Running head: CASE STUDY 1

Case Study

Melissa K. Campbell

The University of Southern Mississippi

Abstract

This study focuses on an adolescent native English learner of Spanish as a second language (L2).

The study brings attention to the learners background as a participant in an elementary

immersion program and its effect on her current journey to proficiency. Affective factors and

interlanguage are also introduced as factors in her learning process. Willingness to

communicate, motivation and personality type appear to play a role in this particular students

learning as well as fossilization and error correction, specifically self-correction and the lack of

corrective feedback from the teachers in the immersion program. Several facets of the study

align with previous research done in the field of second language acquisition.
CASE STUDY 3

Introduction

The field of second language acquisition is exceedingly broad and is comprised of

varying areas of study ranging from age, individual differences, affective factors, and

interlanguage, among others. A vast range of factors can play a role in the successful acquisition

of a second language and there have been numerous studies on these factors. The language

learning experience of each individual is distinct, along with the factors related to their learning.

What makes one person successful, may hinder the progress of another. Because there is such a

wide variety of influences on language learning, it is imperative that researchers continue

studying those influences.

This study focuses on a small set of features of the field which have been exhibited in the

subject of this study. The first feature is affective factors, specifically the willingness to

communicate, motivation and personality type. The second feature is interlanguage, specifically

fossilization and error correction.

Methods

Profile of Learner

Lola (name has been changed) has been chosen as the subject of the current study. Lola

participated in the Spanish immersion program at Ellen Hopkins Elementary from kindergarten

through fifth grade, had a gap year in sixth grade and then took one quarter of an advanced

grammar course in both her seventh and eighth grade years. She placed into the level two course

as a freshman, a course in which she excelled. Now she is nearly done with her level three

course.

Lola is an A student with a 3.98 grade point average. She has completed a variety of

honors and advanced placement courses, along with several music courses. She was a member
CASE STUDY 4

of the speech team and is currently a runner on the high school track team. She also likes

photography, playing and listening to music as well as working part-time at a donut shop in

downtown Fargo.

Lola began formally learning Spanish when she was five years old but prior to that she

heard her older sister speaking Spanish around the house. Her parents felt that the immersion

program was a great opportunity for their children, even though neither of them have ever

studied a foreign language. Lola enjoys speaking to her friends and siblings in Spanish and plans

to continue her studies through high school as well as in college. Although she does not know

where she would like to study, she does know that she wants to study English and Spanish. She

plans to participate in a study abroad program in a Spanish-speaking country and hopes to work

as an English teacher while living abroad.

Lola stated that her favorite part of learning the language is the ability to communicate in

another language, with people she may not have had the opportunity to know otherwise. She

likes to make comparisons between her native and second language. Lola stated that the hardest

part of learning the language and speaking proficiently is the small details such as gender and

number agreement.

Lola is highly motivated to learn the language. She practices outside of class by texting

her friends in Spanish, listening to Spanish music and helping her brother with his Spanish

homework. She has also taken the time to review on Quizlet and also with the Duolingo

application. When asked if she feels like she is still improving her Spanish, she feels as though

she improves each day and is continually striving to correct her mistakes and learn more of the

language. Her curious nature and motivation and aiding her in her journey to advanced

proficiency.
CASE STUDY 5

Context

Lola is a sixteen year old tenth grade student at Moorhead High School in Moorhead,

Minnesota. She is currently taking part in a third year Spanish class in a 90-minute block setting

with Melissa Campbell as her teacher. Lola is in a class of 24 students varying from freshmen to

seniors, some who participated in the immersion program, some who are native speakers and

some who followed the more traditional track of beginning level one as a ninth grade student.

The class meets Monday through Friday from 8:25 a.m. to 9:55 a.m. with the exception of

Wednesdays in which they meet from 9:05 a.m. to 10:25 a.m. due to teacher collaborative time.

Data collection

Most of the data was collected during observations of Lola in her Spanish class

throughout April of 2017. In addition to in-class observations, the researcher conducted an

interview with Lola on one occasion before her regularly scheduled class time. Data was also

collected from three writing samples that were completed throughout the observation period.

