Leaf shapes

One of the most important aids in plant identification is the shape of the lamina in a simple
leaf and the arrangement of the leaflets in a compound leaf.
With compound leaves the arrangement of the leaflets is usually the only characteristic that
we need to study. Sometimes we may need to look at the specific characteristics of each
leaflet, but this does not happen very often.
Pinnate - This term describes a compound leaf which has a row of leaflets on each side of
the rachis. There are two types of pinnate leaves, paripinnate and imparipinnate.
Paripinnate
These compound leaves have an even number of leaflets which
are usually in pairs along the rachis. Example: Toona australis.

Imparipinnate
These leaves have an uneven
number of leaflets due to the presence of a terminal
leaflet. Example: Rosa species and Fraxinus species.

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Bipinnate
These leaves are pinnately divided twice. Example:
Jacaranda mimosifolia, Acacia baileyana.

Tripinnate
This term describes
leaves pinnately divided three times. Example:
Nandina domestica.

Trifoliolate
These leaves have three leaflets. Example: Cissus
species, Ceratopetalum gummiferum.

Palmate
(digitate)
These leaves
have several leaflets (more than three and up
to any number) emanating from one point off the
petiole. There is no rachis present. Example:
Schlefflera actinophylla (umbrella tree).

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Shapes of simple leaves
The following terms can be used to describe a leaf shape (the shape of the lamina) and
thus to avoid having to use long descriptions in plant identification.
Acicular
This term describes a needle - shaped leaf. The cross section can
be circular, triangular or many sided. Example: Pinus species.
Linear
A linear leaf is long and narrow with sides parallel (about ten times as long as broad). The
cross - section is a narrow rectangle.
Example: Banksia ericifolia.
Lanceolate
This leaf is broader towards the base, and tapering at the apex
(about four times as long as broad). It has the shape of a lance or
spear. The petiole is attached at the broader end. Example: Nerium oleander.
Oblanceolate
This leaf is broader towards the apex and tapering at the base
(about four times as long as broad). The petiole is attached at the
narrow end. Example: Banksia serrata.
Falcate
This describes a sickle - shaped leaf. Examples: Acacia falcata
and many Eucalyptus species.
Spathulate
This term describes a leaf with a spatula or spoon shape, wide at
the apex and tapering to a long, narrow base. Example:
Pyracantha fortuneana.
Oval
This leaf is almost twice as long as it is broad, with rounded ends.
Example: Prostanthera ovalifolia.
Elliptic
This term describes a leaf shaped like
an ellipse, twice as long as it is broad. Example: Hebe elliptica.
Ovate
This is an egg - shaped leaf
broader towards the base. Examples: Abelia x grandiflora,
Hydrangea macrophylla.

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Obovate
This is an egg - shaped leaf broader towards the apex. Example:
Buxus microphylla.
Oblong
This describes a leaf with length greater than
breadth and sides parallel. The shape is nearly rectangular
with rounded corners. Example: Coprosma repens.
Rhomboid
This is a diamond - shaped leaf. Example: Pittosporum
rhombifolium.
Cordate
This leaf is heart - shaped with the petiole in the
indentation at the base. Example: Ceropegia woodii (string of
hearts) and Philodendron oxycardium.
Obcordate
This means heart - shaped with the lobes uppermost. In this leaf
the petiole is at the sharp point of the heart shape. Example:
Bauhinia species.
Lyrate
This describes a lyre - shaped leaf,
with a large terminal lobe and smaller lateral ones. Example:
Liriodendron tulipifera (tulip tree) and Ficus lyrata.
Deltoid
This leaf is triangular, broadest at the base. Example: Populus
deltoides.

Reniform
This describes a kidney - shaped leaf with a rounded apex.
Example: Viola hederacea.

Orbicular
These leaves are circular with the petiole coming from the centre
of the leaf. Example: Tropaeolum majus (nasturtium).
Cuneate
This describes a wedge - shaped leaf.

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Subulate
These leaves are awl - shaped, narrowing to a fine point.
Example: many grasses.

