Structural Survey

Passive fire protection

Ron Smith,
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Ron Smith, (1993) "Passive fire protection", Structural Survey, Vol. 11 Issue: 2, pp.142-149, https://
doi.org/10.1108/02630809310028503
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 Passive fire protection

R o n S m i t h has spent the past 29 years

actively involved with fire protection
materials and installations both within the
UK and overseas. Prior to this he spent 15
years in an architects' office designing large
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industrial and commercial buildings and

also lectured part-time in the Building
Department at the Southend-on-Sea College
of Technology. Following his retirement in
May 1991 he has worked part-time as the
Technical Consultant for the Association of
Specialist Fire Protection Contractors and
Ron Smith Manufacturers.

Introduction (c) providing safe, adequate means of

From the moment a building begins to escape;
take shape on the drawing board its route (d) providing fire separation between
to completion is inevitably guided by a adjoining or adjacent buildings;
complicated network of statutory regula- (e) controlling the properties of materials
tions which require careful and accurate and their surfaces used in the building.
interpretation.
In general terms there are five major
requirements relating to fire which must The architect (specifier), the building con-
be met when designing a building. They trol officer and the fire officer are primari-
fall into the following categories: ly responsible for ensuring that these
requirements are complied with but,
(a) protecting the structure from collapse invariably, assistance in the design of the
for a specified period; fire protection system or application is
(b) containing fire by sub-dividing large given by the members of the Association
areas into manageable risks (compart- of Specialist Fire Protection Contractors
mentation) and Manufacturers (ASFPCM).

142
 Structural Survey Smith

There are two recognised methods impression; each job will have different
adopted for the specification of passive fire requirements.)
protection applications in the United
Kingdom. These are: Sprays
These are factory blended lightweight site-
(a) those which specifically state which applied materials, based upon vermiculite
materials are to be used. In these spec- or mineral wool and various binders. This
ifications the materials are usually form of passive fire protection is generally
nominated by a brand name, often applied direct to the surface of the steel,
with the added qualification for the and follows the contour of the section,
use of other materials as 'or equal and although it is possible to spray onto an
approved'. expanded metal lathing to form a 'box
(b) those which give the specific period of section'. For internal use these materials
fire resistance required, and which can be applied direct to unprimed steel,
may also give a preferred system; com- but those which can be used externally
monly referred to as performance should only be applied to steelwork which
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specifications. This approach is more has been adequately protected against cor-
likely to be used on large buildings or rosion. The cost range of such materials is
building complexes. from low to medium 6-10 per sq.
m.
This paper considers some of the major
spheres of influence which can affect the Boards
design of the passive fire protection of a These are cut and fitted to the steelwork
building passive fire protection materi- on site using mechanical methods such as
als and applications, fire tests, Building screws, straps and lightweight angles,or arc
Regulations and the possible influence of glued and pinned. Many boards are avail-
future European legislation. able, based upon vermiculite, mineral
wool, calcium silicate, plasterboard or
combinations of materials. It is usual to fix
Passive fire protection materials boards in a 'box configuration' but for
In order to gain acceptance within the very deep steel sections it is advisable to
scope of the Section Factor Concept fix the boards to follow the profile of the
(which is dealt with below under the head- steel. Board systems are particularly suit-
ing 'Fire Resistance Tests'), passive fire able for the protection of columns where
protection materials supplied and installed an accurate line is required for decorative
by ASFPCM members have been subject- purposes. The cost range varies from
ed to British Standard fire tests. In order medium to high 14-24 per sq. m.
to obtain such approvals, 13 steel sections
are tested with varying thickness of fire Intumescents
protective materials and, by means of lin- These specialised decorative coating sys-
ear regression analysis, thicknesses for tems foam or expand in a fire to provide a
varying section sizes and degrees of fire protective carbonaceous char layer. The
protection are calculated. Passive fire resis- materials can be site- or workshop-applied
tant materials can be divided into five and are of particular benefit in cases
main groups. Approximate prices are where an architect wishes to express the
given below and are based on one hours steel structure. They are also suitable for
fire protection (The reader should be use in old buildings where the profile of
aware that these prices give only an cast iron or wrought iron elements must
143
 Structural Survey Smith

be retained to maintain the character of firestops are usually manufactured on site

the building. A variety of colours are to suit specific requirements. The cost is
available. Intumescents are in the cost therefore very high.
range of medium to high 20-30 per
sq. m. Code of Practice
In order to ensure the correct use and
Preformed sections installation of passive fire protection mate-
These are either preformed, or metal rials, the Association of Specialist Fire Pro-
encased board systems which are work- tection Contractors and Manufacturers
shop manufactured to specific sizes has introduced an Industry' Code of Prac-
required for a particular building. Care tice. Copies arc available from the Secre-
must be taken to ensure that the casings tary, ASFPCM, PO Box 111, Aldershot,
are of the correct size, and junctions Hants GU ll 1 YW; Tel 0252 21322; Fax
between the head of a column casing and 0252 333901.
a beam need special attention. These sys-
tems have an attractive decorative appear- British Standard fire tests
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ance, provide good durability, and have