Case Study

Affective Factors

According to Brown (2014), the affective domain is related to the emotional, rather than

cognitive, side of behavior in humans. Recent research includes affective factors such as self-

esteem, willingness to communicate, inhibition, anxiety, extroversion and introversion, and

motivation among others. These factors can facilitate or impede language learning. In regard to

the case study subject, Lola, affective factors played an important a role in her language learning

journey. Although numerous affective factors could be aiding her, or impeding her, the three

that became apparent during the observation period were her willingness to communicate, her

motivation and her personality type.

Willingness to communicate. According to MacIntyre, Baker, Clment, and Donovan

(2003), the willingness to communicate is the probability of initiating communication,

specifically talking, when the opportunity arises (p. 590). When looking at the willingness to

communicate, one cannot assume that it will transfer from the L1 to the L2. There are several

factors that can determine the willingness to communicate in any individual learning a second

language. According to MacIntyre, there are two variables that underlie the willingness to

communicate, communication apprehension and perceived competence (as cited in MacIntyre et

al., 2003). In order to increase the willingness to communicate, a learners communication

apprehension must be lowered and the perceived competence must be increased. Increased

contact with the L2, such as in a language immersion program, can result in both the lowering of

apprehension and an increase in the perception of competence (as cited in MacIntyre et al.,

2003).

In order to be a successful language learner, one must be willing to communicate,

especially in speaking. Although speaking can be the piece of language learning which causes

the most anxiety, it is also one of the most important aspects. The subject of the current study,

Lola, showed an increased willingness to communicate, especially when compared to her

classmates. One of the activities conducted during the study compared the subjects willingness

to communicate in the target language to that of her classmates. Overall, the subject

communicated at an average rate of 2 to 1 when compared to her classmates. When compared to

specific classmates, that rate varied anywhere from 10 to 1 to nearly even. Many studies suggest

that students must be willing to talk in order to learn and Lolas strong willingness to

communicate may be an important factor in her success as a language learner.

In a study conducted on university students studying French, there was a strong

correlation between the willingness to communicate and motivation among students with

immersion experience (MacIntyre et al., 2003). This relates to Lola as she was a part of a

Spanish immersion program from kindergarten through fifth grade. In the same study by

MacIntyre et al. (2003), motivation and the willingness to communicate were negatively

correlated with communication apprehension among the French students who had an intensive or

immersion experience. During the interview with the subject, she reported feelings of

confidence and did not report any feelings of apprehension when speaking. She stated that she

feels free to communicate in the L2 and does not feel self-conscious when she makes errors or

when there is a breakdown in communication. This lack of apprehension allows to her speak

freely, thus allowing her to practice and continue improving her L2 skills.

Lolas willingness to communicate not only presents itself in the classroom, but also in

the real world. In the interview with the researcher, the subject reported that she spoke Spanish

with her siblings and with other students at school. She likes to speak Spanish with her older

sister, who is a first year university student, and also help her younger brother with his Spanish

homework. Outside of her own family, Lola finds opportunities to communicate with her friends

via text messaging and also seeks out opportunities to speak with other past immersion students

who she views as being more proficient.

Motivation. According to Gardner (1982), motivation is composed of three elements;

effort (the time spent studying and the drive of the learner), desire (the yearning to become

proficient in the language) and affect (the emotional reactions of the learning toward studying)

(as cited in Carri-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014, p. 240). A particular student could have the

cognitive ability to learn a language, but without motivation, the student will never reach his or
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her potential. Motivation can be divided into two basic orientations, integrative and

instrumental. Integrative motivation is typically characterized by a learners positive attitude and

desire to fit into the culture of the target language community, while instrumental motivation is

characterized by the desire to attain a goal such as furthering a career, meeting a graduation

requirement or receiving some type of economic reward. Instrumental motivation tends to have

an end goal in mind while integrative motivation tends to have a more open-ended goal in the

realm of social interaction. According to Brown (2014), it is possible for a student to exhibit

factors of both instrumental and integrative motivation.

