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Theories of Learning:
Psychologists have tried to explain how people learn and why they
learn. They have conducted many experiments on animals and
children and come to certain definite conclusions which explain the
modes of learning.
These are called as theories of learning. In many books, these
explanations are treated as kinds of learning. In a sense it is true.
But the term learning is very comprehensive. It covers a wide
range of activities which cannot be explained within a limited
framework. There are many theories explaining modes of learning.
Important among them are:
Trial and Error Learning Theory:
This theory was developed by an American psychologist EL
Thorndike (1874-1949). He argues that learning takes place
through trial and error method. According to him learning is a
gradual process where the individual will make many attempts to
learn. The essence of this theory is-as the trials increase, the errors
decrease.
This is possible because of association formed between sense
impressions and impulses to action. Such an association comes to
be known as a bond or a connection, because it is these bonds or
connections which become strengthened or weakened in making
and breaking of habits. According to this theory when an individual
is placed in a new situation, he makes a number of random
movements. Among them, those which are unsuccessful are
eliminated and the successful ones are fixed.

These random movements are not eliminated at once. In the first

attempt their number is very large, in the second attempt the
number of errors diminishes and the range of activity becomes
narrower. Gradually the individual learns to avoid unnecessary
movements and reaches the goal. Improvement takes place through
repetition.

Thorndike studies the character of trial and error learning in a

number of experiments on cats-using a box which he called puzzle
box. In one of the experiments a hungry cat was placed in the box
and the door was closed which could be opened by pressing a Latch.
A fish was placed outside the box in a plate.
The cat could see this fish. The cat was given 100 trials-ten in the
morning and ten in each afternoon for five days. The cat was fed at
the end of each experimental period and then was given nothing
more to eat until after the next session. If, succeeded in opening the
door in any trial by chance, he went to eat food (fish). A complete
record was made of the cats behaviour during each trial.

In the beginning the cat made a number of random movements like

biting, clawing, dashing, etc. gradually in subsequent trials the cat
reduced the incorrect responses (errors), as it was in a position to
manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the box.

This experiment revealed that the random movements were

decreased gradually, that is-as the trials increased the errors
decreased. As the trials increased the solution to open the door
(pressing the latch) was discovered and at the end, the cat could
open the door with zero error. The time taken in each trial was
eventually reduced.

Thorndike conducted many experiments with maze and puzzle

box learning in which cats and rats were used. He has
demonstrated that through numerous trials the animal learns much
and gradually improves his effort.
We all learn many skills like swimming, cycling, riding, etc.,
through this method. Children learn to sit, stand, walk, and run by
this method only. However, this method involves considerable
waste of time and effort.

Learning by Conditioning:
In literal sense, conditioning means getting used to, or adjusted to
a new situation, or a stimulus. It is a process of substituting the
original stimulus by a new one and connecting the response with it.
There are two types of conditioning theories:

1. Classical conditioning:
This method of conditioning got its name from the fact that, it is a
kind of learning situation that existed in the early classical
experiments of Ivan P Pavlov (1849-1936), Russian physiologist
who was awarded Nobel Prize, in 1904 for his experiments.
Pavlov designed an apparatus to measure the quantity of saliva
produced in response to food (meat power). At the beginning of his
experiment Pavlov noted that no saliva flowed when he rang the
bell. He then trained the dog by sounding the bell, and shortly
afterwards presenting food.

After the sound of the bell had been paired with food a few times, he
tested the effects of the training by measuring the amount of saliva
that flowed when he rang the bell and did not present food. He
found that some saliva was produced in response to the sound of
the bell alone. He then resumed the training-paired presentation of
bell and food a few times and then tested again with the bell alone.

As the training continued, the amount of saliva on tests with the bell
alone increased. Thus, after training the dogs mouth watered-
salivated- whenever the bell was sounded. This is what was learned;
it is the conditioned response.

