a height and has perforce to
Research monitored programmes on five channels over nine days.
witness the rape and death of his sister.
It found 759 distinct incidents of violence across the channels,
Todays hero moves around in a group (Anil Kapoor is the which included Doordarshan National and Metro, Zee, Sony and
quintessential mob-hero - refer, for example, to his role in Ram Star Plus. Zee led the channels with 365 incidents, while
Lakhan, 1990), in the way the underprivileged instinctively move Doordarshan Metro was last with 62.
in a clannish group. It is not as if Amitabh Bachchan as the persona
The study identified as many as 59 types of violence - audio and
par excellence of the seventies and eighties did not have friendship
visual, physical and psychological - were identified by the study.
with other male characters - as, for example, in Sholay where he
Threats, slapping, screaming, shooting, assaulting, uttering
and Dharmendra are partners in petty crimes. However, an aspect
expletives, pushing, clobbering, stabbing, mental torture, eerie
of the personality that he always cultivated was that of a loner,
sound-tracks, threatening music were de riguer on all programmes
and a nonchalant one at that.
on all channels. A good many were unnecessarily long depictions
Acts of violation committed against the father, sister or mother of violence. Over one-third of the violence-types appeared in
are what are responsible for the rebirth in violence of todays hero. 25 per cent of the episodes monitored. The episodes were in the
The storyline in the films of the fifties and sixties, whether they genre of horror, murder, mystery and suspense thrillers.
dealt with romance or gangsterism, often rested on a tension
One shocking finding was that serials like Shapath, Aahat,
between familial and social relationships. In the films of the 70s,
Shaktimaan, Anhonee, Kohra, all horror or violence-ridden
the family showed signs of breaking up, with the father getting
serials had sponsors in Cadburys (confectioners), Johnsons
lost either morally or physically. This loss defined the heros being.
(baby products), Kissan (jams, squashes and ketchups), Parle-G,
Today it is the family and by extension the community, as territorial
Chyawanprash, Horlicks, Complan and other health drink makers.
notions, that are to be defended at all cost by the hero.
All these advertisements targeted children as consumers, making
It is in this context that the hit of the late 1980s Phool aur Kaante it obvious that children constitute a major part of these
is interesting. It deals with the lost father returning very decisively programmes viewership. In fact, most serials made no effort to
to reinstate himself emotionally and physically into the family. conceal the fact that they regarded children as the prime viewer of
This inversion of the popular 70s theme possibly was as much a horror and crime-based programmes. The study noted that Aaahat,
factor in the films success as the new type of violence it ushered Anhonee, Bhanwar, Indias Most Wanted and X-Zone received
in. Nageshwar Rao, the citys leading underworld don, kidnaps his top ratings, for audio effects among the four to six years age
own grandson to force his estranged son and daughter-in-law to group.
come and live with him. He is finally killed in an encounter with a
However, there were a few positive trends as well: On certain days
rival gangster and his surrogate son, who has been with him
there was a low degree of violence in serials. Occasionally, there
101
were a few programmes - such as Just Mohabbat, Amanat, Saans Suggested Readings
and some of Doordarshans soaps which had no violence, but Keval J kumar: Mass Communication in India, Jaico
appealed to the intelligence of the viewers. Publishing House
But such serials are not able to counter the popularity of thriller
serials. A survey conducted by IMRB has revealed that there is a
growing class of viewers being weaned away from the never-ending
soaps to detective serials. The reason, according to the survey, is
that detective serials are far more action-packed than soap operas.
The list of the action-packed serials included Mohandas
B.A.L.L.B., Indias Most Wanted and Saturday Suspense on Zee;
CID and Bhanwar on Sony; Bullet and Vakeel Jasoos on DD
Metro; Saboot, Kohraa and Yeh Hai Raaz on Star TV.
In a separate study, the Centre for Advocacy and Research found
controversial and popular Shaktimaan to be replete with violence.
Notes
In one episode there were 17 acts of violence within a span of 25
minutes, including assaulting, slapping, punching, shooting,
strangulating, burning, pushing and stabbing.
Effects of violence
Hundreds of studies of the effects of TV violence on children
and teenagers have found that children may:
Become immune to the horror of violence;
Gradually accept violence as a way to solve problems;
Imitate the violence they observe on television; and
Identify with certain characters, victims and/or victimizers.
Extensive viewing of television violence by children causes greater
aggressiveness. Sometimes, watching a single violent programme
can increase aggressiveness. Children who view shows in which
violence is very realistic, frequently repeated or unpunished, are
more likely to imitate what they see. The impact of TV violence
may be immediately evident in the childs behaviour or may surface
years later, and young people can even be affected when the family
atmosphere shows no tendency toward violence.
This does not mean that violence on television is the only source
for aggressive or violent behaviour, but it is a significant
contributor. Factors which can be mentioned as being able to
influence the effects of television violence alongside the general
cultural system and the sub-system one lives in are the imbedding
(or better the lack of imbedding) in peer groups as well as
personality traits such as self-esteem, intelligence and gender. All
in all, the childrens aggressive behaviour patterns and perceptions
are a mirror of what they experience in their real environment:
frustration, aggression, and problematic circumstances. Peer
influences, family role models, social and economic status,
educational level and the availability of weapons can each
significantly alter the likelihood of a particular reaction to viewing
violence on television.
Review Questions:
Discuss in detail the kind of violence shown in Indian
media.
What impact according to you media creates on a childs
mind?
What measures can be taken to minimize the violent impact
of media?
102
LESSON 23
MEDIA AND CHILDREN
Media and Children But some of what they teach may not be what we want children to
Violent programs on television lead to aggressive behavior by learn.This brochure gives an overview of some of the messages
children and teenagers who watch those programs. media send young people that could be negative or harmful to
Thats the word from a 1982 report by the National Institute of their health. You will learn how you can teach your children to
Mental Health, a report that confirmed and extended an earlier better understand the media messages they see and hear in print,
study done by the Surgeon General. As a result of these and other over airwaves, on networks, and on-line.
research findings, the American Psychological Association passed The power of media messages
a resolution in February 1985 informing broadcasters and the Sometimes you can see the impact of media right away, such as
public of the potential dangers that viewing violence on television when your child watches superheroes fighting and then copies
can have for children. their moves during play. But most of the time the impact is not
Psychological research has shown three major effects of seeing so immediate or obvious. It occurs slowly as children see and hear
violence on television: certain messages over and over, such as the following:
Children may become less sensitive to the pain and suffering Fighting and other violence used as a way to handle
of others conflict
Children may be more fearful of the world around them Cigarettes and alcohol shown as cool and attractive, not
Children may be more likely to behave in aggressive or harmful unhealthy and deadly
ways toward others. Sexual action with no negative results, such as disease or
Children who watch a lot of TV are less aroused by violent unintended pregnancy
scenes than are those who only watch a little; in other words, Media messages : Good or Bad?
theyre less bothered by violence in general, and less likely to see Whatever form they take (ads, movies, computer games, music
anything wrong with it. One example: in several studies, those videos), messages can be good or bad for your child. Just as you
who watched a violent program instead of a nonviolent one would limit certain foods in your childs diet that may be un-
were slower to intervene or to call for help when, a little later, healthy, you also should limit her media diet of messages. Some
they saw younger children fighting or playing destructively. examples of these follow.
Studies by George Gerbner, Ph.D., at the University of
Use of cigarettes and alcohol
Pennsylvania, have shown that childrens TV shows contain about
Messages about tobacco and alcohol are everywhere in media.
20 violent acts each hour and also that children who watch a lot of
Kids see characters on screen smoking and drinking. They see
television are more likely to think that the world is a mean and
signs for tobacco and alcohol products at concerts and sporting
dangerous place.
events. Advertising and movies send kids the message that smok-
Children often behave differently after theyve been watching ing and drinking make a person sexy or cool and that everyone
violent programs on TV. In one study done at Pennsylvania State does it. Advertising also sways teens to smoke and drink. Teens
University, about 100 preschool children were observed both before who see a lot of ads for beer, wine, liquor, and cigarettes admit
and after watching television; some watched cartoons that had a that it influences them to want to drink and smoke. It is not by
lot of aggressive and violent acts in them, and others watched chance that the three most advertised cigarette brands are also the
shows that didnt have any kind of violence. The researchers noticed most popular ones smoked by teens.
real differences between the kids who watched the violent shows
Advertisers of tobacco and alcohol purposely leave out the negative
and those who watched nonviolent ones.
information about their products. As a result, young people often
Understanding the Impact of do not know what the health risks are when they use these products.
Media on Children and Teens Sometimes TV broadcasts and print articles do the same thing.
For example, a magazine might do a story about the common
In a matter of seconds, most children can mimic a movie or TV
causes of cancer but not mention smoking as a top cause. Does
character, sing an advertising jingle, or give other examples of
your child know why? The answer may be that the magazine
what they have learned from media. Sadly, these examples may
publisher takes money to publish tobacco ads or even owns another
include naming a popular brand of beer, striking a sexy pose, or
company that makes cigarettes.
play fighting. Children only have to put a movie into the VCR,
open a magazine, click on a Web site, or watch TV to experience all Fatty foods and thin bodies
kinds of messages. It really is that easy. Media heavily promote unhealthy foods while at the same time
telling people they need to lose weight and be thin. Heavy media
Media offer entertainment, culture, news, sports, and education.
use can also take time away from physical activity.
They are an important part of our lives and have much to teach.
103
Studies show that girls of all ages worry about their weight. Many Media messages have their own values and points of view.
of them are starting to diet at early ages. Media can promote an These are built into the message itself. Children should compare
unrealistic image of how people look. Often, the thin and perfect- the promoted values against their own values. It is important
looking person on screen or in print is not even one whole person for children to learn that they have a choice in whether to accept
but parts of several people! Using body doubles, airbrushing, the values that are being promoted in any media message.
and computer-graphics techniques creates this person.
Review Questions:
Violence Discuss in detail the kind of violence shown in Indian media.
Children learn their attitudes about violence at a very young age
What impact according to you media creates on a childs mind?
and these attitudes tend to last. Although TV violence has been
studied the most, researchers are finding that violence in other What measures can be taken to minimize the violent impact of
media impacts children and teens in many of the same harmful media?
ways. Suggested Readings
From media violence children learn to behave aggressively toward Keval J kumar: Mass Communication in India, Jaico
others. They are taught to use violence instead of self-control Publishing House
to take care of problems or conflicts.
Violence in the media world may make children more
accepting of real-world violence and less caring toward others.
Children who see a lot of violence from movies, TV shows, or
video games may become more fearful and look at the real
world as a mean and scary place.
Although the effects of media on children might not be apparent
right away, children are being negatively affected. Sometimes children
may not act out violently until their teen or young-adult years. Notes
Media education basics
Parents need to set limits and be actively involved with the TV
shows, computer games, magazines, and other media that
children use. But this is only one step in helping media play a
positive role in childrens lives. Because media surround us and
cannot always be avoided, one way to filter their messages is to
develop the skills to question, analyze, and evaluate them. This
is called media literacy or media education.
Just as a print-literate child learns to be critical of the things he
reads, he should also be able to do the same with moving pictures
and sounds. Your child can learn to understand both the obvious
and hidden messages in all media. Once children learn media
education skills, they will begin to ask questions and think about
the media messages they watch, read, and hear. And they usually
will enjoy doing it!
Following are basic media education points a child should
know:
People create media messages. A team of people, whether
its a magazine article or a TV talk show, creates any media
message. Those people write it, decide what pictures to use,
and what to leave out. All of these things give the message a
purpose.
Each media form uses its own language. Newspapers make
headlines large to attract readers to certain stories. Media with
sound may use music to make people feel a range of emotions.
When children learn about these techniques they are able to
understand how a message is delivered instead of only being
affected by it.
No two people experience the same media message in
exactly the same way. How a person interprets a message
depends on things unique to that persons life. These can include
age, values, memories, and education.
104
LESSON 24
MEDIA AND POLITICS
Introduction the sphere of politics are of grave importance to India, since more
MODERN politics is largely a mediated politics, experienced by than anything else, the mass media are fully exploited by our
most citizens through their broadcast and print media of choice. leaders for political propaganda, but the truth is that even the
Any study of democracy in contemporary conditions is, therefore, largely private-owned press is charged with political news, biased
also a study of how the media report and interpret political events frequently in favour of one party or another.
and issues, and how media itself influences the political processes In the first place, mass communication should provide the citizen
and shapes public opinion. Thus, media has become central to the means to understand the substance of policies. Secondly, they
politics and public life in contemporary democracy. should perform an amplifying function, by giving wide publicity
Access to media is one of the key measures of power and equality. to the actions and views of important individuals.
Media can shape power and participation in society in negative Thirdly, they should provide the common fund of information
ways, by obscuring the motives and interests behind political necessary for the formation of public opinion and the conduct of
decisions, or in positive ways, by promoting the involvement of the political process. Further, the mass media should attempt to
people in those decisions. In this respect the media and governance provide standards, by which political actions can be judged, the
equation becomes important. common frame of reference which must unite rulers and ruled in
Media occupies a space that is constantly contested, which is subject a democratic political structure. The media, therefore, could help,
to organizational and technological restructuring, to economic, considerably in public participation in national and regional policies.
cultural and political constraints, to commercial pressures and to However, the reality is that the coverage of politics by the mass
changing professional practices. The changing contours of this media is often fragmented and superficial. The sensational and
space can lead to different patterns of domination and agenda- the transient are given predominance over the kind of information
setting and to different degrees of openness and closure in terms relevant to political education about political leaders and parties,
of access, patterns of ownership, available genres, types of which are of great significance to the political outcome.
disclosure and range of opinions represented. Propaganda and Persuasion
Although it is intrinsically difficult to theorize about the Persuasion is the art of winning friends and influencing people.
complexities implied in this formulation, the implications of the Its an art that does not employ force or deliberate manipulation
empirical outcomes of the struggle over this terrain are crucial for of peoples minds. Its success depends on rather on attention to
the ways in which they help or hinder democratic governance. For and comprehension of the persuaders message, and acceptance
this reason journalists and their audiences, when they first read, of involuntarily, as well as on the content of the message, the
hear or see news, should always ask the irreverent question: Says manner of presentation, and other crucial situation/cultural
who? This may be bad news for the official managers of society, factors.
but it will be good news for democracy.
Propaganda is the deliberate manipulation by means of symbols
In a democratic society, therefore, the role of the media assumes such ads words, gestures, flags, images, monuments, music and
seminal importance. Democracy implies participative governance, the like, of peoples thoughts or actions with respect to their
and it is the media that informs people about various problems beliefs, values and behaviors. Propaganda, therefore, is not casual
of society, which makes those wielding power on their behalf or instructional communication. It is opposed to any free exchange
answerable to them. That the actions of the government and the of ideas, for the propagandist never doubts his own beliefs and
state, and the efforts of competing parties and interests to exercise value system and the necessity of propagating them to others.
political power should be underpinned and legitimized by critical
scrutiny and informed debate facilitated by the institutions of the
The Political Campaigns
media is a normative assumption uniting the political spectrum. Ramesh Narayan
It has been further remarked by Davis Merritt, in his work Public
Journalism and Public Life that what journalists should bring to
the arena of public life is knowledge of the rules how the public
has decided a democracy should work and the ability and
willingness to provide relevant information and a place for that
information to be discussed and turned into democratic consent.
They must exhibit no partisan interest in the specific outcome
other than it is arrived at under the democratic process.
The Relationship
There exists an intimate relationship between the political processes
and the mass media. The functions of mass communication in
105
Elections are here; its time to reach out. THE worlds most on about 100 channels monitored. In terms of advertising
populous democracy is getting ready to cast its mandate. And the duration, the campaign, with its preponderance of generous 60-
country is slowly getting into the election mood. second advertisements, took the numero uno position. An
The elections in India are probably the largest getting-together of interesting feature that has emerged in the analysis is that about 75
people with a single purpose. And anyone who talks about illiteracy per cent of the duration share went to Doordarshan channels.
here should see how Governments are voted in or out with total Firstly, it means that good old DD gets the thumbs up when it
unpredictability. They could also notice the increasing role of comes to sheer reach and viewership. Secondly, in a lighter vein,
communication in this mega jamboree. the huge amount of Government money that has been spent on
this campaign, which has made a lot of people upset, has largely
Years ago, communication meant cut-outs, banners, buttons, flags
flowed back into Government coffers after all. So why complain?
and all the in-stadia sound and light that could be mopped up
when a leader comes to address a rally. Ramshackle jeeps fitted The die is being cast before the votes are cast. Very soon the names
with loudspeakers roamed the countryside broadcasting little of the advertising agencies who will be the spin doctors of these
doggerels penned by aspiring poets to anyone who would listen elections will be announced. The Maharashtra Government has
to them. already fired the first tentative salvo at the India Shining campaign
with its own Maharashtra Leading campaign. Other States will
Technology has changed all this. Systematic advertising, with the
follow.
help of professional advertising agencies, came into effect sometime
in the 70s. Ulka was probably the first agency to handle a national Then the major political parties will open up with the heavy artillery.
political partys advertising campaign. R. K. Swamy Associates The last quarter of this financial year will certainly end with a
was also active, and so were other agencies at the regional level. flourish for the media houses. Whoever wins, they do.
Probably the only professional thing about that first campaign And this time around, the jury will be the great Indian electorate.
was the advertising. The experience of the aftermath would make Lets see what they feel about all this noise.
the present multinational avatar of Ulka think twice before (The author heads Canco Advertising.)
jumping in where angels fear to tread.
February 10, 2004
Meanwhile, the world was awakening to the joys of professional
advertising in political campaigns. The US was miles ahead. India Shining...Feel Good vs Fail Good
Television made or marred the political fortunes of Presidential The India Shining blitz launched by the NDA Government to
aspirants there. The Saatchi brothers were making history in the showcase their achievements in the run up to the Lok Sabha polls
UK with their famous campaign for the Conservative party: Labour is sure to have caught the eye of most Indians. Be it the print or
isnt working. electronic media, the voters have been given a fair dose of India
In India, a shy young man was stepping into the blood-stained Shining.
shoes of his slain mother, and he seemed committed to a new One persons medicine could be anothers poison. Obviously, the
professional way of functioning. For the first time, an Indian media campaign has not gone down well with the opposition
advertising agency had total access to the leader of a great national parties, and political commentators. They have repeatedly slammed
party. And his confidence! Rediffusion had firmly demonstrated the Vajpayee Government for the campaign, saying that taxpayers
what an advertising agency could do for a political party. However, money should not be misused for partisan electoral gains.
the once more with feeling did not work. Post mortems are dirty Fortunately for the opposition, their view is being echoed by
work, but it seemed that the professional work of an Indian none other than the Election Commission (EC), one of the
advertising agency had not worked, and it was back to the old days countrys highly regarded democratic and autonomous body.
where local satraps pushed agencies of their choice, and meritocracy Within hours of taking charge at Nirvachan Sadan, the newly
gave way to autocracy. elected Chief Election Commissioner T.S. Krishnamurthy
Yet, advertising agencies are now very much a part and parcel of cautioned the NDA Government against using taxpayers money
the hurly burly of political campaigning. The media has stepped to fund its advertisement blitz before the Lok Sabha polls. This
in wisely and insisted on advance payment for campaign statement is personal and has no legal binding, said
advertising. This has proved to be a boon for the advertising Krishnamurthy.
agencies. He made it clear that the CEC did not have the authority at present
As the great Indian political circus gets set to roll, the stakes are to restrain the Vajpayee Government but indicated that that the
high and the jury seems to be still out on who are the winners in Centre was violating the spirit of the code of conduct since the
the advertising sweepstakes. The India Shining campaign, which 13th Lok Sabha had already been dissolved. The model code of
is seen as the Government-sponsored election advertising conduct comes into effect only after the elections are formally
campaign, has set the tone for what lies ahead. No government- announced by the EC.
looking advertising. Big, bold, glossy, well-made advertising. It But, despite a word of caution from the CEC, the Government is
augurs well for the advertising agencies, and most certainly for the determined to go ahead with its high-profile publicity drive. Prime
media. Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee on Monday joined the debate on
The TV campaign has been hailed as the second most frequently India Shining. He made it clear that the campaign would be on
telecast brand on TV during December 03 and January 04. An till the model code of conduct comes into effect. Government
Adex analysis claims there were about 9,472 advertisements telecast money is not being misused. Every government highlights its
106
achievements, when the model of code of conduct comes into Review Questions:

effect. We will also go by the rules, said Vajpayee. Discuss in detail the interdependence of politics and Indian
Though the BJP insists that the media blitz is not an extension media.
of its pre-poll campaign, top party leaders are getting directly What kind of coverage according you is given to the political
involved in its formation and implementation. Finance Minister issues?
Jaswant Singh is said to have held a meeting with advertising
What is propaganda and how is it different from persuasion?
professionals and top government officers to discuss the second
phase of the India Shining campaign. Suggested Readings
But, the Governments lavish India Shining campaign has caused Keval J kumar: Mass Communication in India, Jaico
resentment among opposition parties and political experts because Publishing House
it is perceived as being expended for partisan ends. Taxpayers
money is used to promote BJP and NDA agenda. This is totally
unacceptable to us, said senior Congress leader Kapil Sibal.
The NDA Government has reportedly spent over Rs2bn on the
ongoing India Shining campaign on television. Apart from
this, different ministries and departments are putting out their
own advertisements in the print media. The total cost of all this is
estimated at Rs4.5bn. It is also said that the Government is now
focussing on schemes like rural housing and healthcare in the
second phase of the India Shining drive. A conservative estimate
Notes
for the still to be launched India on the Move campaign is
pegged at Rs2.5bn
If the NDA Government is indeed misusing the taxpayers money
for electoral gains, which appears to be the case, there is no reason
why the citizens of this country should foot the bill for the sales
pitch. Analysts also question the Vajpayee Governments attempt
to publicize its achievements now, just when the Lok Sabha
elections are round the corner. They also point out that public
money should not be used for projecting the BJPs political
leadership in a positive light.
But while criticizing the NDA Government for violating the
spirit of the yet to be announced election code, one must
remember that all Governments, including the caretaker ones,
have to carry on with the business of governance. In certain
circumstances, they even have to take decisions that may seem like
electorally expedient. There is then some virtue in the argument
offered by BJP top brass that Governments also have to convey
to citizens the work they have done or are doing.
But this argument does not hold water in this particular instance.
That is because the India Shining campaign does not appear to
be aimed at informing readers/viewers about what the
Government hopes to do or has done. It is more a marketing
blitz that portrays the NDA Government as having done a great
job of handling the countrys economy. Against this backdrop,
one has only to second Krishnamurthys proposal - that political
parties and Governments observe the spirit of the moral code of
conduct even before it becomes formally operational.
Whether the PR stunt leads to the NDA Government coming
back to power at the Centre only time will tell. But one thing is
sure, the publicity stunt has snowballed into a major poll issue at
a time when the NDA Government is all geared to take advantage
of the feel good factor.
- Hemant Maradia
107
LESSON 25
ENVIRONMENTAL JOURNALISM
Environmental journalism in India peasants, rights of displacement, large technology versus small
Environmental journalism in India began in the 1920s, but that technology, etc.
valuable phase is forgotten. What is remembered and lauded is In 1937, Congress governments came to power in the local legis-
the environmental journalism of the 80s, when academics, NGOs lature bodies of the provinces. There was limited autonomous
and social scientists took on the cause. But this was the period rule by Indians. A man by the name of SG Warty writes in the
during which the debate on the environment actually receded from Bombay Chronicle on a number of environment-related matters.
the mainstream into technical and esoteric journals He argues: Now we have our own government. We must undo
When we speak of environmental journalism in India, we have to the colonial forest policy. We must make forest management more
see it against the backdrop of the environmental movement as a responsible to the peasants of this country. Wartys work is thus
whole. The environmental movement in India has gone through one of several isolated instances of early environmental journal-
two phases. The first phase starts around 1920 and continues till ism in India.
the 1940s. This is the forgotten, or undocumented, phase and Then there was M Krishnan, who wrote a fortnightly column for
foregrounds the ideas and opinions of a variety of thinkers, mostly The Statesman from 1952 to 1996. I consider him Indias greatest
nationalist. There were a number of environmental thinkers and naturalist. He has a deep knowledge of Indias biodiversity and he
writers all through that period. Some were Gandhians, like the could write in a precise, evocative style wonderful descriptions of
great Tamil economist JC Kumarappa. Some like Radhakamal nature all around us a lizard on a wall, a sparrow being taught
Mukherjee were social scientists. Mukherjee pioneered an interdis- to fly, which he observed from his window. He also wrote po-
ciplinary brand of knowledge, which he termed social ecology and lemical pieces. Such as on the need to preserve indigenous breeds
which sought to bring together the Natural Sciences and the Social of cattle. He made original observations of conservation at work,
Sciences. Some were dissident colonial scientists. There was, for as in Madras, where peasants protected the trees where the herons
example, Albert Howard, who was in the Indian Agricultural Ser- came to roost (they found the droppings useful as fertiliser). As
vice, and is now revered in the West as a prophet of organic early as the 1960s we find him writing on the vital significance of
agriculture. He developed a method of composting known as the Neem. His range, depth and the fact that he went on fortnight
Indore method, which is used by organic farmers in the West. But after fortnight highlighting the wonders of Indias natural wealth
in India he is forgotten. is truly admirable. His work needs to be re-discovered. I am cur-
What we really see in this period is a debate between the ecologi- rently working on a compilation of Krishnans writing which is
cally responsible and the modernisers. The former wanted due for publication soon. Krishnan, then, is a pioneering envi-
co-existence with nature while the latter felt that the concern for ronmental journalist, and his work is all the more valuable for its
the environment was a deviation from the task of building an advocacy of environmental concerns in the Nehruvian era which
economically robust, industrially advanced India. was hostile to such issues.
Beginning in 1947, we have what we could call the age of inno- By the time we come to the early 70s we find that various struggles
cence. The Gandhians are defeated. The modernisers win the by grassroots people to protect the natural resources around them
debate. Environmental considerations flee to the margins. They begin to take shape in hundreds of places all over India. Soon we
will re-emerge much later in the 1970s not in the form of see journalists (not scientists or scholars or academics, mind you)
intellectual critiques as in the first phase, but in the form of peoples stepping into the picture and reporting and documenting these
movements and struggles like the Chipko Andolan, the movements. The Chipko movement, for example, gets wide cov-
fisherfolks struggle in Kerala, the forest movement in Jharkhand erage in the local Hindi newspapers in Garhwal, thanks to
and Madhya Pradesh, the anti-dam movement in the Narmada journalists like Kunwar Prasun and Shekhar Pathak. Bharat Dogra,
valley, the Koel Karo and the Tehri projects and so on. who also wrote in English, is another important journalist of the
time. In English there were people like Darryl DMonte, Usha Rai
Against the backdrop of this broad historical canvas, let us look at
and Anil Agarwal. Between them, these journalists created a body
the specific history of environmental journalism in India. Where
of fine writing on environmental issues, and this included not
are its origins? Here are some glimpses. In 1920, the Tatas were
just reportage and documentation but also analysis and larger,
building a dam on one of the rivers in the Western Ghats, near
theoretical reflection. This period (roughly 1975-1985) was a very
Lonavla. It was going to displace some 15 to 20 villages. There
vibrant one for environmental journalism in India. These jour-
was a satyagraha against it led by a brave socialist from Pune known
nalists successfully challenged the conventional notion entertained
as Senapati Bapat. This satyagraha was reported right through its
by the votaries of large-scale development, who held with Indira
course in both The Times of India and the Bombay Chronicle.
Gandhi that poverty was the greatest polluter. They showed
These were articles that took into account the wider argument
that when environmental resources were recklessly mishandled,
meditating on issues like electricity for Bombay versus land for
the poor were the direct sufferers.
108
In the next phase social scientists, academics, NGOs and even 7. The journalist should respect the right of privacy of individuals

