4 Water Supply Enginering Module Final (Repaired) 1

Module on Water Supply Engineering 2013
Hawassa University
Institute of Technology
School of Biosystem and Environmental Engineering
Water Supply and Environmental Engineering Department
Module: Water Supply
Course: Water supply Engineering, Water Treatment, and
Community Water supply and Sanitation
Course code: WSEE-3141, WSEE-3142, and WSEE-3143
Compiled
By
Dessalegn Jaweso
Abreham Birhane
Biruk H/Yesus
Mebratu Esubalew
May 2013
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Table of Contents
PART-I .......................................................................................................................................................... 10
Water Supply Engineering .......................................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER ONE .............................................................................................................................................. 10
1. WATER DEMANDS ................................................................................................................................... 10
1.1 Various Types of Water Demands .................................................................................................... 10
1.1.1 Domestic Water Demand........................................................................................................... 10
1.1.2 Industrial Demand..................................................................................................................... 11
1.1.3 Institution and Commercial Demand ........................................................................................ 11
1.1.4 Demand for Public Use ............................................................................................................. 11
1.1.5 Fire Demand .............................................................................................................................. 12
1.1.6 Losses and Wastes .................................................................................................................... 12
1.2 Per-capita Demand............................................................................................................................ 12
1.3 Factors Affecting Per-capita Demand ............................................................................................... 13
1.4 Variations in Demand ........................................................................................................................ 13
1.4.1 Seasonal Variations ................................................................................................................... 14
1.4.2 Daily Variations ......................................................................................................................... 14
1.4.3 Hourly Variations ...................................................................................................................... 14
1.5 Design Period .................................................................................................................................... 14
1.6 Population Forecasting Methods ...................................................................................................... 15
CAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................................... 20
2. WATER SOURCES AND ABSTRACTION SYSTEM ....................................................................................... 20
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 20
2.2 Surface Water Sources ...................................................................................................................... 21
2.3 Subsurface water source ................................................................................................................... 22
2.4 Water quality considerations ............................................................................................................ 26
2.5 Source Selection ................................................................................................................................ 27
CHAPTERTHREE ........................................................................................................................................... 29
3. COLLECTION, STORAGE, TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION ..................................................................... 29
3.1 Collection of water ............................................................................................................................ 29
3.1.1 Surface water Intakes ............................................................................................................... 29
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3.1.2 Types of Intake structures......................................................................................................... 30

3.2 Methods of Water Storage and Distribution .................................................................................... 32
3.2.1 Types of Distribution Reservoirs ............................................................................................... 33
3.2.2 Location and Height of the Distribution Reservoirs ................................................................ 33
3.3 Transmission of water ....................................................................................................................... 34
3.4 Distribution of water ......................................................................................................................... 34
3.4.1 Requirement of a distribution system ....................................................................................... 34
3.4.2 Layout of distribution systems ................................................................................................... 36
3.5 Design of distribution systems .......................................................................................................... 40
3.6 Pipes Used in Water Distribution Systems ........................................................................................ 50
3.6.1 Different Types of Pipes ............................................................................................................ 50
3.6.2 Laying and Testing..................................................................................................................... 52
3.6.3 Maintenance of Pipes ............................................................................................................... 52
3.7 Appurtenances in the Distribution System ....................................................................................... 53
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................................... 56
4. Pumps and pumping stations.................................................................................................................. 56
4.1 Purpose and types of pumps............................................................................................................. 56
4.2 Types of pumps ................................................................................................................................. 56
4.3 Factors affecting the selection of a particular Type of Pump ........................................................... 57
4.4 Centrifugal pumps ............................................................................................................................. 57
4.5 Head, Power and Efficiency of Pumps .............................................................................................. 59
4.5.1 The Head .................................................................................................................................... 59
4.5.2 Capacity ..................................................................................................................................... 59
4.5.3 System characteristics............................................................................................................... 60
4.6 Cavitation and Maximum Suction lift................................................................................................ 63
4.7 Pumping Stations .............................................................................................................................. 63
4.8 Pump Operation and Maintenance................................................................................................... 64
4.8.1 Operation .................................................................................................................................. 64
4.8.2 Maintenance ............................................................................................................................. 65
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................................. 66
5. Construction of Water Sources................................................................................................................ 66
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5.1 Spring Development.......................................................................................................................... 66

5.1.1 Types of springs ........................................................................................................................ 66
5.1.2 Type of spring protective Structures ........................................................................................ 69
5.1.3 Design features of spring box ................................................................................................... 69
5.2 Hand Dug Well Construction ............................................................................................................. 71
5.2.1 Water Well Design .................................................................................................................... 71
5.2.2 Site Selection for a well ............................................................................................................. 72
5.2.3 Elements of a well ..................................................................................................................... 72
5.2.4 Design of water well ................................................................................................................. 73
5.3 Rain Water Harvesting Mechanism................................................................................................... 76
5.3.1 Factors to be considered in Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) ...................................................... 76
5.3.2 Rain Water Harvesting Techniques ........................................................................................... 76
5.3.3 Quantity aspects in Rainwater Harvesting ................................................................................ 78
5.3.4 Design Consideration for Roof top Water harvesting system .................................................. 81
CHAPTER SIX................................................................................................................................................ 83
6 Planning and Management of Rural Water Supply ................................................................................. 83
6.1 Planning Water Supply Scheme ........................................................................................................ 83
6.2 Management of Rural Water Supply................................................................................................. 87
6.2.1 Importance of management ..................................................................................................... 87
6.2.2 Community Participation .......................................................................................................... 88
CHAPTER SEVEN .......................................................................................................................................... 90
7 Hygiene and Sanitation ............................................................................................................................ 90
7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 90
7.2 Hygiene Education and Promotion ................................................................................................... 90
7.2.1 Community Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) .................................................................................... 90
7.2.2 Key Principles Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) ............................................................ 91
7.2.3 Benefits of CLTS......................................................................................................................... 93
7.2.4 Triggering Behavior Change ...................................................................................................... 93
7.2.5 Fundamental & Non-Negotiable Guiding Principles of CLTS .................................................... 94
7.2.6 Traditional Sanitation Vs CLTS approach .................................................................................. 95
7.2.7 Tools of CLTS ............................................................................................................................. 96
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7.3 Hygiene Education ............................................................................................................................ 96

7.4 Treatment, Handling and Storage of Drinking Water ....................................................................... 97
CHAPTER EIGHT......................................................................................................................................... 100
8. Low Cost Sanitation Options.................................................................................................................. 100
8.1 Unimproved Pit Latrine ................................................................................................................... 101
8.2 Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine (VIPL)............................................................................................ 102
8.3 Pour Flush Latrine ........................................................................................................................... 102
8.4 School latrines ................................................................................................................................. 103
8.5 Public toilet facilities ....................................................................................................................... 104
8.6 Septic Tanks..................................................................................................................................... 105
8.7 Sludge Collection ............................................................................................................................. 105
PART-II ....................................................................................................................................................... 107
Water Treatment ...................................................................................................................................... 107
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 107
QUALITY OF WATER .................................................................................................................................. 107
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 107
1.2 Physical Characteristics ................................................................................................................... 107
1.3 Chemical Characteristics ................................................................................................................. 108
1.4 Bacterial and Microorganisms Characteristics................................................................................ 113
1.5 Drinking Water Standards ............................................................................................................... 113
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................................... 115
2. WATER SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................ 115
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 115
2.2 Sampling .......................................................................................................................................... 115
2.2.1 Selection of Sites and Frequency of Sampling ......................................................................... 116
2.2.2 Sampling procedures ............................................................................................................... 117
2.3 Water quality analysis ..................................................................................................................... 118
2.3.1 Aesthetic and Physical Analysis................................................................................................ 118
2.3.2 Chemical Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 120
2.3.3 Bacteriological Analysis ............................................................................................................ 123
2.3.4 Sanitary Survey......................................................................................................................... 128
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CHAPTER Three ......................................................................................................................................... 130

3 WATER TREATEMENT............................................................................................................................. 130
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 130
3.2 Preliminary Water Treatment ......................................................................................................... 132
3.2.1 The Source and Intake of the Raw Water ................................................................................ 132
3.2.2 Screening.................................................................................................................................. 132
3.2.3 Aeration ................................................................................................................................... 134
3.2.4 Pre chlorination ..................................................................................................................... 135
3.3 Plain Sedimentation ........................................................................................................................ 135
3.3.1Clarification ............................................................................................................................... 136
3.3.2The Ideal Sedimentation Basin ................................................................................................. 136
3.3.3 Types of Sedimentation Tank................................................................................................... 137
3.3.4 Flotation ................................................................................................................................... 138
3.4 Coagulation and flocculation .......................................................................................................... 139
3.4.1Most commonly used coagulants ............................................................................................. 139
3.4.2The principle of chemical coagulation in terms of chemical reaction ...................................... 140
3.4.3 Colloidal Suspensions ............................................................................................................... 140
3.4.4 Coagulant aids .......................................................................................................................... 142
3.5 Filtration .......................................................................................................................................... 143
3.5.1 Slow Sand Filter ........................................................................................................................ 144
3.5.2 Rapid sand filter ....................................................................................................................... 146
3.5.3Pressure filters .......................................................................................................................... 147
3.6 Disinfection ..................................................................................................................................... 149
3.6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 149
3.6.2 Methods of water disinfection................................................................................................. 149
3.6.3 Disinfection by Chlorination ................................................................................................... 155
3.7 Miscellaneous water treatment...................................................................................................... 161
3.7.1Water Softening ........................................................................................................................ 161
3.7.2 Fluoridation of water ............................................................................................................... 163
3.7.3 Defluoridation .......................................................................................................................... 164
3.7.4 Aeration ................................................................................................................................... 164
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3.7.5 Water desalinization ................................................................................................................ 165

PART III ...................................................................................................................................................... 167
Community Water supply and Sanitation ................................................................................................. 167
Chapter One .............................................................................................................................................. 167
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 167
1.1 General ............................................................................................................................................ 167
1.1.1 Water supply, health and socio-economic development ........................................................ 167
1.1.2 Improved hygiene and health................................................................................................... 167
1.1.3 Water quality, quantity and drainage ...................................................................................... 169
1.1.4 Socio-economic development .................................................................................................. 169
1.2 Small community water supplies in developing countries .............................................................. 170
Chapter Two .............................................................................................................................................. 174
2. Planning and management .................................................................................................................. 174
2.1 Planning for community managed water supply systems .............................................................. 174
2.1.1 Project versus programme ....................................................................................................... 174
2.1.2 Demand-responsive programmes............................................................................................ 175
2.1.3 Comprehensive planning ......................................................................................................... 176
2.2 Linking water supply, hygiene and sanitation ................................................................................. 177
2.3 Planning and assessment ................................................................................................................ 177
2.4 Designing for current and future needs .......................................................................................... 179
2.5 Standardization ............................................................................................................................... 180
2.6 Participatory processes ................................................................................................................... 180
2.7 A programme fund to (co-)finance locally planned projects ........................................................... 181
2.8 Participatory assessments during the pre-planning stage .............................................................. 181
2.8.1 Preliminary project selection .................................................................................................. 182
2.8.2 Detailed planning and decision-making ................................................................................... 182
2.8.3 Example of a planning process................................................................................................. 183
2.9 Implementation ........................................................................................................................... 185
2.9.1 The post-construction stage .................................................................................................... 185
2.10 Programme organizational aspects .............................................................................................. 186
Chapter three ............................................................................................................................................ 192
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3. Spring water Development ................................................................................................................. 192

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 192
3.2 Procedures in spring development ................................................................................................. 193
3.2.1 Identification of spring source ................................................................................................ 193
3.2.2 Identification of types of spring sources ................................................................................. 193
3.2.3 Feasibility study .................................................................................................................... 195
3.2.4 Rapid environmental assessment ........................................................................................... 196
3.2.5 Spring water quality ................................................................................................................ 196
3.2.6 The spring water quantity ....................................................................................................... 197
3.2.7 Design and construction ......................................................................................................... 199
3.3 Design .............................................................................................................................................. 199
3.3.1 Tapping of gravity springs ....................................................................................................... 201
3.3.2 Tapping artesian springs ......................................................................................................... 203
3.4 Protection of catchment and direct spring surroundings ............................................................ 205
Chapter four .............................................................................................................................................. 207
4. Rainwater Roof Catchment Systems ..................................................................................................... 207
4.1 Design Consideration ...................................................................................................................... 207
4.1.1 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Rainwater Roof Catchment Systems.......................... 208
4.1.2 The Feasibility of a Rainwater Roof Catchment System .......................................................... 208
4.2 Design.............................................................................................................................................. 210
4.2.1 Dry Season Demand versus Supply .......................................................................................... 210
4.2.2 Mass curve analysis ................................................................................................................. 211
4.2.3 Mass curve with Dimensionless constant Analysis ................................................................. 214
4.3 Construction ................................................................................................................................ 216
4.4 Maintenance and Monitoring ......................................................................................................... 220
Chapter five ............................................................................................................................................... 222
5. Gravity Flow Water Supply System ...................................................................................................... 222
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 222
5.2 Design Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 224
5.2.1 Locate Reliable clean sources ................................................................................................. 224
5.2.2 Determine consumption of water per person per day .......................................................... 224
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5.2.3 Determine the location of the standpoints ........................................................................... 225

5.2.4 Determine flow per tap ......................................................................................................... 225
5.2.5 Choose the pipe alignment .................................................................................................... 225
5.2.6 Design main pipeline.............................................................................................................. 226
5.2.7 Calculate Reservoir and sedimentation tank dimensions...................................................... 230
5.2.8 Locate air release valves, washout and break pressure tanks............................................... 230
Chapter six ................................................................................................................................................ 241
6. Pumping .............................................................................................................................................. 241
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 241
6.2 Power sources for pumping ............................................................................................................ 241
6.3 Types of pumps ............................................................................................................................... 245
6.4 Technology selection ....................................................................................................................... 248
6.5 Reciprocating pumps....................................................................................................................... 249
6.6 Rotary (positive displacement) pumps ........................................................................................ 255
6.7 Axial-flow pumps............................................................................................................................. 258
6.8 Centrifugal pumps........................................................................................................................ 258
6.9 Pump drive arrangements ........................................................................................................... 259
6.10 Air-lift pumps ............................................................................................................................. 263
6.11 Hydraulic ram ............................................................................................................................... 264
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PART-I
Water Supply Engineering
CHAPTER ONE
1. WATER DEMANDS
Evaluation of the amount of water available and amount of water demanded by the public are primary
tasks in designing any water supply system. Demand of water is the amount of water required to meet all
the needs of the people, which the system serves. It is expressed as per capita per day (l/c/d). In planning
the water supply system it is necessary to find out not only the total yearly water requirement but also to
access the required average rates of flow and the variations in these rates.
1.1 Various Types of Water Demands

While designing the water supply scheme for a town or city, it is necessary to determine the total
quantity of water required for various purposes by the city. As a matter of fact the first duty of the
engineer is to determine the water demand of the town and then to find suitable water sources from
where the demand can be met. But as there are so many factors involved in demand of water, it is
not possible to accurately determine the actual demand. Certain empirical formulae and thumb rules
are employed in determining the water demand, which is very near to the actual demand.
Following are the various types of water demands of a city or town:
i. Domestic water demand
ii. Industrial demand
iii. Institution and commercial demand
iv. Demand for public use
v. Five demand
vi. Loses and wastes
1.1.1 Domestic Water Demand

The quantity of water required in the houses for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing etc is called
domestic water demand and mainly depends upon the habits, social status, climatic conditions and
customs of the people. This may vary between 80 l/c/d to 140 l/c/d for major Ethiopian cities. A
standard value of 30 to 40 l/c/d is used in designing the water supply schemes of rural towns. Western
industrialized countries extend this amount to as high as 350 l/c/d. The total domestic water consumption
shall be equal to the per capita demand multiplied by the total population at the end of the design period.
Usually this amounts to 50- 60% of the total water consumption.
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1.1.2 Industrial Demand