This theory states that CS (bell) becomes a substitute after pairing

with UCS (food) and acquires the capacity to elicit a response. It is
because the association (conditioning) is formed between CS and
UCS. This may be symbolically presented as follows:

UCS< UCR

(Food) (Saliva)

(Conditioning)

CS<- CR

(Bell) (Saliva)

Sub-principles of Classical Conditioning:

There are certain sub-principles which explain the different
phenomena of this experiment.

a. Extinction and spontaneous recovery:

Extinction means cessation of a response. The strength of the CS
gradually decreases when it is presented alone and not followed by
UCS for a number of trails. This process is called extinction. In this
experiment when only bell is presented without food for a number
of trials, the dog stopped salivation gradually.

But when the CS (bell) was paired again with UCS (food) for some
trials, the CR (salivation) recovered. This is known as spontaneous
recovery. In spontaneous recovery the dog required less number of
trials than the first time, because the association between CS and
UCS still existed in the brain of the animal.

b. Stimulus generalization:
A tendency to respond to a stimulus which is similar to original one
is called stimulus generalization, the greater the similarity, the more
the generalization. In this experiment, the dog started salivating
even for the sound of a buzzer which was similar to bell.

c. Stimulus discrimination:
When there is much difference between two stimuli, the animal can
discriminate between the two. For example, if the dog is
conditioned to salivate at the signal of red light, it will not salivate
when green light is presented.

d. Higher order conditioning:

If a light is presented followed by bell and then by food for a
number of trials, the dog will start salivating to light itself. This
phenomenon is called higher order condition.

All these principles are very useful in behaviour therapy.

Conditioning is not confined only to the laboratory.

In our day-to- days life we come across many instances of

such learning. For example, a small child who does not know,
touches a burning candle, it gives him a painful experience and
withdraws his hand. Later this experience will make him withdraw
from burning objects and avoid them all together.
Conditioning is used as psychotherapeutic technique very effectively
in the treatment of abnormal behaviours such as phobias,
alcoholism, enuresis, etc. These are called behaviour modification
techniques. Watson and others have conducted many experiments
to prove the usefulness of this method.

2. Operant Conditioning:
This method of conditioning was developed by an American
psychologist BF Skinner. This theory is also known as Instrumental
conditioning, because the animals use certain operations or actions
as instruments to find solution.

Skinner conducted his famous experiment by placing a hungry rat

in a box called after his name Skinner box. This box was containing
a lever and a food tray in a corner of the box. It was so arranged,
that the animal was free to move inside the box, but the pressing of
the lever would get the animal a pallet of food in the tray as
reinforcement.

Arrangement was also made to record the number of pressings of

the lever by a mechanical device. It was found in the beginning that
the rat pressed the lever occasionally and used to get food as
reinforcement for each pressing.

Gradually, as the animal learnt the pressing of lever would give

some food, it repeated the responses very rapidly. This rapid
increase in pressing the lever is the indication of the animal
conditioned to get food.

In day-to-days life also, much learning takes place in animals as

well as in human beings by this method. The reinforcement will be
the motivating factor. It will make the organism to repeat its action.
It is on the basis of these experiments, Skinner made his famous
statement Rewarded behaviour is repeated. Instrumental
conditioning involves more activity by the learner than classical
conditioning. Skinner conducted his experiments on different
animals like pigeons, rats, etc.

Reinforcement which is the most important aspect of this

experiment is divided into two types: positive reinforcement is used
in reward training. Negative reinforcement-like punishment is used
to stop undesired responses or behaviours. Operant conditioning is
useful in shaping undesirable behaviour and also in modification of
behaviour.

This is also useful in training of mentally retarded children to learn

dressing, eating and toilet training skills, treatment of phobias, drug
and alcohol addictions, and psychotherapy and to teach needed
behaviour in children. Further, these experiments have proved that
intermittent reinforcement yields better results than continuous
reinforcement.