the advantage of speed of application. The It should be emphasised that there is no
cost range is high 40+ per sq. m. such thing as a 'standard fire' but, in
order to determine the performance of
Fire barrier 'quilts' or 'blankets' materials, components or systems in a fire,
The products consist of mineral wool it has been necessary to establish an
fibres treated with resin which when cured acceptable system of standard fire tests
form a loose, lightweight homogeneous and relevant criteria. In the UK, the
mat. The resultant mats arc reinforced BS476 series of fire tests (outlined below)
with 25mm galvanised chicken wire, arc used to define the performance
which is stitched with wire to the face of requirements of passive fire protection
the material. These products, when used materials.
as fire barriers, are normally supported Fire tests can be divided into two main
and fixed with mild steel or slotted angles. sectors under the general headings of
Their main use tends to be for subdividing 'Reaction to fire' and 'Fire Resistance'.
roof spaces into fire resistant compart- The difference between these two groups
ments or to span separating wall/floor is that the Reaction to Fire series of tests
junctions etc. One 50mm thickness will incorporates parts of BS476 which define
provide a half-hour barrier and a double the test requirements for the performance
thickness will provide one hour. These of materials in a fire, and include com-
materials can also be provided with an bustibility, ignitability, fire propagation,
aluminium foil face. The cost range is surface spread of flame, and heat release.
medium to high 30-40 per sq. m. These tests provide data relating to indi-
vidual materials or components.
Penetration seals and firestops Fire Resistance tests, on the other hand,
A combination of various materials to pre- incorporate parts of BS476, but also estab-
vent the passage of smoke and flames, lish the ability of an element of structure
these materials are expected to protect (beam, column, wall, floor) to remain in
openings ranging from small (for one or position, supporting its designed load for a
two pipes), to large openings through given period of time. These tests are based
which many cables or pipes of varying upon a standard time/temperature curve
diameters pass. Penetration seals and for the fire, and are intended to enable

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 Structural Survey Smith
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assessments to be made of how an element BS:476: Part 5 is an ignitability test, a

will perform in a fire. very basic test which establishes whether
While Reaction to Fire tests are impor- or not a material continues to flame for
tant, it is not intended to discuss them in more than 10 seconds after a small flame
greater detail here, but merely list the des- has been removed from the surface.
ignated number of the test and its basic BS:476: Part 6 is the fire propagation
objective(s). test (rate of heat release) which provides a
means of measuring the contribution that
Reaction to Fire tests - s u m m a r y a burning material makes to a developing
BS476: Part 4 is the combustibility test fire. This test is used, in conjunction with
to determine if a material or component BS 476: Part 7 to establish if a material
can be classified non-combustible. There is can be designated Class 'O' as defined in
no 'halfway house' with the results, as a the Building Regulations.
material will be classified combustible or BS 476: Part 7, the surface of flame test,
non-combustible. A material composed determines the extent of flamespread
throughout of non-combustible or low across the surface of a material caused by
combustible material is classified as Class radiant heat, for a given period of time. A
' O ' in the Building Regulations. pilot flame is applied to the material for

145
 Structural Survey Smith

one minute at the beginning of the test,

and resultant classifications are given as
Class 1, 2, 3 or 4. A Class 1 performance
in this test, coupled with a fire propaga-
tion index not exceeding 12 and a sub-
index not exceeding 6 to BS476: Part 6,
will enable a material to be classified as
Class ' O ' .
BS476: Part 11, is used to assess 'limited
combustibility' and Part 13 establishes
methods for measuring the ignitability of
materials subjected to thermal irradiance
(secondary ignition).

Fire Resistance tests

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Until 1987, BS 476: Part 8 was the refer-