The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type of industries, which are existing in the
city. The water required by factories, paper mills, Cloth mills, Cotton mills, Breweries, Sugar refineries
etc. comes under industrial use. The quantity of water demand for industrial purpose is around 20 to 25%
of the total demand of the city.
1.1.3 Institution and Commercial Demand

Universities, Institution, commercial buildings and commercial centers including office buildings,
warehouses, stores, hotels, shopping centers, health centers, schools, temple, cinema houses, railway and
bus stations etc comes under this category. It varies with the nature of the city and with the number and
types of commercial establishments. On average, a per capita demand of 20 l/c/d is usually considered
sufficient though it may vary up to 50 l/c/d for highly commercialized cities.
Table 1.1 Water requirements of various commercial establishments

Establishment Average water consumption l/c/d
Offices 45-90
Factories 30-90
Schools 45-225
Hostels 135-225
Hotels 135-180
Restaurants 180 (per seat)
Hospitals 70 (per bed)
Railway stations 25-75
Airports 70
Cinema halls 15
1.1.4 Demand for Public Use

Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as for washing and sprinkling on roads,
cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public fountains etc comes under public
demand. To meet the water demand for public use, provision of 5% of the total consumption is made
designing the water works for a city.
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1.1.5 Fire Demand

Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching materials, explosions,
bad intension of criminal people or any other unforeseen happenings. If fires are not properly controlled
and extinguished in minimum possible time, they lead to serious damage and may burn cities. All the big
cities have full fire-fighting squads. As during the fire breakdown large quantity of water is required for
throwing it over the fire to extinguish it, therefore provision is made in the water work to supply
sufficient quantity of water or keep as reserve in the water mains for this purpose. In the cities fire
hydrants are provided on the water mains at 100 to 150 m apart for fire demand. The quantity of water
required for firefighting is generally calculated by using different empirical formulae. Kuichings formula
gives satisfactory results.
Q = 3182
Where: Q is quantity of water required in litres/min
P is population of town or city in thousands
1.1.6 Losses and Wastes

All the water, which goes in the distribution, pipes does not reach the consumers. The following are the
reasons:
- Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves and fittings.
- Losses due to, consumers keep open their taps of public taps even when they are not using the
water and allow the continuous wastage of water.
- Losses due to unauthorized and illegal connections.
While estimating the total quantity of water of a town; allowance of 15% of total quantity of water is
made to compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of water.
1.2 Per-capita Demand

The total daily amount of water required by the town can be worked out by multiplying the number of
people at the end of the design period and the average daily consumption of each person called per capita
demand. The per capita demand (q) is the annual average amount of daily water required by one person,
and includes the domestic use, industrial and commercial use, wastes, thefts etc. It may be expressed as:
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1.3 Factors Affecting Per-capita Demand

The following are the main factors affecting for capita demand of the city or town.
a) Climatic conditions : The quantity of water required in hotter and dry places is more than cold
countries because of the use of air coolers, air conditioners, sprinkling of water in lawns,
gardens, courtyards, washing of rooms, more washing of clothes and bathing etc. But in very cold
countries sometimes the quantity of water required may be more due to wastage, because at such
places the people often keep their taps open and water continuously flows for fear of freezing of water
in the taps and use of hot water for keeping the rooms warm.
b) Size of community: Water demand is more with increase of size of town because more water is
required in street washing, running of sewers, maintenance of parks and gardens.
c) Living standard of the people: The per capita demand of the town increases with the standard of
living of the people because of the use of air conditioners, room coolers, maintenance of lawns, use of
flush latrines and automatic home appliances etc.
d) Industrial and commercial activities: As the quantity of water required in certain industries is much
more than domestic demand, their presence in the town will enormously increase per capita demand of
the town. As a matter of the fact the water required by the industries has no direct link with the
population of the town.
e) Pressure in the distribution system: The rate of water consumption increase in the pressure of the
building and even with the required pressure at the farthest point, the consumption of water will
automatically increase. This increase in the quantity is firstly due to use of water freely by the people
as compared when they get it scarcely and more water loss due to leakage, wastage and thefts etc.
f) System of sanitation: Per capita demand of the towns having water carriage system will be more than
the town where this system is not being used.
g) Cost of water: The cost of water directly affects its demand. If the cost of water is more, less quantity
of water will be used by the people as compared when the cost is low.
1.4 Variations in Demand

The per capita demand of town is the average consumption of water for a year. In practice it has been
seen that this demand does not remain uniform throughout the year but it various from season to
season, even hour to hour.
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1.4.1 Seasonal Variations

The water demand varies from season to season. In summer the water demand is maximum, because the
people will use more water in bathing, cooling, lawn watering and street sprinkling. This demand will
becomes minimum in winter because less water will be used in bathing and there will be no lawn
watering. The variations may be up to 15% of the average demand of the year.
1.4.2 Daily Variations

This variation depends on the general habits of people, climatic conditions and character of city as
industrial, commercial or residential. More water demand will be on Sundays and holidays due to more
comfortable bathing, washing etc as compared to other working days. The maximum daily consumption
is usually taken as 180% of the average consumption.
1.4.3 Hourly Variations

On Sundays and other holidays the peak hours may be about 8 A.M. due to late awakening where as it
may be 6 A.M. to 10 A.M. and 4 P.M. to 8 P.M. and minimum flow may be between 12P.M. to 4P.M.
when most of the people are sleeping. But in highly industrial city where both day and night shifts are
working, the consumption in night may be more. The maximum consumption may be rise up to 200%
that of average daily demand. The determination of this hourly variation is most necessary, because on
its basis the rate of pumping will be adjusted to meet up the demand in all hours.
1.5 Design Period

The complete water supply project includes huge and costly constructions such as dams, reservoirs,
treatment works and network of distribution pipelines. These all works cannot be replaced easily or
capacities increased conveniently for future expansions. While designing and constructing these works,
they should have sufficient capacity to meet future demand of the town for number of years. The future
period for which a provision is made in the water supply scheme is known as the design period. The
design period should neither be so long which will incur excess financial burden at present users nor be so
short as to make the design insufficient for future needs. Few of the factors governing the design period
include:
Useful life of component structures and the chances of their becoming old and obsolete
Ease and difficulty that is likely to be faced in expansions
Amount and availability of additional investment likely to be incurred for additional provisions
The rate of interest on the borrowings and the additional money invested
Anticipated rate of population growth
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It is therefore necessary to estimate the population for the end of the design period as population is a
dynamic factor in the system. Thus, depending on the possibilities of future development of the town, the
possible future population can be estimated.
It is the number of years for which the design of the water work has been done. It should be neither too
short nor too long. Mostly water works are designed for design period of 20 30 years.
Factors which should be kept in view while fixing design period:
Fund is the amount of finance needed for implementation of project. If more funds are
available design period may be more and vice versa.
The life of the material used in project. Design period in no case should have more life time than
the components and materials life time used in the scheme.
Table 1.2 Design period of different components of water supply system

No Unit Expected life time(years)
1 Reservoir 50
2 DIC and steel Pipes 40
3 PVC and Steel pipes 25
4 Electric motor pumps 10
5 Building 50
Anticipated expansion of the town. If the rate of increase of population is less, a longer design
period may be considered and vice-verse.
The rate of interest on the loan taken if the rate of interest is less, it will be good to keep design
period more. But if the interest rate is very high the design period should be small.
From the mentioned factors as most of our country growing town the anticipated expansion of the town
and life of material used in project is governing factors.
1.6 Population Forecasting Methods

When the design period is fixed the next step is to determine the population of a town or city population
of a town depends upon the factors like births, deaths, migration and annexation. The future
development of the town mostly depends upon trade expansion, development industries, and
surrounding country, discoveries of mines, construction of railway stations etc may produce sharp
rises, slow growth, stationary conditions or even decrease the population. For the prediction of
population, it is better to study the development of other similar towns, which have developed under the
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same circumstances, because the development of the predicted town will be more or less on the same
lines. The following are the standard methods by which the forecasting of population is done.
1. Arithmetic Increase Method

This method of forecasting is assume the growth of population is constant, and it is can be expressed as :
Where Pn=population at n decades or years

Po = present population, usually use recent census
n =decade or year
K=arithmetic increase
This method is generally applicable to large and old cities.
2. Geometric Increase method
The hypothesis of geometric rate or constant percentage rate assumes that the rate increase is proportional
to population. It can be written as
.
.
Where Po= initial population

Pn= population at n decade or years
n= decade or year
K= percentage (geometric) increase
This method is mostly applicable for growing towns and cities having vast scopes of expansion.
3. Incremental Increase Method

In this method the population for a further decade is worked out by adding mean arithmetic increase (say
x) to the last known population as in arithmetic increase method, and to this is added the incremental
increase Y. Once fore the first decade, twice fore the second and thrice for the third decade and so on.
Thus the growth rate is assumed to be varying
( )
Where Pn= population after n decades from present

X= average increase of population of known decades
Y= average incremental increase of the known decades
Po= population at present (last known census)
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4. Decrease growth rate method

This is a decreasing rate of increase on the basis is a function of its population deficit. Mathematically
it is given as
where Ps = saturation population,

Integration of the above equation gives
Rearranging
The future population P is
Where Po = population of the base year

This method is applicable only in the case where the rate of growth of population shows a down ward
trend.
5. Exponential method
In this method the cense population record is expressed as the percentage of the population of the whole
country to the population of the city under consideration and the countries population for the last four or
five decade are called from censes department the ratio of the town under consideration to the national
population is calculated. For this decade now a graph is plotted between these ratios and time extension of
this graph will give the ratio of corresponding to the future years for which the forecasting of the
populations is to be done. The ratio so obtained is multiplied by the expected national population of town
under the reference.
6. Simple graphical method

In this method the populations of last few decades are correctly plotted to a suitable scale on the graph
with respect to decade. The curve is smoothly extended to forecast the future population. The graph on
present city is plotters from the beginning and it will show the growth curve.
7. Logistic Curve Method
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The logistic curve fitting method is used for modeling population trends with an S- shape for large
population center, or nations for ling- term population predictions. The logistic curve form is
Where: Ps = Saturated population
a, b = Constants
Where n = time interval between successive censuses
8. Ratio Method
The ratio method of forecasting relies upon the population protection of the state or federal demographers
and the presumption that the city in question will maintain the same trend in the change of the ratio of its
population to that of the larger entity. Application of the method requires calculations of the ratio to the
estimated regional population in the year of interest.
9. Master Plan Method

Big and metropolitans cities are generally allowed to develop only in planned ways. Only these
expansions are allowed which are permitted or proposed in the master plan of the city. The master plan
developed for a city is generally such as to divide the city in various zones and thus to separate the
residence commerce, and industry from each other. The population densities are also fixed. Thus using
this fixed population densities for various zones of the town, it is possible to know the future population
of the city when fully developed.
Example: From the given data, calculate the population at the end of the next three decades by a)
arithmetic; b) geometric; c) curvilinear; and d) declining growth methods.
1970 ---------- 80,000

1980 ---------- 120,000
1990 ---------- 170,000
2000 ---------- 230,000
Solution:
a) Arithmetic
K = [(120000 -80000) + (170000-120000) +(230000-170000)]/3 = 50,000
Therefore, 2010 ------Pn = Po + nK = 230000+1*50,000 = 280000
2020 ------Pn = Po + nK = 230000+2*50,000 = 330000
2030 ------Pn = Po + nK = 230000+3*50,000 = 380000
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b) Geometric growth method

r = [(120000-80000)/80000 + (170000-120000) /120000 +(230000-170000)/170000]*100/3
= (0.50+0.42+0.35)*100/3 = 42.33%
Therefore, 2010 ------Pn = Po (1+ r/100)n = 230000(1+42.33/100)1 = 327359
2020 ------Pn = 230000(1+42.33/100)2 = 465930
2030 ------Pn = 230000(1+42.33/100)3 = 663158
c) curvilinear
700000
600000
500000
No. of Population
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040
Ye a rs
d) Declining growth method
Year Popn. Increase % increase Decrease in %

Increase
1970 80000
40000 50%
1980 120000 8%
50000 42%
1990 170000 7%
60000 35%
2000 230000
Average for decade 7.5%
Therefore, population at end of:
2010 ------ Pn = 230000 + {(35-7.5)/100}*230000 = 230000+(27.5/100)*230,000 = 293250
2020 ------ Pn = 293250 + {(27.5-7.5)/100}*293250 = 293250+(20/100)* 293250 = 351900
2030 ------ Pn = 351900 + {(20-7.5)/100}*351900 = 351900+ (12.5/100)* 351900 = 395887
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CAPTER TWO
2. WATER SOURCES AND ABSTRACTION SYSTEM
2.1 Introduction
Water is the most abundant compound in nature. It covers 75% of the earth surface. About 97.3%
of water is contained in the great oceans that are saline and 2.14% is held in icecaps glaciers in the
poles, which are also not useful. Barely the remaining 0.56% found on earth is in useful form for
general livelihood.
It has been always said that water is life. But if water is not available in adequate quality and
quantity it may certainly mean death. There are different sources of water from which are used for day-
to-day activities. The quality and the quantity of the water however exhibit spatial as well as
temporal variation.
The nature of the water source commonly determines the planning, design and operation of the
collection, purification, transmission, and distribution works. It is therefore essential that careful
consideration and extensive engineering evaluations, including a water resource development
investigation, be conducted as part of source selection. Factors such as quantity, quality, reliability,
safety of source, water rights, and environmental impacts, along with capital and operation costs of the
project, enter into the decision-making.
The source of drinking water is untreated water from can be classified in two groups. These are:
1. Surface water source, which includes
a. Ponds and lakes
b. Rivers
c. Artificial reservoirs
d. Oceans
2. Subsurface water source, which includes
a. Springs
b. Infiltration galleries
c. Infiltration wells
d. Wells
HUIOT/WSEE Page 20
2.2 Surface Water Sources

Natural input to any surface water system is precipitation within its watershed. The total quantity of
water in that system at any given time is dependent on many factors. These factors include storage
capacity, the permeability of the soil beneath these storage bodies, the runoff characteristics of the land
in the watershed, the timing of the precipitation and local evaporation rates. Human activities can have a
large and sometimes devastating impact on these factors. Humans often increase storage capacity by
constructing reservoirs and decrease it by draining wetlands.
a. Rainwater
The evaporated water from the surfaces of streams, rivers, sea, ponds, wet surfaces, trees and
plants etc again returned to the earth surface by the condensation in the form of rain, hails, dew, sleet etc
is known as precipitation. The major part of the precipitation occurs in the form of rain and other forms
quantities are very small.
Rain is the principal source of all water sources. It contains large amounts of impurities, the quantity of
which is maximum in the first rains and minimum in the last rains of the season. The quality of rainwater
falling on the open land (undisturbed environment) or fields is better than that falling on the cities or
towns. Rainwater is soft water but flat to the taste and corrosive in nature. Rain is rarely an immediate
source of municipal water supplies. Roofs are mostly obvious choices as catchments for rainwater
harvesting and tanks located near or close to homes increase the convenience of this system.
Advantages of Rain water collection system:
- The quality of rainwater is high,
- Local materials and craftsmanship can be used in rain water system construction,
- No energy costs are needed to run the system,
- Ease of maintenance by the owner or user,
- Convenience and acceptability of water, and
- Valuable time is saved in collecting water.
Disadvantages of Rain water collection system:
- The high initial capital cost may prevent a family from buying the system
- The water available is limited by rainfall amount, duration and roof area. For long dry seasons,
the required storage volume may be too high
- Mineral free water has a flat taste which people may prefer the taste of mineral rich water.
b. River Water
A stream or river is a body of running water on the surface of the earth, from higher to lower ground.
The capacity of rivers to serve as direct source of water supply is controlled by rate of minimum flow per
HUIOT/WSEE Page 21
day. Streams generally exhibit marked seasonal variation in flow and they are susceptible to
contamination. The chemical nature is partially dependent on bedrock. Physical and bacteriological
qualities are highly variable. Development of rivers requires a submerged intake structure and in the
case of small streams requires the construction of small diversion dams.
c. Lakes and Reservoirs
In mountainous regions natural basins are formed with impervious beds. Water from springs and streams
generally flows towards these basins and Lakes are formed. The quantity of water in the lakes
depends on its basin capacity, catchments area, annual rainfall, porosity of the ground, etc. Lakes,
whenever they are abundant or large, play a major role in local water balances. Large lakes are immense
heat reservoirs, helping to cool the surrounding area in summer and to warm it in winter.
d. Sea Water
The second largest water body on earth. Sea water on average contains about 3.5% salts. In most of the
harbors situated on the coastal areas (bank of sea), water is required to be brought from very long
distances, which increase the cost of water enormously. When there is no other source of water, sea
water can be used after desalinized (process of removing extra sodium chloride from the water).
2.3 Subsurface water source