government bodies took up the cause of the environment and who have been affected by environmental catastrophes, natural
the professionalisation of environmental writing begins with this. disasters and the like.
However, this came at a cost, as the discussion of matters of vital 8. The environmental journalist should not hesitate to correct
public interest (forests, energy, urbanisation) moved away from information that he or she previously believed was correct, or
the newspapers and other public spheres and into esoteric, techni- to tilt the balance of public opinion by analysis in the light of
cal publications. subsequent developments.
Starting with 1991, the fourth phase gets underway. This is when The original draft for this code of ethics was prepared by a
we witness a backlash from the proponents of the unbridled committee of three senior International Federation of
liberalisation of the Indian economy. Those who advocate envi- Environmental Journalist (IFEJ) members.
ronmental causes are branded as the people who want to keep
India backward, who keep it from becoming another Singapore.
Significant initiatives in social forestry, soil management, resource Strategies for Reporting on Environment
management, alternative energy, etc, undertaken by voluntary Environmental journalists often go wrong when they highlight
organisations throughout the country begin to go largely unre- flagship species to emphasis the need for protection of biological
ported. This is by and large where we are today. habitats. The people may just refuse to go by when you argue that
One last point: The fundamental truth that responsible manage- the lion tailed monkey ought to be protected in preference to a
ment of our natural endowments is in fact more important in a power project.
poor and heavily populated country than it is in the West is some- This happened in the case of the campaign against Silent Valley
thing that neither the right nor the orthodox left in India has ever hydroelectric project in Kerala (India) that focused too much on
understood. the monkeys. Yet Silent Valley was saved owing to multi-faced
campaigns launched by Non-Governmental Organisations and
Code Of Ethics For Environmental Journalists
The Hindu, Indias National Newspaper. However, politicians
The following Code of Ethics was ratified at the 6th
still raise the debate whether monkeys or human beings were
World Congress of Environmental Journalists held in
important. They manage with these kinds of argument because
Colombo, Sri Lanka, on October 19 - 23, 1998.
the public are not fully aware of the biological wealth of Silent
1. The right to a clean environment and sustainable development Valley and how that wealth relates to them and the future genera-
is fundamental and is closely connected to the right to life and tions. (Silent Valley is now a World Heritage site).
good health and well being. The environmental journalist
A few years ago, a newspaper report on the proposed
should inform the public about the threats to the environment
Vamanapuram Irrigation Project in Thiruvananthapuram spoke
- whether it is at the global, regional, national or local level.
of the harm the project would cause to the Nilgiri tahr (ibex) on
2. Often the media is the only source of information on the the Ponmudi Mountains. Such reports can even be counter-pro-
environment. The journalists duty is to heighten the awareness ductive not only because it projected a flagship species but also
of the public on environmental issues. The journalist should because the argument was far fetched.
strive to report a plurality of views on the environment.
The Kallar Valley, and the river on which the dam of the
3. By informing the public, the journalist plays a vital role in Vamanapuram Project was to be built, is lying at an elevation of
enabling people to resort to action in protecting their less than 300 metres whereas the ibex lived at an elevation of
environment. The journalists duty is not only in alerting people about 900 metres. There was little chance of the tahr being directly
about their endangered environment at the outset, but also in affected by the project. Moreover, ibex has almost ceased to be an
following up such threats and keeping them posted about endangered species on account of conservation measures under-
developments. Journalists should also attempt to write on taken in the past. The population at Ponmudi was not that critical.
possible solutions to environmental problems. All that one could say was that some forests would be lost on the
4. The journalists should not be influenced on these issues by lower elevation and this would have some effect on their habitat
vested interests - whether they are commercial, political, and at the top of the mountains.
government or non-governmental. The journalist ought to Loss of forests and its distant effects, unfortunately, are not argu-
keep a distance from such interests and not ally with them. As ments that would be fully appreciated by many readers. However,
a rule journalists should report all sides in any environmental in the case of the forests of Kallar Valley, there was a something
controversy. more to say. The Valley was one of the few remaining forested
5. The journalist should as far as possible cite sources of low lying valleys in Kerala. The State has more than 30 valleys that
information and avoid alarmist or speculative reportage and lie at an elevation of less than 300 metres above the mean sea level.
tendentious comment. He or she should crosscheck the Almost all of them were forested over a century ago. But, people
authenticity of a source, whether commercial, official or non- have cleared them for farming. The import would still be obvious
governmental. only to a trained scientist unless the reporter adds a few scientific
6. The environmental journalist should foster equity in access to facts in plain language. Different types of plants grow at different
such information and help organizations and individuals to elevations. Plants found at low elevation would not grow at higher
gain it. Electronic retrieval of data can provide a useful and elevations, say, the Ponmudi mountains.
egalitarian tool in this regard.
109
Relate the issue to people Suggested Readings
The reporter has to add something more that would relate the Keval J kumar: Mass Communication in India, Jaico
issue to daily lives of people. One fact is that many of our medici- Publishing House
nal plants grow at this elevation and many medicinal herbs are
now found only in the forests. Well, our ancestors were conscious
of these things when they colonised the valleys. So, they pre-
served some areas as sacred groves and gave a religious aura to it
so that none would destroy them. Even in those groves, sacred
trees like Koovalam, which has medicinal value, have become rare.
For the man on the street, the ayurvedic medicines would be
important, but not necessarily for the policy maker. Here, eco-
nomics may be an area they would understand better than
environment. Kerala had invested over Rs. 1000 crores on major
irrigation projects during the past forty years. The rate of return
Notes
has not been even one per cent. So, why invest on another project?
The project was conceived years ago to irrigate paddy fields. These
fields have since been converted into garden lands...
So, if you are writing about the impact of the proposed hydro-
electric project at Pooyamkutty in Idukki district, the impact on
the reed economy based on the Pooyamkutty forests would be a
better argument than the species diversity of the forests. The
locals may be concerned about the earthquakes and over two dozen
dams spotting the district. The cause of tribals too cannot be
ignored anymore. The fact that the forest that will be submerged
by the reservoir is a corridor for the elephants may concern the
environmentalists. But that may not carry conviction with many
others.
Listen to the people first
The most important thing is that the journalist, who wishes to
communicate environmental issues to the people, should hear
the people first. The people of Kallar had been agitating against
the project for long. What were there arguments? Was there some-
thing deeper than the environmental arguments they projected in
their leaflets?
Frequent contacts with the affected people are a must for anyone
covering environmental issues. This also means that the reporter
visits the areas involved including forests before shooting off
conclusions based on known arguments in favour of protecting
the environment. Each case can have something more than that
meets the eye. These days, even vested interests pose as nature
lovers. Some commercial interests cleverly promote the cause of
environment with hidden objectives. Sometimes this would be
to hide their own sins or to put down competitors. Some envi-
ronmental organisations raise a bogey of protest over every issue
just to keep themselves afloat.
When reporters cannot visit, sincere activists with a sense of pro-
portion can be source to learn about field level developments. The
leaders of mainstream environmental organisations should not
be depended upon for this, as their own information would be
secondary. They are better when you need a few quotes.
Review Questions:
What role is media playing in spreading awareness for
environment?
What are the basic strategies involved in reporting
environmental issues?
110
ANNEXURE - I
Indian Television in the Era of in 60 such a circumstance. These cultural goods are different from
Globalisation: Unity, other goods and services, and deserve different and/or exceptional
Diversity or Disparity? treatment. This differential treatment has to reflect even in the
international trade agreements and in the demands for effective
Mira Kapil Desai
and strong regulatory frameworks to redefine cultural policies
With globalisation, privatisation and liberalisation, transnational focusing on the promotion and development of cultural
media flow and content have increased enormously, especially in industries.
the third world countries leading to the threat to local
As tariffs, quotas, import licensing, and other long visible trade
communication-media industry.
barriers come down, other concerns become more obvious. The
With the GAT/WTO agreements, the issue of cultural cultural exception is just one of the possible means for achieving
exception/protection of the audio-visual sector is a main concern this objective of promoting cultural diversity (http://
to many governments including India. www.unesco.org/culture/industries/trade/ h t m l _ e n g /
This paper elaborates about the Government response to question18.shtml#18). Government regulations, quotas,
developments of transnationaltransborder- satellite television in exemption and concessions, subsidies, supply restrictions, and
the country and examines the issues of diversity in the Indian intellectual property protections are few of the responses for cultural
television scene. The paper examines the role of the Indian state protection-exception to counter fears of cultural homogenisation.
in the times of cultural homogenisation and assesses whether Sinclair (1997) comments that the STARs strategy ofgoing local
Indian television in the era ofglobalisation projects cultural unity, shows how much language and culture have emerged as tangible
diversity or disparity. The paper discusses unity, diversity or disparity markets. Hamelink (1994: 111) commented, A basic ingredient
in terms of language, religion, access and division in Indian media is missing for global culture. Culture provides people with a sense
environment in the era of globalisation. of identity, a past, destiny and dignity. Culture is bound to time
Background and space. Global culture is inherently weak as it has no historical
Last decade refers to global connectivity, compression of time and spatial locationbut there undoubtedly is a process of cultural
and space and market ruling over the State. All over the world globalisation. The trends of localisation, cultural adaptation of
remarkable changes and challenges marked the end of the twentieth global products and the role of language in regionalisation support
century. The changes mainly in technology of communication Hamelinks comment.
and transportation, deregulation of capital, liberalisation and From the audience perspective, younger generations are growing
desire of cultural exchanges and challenges to regulate for the up watching the western content values and understand little of
reluctant State, global competition, market driven economy and their indigenous media (Varma, 2000). Commercialisation, the
increasing interdependence of global economy are realities of the diminishing role of the State, the threats to public service
nineties. Globalisation increasingly brought the realisation that broadcasters and the impact of western contents on domestic
the State is loosing power and freedom of action and an productions in form of genres, formats or production values
unprecedented movement of cultural homogenisation is taking (Sereberny- Mohammadi 1991, Richards, 2000) are all facts
place across the globe. indicating that protection measures are required. Canada, China,
UNESCO comments that as the globalisation of markets, Australia and France are few examples where parameters exist to
technology and information sweeps the world, growing ensure local content on television to restrict different types of
homogenisation is countered by accelerating fragmentation: people foreign programmes. Against this trend, India, Philippines,
are brought increasingly together at the same time they are driven Thailand, Hong Kong and Japan are few of the countries that
apart. The twentieth century has been the most disastrous in have opted for an open sky policy.
human history in social and political terms. Emergence of culture This paper examines the post-1990 developments in India on the
is an important factor in determining the status of an individual television front. It elaborates on the Government response to the
in society or of a nation in the world is a matter of great significance development of transnational-transbordersatellite television in
Singh (1998). the country and examines the issues of unity, diversity and
Audiovisual landscapes encompassing television, radio, cinema, disparities in the Indian television scene.
video game and multimedia sectors in respect of both production India - A case in Point
and distribution/broadcasting (including cable and satellite) and India has a pluralistic character in terms of ideas, languages, forms
other areas of culture (publishing, the arts, cultural institutes and of worship, architecture, agricultural practices, dress, handicrafts,
heritage) have a special role to play in any society. These sectors medicine, industry, science and instruments of production and
often referred to as cultural industry face the threat of consumption. Apart from more than six religious orientations,
imperialism all the more in the era of globalisation. Public policies the language scenario in India is very complex. There are 1562
of legislative, regulatory or financial measures put in place by the mother tongues, 10 writing systems, 76 languages in the school
State in co-operation with other parties are of special importance
111
system out of 2000 codified languages. The Indian constitution History of television in India dates back to 15th September 1959,
recognises 18 languages in its schedule eighth spoken by 98% when experimental telecasts from radio stations began due to a
population. Vijayanunni (1999) reports that nearly 20 per cent of grant from UNESCO (UNESCO 1953, Bhatt 1994). A one-hour
the population in India is bilingual while just over seven percent transmission service became regular exactly after six years with a
is trilingual. daily news bulletin in 1965. SITE was the first step in the direction
The Indian media mosaic is diverse yet unified. Folk forms of of satellite television in India. Little happened in Indian television
dance, music, oral traditions, story telling and Government control prior to Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE), an
from newsprint to telecommunication unite Indian media. experimental six-state initiative in television-based communication
Another common factor is the Indian film industry that started in for social and development communication. Indian television was
the country almost at the same time as it did in the world. Since separated from Indian radio in 1976.
1912, India has indigenously developed a culturally rooted film Television sets :
industry, which makes the largest number of films in the world.
In 1962 there were only 41 sets in the country that rose to 2,75,424
Indian film industry has been a strong influence on the rest of the
in 1974 and boomed to 4,76,026 (173%) in the next two years.
media. Radio, television and music industry rely heavily on Indian
The last official figure of television sets in the country by 1984 was
film industry. The American hegemony of Hollywood has never
36,32,328 since the policy of licensing of television sets was called
bothered the Indian audio-visual market. Interestingly enough,
off in 1985. Table-2 in the Annexes notes the developments
Indian film industry is further divided into two broad categories-
thereafter with a total of 74.71 million sets in the country today,
a northern one (mainly Hindi, the Indian national language) and
57.72 million of which are black & white and 16.99 million are
a southern (languages of the southern states).
colour sets. Prior to 1983, 28 per cent of the Indian population
India is one of the few nations with capabilities in satellite mainly in metropolis (except SITE areas) had access to television.
technology having influenced developments on the television front. The proportion increased to 53 per cent in 1985, 62 per cent by
Table-1 in the Annexes notes the satellite launches by the 1988 and today it covers almost 90 per cent of the countrys
Government of India. Post-1990 satellite television in India has population.
become transnational in nature. It coincided with the entry of
Video & Cable boom:
multinational companies in the Indian markets under the
Video boom, cable television and dish antennas in five-star hotels
Government policy of privatisation. The implications were private
were few of the factors facilitating the change of face of satellite
ownership in disguised forms, absence of censorship or any such
television in India in the early eighties. In less than five years, from
controls, autonomy and 61 Monographic: Indian Television in
1984 to 1989, the penetration of video moved from the capital
the Era of Globalisation: Unity, Diversity or Disparity?
down to the districts and villages (Shah 1997, Agrawal 1991).
commercialisation of the medium and economic, political and
Enterprising individuals in apartment blocks placed a video in
cultural implications of transnational messages. The concept of
their homes or their garages and started offering a cable TV service
television as an intimate and family medium is being utilized to
to people in their vicinity. Cable television appeared in the United
its fullest to influence the rapidly expanding middle class in India
States in late 1940s and grew by 1967 for a different purpose, to
(estimated to be 222-250 million of the 535 million people with
deliver over-the-air television signals to areas where reception was
access to television). Today 535.4 million people have access to
inadequate because of topography or distance. Even in most west-
television in a country of 100 million people.
ern European countries it was limited to relay transmission of
Nowadays Indian television means regional television networks, broadcast signals in the eighties. In India it appears in the early
language channels, country/language approach by commercial eighties for altogether different purpose, to deliver mass enter-
broadcasters and preference for public service broadcaster due to tainment needs of audiences who can afford cable connection
economic and other considerations by Indian audiences. Indian (Jehoram, 1983). The growth of cable television homes in urban
television also means confusion for national identity, lack of India indicates a rise from 0.41 million in 1992 to 40 million in
language representation, division of urban-rural areas, co-existence 2002 as noted in the Table-3.
of private and public systems, dilemmas of prioritisation of
Cable operators are an important link in Indian television
education upon entertainment, development over market and so
distribution. A cable operator using dish antennas receives
on. India is in this context a very interesting case in point for
programmes and redistributes them to individual household
cultural diversity debate as the diversity inherently brings
subscribers through a cable network. The costs are distributed to
complexities.
such a great extent that the subscriber can receive an average of 40
Television in India channels for a monthly subscription fee of about 1.25 Euros to
Television was initiated in most developing countries including 8.50 Euros after paying some installation charges.
India mainly due to a political will (UNESCO 1953 and 1964, India opted for the British model of broadcasting. Parallel to the
Katz & Wedell 1977). It accomplished technical efficiency over the entertainment-driven market model of television, India 62
years (from black and white to colour, portable television sets, Quaderns del CAC: Issue 14 has also a number of ongoing
television broadcasting by satellites, development of cable educational and social communication experiments mainly
television), establishing itself in the society due to private through the Development and Educational Communication Unit,
investment in television sets and finally strengthening its presence Indian Space Research Association. The notable ones are
because of advertisers interest in the medium since 1976, when GRAMSAT (Gramin Satellite- Accelerating the pace of Rural
the first advertisement was aired on Indian television.
112
Development), Jhabua Development Communication Project, the Communication Convergence bill was introduced by the

