Bachelor of Christian Studies

O-24/136: Christian Perspective on Contemporary Issues

Women in Church and Society

Study Material

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 Introduction

Understanding Preliminary Concepts such as Patriarchy, Feminism, Sex and Gender, and
Womanism.

Patriarchy.Sandra M. Schneiders asserts that Patriarchy is the term that refers to the ideology and
social system of father rule, which was the virtually universal pattern and social organization in
the world of the Bible. Patriarchy refers to a system of government by fathers, and to the rule of
fathers in social or cultural systems. It also includes title being traced through the male line. Men
control over womans labour, her sexuality and her fertility, behaviour, action, even thought. In
the family girls learn to submit, to expect unequal treatment and women until marriage, she is
subject to her father, after marriage she becomes subject to her husband and after his death to her
sons. In Asia, the Asian religious traditions have been held responsible for under girding the sexual
discrimination against women. For example, in India, the nucleus of womans subordination is
founded in the religious code of Manu, the ancient law giver. Islamic religion is not exempted
from this as well; it has departed from koranic injunctions and made-up traditions which have
downgraded the position. For example, in court trails the evidence of two women is equal to that
of one man. In the East Asian Context where Confucianism was the dominant social and religious
ideology, women have had to obey the men in their lives: fathers before marriages, husbands in
marriage, and sons in widowhood. Samartha says, Asian women need to be liberated from a
double bondage of patriarchal hermeneutics of the bible on the one hand and that of the scriptures
of other faith on the other hand. Felix Wilfred concurs that those who control the symbols control
the society. Adversely, such patriarchal religious symbols enhanced the subjugation of women in
the society. Therefore, unlike the West, Asian feminist Hermeneutics has to engage with multiple
religious symbols which led to complication.

Feminism and Womanism: Feminism had it origin and development in North America,
Women movement and feminist theology has a connection after 19th century. Feminism has been
projected as a western phenomenon thus Asian womens movement feels uncomfortable with
using the term feminism. Some luminous activists have refused to associate with the term
feminism as they feel that it is a western concept. Feminism is seen by many as referring to the
western white middle class women movement.

Womanism is a term commonly used in the context of academic theological studies. Some
authors use womanism and black feminism almost interchangeably. The term womanist was
coined by Alice Walker, the black novelist, poet and historian of womens liberation. The
term Womanist has been in use to express the need of women of colours to battle against
marginalization in the US and it has also been used by Australian aborigines women for similar
reasons. Womanist theology has roots in the story of Hager, the slave woman who was used as a

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surrogate mother by Sarah. Later when Sarah conceived Isaac, Hager and her son Ishmael was
chucked out into the desert. African-American/Black women called their theology womanist
theology as they feel that the term feminist sometimes denote a radicalism and separatism
advocated by middle class European and American women. Due to such perception not all women
theologians want to be identified as feminist. James H.Cone asserts that only Black feminist
theologians have the experience necessary for the creation of intellectual tools that are needed in
analyzing the complexity of Black Women issue. Hence, one can say that the term has different
concept as compare to the term feminist, though it is also a feminist movement. But comes with
a different agenda. I.e. the liberation of Black women. On the other side, Feminism is connected
with the western white middle class women movement. Feminism has been projected as a
western phenomenon thus Asian womens movement feels uncomfortable with using the term
feminism. Some luminous activists have refused to associate with the term feminism as they feel
that it is a western concept. Feminism is seen by many as referring to the western white middle
class women movement.

Sex and Gender: Gender ideology has created dualism and disjunction between male and female.
Hence, recovering non gender based philosophy such as feminine principle is crucial as it is not
exclusively embodied in women, but is the principle of activity and creativity in nature. Women
in Asia are accorded a minority and inferior status both in society and even in the Churches. As
Asian societies are male-dominated, there still exist customs and practices stemming from feudal
times and systems. Dichotomy of male and female as superior and inferior is also much supported
by some theologians and Churches, For instance, Calvin the office function of the male and female
is different, he makes it very clear that deaconesses are fashioned upon Paul's order of widows in
1 Timothy 5:9-10, and not upon Acts 6:1-6.

Women in Pre-Colonial, Colonial, Post-Colonial and Neo-Colonialism

(a) Images of Women in different periods in Indian History.

Right from the pre-colonial era, the image of women as mere sexual object and inferior being has
prevailed till today. The long history of women subjugation was reinforced during the Mughal
Empire, as women are alienated. In Islam, though a number of rights have provided to women
followers yet they are denied by the society and have been almost as much suppressed as women
in general in Indian society. Politically, India was under the British when Siraj-ud Daula the ruler
of Bengal opposed the British attempt to trade in India resulting in the Battle of Plassey (1757).
As there was no political unity among the earlier rulers, decline of the Mughal Empire eventually
came with gradual occupation of India by BEIC in which Bengal, Madras and Bombay was made

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as their presidencies. It was later extended over large areas of the northern, central and north-
western parts of the country.

During the colonial era, even the British government were silent on many social evils that
prevailed in the society (including the oppression of Nadar/Shanar women in South Travancore)
until the Christian missionaries took up the issues. Much of the social evils related to the women
were the offshoot of religions. However, religions are not the direct factors but traditions and myths
that developed from the religions caused the subjugation of women.

By 1800, three-fourth of the people living in India was Hindus and their religion
Hinduism deeply impacted the Indian Society in an adverse ways. Caste system, untouchability,
low status of women, sati, devadasi system, female infanticide, etc was prevalent. According to
manu sashtra, those who belong to the four caste system varnas are Hindus and those outside
are considered as impure our outcaste (avarnas). Brahmins are regarded as evolving from the head
of the Brahman, Shaktriyas from the shoulders, Vaisyas from the torso and sudras from the feet.
Hence there is a hierarchy in the society. Those outside the caste are labeled as outcaste and Dalit
women were affected most although in the Hindus original concept of God, the Brahman is
androgynous which is neither male nor female but its myths, legends, religious custom and
practices contain number of instances concerning gender discrimination. Education was also
denied to women, Gurukula system was the educational system that was prevalent till the close of
18th century; Bose N.S identifies three kinds of educational system before the arrival of western
education such as the Tols ( institutions of Sanskrit learning), Madrasas (where Arabic and Persian
were taught) and Patsalas (elementary school). Women were restricted from such education;
hence, women were mostly illiterate. In those days, women were confined in the house and not
allowed to go out.

With the coming of the British power in India, a new perception was brought to bear on the social
customs which had gone unchallenged since the post-Epic Age. This was primarily on the basis of
voice raised by the Christian missionaries. The brutal practice of Sati was abolished by a decree
under the leadership of Lord Bentinck, the then Governor General of India. During this period,
great women leaders like Laxmi Bai and Ahilya Bai Holkar emerged. Great male leaders like Raja
Ram Mohan Roy and Mahatma Gandhi work tirelessly for the upliftment and development of the
status of Indian women.

In the early days dowry was one of the issues, it was an institution in which gifts and
presents were given to a girl at the time of her marriage when she was required to leave her parent
home and join her husbands household. But in the course of time, it has become a crude institution
resulting in female infanticide, suicide, bride-burning and other indignities and cruelties.

(b). The construct of a woman as an ideal woman in different periods and in different
religions.

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 Women in India enjoyed enormous freedom and power during the Vedic period. The earlier
Vedic period (2000 1500 BC) provided women sufficient opportunities for education,
participation in religious and sacrificial rites, and economic independence. They were considered
equal with men which was depicted by the deity Ardhanariswara who was half male and half
female. During the later Vedic period (1500 500 BC) women enjoyed freedom by exercising the
choice of a husband, inter-marriage and also remarriage in case of desertion or widowhood. In the
later part of this period there was a decline in education and a gradual change in the status of
women who were unfavorably affected by the Aryan caste system. Moreover, they were
categorized the same with the sudras who were like slaves, were excluded from the Vedic rituals,
and even barred from reading the Vedas.

The individual liberty of women further declined with the emergence of the great law giver
Manu. According to Manu Smriti, a female in childhood must be subject to her father, in her youth
to husband, in widowhood to her sons. She should never be independent. She should worship her
husband. From 500 1800 AD womens position declined quickly, especially with the emergence
of the sanyasa or ascetic ideal as they were not encouraged to take up an ascetic life. Since marriage
was the most important factor of a womens life, she was considered to have no existence apart
from her husband, especially with regard to religious practice. Thus the status of women decreased
from total esteem to total servility and they were treated as commodities.

The Dalit and Tribal Women are further oppressed on the basis of their caste.In India,
Hindu Society has a rigid form of social stratification based on the varna concept of social
organization in which one can see the Brahmanical religious principle known as purity and
pollution, played a central role in defining social heirachy and separation. The determining factor
behind the social order is largely due to the Rig Veda. James Massey posits that according to Rig
Veda, the human society has divine origin and was formed out of the body of the creator God: The
Brahmma (priest) was his mouth; both his arms were the Rajanya (Kshatriya, warriors). His thighs
became the Vaishya (traders), from his feet the Sudra (serving caste) was produced. The concept
of Karma is also used to explain and support caste system in the society. Thus, the Dalit women
are socially ostracized, sometimes labeled as untouchable which us the repercussion of such
religious teaching.

The status of women in the tribal society was not so different from the plain peoples. Tribal
religions were sometimes called animism or otherwise primal religion. Tribal concepts of God
are androgynous. However, tribal societal is imbued with patriarchal except the Khasis in
Meghalaya. In tribal society, Wives were treated like property and divorce was also easy in which
women suffered more than men, and education of girls was seen as a waste of time and domestic
labour. The status of women in the tribal societies was clearly mentioned by some of the Mizo
sayings like, Crabs and women never have any religion, A wife or a rotten fence can always be
changed, and A womens wisdom does not reach to the other side of the village well. Thus, the
opinion of a woman was considered as no opinion at all.

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 During the Muslim rule in India, certain elements were added in the construct of ideal
woman, one of them was Purdah system. Purdah originated in the culture of Islam and is an alien
phenomenon to Hindu women (Singh NP). Singh explains, In the mythic past of Hindu culture,
all women figures as exemplified by different goddess statues are bare-headed and their faces are
never veiled. However, with the Muslim invasions came the Purdah system for Hindu women to
practice. While the nucleus of womans subordination is founded in the religious code of Manu,
the ancient law giver. Islamic religion is not exempted from this as well; it has departed from
Koranic injunctions and made-up traditions which have downgraded the position. For example, in
court trails the evidence of two women is equal to that of one man. Similar issue could also be
seen in the East Asian context where Confucianism was the dominant social and religious
ideology; women have had to obey the men in their lives: fathers before marriages, husbands in
marriage, and sons in widowhood.

Before Indian independence, the government services recruitment was limited to men only but
after independence a number of women started to participate in the recruitment and since 1955, an
increasing number of women have joined the All India and Central services in different field and
profession like teaching, medicine, law, film industry, public service, fine arts, literatures, sports,
business, mines and plantation, etc and they were not confined anymore within the four walls.
Thus, the scope of womens career has expanded during the last 50 years. For example in the field
of Politics, women were also elected as Legislators, Ministers both at the Central and State levels.
In the Parliament and the State Legislature, 8% of the total numbers of seats were held by women
in 19751 and 33% of the total seats in the Parliament are being reserved for women in the present
scenario. Though education is not available to all equally, it has been identified as the major
instrument for raising the status of women in India. It has also created awareness among women
and enabled them to be independent and also open up new ways in all kinds of development.
Women faced a lot of difficulties in education which in turn slow down the growth of theirs
education.

Social practices that have evolved over limit to delimit the Status of Women.

1
The Changing Position of Women in India, in National Christian Council Review, Vol. XCV, No 67, (June
July 1975), 356.

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Monogamy and Polygamy

Monogamy is the custom or condition of having only one mate. The word "monogamy" comes
from the Greek word monos, which means one or alone, and gamos, which means marriage or
union.Monogamy is a form of relationship in which an individual has only one partner during his
or her lifetime or at any one time, the term is used in marriage in which commitment to one spouse
is complied. While Polygamy is the practice in which one husband can have more than one wife.

Monogamy and Polygamy in ancient societies: The historical record offers contradictory
evidence on the development and extent of monogamy as a social practice. Laura Betzig
argues that in the six large, highly stratified early states, commoners were generally
monogamous but that elites practiced de facto polygamy. Those states included
Mesopotamia, Egypt, Aztec Mexico, Inca Peru, India and China.

Ancient Mesopotamia and Assyria: Both the Babylonian and Assyrian families were
monogamous in principle but not entirely so in practice since polygamy was frequently
practiced by the rulers. In the patriarchal society of Mesopotamia the nuclear family was
called a "house". In order "to build a house" a man was supposed to marry one woman and
if she did not provide him with offspring, he could take a second wife. The Code of
Hammurabi states that he loses his right to do so if the wife herself gives him a slave as
concubine. According to Old Assyrian texts, he could be obliged to wait for two or three
years before he was allowed to take another wife. The position of the second wife was that
of a "slave girl" in respect to the first wife, as many marriage contracts explicitly state.

Ancient Egypt: Although an Egyptian man was free to marry several women at a time,
and some wealthy men from Old and Middle Kingdoms did have more than one wife,
monogamy was the norm. There may have been some exceptions e.g. a Nineteenth Dynasty
official stated as proof of his love to his deceased wife that he had stayed married to her
since their youth, even after he had become very successful (P. Leiden I 371). This may
suggest that some men abandoned first wives of a low social status and married women of
higher status in order to further their careers although even then they lived with only one
wife. Egyptian women had right to ask for a divorce if her husband took a second wife.
Many tomb reliefs testify to monogamous character of Egyptian marriages, officials are
usually accompanied by a supportive wife. "His wife X, his beloved"' is the standard phrase
identifying wives in tomb inscriptions. The instruction texts belonging to wisdom literature,
e.g. Instruction of Ptahhotep or Instruction of Any, support fidelity to monogamous
marriage life, calling the wife a Lady of the house. The Instruction of Ankhsheshonq
suggests that it is wrong to abandon a wife because of her barrenness.