In a study done by Carri-Pastor and Mestre Mestre (2014), the motivation of two groups

of students was compared to determine which orientation of motivation played a pertinent role in

their instruction. Both orientations of motivation are crucial elements in the success of a second

language learner, but integrative has been found to foster and sustain long-term success in an L2

(as cited in Carri-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014). Typically, students select more instrumental

reasons for studying a language but those who showed a more integrative approach were more

successful. The students who demonstrated integrative motivation were more likely to plan for

their learning and repeat exercises that they found applicable to their learning. These same

students were more interested in communication (Carri-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014).

The current study of Lola, has found both instrumental and integrative motivation to be a

factor in her L2 learning. In the interview between the subject and the researcher, Lola reported

that she would like to travel in the future and plans to teach English in a Spanish-speaking

country. Although the idea of using Spanish to attain her career goals would conform to an

instrumental approach, the idea of teaching in a Spanish-speaking country applies to an

integrative approach. In order to successfully teach in a foreign country, Lola will need to adapt
CASE STUDY 9

to their culture and customs, thus integrating herself into the target language community. She

demonstrates great interest in learning about the culture of the L2 and does not see Spanish

simply as a graduation requirement or a means of being compensated.

Although Lola reported that she does not study outside of the classroom, an important

piece in integrative motivation, she did discuss several activities she takes part in that could be

considered studying. Because she sees the language learning as something she enjoys, she may

not realize that what she does outside of class could be considered studying. Lola reported that

she reviews vocabulary on Quizlet, a website that the researcher has made available for student

use. On the site, Lola uses flashcards and games to review vocabulary from levels one and two

and also to practice new vocabulary from level three.

In addition to Quizlet, Lola also spends time on Duolingo, an application that she uses on

her phone. Duolingo is a language-learning platform available on the Web and as downloadable

application for cell phones. The application focuses on translation of words and phrases. Some

of the structures practiced on the application are review for Lola, while some introduce new

structures. In the interview, Lola reported that occasionally, she has learned things in class that

she had already been exposed to on Duolingo.

As stated earlier, motivation and willingness to communicate can act jointly to help a

learner be successful in achieving proficiency. The subjects motivation to seek opportunities to

communicate has played an important role in her continued improvement and retention of the

language. Although the gap year between her immersion experience and her advanced grammar

course in the seventh grade caused her to lose some of her skills, as reported in the interview, her

motivation to continue improving her skills has helped her regain some of what she felt she lost.
CASE STUDY 10

Personality type. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, commonly referred to as the

Myers-Briggs test, borrows from some of Carl Jungs personality styles (as cited in Brown,

2014). This test has been widely used with groups ranging from office personnel to athletic

teams to help individuals discover their personality characteristics and how those traits may

affect their relationships. Several studies have found a correlation between the Myers-Briggs

types and the strategy uses of L2 learners.

As cited in Zafar and Meenakshi (2012), many second language acquisition theorists

claim that extroverts tend to be better language learners because they tend to be more sociable

and more willing to immerse themselves in conversations both inside and outside the classroom.

In addition to being more willing to communicate, extroverts tend to be willing to take risks in

trying out a larger amount and variety of word types and grammatical structures at a higher

speech rate (Zafar & Meenakshi, 2012, p. 35). Furthermore, extroverts tend to focus on

meaning rather than form, ask more questions than introverts and more readily ask for

clarification. Zafar and Meenakshi (2012) also stated that extroverted individuals may be more

fluent in speaking than their introverted counterparts.

In regard to risk-taking, it has been proposed that the willingness to take risks has been

associated with higher rates of success in second language learning (Zafar & Meenakshi, 2012).

The ability to try out new information and learn from failures without embarrassment is crucial

to successful language learning. Table 6.1 in Brown (2014) reveals that extroverts rely on

interaction and, as cited in Zafar & Meenakshi (2012), language proficiency is directly

influenced by classroom participation. In the observation of the subject of this study, it was

found that she was exceedingly willing to participate in class by answering questions,

contributing to discussion and ask for clarification.