ence document for fire resistance testing of
elements of structure, but this Standard
was then replaced with BS 476: Parts 20,
21, 22, 23 and 24. BS 476: Part 8 has
recently been officially withdrawn by the
British Standards Institution, although it
remains a reference document in the
Building Regulations.
It will perhaps be useful, before describ-
ing the new tests, to provide a suitable
definition for the term 'Fire Resistance'. It
may best be defined as the ability of an given period of time within the con-
element of structure to fulfil its design cri- straints required by the test method.
teria for a given period of time, when test-
ed in accordance with the relevant parts of (b) Integrity (impermeability)
BS 476. It must be remembered, however, The ability of a specimen of a separat-
that the resultant test report does not nec- ing (compartmentation) construction to
essarily give an accurate indication of how contain a fire for a specified period
long the element would survive in a real against collapse, cracks and fissures,
fire in a real building, but it does provide and sustained flaming on the surface
a basis for comparing the performance of not exposed to the fire (the unexposed
alternative materials and constructions. surface).
BS476: Part 20: 1987, 'Method of deter-
mination of the fire resistance of elements
of construction' has these basic criteria of (c) Insulation
performance: The ability of a specimen of a separat-
ing construction (wall, floor) to restrict
(a) Stability the temperature rise of the unexposed
The ability of a specimen of a load- surface to not more than an average
bearing element (beam, column, wall, of 140C (180C maximum) above
floor) to support its designed load for a ambient temperature.

146
 Structural Survey Smith

mittee, which included representatives

The fire resistance of an element of struc- from the Building Research Establishment
ture is thus the minimum time in which it Fire Research Station, London Scientific
will satisfy some, or all, of the above crite- Sendees, the Loss Prevention Council and
ria. Generally, it can be assumed that the Warrington Fire Research Centre, has
beams and columns have to satisfy stabili- established appraisal procedures for pas-
ty requirements only, whereas separating sive fire protection materials. These proce-
elements of structure have to satisfy all dures have been accepted for use in the
three requirements, ie: stability, integrity Building Regulations and are referred to
and insulation. Figures 1 and 2 show typi- as the Section Factor Concept, or the
cal arrangements for testing structural steel Hp/A Method. Full details of this widely
beams and columns. adopted system are given in 'Fire Protec-
BS476: Part 21 'Fire tests on building tion for Structural Steel in Buildings'1,
materials and structures. Load-bearing ele- which is available from the ASFPCM at
ments of construction' details the testing of the address given earlier in this paper.
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beams, columns, floors, flat roofs and This publication gives tables of Hp/A
walls. In addition to the general require- ratios for all UK standard steel sections.
ments of stability, integrity and insulation, It is common knowledge that the effect
maximum deflection and rate of deflection of fire on load-bearing elements is to
for beams, and maximum deformation of weaken them. As steel elements grow hot,
columns are also specified. their yield stress declines and the strength
Part 22 of the Standard, 'Non-load of timber sections is reduced by charring.
bearing elements of construction', covers Passive fire protection consists, therefore,
fire test requirements for partitions, insu- in the application of high temperature
lated, partially insulated and uninsulated insulation materials, or boards, to ensure
floorsets and shutters, ceiling membranes that the critical temperatures of structural
and glazed elements. Again, integrity and elements are not exceeded for the required
insulation are of prime importance in period. The properties of such materials,
these tests. or boards, and the method of their appli-
Part 23, 'Contribution of components', cation should therefore ensure that they
defines specifications for acceptance of sus- are capable of absorbing deformation of
pended ceilings protecting steel beams, the protected structure without detach-
and for intumescent door seals whereas ment.
Part 24 , 'Fire resistance of ventilating
ducts', specifies stability, insulation and
integrity requirements for ducts. Building control
If one considers the number of fire tests
which would be required for periods of The Building Regulations 1991
fire resistance from half-an-hour to four (England and Wales)
hours, and then relates each of these to
cover all standard structural steel beam Approved Document B
and column sections, it will be appreciated The main objective of the Building Regu-
that it would be virtually impossible to test lations is to ensure the safety of the occu-
every individual application and section. pants of the building and of members of
In an effort to overcome this problem, the rescue services, to provide adequate
but at the same time to ensure adequate means of escape and to protect adjacent
fire resistance of structural elements, the buildings from the effects of fire. The
ASFPCM Product Appraisal Panel Com- increased fire resistance requirements for

147
 Structural Survey Smith

multi-storey buildings as indicated in the purpose for which a building is intended