Learning by Insight:
Many times learning proceeds by the more efficient process of
trying those methods which are seem to have a relation to solution.
This is possible by understanding or perception of the situation.
Learning by perceiving the relationship in the scene and
understanding the situation is insightful learning. This theory was
developed by a psychologist known as Wolf gang Kohler, who
belonged to Gestalt school of psychology.
According to Gestalt theoryperception of a situation as a whole
gives better understanding than sum total of its parts. That is, the
situation viewed as a whole will definitely look different from that,
viewed through its parts.

Kohler conducted his most famous experiments on chimpanzee-

called Sultan. In the experiment, Sultan was put in a cage and a
banana was placed at some distance outside the cage. Then the
chimpanzee was given two sticks, so constructed that one stick
could be fitted into another and make the stick longer.

The hungry Sultan first attempted with its hands to get the banana.
Then he took one of the sticks and tried to pull the banana nearer,
then tried with other stick, but failed to reach it. By this effort, the
chimpanzee became tired and left the attempts to reach banana and
started playing with sticks.

While playing so, one of the sticks got fitted into the other and the
stick became lengthier. Immediately Sultan became elated and
pulled the banana with this long stick and ate it. This sudden flash
of idea to reach food with longer stick was called as Insight, by
Kohler.

He conducted many experiments to prove that learning takes

place also by insight and not only by trial and error. He concluded
that the occurrence of insight to find solution to a problem is
possible by perception of the whole situation.
Kohler conducted many experiments on this line of learning to
prove that, just trial and error method is not enough to find solution
for many complex problems.
Trial and error or association through connectionism and
conditioning may account for simple acquisition of knowledge,
skills, interests, habits and other personality characteristics. But it is
absolutely insufficient for solving complex problems.

It is here the method of insightful learning is very useful. Because

it involves many higher mental processes such as thinking,
reasoning, intelligence, etc.
Insight occurs, when the individual sees in a flash, the solution to
his problem or difficulty. It is not blind or stupid learning. It is an
intelligent way of learning. In many occasions people try to size up
the situation, things and arrive at a conclusion. With experience
man is able to solve problems better and sooner.
He exercises his discrimination ability in solving problems,
and learning becomes a matter of insight rather than of trial and
error. Archimedess example of Aha experience (eureka) explained
in creative thinking is the appropriate example for occurrence of
insight.
Learning by Imitation:
It is the simplest method of learning. Many of our day-to-days
activities are learnt by imitating others. For example, the way we
eat, drink, walk, talk, dress, etc, are all learnt by imitating others.
We observe and watch what and how other people do certain
activities and imitate them.
We observe the demonstrations given by an expert, imitate his
movements and learn them. By copying the behaviour of others,
people avoid waste of time and effort of trial and error method
of learning. For example, a boy observes the way of holding a
cricket bat, the movements of an expert player, imitates the same
and learns.
Psychologists like Millar and Dollard have tried to show that the
tendency to imitate is itself a learned response and if reinforced, the
individual will be more likely to continue to imitate.

Many people believe that imitation is a lower form type

of learning. Still others argue that imitation can never lead to
novel responses and there will be no chance to use individuals
creativity or originality. But at the same time many educationists
believe that only the imitative individual can learn better. Whatever
may be the opinion it is quite obvious that we learn many things by
imitation.
Laws of Learning:
EL Thorndike has explained three laws of learning called Primary
laws and in addition to these, he has also framed 5 subsidiary laws
in connection with his trial and error learning theory.
Primary laws:
These are the most important laws, which explain the
basic aspects of learning. They are:
1. Law of readiness:
By readiness means the organism is ready to respond or act. This is
more essential prerequisite for learning.
This indicates that the animal or human being is motivated to learn.
This condition of readiness has two effects satisfaction and
annoyance. When the animal is ready to act- if permitted- it gives
pleasure. If it is not permitted, it feels annoyed.