Training and Development Communication Channel, GyanVani- Department of Telecommunications to promote, facilitate and
educational radio and television services. develop in an orderly manner the carriage and content of
communications (including broadcasting, telecommutonication,
Response of the Indian Government
and multimedia), for the establishment of an autonomous
Up to 1991 the television broadcasting in India meant that the
Commission to regulate all forms of communications, and for
Indian State controlled the nation-wide network, DoorDarshan.
the establishment of an Appellate Tribunal and to provide for
By 1991 satellite television took the form of transnational
matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. On December
television with telecast of Gulf war by CNN. McDowell (1997:
1, 2002, the Communications Minister reported that the
168) notes that more channels, cable television distribution
Government is not in a hurry and the decision will be taken by
regulation, together with some programming changes highlight
May 2003.
the Government of Indias response and policy choices in 1990s.
According to India Today dated 31st March 1992, an internal report Unity, Disparity or Diversity? The Complexities
of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting had predicated Language:
as early as February 1991 that Programmes specifically targeted at
Indian audiences are likely to be beamed from foreign satellites in The language landscape in India is very 63 Monographic: Indian
the near future. The reactions of theGovernment of India in the Television in the Era of Globalisation: Unity, Diversity or Disparity?
print media during that time were that there is no threat (Indian complex. There is a large number of population, which knows
Express 1992, The Times of India 1992). As Reddi (1996: 243) English. At the same time, the southern part of India was always
notes, inaction is the best condition for private enterprises to marginalized in the process to promote national language Hindi-
flourish, and they are now unstoppable. centric, Delhi-centric programming (Singhal & Rogers, 2001: 98).
With their great success, private satellite channels created history in
DoorDarshan underwent major changes in the period from 1993 southern India due to a preference for the language, quality of
to 1998. Tracey (1998) notes, the shift of emphasis o n programme content, availability of preferred programming types
DoorDarshan within the overall context of growing or through identification with the socio-cultural context
commercialisation of media in India (and even many other (Muppiddi, 1999). DoorDarshan has regional language channels
developing countries across globe). The historic judgement of in 15 languages but they are available through cable. Only nine
the Indian Supreme Court on airwaves in 1995 stated: air waves languages are represented through private satellite channels. Many
or frequencies are public property. Their use had to be controlled satellite channels in India today are bilingual. Thussu, taking a case
and regulated by a public authority in the interest of the public of Hinglish (Hindi + English) comments that its use has been
and to prevent invasion of their rights. Laws, rules and the contributory factor in the expansion of Indian television
regulations do exist in India, but on the whole they facilitate the outside the borders of the country and expresses his concern
reception of foreign satellite programmes; the Indian state actually because an increasing emphasis on entertainment-led Hinglish
actively mediated the process (McDowell, 1997: 155). Prasar television may be cause of celebration for post-modern view of a
Bharati Act of 1990 provided for the establishment of a culturally hybrid, globalised world resulting in a linguistic and
Broadcasting Corporation for India, to be known as Prasar Bharati, intellectual confusion that may trivialise the vital public concerns
to define its composition, functions and powers and to provide (2000: 308).
for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. In 1991,
the government of the Congress (political party then in power) Religion:
re-examined the Prasar Bharati Act of 1990 to fight the fear of Culture in Indian television is still framed under the mainstream
competition from private television channels. of Hindu identity with a high rate of mythological features.
After the initial licensing of dish antennas to restrict satellite Mostly Hindu, highly urbanizedupper middle class representations
television, the Government came up with distribution regulation and stereotyping of religious identity is the core content of the
in form of Cable Television Network Regulation Bill (1994) and television programming. Myths like Ramayana and Mahabharat
the Act was passed in 1995. The Government started taxing cable played a significant role in promoting Hindu-centric national
operators in a bid to generate revenues. The rates rose by 35 percent identity (Mitra 1993, Rajagopal 2000). DoorDarshan as per the
in 26 states of India. The Act made is mandatory for the Cable programming code never named any community but international
operators, who must register their companies in the Post Office broadcasters do not follow that code. Shield & Muppiddi (1996:
and pay entertainment taxes. More significantly, the Act made 19) conclude, The plurality of representations (post-
transmission of at least two DoorDarshan channels obligatory, 1990)would render ineffective any attempts at propagating a
and drew up a programming and advertising code, the adherence highly selective version of national identity and culture.
to which would be the responsibility of the operator. Access:
Indian governments stand to technological developments is clear The television landscape of four Asian countries (Senstrup &
from the New Telecom Policy 1999 of BJP Government which Goonasekera, 1994) revealed that of the four countries under
reads, The Indian telecommunications system continues to be study compared to Korea and Australia where 99.9 and 99 percent
governed by the provisions of the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 households have television sets, India has only 20 per cent house-
(ITA 1885) and the Indian Wireless Act, 1933. Substantial changes holds with one television. Seventy percent of the television sets in
have taken place in the telecommunications sector since 1992. ITA India are black & white and the disparity across and within the
1885 needs to be replaced with a more forward looking Act. In2001 states range from 86 per cent B&W (in Bihar) to 32 percent B&W
113
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Table 5. Milestones of Television in India
Table 6. Acts & Regulations for cable & television in India
116
ANNEXURE - II
Media & Violence organizations by surprise. However, they become events for the
news channels to garner more viewers or establish their supremacy
Role of Indian TV news channels in Gujarat violence over their rivals. Consequently, passions run high than the logic in
How fair is the role of Media on sensitive issues? TV News deciding over the content of the reports. Some of the best
channels need deeper understanding. examples to prove it included events such as Musharrafs visit to
The media mirrors the society. No one will differ on this. Perhaps India, or terrorist attack in New York or the US attack on Taliban
this is the logic, which is at work in most of the news organizations. or attack on parliament, or exit polls or the four-state election
But what does Society mean to media presumably the coverage or lastly the violence in Gujarat. In each case if we saw
world around Politicians, Bureaucrats, Mafia and Tycoons. So, some semblance of balanced reporting, there were also innumerable
where does the rest of the populace fit in? Possibly nowhere. instances of irresponsible discussions in the studio, exaggerated
Rightly so. If the national political agenda is not committed to the reporting and often stretched out biased coverage.
countrys saner and less privileged class, how could this class be on The striking example of intemperate coverage was the recent
the agenda of the media too. violence in Gujarat. For days all the news channels irrespective of
The existing political class or the bureaucracy or the mafia or even the content of the story chose to show the same provocative
the tycoons are seen hands in glove and what they signify is nothing visuals of burning shops, petrified citizens and above all the genesis
but the crass degeneration in their conduct, dealings and lifestyle. of the causethe gutted railway compartment. Even now the
And since the media also functions around them it also reflects television reports on returning bonhomie in Gujarat carry opening
only degeneration in the values and the society as a whole. visuals of torched vehicles, gutted shops or houses and mob
violence. As said earlier perhaps those working in the news channels
Perhaps what the media has forgotten is, that besides mirroring
do not realize that their provocative selection of visuals even in a
the realities in the name of bringing forth the truth, it also has its
positive story only perpetuate hatred and animosity as a grim
responsibility towards shaping up the society. This is possible
reminder of the haunting past.
only when the media realizes the significance and prefer good
examples over bad examples, which co-exist in the society. Undeniably, the impact of television is enormous. The viewers
view all the visuals on the screen as of high integrity. They do not
At no stage it is being suggested that the media should stop
distinguish them as stock or fresh visuals. Any visual in the report
playing its role of a watchdog. But the role of just being a watchdog
is seen as a visual of that moment. And they are subject to
is not sufficient when the country is under attack from all corners
interpretation, provocation and perception. With this background
by the divisive forces. But in the frenzy of browbeating each other,
if the coverage of Gujarat violence is seen, most of the news
the television channels fork out reports with sensitive visuals in
channels may have succeeded in reporting facts but all of them
the name of factual reporting without realizing that they also carry
failed in their other role of restoring sanity.
streaks of interpretation, provocation and perception.
There is no doubt that the Gujarat government earned its
One such example is the recent telecast of exit polls. The way the
indefensible criticism from the newspapers and the news channels
exit poll telecast was heaped on the nation so irresponsibly by the
for its inappropriate and inefficient handling of the mob frenzy.
news channels made only mockery of the electoral process. Worst
Worst, the Narendra Modi government tried to dismiss the entire
still, instead of accepting the folly for being so wide off the mark
holocaust as an outcome of flared up passions. But in its
each channel tried to earn laurels by claiming to be close to that
overzealousness to corner the state government for its laxity, the
wide off the mark denouement.
news channels did not exercise any restraint either. If the truth
It is in this background the recent coverage of the Gujarat carnage cannot be a subject to negotiation so is the national interest.
by the news channels needs to be debated and dissected. The Objectivity is perhaps incomplete without responsibility.
coverage of tragic events in Gujarat has undoubtedly raised some
Therefore, the responsibility of the news channels was not merely
very fundamental questions with regard to ethical standards.
to report what happened in Gujarat from all angles but also to
Ostensibly, the fierce competition to stay ahead in the race of first
play the role of a catalyst by uniting saner but strong voices against
with the news seems to have taken away the sense of
the mindless carnage. Television news channels have an
responsibility towards the community, society and the nation as a
unquestionable power of swaying opinions and it should be used
whole.
to shape up the public opinion on matters of great national
Knowing the challenges of meeting on air deadlines and the significance rather than adding fuel to fire that serves the interest
pressures in the newsroom, it is virtually impossible to plug of the power mongers only, not of the people at large. The news
gaping holes in the functioning of the news channels. The first channels therefore needed to tread the path carefully.
causality in the process is the objectivity of the report. Any major
Most of the news channels somehow survive event to event.
event or incident always grabs the focus of all the news channels.
They only await events to arrive and then go whole hog on covering
Mostly tragic events or incidents take everyone including the news
them. But once the event dies down it also vanishes from the
117
priority of the news channels. As if the issue is settled or resolved. televised violence, indeed, does have an adverse effect on
No channel so far has done any in depth report on the causes that certain members of our society (1) Other scientific bodies have
led them to predict wrong opinion polls. I think people were come to similar conclusions. Six major professional societies in
quite sure of their decision so far as their vote was concerned. If at the United Statesthe American Psychological Association, the
all anything proved wrong it was pollsters predictions and American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Academy of
whatever methodology in judging the mood of the people. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, the American Medical Associa-
Perhaps what the news channels should understand that unlike tion, the American Academy of Family Physicians, and the
the newspapers their audience is far and wide and they need to American Psychiatric Association recently concluded that the
establish realistic relationship with the real issues of the people. data point overwhelmingly to a causal connection between
Newspapers even with their limited reach have been playing the media violence and aggressive behavior in some children (2)
role of setting up peoples agenda in the larger interest of the In a report on page 2468 of this issue, Johnson and colleagues
society. Some of the recent examples are vigorous campaigns run (3) present important evidence showing that extensive TV
by some newspapers against pollution, human rights violation, viewing among adolescents and young adults is associated with
civil liberties, law and order, drought, child sale in Kalahandi etc. subsequent aggressive acts. Despite the consensus among
experts, lay people do not seem to be getting the message from
But the television news channels which have far greater potential
the popular press that media violence contributes to a more
to play much more critical role besides just airing day-to-day
violent society. We recently demonstrated that even as the
happenings, have still to go deeper into the issues, in order to
scientific evidence linking media violence to aggression has
protect the interest of the society.
accumulated, news reports about the effects of media violence
Gujarat violence is not just another case of communal disharmony. have shifted to weaker statements, implying that there is little
It has caused serious fissures in the social fabric of our country. It evidence for such effects (4) This inaccurate reporting in the
will emerge into far serious implications in the future. The nation popular press may account for continuing controversy long after
must be made aware of this. Perhaps, the news channels must the debate should have been over, much as the cigarette
elicit support of people in arresting the likely damage by creating smoking/cancer controversy persisted long after the scientific
the larger awareness through the positive and saner voices. community knew that smoking causes cancer.
Too much of attention on Ram Janambhoomi and Babri Masjid Aggression researchers have adopted a triangulation
as part of the traditional obsession of the news channels has been strategy to examine the effects of violence in the media.
responsible for vitiating the atmosphere. Crude rhetorics by people Specifically, divergent research methods have been applied in the
in colourful robes on one hand make a very interesting television belief that using several unique methodological approaches
story. While on the other people in white or in saffron make a yields a clearer picture than would be possible with any single
mileage out of it. The news channels are used and the nation or method. Results of a meta-analysis of all available studies
the society pays the cost. investigating the hypothesis that exposure to media violence
The time has come when the television news channels must increases aggression are displayed in the figure (4). A positive
understand the power of the medium and shift their attention link between media violence and aggression regardless of
on those people and issues, who are agents of positive change research method is clearly shown (see the figure). Experimental
and development. If politics is a necessary evil for the democratic studies demonstrate a causal link. Laboratory experiments yield
functioning, evils like economic, social and cultural disparity also slightly larger effects than other studies, presumably because of
need to be addressed with strong grit and determination. The greater control over irrelevant factors (see the figure).
focus of news channels, therefore, should also shift to issues like
poverty, livelihood, education, health, technology, employment,
efficiency, discipline, values etc.
It is important that the television news channels must think over
it to arrive at some definite code of ethics and standards. There is
need for consensus at least on those sensitive matters, which
concern the national stability, unity, security, communal harmony
and above all national development. Moreover to keep the
credibility and integrity intact the news channels must also evolve
standard and practices while covering events and issues such as
communal violence, ethnic conflicts and public morality.
(The writer, who was editor of Zee News and Star TV Interactive,
is currently Managing Editor, Media4Community.Com)
The Effects of Media Violence on Society
Craig A. Anderson and Brad J. Bushman
Concerns about the negative effects of prolonged exposure to
violent television programming emerged shortly after broad-
casting began in 1946. By 1972 sufficient empirical evidence had
accumulated for the U.S. Surgeon General to comment that
118
Media violence and aggression