The following terms are used to describe both the shape of the leaf and the leaf
margin.
Bilobed
This term describes butterfly - like leaves having two lobes. Example:
Bauhinia purpurea.

Trilobed
These are leaves having three lobes. Example: Passiflora species.

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 Palmately lobed
These leaves have a number of lobes, usually five or seven but
occasionally more, radiating from a point in the shape of the palm
of a hand. Example: Acer palmatum.

Laciniate
This term describes a leaf cut into narrow, pointed
lobes. Example: Acalypha wilkesiana Laciniata.

Pinnatifid
This leaf is cut into small lobes extending less than halfway to mid vein.
Example: Lavandula spica (lavender)

Pinnatisect
This leaf is cut into small lobes extending to, or almost
to, mid - vein. Example: Grevillea banksii.

Shapes of leaf margins

The following terms are used to describe the edge of the leaf lamina.
Entire
This means without any division.
Example: Nerium oleander.

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 Serrulate
The leaf margin is minutely serrated. Example: Prunus
serrulata.
Sinuate
The leaf margin has shallow, smooth indentations on
a horizontal plane. The margin is usually entire.
Example: Stenocarpus sinuatus.
Biserrate
The leaf margin has minor, secondary serrations on the
major serration.
Example: Prunus campanulata.
Undulate
This describes a leaf with a wavy margin on a vertical
plane. Example: Pittosporum undulatum.
Crenate
This margin is characterised by rounded teeth. Example:
Coleus species.
Ciliate
The leaf is fringed around the entire margin with short fine
hairs. Example: Tibouchina urvilleana.
Crenulate
This margin is minutely crenate. Example: many
Camellia sasanqua cultivars.
Serrate
The margin is toothed, with asymmetrical, forward - pointing teeth.
Example: Hydrangea macrophylla.
Dentate
This describes a toothed leaf margin with the teeth
pointing outward. Example: Salix caprea.
Denticulate
This leaf margin has smaller teeth than a dentate margin.

Leaf cross-sections
The following cross - sections of leaf edges or margins show the various ways in which a
leaf can be rolled at its edge. The purpose is usually to prevent water loss, or conserve
water within the plant, by protecting the stomates. The margin of most of these leaves is

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 entire.

Shapes of leaf apices

Acute Emarginate
The apex forms a The apex is notched.
sharp angle of less Example: Alnus glutionosa
than 90 degrees. (alder).
Example: Nerium
oleander.

Acuminate Obcordate
The apex tapers to The apex is heart -
a point. Example: shaped, with the lobes
Hydrangea uppermost. Example:
macrophylla. Bauhinia species.

Aristate Retuse
This term describes a The leaf is rounded with a
broad leaf with a long, depression or indentation
narrow tapering point. at the apex, shallow and
rather narrow. Example:
Liriodendron tulipifera.

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 Subulate Mucronate
A long tapering point is This leaf ends abruptly with
typical of a subulate leaf a sharp point. Example:
shape. Magnolia x soulangiana.

Obtuse Cuspidate
The apex forms This term describes a leaf
forming a blunt having a sharp, rigid point.
angle greater than Example: Lambertia formosa.
90 degrees and may
be rounded. Example:
Metrosideros excelsa.

Truncate
The leaf ends
abruptly as though
cut off. Example:
Banksia serrata.

Shapes of leaf bases

It can sometimes be difficult to categorise leaf bases as there are graduations between
each main base type. A leaf base may, for instance, be somewhere between auriculate and
hastate (eg Philodendron species). Only experience with the bases will enable you to
confidently identify those which are not typical.

Attenuate Cordate
The leaf base is A cordate leaf base is
slenderly tapering. heart-shaped
Example: Persoonia Example: Ceropegia
attenuata. woodii (string of hearts).

Cuneate Auriculate
This term This term describes a leaf
describes a base which is shaped like
wedge-shaped the lobe of an ear.
leaf base. Example: Ficus lyrata.
Example:
Pyracantha fortuneana.

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Obtuse Hastate
This leaf base is This leaf base is like an
rounded. arrow - head with
spreading lobes.
Example: Calla
aethiopica.