In the same way when the animal is not ready to learn- if asked to
learn- it is annoying. On the other hand, if it is prevented
from learning it gives pleasure.
These points have been given below in the words of
Thorndike:
a. For a conduction unit ready to conduct-to conduct is satisfying.

b. For a conduction unit ready to conduct-not to conduct is

annoying.
c. For a conduction unit not ready to conduct- to conduct is
annoying.

This law clearly shows that readiness of a person to learn is very

important. Hence motivate him to learn.

2. Law of exercise:
This law is also known as law of frequency. Frequency refers to
number of repetitions of learning. Thorndike believed that
repeated exercising of a response strengthens its connection with
stimulus.
This aspect refers to law of use and disuse, which explains that,
anything not in use will perish. So also if the response is not
repeated, its bond with stimulus gets weakened. This is also
according to the statement that practice makes man perfect.

In Thorndikes experiment the cat becomes perfect after repeating

the response more number of times, i.e. it learnt to open the door
without committing any error.

3. Law of effect:
This law states that when a connection is accomplished by satisfying
effect- its strength is increased. By this, Thorndike meant that the
probability of its occurrence is greater. In his experiment if the
hungry cat succeeded in opening the door, would get its favourable
dish to eat.

This had a positive effect on its response. Rewards always

strengthen connections between stimuli and responses, and on the
other hand, punishment weakens connections.

Secondary laws:
In addition to the three primary laws explained above, Thorndike
has given five secondary or subsidiary laws also.

They are as follows:

a. Law of multiple response:
It means when a response fails to elicit a desired effect, the learner
will try with new responses until the goal is reached.
b- Law of set or attitude:
Mental set or positive attitude is very important in any learning.
c. Law of associative shifting:
This is nothing but shifting of the response to a new situation which
is similar to the earlier one. Because the fundamental notion is that,
if a response can be kept intact through a series of changes in
stimulating situation, it may finally be given to a new situation.

d. Law of prepotency of elements:

This law states that the learner is able to react in a selected way,
only to the salient elements of the problem and not for other
unimportant elements.

e. Law of response by analogy:

It means comparing a new situation to the previously learned one
and thus giving a response by analogy.

As stated above, Thorndike formulated these laws on the basis of his

experiments. According to the law of readiness, the cat was ready to
learn, because it was hungry. This hunger motivated the cat to learn
to open the door.

According to the second law, the cat was repeatedly given trials and
exercise which strengthened its learning. Finally on each trial the
cat was given reinforcement in the form of fish.
This encouraged the cat to continue its effort to learn to open the
door. The secondary laws given by him support these findings.
These laws are highly relevant to the field of education. The teachers
can make use of these laws in order to make their teaching more
effective.

The Magic of Motivation

Know Your Origin and Worth
Meaning, Nature and Characteristics of Intelligence
Posted on November 17, 2014 by John Parankimalil
One of the most important single variables, which affect schooling, is
intelligence. Intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge. Success
in school and colleges and in ones own profession, social adjustment, possession
of general information etc. are all associated with the concept of intelligence.
The word intelligence is derived from the Latin verb intellegere which means
understanding.
According to Alfred Binet intelligence is the ability for judgement or common
sense. Thorndike defines intelligence as ones capacity to deal effectively with
situations. For Jean Piaget, intelligence is the ability to adapt to ones
surroundings. In the words of Cyril Burt, Intelligence is the capacity of flexible
adjustment. According to David Wechsler (1977): The global capacity to think
rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment.

Intelligence is defined as mental capability that involves the ability to reason, to

plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend complex ideas, to
learn quickly and to learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a
narrow academic skill, or test-taking smartness.

In simple words, intelligence is nothing but thinking skills and the ability to adapt
to and to learn from lifes everyday experiences.

Whos more intelligent? An engineer designing a bridge, a manager motivating

his staff, a professor teaching a class, a violin player in a symphony, an author
writing a story, an African Bushman finding water in the desert?