Effects of media violence on aggression for different types of
studies. Diamond widths are proportional to the number of
independent samples. There were 46 longitudinal samples in-
volving 4975 participants, 86 cross-sectional samples involving
37,341 participants, 28 field experiment samples involving 1976
participants, and 124 laboratory experiment samples involving
7305 participants. Red lines indicate the mean effect sizes. Blue
lines indicate a 95% confidence interval. Note that zero (dashed
line, indicating no effect) is excluded from all confidence intervals.
Field experiments demonstrate causal effects in naturalistic set-
tings. Cross-sectional studies demonstrate a positive association
between media violence and types of real-world aggression (for
example, assault) that cannot be studied ethically in experimental
settings. Longitudinal studies reveal long-term effects of early
media violence exposure on later aggressive acts. These effects are
not trivial in magnitude. For example, they are larger than the
effects of calcium intake on bone mass or of lead exposure on IQ
in children (4). Interestingly, recent work demonstrates similar-
sized effects of violent video games on aggression (5). The
longitudinal study by Johnson and colleagues (3) is important for
at least three reasons. It is the first published longitudinal study
to link television exposure during adolescence and young adult-
hood to subsequent aggression, contradicting the common
assumption that media violence affects only children. It therefore
adds to extant research linking childhood TV habits to adult ag-
gression and violence (6, 7). Second, its relatively large sample size
707 families) and time span 17 years) allowed a meaningful test of
television exposure on severe aggressive behaviors (such as as-
sault and robbery). Third, by statistically controlling for key
childhood factors known to affect aggression (including child-
hood neglect, family income, neighborhood violence, parental
education, and psychiatric disorders) the investigators were able to
rule out numerous alternative explanations. One potential prob-
lem with the Johnson et al. study is the use of hours of TV
viewing, rather than hours of viewing violent TV. This is some-
what problematic because the primary source of TV viewing effects
on aggression is believed to be violent content. However, about
60% of TV programs contain violence, so the number of TV
hours correlates closely with the number of violent TV hours (8).
Thus, the use of TV viewing hours in this study probably under-
estimates the effects of TV violence. Recent theory about human
aggression suggests at least two approaches to reducing media-
related aggression (9). One involves reducing exposure to violent
media. Robinson and colleagues reported one such intervention
that significantly reduced aggression among third and fourth grad-
ers over a 6-month period (10). The other approach involves
changing childrens attitudes toward media violence. Huesmann
successfully used this approach to reduce aggression in first and
third graders over a 2-year period (11). The study by Johnson and
colleagues suggests that media violence affects a larger group of
people than previously believed, and that interventions for ado-
lescents might also be beneficial. Such approaches are needed
because a heavy diet of media violence contributes to a societal
violence rate that is unnecessarily obese.
119
ANNEXURE - III
YOUTH, RADIO AND SOCIAL tribal audiences in South India. The level of access to different
TRANSFORMATION forms of electronic media such as radio, terrestrial television, cable
and satellite television, is further determined by a number of
Thomas J Yesudhasan
factors, as discussed below.
Media and Communication Studies, Curtin University of
However, it is important to say why I am focussing on the young
Technology Sarawak Campus, Malaysia
rather than other age groups. It is clear that the young tribal audi-
Abstract ences of today had grown up in a media environment completely
The core of this paper is that radio remains an important different to that of their parents. They are, for example, much
communication tool for tribal communities living in remote hill more confident than their mothers in handling media technology.
areas of South India. Some of the more salient findings relate to Moreover, they are more discriminating in their media consump-
media uses and preferences of people, suggesting that tion in that they listen or watch what they want to hear or see
sophisticated negotiations take place between audiences and media. rather for some social, economic purpose. Thus, entertainment is
These include suspicion of television and its impact upon work the principle genre of the young. However, in the context of
practices and education, the organization of time and space to remote tribal communities this behavior may be regarded as quite
accommodate radio and television into peoples busy daily lives, radical. It is for these reasons that I focus on the young and their
and the recognition that radio may be a more innovative medium media consumption.
than television. These conclusions have been reached from an in The data was collected using in-depth interviews, participant ob-
depth qualitative audience ethnographic study of three tribal servation, field notes, focus groups and from secondary
communities in Southern India. The Toda, Kota and Kannikaran documents. A total of 37 children have been interviewed for this
are tribal communities living in Tamil Nadu, South India. The project.
Toda and Kota live in the Nilgiri Hills. The Kannikaran live in
My analysis of the media usage of tribal children is largely based
Kanyakumari district, the most Southern tip of India.
on the patterns of television and radio set ownership within the
This paper critically analyses how tribal audiences use the Toda community. The data reveals there are four categories of
neighboring low power radio stations, Ooty Radio Station (ORS), audiences among the Toda children:
and Nagercoil Radio Station (NRS) of state-funded All India
1. Children whose families do not own a radio or television set;
Radio (AIR). It also explores how these stations ensure audience
participation. Introduced in 1993, ORS is the only radio station 2. Children whose families own only a radio set;
located near the tribal communities in the Nilgiris hill area and 3. Children whose families own both a radio and a television set;
serves distinctively like a community radio. ORS serves an 4. Children whose families own only a television set;
empowering role to the tribal communities by encouraging
The focus on the place of radio and television in the life of children,
innovative feedback and audience participation. Its remit also
teenagers and the elderly, the three neglected groups of audience
includes cultural development and democratization of tribal
studies in Southern India is important, as it broadens the scope
communities living in the Nilgiris.
of this study, making its findings more reliable.
This paper explores how remote hill audiences use radio in their
everyday lives. All communities have access to national, regional,
local and international radio. The study demonstrates that tribal
people are not just passive listeners but actively engage with radio
for a variety of reasons, especially for agricultural information,
news, entertainment and cultural activities. In a changing
mediascape, where television assumes greater importance as a
cultural tool, radio still remains the medium of first choice for
most tribal communities. This is especially true of women who
use the radio in quite different ways to men. Moreover, age is an
increasing factor in media consumption in these communities.
The young are more familiar with their communication options
than their elders and are increasingly turning to television.
Nevertheless the young still acknowledge that radio is an important
Toda Children
medium in tribal communities.
There is a massive amount of literature about the relationship of
Introduction children to television in the West or developed countries, much
In this paper I will aim to show how age, in particular youth, and of it highly contentious (Buckingham, 1998; Dorr, 1986;). Basically,
the possession of radio sets influences listening patterns amongst the huge number of studies conducted into the perceived effects
120
their neighborhood while they stay within their own houses. Con-