Oblique Sagittate
This term describes This term describes a
a leaf where there leaf base like an arrow-
is more lamina on head with downward-
one side of the pointing lobes.
petiole than the Example: Young plants of Syngonium
other. species.
Examples: Ulmus species,
Begonia species.

Truncate
The leaf base
ends abruptly as
though cut off.
Example: Populus
deltoides.

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1 Other morphological features of leaves
There are other morphological features which make recognition of plant species easier and
permit correct and accurate identification.

Leaf venation
Leaf venation refers to the direction in which the veins of leaves run in relation to the main
vein (mid-rib) and the margin.

Reticulate Parallel
A main vein The veins are parallel down
and many the long axis of the leaf,
lateral and usually all veins about the
smaller veins same size, although there is
forming a often a central midrib.
network. Example: Gladiolus species.
Example:
This venation is typical of
Hydrangea
monocotyledons, but it also
macrophylla.
occurs in some dicotyledons.

Always look further than the venation when determining whether a genus is a
monocotyledon or a dicotyledon. The fact that some species of Eucalyptus and Melaleuca
have parallel venation (which are both dicotyledons) does not mean that they are
automatically classified as monocotyledons.

Penniveined Palmate
The veins run Several main
parallel with each veins radiate
other between the from one point
main vein and the and typical of
margin. Example: simple leaves
Maranta species with a palmately
(prayer plant), lobed shape.
banana. Example: Acer species (maples).

Leaf attachments
The way in individual leaves are physically attached to the stem is another characteristic

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 useful in the identification of species.

Petiolate Peltate
This term The petiole is
describes attached to the
any leaf lower surface of the
with a lamina usually in
petiole. the centre, not to
Example: the leaf margin and
Hydrangea macrophylla is typical of simple
leaves with an
orbicular leaf shape.

Sessile Decurrent
A sessile This term is used to
leaf has describe a leaf with the
no petiole base extending down
so the leaf the stem. Example:
base is Gladiolus species.
attached
directly
onto the
stem.
Example:
Bauera
rubioides.

Perfoliate Sheathing
This describes This term describes a leaf base
a sessile leaf that forms a tubular casing
with its base around the stem. Example:
completely many grass species.
wrapped
around the
stem.

Phyllotaxy
This refers to the actual arrangement of leaves on the stem, regardless of how they are
attached.

Opposite Alternate

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The leaves are attached at the The leaves are attached at different
same level (or node) on each levels on either side of the stem.
side of the stem. Examples: Example: Abutilon x hybrida.
Angophora species, Acer
species.

Whorled Spiral
Three or The leaves are
more borne at different
leaves levels in an
are ascending spiral.
attached Example:
at the Callistemon viminalis.
same
level (or
node) on the stem. Example:
Westringia fruticosa.

Decussate Radical
The leaves are All the leaves
arranged in pairs arise from a
alternately at right short stem with
angles to each internodes
other. Example: which are very
Hebe elliptica. close together,
usually at
ground level;
can also be
called basal or rosette. Example:
Gerberia jamesonii.

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Leaf surfaces
This is an important aspect of leaf description. You should understand the terms in the
following list and be able to apply them to any given leaf. They are very useful for
identification. They are not examinable.

Glabrous - smooth, without hairs. Example: Camellia japonica

Pubescent - downy, having short, fine soft hairs
Tomentose - having short, dense hairs, usually matted together to form a felt - like surface;
having woolly hairs. Example: Cerastium tomentosum
Villous - having long, soft hairs
Hirsute - covered by coarse hairs
Hispid - covered with short, stiff hairs
Scabrous - having a rough surface., eg Celtis australis
Glaucous - having a blue colour

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Flower shapes and inflorescences
This section deals with the various shapes of flowers and the way these flowers can be
arranged as a group to form an inflorescence.
When a flower shape is discussed, it is the shape of the petals and/or sepals (the perianth)
which constitutes a flower shape. However, because there are also many flowers which do
not fit exactly into any one of the flower shapes, it is quite acceptable to combine more than
one shape name to describe a specific flower shape.
If the flower does not have distinct sepals and petals (perhaps only one whorl) then it is the
shape of that petal like structure that is described.