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 Ancient Israel: As against Betzig's contention that monogamy evolved as a result of
Christian socio-economic influence in the West, monogamy appeared widespread in the
ancient Middle East much earlier. In Israel's pre-Christian era, an essentially monogamous
ethos underlay the Jewish creation story (Gn 2) and the last chapter of Proverbs. During the
Second Temple period (530 BCE to70 CE), apart from an economic situation which
supported monogamy even more than in earlier period, the concept of "mutual fidelity"
between husband and wife was a quite common reason for strictly monogamous marriages.
Some marriage documents explicitly expressed a desire for the marriage to remain
monogamous. Examples of these documents were found in Elephantine. They resemble
those found in neighbouring Assyria and Babylonia.Study shows that ancient Middle East
societies, though not strictly monogamous, were practically (at least on commoners' level)
monogamous. Halakha of the Dead Sea Sect saw prohibition of polygamy as coming from
the Pentateuch (Damascus Document 4:205:5, one of the Dead Sea Scrolls). Christianity
adopted a similar attitude (cf. 1 Tm 3:2,12; Tt 1:6), which conformed with Jesus'
approach.Under Judges and the monarchy, old restrictions went into disuse, especially
among royalty, though the Books of Samuel and Kings, which cover entire period of
monarchy, do not record a single case of bigamy among commoners except for Samuel's
father.
The wisdom books e.g. Book of Wisdom, which provides a picture of the society,
Sirach, Proverbs, Qohelet portray a woman in a strictly monogamous family (cf. Pr 5:15-
19; Qo 9:9; Si 26:1-4 and eulogy of perfect wife, Proverbs 31:10-31). The Book of Tobias
speaks solely of monogamous marriages. Also prophets have in front of their eyes
monogamous marriage as an image of the relationship of God and Israel. (Cf. Ho 2:4f; Jer
2:2; Is 50:1; 54:6-7; 62:4-5; Ez 16). Roland de Vaux states that "it is clear that the most
common form of marriage in Israel was monogamy".The Mishnah and the baraitot clearly
reflect a monogamist viewpoint within Judaism (Yevamot 2:10 etc.). Some sages
condemned marriage to two wives even for the purpose of procreation (Ketubot 62b). R.
Ammi, an amora states:Whoever takes a second wife in addition to his first one shall
divorce the first and pay her kettubah (Yevamot 65a).Roman customs, which prohibited
polygamy, may have enhanced such an attitude. Especially after 212 AD, when all the Jews
became Roman citizens. However, some Jews continued to practice bigamy (e.g. up to
medieval times in Egypt and Europe). Fourth-century Roman law forbade Jews to contract
plural marriages. A synod convened by Gershom ben Judah around 1000 CE banned
polygamy among Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews.

Ancient Greece and ancient Rome: The ancient Greeks and Romans were monogamous
in the sense that men were not allowed to have more than one wife or to cohabit with
concubines during marriage.

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 Early Christianity: Jesus Christ contended that core problem was faithfulness to the
Torah. According to him, monogamy was a primordial will of the Creator described in
Genesis, darkened by the hardness of hearts of the Israelites. As John Paul II interpreted
the dialogue between Jesus and the Pharisees (Gospel of Matthew 19:38), Christ
emphasized the primordial beauty of monogamic spousal love described in the Book of
Genesis 1:2631, 2:425, whereby a man and woman by their nature are each ready to be
a beautifying, total and personal gift to one another. Jesus avoids entangling himself in
juridical or casuistic controversies; instead, he appeals twice to the "beginning". By doing
so, he clearly refers to the relevant words of Genesis, which his interlocutors also know by
heart. (...) it clearly leads the interlocutors to reflect about the way in which, in the mystery
of creation, man was formed precisely as "male and female," in order to understand
correctly the normative meaning of the words of Genesis

Polygamy, polygyny, and polyandry are anthropological terms referring respectively to

multiple marriages, marriages of multiple women to one man, and of multiple men to one
woman.

Prostitution and Devadasi System: Prostitution is commonly regarded as the oldest profession
in the world, and is evident where clan, society and patriarchy encourage male dominance. Women
prostitutes exist only because of the desire of men but the law penalises only the women. Girls are
offered to the temples by their parents as Devadasi (temple prostitutes) was prevalent.

Child Marriage and Dowry: After marriage, woman remains steadfast in her duties and suffers
in silence. Wife beating is commonly accepted that a husband has the right to beat his wife in order
to discipline her. Dowry means marriage bargaining that arose from the desire of the father to offer
a gift to his daughter in marriage but became corrupted as a bargaining market. This practice
prevails in India among the Hindus and Christians. English education and white-collar job have
accentuated the problem of dowry. A boy with good education and employment becomes much
sought after match for a girl. If anything has kept some pace with wider social and economic
changes in India, it is the increase in terms of cash and material goods. Market products have
become a dowry today. If parents of moderate economic standing cannot meet dowry demands,
their daughter remains unmarried. Demands for more dowry after marriage have become a source
of conflict between families of the boy and that of the girl

Sati and ascetic widowhood : In Indian society, unhappy marriage was preferable to widowhood
which required that the widow be stripped off all adornments which might add to her beauty.
Remarriage of widows was prohibited. So she had to remain obedient and faithful to her husband

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even in death. The practice of Sati which means the widow proved herself to be a faithful wife by
burning herself on her husbands funeral pyre. This was socially sanctioned practiced.

Purdah: The rituals of Purdah vary with differing religions, cultures, and locations. In Varanasi,
the early years after marriage, Maithili women from high-class families are generally confined to
their homes. However, when they do venture outside, they must cover their heads and faces with
their saris. Most importantly, these young brides, do not speak with or have contact with male
strangers or men from their husbands family or community who are considered superior to their
husbands purdah originated in the culture of Islam and is an alien phenomenon to Hindu women
(Singh NP). Singh explains, In the mythic past of Hindu culture, all women figures as
exemplified by different goddess statues are bare-headed and their faces are never veiled (Singh
NP). However, with the Muslim invasions came the purdah system for Hindu women to practice.
Although this system was established for the protection of Hindu women just as it protects Islamic
women, this purdah took a different form. Veiling ones face, or ghoonghat, came into
practice. Purdah is practiced to protect the dignity of woman Although the behavioral rules of
purdah are complex and depend upon the particular context and region, purdah is generally a
cultural practice that confines women within the four walls of their homes. If they must leave the
house, they are required to observe purdah by wearing burqua a dress that covers Islamic
women from head to toe. Muslims practice this particular form of purdah, while Hindu women
do not. women who do not veil themselves from head to toe are often pursued and hassled by
young Indian men. This harassment makes independent movement difficult for women, and is
sufficient grounds for many families to keep their daughters from traveling without men, from
shopping or attending a movie, or even keeping them out of high school or coeducational college.
Women are viewed not only as receptacles in which to bear children, but also as vehicles for mens
sexual desires.

Women in Biblical Traditions

Patriarchal Bias in Old and New Testament: Role and Identity of Women and Men:
Valuation of Role:
To understand women's status in Sarah's time around her place, there is a need to look at the
information from ancient Sumer, ancient Egypt, the region of Babylon and Nineveh, the Kingdom
of Mari, Nuzu, and ancient Canaan.

That women were held in great esteem is the only explanation for the ancient dominating mother-
cults in religion. Woman was the bearer of life, mother of the family, and at times head of the
tribe, priestess, and ancestress. As early as ancient Sumer the woman was a central figure in

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religious conception. The Sumerian word for rib, ti, also means create life. The goddess, Ninti
probably meant female ruler of life. Kramer pointed out the obvious connections to the Genesis
story. And we have already noted the links to Phoenician ideas of the serpent and mother goddess.
So the ideas of creation led to a deification of women in antiquity. But herein is the irony. On the
one hand with the idealization of the female mother women held the highest office of priestess,
but on the other hand members of the same sex had to serve as slaves in temples. In the so called
Uruk period of Sumerian civilization, this tension remained. By 2355 B.C. Urukagina of Lagash
attempted reforms to ease the life of the widow and orphan (showing social conditions were
unsatisfactory); and yet until this period women had had the right of polyandry.Women at this time
obtained a favorable position even though men dominated society.

Later, in the days of Hammurapi (ca 1700), The man became master or lord of the family, and the
rules from this period gave him absolute control. He could break the teeth of a wife who
contradicted him, kill an adulterous wife, or sell or pawn his wife to honor a debt. The man could
divorce his wife rather easily, especially if she bore no children. He had to pay fine money and
return the dowry she had brought him.

The slave woman seems to have been of greater importance to life in the ancient East. They were
employed in every occupation. Notable is a dress factory in the temple of the moon god at Ur,
which employed 98 women and 63 children. The value of an efficient slave was recognized; in
Hammurapis time a female slave cost the same as one head of cattle. A female slave could be a
marketable commodity, valued worker, or even a concubine. If she obtained favor in the home or
market, the man could free her. Most slaves in antiquity came as prisoners of war; but there are
reports that people in debt sold themselves into slavery.

Due to the patriarchal bias, there is a tendency to focus more on the males in both the Old and New
Testament. However, if one give serious thought and carefully examine the Bible. The role of
women could be clearly seen. Miriam, who had originally saved Moses, leads the song of
deliverance on the other side of the flood, and her influence, though not always for good, continued
till her death (compare Micah 6:4). Then the women whose heart stirred them up in wisdom
contribute to the rearing of the Tabernacle; Deborah works deliverance, and judgeth in Israel; and
the piety of Manoahs wife is at least as conspicuous, and more intelligent, than her husbands
(Judge 13:23). So also is that of the mother of Samuel. In the times of the kings the praises of
Israels maidens stir the jealousy of Saul; Abigail knows how to avert the danger of her husbands
folly; the wise woman of Tekoah is sent for to induce the king to fetch his banished home; and the
conduct of a woman in her wisdom puts an end to the rebellion of Sheba. Later on, the constant
mention of queen mothers, and their frequent interference in the government, shows their position.
Such names as that of Huldah the prophetess, and the idyllic narrative of the Shunammite, will
readily occur to the memory. The story of a womans devotion forms the subject of the Book of
Ruth; that of her pure and faithful love, the theme or the imagery of the Song of Songs; that of her
courage and devotion the groundwork of the Book of Esther: while her worth and virtues are
enumerated in the closing chapter of the Book of Proverbs. Again, in the language of the prophets
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the people of God are called the daughter, the virgin daughter of Zion, the daughter of
Jerusalem, the daughter of Judah, etc.; and their relationship to God is constantly compared to
that of the married state. Likewise in the New Testament, the role of Women could be seen such
as Dorcas, of the mother of Mark, of Lydia, Priscilla, Phoebe, Lois, or Eunice ( See Jesus and
Women).

Womens re-reading of the Bible: Issues of Hermeneutics-feminist and liberation theologies:

Feminist criticism of the bible and Christian theology has earlier roots with Quakerism or the
Society of Friends in the middle of the 17th century. The Tract written by one of the influential
quaker leaders, Margaret Fell in 1667, Womens Speaking Justified, Approved and Allowed by the
Scripture, highlighted both feminist biblical hermeneutics and theological anthropology of
womens equality in Christ and consequently their power to teach, preach and administer in the
church of Christ. The 19th century Quakerism in America was an important instrument for the
development of feminist theology.

Feminist Hermeneutics: Some of the Asian Feminist Hermeneutical Methodologies are:-

Re-reading of the Bible in Scientific way: Gabriele Dietrich has used the terms re-
reading of the Bible in a scientific way informed by a commitment to womens liberation
and to human liberation in General.
Historical Re-reading of Biblical and extra biblical tradition: Holding a similar
concept, Aruna Gnanadason says that in order to retrace the struggle of our fore sisters for
full human hood and to re-appropriate their victories and their defeats as our own
submerged history , one has to do historical re-reading of biblical and extra-biblical
tradition.
Feminist Historiography: one of the major assumptions in modern research is that
history written in the past mostly by men will have to be re-written/re-read if it has to
render justice to all sections of the society and especially to women who were always the
victim of male dominated society. In the word of Gerda Lerner, it omits the past of half
of humankind, and it is distorted, in that it tells the story from the view point of the male
half of humanity only. Secular Feminist historians like Uma Chakraborty and Gauri
Vishwanathan have written on Pandita Ramabai and conversion movements in India that
includes women.
Womens Storytelling: Chung Hyun Kyung has given emphasis on Womens
Storytelling. She believes that the power of storytelling lies in its embodied truth. Women

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 stalked about their concrete historical life experience and not about abstract, metaphysical
concepts. Womens truth was generated by their epistemological from the broken body.
Socio-Biography: Kim young Bok is a Minjung theologian who proposes a storytelling
methodology for han ridden Korean women. He calls this methodology as socio-
biography. Womens socio-biography shows an understanding of history which cannot be
perceived by objective socio-analysis. It brings out the hidden reality behind official
sociological and historical documents.
Critical Social Analysis: This method of active listening to womens storytelling,
especially those from the bottom stratum of Asian society is one of the most important
parts of Asian women theologizing, it leads Asian women theologians to critical social
analysis. They use many new insights from women studies, counter-colonialist historical
studies, critical sociologies, and nationalistic leftist ideologies from the Third World
people movement. If storytelling and listening to womens socio-biography gives Asian
women theologians the inspiration and courage for revolutionary change, then critical
social analysis gives them a chance to see with clarity the whole picture of complex
interconnections in the evil structure.
Womens Heritage in the Bible: According to Kwok Pui, the first model of feminist
hermeneutics aims to recover the memory of women in the Bible to serve as role model,
since Asian male dominated churches tend to undermine their significance. Several
prominent women in the Hebrew Scriptures are noted for their faith in God and courageous
act.
Oral Interpretation and Re-telling of Biblical Stories: Anthropologist such as Jack
Goody, have pointed out that oral interpretation has its own logic, quite different from that
employed to interpret written text. For Example, oral transmission and interpretation often
have more fluid understanding of the boundaries of the text. In retelling the text the
interpreter is not interest primarily in what happened in the past, but in how the story can
be brought alive for the present. One of the strategies of oral interpretation is to give voice
to women in the Bible and to re-create their dialogues.
Scripture as Performance: In many parts of Asia, sacred scripture becomes part of the
culture of the people because it is re-enacted in songs, drama, dance, folk arts and theatre.
Not only is scripture recited and chanted in holy places, it is performed during festivals
and celebrations whenever the community gathers together. In the recent years, some
pioneers have tried to use drama and theatre as the medium for interpreting biblical stories.
In 1995, working with performing artists and musicians in Kyoto, Japan. Yuko Yusa
successfully staged the premiere of a biblical Noh drama entitled Magdalene Dancing in
crimson.