Ground water is commonly understood to mean water occupying all the voids within a geologic stratum.
Ground water is an important source of water supply throughout the world with continuously increasing
use in irrigation, industries, municipalities, and rural schemes. Cooling and air-conditioning have made
heavy demands on ground water because of its characteristic uniformity in temperature. Ground water
occurs in many types of geologic formation; of those aquifers are of most importance.
The quality of ground water is just as important as its quantity. The quality required of ground water
supply depends on its purpose; thus, needs for drinking water, industrial water, and irrigation water
varies widely. The uniformity of ground water temperature is advantageous for water supply and
industrial purposes. Mostly groundwater contains salt in solution. Ordinarily, higher concentrations of
dissolved constituents are found in ground water than in surface water because of the greater exposure to
soluble materials in geologic strata.
Advantages of ground water:
It is likely to be free of pathogenic bacteria;
Generally, it may be used without further treatment;
In many instances it can be found in the close vicinity of rural communities;
It is often most practical and economical to obtain and distribute;
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The water-bearing stratum from which it is drawn usually provides a natural storage
Disadvantages are:
Ground water is often high in mineral content;
It usually requires pumping.
a. Springs
Spring water is a groundwater that outcrops from ground due to impervious base that prevents
percolation. Spring water is usually fed from sand or gravel water bearing ground formation (aquifer).
Best places to look for springs are the slopes of hilly sides and river valley sand areas with green
vegetation in dry season. If properly protected and well managed, spring water proves to be good for
small community water supplies
Types of springs
i. Gravity Springs: When the surface of the earth drops sharply the water bearing stratum is exposed to
atmosphere and gravity springs are formed. The yield varies with the position of water tableand may
dry up during or immediately after a dry season.
Figure 2.1 Gravity Spring

ii. Surface Spring: This is formed when an impervious stratum which is supporting the ground
water reservoir becomes out crops.
Figure 2.2 Surface Spring
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iii. Artesian Spring: When the ground water rises through a fissure in the upper impervious
stratum. When the water-bearing stratum has too much hydraulic gradient and is closed between
two imperious stratums, the formation of artesian spring from deep seated spring. It is high quality
water and discharge due to high pressure in the confinement. Yield is likely uniform and nearly
constant over the season of the year.
Figure 2.3 Artesian Spring

b. Infiltration Galleries: A horizontal nearly horizontal tunnel which is constructed through water
bearing strata for tapping underground water near rivers, lakes or streams are called
4
Infiltration galleries. The yield from the galleries may be as much as 1.5 x 10 lit/day/meter
length of infiltration gallery. For maximum yield the galleries may be placed at full depth of the
aquifer. Infiltration galleries maybe constructed with masonry or concrete with weep holes of 5cm x
10cm.
Figure 2.4 Infiltration Gallery

c. Infiltration Wells: In order to obtain large quantity of water, the infiltration wells are sunk in
series in the blanks of river. The wells are closed at top and open at bottom. They are
constructed by brick masonry with open joints.
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Figure 2.5 Infiltration Well Figure 2.6 Jack Well
For the purpose of inspection of well, the manholes are provided in the top cover. The water filtrates
through the bottom of such wells and as it has to pass through sand bed, it gets purified to some
extent. The infiltration well in turn is connected by porous pipes to collecting sump called jack well and
there water is pumped to purification plant for treatment.
c. Wells: A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of tapping water.
Factors which form the basis of theory of wells are:
Geological conditions of the earths surface
Porosity of various layers
Quantity of water, which is absorbed and stored in different layers.
The following are different types of wells:
1. Shallow wells
2. Deep wells
3. Tube wells
4. Artesian wells
1. Shallow Wells: are constructed in the uppermost layer of the earths surface. The diameter of well
varies from 2 to 6 m and a maximum depth of 7m. Shallow wells may be lined or unlined from inside.
Fig. 3.9 shows a shallow well with lining. These wells are also called draw wells or gravity wells or open
wells or drag wells or percolation wells.
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Figure 2.7 Shallow Well

Quantity of water available from shallow wells is limited as their source of supply is uppermost layer of
earth only and sometimes may even dry up in summer. Hence they are not suitable for public water
supply schemes. The quantity of water obtained from shallow wells is better than the river water but
requires purification. The shallow wells should be constructed away from septic tanks, soak pits etc
because of the contamination of effluent. The shallow wells are used as the source of water supply
for small villages, undeveloped municipal towns, isolated buildings etc because of limited supply and
bad quality of water.
2. Deep Wells: the deep wells obtain water from an aquifer below the impervious layer . The theory of
deep well is based on the travel of water from the outcrop to the site of deep well. The outcrop is the
place where aquifer is exposed to the atmosphere. The rain water entered at out crop and gets
thoroughly purified when it reaches to the site of deep well. But it dissolves certain salts and therefore
become hard. In such cases, some treatment would be necessary to remove the hardness of water.
Figure 2.8 Deep Well

The depth of deep well should be decided in such a way that the location of out crop is not very near
to the site of well. The water available at a pressure greater atmospheric pressure, therefore deep
wells are also referred to as a pressure wells.
2.4 Water quality considerations

Water quality considerations of sources are required for the following purposes.
To evaluate and classify raw water quality: Based on levels of physical, chemical, and
HUIOT/WSEE Page 26
bacteriological parameters, raw water can be classified as having poor, fair, and good
quality.
To identify sources of pollution: Knowledge of the potential sources of water pollution is the
base for devising appropriate mitigation measures. Potential sources of surface and groundwater
pollution include- Surface water: urban runoff, agricultural runoff, industrial discharge, and
leach ate from landfills; Groundwater: infiltration from pit-latrines and septic tanks, landfill
leach ate, and infiltration on areas that accumulate polluting substances.
To assess the treatment required for beneficial uses: Treatment of the raw water is
required to make it safe and wholesome for drinking. The level of treatment and unit
process required are dependent on the raw water quality.
2.5 Source Selection

The nature of the water source commonly determines the planning, design and operation of the collection,
purification, transmission, and distribution works. It is therefore essential that careful consideration and
extensive engineering evaluations, including a water resource development investigation, be conducted as
part of source selection. Factors such as quantity, quality, reliability, safety of source, water rights, and
environmental impacts, along with capital and operation costs of the project, enter into the decision-
making.
Particularly, the following considerations should be included:
Surface water sources
- Safe water yield during the drought years to meet the projected demands
- Urbanization and land development in the watershed
- Proposed impoundments on tributaries
- Water quality
- Assessment of reliability in terms of possible disruptions due to natural and manmade hazards
- Requirements for construction of water supply system components
- Economics of the project
- Environmental impacts of the project
- Water rights
Ground water sources
- Aquifer characteristics
Safe aquifer yield
Permissible drawdown
- Water quality
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- Sources of contamination
- Saltwater intrusion
- Type and extent of recharge area
- Rate of recharge
- Water rights
HUIOT/WSEE Page 28
CHAPTERTHREE
3. COLLECTION, STORAGE, TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
3.1 Collection of water
Collection and distribution of water deals with the transport of water from the source through the
treatment plant to the consumers. It requires intake structures, transmission lines, distribution
pipe networks and other essential accessories.
3.1.1 Surface water Intakes

Intake is a structure used for safe withdrawal of water from the source over a predetermined range of
reservoir levels. . Intakes are structures which essentially consist of opening, grating or strainer through
which the raw water from river, canal or reservoir enters and carried to the sump well by means of
conducts water from the sump well is pumped through the rising mains to the treatment plant. Intakes
should be located carefully. Factors governing location of intakes are:
Should be located at the site where maximum abstraction of water is possible even at
the driest period of the year
Should be near the treatment plant so that cost of conveyance is minimized
Must be located in a relatively pure zone of the source. Location of high turbulence should be
avoided.
Should be located at the upstream of any waste disposal site
Should not be located near navigation channels.
Should be accessible even during high flood seasons.
Should not be located at curves in meandering rivers
To locate the positions of intakes, the following factors should also be considered:
Magnitude and direction of stream or current velocities should be such that they do not affect the
function and stability of the intake structure. The limiting velocity should be 0.6 m/s and avoid
locating a river intake at the curved part of the river.
Reliable access roads and power sources should be available to facilitate operation and
maintenance of the intake structure
Locations that result in major environmental impacts should be avoided.
Design considerations for intake structures and the parameters of design include:
Design capacity = Qmax-day
Intake velocity should be 8 cm/s so that suspended matters and fishes do not enter into the
HUIOT/WSEE Page 29
conveyance system. Too low velocities that require large intake ports should also be avoided.
The vertical positions of top and bottom intake ports should be such that good quality water is
withdrawn. Locate the top intake port at a distance not less than 2 m from the normal water level
and the bottom port at least 1 m above the bottom.
Major parameters of design:
- Size and layout of the intake port(s)
- Layout and bar arrangement of coarse screens
- Location and size of fine screen
- Head losses in the intake port, coarse and fine screens
- A check on the stability of the intake structure
3.1.2 Types of Intake structures

Depending upon the source of water the intake works are classified as:
1. Lake Intake
2. Reservoir Intake
3. River Intake
4. Canal Intake
1. Lake Intake: for obtaining water from lakes mostly submersible intakes are used. These intakes are
constructed in the bed of the lake below the water level to draw water in dry season also. These
intakes have so many advantages such as no obstruction to the navigation, no danger from the floating
bodies and no trouble due to ice. As these intakes draw small quantity of water, these are not used in
big water supply schemes or on rivers or reservoirs. The main reason being that they are not
easily approachable for maintenance.
Figure 3.1 Lake Intake

2. River Intake: Water from the rivers is always drawn from the upstream side, because it is free
from the contamination caused by the disposal of sewage in it. It is circular masonry tower of 4 to
HUIOT/WSEE Page 30
7 m in diameter constructed along the bank of the river at such place from where required quantity
of water can be obtained even in the dry period. The water enters in the lower portion of the intake
known as sump well from penstocks.
Figure 3.2 River Intake

3. Reservoir Intake: It consists of an intake well, which is placed near the dam and connected to
the top of dam by footbridge. Reservoir is very common source of water, for water supply
schemes, they are developed when dams and weirs are constructed across the river. This intake is
generally, constructed on the side of the dam of the reservoir because depth of water along the
dam is always the maximum and water remains available at the intake even during driest season.
Figure 3.3 Reservoir Intake
The intake pipes are located at different levels with common vertical pipe. The valves of intake
pipes are operated from the top and they are installed in a valve room. Each intake pipe is provided
with bell mouth entry with perforations of fine screen on its surface. The outlet pipe is taken out
through the body of dam. The outlet pipe should be suitably supported. The location of intake pipes at
different levels ensures supply of water from a level lower than the surface level of water.
When the valve of an intake pipe is opened the water is drawn off from the reservoir to the outlet pipe
through the common vertical pipe. To reach up to the bottom of intake from the floor of valve room, the
steps should be provided in Zigzag manner.
4. Canal Intake: The intake well is generally located in the bank of the canal, and water enters the
chamber through an inlet pipe, covered with fine screen.. This results in the reduction of water way
HUIOT/WSEE Page 31
which increases the velocity of flow. It therefore becomes necessary to provide pitching on the
downstream and upstream portion of canal intake.
Figure 3.4 Canal Intake
The entry of water in the intake chamber takes through coarse screen and the top of outlet pipe is
provided with fine screen. The inlet to outlet pipe is of bell-mouth shape with perforations of the fine
screen on its surface. The outlet valve is operated from the top and it controls the entry of water into
the outlet pipe from where it is taken to the treatment plant.
Design Consideration for Intake Structures:
- Intake should be sufficiently heavy, so that, it may not float due to up thrust of water.
- All the forces which are expected to work on the intake should be carefully analyzed and
intake should be designed to with stand all of them.
- The foundation of the intake should be taken sufficiently deep. This will avoid undermining
and over turning of the structure.
- Strainers in the form of wire mesh should be provided on the entire intake inlet.
- Inlets should be such size and so located that sufficient quantity of water can be availed from
the intake in all the circumstances.
3.2 Methods of Water Storage and Distribution

Water reservoirs, also called service reservoirs, are the storage reservoirs, which store the treated water
for supply water during emergencies (such as during fires, break-downs, repairs, etc.) and also to help in
absorbing the hourly fluctuations in the normal water demand. Functions of Distribution Reservoirs
include:
- They absorb the hourly variations in demand, and allow the water treatment units and pumps
to operate at a constant rate. This will reduce the operation and maintenance costs and
improve efficiency.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 32
- They help in maintaining constant pressure in the distribution mains. In their absence, the
pressure will fall down as the demand of water increases, and if the pumps don't immediately
respond to it.
- The pumping of water in shifts is made possible by them without affecting the supply. Thus,
8 to 16 hours of pumping can be carried out, so as to pump the whole day's
demand.
- The water stored in these reservoirs can be supplied during emergencies, such as break-down
of pumps, heavy fire demand, etc.
- They lead to an overall economy by reducing the sizes of pumps, pipelines, and treatment
units.
3.2.1 Types of Distribution Reservoirs

The distribution reservoirs may be made of steel, R.C.C., or masonry. Depending upon their elevation
with respect to the ground, they may be classified into surface reservoirs and Elevated reservoirs.
Surface reservoirs are circular or rectangular tanks, constructed at ground level or below the ground level.
They are generally constructed at high points in the city. If a city has more than one high point more than
one reservoir may be provided. In that case, the city will be divided into several zones, and separate
reservoir is provided in each zone for distribution of water.
In a gravitational type of distribution system, water is stored in the ground service reservoir, and then
directly sent from there into the distribution system. However, in a combined gravity and pumping
system of distribution, the treated water is first of all stored in a ground reservoir, and then
pumped in to an elevated service reservoir, from where it can be supplied into the distribution mains.
Elevated reservoirs are rectangular, circular, or elliptical overhead tanks erected at a certain suitable
elevation above the ground level and supported on towers. They are constructed where the pressure
requirements necessitate considerable elevation above the ground surface, and where the use of
standpipes becomes impracticable. They are constructed in areas where the combined gravity and
pumping system for water distribution is adopted. Water is pumped into these elevated tanks from the
filter units or from the surface reservoirs, and then supplied to the consumers.
3.2.2 Location and Height of the Distribution Reservoirs

The following points must be considered before deciding the locations of the distribution
reservoirs:
They should be located in the heart of the city, so as to command the maximum area all around.
They should be located at high elevations, so that adequate pressure is maintained in the
HUIOT/WSEE Page 33
distribution system.
With respect to the position of the pumping stations and the distribution area
3.3 Transmission of water

The entire water supply system involves collecting water from the sources, carrying it to the treatment
plant and then distributing to the consumers. In case of surface sources, the water is collected by means
of an intake and then led to the treatment works. This may be done by using gravity conduits or
pressure conduits.
In gravity conduits flow is facilitated by means of gravity. Gravity conduits should follow a small gradual
slope and can't follow the natural gradient. Gravity conduits may be in the form of canals, flumes or
aqueducts.
Pressure conduits are closed pipes in which flow is under pressure. Pressure pipes can therefore
follow the natural available ground surface and can freely go up and down hills.
3.4 Distribution of water