Figure 1 - Principal organs of a typical flower.

Flower shapes
As you are now aware, the arrangement and shape of the perianth segments (usually the
petals) within the one flower structure gives rise to a range of different shapes. Knowing the
flower shapes makes identification of some plant species easier and can be used to classify
plants into plant families. For example, all flowers which are in family Fabaceae, sub - fam.
Faboideae, have a papilionate flower shape. Again, labiate flowers are usually in family
Lamiaceae.
The stalk of a single flower is known as the pedicel.

Tubulate
Shaped like a tube, the sides are parallel or nearly so, eg Cuphea ignea
(cigar flower).

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Salverform
Having a slender cylindrical lower part and opening out flat at the mouth,
eg Phlox spp, Plumbago spp. The sides of the lower part of floral tube
are nearly parallel.

Funnelform
Funnel - shaped; petal lobes may turn back at the
top, but not as flat as salverform flowers. The sides of the floral
tubes are not parallel gradually widening from the base to the top of
the flower, eg Petunia x hybrida, Hibiscus rosa - sinensis.

Campanulate
Bell - shaped; base of flower is more rounded
than funnelform flowers. Flowers normally hang
down, eg Abutilon x hybridum (Chinese lantern).

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Rotate
Wheel - shaped with a short tube at base and spreading at the
mouth; petals free from each other, eg Hibbertia spp. (guinea
flower), Tibouchina spp, Lagerstroemia indica.

Stellate
Star - shaped, petals usually free from
each other, usually 4, 5 or 6 petals, eg Hemerocallis spp. (day
lily), Trachelospermum jasminoides.

Labiate
Having one or more petals forming a lip,
eg Prostanthera spp, Salvia splendens. Also bilabiate having two lips,
eg Westringia fruticosa. Flowers with labiate or bilabiate shape are typical
of members of family Lamiaceae.

Saccate
Irregularly shaped flower with lowest
petal spurred or modified into a rounded
sac.
Corolla tube often with a sac - like bulge on one side, eg Grevillea spp., Nemanthus spp.
Calceolate
Shaped like the toe of a slipper, eg Paphiopedilum spp. (slipper orchid),
Calceolaria. Flower with large bulge on one side.

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 Papilionate
Shaped like the wings of a butterfly, eg Lathyrus (sweet pea),
Wisteria; made up of three distinct petal types:
1. standard
2. wings
3. keel.
Typical of members of family Fabaceae, sub - fam. Faboideae.
Crateriform
Flowers shaped like a shallow open bowl, saucer, or crater of an
extinct volcano, eg Papaver spp. (poppy), roses (single).

Cyathiform
Cup - shaped, and open at the top; more curved at
the bottom than funnelform and deeper than crateriform; petals
not curving out as in campanulate flowers, eg Cobaea scandens
(cup and saucer vine), Tulipa spp.

Urceolate
Urn - shaped, narrow at the mouth and wider below, similar to cyathiform
but nipped in towards the top; these flowers are often quite small, eg Erica
carnea (spring heath), Epacaris spp, Arbutus unedo, Pieris japonica spp.

Radiate
Petals spreading like many rays from a centre
of reproductive structures; more petals present
than rotate or stellate flowers (eg
Mesembryanthemum (pigface) Lampranthus). This term is
often incorrectly used to describe the inflorescence of
members of family Asteraceae.

Having showy stamens

With these types of flowers, we are describing what we see (which are the stamens) rather
than the shape of the perianth. It does not mean that these flowers do not have all the parts
of a typical flower, it is just that it is the stamens which are obvious and showy. There are
two types of flowers with showy stamens.
Conspicuously staminate

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 Flwers with many conspicuous, often brightly coloured and showy stamens; sepals and
petals present but may be small and inconspicuous (eg Melaleuca, Callistemon).

Apetalous staminate
Fowers with many conspicuous, often brightly coloured and showy
stamens; flowers have no petals when the stamens are mature (eg
Eucalyptus). The petals have been modified into a protective
structure which is shed as the stamens expand and the flower
matures.