Image of God-Male and female

When God created man and woman, God made them in his/her image (Gen.1:27). As the idiom
goes its a mans world, almost all societies follow a patriarchal system and the Jewish world
13
was no exception. Similarly, it was observed, that God had not formed woman out of the head, lest
she should become proud; nor out of the eye, lest she should lust; nor out of the ear, lest she should
be curious; nor out of the mouth, lest she should be talkative; nor out of the heart, lest she should
be jealous; nor out of the hand, lest she should be covetous; nor out of the foot, lest she be a
busybody; but out of the rib, which was always covered. Judaism set a high value on man and
relegated women to an inferior position. Women were seen as chattel or possession in Jewish
society and were openly despised and even were not allowed to move out without a veil. Mary
Daly speaks of the regular prayer of the Jews, That he was not made a woman, dog or bore
(gentile) portrays the status of woman. In Jewish society a woman had no claim on inheritance
except when there no male heir (Numbers 27). Woman had no part in public life: seclusion was
recommended and often enforced and even they were not to speak in public.

The biblical discussion turns on the Hebrew words selem and demut, and the New
Testament Greek terms eikon and homoiosis. The earliest significant commentary on the
concept of the imago dei was done by Irenaeus (ca.140-202). Based on what is now considered a
doubtful exegesis of Gen 1:26, Irenaeus posited a twofold character to the imago dei based on the
distinction between the words image (tslem) and likeness (Demuth). Image was thought to
represent the basic form of human, while likeness was taken to mean the material content of
righteousness, which was lost or at least interrupted in its development by the fall. Most scholars
today view the two phrases as a construct of Hebrew parallelism, pointing to the single endowment
that constitutes the uniqueness of humanity created by God.

In 1837, Sarah Grimki, a quaker argued for theological and biblical basis for womens
rights. Basing on the creation story in Gen 1:27, She argued for equality with men for their
common possession of the image of God. All the 19th century feminist argued for their case in
biblical and theological terms and criticized the use of the bible as an instrument of male
domination. Some modern scholars posit that the original Adam prior to the creation of Eve stands
as the first human being bearing the image of God for masculine and feminine individuals. The
Androgyne Myth also revealed an original state of humanity in which male and female is single
entity. Pheme Perkins opines that many Jewish interpretations of Gen 1; 26-27 thought of Adam
as originally created male/female. This androgynous Adam possessed the image of God as a
garment of light. After the fall, humans were divided into male and female, had become mortal
and the garment of light was replaced by the garment of skin. The very terms by which woman
is named in the Old Testament are significant. If the man is Ish, his wife is Ishah, simply his equal.

Jesus and Women

During Jesus time, the Jewish women were not considered on par with men. They were considered
inferior to man in every aspect of life. Since the beginning of time itself, women have been blamed
for bringing sin into the world by the first disobedience of Eve. Jesus however saw it all differently.
He not only brought salvation to whole mankind but also to women. Seen within the oppressive

14
social structures and realities, Jesus the embodiment of Gods baseileia is good news to women!
Jesus allowed women to be in his company and perhaps in close proximity, something a religious
leader would never do, even more so because women were not considered good enough to learn
Gods word. Jesus was involved in crossing the barrier that segregated people on the basis of
gender. Jesus lack of prejudice is reflected in the story of the grateful Samaritan (Lk. 17:11ff) and
in the conflict between disciples and the inhabitants of a Samaritan village (Lk. 9:52ff). Jesus was
inclusive and demonstrated his love even to the Samaritan who where looked down in the society.
The mixed race of the Samaritans was hated and scorned, however, He asked Samaritan woman
to give him water to drink and conversed with her. There were many other women in the life and
ministry of Jesus, he allowed women to touch him, accompany him, serve him and listen to his
teaching (Jn. 4:27, Lk.10:38-42, 8:1-3). S. Kappen commented that in a society in which women
were considered a source of moral danger and association with whom was frown upon, he (Jesus)
not only befriended them (Lk. 10:38-42) but even had a retinue of them accompanying him in his
ministry and that also out of their means (Lk. 8:1-3). Jesus interaction with women also includes
breaking of certain barriers. The hemorrhaging woman (Mk 5:25-34) challenged the purity laws
concerning womans blood and its contamination. The purity code is one of the greatest social
barriers that prevented a woman from being an integral part of the society. The Syrophoenician
woman (Mk 7:24-30) overcame ethnic barrier while the anointing woman (Mk 14:3-9) broke down
the sex barrier in coming into closed male fellowship. These women understood who Jesus was
and took the initiative of approaching him despite of the barriers. In Jesus teaching of the kingdom
of God, invitees are people of all genders and sometimes it takes breaking of barriers to reach out
to such invitees.

Pauline Theology and Inclusiveness-Contextual exposition of Epistles:

Pauline Inclusive Theology: Did Paul exclude women? Was Paul against women? Such questions
could be raised when dealing with the epistles of Paul. Was Paul influenced by patriarchy that was
prevalent in the socio-cultural context? In terms of Salvation, one could say that Paul was not
exclusive but rather inclusive of Gentile and Jews, women and men, slaves and free (Gal 2:28).
This text clearly shows the inclusive of all people regardless of gender and social status.
Meanwhile, some of the biblical texts as found in Pauline epistles need a contextual exposition in
order to properly understand the text.

Women Covering Head: Contextual Exposition on 1 Corinthians 11:1-10.

One must bear in mind that the apostle there argues with Jews and that on their own ground,
convincing them by a reference to their own views, customs, and legends of the propriety of the
practice which he enjoins. From that point of view the propriety of a woman having her head
covered could not be called in question. The opposite would, to a Jew, have indicated
immodesty. Indeed, it was the custom in the case of a woman accused of adultery to have her hair

15
shorn or shaven, at the same time using this formula: Because thou hast departed from the
manner of the daughters of Israel, who go with their head covered; . . . therefore that has befallen
thee which thou hast chosen. while the very difficult addition, because of the angels, may either
allude to the presence of the angels and to the well-known Jewish view (based, no doubt, on truth)
that those angels may be grieved or offended by our conduct, and bear the sad tidings before the
throne of God, or it may possibly refer to the very ancient Jewish belief, that the evil spirits gained
power over a woman who went with her head bare. The custom of a bridal veileither for the
bride alone, or spread over the couplewas of ancient date. It was interdicted for a time by the
Rabbis after the destruction of Jerusalem.

Women should be Silent: Contextual Exposition on 1st Cor. 14 & 1st Timothy 2:11

It is widely believes among the theologians that, this two text has forbid women from teaching in
the church. Several scholars like Hans Conzelman, G..D. Fee and J.M-O Conner hold that these
verses are an interpolation by later editor here (note that NRSV also puts it in parenthesis with a
note). If that is true then it has very little to offer about Pauls attitude towards women. But the
actual problem here is that it turns out, the verses in (34-35) are shuffled around in some of the
important textual witnesses. In three Greek manuscripts and a couple of Latin witnesses, they are
found not here, after verse 33, but later, after verse 40. Scholar like Bruce Metzger points out
that, this may have been an intentional effort on the part of a scribe to find a more appropriate
location in the context for Pauls directive concerning women. There are suggestions that women
in the Corinthian church adopted frenzied shouting of the women in the Dionysus cult and hence
Paul tries to stop that practice in the church. Likewise, the word speak is understood to mean
speaking in tongues and Paul forbids women from it. Judging prophecies or teaching in the
church by women is also believed to be the point Paul contends with in this passage. But this
approach does not satisfactorily answer the question at hand.

In both 1 cor. 11:2-16 and 14:33b-35 Paul deals with some specific problems in the church.
C.K. Barret argues that Paul had been informed of feminist pressure (possibly of feminine chatter)
which was contributing seriously to the disorder of the Christian assembly in Corinth, and took
energetic measures to stamp it out.

So, when Paul says let them ask their husband at home because it is shameful for a woman
to speak in the church he means that if woman had any doubts or questions they should clarify
them from their husbands at home. It implies that Paul assumes men to have better knowledge
about what was going on in the worship service. Now, therefore, Paul puts the onus of educating
the women on the men. This will put an end to the problem of disrupting the worship from women
asking irrelevant questions, As for law also says is difficult to understand .Which law is in Pauls
mind? If it means rabbinic law Paul never calls them as the law and if it is the OT then there is

16
no OT passage which specifically says about womans subordination. But most probably Paul is
referring to the Gen 3:16-and he shall rule over you.
Therefore, When Paul says that women should be silent in the churches he does not mean that
they are not allowed to pray, prophesy, preach or teach in the church (cf. 11:5-12). But they should
keep silent by not asking questions or making inquiries from the preachers or their husbands during
the worship so that the church worship is not disturbed. But what about Pauls instruction to
Timothy in his 1st Epistles (2:11ff)

I permit no woman to teach or to have authority over men. She is to keep silent. (Verse 12)

When taking the text at face value, as it is often done by many preachers, it is indeed certain
that the Paul had imposed a prohibition on women, forbidding them to teach or to have authority
in the Christian assembly

.But why? Let us carefully study the text and draw out what it is all about. Was Paul really
a Misogynist as conjectured by Holger Kersten? It seems that Paul is always having problems with
the women in the church. Or is it that the problem has to do with the women not Paul. There must
be a reason behind Pauls instruction which we will try to unravel.

It has been debated much among scholars, Some scholars argues that Pauls used of I
represents his personal opinion and not his binding judgment.Comparision is often made to 1 cor.
7 where Paul differentiates between a charge coming from himself and a charge coming from the
Lord (vv 10, 12). His language is even less authoritative when he encourages single people not to
get married: I have no command of the Lord, but I give command as one who by the Lords mercy
is trustworthy. I think that.(1 Cor 7:25-26).However, Paul is discussing two different ( but
related) items: divorce and marriage / remarriage. On his comment about divorce (1 cor 7:10-16),
it is generally agreed that Paul is not distinguishing between command and opinion but between
traditions coming from the earthly Jesus through the church and what he, as apostle of Jesus, knows
to be true. This does not lessen the authority of his pronouncements but rather identifies their
authoritative source as Jesus. So this kind of interpretation does take us anywhere.Lets continue
with our investigation.

It is also said that when the phrase, I do not permit, has to do with the present tense of
the verb. It is argued that because the present tense is used, it should be translated I am not
presently allowing a woman to teach or I am not permitting. Some also says, when the verb to
permit (epitrepsein) is used in the New Testament, it refers to a specific permission in a specific
context (Matthew 8,21; Mark 5,13; John 19,38; Acts 21,39-40; 26,1; 27,3; 28,16; 1 Corinthians
16,7; etc.) Moreover, the use of the indicative tense indicates an immediate context. The correct
translation, therefore, is: I am not presently allowing" (Spencer; Hugenberger); I have decided
that for the moment women are not to teach or have authority over men But Greek expert like

17
Daniel Wallace argues that , When one looks at the use of the present tense in the Pastoral
Epistles, there are 111 present tense indicative verbs. If all of these were relegated also to the
authors present situation, then the Pastoral epistles would no longer teach that the law is not for
the just (1Tim 1:9), that God wishes that all could be saved (1 Tim 2:4;4:10),that it is a good thing
to pursue the office of elder( 1Tim 3:1), that the mystery of the Christian religion is great (1 Tim
1:9), that physical exercise is of some value but godliness is infinitely more valuable( 1 Tim 4:8),
that children should take care of their parents and grandparents ( 1 Tim 5:4), that there is great gain
in godliness ( 1Tim 6:6), that those desiring to be rich fall into temptation ( 1 Tim 6:9), that the
love of money is the root of all evils ( 1 Tim 6:10); and the list goes on. Now, it seems that
grammatically analyzing the text also does not lead us anywhere in our investigation. If we look
at some of the writing of Paul it is plausible that he is allowing only the older women to teach and
train the younger women (Titus 2: 3-4) but not to men. But this seems contradictory as Priscilla,
along with her husband, Aquila, taught Apollos (Acts 18:26).

Now let us try to approach our investigation from different vista, as the exegetical truism
says, a text without a context is a pretext. So we will not focus only from the grammatical
syntactical analysis, but approach the text from the context as well. In 1st Tim 1:3-7 it reads, I
urge you, as I did when I was on my way to Macedonia, to remain in Ephesus so that you may
instructs certain people not to teach any different doctrine, and not to occupy themselves with
myths and endless genealogies that promote speculation rather than the divine training that is know
by faith,(NRSV). This passage shows that Paul is instructing Timothy to stop a certain people
from teaching a wrong doctrine. But who? Who are this certain people that Paul is talking about?
The inclusive word people is most probably added by the NRSV translator, as NRSV always
used inclusive language. The NIV translation used men which helps the reader understand the
gender. But, the Greek manuscript gave away such translation showing that as an alteration of the
original text. As the word men does not appear in the Greek manuscript. The KJV rendering of
certain one seems to fit the Greek manuscript . The actual Greek word used tisin stem from
the root word tis which means one, someone, a certain one.

So from this word studies, it is very much evident that Paul refused to disclose their names
or identity personally in his letter (see footnote 13) as Timothy is aware of whom he is talking
about. Also as epistles are usually read out loud in the congregation so this could be one of the
reasons why Paul refused to disclose names. Some also suggest that the opponents were men who
had won a following among some women. (2Tim 3:6-7) So, in this case, the NRSV rendering of
people can be accepted as this view includes both men and women.