Building Regulations therefore reflects to be used. Purpose Group 1 (Residential
concern over the possible consequences of dwellings) is divided into three sections,
fire in such structures, with specific consid- Purpose Group 2 (Residential institution-
eration being given to access by the rescue al/others) into two sections and Purpose
services, means of escape, and the implica- Group 7 (Storage and other non-residen-
tions of collapse for the occupants both of tial) into two sections.
the affected building and of neighbouring The new Regulations require fire resis-
buildings. tant periods ranging from half-an-hour to
The UK Building Regulations are large- two hours, according to the purpose for
ly based upon the findings of the 1946 which the building is to be used, and give
Fire Grading Report 2 , which concluded actual ratings based upon the height of the
that premises with fire loads of up to 60kg building, the depth of any basement, the
of wood per sq. m of floor area required quantity of combustible materials per unit
one hour's fire resistance, 60-120kg/sq. m of floor area, and the occupancy. The
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required two hour's, and 120-240kg/sq. m higher period for fire resistance of two
required four hour's fire resistance. Since hours relates to basements, where there
the report utilised data from real fires and are greater difficulties in fighting a fire,
correlations with standard fire resistance and for flats and other residential proper-
tests, at present denominated BS476:1987: ties, offices, premises used for assembly
Parts 20-24 (see above), the Regulations and recreation, shops and industrial and
can be considered to be founded upon storage buildings above 30m high. The
modern fire engineering philosophies. new Regulations have eliminated four
hours' protection in all cases, but where
Recent developments
buildings are over 30m high the inclusion
On 19th March, 1990, the Department of of sprinklers is a mandatory requirement,
the Environment published a Consultative in addition to the two-hour passive fire
Document proposing radical changes to protection installation, except in flats and
Approved Document B 'Fire Spread: institutional and other residential build-
the Building Regulations for England and ings, not including dwelling houses.
Wales'. Some of these proposed changes
became operative on 1st June, 1992. The In the past, the size of compartments
ASFPCM, insurance companies, chief fire was limited, in the main, by floor area
officers, the Fire Brigades Union and and/or volume, but in those instances
many others had campaigned against a where no such limits were specified, high-
reduction of passive fire protection er periods of fire resistance were required.
requirements and an extension to the per- The 1991 Regulations do not include any
mitted 'trade-off' against the installation of limits to the compartment sizes of many
sprinklers. The following outline discusses buildings and now allow unlimited floor
the proposed changes which in some areas for multi-storey buildings, with the
instances reduce the passive fire resistance exception of those for assembly & recre-
requirements from four hours to two. ation, shop and commercial premises and
Approved Document B (B1/2/3/4/5) industrial and storage buildings. The Reg-
relates to Means of Escape, Internal fire ulations also permit the floor areas in
spread (linings), Internal fire spread (struc- shops, assembly and recreational buildings,
ture) External fire spread, and Access and industrial buildings and storage buildings
facilities for the fire service. It also defines to be significantly increased by 100 per
seven 'Purpose Groups' which detail the cent if sprinklers are installed.

148
 Structural Survey Smith

The question arises: what effect will the experts who form TC 127 include
these amendments will have on the maxi- non-loadbearing elements, loadbearing ele-
mum travel distances for the safe evacua- ments, service installations, door and shut-
tion of a building? ter assemblies, roofs, raised floors, etc, but
Two hours' fire resistance is adequate this work is progressing without a mandate
for the evacuation of a building, and for from the EC.
most fire-fighting needs, and active fire The Assessment Techniques being con-
protection systems, such as sprinklers, play sidered for European implementation are
a useful role in the initial suppression and the Differential Equation Approach, which
control of a fire. However, it is the writer's will probably be similar to that described
view that the 'trade-off between passive in Eurocode 3 Part 10 (or BS5950: Part
fire resistance and sprinklers, as given in 8), the Linear Regression Analysis based
Approved Document B (1991), relies on upon a four-term analysis of temperature,
the effective installation and maintenance thickness, H p / A and time (the ASFPCM
of the sprinkler system, but the maintenance system is based upon a similar method)
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of sprinkler installations does not appear and graphical presentation which will give
to be subject to any legislative require- guidance on how test results may be
ments, and lack of such attention might examined graphically.
lead to the malfunction of the installed The Commission does not seem close to
system. Buildings must remain structurally reaching a consensus relating to fire tests,
sound in order that fire brigade personnel but it is advisable to keep a close watch
can reach, control, and extinguish the fire, on all developments, as eventually manu-
which passive fire protection of the build- facturers will be seeking an EC mark for
ing enables them to do. their products in order to overcome cur-
rent barriers to trade for fire protective
European aspects materials.
The European Technical Committee GEN
TC 127 has been working towards the REFERENCES
rationalisation of tests for fire safety in 1 'Fire protection for Structural Steel in Buildings',
buildings, but it is not anticipated that the ASFPCM, 1992, 30. Ref: CI/SfB (29) Hh 2
general requirements will become manda- (K21).
tory for at least five years, as the Euro- 2 Post-war building studies No 20. Fire grading
pean Commission has recently instigated a report: Part one. Produced by a joint committee
further three-year research project to of the Building Reasearch Board and
examine reaction to fire tests. Topics Department of Scientific and Industrial
which will continue to be considered by Research.

149
 This article has been cited by:

1. Rob PickardSenior Lecturer in the Department of the Built Environment, University of

Northumbria at Newcastle, UK.. 1994. Fire Safety and Protection in Historic Buildings in England
and Ireland Part II. Structural Survey 12:3, 8-10. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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