of television on children has been directed at the issue of violence.
Whether this continued exposure to violence on television makes versely, the Kota children could listen to radio broadcasts which
children more violent is the focus of such studies. Studies con- come from neighboring houses, because the Kota houses are
ducted in India often neglected the children living in remote areas located close to one another.
and concentrated on urban children, largely for reasons of access
to these communities but also because tribal children do not
figure in the Indian researchers agenda (CFAR, 2001; Unnikrishnan
& Bajpai, 1996). This material has little direct relevance to the radio
listening and television viewing habits of tribal children in the
remote rural areas of South India. There are very limited overseas
studies conducted on radio and how age influences radio listening
(ABA, 1995; Brown, 1990; Carroll, Silbergleid, Beachum, Perry, &
Pluscht, 1993; Christenson, 1985).
Tribal Children
Toda childrens exposure to the media is different from the adult
exposure. They listen to the radio at different times of the day
compared to their parents and grandparents. More significantly,
A Kota Settlement
children use media principally for entertainment, unlike adult Toda
men, who mainly use radio for information especially agricultural Interestingly, the access to radio by the children of Toda Christian
information. Further, children are faced with the concerns of their families is limited during the weekends because these children go
parents about what impact radio listening and television viewing to churches located in Ooty town. They also spend some of their
will have on their schoolwork and the inability to assist in the spare time during weekends listening to Christian radio broadcasts
house and in the preparation of food. Finally, there is the fact that and Christian songs from tape recorders.
AIR radio produces programs specifically for children, but they While answering a question as to who listens to more radio and
fail to attract the Toda children as anaudience. The reasons for this watches television in his household, Satheesh Kumar replied
are complex, as I will show, but one of the main reasons for the quickly we dont have radio so we dont listen to radio, we dont
failure of AIR to capture its target child audience is because the watch television also. Similarly, cable/satellite television exposure
Toda children prefer to listen to entertainment programs like film is also very limited amongst Toda children. Most of the Toda
songs and drama on the radio. children said they did not have access to cable television in their
settlements. Importantly, the nonavailability of a radio set at
Children whose family do not possess
home, denied children the opportunity to listen to their own
radio or television
traditional tribal music and songs programs on ORS, which are
Children who do not have a radio or television set at home go to very popular amongst the adults. An 11 year- old Toda girl from
their neighbors houses to listen to a tape recorder, or to the radio Koil mund said, we dont have radio at home so we dont listen
or to watch television. When there are no television households to radio. In contrast a 10-year-old Toda girl from Apar mund
in their own settlements, they listen to radio at their neighbors who has a radio at home told me that she listens to tribal songs
house. During school holidays and weekends they also go to from ORS everyday. Ownership of a radio set helps these tribal
neighboring settlements who have television sets. When they go, children to be very close to their own tribal culture. ORS is the first
they mainly watch drama, feature films, and film-based programs. radio station to broadcast tribal cultural songs malai aruvi in
Occasionally, when they visit their relatives from town munds Tamil Nadu and all tribal communities in the Nilgiri hills irrespective
(settlements) they get to watch television and also listen to film of their age listen to this program. In this way, ORS really helps
songs on radio. Power supply is not the only factor that prevents children to learn and be close to their culture and custom. It does
them having access to television. Even in settlements, which have not mean they have no access to their culture without ORS. Radio
power supply, we can find houses that do not have television sets stations are a channel of communication and empowerment to
because of economic reasons. A 12-year-old Toda boy, Pratheesh these communities.
Kuttan, who lives in Atha mund, does not own a radio or television
An 11-year-old Toda girl, who does not have radio or television,
set, because they are poor. He goes to his friends house to listen
who lives in a settlement close to Ooty town, does not listen to
to a tape recorder.
tribal songs or any other entertainment programs like film songs
Since it is not always feasible for Toda boys to visit whenever they or drama. On the other hand, she chooses to visit a neighbors
want to, the exposure to electronic media is very limited. Consid- house that has a television set, to watch film-based entertainment
ering the limited availability of radio and television amongst Toda programs. This is interesting, because the location of a settlement,
settlements, the Toda children still listen to radio in their neighbors also determines what type of exposure children have to media. In
house. The distance between one house to another also deter- this case, since this settlement is located near Ooty town, where
mines the way children use the media in their everyday lives. Often, they have access to television sets, the children have an option of
in Toda and Kannikaran settlements, the dwellings are not closely viewing television programs, whereas the remote settlement
co located, unlike Kota settlements, where thedwellings are lo- children do not have easy access totelevision. Although in a few
cated in close proximity to each other. Consequently it is hard for remote settlements, children walk a long way to another settlement
the Toda and Kannikaran children to listen to radio broadcasts in
121
who have television sets, the frequency of viewing television is Increasingly, children hesitate to visit their neighbors houses to
understandably limited. Vannila, a 10-year- old Toda girl, from watch television, giving priority to their schoolwork. Whilst visit-
the Kuruthukkuli Toda settlement, is studying in primary five. ing the houses of close relatives, especially during school holidays,
She does not have a radio set at home, and listens to the radio at the children tended to stay indoors for a few days to watch televi-
her neighbors house. Although she goes to Attakor mund to sion. Devi Sree, a 12-year-old Toda girl, studying primary six in the
watch film - based programs and drama on television, she likes tribal school, listened to the radio in the morning and evening.
radio and listens to songs, drama and news. She tuned to ORS in the evening and listened to film songs.
Children visit families other than their own communities to listen Tribal song programs on ORS are not very popular amongst the
to radio. Tamil people from the plain work on Toda land and also children. Though ORS encourages adults and youth to participate
live in Toda settlements near the fields. Toda children go to Tamil inthecultural programs,suchas malai aruvi, children did not seem
peoples houses as well to listen to radio. A six-year-old Toda girl, to participate in these programs.
Banu Priya, said she goes to her Tamil neighbors house to listen Again, childrens programs are very limited on ORS, hence are
to radio. Children go to their neighbors house just to listen and at not popular amongst children. Whilst talking about the other
other times their purpose is just to visit their relatives and they members of the family, Devisree added that her father also
will incidentally use that opportunity to listen to radio programs. listens to radio and concentrates on agricultural programs and
An 11-year-old boy from Kadi mund, who is at primary school, news. Children also observed that their mothers who follow
does not have radio at home. He visits his uncles place and listens Christianity restrict other family members from listening to film
to radio. The main point here is that children consider radio- songs. By contrast, Moses, from the Muthunadu settlement,
listening a main activity, like playing with their friends. watches television because this mund is one of the most
prominent settlements of the Todas, having a power supply
Children whose family own only radio
and proper road facilities. Every year the Toda people from all
Obviously children, who only have access to the radio at home, the settlements come to celebrate their cultural festival. This
use radio more than any other medium. Most of the children settlement has few television households. I asked Moses, when
interviewed also felt that their fathers are fond of agricultural he switched on the radio at home did his parents object?
programs on radio. Those children who only had a radio set at
Moses : No, when my father switches on the radio set, my mother
home rarely watched television, and only when they visited their
yells at him.
relatives at town munds. When they go to their relatives house
they mainly prefer to watch film songs and feature films on Researcher: Why?
television. The Toda and Kota parents feel that excessive viewing Toda Boy: My mother is a Christian, therefore she does not like it.
of television will affect their childrens education. Hence, parents Among the Toda Christians, radio listening is largely confined to
control their childrens viewing to avoid excessive television. informative and Christian programs. Nevertheless, the majority
When compared to the Toda children, the Kota children have of the children enjoy film songs on radio. A 10-year-old Toda boy
better access to television, because a limited number of houses who is studying primary four in the Ooty town HPF (Hindustan
have cable/ satellite television. Photo Limited) school, lives in Thalapatheri mund which does
not have a power supply.
He said he has a radio set at home and tunes into the radio at 6.45
am and mainly listens to film songs. His father, who is an agricul-
tural laborer, switches on the radio set in the morning. All the
family members listen to the radio. His three elder sisters, their
two children and his parents listen to radio together as a family.
The main point here is that radio is increasingly considered as a
family medium for certain type of programs such as drama and
also used as an individual medium. For example, the boy in this
family listens to radio drama in the evening along with other
family members and he narrated the whole story-line of a drama
Kota children (along with elders) watching that was broadcast on the previous day. It was very obvious from
television at their neighbors house this boys response that radio really mattered to him and enter-
tained him and his family in the absence of television.
Although an 11-year-old Kota boy, Angara Kambattan, has only
radio at home, he said, I go to my neighbors house to watch Loneliness is one important factor that has increased the amount
television. Seeniji, a 12 year-old Kota girl, who mainly listens to of radio listening. Brown et al. (1990, p.65) argues, based on a
radio, said: survey conducted among 12 to14 year-olds from Southeastern
U.S. cities, that the presence of parents at home has direct influ-
My mother likes radio I like television. Since there are pictures on
ence on teenagers media use. Lack of access to parents, either
television news, I watch television news. because the mother was employed or because no father was in the
Toda children who have access to only radio at home said, no one home, generally increased the time that adolescents spent with
has got television inour settlement so I dont get to watch televi- radio and television. Tribal children in Southern India think that
sion. Children in this category also realized the importance of radio is a good companion when they are alone at home. A 10-
radio, especially during power failures. year-old Toda girl,
122
Samya, was listening to radio in a public open place. It was hot, where the whole family listens at the same time. There were in-