After treatment, water is to be stored temporarily and supplied to the consumers through the network of
pipelines called distribution system. The distribution system also includes pumps, reservoirs, pipe
fittings, instruments for measurement of pressures, flow leak detectors etc. The cost of distribution is
about 40 to 70% of the total cost of the entire scheme. The efficiency of the system depends upon
proper planning, execution and maintenance. Ultimate aim is to supply potable water to all the
consumers whenever required in sufficient quantity with required pressure with least lost and
without any leakage.
3.4.1 Requirement of a distribution system
It should convey the treated water up to consumers with the same degree of purity
The system should be economical and easy to maintain and operate
The diameter of pipes should be designed to meet the fire demand
It should safe against any future pollution. As per as possible should not be laid below sewer
lines.
Water should be supplied without interruption even when repairs are undertaken
The system should be so designed that the supply should meet maximum hourly demand.
Depending upon the level of the source of water and the city, topography of the area, and other
local considerations, the method of distribution may be gravitational system, pumping without storage,
and pumping with storage.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 34
Gravitational system: In this system, water from a high-level source is distributed to the
consumers at the lower level, by the mere action of gravity without any pumping. This method is
the most economical and reliable since no pumping is involved at any stage. Such system can be
adopted for cities situated at foothills, and a source of supply is available somewhere in the hill
at sufficient elevation. High pressure for firefighting may require use of motor pumping trucks, and
pressure zones may need to be set to prevent excessive pressures in the low-lying areas. The gravitational
system is designed so as to leave only the minimum permissible pressure to the consumers.
Figure 3.5 Gravity distribution system
Pumping without storage: in this system the treated water is directly pumped into the main distribution
without storing it. High lift pumps are required and have to operate at variable speeds so as to meet the
variable water demand. A continuous attendance or sophisticated control systems are needed to ensure the
desired flow in the distribution system. This method is, therefore, generally not
recommended as a distribution system since it provides no reserve flow in the event of power failure and
pressures fluctuate substantially with variations in flow. Systems of this kind have the advantage of
permitting increased pressure for fire fighting, although individual users must then be protected by
pressure reducing valves.
Figure 3.6 Pumping without storage system

Pumping with storage: In this system the treated water is pumped at a constant rate and stored
into an elevated distribution reservoir from where it is distributed to the consumers by the action of
gravity. Sometimes the entire daily water demand is first pumped into the distribution reservoir and then
HUIOT/WSEE Page 35
distributed to the consumers. Many times it is pumped into the distribution mains and reservoirs
simultaneously. The excess water during low demand period gets stored in the reservoir and supplied
during high demand periods. The pumps work at a constant rate, which is adjusted in such a way that the
excess quantity of water stored in the reservoir during low consumption nearly equals the extra
demand during high consumption. This type of system is invariably and almost universally adopted
because of its following advantages.
- The pumps work at uniform rate and can be operated at their rated capacities with high efficiency.
- The method is quite reliable because even during power outage, certain amount of water can be
supplied from the storage facility.
- The method enables pumps to run for a short period of time in small towns.
Figure 3.6 Pumping with storage system
3.4.2 Layout of distribution systems

A water supply distribution system comprises networks of pipelines, storage facilities and other
appurtenances. Its purpose is to transport treated water from the treatment facility to the consumer. It
should have adequate capacity to meet the water requirements of a community under all demand
conditions.
The pipe networks that make up the distribution system comprise the following:
1. Primary or arterial mains: Constitute the basic structure of the system
- Convey water from the pumping stations to and from storage facilities and to the various
districts of the city.
- Should be valved at intervals of not more than 1.5 km and all smaller lines connected to
them should have valves.
- Should be provided with blow off valves at low points and air release and vacuum valves
at high points.
2. Secondary lines or Sub-mains: run from one primary main to another and should be located
at spacing of 2-4 blocks.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 36
3. Small distribution mains or branches

- Are connected to primary, secondary or other small mains and are valved.
- Supply water to every consumer and to the fire hydrants.
The layout of distribution pipes generally follows the road pattern. Accordingly, there are four types of
pipe network layouts.
1. Dead End or Tree system
2. Grid Iron system
3. Circular or Ring system
4. Radial system
1. Dead End or Tree System: This system is suitable for irregular developed towns or cities. In this
system water flows in one direction only into sub-mains and branches. The diameter of pipe decreases
at every tree branch.
Figure 3.7 Dead Ends or Tree System

Advantages
- Discharge and pressure at any point in the distribution system is calculated easily
- The valves required in this system of layout are comparatively less in number.
- The diameter of pipes used are smaller and hence the system is cheap and economical
- The laying of water pipes is used are simple.
Disadvantages
- There is stagnant water at dead ends of pipes causing contamination.
- During repairs of pipes or valves at any point the entire downstream end are deprived of supply.
- The water available for firefighting will be limited in quantity.
2. Grid Iron System: From the mains water enters the branches at all Junctions in either direction into
sub mains of equal diameters. At any point in the line the pressure is balanced from two directions
because of interconnected network of pipes.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 37
Figure 3.8 Grid Iron Systems

Advantages
In the case of repairs a very small portion of distribution will be affected.

Every point receives supply from two directions and with higher pressure.
Additional water from the other branches are available for fire fighting.
There is free circulation of water and hence it is not liable for pollution due to stagnation.
Disadvantages
More length of pipes and number of valves are needed and hence there is increased cost of
construction.
Calculation of sizes of pipes and working out pressures at various points in the
distribution system is laborious , complicated and difficult.
3. Circular or Ring System: Supply to the inner pipes is from the mains around the boundary. It has the
same advantages as the grid-Iron system. Smaller diameter pipes are needed. The advantages and
disadvantages are same as that of grid-Iron system.
Figure 3.8 Circular or Ring System

A closed circular or rectangular ring is formed by laying feeder mains around the distributing area. It is
very suitable for towns/cities with well planned roads. Every point in the system receives water from two
directions. Best distribution layout if the city is well planned and offers easier system design but requires
large number of valves and more length of pipe.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 38
4. Radial System: This is a zoned system. Water is pumped to the distribution reservoirs and from the
reservoirs it flows by gravity to the tree system of pipes. The pressure calculations are easy in this
system. Layout of roads needs to be radial to eliminate loss of head in bends. This is most economical
system also if combined pumping and gravity flow is adopted.
Figure 3.9 Radial System

- Suitable for a city/town having a system of radial roads emerging from different centers,
- Water is taken from the water mains, and pumped into the distribution reservoirs placed at
different centers,
- Radial pipelines are laid by placing the distribution reservoirs at the centers,
- Ensures high pressure and efficient water distribution,
- Easier calculation for estimation of pipe size.
The water may be supplied to the consumers by either of the two systems.
a. Continuous system: this is the best system and water is supplied for all 24 hours. This system is
possible when there is adequate quantity of water for supply. In this system sample of water is
always available for fire fighting and due to continuous circulation water always remains fresh. In
this system less diameter of pipes are required and rusting of pipes will be less. Losses will be more
if there are leakages in the system.
b. Intermittent system: if plenty of water is not available, the supply of water is divided into zones
and each zone is supplied with water for fixed hours in a day or on alternate days. As the water is
supplied after intervals, it is called intermittent system.
This system has following disadvantages:
- Pipelines are likely to rust faster due to alternate wetting and drying. This increases the
maintenance cost.
- There is also pollution of water by ingress of polluted water through leaks during non-flow
periods.
- More wastage of water due to the tendency of the people to store more water than required
quantity and to waste the excess to collect fresh water each time.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 39
In spite of number of disadvantages, this system is usually adopted in most of the cities and towns of
Ethiopia. In this system water can be supplied in the high level localities with adequate pressure by
dividing the city in zones. The repair work can be easily done in the non-supply hours.
3.5 Design of distribution systems

Water municipality systems consist of many junctions or nodes with different demands or loads. Object
for designing a system is to deliver flow to these junctions at some design pressure with the lowest cost.
Nowadays, software makes the design of these systems easier than in the past; however, its important to
understand what the software is doing.
Design Procedures:
1. Surveys and Maps:
The land lying between the source of water supply and the distribution area is surveyed for fixing up
the alignment of main line.
The distribution area is also completely surveyed.
- Detailed map of the town (distribution area)/Master plan positions of roads, streets, lanes,
commercial places, industrial area, etc.
- Topographical map of the area to locate the high and low areas
- Cross-sections of the streets, lanes, etc. showing positions of existing underground service
lines such as electric and telephone lines, sewer lines, existing water supply lines, etc
2. Tentative layout:
A tentative layout of the distribution lines is marked on the base map.
- Mark the positions of treatment plant, distribution mains, distribution and balancing
reservoirs, valves and hydrants, etc.
- Compute and mark the density of the population (i.e. average no. of persons per ha area).
3. Discharge in pipe lines:
The demand at each junction and hence the discharge carried by each pipe line is computed based on:
- density of the population,
- type of distribution district (i.e. residential, commercial, etc.)
4. Calculation of pipe diameters:
The size of distribution pipes are so fixed that the minimum necessary pressure head is maintained at
all points.
For known design discharges, the pipe diameters are assumed in such a way that the velocities of flow
in pipes remain between 0.6 to 2m/sec.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 40
Normally, smaller velocity is assumed for pipes of smaller diameter and large velocity for pipes of
larger diameter.
Design considerations
Design flow: Peak hour demand or maximum day demand + Fire demand, whichever is greater
Minimum main sizes: generally, 150mm; high value districts, 200mm; major streets,
305mm; domestic flows only, 100mm; small communities, 50-75 mm
Velocity: typical values :- minimum = 0.6-1 m/s; maximum = 2 m/s
Pressure: The effective head should be maintained to give higher flows and serve upper storey
consumers minimum value is 140kPa [min. ~14m]. Choice of design pressures to be maintained in
the distribution pipes depends on cost & convenience. The greater the design pressure the costlier it
will be but it will be convenient to the consumers. Deign controlling factors are topography and
friction head loss.
Pressure zoning is desirable and economical in hilly areas of wide variations in elevations of houses. In
areas where the topography results in pressure level changes outside the acceptable ranges, it is
advantageous to divide the supply network into pressure zones. Zoning is that feature of a city planning
which regulates the height and bulk of buildings and the uses to which it may be put. Pipe mains are
arranged in such a way that excessive pressures in the low-lying areas are avoided. Pressure relief valves
and booster pumps are employed to obtain the desired pressure. Normally, the difference between
pressure zones is between 24m and 37m. Pressure zoning and fire zoning are the two most widely
considered factors in planning the water supply system.
Figure 3.10 Pressure zoning
HUIOT/WSEE Page 41
Size of distribution pipes:

- Pipe diameter is determined on the basis of least cost design.
- Use larger pipe for the trunk mains & smaller for local mains.
Network analysis of a water supply distribution network is concerned with the determination of
discharges and head losses in each pipeline, and pressure heads at critical points. Network analysis is
not only important for designing new systems, but also for monitoring and upgrading existing
systems. The following are the applications of network analysis.
- To assess the capacities of existing systems,
- To control pressure and reduce pumping cost,
- Design of new systems,
- Water quality monitoring, and
- Investigation of the effect of damage to main, storage tank locations, and other scenarios.
Head loss Caused by Friction :A basic relation used in hydraulic design of a pipeline system is
the one describing the dependence of discharge Q (m3/s) on head loss h (m) caused by friction
between the flow of fluid and the pipe wall. The hydraulic head lost by water flowing in a pipe
due to friction with the pipe walls can be computed using one of three different formulas:
1. Hazen-Williams
2. Darcy-Weisbach:
HUIOT/WSEE Page 42
3. Chezy-Manning formula
Empirical formula, suitable for rough pipes. It is commonly applied for open channel flow. It is also
known under name of Strikler.
Design procedures:
A. Branching system:
Requirements: The sizes of the pipes should ensure availability of water at the end points (terminals) of
the pipes, with the minimum allowable pressure at the time of maximum demand.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 43
Steps:
1. Assign the required demand at each node or dead end
2. Estimate the discharge flowing through the pipes
3. Assume possible pipe diameters
4. Calculate the head loss through that pipe
5. Find the residual pressure at the end of the pipe.
6. Compare this terminal pressure with the desired minimum and maximum pressures.
7. If the required condition is not satisfied, then repeat steps (3) through (6) until the required
conditions are met.
B. Looped system:
A system of equation is used to design loop network of distribution system. This system of equation is
based on the analogy with two electricity laws known in physics as Kirchoff's laws. Translated to
water distribution networks, these laws state that:
The sum of all ingoing and outgoing flows in each nod equals zero (Qi =0)
The sum of all head losses along pipes that compose a complete loop equals zero (Hi =0)
Two similar iterative procedures can be derived from kirchoff's Laws, which are the method of balancing
heads and the methods of balancing flows. These methods, known in literature under the name of
Hardy Cross, calculate the pipe flows and nodal piezometric heads in looped system.
The Hardy Cross Method: It is used to make hydraulic analysis of complex interconnected pipelines
following the steps below.
1. Build up system configuration and make the first guess of flow distribution in the pipe network. i.e.
Assign the required demand, and elevation at each node.
- Enter one pressure in the system and all other pressures are computed.
2. Assume the best distribution of flow that satisfies continuity by careful examination of the network.
The flow entering a node must be equal to the flow leaving the same node.
3. Calculate the head loss, hf, in each pipe. The algebraic sum of the heads around a closed loop must
be zero. For a loop, take head loss in the clockwise flows as positive and in the anti- clockwise flows
as negative.
4. Calculate the correction factor for each loop by:
rQ Q h
n 1
Q
o o f
rn Q
n 1
h
o n f
Q o
Where: Q = Correction discharge for the assumed discharge Qo,
HUIOT/WSEE Page 44
r = Constant depending on pipe,

n = 1.85 to 2, depending on equation used. n = 1.85 for Hazen-William equation and n = 2
for Darcy-Weisbach equation
5. Apply the correction discharges to the assumed flows. The corrected discharge, Q, now becomes
Q=Qo + Q
6. Repeat the above computations with the corrected flows until the corrections for each pipe are
negligible.
7. Compute the pressure distribution in the network and check on the pressure requirement. i.e. using the
input node elevations Z and known pressure at one node, pressure P at each node can be computed
around the network: Pj = (Zi - Zj Hf ) + Pi, Where, node j = down-gradient from node i.
Note: Velocities of flow and pressure levels must be within acceptable ranges.
Example: Design the supply system using Hardy-Cross method for the network configuration shown
below. If the minimum pressure required is 14m, find the inlet pressure. Assume that the system is laid
on flat ground.
Solution:
Iteration 1
Iteration 2
HUIOT/WSEE Page 45
Iteration 3
Computer Programs
The use of computer programs has become common due to their important advantages over that of
manual methods.
The advantages include:
The softwares relieve engineers from tedious and iterative calculations and enable them focus
on important aspects of the design.
The softwares better incorporate the complex real world system
The softwares allow investigation of alternative designs over a wider range of conditions
Increased speed and memory at reduced cost.
Analysis of large networks.
Graphical presentation of results
Easy identification of problems
There are a number of computer programs that can readily be used to perform complex pipe network
analysis. Common computer programs are EPANET and WATERCAD. Models should be calibrated and
verified before application. Important features of a typical hydraulic analysis model are briefly presented
below:
Representation: the various elements of a water distribution system are represented as network of links
and nodes in the model.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 46
Element Representation
HUIOT/WSEE Page 47
Pipes
HUIOT/WSEE Page 48
Reservoir, storage tanks, pumps, etc.