Inflorescences
An inflorescence is defined as a group of flowers borne on one stalk or stem. This
inflorescence stalk is called the peduncle. The arrangement of individual flowers on a
peduncle gives rise to several different inflorescences.
Some inflorescences can be very difficult to determinein fact, some may be a
combination of two inflorescence types. For example, the inflorescence of Lantana species
is an umbellate spike. You may find it easier to identify some inflorescences by studying
them before all the flowers are opened, or if the flowers have opened, shake the
inflorescence gently and turn it upside down.
You must always locate the flowers that have opened first; that is, the oldest flowers in the
inflorescence. This will help to determine the inflorescence type. You will note that the
individual flowers on some inflorescence diagrams are numbered. Number 1 = oldest
flower, or flower formed and opened first, 2 = second formed and opening flower, 3 = third
formed and opening flowerand so on to the youngest flower on the inflorescence.

Types of inflorescence
There are three main types of inflorescence:
solitary
raceme - type, or indeterminate
cyme - type, or determinate.
Solitary
Solitary flower borne singly on a pedicel. They may be formed as a
terminal flower or singly in the leaf axils up a stem, eg Papaver nudicaule
(poppy), Westringa fruticosa.

Raceme type or indeterminate inflorescences

These are all characterised by having the oldest flower opening at the base of the

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inflorescence while growth is still continuing longitudinally.
Raceme
A group of flowers attached to the peduncle with pedicels of about the
same length; the oldest flower is at the bottom of the inflorescence and
the youngest at the top, eg Salvia splendens.

Spike
A racemose inflorescence with sessile flowers
(without a pedicel), eg Callistemon spp. (bottlebrush).

Panicle
A branched racemose inflorescence with
each whole branch being a raceme. The
side branches are smaller racemes. A
panicle is a compound raceme, eg Yucca
spp.

Corymb
A racemose
inflorescence
in which all the flowers are ultimately borne at the same level
because the pedicels are of uneven lengths. The flowers
towards the bottom of the peduncle (that is, the oldest
flowers) have the longest pedicels, eg Iberis spp. (candytuft),
Spiraea spp.

Simple umbel
A racemose inflorescence in which all the pedicels are equal in
length and arise at one point on the peduncle. The flowers are at
the same level, eg Hippeastrum.

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Compound umbel
An inflorescence made up of small umbels arranged in a larger
umbel, the peduncles are equal in length, eg fennel, parsley.

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 Catkin
A pendulous racemose inflorescence modified for wind
pollination. It is a loose spike make up of numerous sessile,
usually unisexual flowers. Female catkins usually have long
hairy styles and stigmas to enhance pollen interception.

Capitulum (Head)
A racemose inflorescence with sessile flowers on a flattened
and expanded peduncle, eg Zinnia elegans.

Each inflorescence consists of two floret types

ray florets: a ligulate floret around the edge of a capitulum, has a conspicuous strap;
disc florets: tubular florets in the centre of a capitulum.

Cyme type or determinate inflorescences

These are characterised by having an inflorescence in which the terminal flower terminates
the growth of that inflorescence and other flowers arise laterally below it. The oldest flowers
are nearest the apex, eg Ranunculus spp. (buttercup), Tibouchina spp.

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When the flower arise both sides below the terminal flower sides the inflorescence is a
dichasial cyme.
When the flowers arise from one side only below the terminal flower, the inflorescence is a
monochasialcyme.

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2 The typical flower
Flowers come in all shapes, sizes and colours, yet at the same time they have some
features in common.

Figure 2 - A typical flower

Arrangement of floral parts

Floral parts are inserted on the receptacle of each flower. They can either be arranged in
whorls or spirally on the receptacle.
Whorls
In most flowers the calyx, corolla, androecium and
gynoecium are arranged in circles or whorls on the
axis of the flower, eg rose, Petunia spp, Hibiscus spp.
Spirals
Some flowers
have the calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium
attached at different levels in an ascending
spiral, eg Magnolia spp, Ranunculus spp.

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