The subject of this study completed a Myers-Briggs Type Indicator at the request of the

researcher. The results of the test indicated that her type was ENFP - extroversion, intuition,

feeling and perceiving. According to Brown (2014) an asset of intuition is the ability to guess

from context. The subject stated in her interview that she finds reading in the target language

easy because if there is a word she does not know, she can typically guess the meaning based on

the context. She reported being able to do the same thing in a conversation. Two assets of

feeling include bonding with teachers and social interaction (Brown, 2014). The subject exhibits

both of these assets as she has a strong relationship with many of her teachers and also a strong

inclination to social interaction. The final character type for the subject is perceiving which

includes assets such as being open and adaptable to new experiences (Brown, 2014). During the

observations, the subject was open to completing any task asked of her and typically completed

the task with an open-mind.

There are a multitude of affective factors that can influence the success, or lack thereof,

of a language learner. These factors can be seen in varying degrees in all language learners but

those that were most observable in the subject of this study were the willingness to communicate,

motivation and personality type.

Interlanguage

As stated in Brown (2014), interlanguage refers to the separateness of an L2 learners

system, a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target

languages (p. 243). Brown (2014) listed four stages of learner language development which

include the presystematic stage the emergent stage, the systematic stage, and the postsystematic

stage. Based on observations, the subject of the current study appears to fit in between the

systematic and postsystematic stages. The third stage, systematic, includes the ability to repair
CASE STUDY 12

errors when they are brought to her attention which was observed rather often. The subject also

uses frequent self-correction, which is a characteristic of the fourth stage of development, but she

still produces several errors. Although she can communicate on a variety of topics, there are still

several structures that she cannot produce proficiently. In the fourth stage of development,

fossilization can be manifested.

Fossilization. Fossilization has acquired several definitions since its origination in 1972.

One definition refers to the absence of progress in language learning regardless of the continued

exposure to input, motivation to learn and opportunities to practice (as cited in Boettinger, Park

& Timmis, 2010). Boettinger et al. (2010) cite another definition which refers to the retention of

non-native grammatical structures and yet another which refers to the process of non-native

forms becoming fixed in a learners interlanguage. For the purpose of this study, we will focus

on the last definition. Another term that has been applied to this phenomenon is backsliding

which is characterized by a learners correct use of a structure at times while still exhibiting

incorrect uses at other times (Boettinger et al., 2010). Oftentimes, learners will appear to have

improved a target structure but will exhibit a breakdown when they are under stress or the

communicative task at hand requires complicated mental processing. The structures most

fossilized are those that are not common in both a learners L1 and L2.

During the case study, the researcher recorded several conversations the subject had with

classmates. These conversations took place on a variety of topics such as what she did over the

weekend or over a break from school, what her plans were for an upcoming weekend, a

description of her family and a description of her ideal vacation. In all of the conversations, the

researcher noted errors of gender and number agreement and also the use of the two past tenses
CASE STUDY 13

in Spanish, the preterite and the imperfect. Sometimes the subject used the correct forms and

when she produced incorrect forms, sometimes she self-corrected and other times she did not.

In regard to gender and number agreement, according to several studies, it was

discovered in English native speakers learning German that even advanced learners have

repeated errors with gender assignment and that acquisition of gender is acquired relatively late

in the development of the language (as cited in Boettinger et al., 2010). As stated in White,

Valenzuela, Kozlowska-MacGregor and Leung (2004), Spanish, as well as other Romance

languages, classify nouns in terms of grammatical gender, which is different from natural gender.

English has natural gender but does not have noun classes based on grammatical gender.

Therefore it is assumed that the the late acquisition of gender would also apply to a native

English speaker learning Spanish as a second language. Boettinger attributed her fossilization to

her discontinuation of formal education, less devotion to focused attention to language

improvement and the lack of corrective feedback.

As cited in table 1, there are several potential causes of fossilization that fit into four

domains, two of which are environmental and cognitive (Boettinger et al., 2010, p. 46). An

example of an environmental cause is the absence of corrective feedback and an example of a

cognitive cause is influence from the L1. When Lola was interviewed, she discussed what she

felt were the most difficult aspects of the L2. She stated that one of the most difficult aspects for

her is gender and number agreement and while discussing her experience in the Spanish

immersion program, she felt that one reason for the difficulty is that her teachers never corrected

her. She said that she did not start receiving any corrective feedback until the fourth grade when

she had a teacher who would correct her inaccuracies in gender assignment. Now, she states that

she can self-correct when she is aware of her errors but that she exerts mental effort to do so.
CASE STUDY 14

Another structure that she feels is difficult is the use of the first and third person forms.