The text in 2:11 can be the only possible key to unlock what Paul meant by certain one in
Ch 1:3. Apart from 2:11, nowhere in the whole epistle (i.e. 1st Timothy) we found Paul referring
again to such kind of instruction regarding prohibition of teaching .So one can say that those
women were teaching a wrong doctrine and that Paul is instructing Timothy to stop them, now the

18
used of present tense of I do not permit further contributed in our understanding of the text. Thus
it does not apply universally. The results of our finding is further supported by the immediate
Chapter , in the context (3:11), Paul is talking about the office of a deacon, and in vs. 11, the word
gynaikas (women as rendered by NRSV) which stem from the root word gyne is ambiguous
, it can either mean wife and woman, but the context helps us to understand that , Paul is
referring to the wives of the deacon or the women deacons.(rendered as womens deacon by NRSV
in the foot note).Also note: the feminine form of the word diakonos had not yet been created. In
Rom 16:1, Phoebe is called a diakonos ( the masculine form is used here, and the first reference
to diakonissa(feminine form) occurs in the fourth century in canon 19 of the council of Nicea)
.So if Paul is giving charge to Timothy regarding the qualification of the Deacon and Women
deacon ( ch.3) there is no point of forbidding a women to teach in the church in the preceding
chapter(2:11), or else Paul would not make any sense.

To further enhance our interpretation of this text, let us as well take a glimpse of the
historical background before we jump to the final conclusion. Ephesus was the location of the
temple of Artemis, considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Artemis was a
fertility goddess worshipped by many throughout Asia, especially in Ephesus (Acts 19:24, 27-28,
34-35).Artemis was a woman-centric fertility goddess said to promise her worshippers fertility of
crop and livestock. She also supposed to offer safety in childbirth. Positioned as superior to men;
she had no male consort. Statues of Artemis are covered with what some archeologists believes to
be male testicles, giving her ability to reproduce without the assistance of male. No wonder her
worshippers screamed, Great is the artemis of the Ephesians, (Acts 19:28). For this reason,
Artemis was believed superior to and independent of men, and perhaps so too the women who
worshipped her.

Pauls letter to Timothy was written in response to false teaching in Ephesus, where
followers of Artemis were Zealous (see Acts 19:23 ff). The first chapter of Timothy outlines this
false teaching, which Paul call myths and endless genealogies that have shipwrecked the faith of
some (1 Timothy 1:3-7, 19-20). False teachers, perhaps including women were troubling the
church by forbidding marriage and by insisting upon food rituals ( 1 Timothy 4;3).Therefore we
conclude that the women in the church at Ephesus were involved in false teaching , perhaps by
incorporating the teachings of Artemis who assumed an independence from or superiority over
men, through abusive authority. Paul instruct such women to learn and to live respectable lives
that do not abuse authority, but reflects a life of faith and holiness, and interdependence with men
that may include marriage and children. So ,one can clearly see that Paul was never against women
, on the contrary it was he who had appointed women as a deacon in the midst of male dominated
culture of the Palestine and elsewhere

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 Women in contemporary times

(a) Analysis of day to day life and concerns-urban and rural: Changing status of women
through education and employment; difficulties of women-externally unemployed
housewife, women in the labour market, middleclass women seeking jobs or being self
employed; balancing a career and a home; responsibilities with hardly any decision
making powers, necessity of socio-cultural reforms.

Sex Role Divisions of work ensure that women do the most strenuous kinds of work in close
proximity to the resources of the earth-food and fuel gathering and collecting of water from distant
places. When resources depleted they have to ravel further in search of food, water, firewood and
means of livelihood. Hence the outcome of womens close proximity with nature enables them to
become an expert in interaction with the nature.i.e sustaining interaction in contrast to patriarchal
destructive interaction with nature.

The coming of capitalism and the modernization of Asian societies evidence more and
more to the oppression of women. The women are doubly oppressed; they were given a lower pay
scale: to boost the nations economy and they are sexually exploited. The emergence of
consumerism and tourism pressure women into a cheap labor market with inhuman working
conditions and late hours, thus, exposing them to harassment of unscrupulous employers. In short,
the Asian society has largely failed to recognize the economic value represented by women.

In many Asian countries the womens liberation movement seems more like a middle class
movement. Many of these women have access to the media and publications; they are educated at
various educational institutions and have learned how to use the languages of the public world
defined by male scholarship. Grassroots women know only native languages and do not have a
higher education. Therefore, grassroots womens chances of attaining visibility in the public world
are much less than middle-class women. In India, Dalit women are at the lowest stratum of the
society. The phrase Dalits among the Dalits, is often employed to refer to the Dalit women as
they are thrice alienated from the resources of society owing to her gender, caste and class. On the
basis of her gender, she is subordinate to the men in the family and society, discriminated against
jobs, paid less and targeted for sexual and physical abuse. On the basis of her caste, she is
considered untouchable, her mobility restricted, considered polluting and unclean, denied jobs,
legal aid, education and an easy object of violence. Her economic status is low, poor, illiterate,
unskilled, etc. Dalit and Tribal women are also the victim of rape and social stigma due to the
religious factor that supports the caste system. Other Asian Women realities include Sex Tourism,
dowry system, militarism, the oppression of the Minjung in Korea, infanticide in India and China,
etc.

20
 (b) Violence against women: Definition of Violence, violence in the home, social violence-
Regular violence-Caste, Communal. Occasional violence-riots, wars. Rape eve teasing, sale
of women, witch hunting, harassment, dowry-deaths, wife beating, adultery, divorce,
amneocentesis, female foeticide, female infanticide, commercialization through media-sexual
violence, pornography. Violence at work: Obstacles to promotion, sexual harassment.

The definition of violence against women includes all forms such as domestic violence,
(beating, slapping, kicking, burning with cigarette butts, hair-pulling, denying sexual rights,
marital rape) and all other forms of sexual violence (eve teasing, harassment at work place, denial
of promotion, acid throwing, rape - domestic rape, request for sexual favours, sexually coloured
remarks, pornography). Violence also shows itself in other forms such as economic, social,
structural/institutional, psychological and spiritual. India is a land of diverse culture, where the
position of women in the society and church is still influenced by social and cultural factors such
as traditions and customs, religion, caste, class and income; which are the influential determinants
of the social perception of women in the society.

From this we can see that the status and image of the Indian women is controlled and determined
by religion and culture. In most part of India the poor and oppressed women are becoming the
victims of violence and injustice; International Foundation for Crime Prevention and Victim Care
recently reported that, every six hours, a married women in India is burnt alive, beaten to death
or driven to suicide. At least 15,000 women are raped, 30,000 are molested and 5000 fall to dowry
deaths. This shows the insecurity of women in the Indian society, these incidents may occur
mainly among the non-Christian areas, where Christian women have more freedom than the other
women around them. Thus women have to be given the state of decision making and equal rights
to live on their own with mutual co-existence. In present context, dowry has assumed scandalous
proportion. It has become a kind of bargain. Dowry has been referred to as a social cancer, a cruel
customs and an insult to the dignity of women. It has crystallized in our society and respire
legislation, cases of dowry harassment and deaths are increasing every year. Dowry range from
10,000 for low-level grooms to 3-5 Lakh for engineers, doctors and 40 lakh for IAS officers. The
same manners followed by theological students. Most of them think it is their right to demand
dowry for the expenses they will incur in looking after the bride. Dowry is the status of shameful
symbol. It has been sacrificed at alter of dowry every 102 minutes complaints of insufficient dowry
brought by the bride have now degenerated into a fixation with almost every mother-in-law and
daughters. The brides life is miserable. She is compelled to go to her parents to extort more and
more parents in cash and kind from them. When the poor girl finding her parents impecunious,
returns empty handed, she is invariably taunted, tormented and even tortured, sometimes to the
extent of burning her alive. Bride burning cases too have been increasing every year in different
parts of our country due to failure in giving the expected dowry. Though legislation is necessary
but it will not put on end to dowry, however deterrent punishment may be prescribed for those
who give and take the dowry. What is more needed is educating the general public .The measures
21
may be pointed out for containing the evils of dowry: creating public opinion through education,
initiative talk by the youth, propaganda and public enlistment inter-caste marriage.

In fact, experience of violence by most women is an everyday event. Poor and illiterate
women were getting more oppression in the society, they were treated as in humans and only like
a use and throw commodities. Swami Vivekananda said that There is no chance of the welfare of
the world unless the condition of the women is improved. Development alone is not the source
of violence to women and nature, at deeper level, the scientific knowledge on which development
process is based, is itself a source of violence. Modern reductionist science turns out to be
patriarchal project, which has excluded women as experts, and has simultaneously excluded
ecological and holistic ways of knowing which understand and respect natures processes and
interconnectedness as science. The structure and methodology of modern science are reductionism.

Though the problem of rape considered serious in all countries, in India it is statistically not
as serious as it is in the Western society. For example, in the United States, the annual rate of rape
offences is about 26, in Canada it is about eight and in U.K. it is about 5.5 per one lakh of
population. Age-wise, the percentage of victims of rape is highest in the age-group of 16 to 30
years (61.1%) while victims below 10 years account for about 2.6%, victims between 10 and 16
years account for about 20.5%, and victims above 30 years account for about 12.8%. It is not only
the poor girls who become rape victims but even the employees belonging to the middle class are
sexually humiliated by their employers. Rape prevails not only in India, but a world phenomenon.
In India, a special aspect of the problem is that rape is used as an instrument of social, economic
and caste power, committed by men of a higher social class to prove their dominance and
humiliation to lower class women, rapes committed by landlords on those who are indebted to
them, etc.
The issue of amneocentesis (abortion by sex selection), female foeticide and infanticide,
although, are banned by the government, however, it is still prevalent in the country. In this
context, the Church should take a remedial action by raising voices and providing awareness
program to the members of the Church in order that the members can become instrumental in the
society at large.

Therefore, gender discrimination and victimization of women are serious problems. As the
Indian situation is patriarchal or male dominated, Women are culturally and religiously degraded
and violence are perpetrated against them. They are the victims of domination. The girl child is
treated unjustly compared to the boy child. Equality and dignity of women are not recognized, so
women are battered (wife battering) and sexually abused. The women are considered as objects.
Household violence like dowry death is common in India. There is no meaningful participation
for them in the decision making at home or in other bodies.
In this particular situation, the mission of the Church is to
i) recognize the dignity of women

22
 ii) question the structure of patriarchy in both the Church and society
iii) provide meaningful participation for them in decision making and

iv) conscientize them and organize them to fight for their rights and privileges in which
violence against women at home, workplace and public places should be addressed.

c. Analysis of development programmes; who make up womans programmes; impact of big

industries on women and children; impact of big dams on tribal communities, particularly
women; impact of defense technology on women-missile sites, nuclear power plants; medical
technologies.

Women are the victim of development programs like New Economic Policy (NEP) such
as Liberalization, Privatization and globalization (LPG). After the financial crisis of 1991, the New
Economic Policy (N.E.P) came into being with the Structural Adjustment Programme (S.A.P)
which led to the reduction of the Indian Public Sector. The adverse repercussion affects the Dalits
and Scheduled Tribes, especially dalit and tribal women, as it is only in the public sector that jobs
are reserved by law for them. The New Economic Policy favors the private sector and minimizes
the public sector thus reducing employment opportunities for the Dalits including their women.
Even the reservation in the public sector is not helping much as it has been noted that despite the
fact that there is a number of job reservation, yet a very low percentage of Dalit are employed in
the higher grades of the public sector.

Development projects like industries and dams affects the dalit and tribal women. Such
projects leads to displacement of such people from their lands and ecologically impaired their
lands. Infact , 77% of the Dalits are employed in the agricultural sector, and of which 50% are
landless agricultural labourer. Another predicament is that due to large scale purchasing of
agricultural land for non agricultural purposes like building industries or dams, many Dalit women
have lost their livelihood without alternatives or survival. While Some Dalits who are part of non-
farm employment, the Jajmani-balutedari system forces them into occupations that they have
traditionally been given (clearing the cow and buffalo stalls, sweeping, skinning dead cattle,
weaving, drumming at temple festivals, etc). Without their lands, the dalits became poorer, hence,
less chance of survival.

Development such as building industries and dams also affect the ecosystem. Feminist
scholar Rosemary Radford Reuther in New woman/New Earth, were among the first to propound
the correlation between the subjugation of women and the degradation of nature. In west, the term
eco-feminism is used however it may not be embrace by all Asian feminist. Bina Agarwal
employed the term Feminist Environmentalism for Asian feminist, the reason is that
ecofeminism in the west has tended to center on the close nexus between women as a general
category while the Asian debate especially in India has brought forward much more in depth the
class reality of poor peasant women who are oppressed by the hegemonic development process.

23
 Aruna Gnanadason says that the creative power of Indian women in movement against
deforestation and mining operation is a reminiscent of the mothering feminist power of the two
midwives Shiprah and Puah in the Exodus story (Ex.1:15f). These women protected life through
the only form of resistance open to them. The sexuality, fertility and creative power of women
must be reclaimed from the distortion and control of patriarchy. Thus, Asian Hermeneutics cannot
ignore the complextual entwinement between globalization, ecology and Asian women.

Furthermore, development of defense and medical technologies need to be given special

attention. is given to them. Apart from the low wages and salary, such developmental sites provide
unhealthy work condition for women in which no serious health care is given. Therefore, one
should seriously consider and make awareness to the public or raise voices for such women who
are employ in such places,

In present day, feminist scholars see development as a continuation of the process of

colonization; it became an extension of the project of wealth creation in modern western
patriarchys economic vision, which was based on the exploitation or exclusion of women (of the
west and non west), on the exploitation and degradation of nature, on the exploitation and erosion
of other cultures. Privatization of land revenue generation displaced women more critically,
eroding their traditional land use rights. It destroyed womens productivity both by removing
water, land and forests from their management and control, as well as through the ecological
destruction of soil, water and vegetation systems so that natures productivity and renewability.
Thus such development is equivalent to maldevelopment. This male development superimposes
male ideology thus it become synonymous with womens under-development. It ruptures the co-
operative unity of masculine and feminine, and places man, shorn of feminine principle, above
nature and women, and separated from both. In conjunction to this, Vandana uses the phrase,
Maldevelopment as the death of the feminine principle.