Nature and Characteristics of Intelligence and its Development:

Intelligence is not acquired after sustained labour. It is a gift from nature.
Intelligence is not memory. An intelligent person may have poor memory.
Intelligence is not a skill which a worker acquires after planned practice.
Intelligence is not a guarantee of a good behaviour of the individual.

To understand the nature of intelligence we need to know the classification

intelligence as given by E.L. Thorndike and Garret:

1. Concrete Intelligence It is the ability of an individual to comprehend actual

situations and to react to them adequately. The concrete intelligence is evident
from various activities of daily life. This type of intelligence is applicable when
the individual is handling concrete objects or medicines. Engineers, mechanics
and architects have this type of intelligence.
2. Abstract Intelligence It is the ability to respond to words, numbers and
symbols. Abstract intelligence is required in the ordinary academic subjects in
the school. This is acquired after an intensive study of books and literature. Good
teachers, lawyers, doctors, philosophers etc. have this type of intelligence.
3. Social Intelligence It means the ability of an individual to react to social
situations of daily life. Adequate adjustment in social situations is the index of
social intelligence. Persons having this type of intelligence know the art of
winning friends and influencing them. Leaders, ministers, members of diplomatic
sources and social workers have it.
Thus we see the nature of intelligence as the ability for adjustment to
environment, ability to perceive relationship between various objects and
methods, ability to solve problems, ability to think independently, ability to learn
maximum in minimum period of time, ability to benefit from ones own
experience and the experience of others.

Therefore, intelligence is an inborn ability of an individual, the distribution of

intelligence is not equal among all human beings. There is wide individual
difference that exists among individuals with regard to intelligence.

Characteristics of Intelligence:
The main features of Intelligence are the following:

1. Intelligence is an innate natural endowment of the child.

2. It helps the child in maximum learning in minimum period of time.
3. The child is able to foresee the future and plan accordingly.
4. The child is able to take advantage of his previous experiences.
5. The child faces the future with compliance.
6. He develops a sense of discrimination between right or wrong.
7. The developmental period of intelligence is from birth to adolescence.
8. There is a minor difference in the development of intelligence between boys
and girls.
9. There are individual differences with regard to the intelligence between boys
and girls.
10.Intelligence is mostly determined by heredity but a suitable environment
necessary to improve it.
Development of Intelligence:
It is generally agreed upon by almost all psychologists that intelligence increases
up to adolescence and declines in old age. According to Pinter, the development
of intelligence takes place at a rapid space up to the age of 14 years, and then it
stops at any stage in between the ages of 14 22 years.

In the opinion of Terman, students and adults reach the limit of their intelligence
growth at the age of 16 years. According to Binet, this limit is reached at the age
of 15 years.
According to Ottis, intelligence grows up to the age of 18 years. The researchers
of Thorndike reveal that the power to learn in a person develops up to the age of
22 years and this power continues to work up to the age of 45 years.

According to some psychologists, the intelligence of dull children grows only up

to the age of 14 years and those of normal ones up to the age of 16 years.

In the case of children of genius category, it continues to grow up to the age of

twenty years.

However, the definite age till when intelligence grows has not been determined.
This problem remains even today as it was earlier.

Conclusion: It can be rightly said that intelligence is the ability to adjust, to think,
to understand, to reason and to act in the best possible manner. We can also
conclude that during early childhood, there is a period of relatively rapid growth
of intelligence followed by a slower late during adolescence.

Theories of Intelligence
Posted on November 17, 2014 by John Parankimalil
Psychologists have attempted to understand the structure of intelligence for which
they have formulated theories. Among the important theories of intelligence, we
shall study three of them.

1. Spearmans Two-Factor Theory

2. Guilfords Theory of Structure of Intellect (S. I Model)
3. Thurstons Group Factor Theory
1. Spearmans Two-Factor Theory:
The English psychologist, Charles Spearman (1863-1945), in 1904 proposed his
theory of intelligence called two-factor theory. According to him intellectual
abilities are comprised of two factors, namely; the general ability known as G-
factor and specific Abilities known as S-factors. The performance by the
individual is determined by the G-factor and the S-factors. The total intelligence
of the individual is the sum total of the G-factor and the S-factors. The
performance of a particular task depends on the G factor or general ability and
the particular S factor or specific ability.