Node
Skeletonization: This refers to selecting and including those pipe network parts that have
significant impacts in the behavior of the system. Criteria such as pipe diameter, nodal discharge,
points with known condition (e.g. pressure head), type of element,etc may be used to skeletonize the
system.
Demand allocation: Water withdrawal rate at each node can be estimated manually. One useful method
follows:
- Using land use or zoning maps estimate the water demand for each type of land use.
- Overlay the water distribution system map over the land use map and determine the applicable
demand at each node.
- Major water users should be considered separately and applied to the closest nodes.
System inputs: Input requirements vary from system element to element as indicated in the table below.
Model outputs: Outputs of a typical model run may include flow rate, head loss, velocity in each pipe,
pressure at each node, residual chlorine, etc.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 49
3.6 Pipes Used in Water Distribution Systems

Pipes convey raw water from the source to the treatment plants in the distribution system. Water is
under pressure always and hence the pipe material and the fixture should withstand stresses due to
the internal pressure, vacuum pressure, when the pipes are empty, water hammer when the values are
closed and temperature stresses.
Requirements of pipe material:
- It should be capable of withstanding internal and external pressures

- It should have facility of easy joints
- It should be available in all sizes, transport and erecting should be easy.
- It should be durable
- It should not react with water to alter its quality
- Cost of pipes should be less
- Frictional head loss should be minimum
- The damaged units should be replaced easily.
3.6.1 Different Types of Pipes

The common types of pipes are: Cast Iron, Steel, Pre-stressed concrete, RCC, AC Pipes, Galvanized Iron
(GI), PVC and plastic pipes.
Table 3.1 Different Types of Pipes
No Type of Pipe Advantages Disadvantages

- Cost is moderate - Breakage of pipes are large
1. Cast iron Pipes - The pipes are easy to join - The carrying capacity of these pipes
- The pipes are not subjected to corrosion decreases with the increase in life of
- The pipes are strong and durable pipes.
- Service connections can be easily made - The pipes are not used for pressure
- Usual life is about 100 years greater than 0.7 N/mm2
- The pipes are heavier and
uneconomical beyond 1200 mm dia.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 50
- Number of Joining are less because - Maintenance cost is high

2. steel Pipes these are available in long lengths - The pipes are likely to be rusted by
- The pipes are cheap in first cost acidic or alkaline water
- The pipes are durable and strong - The pipes require more time for repairs
enough to resist high internal water during breakdown and hence not
pressure suitable for distribution pipes
- The pipes are flexible to some extent - The pipes may deform in shape
and they can therefore laid on curves under combined action of external
- Transportation is easy forces
because of light weight.
- The inside surface of pipes can be made - The pipes are heavy and difficult to
3. Pre- smooth transport
stressed - Maintenance cost is low - Repairs of these pipes are difficult
concrete - The pipes are durable with life period 75 - The pipes are likely to crack
pipes years during transport and handling
- No danger of rusting operations
- These pipes do not collapse or fail - There pipes are affected by acids,
under normal traffic loads alkalizes and salty water.
- There are pipes are most - Transportation is difficult
4. RCC Pipes - durable with usual life of about 75 - Repair work is difficult
years - Initial cost is high
- The pipes can cast at site work and - These pipes are affected by acids,
thus there is reduction in transport alkalis and salty waters.
charges
- Maintenance cost is less
- Inside surface of pipe can made smooth
- No danger of rusting.
- The inside surface of pipes are very - The pipes are brittle and therefore
5. AC Pipes smooth handling is difficult
- The joining of pipe is very good and - The pipes are not durable
flexible - The pipes cannot be laid in exposed
- The pipes are anticorrosive and cheap in places
cost - The pipes can be used only for very
- Light in weight and low pressures
transport is easy
- The pipes are suitable for distribution
pipespipes
- The of small size.
are cheap - The pipes are affected by acidic or
6. Galvanized - Light in weight and easy to handle alkaline waters
Iron(GI) pipes - The pipes are easy to join - The useful life of pipes is short about 7
to 10 years.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 51
- Pipes are cheap - The coefficient of expansion for

7. PVC Pipes - The pipes are durable plastic is high
- The pipes are flexible - It is difficult to obtain the plastic pipes
- The pipes are free from corrosion of uniform composition
- The pipes are good electric insulators - The pipes are less resistance to heat
- The pipes are light in weight and it can - Some types of plastic impart taste to
easy to mould any shape the water.
3.6.2 Laying and Testing
Pipelines carrying water are laid 0.6m to 1m below the ground surface. Just before covering the
trench with the earth, the pipe joints are to be tested for leakage. Joints are inspected visually during
the test and re-laid wherever required. Pressures of pumping mains are tested for 11/2 times the operating
pressure in the pipe for 24 hours. The pressure is increased gradually at the rate of 1kg/cm2/minute. Loss
of water by leakage is made up at not more than 0.1lit/mm of diameter of pipe per km per day for every
0.3N/mm2 pressure applied.

Allowable leakage during test is calculated by a formula, QL =
Where: QL is Allowable leakage in lit/day
N is Number of joints
P is Average test pressure
D is diameter of pipe in mm
The above value is applicable for GI, AC and concrete pipes. For steel and pre-stressed concrete pipes 3
times the above value is allowed. Gravity pipes are tested with hydrostatic head of 2.5m at the highest
point in the pipe for 10minutes permissible leakage is 0.2 liters/mm of diameter pipe per day per
kilometer length.
3.6.3 Maintenance of Pipes

Hygienic quality and adequate flow in the pipe lines are to be maintained, preventive maintenance
of pipes is important. This includes:
- Detection of leaks in faulty joints ferrule connections, pipes and fittings inside the consumer
premises.
- Detection of corrosion in pipes, fractures and replacement of these portions.
- The wastage of water 15 to 25% of leakage through pipe joints should be brought down to the
minimum possible extent by adopting suitable preventive measures.
- Cleaning of pipes by flushing and disinfection of pipes.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 52
- Protection against pollution.

- The records of regarding the lengths of pipe laid, length of pipe repaired or replaced,
expenditure incurred, number of fire hydrants, number of service connections and all other
relevant data in connection with the distribution system should maintained for ready reference.
3.7 Appurtenances in the Distribution System

The various devices fixed along the water distribution system are known as appurtenance. The
necessity of the various appurtenances in distribution system is as follows:
To control the rate of flow of water
To release or admit air into pipeline according to the situation
To prevent or detect leakages
To meet the demand during emergency and
Ultimately to improve the efficiency of the distribution
The following are the some of the fixtures used in the distribution system.
1. Joints: are used to connect large number of pipe lengths.
2. Valves: are devices used to control the flow of water in the pipe line.
3. Hydrants: are used to take water for fire fighting.
4. Water meters: are devices used to measure the amount of water flowing through it.
5. Stop cock or Water tap
1. Valves: in water works practice, to control the flow of water, to regulate pressure, to release or to
admit air, prevent flow of water in opposite direction valves are required. The following are the
various types of valves named to suit their function.
a) Sluice valves: these are also known as gate-valves or stop valves. These valves control the flow of
water through pipes. These valves are cheaper, offers less resistance to the flow of water than
other valves. The entire distribution system is decided into blocks by providing these valves at
appropriate places. They are provided in straight pipeline at
150-200m intervals. When two pipes
lines interest, valves are fixed in both sides of intersection.
When sluice valve is closed, it shuts off water in a pipeline
to enable to undertake repairs in that particular block. The
flow of water can be controlled by raising or lowering the
handle or wheel.
Figure 3.11 Gate Valve
b) Check valves or Reflex valves: These valves are also known as non-return valves. A reflux valve
HUIOT/WSEE Page 53
is an automatic device which allows water to go in one direction only.

When the water moves in the direction of arrow, the valve swings or
rotates around the pivot and it is kept in open position due to the pressure
of water. When the flow of water in this direction ceases, the water tries to
flow in a backward direction. But this valve prevents passage of water in
the reverse direction
Reflux valve is invariably placed in water pipe, which obtain water
directly from pump. When pump fails or stops, the water will not run back
Figure 3.12 Check Valve to the pump and thus pumping equipments will be saved from damage.
c) Air valves: these are automatic valves and are of two types namely:
i. Air inlet valves: These valves open automatically and allow air to enter into the pipeline so that
the development of negative pressure can be avoided in the pipelines. The vacuum pressure
created in the down streamside in pipelines due to sudden closure of sluice valves. This situation
can be avoided by using the air inlet valves.
ii. Air relief valves: Sometimes air is accumulated at the summit of pipelines and blocks the flow
of water due to air lock. In such cases the accumulated air has to be removed from the pipe lines.
This is done automatically by means of air relief valves.
Figure 3.12 Air Valve

This valve consists of a chamber in which one or two floats are placed and is connected to the pipe
line. When there is flow under pressure in the pipeline water occupies the float chamber and makes
the float to close the outlet. But where there is accumulation of air in the pipeline, air enters the
chamber, makes the float to come down, thus opening the outlet. The accumulated air is driven out
through the outlet.
iii. Drain valves or Blow off valves: These are also called wash out valves they are provided at all dead
ends and depression of pipelines to drain out the waste water. These are ordinary valves operated by
hand.
iv. Scour valve: These are similar to blow off valves. They are ordinary valves operated by hand. They
are located at the depressions and dead ends to remove the accumulated silt and sand. After the
complete removal of silt; the value is to be closed.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 54
2. Fire Hydrants: hydrant is an outlet provided in water pipe for tapping water mainly in case of fire.
They are located at 100 to 150 m a part along the roads and also at junction roads. They are of two
types hydrants.
i. Flush Hydrants: the flush hydrants are kept in underground chamber flush with footpath
covered by C.I. cover carrying a sign board F-H.
ii. Post Hydrants: The post hydrant remain projected 60 to 90cm above ground level as shown in
fig 4.4. They have long stem with screw and nut to regulate the flow. In case of fire accident, the
fires fighting squad connects their hose to the hydrant and draw the water and spray it on fire.
A good fire hydrant: Should be cheap, easy to connect with hose, easily detachable and reliable
and should draw large quantity of water
Figure 3.13 Fire hydrant

3. Water Meter: These are the devices which the wastage of purified water.
are installed on the pipes to measure the
quantity of water flowing at a particular point
along the pipe. The readings obtained from the
meters help in working out the quantity of
water supplied and thus the consumers can be
charged accordingly. The water meters are
usually installed to supply water to industries, Figure 3.14 Water Meter
hotels, big institutions etc. metering prevents
HUIOT/WSEE Page 55
CHAPTER FOUR
4. Pumps and pumping stations
4.1 Purpose and types of pumps
Pump is a mechanical machine. The function of pump is to lift the water or any fluid to higher elevation or
at higher pressure. Pumps are driven by electricity, diesel or steam power. They are helpful in pumping
water from the sources that is from intake to the treatment plant and from treatment plant to the distribution
system or service reservoir. In homes also pumps are used to pump water to upper floors or to store water
in tanks over the buildings. The operation of lifting water or any fluid is called pumping. Pumping may be
adopted for following purposes in a water supply scheme.
To increase the water pressure at certain points in the distribution system.
To lift treated water to elevated storage tanks, so that it may flow automatically under gravity into
distribution system.
To lift raw river water or lake water to carry it to treatment plant.
To lift water available from wells to an elevated storage tank in stages.
To pump water directly into the distribution system.
To take out water from basins, sumps, tanks etc.
4.2 Types of pumps
Pumps are manufactured in a wide range of type and size. The head may range from 5m to 800m and the
discharge may range from 1l/s to 40m3 /s. The following table shows the summary of the classification of
pumps based on the mechanical principle of water lifting.
Table 4.1 Classification of pump based on mechanical principle operation
No Type of Pump Examples Suitability
1. Displacement pumps Reciprocating pumps, This type of pumps is suitable for moderate heads
Rotary, chain, and
gear
small
wheel,
discharges
pump and wind
suitable
mills.
for fire protection,
water supply of individual houses.
2. Velocity pumps Centrifugal pumps, This type of pumps are used widely in water
deep well, turbine supply schemes containing sand, silt etc.
3. Boyancy pumps pumps, jetpumps

Airlifting pumps Airlifting pumps are generally adopted for
pumping of water from deep wells to a lift of
about 60m containing mud, silt, debries etc.
4. Impulse pumps Hydraulic Ram Used for Small water supply projects to left the
water for a height of about 30m or so.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 56
4.3 Factors affecting the selection of a particular Type of Pump

The various factors, which must be considered while selecting a particular type of a pump for a particular
purpose, are:
Capacity of pump
Number of pump units required
Suction conditions
Lift (total head)
Discharge conditions and variations in load
Floor space requirement
Flexibility of operation
Starting and priming characteristics
Type of drive required
Initial costs and running costs.
4.4 Centrifugal pumps

Centrifugal Pumps are rota-dynamic pumps which convert Mechanical energy into Hydraulic energy by
centripetal force on the liquid. Electrical energy is converted to potential or pressure energy of water.
Centrifugal pumps are classified in to three categories:
i. Radial Flow: a centrifugal pump in which the pressure is developed wholly by centrifugal force.
ii. Mixed Flow: a centrifugal pump in which the pressure is developed partly by centrifugal force and
partly by the lift of the vanes of the impeller on the liquid.
iii. Axial Flow - a centrifugal pump in which the pressure is developed by the propelling or lifting action
of the vanes of the impeller on the liquid.
The discharge of a centrifugal pump is fixed by the design of the impeller and by the speed of rotation.
Centrifugal pump consists of casing, delivery pipe, delivery valve, impeller, prime mover, suction pipe,
strainer and foot valve.
Figure 4.1 Centrifugal pumps

HUIOT/WSEE Page 57
Centrifugal pump installation
Figure 4.2 Vertical shaft centrifugal pump installed in a wet well
The pump consists of Impeller which is enclosed in a water tight casing. Water at lower level is sucked
into the impellor through a suction pipe. Suction pipe should be air tight and bends in this pipe should be
avoided. A strainer foot valve is connected at the bottom of the suction pipe to prevent entry of foreign
matter and to hold water during pumping. Suction pipe is kept larger in diameter than delivery pipe to
reduce cavitations and losses due to friction. An electric motor is coupled to the central shaft to impart
energy.
Figure 4.3 Centrifugal pump with vertical Figure 4.4. Centrifugal pump with horizontal shaft shaft
installed in a dry well or dry pit installed in a dry well or dry pit.
Working principle
When the impellor starts rotating it creates reduction of pressure at the eye of the impellor, which sucks in
water through the suction pipe. Water on entering the eye is caught between the vanes of the impeller.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 58
Rapid rotation of the impellor sets up a centrifugal force and forces the water at high velocity outwards
against the causing convert the velocity energy into pressure energy which is utilized to overcome
the delivery head.
4.5 Head, Power and Efficiency of Pumps

The selection of the suitable pump for a certain duty needs the complete information concerning the desired
capacity and head against which the pump in going to work.
4.5.1 The Head

The head against which pump will be required to operate is the summation of kinetic and potential energy
to the liquid. The head created by a given pump at a certain speed and capacity is constant for all fluids.
The head that a pump can generate at various flow rates and rotational speeds is determined by a pump tests
carried out by manufacturer. This test involves changing the discharge of the pump and measuring the
corresponding head.
A Centrifugal pump imparts velocity to a liquid. This velocity energy is then transformed largely into
pressure energy as the liquid leaves the pump. Therefore, the head developed is approximately equal to the
velocity energy at the periphery of the impeller.
Where: H = Total head developed in meter.