Gross National Product is the measure used for economic growth in Maldevelopment. The
Problem with GNP is that it measures some cost as benefits and fails to measure other cost
completely. Among these hidden costs are new burden created by ecological devastation, costs
that invariably heavier for women. When commodity production as the prime economic activity is
introduced as development, it destroys the potential nature and women to produce life and goods
and service for basic needs. More commodities and more cash mean less life. More growth in
maldevelopment means less sustenance of life and life support systems.

Building of dams is one of the sources of violence to the river. When dam are built by
submerging large areas of forested catchments, and river waters are diverted from the river course
into canals, four types of violence are perpetrated on the river cycle. Deforestation in the catchment
reduces rainfall and hence reduces river discharges and turns perennial flows into seasonal flows.
Diversion of water from its natural course and natural irrigation zones to engineered command

24
areas leads to problem of water-logging and salinity. Diversion of waters from its natural course
prevents the river from recharging groundwater sources downstream. Reduced inflows of fresh
water into the sea disturb the fresh water-sea water balance and lead to salinity ingress and sea
erosion.

The drying up of water in India, like that of Africa, is man-made rather than a natural
disaster. Rivers are drying up because their catchments have been mined, deforested or over-
cultivated to generate revenue and profit. Since women are the water providers, disappearing water
sources have new burdens and new drudgery for them. Each river and spring and well drying up
means longer walks for women for collecting water, and implies more work and less survival
options. Vandana focuses on the water crisis explicitly in India, stating that this crisis results from
the reductionist science and maldevelopment. She says that the cause of the water crisis and the
failure of solutions both arise from reductionist science and maldevelopment working against the
logic of water cycle, and hence violating the integrity of water flows which allows rivers, streams,
and wells to regenerate themselves. The arrogance of these anti-nature and anti-women
development programmes lies in the belief that they create water and have the power to augment
it. They fail recognise that humans, like all living things, are participants in the water cycle and
can survive sustainably only through that participants.

The introduction of MNC and TNC have gigantic adverse ramification to the environment
though it is done in the name of development. Vandana Shiva opines that the link between forest
and food is clear to the women who produce in partnership with trees and animals. The patriarchal
model, in contrast, sees forestry as independent of agriculture, and reduces the multiple outputs of
the forest including fertilizer and fodder, into a single product-commercial wood and animal
husbandry is reduced to the production of milk for the centralised dairy industry. These women
suffer the most especially in conjunction to ecological deterioration as capitalism model of
development is not sensitive and concern to their livelihood. Conversely, it is focus mainly on
producing more and accumulation of wealth. Thus, Asian Feminist Hermeneutics have to tackle
this complex suffering of these groups which is the repercussion of the Capitalist Economic
structure.

d. Search for alternate models of development

Masculine model of progress has also ramifies in the debt and the economical crisis of the third
world countries. She also postulates that Reductionist economics assumes that only paid labour
produce value. On one hand it leads to ignoring mans dependence on the natural world, while on
other, it provides the ideology of the gender division of labour such that womens work in
producing sustenance is treated as having no value even while it provides the very basis of survival
and well-being. Since poor third world women provide water, fodder, wood from free common
that nature provides, collecting them is not considered work in reductionist economics. A

25
Gendered dichotomy is created between productive and unproductive work on the basis of
money and price as the only measure of economic worth and wealth.

The modern creation myth that male western minds propagate is based on the sacrifice of
nature, woman and the Third world. It is not merely the impoverishment of these excluded sectors
that is the issue in the late twentieth century; it is the very dispensability of nature and non-
industrial, non commercial cultures that is at stake. Only the price on the market counts. The
global economic system is quite evidently non- sustainable and inequitable. Its basis in
indebtedness, in living at the cost of the future cannot bur generate crisis. Living high on borrowed
or stolen wealth is the economic prescription of todays high priests in banks and financial
institutions, who see natural resources and the poor as dispensable elements of ecosystem.

This dominant mode of organising the world today is challenged by the very voices it had silenced.
These voices, muted through subjugation, are now quietly but firmly suggesting that the western
male has produced only one culture, and that there are others way of structuring the world.
Womens struggles for survival through the protection of nature are redefining the meaning of
basic categories. They are challenging the central belief of the dominant world-view that nature
and women are worthless and waste, that they are obstacle to progress and must be sacrificed.

The two central shifts in thinking that are being induced by womens ecological struggles
relate to economic and intellectual worth. The first relates to our understanding of what constitutes
knowledge, and who the knowers and producers of intellectual value are. The second involves the
concept of wealth and economic value and who the producers of wealth and economic value are.
Vandana jumped to the conclusion by stating that in recovering the chances for the survival of all
life, Third World women are laying the foundation for the recovery of feminine principle in nature
and society, and through it the recovery of the earth as sustainer and provider.

Therefore, there is a search and proposal for new developmental model which is more
intune with sustainable development. A model which is not bias but a development for the entire
humanity including both male and fem

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 Women in Christian Communities

Historical Overview of the Status of Women in the Church

As patriarchy reigns in the society, so is in the Church. One could say that throughout the history
of Christianity, right from the 1st century A.D to the modern period, suppression of women and
dichotomization of gender prevails. The stance of the influential church leaders in many ways
reflected the attitude of the church. Henceforth, the following paragraphs will briefly highlight the
attitude of the church leaders in order to demonstrate the dilapidated status of women in the church.
At the same time, the role and participation of women will also be highlighted.

Women during Early, Medieval and Reformation Church Period:

Due to patriarchal societal structure, Women were looked down as inferior being, and such
concepts were also used as means to suppress women in the Church. Traditional theology which
maintains and insists on inferiority of women and their subordination initiated by some of the early
church fathers, (and leaders) and being passed on till today. Till 325 A.D. women were holding
high posts in Christianity, when the Roman leader Constantine declared Christianity the official
religion of Rome, that the Church adopted the Roman practice of men alone holding positions of
authority. And, it was not until A.D. 494 that Pope Gelasius declared that women no longer could
serve as priests. Sheila Ruth opinions that The reasons offered in the early 1800s for the low social
status of women were not new, harking back to Roman and Greek times.

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 The status of women in the patristic age, as defined by the Church Fathers, is a contentious
issue within Christianity because the patristic writers clearly sought to restrict the influence of
women in civil society as well as in the life of the Church. . The patristic era, which extends roughly
from 150 CE to 500 CE, was arguably harsher than the Middle Ages themselves in attributing
social roles to women, hence the expression patriarchy used by modern-day feminists.
Male activity and female passivity: In the classical age, which shaped patristic views,
male sexuality and power were closely associated, and female sexuality was associated
with passivity. Church Fathers opposed to practice of independent female ascetism because
it threatened to emancipate women from men. To take one's pleasure was to be virile, to
accept it servile.
Limited Ecclesiastical Role and Ministry restricted to men: From the early patristic
age, the offices of teacher and sacramental minister were reserved for men throughout most
of the church in the East and West. Tertullian, the 2nd century Latin father, wrote that "It
is not permitted to a woman to speak in church. Similarly, the fourth century
theologian Epiphanius of Salamis claimed that "Never from the beginning of the world has
a woman served God as priest".("Against the heresies").
Diaconate reserved to men: In early centuries, the Eastern church allowed women to
participate to a limited extent in ecclesiastical office by ordaining deaconesses, whereas in
the West the diaconate (as with higher offices) was reserved only for men. Neither may she
teach, baptize, offer, nor claim for herself any function proper to a man, least of all the
sacerdotal office, according to Terutllian. " ("On the Veiling of Virgins")
Woman as the root of all evil: Tertullian's views on women went further: "The curse God
pronounced on your sex still weighs on the world. You are the devil's gateway. You
are the first that deserted the divine laws. All too easily you destroyed the image of
God, Adam. Because you deserved death, it was the son of God who had to die". St Jerome,
the well known Biblical scholar and translator of the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate) have a
simple view of women. To him "woman is the root of all evil." [6] Like all the early
Christian theologians, Jerome glorified virginity and looked down on marriage. He
reasoning, was also rooted in Genesis: "Eve in paradise was a virgin ... understand that
virginity is natural and that marriage comes after the Fall." Firmilian tells of a woman who
went into an ecstasy and came out a prophetess. "That woman who first through marvels
or deceptions of the demons did many things to deceive the faithful, among other things...
she dared to do this, namely that by an impressive invocation she feigned she was
sanctifying bread, and offering a sacrifice to the Lord."
Women as the weaker sex: John Chrysostom, bishop of Constantinople at the beginning
of the 5th century, said of biblical women that they "were great characters, great women
and admirable. Yet did they in no case outstrip the men, but occupied the second rank"
(Epistle to the Ephesians, Homily 13). Commenting on 1 Timothy 2:11-15. Chrysostom

28
 said that "the male sex enjoyed the higher honor. Man was first formed; and elsewhere he
shows their superiority. He wishes the man to have the preeminence in every way." Of
women he said that "The woman taught once, and ruined all. On this account therefore he
saith, let her not teach. But what is it to other women, that she suffered this? It certainly
concerns them; for the sex is weak and fickle, and he is speaking of the sex collectively."
(1 Timothy, Homily 9). Augustine elevated the contempt of women and sex to a level
unsurpassed before. To him, women's inferiority to men was so obvious that he felt that
he had to ask the question: "Why was woman created at all". He concluded that woman
was created purely for procreation and for nothing else. The expulsion of Adam and Eve
from paradise, according to him, was purely the fault of Eve.
Women as creatures of lust: Gregory of Nazianzus, the Bishop of Constantinople had
this to say about women, "Fierce is the dragon and cunning the asp; But and cunning the
asp; But woman have the malice of both." According to the theologian Origen, women are
worse than animals because they are continuously full of lust.[12] Origen does not approve
of the sexual act even in marriage and taught that although widowers can remarry, they are
by no means crowned for this.[6] He also argued in his commentary on 1 Corinthians 14:34-
35 that female prophets never spoke publicly in the assembly. St. Clement of
Alexandria had such a contempt for women that he believed such a feeling must be
universal. He wrote, in his book Paedagogus that in women, "the consciousness of their
own nature must evoke feelings of shame". He also suggested that wWomen should also
fetch from the pantry things that we need. Gregory of Nyssa taught that the sexual act was
an outcome of the fall and that marriage is the outcome of sin.

In commenting second chapter of the first epistle to Timothy, Ambrose wrote that Woman
ought not only to have simple arrayment, but all authority is to be denied unto her. For she must
be in subjection to man (of whom she has taken her origin), as well in dress as in service. He
further argued that death did enter into the world by her, there is no boldness that ought to be
permitted unto her, but she ought to be in humility. Hereof it is plain, that from every woman, be
she married or unmarried, is all authority taken to execute any office that appertains to man. Yea,
it is plain, that every woman is commanded to serve, to be in humility and subjection.

According to Augustine, man is the image of God but woman is not, because she is made
for the helpmate of man. As woman is devoid of Gods image, she being the head of the family or
any institution is out of the question. Augustine speaks yet more clearly in these words, "The
woman shall be subject to man as unto Christ. For woman," says he, "has not her example from
the body and from the flesh, that so she shall be subject to man, as the flesh is unto the Spirit,
because that the flesh in the weakness and mortality of this life lusts and strives against the Spirit,
and therefore would not the Holy Ghost give example of subjection to the woman of any such

29
thing," etc. This sentence of Augustine ought to be noted of all women, for in it he plainly affirms,
that woman ought to be subject to man

St. Jerome writes in his Hexaemeron, Adam was deceived by Eve, and not Eve by Adam,
and therefore it is just, that woman receives and acknowledges him for governor whom she called
to sin, lest that again she slide and fall by womanly facility."He also comments, "Women are
commanded to be subject to men by the law of nature, because man is the author or beginner of
the woman: for as Christ is the head of the church, so is man of the woman. From Christ the church
took beginning, and therefore it is subject unto him; even so did woman take beginning from man
that she should be subject."

Tertullian, in his book, Womens Apparel, after he has shown many causes why gorgeous
apparel is abominable and odious in a woman, adds these words, speaking as it were to every
woman by name: "Do you not know," says he, "that you are Eve. The sentence of God lives and
is effectual against this kind; and in this world, of necessity it is, that the punishment also live.
You are the port and gate of the devil. You are the first transgressor of God's law. You did persuade
and easily deceive him whom the devil durst not assault. For your merit (that is, for your death), it
behoved the Son of God to suffer the death; and does it yet abide in your mind to deck you above
your skin coats?"

Thomas Aquinas holds that woman is the image of God like man but the male possesses
the image to a greater degree than the female because he (the male) demonstrates greater
intellectual capacities than woman. Woman should be subjected to man as she is naturally inferior.
The naturally superior rules the naturally inferior. Hence, woman cannot be ordained since
ordination also is a position of dominion, rule and teaching, authority over others. As women
cannot exercise dominion, they cannot be ordained.