the sun was bright, but she had a bed sheet for a sunshade, and stances where a family sat together to listen to radio dramas.
the radio. When I asked her the reason for her to listen this way, Regarding participation in radio programs, Ratheesh Singh in-
she said, formed me that he had not participated in the Ooty programs.
My mother had gone to my grandmas place, I am all-alone, so I Nevertheless, other members of this Toda settlement had partici-
took the radio to the Mattam[open space in the settlement] and pated in producing and presenting Ooty radio programs.
listening to radio. Although children from both radio and television households
My field notes, observation and interview data reveal that the listen to radio it is clear that children largely watch television. An
limited exposure to other mass media like television, cinema (the- eleven-year-old Toda boy Sinyal Kuttan, who lives in Tharnadu
atres) and newspapers is an important reason for tribal children to mund, has access to radio and television at home. There were
rely on radio for information and entertainment. twelve houses in this settlement, which is a relatively high number
when compared to the other smaller Toda settlements.
Children whose family own both radio and television
Children who had both radio and television sets at home, said
they use more television than radio. My observation of media use
in the field revealed that they used both radio and television.
Although televisions visual impact attracted children, ORS and
its community based radio programs induced tribal families to
keep abreast of local events. Since ORS broadcasts radio programs
that are highly relevant to the tribal audiences of this region, radio
is still in use amongst television-owning households as well.
Children from this category mainly listen to the radio and prefer
mostly film songs and drama.
They largely tune into the radio in the morning, in the evening
they mostly watch television. On television they watch feature
films, drama, serials, other film-based entertainment programs A Toda Settlement
and sport.
Some of the remote Toda settlements have only four to six houses.
One important factor that motivates children to tune to ORS is This is one of the reasons why these settlements are not con-
the participation of their own community in producing and broad- nected to electricity and cable television. Two houses in this
casting programs. One Toda boy tuned into the radio regularly settlement had television and I selected them to see how they
when his family members participated in radio programs. In the used radio in their everyday lives, especially the children. All twelve
same manner, many audience members tend to tune into ORS houses had radio at home. Sinyal Kuttan lives at his grandmas
when the people from their settlement also participated in the place, his native mund is Kavakkadu mund which is located
programs. Whilst talking about news programs, he said that he about ten km from Ooty town. He listens to radio occasionally.
would watch news on television (Tamil news) at 8.30 PM but When it comes to television, he watches cinema, drama and seri-
before that, in the evening, he listens to film songs on Ooty radio als. On Fridays he watches Oliyum Oliyum (film songs from the
between 5.30 and 6 pm. Then he would study for a while and Tamil cinema). On Sundays he watches Sakthimaan (a childrens
watch television after dinner. He set aside time for radio listening serial), Jai Anuman (a mythological serial), and football. When I
as well as television viewing and the radio was still in use even asked him how often the other members of his family listened to
though they have owned a television set for the past two years. radio, he said they mainly use the radio for news and secondly for
During an interview with a 12- year-old boy, Ratheesh Singh, he drama. In his family they tune into all the radio stations. When
was listening to film songs on Ooty radio. Singhs household has one station ends their broadcast they tune into other stations.
owned a radio and television set for the past twelve years. He
However, there are instances where children enjoyed both radio
mainly watches television at home. However, he said that he would
and television at home. There are only two houses in Pagal Kodu
tune to Ooty radio for film songs and listen to programs related
mund, but this settlement has a power supply. I interviewed a 12-
to their community, Malai Aruvi, a tribal song program and radio
year- old boy, who is studying seventh standard, in Tamil medium.
news. Singh does not consciously tune to Malai Aruvi, but when
the family and community at large tune to this program, children They have access to an Onida black and white television and radio
in the settlements also listen to this popular program. at home. He said he switches the radio on during holidays and
listens to radio news, film songs and radio dramas. On television
I asked if he would switch the radio off once the film songs were
he watches Tamil films on Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays. He
over. He said, No, and pointed to the other members of the
also watches Tamil news on Doordarshan at 8.30 p.m. He also has
family saying they would continue listening to radio. Radio lis-
limited exposure to cable television, when he visits his aunts
tening in a family may be selective as well as non-selective. When a
place, near Ooty town at HPF [Hindustan Photo Limited]. He
radio set is on in a household, it does not mean that all members
goes there on a weekly basis to watch cable television. He said he
of that family listen to the program. Some may show interest
loves listening to Tamil film songs on the radio. He also listens to
whereas some may not show any interest at all. However, there are
Ooty radio for drama at night.
some program formats such as drama and film songs programs,
123
Shyamari Kuttan is an eleven year-old boy, who lives in a Toda radio stations and express their feedback on programs. Boys, apart
settlement called Attakormund. This mund has electricity and from sports and informative programs, are more inclined towards
there are three Toda houses in this settlement. He has a television television and visiting their neighboring households and
set at home. Shyamari Kuttan informed me in an interview that settlements to watch television.
he watched television only in the evening for dramas or serials Christianity has led to less exposure of entertainment programs
after 7 p.m., but emphasized that on Sundays he tunes into the both on radio and television. Since children are not given much
radio at 3 p.m. for olichithiram (film stories and dialogue). Radio opportunity to participate in the cultural programs of ORS,
drama is invariably popular, not only among tribal children, but programs such as malai aruvi and yengal giramam are not very
also among adults. However, children who come from families popular among children. Parents control their childrens television
who have televisiontend to opt for television drama and serials. viewing for a better education. Kota children who own only radio
Radio is used in the morning and during noon- time, whereas the at home have the opportunity to visit theirneighbors house to
evening is considered television time. Women and children largely watch television. In contrast, children from Toda and Kannikaran
sit together to watch and enjoy television serials and popular film- settlements are often deprived of television sets, so do not get to
based entertainment programs. While the radio has childrens watch television, hence radio is the main source of information
programs every Sunday from AIR Chennai, the childrens and entertainment.
programs on regional and low-power radio stations are in the
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radio. Many responses like this show that television entertains
and informs them, so children who own only television sets do Address for Correspondence
not bother with the radio and its programs. Dr. Thomas J Yesudhasan
Media and Communication Studies
Conclusion
Curtin University of Technology Sarawak Campus, Malaysia
The observation and analysis of interviews and focus groups CDT 250 98009, Miri, Sarawak
amongst young audiences reveal that radio is widely preferred by Malaysia
young audiences, though children in television households tend Ph: 60-85-443842
to ignore radio. Children who only have access to radio at home [email protected]
use more radio than any other medium. Teenage girls seem to be
more active listeners of radio programs. They write letters to the
124
The lesson content has been compiled from various sources in public domain including but not limited to the
internet for the convenience of the users. The university has no proprietary right on the same.
Jorethang, District Namchi, Sikkim- 737121, India