V = Velocity at periphery of impeller in meter per sec.
g = 9.81 m/Sec2
A handy formula for peripheral velocity is:
V= RPM x
D
60
Where: D = Impeller diameter in meter
V = Velocity in m/sec
4.5.2 Capacity
Capacity (Q) is normally expressed in liter per minute (lpm). Since liquids are essentially incompressible,
there is a direct relationship between the capacity in a pipe and the velocity of flow. This relationship is as
follows:
HUIOT/WSEE Page 59
Q = 60A V or V=Q
60 A
Where
A = area of pipe or conduit in square meter.
V = velocity of flow in meter per second.
Q = Capacity in liter per minute
Note: On vertical pumps the correction should be made to the eye of the suction or lowest impeller
4.5.3 System characteristics

Power and Efficiency
The work performed by a pump is a function of the total head and the weight of the liquid pumped in a
given time period. The pump capacity in liter per minute (lpm) and the liquid specific gravity are normally
used in the formulas rather than the actual weight of the liquid pumped. Let H be the total head (TDH)
against which water is to be lifted by the pump. Suppose pump lifts W kg water. Therefore work done by the
pump = W x H m-kg/sec = x Q x H m-kg/sec, Where = density of liquid in kg/m3 (1000 kg/m3 for
water), Q = water discharge in m3/sec
Pump input or brake horsepower (BHP) is the actual horsepower delivered to the pump shaft. Pump output
or hydraulic horsepower (WHP) is the liquid horsepower delivered by the pump. These two terms are
defined by the following formulas.
WHP = Q TDH Sp Gr
75
BHP = Q TDH Sp Gr
75x Pump Efficiency
The efficiency is the ratio between the output and input powers the input power given to the pump is the
power delivered by the driver units which is called the break horsepower (BHP) the output of the pump is
the work done which is the weight of the liquid pumped in a certain time multiplied by the head developed
by the pump. The brake horsepower or input to a pump is greater than the hydraulic horsepower or output
due to the mechanical and hydraulic losses incurred in the pump. Therefore the pump efficiency is the ratio
of these two values.
Pump Efficiency = WHP
BHP
Pump Performance Curves and Design
The centrifugal pump operating at a constant speed can deliver any capacity starting from zero to a
maximum value depending on the pump design and suction conditions. The characteristic or performance
curves are the relationship between capacity-head, capacity-efficiency and capacity-power.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 60
Figure 4.5 Typical operating curves for a centrifugal pump

System-head curve for a pumping system
For a specified impeller diameter and speed, a centrifugal pump has a fixed and predictable performance
curve. The point where the pump operates on its curve is dependent upon the characteristics of the system in
which it is operating, commonly called the System Head Curve or, the relationship between flow and
hydraulic losses in a system. This representation is in a graphic form and, since friction losses vary as a
square of the flow rate, the system curve is parabolic in shape.
Figure 4.6 System-head curves with change in pipe sizes
HUIOT/WSEE Page 61
Figure 4.7 System-head curves for low water level (L.W.L.) and high water level (H.W.L.) in suction sump
Figure 4.8 Operating point of a centrifugal pump
Figure 4.9 Operating range of a centrifugal pump
Figure 4.10 Operation of pumps in parallel
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4.6 Cavitation and Maximum Suction lift

Cavitation is a phenomenon of cavity formation or the formation and collapse of cavities. Cavities develop
when the absolute pressure in a liquid reaches the vapor pressure related to the liquid temperature. When
these vapor bubbles move towards the zone of higher pressure, they collapse. The collapsing pressure of
bubbles may be as high as 100 atm. And this may cause local mechanical failure of the solid surface. As the
net positive suction head (NPSH) for a pump is reduced, a point is reached where cavitation becomes
detrimental. This point is usually referred to as the minimum net positive suction head (NPSH min) and is a
function of the type of pump and the discharge through the pump. The effects of cavitations are:
Pitting and erosion of the surface due to continuous hammering action of the collapsing
bubble
Sudden drop in head, efficiency and power delivered to the fluid
Noise and vibration produced by the collapse of vapor bubbles
The minimum value static lift can be determined as:
Zmin = Pa-Pv NPSHmin hls

Where pa is atmospheric pressure, Pv is vapor pressure of fluid and hls head loss in the suction pipe NPSH
is obtained from manufactures.
4.7 Pumping Stations

Pumping station refers to hydraulic installations, which are used for delivering water at the required rate
(discharge) and head (pressure). They generally consist of the following components:
The pumps (plus accessories:, delivery and suction pipes, valves, air-vessel, etc)
The intake structure,
The sump (or suction well) and other ancillary structures.
Raw-water pumping stations (Abstraction from surface sources):
The pumping station is fed from an open-surface such as a canal, a river, or a reservoir, often through a
sump and an intake. With water levels varying over a large range, sediment may enter the sump and intake.
Sediment traps and screens (to trap floating debris) are therefore usually provided. The station will probably
also have multiple pumps (including standby units) which cater for the changes in sump levels.
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Figure 4.11 River intake with pump

Clean-water pumping stations (water supply from treatment plants):
In the absence of gravity flow, treated water is supplied to a distribution network or a storage tower
reservoir through a pumping station. Silt and debris-free water is directed to either a wet or dry sump
(without screens or traps) from which it is pumped to the network (booster pumps) or to another storage
tank. The possible arrangements of the sump layout are shown in Figure 4.12.
Figure 4.12 Wet and dry well (sump) pump installation
The well arrangement (Fig. 4.12a) is simple, economical and most widely used. Pumps installed below
water level (submersible) are preferable (reduction is suction lift and no priming needed) but involve
maintenance problems. The dry well arrangement (Fig. 4.12b) is more reliable because of easy access for
pump maintenance at all times. The bell mouth entry to the pump suction pipe suppresses flow separation
and ensures uniform flow throughout the intake cross section. The turned-down bell mouth (Fig. 4.12c)
allows a lower sump water level than a horizontal intake (Fig. 4.12b) and is less prone to vortex formation.
Groundwater pumping station (Abstraction from boreholes)
The installations are normally of the wet well type with pumps located within the wells. In deep wells
special multistage (submersible) pumps are used, whereas for shallow wells the pumps may be located at
ground level. Well screens are essential to prevent sand from entering into the system. The deep well pumps
are normally less bulky (around 100-400 mm diameter) to fit into well diameters of 150- 600 mm.
4.8 Pump Operation and Maintenance

4.8.1 Operation
Close the discharge valve and open the suction valve fully to ensure full supply and priming.
Ensure that the discharge check valve is not leaking.
Ensure that the priming fluid has filled up the pump casing.
For the standby pumps, close the discharge valve and open the suction valve fully.
Start the pump.
Now open the discharge valve on the operating pump fully.
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All pumps should be operated in turn by rotation to avoid abnormal wear and tear.
4.8.2 Maintenance
i. Check regularly
a. Lubrication.
b. For any over heating or pump gland, bearing or motor.
c. Any leaks, and
d. Loose mechanical parts, misalignment and unusual noise
ii. If am defect is noticed take corrective action immediately as prescribed in the manufacturers
instructional manual.
Exercise 1: Population of a city is 120000 and rate of water supply per head per day is 200 liters. Calculate
the BHP of motor to raise the water to an overhead tank 50 m high. Length and diameter of the rising main
is 200 m and 40 cm, respectively. Assume motor efficiency 90 % and the of the pump 60 %. Take f = 0.01
and peak hourly demand as 1.5 times the average demand.
Exercise 2: The pump shown in the figure below has head characteristics that can be expressed by: H
= 100 6000Q1.85, Where H = pump head in meters and Q = discharge in m3/s.
(a) Calculate the head and discharge of the pump.
(b) Check the potential for cavitation if the anticipated maximum vapor pressure and minimum absolute
barometric pressure are 0.40 m and 9.70 m, respectively. NPSH required for the pump is 3.0 m. Neglect
minor head losses.
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CHAPTER FIVE
5. Construction of Water Sources
5.1 Spring Development
A spring is a place where groundwater naturally seeps or gushes from the earth's surface. It is commonly
occur along hillsides and in low areas where porous soils or fractured rock formations allow water to flow
onto the ground surface. Springs can occur at a single point or over a large area, called a seep. A spring or
seep occurs when groundwater emerges naturally on the earths surface by either gravity or artesian
pressure.
5.1.1 Types of springs

The different types of springs fall under two categories:
1. Gravity springs, and
2. Artesian springs.
1. Gravity springs:
a. Depression springs: occur when the land's surface dips below the level of the water table. The yield
from depression springs is highly variable, depending on the level of the water table. In areas that
experience a pronounced dry season, depression springs may not be a suitable source of drinking
water if the water table drops below the level of the depression, causing the spring to become
seasonally dry.
b. Contact springs: occur when an impervious layer beneath the earth's surface restricts surface water
infiltration. Water is channeled along the impervious layer until it eventually comes in contact with
the earth's surface. Usually have a very high yield and makes a good source of drinking water.
c. Fracture or tubular springs: formed when water is forced upwards through cracks and fissures in
rocks. The discharge is often concentrated at one point, thereby facilitating the process of protecting
the source.
2. Artesian springs: Artesian springs occur when water under pressure is trapped between two impervious
layers. Because the water in these springs is under pressure, flow is generally greater than that of
gravity springs.
a. Artesian fissure springs: similar to fracture and tubular springs, in that water reaches the surface
through cracks and fissures in rocks. These springs make excellent community water sources
because of their relatively high flow rates and single discharge points.
b. Artesian flow springs: occur when water confined between two impervious layers emerges at a
lower elevation. It is often occur on hillsides, making protection a fairly easy process.
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Before reaching the surface, spring water is generally considered high quality. However, groundwater can
become contaminated as it exits the ground's surface. Contamination sources - livestock, wildlife, crop
fields, forestry activities, septic systems, etc. located upslope from the spring outlet. Therefore, spring water
sources need to be protected at the source/eye. The main objective of spring development and protection is
to provide improved water quantity and quality for intended uses.
The key to successful spring development is to ensure there is adequate water flow and water quality for the
intended purpose.
A spring should have water flow year-round and have at least a flow rate of 4 to 5 liters per minute
to be considered worthwhile for development. The flow rate can be checked by carefully putting a
bucket under the spring water and recording the time it takes to fill the bucket.
Test the water quality by taking a water sample, in a clean container, and sending it to a laboratory
for a chemical water analysis.
Once the spring flow and chemical water quality are determined to be acceptable, and then proceed with the
spring development. Then, prepare a long-term water management plan for the proposed spring
development. i.e. look at the following:
What alternative water sources available?
How much water they will provide?
How much additional water will be required from the spring itself on a daily and annual basis?
What types of material and equipment are required and what are their costs?
How do you design and construct the spring, so the water flow is effectively collected and does not
result in any surface contamination?
Several design considerations are involved when developing a spring and their importance will largely
depend on the intended water use. The design considerations are:
Contamination of the water from the ground surface and/or livestock accessing the area around the
spring.
The elevation of the spring with respect to the surrounding area and also the location to where the
water is to be supplied.
The flow rate of the spring and the amount of water required.
Protect the resource by not taking more water from the spring than what is actually needed.
Two basic types of designs are used for spring developments.
1. Hillside springs development: The simplest method of spring development on hillsides is to fence off the
livestock from the spring area and run the water through a pipe down slope into a utilization point. This
system relies on gravity to supply water to livestock or for other uses. In this system, contamination
HUIOT/WSEE Page 67
problems can be eliminated by intercepting the spring flow below the ground surface and upslope from
where it reaches the surface.
Figure 5.1 Hillside spring development supplying water by gravity
The spring flow as it moves down the slope is intercepted with either a cutoff wall or cutoff trench. A cutoff
wall is usually made of concrete and is more difficult and costly to construct. The cutoff trench is the
preferred choice as it can be easily constructed by digging a trench to a depth of one to two feet lower than
the spring flow and perpendicular to it. The down slope wall of the trench can be lined with a heavy plastic
to form a cutoff curtain that will contain water in the trench and prevent it from being lost down slope. The
trench is then backfilled with a layer of washed rock to provide a porous medium to collect the spring water
and allow it to flow into a collection well.
A plastic sheet should be laid on top of the washed rock before the remainder of the trench is backfilled with
the excavated clay material. The plastic sheet will prevent the clay material from trickling down and either
causing dirty water conditions or plugging the clean washed rock. If sufficient elevation exists, water can be
supplied by gravity through a buried pipe to its point of use. This pipe in the trench must be sealed off near
the collection well with a sheet of plastic to prevent water from flowing along the bottom of the trench and
down the hill.
2. Development of low area springs: for springs in low areas, the spring is dug out and a collection well
installed. If sufficient head is not there, water is then pumped from the collection well to a place where it
is needed. The excavated area around the spring and collection well are then backfilled with a layer of
washed rock so that the water can easily flow into the perforated collection well. Again, a plastic sheet
is placed over the washed rock to prevent the backfilled clay from entering and plugging the area. To
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prevent contamination, the area around the site is elevated with clay fill to prevent infiltration and
provide surface drainage away from the spring. The area should also be fenced off to keep livestock out.
Figure 5.2 Low area spring development
5.1.2 Type of spring protective Structures

Common kinds of protective/water collection structures:
spring boxes,
seepage spring development structures, and
horizontal wells
A seep collection system.
However, spring boxes are typically cheaper, require the least skill, and can be made with locally available
materials.
5.1.3 Design features of spring box

A spring box is a watertight collection box constructed of concrete, or brick.
The idea behind the spring box is to isolate spring water from surface contaminants such as
rainwater or surface runoff.
All spring boxes should be designed with a heavy, removable cover in order to prevent
contamination from rainwater while providing access for disinfection and maintenance.
Spring box design should include an overflow pipe that is screened for mosquito and small animal
control.
It is also important to provide some measure of erosion prevention at the overflow pipe.
Approximately 8 meters upslope from the spring box, a diversion ditch needs to be provided to
divert surface runoff away from the spring box, and
An animal fence should be constructed with a radius of at least 8 meters around the spring box to
protect contamination by livestock and wildlife.
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Deep-rooted trees and plants should be avoided near the site as their root systems could damage
protective structures and reduce spring flow.
There are two basic spring box designs:
1. A spring box with a single permeable side - for hillside collection, and
2. A spring box with a pervious bottom - for collecting water flowing from a single opening on level
ground.
Figure 5.3 Spring box with single pervious side Figure 5.4 Spring box with permeable bottom for for
hillside collection collecting spring water flowing from an opening on
level ground
Design Process
Before construction begins, the design process includes:
Generating a dimensional plan of the spring box,
Generating a map of the area, including the location of the spring, the location of houses in the
community, distance from the spring to the community and elevation change as well as prominent
features and landmarks,
Produce a list of all labor, materials, and tools needed, as well as those that are available on site.
Such a list will help ensure that all necessary tools and materials are available on site in order to
avoid delays.
Seepage spring development structures: alternative to spring boxes, if the distance from the spring eye to
the primary distribution point isn't great, two options exist for transporting water from the eye to the
distribution point,
o Stone filled trench - digging a trench from the distribution point to the spring eye and
simply fill the trench with clean stones and a layer of puddled clay approximately 100 mm
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thick over the stones in order to prevent surface water from infiltrating and contaminating
the source.
o Use of Plastic pipes - piling clean stones over the eye, protect the source with a layer of
puddled clay, and use a plastic pipe to convey water from the source to the distribution
point.
Development of a horizontal well: a second alternative to a spring box is the development of a horizontal
well. It is particularly useful where the water table is steeply sloped. In a horizontal well, a pipe with a
screened or perforated driving point is driven into an aquifer horizontally at a higher elevation than the
spring's natural discharge. Often, a headwall will need to be constructed in order to adequately seal the space
outside the pipe. The only requirement of horizontal wells is that the water table be steeply sloped; flat
water tables typically won't be under enough pressure to provide adequate flow.
Figure 5.5 Horizontal well placements
5.2 Hand Dug Well Construction

5.2.1 Water Well Design
Water well is a hole or shaft, in most cases vertical excavated in the earth, for bringing ground water to the
surface. Type of wells depending on the ground condition and construction methods:
i. Hand dug well: that make use of local skills (dug by hand)
ii. Boreholes : that are dug by hand augers or heavy machinery
The objective of water well is to provide:
Water with good quality.
Sufficient quality of water.
Water for long time.
Water at low cost
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5.2.2 Site Selection for a well