The coming of reformation movements was also silent and passive on women issue in the Church.
Reformation has to do more with the doctrinal issue pertaining to Salvation, and was much directed
against the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical traditions. A wife was expected to be a companion to
her husband, but she was always his subordinate. Obedience was demanded by husbands, and
women were restricted in their actions. A divorce was practically impossible to get. This was true
under the Protestant churches as well as under the Catholic Church, however the Reformation
benefited women in that they gained more rights such as they could file for divorce as much as
husbands could.
John Knox (1514 - 1572 AD), a foremost Protestant leader in Scotland and father of the
Church of Scotland, wrote his book, The First Blast of the Trumpet, while in exile against the
three queens who were ruling England, France and Scotland at the time. He noted that To promote
a woman to bear rule, superiority, dominion, or empire above any realm, nation, or city, is
repugnant to nature; an insult to God, a thing most contrary to his revealed will and approved
ordinance; and finally, it is the subversion of good order, of all equity and justice. His arguments

30
include that women are weak and foolish by nature; law forbids women to hold public offices;
history shows that women cannot be trusted with authority; the Creator made woman subject to
man; all women suffer dominion by men because of Eve's sin; subjection was put on woman by
way of punishment; Church Fathers too teach that women are sinful and subject.
Martin Luther regarded the place of women to be in the home and in ministries of caring
and not in positions of leadership. The Protestant Reformation, by shutting down female convents
within the movement, effectively closed off the option of a full-time religious role for Protestant
women. Martin Luther himself taught that "the wife should stay at home and look after the affairs
of the household as one who has been deprived of the ability of administering those affairs that are
outside and concern the state."John Calvin agreed that "the woman's place is in the home."
By shutting down female convents within the movement, Protestantism effectively closed
off the option of a full-time religious role for Protestant women, as well as one which had provided
some women a life in academic study. Many elements of their marriage challenged the social
norms of the times; including casting man and woman as fully equal partners. Women were to be
silent, obedient, and to perform household tasks. The purpose of women's education was the
development of an accepted concept of marriage and training in domestic skills. Women were
taught how to look after children, care for their homes, make clothing for her family,
and tend livestock. The change was that women were now encouraged to study the bible in
vernacular language, to be a biblical influence for children and with husband.

John Calvins system (1559) was more male. Calvins Church order was masculine through
and through. There was simply no place for women to appear. True, they might be in principle
being elected to salvation, but there was no sense that they would ever be able to perform mighty
deeds that are the proof of mens election. The best they could hope for was to be the companion
and helpmeet of elect men. There was no question of women holding high office in either state or
church, and the four ecclesiastical offices were all reserved for men. Calvinism was thus overriding
male in its logic, its symbols and its organization. Calvin regarded women to be the supporters and
helpmates of their husbands.

John Calvin's view of deaconesses is almost identical to the view held in the early church.
Like the early church, Calvin taught that deaconesses were founded not upon Acts 6:1-6 but on 1
Timothy 5:9-10. Calvin believed in two separate functions for deacons and deaconesses. The male
deacons administered church finances and the affairs of the poor. This no doubt included oversight
of the deaconesses. The deaconesses were not involved in the administration of the church's
financial affairs but were involved "in caring for the poor themselves." The care of the poor was
entrusted to the deacons. However, two kinds are mentioned in the letter to the Romans: "He that
gives, let him do it with simplicity; ...he that shows mercy, with cheerfulness" [Rom. 12:8, cf. Vg.].
Since it is certain that Paul is speaking of the public office of the church, there must have been two
distinct grades. Unless my judgment deceive me, in the first class he designates the deacons who

31
distribute the alms. But the second refers to those who had devoted themselves to the care of the
poor and sick. Of this sort were the widows whom Paul mentions to Timothy [1 Tim. 5:9-10].
Women could fill no other public office than to devote themselves to the care of the poor. If we
accept this (as it must be accepted), there will be two kinds of deacons: one to serve the church in
administering the affairs of the poor; the other, in caring for the poor themselves.

For Calvin, the authoritative aspects of being a deacon (i.e., taking care of the financial
affairs of the church, and the counseling-judicial aspect) are reserved for the men deacons alone.
The women deacons function somewhat like nurses. The food, water, clothing, and medicine, etc.,
set aside by the deacons are delivered and administered by the deaconesses. This does not mean
that deacons were not involved in similar activities. It only means that deaconesses were limited
to separate non-authoritative activities. The only difference between Calvin and the church fathers
is that there is no indication by Calvin that the deaconess's ministry was limited to women. And
women clearly were not permitted to baptize other women. (Since immersion while in the nude
was no longer practiced but was replaced by sprinkling while remaining fully clothed, one could
see why deaconesses were no longer needed to baptize.) Once again it is necessary to point out
that those who are arguing for women deacons at the present time are arguing for something
completely different in character and function than was permitted in the early church and by
Calvin. The early church and Calvin had an order or office of widows who happened to be called
deaconesses. They were not the same as deacons, as modern advocates of deaconesses assert. The
qualifications and functions of the deaconess were the same as the widow of 1 Timothy 5:9-10. "I
say it was unlawful to receive women into the vow of continence before the age of sixty, inasmuch
as the apostle admits only women of sixty years [1 Tim. 5:9] but bids the younger women marry
and bear children [1 Tim. 5:14]."

The clergy could now be married, reducing illegitimate births although there is little if any
evidence illegitimacy was mainly fueled by unmarried clergy. Women's voices in the Reformation
were mostly quashed with their writings destroyed because of the edict in the Bible for women to
be silent.

Status of Women in the Modern Church Period.

Anti-Slavery Movement: Slavery in America began when the first African slaves were brought
to the North American colony of Jamestown, Virginia, in 1619, to aid in the production of such
lucrative crops as tobacco. Slavery was practiced throughout the American colonies in the 17th
and 18th centuries, and African-American slaves helped build the economic foundations of the

32
new nation. Albeit the fact that women were active members in anti-slavery movement, but soon
they found out that they were not allowed to speak for the movement and gradually they were not
allowed to become members of anti-slavery society. As the churches in the west were in favour of
slavery, women who speak against slavery were suppressed. In 1837, Sarah Grimki, a quaker
argued for theological and biblical basis for womens rights. Basing on the creation story in Gen
1:27, She argued for equality with men for their common possession of the image of God. All the
19th century feminist argued for their case in biblical and theological terms and criticized the use
of the bible as an instrument of male domination.

Antoinette Brown, a Quaker and an abolitionist, is one of the first women to study theology
and she started examining Pauline Epistles with feminist questions. Thus the 19th century America
represents a conflict between the feminist pieties which expected women to be confined to home
and the womens right and equality on the basis of the image of God. As they were not allowed
to speak for the anti-slavery society , women came to the realization that they themselves were
slaves. At the anti-slavery convention held at London in 1840, the women group became so
frustrated that Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucrtia Mott met and discussed womens inequality
and agreed on the need to hold a womens right convention. Along with them Martha Wright,
Mary Ann, Mc Clintok and Jane Hunt who were all Quakers met on July 13, 1848 to plan the
convention.

The Womens Right Convention: The Womens Right Convention was held on July, 19-20,
1850, in the Wesleyan Chapel in Seneca Falls, New York. The purpose was to discuss the social,
civil and religious rights of women. 300 women attended to discuss the Declaration and Resolution
which Elizabeth C. Stanton had drafted. It was based on Declaration of the Rights of Women on
the American Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights. The Declaration and resolution
addressed inequalities in the legal, political and religious arenas. The declaration denounced
womens subordination in both the Church and State.

The result of the movement can be seen in the ordination of the first woman, Antoinette
Brown in 1853. The womens Bible (1895-1898) was published by Elizabeth C. Stanton and other
members to counteract the oppressive use of the Bible. 19th century also saw some ordination of
women in some of the protestant church and by the early period of the 20th century, the movement
slowed down probably because of they had achieved in getting some of their goals such as , the
right to equal franchise, speech and some other rights as well and the movement was revived after
World War II. In August 20, 1970 in New York and other parts of the United States, 20,000
women and other thousands of men marched in procession down the fifth avenue in New York
city and other cites. They established that women have the power which is not to be ignored but
to be accepted.

In the 19th century, evangelical Protestantism in the Second Great Awakening made
possible for women to forge new public spaces and to develop the skills of civic participation

33
even at a time when they were formally barred from most aspects of public life, including voting,
serving on juries, and practicing most professions.

Women and Sunday school: Sunday school was founded by a woman named Hannah Ball, a
native of High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire, in 1769. However, the founding of Sunday schools
is more commonly associated with the work of Robert Raikes who saw the need to prevent children
in the slums descending into crime. Hannah Ball was converted under the preaching of John
Wesley. In July 1780 a Sunday School was established in the parish of St Mary de Crypt in
Gloucester. There were to be two sessions every Sunday and four women were paid to teach
children to read and to learn the Prayer Book Catechism.
In the 19th century the Sunday Schools afforded opportunity for women to serve the church
by teaching the young. The influence of women was so great that some historians have spoken of
the "feminization of American religion during these years."

Women and Bible Societies: The Bible Society movement, one of the most important
interdenominational movements, in the 19th century, even till today, began in 1804 with the
founding of the British and Foreign Bible Society (hereafter BFBS). The BFBS dates back to 1804
when a group of Christians sought to address the problem of a lack of affordable Bibles in Welsh
for Welsh-speaking Christians. This was highlighted by a young girl called Mary Jones who
walked over 20 miles to get a Bible in Bala, Gwynedd. The story of Mary Jones and her Bible
inspired the founding of the British and Foreign Bible Society.

Mary Jones (16 December 1784 28 December 1866) was a Welsh Protestant Christian
girl who, at age fifteen, walked twenty-five miles across the countryside to buy a copy of the Welsh
Bible from Rev. Thomas Charles because she did not have one. Marys goal of obtaining her own
Bible and her meeting with Rev. Charles set in motion the creation of a truly international Bible
society. By 1907, the BFBS had distributed 204 million Bibles, New Testaments and portions of
Scripture throughout the world. An international organization providing Bibles to people around
the world had been inspired by the needs of one girl in Wales, Mary Jones. This could be one of
the most epoch-making influences a woman could have in the history of Christianity.

Student Volunteer Movement (1886): The Student Volunteer Movement (hereafter SVM) for
Foreign Missions was an organization founded in 1886 that sought to recruit college and university
students in the United States for missionary service abroad. It also sought to publicize and
encourage the missionary enterprise in general. It produced a number of kindred movements at the
home base which have united men and women of different Churches in a close bond such as
volunteer movements amongst teachers, nurses, etc., the Missionary Study Movements in America
and Britain, the Laymens Missionary Movement, and so forth. Though women leadership in the
SVM was not much seen, the SVM harbor space for interdenominational, impartial gender

34
participation and role. In that way it opened a new chapter for the place and role of women in the
history of Christianity.

Student Christian Movement (1889): Developed out of several student movements in Cambridge
at the end of the nineteenth century and flourished particularly between the two world wars, the
Student Christian Movement changed thousands of young women and their worldview. It took
them out of the context in which they were raised and introduced them to radically different
perspectives around the globe. It also opened them up to their own capacities. As leaders, as
thinkers, as organizers, they came face to face with social realities like racial prejudice, poverty,
and oppression and with the possibility of action. The movement was one of the few Christian
organizations in which women truly had the same status as men. For women in particular, the SCM
was a unique training ground that offered both female mentors and a greater openness to female
leadership than its secular counterparts in the student new left. There were capable women
leaderships which contributed much to the success of the SCM movements, such as Kathleen Bliss,
who had been a leader in the Student Christian Movement at Cambridge University at a time when
many of the active members were to become the future leaders of the WCC. Another important
women leadership in the SCM was found in the person of Sarah Chakko, one of the most
outstanding women India has produced.

Young Womens Christian Association (YMCA): The YWCA, from its inception in 1894, held
its door open to the members of all Churches. The YWCA was first a Christian response in mid-
19th century Great Britain to the radically altered social condition caused by the industrial
revolution: massive shifts of rural populations to cities, and the exploitation of the poor and
working-class women, men and children. The YWCA attributes its origins to the two sources: the
prayer unions of Emma Roberts, which regularly gathered groups of young women for prayer and
support; and a network of homes and patronage of Lady Kinnaird. The first home was established
in London in 1855, a residence for young Christian working women.
YWCA has been fertile training grounds for women leaders.The movement started to
liberate the lay forces of Christianity. The YWCA that was formed in 1854 had provided ample
opportunity to womens freedom, responsibility and full participation in the decision making. It
advocates for young womens leadership, peace, justice, human rights and sustainable
development, both on a grassroots and global scale. It is the largest womens organization in the
world, and the second oldest organization of its kind, second only to the Relief Society. Its first
President was Mrs. J. Herbert Tritton of Britain, and the first General Secretary Miss Annie
Reynolds of USA.

World Student Christian Federation (WSCF): Women involvement in WSCF came into
limelight during and after the World Wars. The WSCF in general and women in particular played
a key role in refugee work in Europe and strove to keep communication and solidarity links open
between Christians divided by nationalism and war. The most significant service of WSCF done
during the Second World War was through women, by the formation of Comit Inter-

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MouvementAuprs des Evacusbetter known as CIMADE. In September 1939, following the
outbreak of war, the people of Alsace and Lorraine (largely Protestant) had been evacuated from
the border zone and sent to the predominantly Catholic areas in the southwest, where they were
looked on with suspicion. The secretaries of the Federation of Protestant Youth Movements
(Scouts, Guides, YWCA, YMCA, and SCM/WSCF) all women, because their male colleagues
had been drafted created CIMADE, to help these people in their difficult new environment.
Medeleine Barot,who returned from Rome in May 1940, when Italy joined the war on the side of
Germans, was named general secretary. The CIMADE help displaced persons; later it also looked
after refugees all over the world and was active in the defense of their humanitarian rights. The
1980s saw a marked increase of Womens leadership in WSCF at the international level. Women
from all regions are half of executive committee. In 1986 the post of general secretary and associate
general secretary were replaced by two co-secretaries general, one man, one woman. Womens
programs exist in most regions, and womens preassemblies precede general assemblies. The
leadership role of prominent women leaders such as Ruth Rouse, Sarah Chakko, Suzanne de
Ditrich, Mercy Oduyoyewere much credited in the WSCF.

Status and Role of Asian women in the Church.