In the conversations that were recorded, and also in writing samples that were taken, Lola

exhibited several errors in the application of first and third person forms. She often uses the third

person when she is referring to herself, a phenomenon observed in other immersion students in

her class. Again, she stated that there was a severe lack of corrective feedback in her early years

and she learned to use the third person because that was the form that was used in much of the

input she received.

According to the study by Boettinger et al. (2010), it is possible to defossilize through

self-directed noticing and the use of targeted remedial activities involving repetition. This was

exhibited in the current study when, in the third writing sample, the subject showed a decrease in

gender agreement errors after the problem was brought to her attention in the previous writing

samples.

Error correction. Errors are a natural part of language development and can be seen

within all stages as a learner progresses through an interlanguage to more target-like structures.

According to Bargiel-Matusiewicz and Bargiel-Firlit (2009), persistent errors, especially when

they are shared by almost all students in a class, should be brought to the learners attention. It

is also suggested, however, that excessive error correction could have a negative effect on

student motivation.

The preferred type of error correction can vary student to student but in a study

conducted by Bargiel-Matusiewicz and Bargiel-Firlit (2009), it was found that many students

believe that teachers should provide error correction and in many cases, self-correction is

valuable. In fact, language learners may benefit more from self-correction because people tend

to find greater value in things they achieve with effort (Bargiel-Matusiewicz & Bargiel-Firlit,
CASE STUDY 15

2009). Therefore, language learners may get more out of noticing their own errors, rather than

being told what errors they have made. Noticing errors is a way for learners to take

responsibility for their own learning. In fact, as cited in Camps (2003), noticing is a necessary

component of learning.

In the analysis of recorded conversations, Lola exhibited a strong capacity to use self-

correction in gender assignment and the use of verb tenses and forms, which are also areas which

may have been fossilized. In Camps (2003) study of self-correction in the development of the

past tense in Spanish, he found that there were several types of errors which included, but are not

limited to, tense, aspect and person. In the study, it was revealed that learners self-corrected

tense and person most often, while fewer attempts were made to correct aspect which aligns with

much of the self-correction exhibited in Lola. Camps (2003) posited that learners are able to pay

more attention to features like person because they have been exposed to that feature for a longer

period of time than they have been exposed to aspect. Camps (2003) found that not all self-

corrections resulted in a target-like structure which aligns with the evidence from the recorded

conversations between Lola and her classmates. Many times, Lola self-corrected but still had

other errors. For example, she would change from one tense to another but have an error in the

person or change incorrectly from the preterite to the present tense.

Conclusion

As previously stated, there are a multitude of factors that contribute to the success, or

lack thereof, in second language acquisition. Unfortunately for language teachers, there is no

single formula to employ in their classrooms because each individual learner comes with a

different set of factors that will either work for or against them in their quest to become

proficient in a second language. This may just be another reminder to language teachers that it
CASE STUDY 16

may be best to use an eclectic approach in their teaching so they can appeal to a variety of

learners.

References

Bargiel-Matusiewicz, K. & Bargiel-Firlit, A. (2009). Correction techniques preferred by students

during the process of learning a foreign language. Psychology of Language and

Communication, 13(1), pp. 39-52. doi:10.2478/v10057-009-0003-8

Boettinger, F., Park, J., & Timmis, I. (2010). Self-directed noticing for defossilissation: Three

case studies. International Journal of English Studies, 10(1), 43-64.

Brown, H. D. (2014). Principles of language learning and teaching: a course in second

language acquisition (6th ed.). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.

Camps, J. (2003). The analysis of oral self-correction as a window into the development of past

time reference in Spanish. Foreign Language Annals, 36(2): 233242. doi:10.1111/j.

1944-9720.2003.tb01473.x
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Carri-Pastor, M.L. & Mestre Mestre, E.M. (2014). Motivation in second language acquistion.

Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 116, 240-244. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.

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White, L., Valenzuela, E., Kozlowska-MacGregor, M., & Leung, Y. (2004). Gender and number

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Zafar, S., & Meenakshi, K. (2012). A study on the relationship between extroversion-

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