Characteristics of G Factor:
1. It is universal inborn ability.
2. It is general mental energy.
3. It is constant.
4. The amount of g differs from individual to individual.
5. It is used in every activity of life.
6. Greater the g in an individual, greater is his success in life.
Characteristics of S Factor:
1. It is learned and acquired in the environment.
2. It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.
3. Individuals differ in the amount of S ability.
G factor represents Native Intelligence thus when we respond to any situation
or perform an intellectual task, our general mental ability or G factor is mainly
responsible for it and our specific ability in that particular task is responsible for
the rest.

There are a large number of specific abilities such as ability to draw inferences,
ability to complete sentences, ability to code message etc.

Fig: Spearmans Two-Factor Theory or Eclectic Theory

Different individuals differed both in their G as well as S factors. For e.g. an

individuals performance in literature is partly due to his general intelligence and
partly due some specific aptitude for his language, i.e. G+S1. In mathematics his
performance may be the result of G+S2. In drawing, it may be due to G+S3 and
in social sciences; it may be due to G+S4 and so on. Thus the factor G is present
in all specific activities.

Educational Implications and relevance of Spearmans Two Factor

Theory:
1. The theory gives a better insight to the teacher about the nature of intelligence.

2. The general ability differs from individual to individual.

3. The specific abilities also differ from individual to individual.

4. S factor varies in degrees. Therefore, it can be modified by learning or
habitual training

5. A child requires different amounts of G and S factors for achieving success

in different Subjects.

6. We require a high quality of G factor for our success in life.

7. Both G and S have a high correlation.

8. This theory could be used to guide, construction of a set of ability test

Conclusion: Thus we see that spearman did not believe in the concept that mental
power as independent of one another. According to him they are unitary.
2. Guildfords Structure of Intelligence (SI Model)
J.P. Guilford developed a model of intelligence (1966) using factor analysis. He
outlines topography of the structure of intellect, providing an integrated rationale
for describing the many dimension of intellectual performance. He suggests that
there are three basic parameters along which any intellectual activity takes place.
These are:

1. Operations the act of thinking

2. Contents the terms in which we think, and

3. Products the ideas we come up with.

Guilford identified 5 operations, 5 contents and 6 products. Thus the maximum

number of factors in terms of the different possible combination s of these
dimensions will be 5x5x6 = 150.
1. Operations: It consists of five major groups of intellectual abilities.
1. Cognition: It refers to discovery, rediscovery or recognition.
2. Memory: Simply remembering what was once known.
3. Convergent Thinking: This type of thinking, by reasoning, results in useful
solution to problems.
4. Divergent Thinking: This is thinking in different directions, seeking and
searching some variety and novelty.
5. Evaluation: It is reaching decisions or making judgments about information.
2. Content: A Second way of classifying the intellectual factor is according to
the kind of material or content involved. It involves five factors:
1. Visual Content: It is concrete material which is perceived through our senses,
i.e. size, form, colour, etc.
2. Auditory Content: It consists of language, speech, sounds, music and words
3. Symbolic Content: It is composed of letters, digits, and other conventional
signs.
4. Semantic Content: It is in the forms of verbal meanings or ideas which we
get from others.
5. Behavioural Content: It means social behaviour in society.
3. Products: When a certain operation is applied to certain kind of content as
many as six kinds of products may be involved.
1. Units: Understanding the meaning of words, visual, auditory and symbolic
units.
2. Classes: It means classification of words and ideas.
3. Relations: It implies discovering relations of words and ideas.
4. Systems: The ability to structure objects in space and to structure symbolic
elements and to formulate problems.
5. Transformation: The ability to look into the future lines of development or
to suggest changes in the existing situations.
6. Implications: The ability to utilize present information for future ends.
Educational Implication and relevance of SI Model:
1. This theory about the idea that the brain of a child is like a computer, who
acquires, stores and uses information.