Asian Church Women Conference (ACWC): In 1956, the Presbyterian Church Women of the
USA invited churchwomen from Asia, Africa, Latin America and Europe to their Assembly at
Purdue University, this conference made the women in Asia new selfhood and there was an urge
for ecumenical fellowship among the Asian Church Women. Miss Felicia Sunderal from India
challenged other Asian women delegates to have as big a meeting as the one at Purdue; and they
held a conference in Hong Kong on 12th November, 1958.
The Asian Church Womens Conference envisions itself as a full partner with individuals
and organizations that are dedicated to the enabling of women and the whole of humankind in the
struggle towards the creation of a society where there is more meaningful peace, justice and love.
As an advocate of womens rights and welfare, ACWC works beyond the boundaries of culture
and creed, color and race so that stronger regional networks of women leaders and organizations
may emerge that together and in unity recognize in action their role and responsibility in the
family, the society and the Church.

Women Status in Indian Churches.

Church of South India (CSI): The CSI is a union of three great churches the South India United
Church, the Methodists and the Anglicans which took place on 27 September, 1947. It was under
the inspiration of Sister Carol Graham, an order for sisters and a women's fellowship was formed
in 1948, became a vital part of the fabric of the life of the Church, and it was dynamic. Its purpose

36
was to unite the women of the Church of CSI for prayer, service and witness in their daily lives.
Women Workers includes women who served in pastoral or evangelist roles.

Methodist Church in India: In the Methodist Church, Women have representation in the
decision making body and women can take part in Church worship. It has strong womens wing
called Women's Society for Christian Service (WSCS) and also a structure for full-time womens
ministry called, Deaconesses Conference with full voting rights in the regional conference
although they are not ordained but commissioned by the Bishop.

Roman Catholic Church: One of the largest Churches in India, it is highly hierarchical. Women
are completely excluded from the major decision-making bodies of the church. The women
religious are actively involved in education, health care and social concerns. But though there are
more than 1,00,000 Religious Women in the Catholic Church in India, ordination is denied to
them. However, women are given opportunities to lead in prayer, scripture reading and taking
offering.

United Evangelical Lutheran Church in India: Various Lutheran Churches in India came
together to form United Evangelical Lutheran Churches in India (UELCI) with its headquarters in
Chennai. Since 1990, UELCI agreed to allow theologically trained men and women to be
ordained not only for Pastoral ministry but for other Church related ministries as well. Women
have their own 'Women's Desk' and their representatives in Church Councils. The UELCI has
many hundred theologically trained women. They serve as Pastors, Bible Women, in the Christian
Ashram and the like.

Mar Thoma Church: The Mar Thoma Church is a reformed Church of St. Thomas tradition. The
prevailing Church structures are highly patriarchal. In the Church assembly, the supreme body
consisting of 800 members, there are less than 10 women. Some parishes allow women to read the
scriptures, to preach and in leading prayers. There are a number of theologically trained women
who have no opportunity to work for the Church except as pastors wives doing voluntary service
in the parishes of their husbands. It has strong womens wing known as the Sevika Sanghom and
few of the theologically trained women are employed in the Sanghom. The Savika Sangam of the
Mar Thoma Church had two full women missionaries, Annamma and Aleyamma, working outside
Kerala. These two women went to a place called Arimayoor and started a mission home called
Santi Mannirram (House of Peace). They worked among the non-Christian Women. They visited
many places nearby and preached. The Indian Christian women of Kerala started their mission
work in 1919 and it increased gradually. By 1943, 32 sisters were involved in the work. They
visited and preached in about 400 homes every year. They did personal evangelism and tract
distribution, the Christian family, cleanliness and taught the converts about the Christian family,
cleanliness and health care. They visited the sick and gave food and care to the needy. Many people
came to know the Lord through their ministry. They even started a new church in Puttenkave Mala.

37
 Presbyterian Church of India: The Presbyterian Church of India is hierarchical and
patriarchal. Still womens ordination is not accepted. Nevertheless, it does not restrict women from
taking active part in worship services and other Church activities. It is ironical that the matriarchal
culture of the Khasi Presbyterian Church prohibits women from any active participation in Church
worship. Women ordination is out of question and this leaves women out of Church decision-
making body. Men control the Church.

Baptist Churches: Existing both in the North East India and in the other parts of the country, in
principle women have equal opportunities and have fairly good representation at the council and
convention levels. But at the local levels their roles are defined and restricted. There are many
theologically trained women often employed by the womens organizations of local churches. But
at the convention level only few are working in churches.

The All India Council of Christian Women (AICCW): Theological Colleges, Joint Womens
Programme (JWP) organized various seminars and workshops for women to challenge them to
seek new roles. They also provided opportunities for the Church women to re-read the Bible with
new insights. Many social issues like violence against women, Personal Laws etc. were also taken
up. Networking with secular women groups became very important.

Due to the growing consciousness and untiring efforts of women leaders and other
enlightened men, in the mid 70s the ordination of women was accepted by one major church, i.e.
the Church of South India and the number of women in various committees and decision making
bodies increased. Theological Colleges opened their doors to women students and a number of
women theologians emerged. Womens participation in the Churches worship service and
ministry became visible. The untiring efforts of a few committed women who through their bold
intervention did make a mark in uplifting the cause of women could not be ignored. Some of such
women's organizations are All India Council of Christian Women (National Council of Churches
in India), Women's Ministries Department (Evangelical Fellowship of India), Association of
Theologically Trained Women in India, World Day of Prayer, Fellowship of the Least Coin, Local
Church Fellowships, Centre for Ideological Socio Research and Study (CISRS) etc. All these
united efforts were able to generate fresh thinking on women's concerns.

Sara Chakko, an Orthodox woman from India was a delegate to the Amsterdam Assembly, and
later became one of the Presidents of WCC. She was the first Indian honored to be the President
and first Lady President of the biggest ecumenical forum, The World Council of Churches. The
short life of Sarah Chakko was eventful with very valuable contributions to the Indian Society and
Churches of the world. At the time of her early death at the age of 49 years, she had grown up to
be a renowned educationalist and ecumenist.Rachel Matthew, President of the All India Council
of Christian Women (Women's wing of the National Council of Churches in India). Rachel is a
member of the Mar Thoma Syrian Church of Malabar; she was a delegate to the WCC Assembly

38
in Canberra in 1991.Lilavathi Singh was the President of Isabella Thorburn College in Lucknow.
She was a delegate to the Ecumenical Mission Conference in 1900. She passionately presented the
educational needs of women in India. In 1907 Lilavathi Singh represented the Young Womens
Christian Association in India at a World Conference of University students held at Tokyo. She
made a profound impression on the delegates by her spirituality and intellectual power.

World Council of Churches and Women: Feminism has always been a concern of the WCC,
but it has much greater influence since about 1970. The WCC held a consultation in Berlin in 1974
on sexism in the 1970s, which led to it becoming a major concern of the Nairobi Assembly in
1975. This proposed a theological study on The community of Men and Women in the Church
which culminated in a major consultation at Sheffield in 1981 on that theme. Out of this a report
came to the Vancouver Assembly. There are, indeed, some broadly similar ways in which
oppressors oppress the oppressed, but to conflate their causes, linking racism, classism and sexism
together, as was done in the WCC study is a different matter. It put them within the ambience of
Liberation theology (though it was some time before the Latin American Liberation theologians
became alert to sexism). A major speech at Sheffield by the Roman Catholic Asian Liberation
theologian, Tissa Balasuriya, made a point forcefully. the struggle for change is one struggle.
Racism, sexism and classism and all other forms of domination, rejection and marginalization are
linked together in a demonic symphony of oppression

In 1987, the WCC Central Committee decided to observe a decade during which member
churches would show their solidarity and approval of women. This observance of the ecumenical
decade saw the empowerment of women and saw women as equal partners in leadership. Women
were encouraged to get theologically trained and join the Churchs ministry. Women priests have
also been elevated to the highest office of bishop. However opinions are divided still with some
major denominations like the Roman Catholics still deny women ordination.

Christian Mission in India: Changing Status of Women in the Society

1. Introduction: Gender issue is global phenomena existing in the history for many centuries.
Superstition, religious myth and philosophies have been some of the factors behind it existence.
The emergence of Christian missions, in many ways, changes such stereotypical concept that was
prevalent in the Indian society.

2. Christian Missionaries and women Empowerment.

2.1. Female Infanticide/ Child Sacrifice: Due to superstition that pervaded the society, throwing
the first child into the holy rivers was prevalent. They were thrown into the rivers to please their
gods and goddesses for prosperity. In 1794, Carey witnessed the horrifying experience for first
time. Missionaries were concerned about killing of female infant, Carey felt obligated to struggle
to save the lives of innocent young ones who were the victims of merciless killing of female

39
infants. In 1802 the governor general of EIC, Lord Wellesley asked Carey to make report about
the nature, reasons and number of the infanticide. Within one month, the report was submitted and
child sacrifice was banned on 20th August 1802 by Lord Wellesley.
2.2. Widow Remarriage Act and Child Marriage Restraint Act. The missionaries who brought
hope among the widows by advocating widow remarriage. In 1856, Widow Marriage Act, re-
marriage was legalized and forced widowhood was prohibited. After 1856 Indian Women got
freedom of life by a foreign government. By the efforts of missionaries, child marriage was
outlawed in 1929 through Child Marriage Restraint Act. Before widow remarriage was legalized,
the secret widow marriage was already practiced among the Roman Catholic Church as early in
1843 in the south. When it happened for the first time in Tiruchchirappali in 1843, the secret leaked
out in which there was uproar in the Vellalar Christian congregation. More than hundred marriages
of widow took place in Madrurai Mission in the following twenty years.
2.3. Female Education: In South India, B. Ziegenbalg pioneered a girls school at Tranquebar
(recorded as early as 1707), most probably the first in Tamil Nadu. B. Schultze at Madras
instructed girls around 1732. Early in the nineteenth century missionaries wives began teaching
the Christian girls in their boarding homes, lace making, sewing or embroidery. In 1818,
Serampore missionaries started the first school for female while boy school was already started in
1800. It was largely due to the parents that it took many years to start girls school as parents with
their traditional outlook restrained their children (girls) from education in the beginning. In
Calcutta, Drinkwater Bethune, President of the government council of education founded the first
school for high caste girls in 1849.
In 1857, Duff opened a Christian day school for girls and in 1859 the American
Presbyterian Mission started a girls boarding at Dehra Dun, from which came the first matriculate
of Calcutta University. Prominent among the lady missionaries from America was Isabella
Thoburn, who reached Lucknow in 1870 and founded a school out of which the Izabella Thoburn
College developed while Sarah Tucker College in Palamcottah and Lady Deak College in Madurai
was started in the same year. In 1884, two Christian girls in Bombay namely Miss. Malabar Kukde
and Mrs. Shivantibai Nikambe became the first Indian girls to pass the matriculation examination
of Bombay University.
In North East, Education was one of the serious social concerns of the early missionaries
among the tribals. When education was introduced among the Tribals through the agency of
western Christianity, the initial privilege was taken by the boys. However, in the course of time,
Christian missionaries and evangelists encouraged the people to send both the boys and girls for
learning. In 1853, Mrs. William Lewis started a school for girls in Khasi and Jantia Hills, Pettigrew
arrived at Imphal on 6th February 1894 to start a school while Welsh Missionary D.E. Jones
reached Mizoram in 1897 and started education among the Mizos in his balcony and later added
some girls among his pupils.

2.4. Women Society: These organizations were formed to spread awareness on the importance of
womens education. In 1819, missionaries made a proposal to form Calcutta female Juvenile
Society along with Calcutta School Society, and soon followed by the establishment of Native

40
Female Society at Serampore, Ward assisted in the consultations in England through which Miss
Mary Ann Cooke (the first woman to be sent from England as a teacher for girls in India) came.
Mrs. Marshman was also involved in this society along several English Ladies residing in Calcutta
and it is exclusive meant for education of Indian Girls. In 1838, Captain James founded the Scottish
Ladies Association for the advancement of female education in India.

2.5. Sarada Saden and Mukti Mission: Pandita Rama bai (1858-1922) on March 1, 1889 started
Sarada Saden (Home of Wisdom) in Bombay with the cooperation of Mahadev Govind Ranade
and members from Prathna Samaj. In 1890 it was moved to Kedgaon near famine. She toured the
famine area in 1896, rescuing orphan girls. She sent many to mission boarding homes but many
were still there so she started Mukti Mission at Kedgaon (Pune) where she was joined by Miss
Abrams from America who raised a fund for Sarade Saden and Mukti Mission in America in 1898.
In 1899, buildings were erected and large institution soon developed providing a wonderful variety
of occupations such as field work, dairy farming, weaving, sewing, rope-making, etc.

2.6. Womens Hospital and Medical Training: Apart from Sarada Saden and Mukti Mission,
Rama Bai also started womens hospital and mobile medical clinics. The first women doctors were
also trained by her initiative. Basel mission also set up hospitals at Calicut, Betgeri and Udipi, and
from1889 the American Presbyterian developed an important medical center at Miraj, by the end
of the nineteenth century it was developing rapidly and increasing in scope. One particular reason
that contributed to this growth was that lady missionaries and their helpers, visiting women in their
homes, had brought to light the special need of women for medical aid. The North India School of
Medicine for Christian women was founded in1894, a fully fledged medical school for women
doctors, compounders and nurses which became affiliated to the Punjab University. With the
cooperation of all the major missionary societies and generous help from America and Europe as
well as subscriptions raised in India, and the untiring advocacy of Dr Ida S.Scudder, the Christian
Medical College became fully established in 1945. It is said to be the biggest single Christian
medical enterprise in Asia. Special lines of work which medical missions developed were work
for women and children, surgery and the treatment of eye diseases. The most conspicuous medical
fields in which Christian missions have been foremost are tuberculosis and leprosy. A recent
development since the Second World War has been the initiation of Christian institutions for the
treatment of mental illness, the need for which had long been felt. Psychiatric clinics at Lucknow,
Miraj and Vellore have made a beginning in this work.