www.eiilmuniversity.ac.in

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COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES

Management presentations types of presentation video conferencing participation in meetings chairing

The unit will offer a range of theoretical perspectives to under-

Theories of Mass Media

Lesson 1 What is Communication 1

Lesson 4 Intrapersonal Communications 14

Lesson 6 Group Communcaion 21

Lesson 8 Aristotles Model & Laswells Model 28

Lesson 10 Newcombs Model and Gerbners Model 37

Lesson 11 Media in Contemporary India 40

Lesson 12 Traditional Medias 50

Lesson 14 Two step Flow theory,

Lesson 16 Mass Audiences 67

Lesson 17 Communications for Development 74

Lesson 19 Media and Education 84

Lesson 23 Media & Children 103

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

The creation of shared understanding through interaction among

understanding of that which emanated from the source-point.

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

The need for Communication

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

Dimensions of communication such, verbal communication may be spoken or written. These

There is more to communication than just exchanging and sharing

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

communication. They are unspoken and invisible rules governing

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

In informal communication, such as interpersonal and small-

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

A language is the expression of the thoughts and experiences of Wadsworth

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

1. Interpersonal communication is fully transactional. As

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

Introduction : The model proposed by Aristotle is a linear one. In his Rhetoric,

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

The principle criticism of the model is that it only describes

The Shannon-Weaver Model (1949) a decoder

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

and base their responses on prior experience and anticipation of

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

these roles: expansive one in which an organization builds a business on its

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

Emerging trends What is Intranet

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to ensure that their commu- net

how we spend our limited free time. The fundamental values of

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES

COMMUNICA TION PRINCIPLES