2. It provides knowledge about the specific ability of the students to guide them
in the right direction.

3. SI Model is useful in finding out the reasons of the unsatisfactory performance

of the students in spite of their adequate intelligence.

4. This model points out that for understanding higher mental processes like
thinking some drastic modifications could be needed in our curriculum or method
of instruction.

5. This model has explored 150 intellectual abilities and this enables us to find
out whether we are paying sufficient attention to each one of them or not and if
not how to improve.

6. This model guides us to device enrichment programmes for the gifted children.

7. It stresses that learning of specific skills should be our focus of attention.

8. SI Model is very useful in constructing tests of various types for different age
groups.

9. This concept of Guildford will prove useful in our future research in the areas
of learning, memory, problem-solving etc.

10. This model discovered many abilities which were not known before.

11. It is very useful for vocational training.

Conclusion: Guildfords theory of Intelligence seems to be the most

comprehensive theory as it attempts to take into considerations all possible
aspects of intellectual activity.
3. Thurstons Group Factor Theory
Louis Thurston came out with the group factor theory (1937) saying that
Intelligence is a cluster of abilities. These mental operations then constitute a
group. A second group of mental operations has its own unifying Primary factor;
a third group has a third Primary factor and so on. Each of them has its own
primary factor. Each of these primary factors is said to be relatively independent
of others. He pointed out that there were Seven Primary Mental Abilities and
later on added two more. They are:
1. Verbal comprehension Factor. This factor involves a persons ability to
understand verbal material. It is measured by tests such as vocabulary and
reading comprehension.
2. Verbal fluency Factor. This ability is involved in rapidly producing words,
sentences, and other verbal material. It is measured by tests such as one that
requires the examinee to produce as many words as possible beginning with a
particular letter in a short amount of time.
3. Numerical Factor. This ability is involved in rapid arithmetic computation
and in solving simple arithmetic word problems.
4. Perceptual speed Factor. This ability is involved in proofreading and in rapid
recognition of letters and numbers. It is measured by tests such as those
requiring the crossing out of As in a long string of letters or in tests requiring
recognition of which of several pictures at the right is identical to the picture
at the left.
5. Inductive reasoning Factor. This ability requires generalizationreasoning
from the specific to the general. It is measured by tests, such as letter series,
number series, and word classifications, in which the examinee must indicate
which of several words does not belong with the others.
6. Spatial visualization Factor. This ability is involved in visualizing shapes,
rotations of objects, and how pieces of a puzzle fit together. An example of a
test would be the presentation of a geometric form followed by several other
geometric forms. Each of the forms that follows the first is either the same
rotated by some rigid transformation or the mirror image of the first form in
rotation. The examinee has to indicate which of the forms at the right is a
rotated version of the form at the left, rather than a mirror image.
7. Memory Factor. It means the ability to recall and associate previously
learned items effectively or memorize quickly.
Later on other factors were added on like Deductive Reasoning (P) Ability to
use the generalized results correctly and Problem solving ability factor (PS) -
Ability to solve problem independently.
Educational Significance and Implications
1. Thurston contributed greatly to the measurement of attitudes. In psychology,
the Thurston scale developed in 1928 was the first formal techniques for
measuring of attitudes.
2. Thurstons theory of intelligence was a major influence on later theories of
multiple intelligences, such as those of Guilford, Gardner, and Sternberg.
3. Thurston has been noted for developing a comparative judgment scaling
technique. The rank scale can be used to rank all possible feelings related to
an issue and to categorize people expressing an opinion based on the rank of
that opinion. It is used today mainly in basic research.
4. Thurston held that if the individual wants to perform any particular activity,
one or more of these factors or abilities are involved. Some of them are more
important than others.