3. Zenana Mission: The term Zenana is sometimes loosely translated as schools for women. In
Persian, Zenana means a place set apart for women. The work among women who were kept
secluded from the mainstream of social life noted to be a most unique form of missionary
enterprise. Women living in such quarters could not be expected to come out where the
missionaries worked. In order to serve them, the missionaries had to go where these women could
be found. The zenanas were high-caste Hindu dwellings from which all males outside the
immediate family were excluded. Missionary wives became active in Zenana work however due
to their household duties that did not make it possible for them to devote fulltime to this work, the
41
missionaries societies began to send unmarried women to India. Teaching them needlework,
carrying out literary classes for women in purdah, and reaching curative care to those who needed
medical attention. In the course of this, the missionary also taught these women the bible stories.
Some of the main works of Zenana Mission are as follows:

3.1. Home Visitation and Women Education: The Zenana work itself often consisted in
educating the women and girls. This was the beginning of a movement for womens education that
extended upward from the school level through college, university and professional education.
Beginning from 1894, ladies were sent to teach girls in the Zenanas of Hindu families. Mrs.
Mullens and Miss. Toogoord, were prominent in this work in Calcutta. This was the beginning of
permanent Zenana schools, which spread to other towns, and it became a regular feature of the
educational system. These school received grants-in-aid from the government, who appointed
female inspector as well. With the progress made through Zenana visitation, a number of mission
societies have established special societies such as the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission and the
Church of England Zenana Missionary society (1881). Gradually, Zenana school work came to
be carried on in schools in the ordinary sense of the term, and number of girls schools increased
and among which the pioneering mission was the Baptist Zenana Mission.

3.2. Medical Attention: Mission to the Women was also separately set up by the Zenanas mission
and these women were given medical attention, education and the gospel was shared to them. The
growth of medical works among the Zenanas was remarkable in Punjab. Health training leading
up to nursing also developed as part of the venture.

3.3. Emancipation of Devadasi: Devadasis were a class of women who were dedicated to the
service of temples. Symbolically they were united in marriage with God. During the simple
ceremony called pottukattu or trinket tying, the girl was married to the god in the temple; she
should devote herself to the service of the god. For any reason, she has to abandon the spiritual
path; she would put an end to her life with the dagger. The chief duty of the devadasis was to sing
and dance before the gods to please them and originally these devadasis were not meant for public.
After sacred marriage, they were not allowed to have any further marriage with any human being.
These ladies had an assured economic and social position. During the invasion of the Moghul
Empire all the famous Hindu temples of Tamil Nadu were destroyed and entire system collapsed,
degraded and had to live as prostitute. According to the Madras census report of 1881, there were
11,573 Devadasis in the presidency. Since 1901, Amy Carmichael (missionary of Church of
England Zenana Mission) started rescuing young girls from Devadasi house in Tamil Nadu. Since
1896, National Womens Christian Temperance Union was actively functioning in promoting the
cause of women including girl-child abuse and later by the Society for the Protection of Children
in India. The spread of Zenana missions included Delhi, Agra, and Ludhiana to the South. The
Zenana mission enterprise had it own high and low points. Shimla was noted for Zenana work
among Hindu women under the able guidance of Theodora Fox and Miss Basus. In 1907, a purdah
club of women came into existence in Delhi wherein Hindu, Muslim, and missionary women met
regularly in a friendly atmosphere. This was a bold step in the conservative environment of Delhi
42
of those times when the different communities lived in strange seclusion from each other. In 1930,
the Zenana workers were also visiting European women, who had married Indian gentlemen and
had ended up in Zenana seclusion. Later the work of the Zenana mission expanded to work among
women in China.

4. Sati and its abolishment: Samsara Chakra (the cycle of birth and rebirth) teaches that there is
no salvation for women until she is born as a male. She was born as a woman only to serve man.
From birth to death women were suppressed in different stages. At the time of birth a killing hand
may fall upon her as the birth of a female child was believed as misfortune. She might even give
away at a tender age in marriage (child marriage). In several cases the husbands were of fathers
age. When her husband dies she is still young, making her a widow even in her childhood before
she attains womanhood. There were two choices for a woman when her husband died. Either she
was forced to live as a widow in her whole life or she was burnt alive. If she was not taken for sati,
her whole life would be in terrible plight as the bereaved widow had to shave off her hair, wear
particular kind of dress, remove all jewels to avoid attracting other men in the family. Since 1803,
the Serampore missions started addressing Sati; they used to send people to different area to collect
information about Sati. At Fort William, Carey used to collect Sastr (Ancient Hindu writings, on
which the practice of Sati was based.) from the Pandit. They raised their voices of protest against
the social evils. Carey was fully supported by Lord Wellesley, but tragically he had to leave India
soon. Due to strong opposition from the conservative traditional Hindus, the successors of Lord
Wellesley were unwilling to take up the issue of Sati. Hence, the issue remained unaddressed by
the government for many years and Sati continued for many years. The issue of Sati was also taken
up by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and others and despite a strong opposition from the Brahmins, it was
finally abolished by Lord Bentinck in 4th December 1829. Although it was credited to Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, yet it was Carey who took the initiative and inspired others to take up the issue.

5. Upper Cloth Revolt: At South Travancore, the London Missionary Society missionaries took
up the issue of lower caste women which came to be known as the Upper-Cloth Revolt or
Rebellion. The issue was among the Shanars Women (lower caste) who were not allow to wear
upper cloth by the higher caste, upon their conversion they were instructed to wear upper cloth by
the missionaries. Under the leadership of Muthukutty, known as Vaikunda Swami and Christian
missionaries, the Nadars fought for rights to wear an upper cloth like the women of higher caste.
In 1812 Col. Munro issued an order permitting, the Ezhava and the Nadar women converts to
Christianity to cover the upper part. Subsequently in 1814, during the reign of Rani Gowri
Lakshmibai, Col. Munro issued another order to the same effect. Yet it did not permit them to wear
upper cloth in the manner of the caste Hindus or the upper caste. According to the custom, the high
caste women were allowed to wear upper cloths upon their shoulders. But the Christian women
were not permitted to wear that piece of cloth called the Thol Cheelai. The lady missionaries
advised the Christian women and others to wear Thol Cheelai. As the Nadars and other backward
class began to wear upper cloth during which Mead, the advocate of the movement started lace
industry at Nagercoil in 1820, and subsequently it spread to Marthandam, Neyyoor and

43
Santhapuaram. Finding that the long standing customs and caste distinctions lose their validity,
the Nairs of Kalkulam and Eraniel taluks of South Travancore rose in revolt against the Nadar
women. The Christian women who went to the market with kuppayam or Thol cheelai were
bullied by them and striped off their upper cloths and jackets. The Mohammedans also joined with
them saying the blouse was their religious dress and attacked the Christians wherever possible.
Nairs filed a complaint against the Nadar Christians in the court. In the petition, they complained
that, the Nadar Christians were not paying tax for wearing upper cloth. However, the court passed
a decree in 1823 in favor of the Christian women to wear upper cloth.

The second revolt in 1829 took place when Lord William Bentick assumed power as the
Governor General of India. He followed the non-intervention policy and ordered that the East India
Company officers should not interfere in the internal administration of the States. In the year 1828,
a struggle burst out at Attoor, Knnanoor, Thirparappu, Arumanai, Udayar Vilai and Pulippanam
in Kalkulam taluk of South Travancore. Under the leadership of Easwara Pillai, the Revenue
Inspector of those places plotted against the Christians. Churches were razed to the ground;
Christians were beaten up and jailed. Rev. Charles Mead and Mault sent petition to Resident Col.
Morrison to protect the Christians from the outrages of high caste people. The Madras government
responded by sending Captain Cibbald who helped Rev. Mead made suitable arrangements for the
protection of Christians. Further, Colonel Morrison sent a section of the European troops from
Trivandrum to places in South Travancore, where riots took place. The missionaries persisted and
finally were able to procure a permission to wear cloth (kuppayam) which was issued by Madras
Governor G.E. Trevelyan in 1859.

6. Reflection: The Social evils in the Indian contexts which oppressed the women were manifolds.
Missionaries were instrumental in bringing transformation in many ways. Education was the most
crucial as it was also useful for evangelism to the women who were illiterate. With the revision of
Charter (1813) at the British Parliament, colonial and missionaries cooperated in many ways. As
the mission work grew, the need for women to serve as teachers and medical missionaries was
recognized. The need for lady missionaries emancipated both Indian and foreign missionaries. For
instance, when Ellen Farrer (Missionary in North India who founded the first medical school for
women in India at Ludhiana, known as the North India School of Medicine for Christian Women
in 1894.) was invited in 1891 to speak at the Baptist Assembly in Manchester, Farrer took the
opportunity to point out that while women were trained and sent abroad as missionaries, they often
were not allowed the same privileges for service at home. She claimed that most Christian people
are now prepared to acknowledge that there is a wide field for women as medical missionaries in
foreign lands, especially in India, where many suffer and even die for want of medical aid worthy
the name unless they can be attended by a doctor of their own sex, but it is not yet so generally
recognized that there is an opening for women in a similar capacity at home. During such time,
women were not allowed to be trained in medicine in Britain but the need of women medical
missionary in India slowly paved the way for British women to be trained in medicine in Britain.
Protestant women missionaries such as Zenana have also limitation especially when a lady was

44
ready for Baptism as they are not ordained to baptize while the catholic counterpart known as the
Baptist widows were baptizing infants who were in mortal danger. Furthermore, as the
missionaries tried to uplift the women in certain ways, the sad thing is that western missionaries
brought along traditional reformation theology and biblical hermeneutics which they received and
which are patriarchal and suppressive to women. Women were liberated in the society to certain
extent but the traditional theology gives less privilege than men in the church such as in decision
making and ordination. The dowry systems which was (is) prevalent was never seriously
considered by the missionaries hence till today it remain a heavy burden for the poor family. As
men in the present competitive world have charged huge amount for dowry, it has become a
headache for many families for their daughters marriage especially who are economically
deprived in many places both in Hindu and Christian circles.

Conclusion: Women empowerment brought forth by the western missionaries through education
and medical missionaries have shed a new dawn in the history of India, as it brings hope and light
into the gloomy epoch that once pervaded Indian society with superstitions and religious myth that
subjugated women. The empowerment of women have set milestone and new awakening into the
minds of many as many organizations and societies sprang up following the same line. It was not
only the empowerment of women in India but to those as well in Britain. Initially, women were
not considered as missionary and no medical training was allowed but as the situation compels the
need of women missionary in India. Hence it also brought empowerment of women in Britain.

Discipleship of Equals

One of the important questions is Was Jesus gender bias in selecting discipleship? As women
were treated as inferior to men in the churches; in attempt to resolve such issues, attempt to bring
out Jesus attitude towards women is one of the endeavors. Jesus did select twelve men disciples;
however, He was open to women discipleship as well. Women followed Jesus during his days, in
fact, they were faithful disciples. For instance, feminist scholar Fiorenza that women in the Bible
are the true paradigm of discipleship; she emphasizes the close proximity that women had with
Jesus. She argues that women persevered with Jesus in his suffering and execution and they were
the primary witnesses of the empty tomb and resurrection. She wrote that wherever the gospel is
preached and heard, promulgated and read, what the women have done is not totally forgotten
because the gospel story remembers the discipleship and apostolic leadership of women.
Recovering the role of Women in the Bible is crucial for feminist as such religious interpretation
re-enforces their struggles in the society.

The significant role that women have played in the early Christian community could also help us
in the search for finding womens place in the Church today. Scanning through the sketching
information available in the letters of Paul, women were highly visible and active in the life of the
early Church. Women had full membership in the life of the Church (Acts 1:14; 12:12). A feminist

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theologian Schussler Fiorenza calls the early Christian missionary movement Equality in the
power of the Spirit. The equality is demonstrated mainly in womens role as foundresses of house
Churches and co-workers of Paul (Acts 12:12-17, 16:14, 17:13, 18:2). The women mentioned in
Pauline letters are also significant for understanding the role women have played in the early
Church. Phoebe is addressed as diakonos (Rom. 16:1), Junia as apostle (Rom. 16:7). More names
of women can be detected on a closer scrutiny of the book of Acts and the Pauline letters. Such
roles were ultimately associated with priestly ministry, and they were evidently not restricted to
men. But what is important is to acknowledge womens close collaboration with men in the early
phases of Christianity. This heritage can help us to reexamine the roles that women are now playing
and ought to play in the mission and activities of the Church today.

The issue of women's ordination is an example of "unity in diversity" (this argument, which deals
with pluralism in belief and practice, maintained that just as there is "diversity" in attitudes and
practices within the church in such areas as Sabbath observance, worship styles, dress,
participation in one's tribe's/nation's war machinery, so also on the issue of women's ordination
there should be "diversity"). Some argued that "diversity" or pluralism in theological belief and
practice was evidence of maturity, strength, and true unity, not of blind uniformity or lockstep
conformity.

They also articulate more carefully old arguments to justify women's ordination. The
following are the essential contours of the Biblical and historical arguments:

Genesis 1-3 teaches that God did NOT institute headship and submission or male-female
role distinctions at Creation. Adam and Eve enjoyed "full equality" of "shared leadership"
or "shared headship." Male headship and female submission were introduced by God after
the Fall ; even then, this was a non ideal arrangement designed only for the governance of
the home, not the Church.
New Testament teaching on headship and submission (Ephesians 5:21-33; Colossians 3:18,
19; 1 Peter 3:1-7) suggests that today Christians should aim at reaching the Creation ideal
of "total equality," understood to mean the obliteration of any gender-based role
differentiation.
A careful study of the Bible reveals that there was actually at least one "woman priest" in
the Old Testament. God Himself ordained Eve as a priest alongside Adam when, after the
Fall, He dressed both as priests in the Garden of Eden using animal skins. Prophetesses
Miriam, Deborah, and Huldah exercised headship or leadership roles over men.
The Bible also reveals that there were actually "women apostles and leaders" in the New
Testament. Junia (Romans 16:7), for example, was an outstanding "female apostle," and
Phoebe (Romans 16:1, 2) was a "female minister."
The New Testament teaching of "the priesthood of all believers" suggests that women may
be ordained as elders or pastors.

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