The factors to be carefully studied before selecting a site for sinking a well are:
Topography
Climate
Vegetation
Geology of the area
Porosity and permeability
Joints & faults in rocks
Folded strata
Proximity of river, springs, lakes, unlined channels reservoirs, etc
Existing well in the vicinity.
Aerial photographs and hydro-geological maps are helpful in making rapid reconnaissance of the area
5.2.3 Elements of a well
Each well basically consists of the following elements
Elements Function Construction
Intake: - Allow water to enter from ground into - Lining with seepage hole
bottom section the well excluding the soil. - Porous lining (filter ring)
- provides storage reservoir - Filter pipe for casing
Shaft: - Provides access to the well bottom - Lining with concrete ring
Middle section - Prevents pollution by surface water - Brick lining
- Prevents collapsing - Casing pipes
Well head: - Prevent or reduces pollution - Preferably sealed (concrete cover,

Upper section - Provides facilities for drawing water apron, drainage)
- Hand pump, engine pump or
bucket system
Well surroundings - Prevent pollution by animals - cleaned, fenced area

- Control use
Dimension of hand dug wells: Hand dug wells are usually circular with diameter ranging from 0.8 m to
1.3m, 10-30 m deep and pump not a feature of an unprotected dug well. But a Protected Well is
equipped with: hand pump; concrete plat form and drainage Channel.
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Pollution of Wells
Rubbish thrown down well
Keep children and irresponsible people away from well
Guard or attendant may be necessary
Surface water
May wash or be splashed into well
Ground surface around well may be sunken
Build headwall around well or cover
Divert surface runoff from well
Spilt water
Water splashes on peoples feet and back into well
Can spread Guinea worm
5.2.4 Design of water well
Water well has to be designed to get optimum quality of water economically from a given geological
formation. The water requirements for the particular scheme need to be carefully determined such as rural
water supply, agricultural or industrial need. The choice of open well or bore well &the method of well
design depending up on:
Topography
Geological condition of the underlying strata
Depth of ground water table
Rainfall, climate & the quality of water required.
In choosing the type of well the following factors have to be considered
Availability of space
Hydrological characteristics of the subsurface strata
Seasonal fluctuation of water label
Cost of well construction including provision of water lifting appliance
Economics & easy of water lifting operation
Some of advantage and disadvantage of open and tube (bore) well are listed below.
1. Open well
Advantage
Storage capacity of water available in the well itself
Does not require sophisticated equipment & skilled person
Can be easily operated by installing a centrifugal pump at different setting for low and high water
label
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Revitalized by deepening by blasting or putting a few vertical bores at the bottom or horizontal or
inclined bores on the side to intercept the water bearing fractures.
Disadvantage
Large space is required for the well
Construction is slow and laborious
Subject to high fluctuation of water table during different season
Susceptibility to dry up in years of draught
High cost of construction as the depth increase in hard rock areas
Deep seated aquifer cannot be economically tapped
Uncertainty of tapping water of good quality
Susceptibility for contamination or pollution unless seated from surface water ingress
2. Tube(Bore) Well
Advantage
Do not required much space
Can be constructed quickly
Fairly sustained yield of water can be obtained even in years of scanty rainfall.
Economical when deep-seated aquifer is encountered.
Flowing artesian well can something be struck.
Generally good quality of water is tapped.
Disadvantage
Requires costly &complicated drilling equipment & machinery.
Requires skilled workers & great case to drill & complete the tube well.
Installation of costly turbine or submersible pump is required.
Possibility of missing the fractures, fissure and joints in hard rock area resulting in many dry holes.
Well Maintenance
Expected service life of well depends on:
Design of well
Construction of well
Development of well and
Operation of the well
Proper maintenance helps to improve the performance of the well and increase the life of the well.
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Causes of well failure

1. Depletion of ground water supply
Remedy
decreasing pumping draft,
resetting the pump, or
deepening the well
2. Faulty well construction
Poor casing connection
Improper perforations or screens
Incomplete placement of gravel pack
Remedy
From photographic survey, it may be possible to repair the well
Sudden failure involving entrance of sand or collapse of casing require replacement of entire well
3. Corrosion or incrustation of well screen
Corrosion is the most common cause of well failure which is result from:
Direct chemical action of ground water
Electrolytic action between two metal in the well
Remedy
The effect of corrosion can be minimized by selecting
Nonmetallic well screens
Corrosion-resistant metal (nickel, copper, or stainless steel)
By providing cathode protection
Incrustation is caused by:
precipitation on or near well screens of materials carried in solution by groundwater
Presence of oxygen in the well (change soluble ferrous iron to insoluble ferric hydroxide )
Remedy
Screens can be cleaned by
shooting a string of vibratory explosives in the well
adding HCI or H2NSO3H (sulfamic acid ) to the well, followed by agitation and surging
HUIOT/WSEE Page 75
5.3 Rain Water Harvesting Mechanism

Rainwater harvesting is defined as concentration, collection, storage, and use rainfall via runoff for various
purposes such as domestic, livestock and agricultural use. It is a system which consists of a catchment area
(the surface on which runoff is generated), command area (the area where runoff is utilized), runoff transfer
infrastructure (channels, gullies, hard surfaces) diversion method and storage structures.
Water harvesting techniques which harvest runoff from roofs or ground surface fall under the term rain
water harvesting while all systems which collect discharges from water courses are grouped under the term
flood water harvesting. Rain water harvested is used as source of fresh water to address needs of people
facing severe water shortage. It can also serve the dual purpose of controlling floods and reducing the water
scarcity.
5.3.1 Factors to be considered in Rain Water Harvesting (RWH)
1. Characteristics of precipitation
- Type of precipitation (snow, rain etc)
- Rain intensity
- Duration of rain fall
- Arial rainfall distribution
- Soil moisture deficient
- Other climatic conditions such as temperature, wind humidity etc.
2. Characteristics of drainage basin
- Roof catchments- size (area) and type
- Surface runoff coefficient of runoff
- Evaporation
- Wind speed
- Size of basin
- Shape of basin -fan shaped & fern leaf catchments
- soil type , land use ,slope & orientation of catchments (windward or leeward)
5.3.2 Rain Water Harvesting Techniques
Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rain water
1. surface runoff harvesting
2. Roof top runoff harvesting
HUIOT/WSEE Page 76
1. Surface runoff harvesting: mostly surface runoff harvesting used for recharging aquifers and
agriculture. It is less applicable for drinking as compared to roof runoff due to some dissolved materials
on the surface. In Ethiopia surface runoff harvesting is practiced in areas of chronic water resource. It is
characterized by topography, soil type and land use.
Estimation of Runoff
Rational Method: Q = CIA
Where: Q=runoff discharge (m3/sec)
C= coefficient of runoff
I= intensity of rainfall (mm/hr)
A =catchments area (km2)
2. Roof harvesting: it is a method harvesting rainwater by guiding runoff through gutter to the storage
tank. It is commonly practiced in urban areas for domestic use and gardening. Relatively clean as
compared to surface one. It depends on roof size and type. Corrugated iron roofs are the most suitable
but Grass roof neither the quality nor quantity of runoff from them is suitable and also difficult to gutter.
RWH is used merely to capture enough water during a storm to save a trip or two to the main water
source. In this case only small storage is required. In arid areas however, system with sufficient
catchment surface area and storage capacity used to provide enough water to meet the full needs of the
user.
However, the major variables that determine the different patterns of usage of RWH are:
Rainfall quantity (mm/year) mean annual rain fall. It decides the total amount of water available
to the consumer (= rainfall x catchment area)
Rainfall pattern regularity of rainfall in a year will decide the storage requirement. If regular, the
storage requirement is low and hence the cost.
Catchment surface area (m2) roof surface area for roof water harvesting.
Storage capacity (m3) an expensive component of RWH system and so a careful analysis of
storage requirement against cost has to be carried out.
Daily consumption rate (lit/capita/day) It varies enormously from 10 to 15 lpcd in some parts of
Africa to several hundred lpcd in industrialized countries. This has impacts on system specification.
Number of users greatly influence the requirements.
Cost a major factor in any scheme.
Alternative water sources RWH may be the only source for majority of them but user may need
to cater from other sources for the remainder of the year.
Water management strategy a careful management strategy is always a prudent measure. It will
be more if there is strong reliance on stored rainwater
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Figure 5.6 Water harvesting usage pattern
5.3.3 Quantity aspects in Rainwater Harvesting

Reliable rainfall data for at least a period of 10years is required to get an accurate estimate of the potential
rainwater supply from a given catchment. Estimating household water demand must be done with care
because the total daily demand can vary widely. However, the essential daily water requirements (drinking,
cooking and personal hygiene are less variable and 15-25 lpcd normally suffice. If good data are available,
estimating the potential maximum supply of rainwater runoff is straight forward. i.e. simply multiply the
mean annual RF by horizontal catchment area and runoff coefficient. Runoff coefficient of 0.80 to 0.85 for a
well constructed corrugated iron roof to 0.1 to 0.2 for a compacted soil surface can be considered.
Sizing a domestic RWH system
The main calculation in designing a domestic RWH system is to size the water tank to give adequate storage
capacity. The storage requirement is determined by a number of interrelated factors:
Local RF data and weather patterns
Roof or other catchment area
Runoff coefficient (= 0.5 to 0.9 depending on the roof material and slope)
User numbers and consumption rates.
Common techniques for sizing RWH storage tanks:

1. Demand side approach (sizing I)
2. Supply Side approach (Sizing II)
3. Computer based methods (Sizing III)
HUIOT/WSEE Page 78
1. Demand Side Approach (Sizing I)

It is a very simple method and is based on the consumption rates and occupancy of the building.
As an example, use the following typical data:
- Consumption per capita per day, C = 20liters
- No. of people per household, n=6
- Longest average dry period, d = 25days
- Storage requirement, T = C x n x d = 20 x 6 x 25 = 3000litres
This simple method assumes sufficient RF and catchment area which is adequate, and is therefore only
applicable in areas where this is the situation. It is a method for acquiring rough estimates of tank size.
2. Supply Side Approach (Sizing II)
In low RF areas or where RF is of uneven distribution, more care has to be taken to calculate the size of the
storage properly. During some months of the year, there may be an excess of water, while at other times
there will be a deficit. If there is sufficient water to meet the demand, then sufficient storage will be
required to bridge the periods of scarcity. But as storage is expensive, this should be calculated carefully to
avoid unnecessary expense.
Procedures
Take minimum of 10 years mean monthly rainfall data.
Establish the monthly water requirement of the house hold.
Start from the month just after the dry season such that supply is greater than demand then
accumulates both the supply and demand.
Compute the monthly difference between the accumulated values of supply and demand.
The largest difference will be the most economical storage capacity.
Practical example:
o The site is at a Hospital in North western Tanzania.
o Rainfall statistics were obtained from a nurse at the hospital who had been keeping records for
the previous 12years.
o Average figures for the RF data were used to simplify the calculation, and no reliability
calculation is done.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 79
Demand:
- No. of staff =7
- Staff consumption per day = 45 lit.
- Total staff consumption = 45 x 7 = 315 lit.
- Patients = 40
- An average patient consumption per day = 10lit
- Total consumption of patients = 10 x 40 = 400 lit
- Total demand = 315+400 = 715 lit. or 261 m3 per year
Supply:
- Roof area = 190m2
- Runoff coefficient (for new GI sheet) = 0.90
- Average annual RF = 1056mm or 1.056m
- Annual available water (assuming all is collected) = 190 x 1.056 x 0.9 = 180.58m3
- Daily available water = 180.58/365 = 0.4947m3/day = 494.7 lit/day
So, if water is to be supplied all the year to meet the needs, the demand cannot exceed 494.7 lit./day. The
exceeded demand of 715 lit/day cannot be met by the available harvested water. Therefore, careful water
management will be required.
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3. Computer based method (Sizing III)

Several computer based programmes available for calculating tank size quite accurately.
A. SimTanka Available for free at http://www.indev.nic.in.ajit/water.htm
- Sim Tanka requires at least 15 years of monthly RF records. Sim Tanka takes into account the
fluctuations in the rainfall, giving each fluctuation its right importance for sizing RWH system.
- Reliability assured, i.e. It allows you to find the minimum catchment area and the smallest possible
storage tank that will meet your demand with probability up to 95% in spite of RF fluctuation.
B. Rain Water Tank Performance Calculator calculates the approximate system reliability and efficiency
for a selection of tank sizes based on the defined monthly RF data and roof area.
The tool can be found at: http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/dtu/rwh/model/
5.3.4 Design Consideration for Roof top Water harvesting system
Figure 5.7 Roof catchment systems

1. Delivery System
Several types of delivery system exist: Gutters, Glides, Surface drains and Channels.
- Gutters are often the weak link in any rain water catchment system; they must be appropriately
sized, properly erected around the whole roof area, fitted with splash guards if necessary to prevent
overshooting (where the water running off the roof is not all collected in the gutter).
- Proper construction of gutters is essential and these must slope evenly towards the tank. For long
roofs, hanging V-shaped gutters with splash guards are useful for reducing any loss due to runoff by
over-shooting.
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- Guttering used to transport rainwater from the roof to the storage vessel.
- Materials for gutter could be PVC, bamboo, folded metal sheet
- Types based on shape V-shaped, U-shaped, semi-circle.
- Gutters normally placed just below the roof to catch the water as it falls from the roof.
Figure 5.8 Types of gutter system
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CHAPTER SIX
6 Planning and Management of Rural Water Supply
6.1 Planning Water Supply Scheme
General steps:
1. Demand Analysis
Assessment of existing water supply facilities
Population Projection
Water demand analysis
2. Source Investigation
Surface
Ground
3. Scheme Design
Intake Structures
Treatment Units
Transmission Mains
Distribution Lines
Pumps & generator houses
Service Reservoirs (Mass curve or Analytical)
Ancillary Buildings, etc.
4. Preparing Specification & BOQ
5. Scheme Construction and Supervision
6. Scheme Operation & maintenance
Demand Analysis General Recommendation:
For small town, usually design is made for a period of 20 years with two stages each of 10years duration
stage I 10 years
stage II 10 years
Specific design period for each water supply unit depends on:
operational life span
functional capacity
economical conditions
Population & Water Demand projections:
Current Population number
Growth rate %
Domestic water demand
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Public water demand

Fire demand
Water losses
Total average water demand
Maximum daily water demand
Peak hour demand
1. WATER REQUIREMENTS:
Domestic Demand
Domestic water consumption varies according to the mode of service
For towns under normal conditions of Ethiopia, the average per capita water consumption of
Public tap - 15 l/c/d
Yard connection - 35 l/c/d
House connection - 50 l/c/d
If there are no streams, ponds, etc within a radius of 5km, then 3-5 l/c/d should be added to the
domestic consumption.
For a rural case, the water consumption can be used from 15-25 l/c/d
Commercial & Institutional Water Requirements
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Category Water Demand Per day

Day school 5 l/pupil
Boarding school 80-100 l/pupil
Hospital 50-100 l/bed
Restaurants 10 l/seat
Hotels 25-100 l/bed
Public Offices 5 l/employee
Mosque & Churches 5 l/visitor
Public baths 100 l/visitor
Rail way & Bus Station 10 l/user
Military camps 60 l/person
Cinema houses 5 l/seat
Abattoir 300 l/cow
Public latrines 25 liters/seat
Industrial Water Requirements
The water demands of industries are assessed separately and individually due to the requirements of
water in industry are governed by the nature of the production
Some industries need a lot of water, while others need very little water
Usually it is necessary to identify the type of existing industry water requirements
But it is not always possible to predict the type of industries & the amount of water required within
the planning horizon
In such cases reserved Industrial water requirement to the master plan area allocated for industrial
expansions
For dry Industries 5,500 liters/hectare/day
For wet Industries 22,000 liters/hectare/day
Public Water Requirements
It includes public gardens, parks, public toilets, etc
Generally public water requirements may be taken as 2-3 liters/capita/day
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Fire Requirements
Usually using 10 l/sec during 2 hrs
Water loss
Usually using 20-40% of the total water requirements.
2. DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY SOURCES:

Surface Sources:
Must meet at least the 20years maximum day water demand.
but it is preferable more than twice the maximum day demand for the future expansion.
Ground Sources:
adequate to cover the maximum day water demand for stage I
3. WATER SUPPLY INTAKE STRUCTURES:
for surface water sources & springs, design to satisfy the 20 years maximum day demand
4. WATER PUMPS:
designed to meet the stage I maximum day demand
a stand-by additional unit also provided if the financial capability permits it
5. TRANSMISSION MAINS:
designed to cover the 20 years maximum day demand
6. TREATMENT UNITS:
Designed for the requirements of the first 10 years
If the financial situation is favorable then the units can be designed to meet the requirements of
stage II
7. DISTRIBUTION MAINS:
designed to cover the peak hour demand of stage II
8. ELEVATED RESRVIORS:
Normally, this will be 1/3 of the maximum day demand of stage II.
WATER SUPPLY COST
A. Project costs
B. Running costs
C. Operation costs
A. Project cost
Study & design
Drilling & construction of borholes
Civil works construction
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Supply of pipes, fittings & accessories

supply & installation of
electromechanical equipment
Supervision
B. Operation cost
Power
Chemicals used in water treatment
Operation & maintenance
C. RUNNING COSTS
Water plant operator
Mechanic
Electrician
Pump attendant
Meter reader
Bill collector
Personnel, etc.
Estimation of maintenance cost for different type of works
Civil Engineering works 0.3%
Pipe lines 0.7%
Service reservoirs 0.3%
Public taps & water meters 1.0%
Electrical & Mechanical equipment 3.0%
6.2 Management of Rural Water Supply

6.2.1 Importance of management
The degree to which a water-supply system fulfils its public health function varies almost directly with the
efficiency and effectiveness of its management. In the planning of small water-systems, it sometimes
happens that enthusiastic officials and designers give too little consideration to the management phase of
water-supply schemes and to the development of appropriate administrative devices for their smooth
operation. Too often, public opinion regards the management function of waterworks officers as a routine
job which consists of handling daily occurrences and which grows and expands under its own momentum.
This assumption is far from the true facts, as good management of a water system, whether large or small,
embraces a number of functions, such as :
HUIOT/WSEE Page 87
provision and maintenance of adequate facilities;

good and smooth operation;
provision of a satisfying service to consumers;
efficient maintenance;
establishment of sound fiscal methods;
development of equitable water rates;
efficient organizational structure and procedures;
development of technical and financial plans for future expansion;
supervision of personnel; and
control of equipment and supplies.
Broadly speaking, the management phase of water supply can be divided into two parts : the first part,
administration, deals with organization, records, finances, personnel, and supplies; the second part, operation
and maintenance, is concerned with the conveyance and delivery of safe water from source to consumers.
Both are important and interdependent and must be coordinated to affect a unified and well-integrated
procedure. Another significant aspect of management is timing. Good management anticipates rather than
follows needs, and maintains alertness in reviewing and revising operations and procedures as appropriate.
Under poor management, equipment and facilities, as well as water quality, are allowed to deteriorate;
records are non-existent; and revenues if any are used for other municipal or political purposes. As a result,
the health and welfare of the consumers are seriously jeopardized, service is curtailed, and the costs of
maintenance and replacement soon become prohibitive for the community.
6.2.2 Community Participation

The responsibility for the managements of small-town water systems may fall on the local municipal
government, the state or provincial government, the federal or central government, or a private company. It is
rather rare to find private companies in charge of the administration and operation of rural community water-
supplies. It is important, in the promotion phase of rural water-supply development, to decide early which
government agency shall be responsible for management after construction is completed. Experience so far
indicates that the local people, through their own municipal administration, should bear the primary
responsibility, with assistance provided as necessary from a higher level of government. This should be a
basic policy for the following reasons:
When help is given or imposed from above on a continuing basis, the local population or
municipality does not share or participate in the undertaking and does not develop a sense of
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ownership and pride in the system. This type of help does the least to encourage local communities to
take action in solving their own problems.
Eventually the local people must assume the major responsibility for utilities of this kind, which are
purely local in character and which they alone use.
Competence in management can be gained only through responsible experience in it.
The immediate effect of good or bad management can be felt by the local population, which can
bring pressure to bear for changes or improvements when these are needed.
Administrative interest and efficiency tend to be directly proportional to the proximity of those
persons responsible.
Although the management phase of a water-supply system is the last item in the list of steps required for its
development, it is most important that it be kept in mind by policy-makers and engineering designers during
the earliest planning stages. From the administrative standpoint, proper management of a water supply
system, no matter how small, requires operating funds, personnel, and organizational services. Since these
things are within the province and control of local authorities, early negotiations should be undertaken, and a
considerable area of agreement should be reached before the project gets into the construction stage. These
negotiations are not always easy, as some town officials, whether elected or appointed, will jealously guard
their right to manage their own affairs and their own funds as they wish, even though they may have had no
previous experience in water-supply management. The main points to be covered by the agreement include:
The necessity for the town to retain personnel trained in waterworks operation, and to replace them-
when the need arises-only with other trained individuals;
The scope of managerial and technical assistance to be provided from outside sources;
The establishment of schedules for water rates.
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CHAPTER SEVEN
7 Hygiene and Sanitation
7.1 Introduction
Sanitation refers to interventions for the safe management and disposal of excreta, with the principal safety
mechanism being the separation of excreta from all future human contact. It includes both hardware (e.g.,
latrines, sewers) and software (e.g., hand washing, regulation). Poor sanitation and hygiene conditions are
among the major causes of public health problems in Ethiopia. Poor sanitation is one of the key causes of
diarrheal diseases, which take a heavy toll of lives, especially childrens .Ethiopia Demographic Health
Statistics show that 17% of childhood deaths are associated with diarrhea, and 80% of the diarrhea is
attributed to unsafe water supply, poor sanitation and unsafe hygiene behaviors.
Even where toilets exist, many are not used and open defecation is common. Most of the diseases that result
in diarrhea are spread by pathogens found in human excreta. These pathogens can enter the mouth through
a number of routes, as shown below in the F-diagram of the fecal-oral transmission routes.
Figure 7.1 F- diagram
7.2 Hygiene Education and Promotion

7.2.1 Community Led Total Sanitation (CLTS)
A community is a group of people who form relationships over time by interacting regularly around shared
experiences, which are of interest to all of them for varying individual reasons. Moreover; these interactions
lead to the formation of relationship having strong bonds in the form of culture, norms, values, etc .
It is a communitys right to be able to influence decisions made about it. As the community knows its own
issues best, then their involvement in planning and delivering solutions makes their development most
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effective. Developing ownership and capacity at community level make development more sustainable and
usually more cost effective. Community Led means collective community decision and collective local
action are the keys.
Total means involve/affect everyone in the community e.g. total elimination of open defecation. Having
higher coverage of latrine construction does not mean reduction of illnesses among children and their
communities. It is possible to have drastic reduction of prevalence of diarrhea if and only if we are able to
make the communities and the villages OPEN DEFECATION FREE (ODF).
Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) is an approach that enables local communities to analyze their own
sanitation conditions and initiate collective local actions to build and use latrines, without the need for
external assistance. It is an integrated approach to achieving and sustaining open defecation free (ODF)
status.
7.2.2 Key Principles Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS)

Community-driven total sanitation is a significant departure from the way that rural sanitation programs are
usually implemented.
The key principles can be summarized as follows:
Focus on outcomes rather than building toilets.
Focus on collective behavior change rather than mobilizing individual households.
Accommodate a variety of technological options to get people on the sanitation ladder.
Promote private suppliers/entrepreneurs to respond to demand.
Appropriate institutional frameworks are key to achieving scale and sustainability.
Focus on incentives that reward outcomes rather than provide upfront hardware subsidy.
Focus on Outcomes as Opposed to Latrine Construction: Rural sanitation programs measured success by
counting the numbers of latrines constructed in a given time frame. By contrast, community-driven total
sanitation measures its success on the basis of outcomes, i.e., achievement of communitywide open
defecation free (ODF) status. Latrine construction means little if open defecation continues alongside it
because the overall risk of bacteriological contamination remains high.
Therefore, latrine construction is only a means to an end, i.e., improved public health outcomes, but not an
end in itself. For this reason, community-driven total sanitation focuses on triggering collective behavior
change to stop open defecation rather than meet construction targets.
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Focus on Collective rather than Individual Behavior Change: Sanitation is a private practice that has
public consequences. Therefore, public health benefits can be achieved only by targeting the collective
instead of focusing on motivating individual households to construct toilets.
The three key behaviors:
o Safe disposal of child and adult feces;
o Hand washing with water and soap or ash at critical times; and
o Safe management of household drinking water from water source to mouth.
Accommodate a Variety of Technological Options instead of Prescribing a Single Latrine Model: In the
past, rural sanitation programs provided limited technology options. Decisions were made by technical
experts and handed down to community members, who typically contributed by providing labor for the
construction of a pre-decided design. This top-down approach, with no community participation in decision-
making, has proven unsustainable. The significance of the first relatively low-cost toilet is enormous in
terms of breaking the habit of open defecation.
Role do Private Sanitation Demand and Suppliers Play in Promoting a Total Sanitation Approach:
Obviously, if communities are upgrading their toilets, there will be a market for private suppliers to sell
sanitary goods and provide the required services. Thus, community-driven total sanitation stimulates
entrepreneurs to produce and market latrine hardware, such as different types and grades of pans, rings and
slabs. Private suppliers have also taken the initiative to undertake promotional activities for their business.
Institutional Frameworks Key to Achieving Scale and Sustainability: Local governments are ideally
placed to promote total sanitation in order to ensure public benefits and are well suited to address the issue
of scaling up due to their outreach and mandate. Local governments are in a good position to undertake or
facilitate the long-term monitoring and support of rural sanitation services. NGOs interventions have been
successful in demonstrating the total sanitation approach but experience shows that local government
involvement in partnership with civil society organizations accelerates scaling up.
Community-driven Total Sanitation Support Incentives to Reward Outcomes: A key feature of the total
sanitation approach is that it is not in favor of upfront hardware subsidy. Experience with community-driven
total sanitation shows that:
Subsidy is not effective in creating demand for safe sanitation as people defecate in the open not
because they cant afford latrines but because safe sanitation is not a felt need.
Subsidies raise community expectation of getting free money from outsiders and community
initiative to change its own sanitation status takes a backseat.
Stopping open defecation does not require large sums of money as there are a variety of
affordable technological options available.
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7.2.3 Benefits of CLTS

Natural Leaders emerge from the collective local actions and they lead future collective initiatives.
They often dont follow externally determined mode of development and blue print.
Social Solidarity and cooperation are seen in abundance
Local diversity and innovations are the main elements
It affects all in community positively
Improvements are visible and strongly detectable by nose
Community could achieve it quickly (1-2 months or less)
All in community have a role to play and contribute (landed, poor and land less, owners of toilets,
children, women)
Health and economic benefits are felt strongly and distinctly
Triggering of CLTS units the community as a whole (Social asset)
Builds greater social solidarity and brings the poor and better-off closer for a greater cause (Social
and Human asset)
Local communities experience the test of first success of collective local action that builds their
confidence (Social)
Outsiders realize the power of community collective action and start believing in community
capabilities (Transforming Structures and Processes)
Livelihoods outcomes could be achieved fairly quickly
7.2.4 Triggering Behavior Change

Participatory total sanitation relies on a triggering approach which tries to find locally relevant triggers or
factors that can be used to achieve hygiene and sanitation goals focuses on behavior change in a community.
In our context, the bottom line is to end open defecation and to support clean and sanitized communities.
Therefore, everyone must practice three key behaviors:
Safely dispose of child and adult feces.
Wash hands with water and soap or ash at critical times.
Safely manage household drinking water from source to mouth.
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Figure7.2 Diagrammatic presentation of the process of igniting Community- Led Total Sanitation (CLTS)
Types of Triggers
Triggers broadly fall into two categories: Individual and Community.
A. Individual Triggers
Some of the individual triggers related to sanitary behavior are:
Dignity and privacy
Shame: the consciousness or awareness of dishonor, disgrace, or condemnation. E.g amongst women
when watched by passers-by or among men how can you allow the women of your house to
publicly defecate in the open when people may be watching?
Fear is an emotional response to tangible and realistic dangers. E.g loss of money due to medical
expenses
B. Community Triggers
Community triggers are factors or situations that concern and affect a community as a whole. Some of the
community triggers related to eliminating open defecation are: Health, Water quality and Prestige. When the
community realizes that their health is at stake due to their own habit or the habit of others to defecate in the
open, the community collectively resolves to change its behavior. Once the process is initiated, members
begin to monitor each others behavior within the community.
7.2.5 Fundamental & Non-Negotiable Guiding Principles of CLTS

Experts consult with and learn from communities not dictate.
Experts facilitate, communities lead the process.
Let people design toilets, not rely on blue print designs by technicians.
Support facilitating communities not subsidies to households for hardware.
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Encouraging and make sure that children and women express their views alongside adult men.
Encourage people to call a spade a spade.
Resist the philanthropic desires of spending more money.
Be culturally insensitive and do not use nice words about shitting in the bush.
Let the communities monitor community progress towards Open Defecation Free status.
Initiating/triggering a positive change to the local communitys own lives.
Empowering local communities.
No subsidy for hardware (not for the poorest or anyone else)
No blueprint design (only peoples designs, not engineers)
People first: they can do it
Facilitate, dont provide
Go slow at first for faster later.
7.2.6 Traditional Sanitation Vs CLTS approach

Table 7.1 Comparison of Traditional Sanitation Vs CLTS approach
Areas of major shift Traditional Sanitation CLTS approach
Toilet designs Outside engineers Insiders and community engineers
Indicators Number of toilets built Number of ODF communities
Major inputs Sanitary hardware, subsidies those Software/ training and capacity building
are expensive
Outsiders role Teaching, advising, prescribing and Facilitating a process of change and
supplying hardware empowerment
Major outcome Increased number of latrines ODF communities and no shit in the open
Areas of major shift Traditional Sanitation CLTS approach
Major emphasis given Toilet construction Empowerment of people

on
Mode of learning Verbal Visual
Role of community Passive recipient of ideas, Active analysts and innovators

technologies and subsidies
Outsiders attitude, Helping, donating, philanthropic Agents of triggering local empowerment

motive and intention and initiators of collective local action
towards insiders
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7.2.7 Tools of CLTS

The followings are CLTS tools.
3. Defecation Area Transect/Walk of Shame:

To walk along with community members through the village, observing sanitary conditions
including open defecation areas, asking questions, and listening.
4. Defecation Mapping
To facilitate analysis of big picture with respect to the situation of the village vis--vis sanitation.
This exercise will enable community members to visualize defecation areas and the close proximity
of these areas to their homes.
5. Calculation of Feces
To quantify the magnitude of the sanitation problem. To visualize the mountain made of faeces.
6. Flow Diagram and Calculation of Medical Expenses
To trace the routes by which feces defecated in the open makes its way back in to the communitys
food and water, and the cost of treating diseases caused by ingesting feces.
Villagers discussing the flow of faeces within their village (Flow Diagram)
What are the possible effects of having so much shit on the ground, mixed with their food and
drinking water?
7.3 Hygiene Education

Hygiene education is about helping people to understand, firstly, what causes some of their health problems
and, secondly, what preventive measures might be possible. It needs to be approached in a sensitive manner,
with a great deal of respect being shown to local beliefs, customs and practices. It is important not to preach
to villagers about the importance of hygiene and its health benefits. Instead, use the triggering approach. In
different communities, the trigger for hygiene behavior change will vary some may be influenced by the
health argument, others by concepts of cleanliness, others by the messages bought home by children from
school, etc.
It is generally agreed that the three most important hygiene messages that should be inculcated by the
community should be:
i. Washing hands with soap/ash after defecation and before meals: While mud creates friction on the
hands and will assist in cleansing, ash and soap will kill/remove bacteria.
ii. Washing hands with soap and ash after disposing an infants feces: The popular perception that the
feces of infants are harmless needs to be dispelled and greater precautions need to be exercised after
handling babies.
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iii. Proper and safe handling of drinking water: Since a high proportion of the contamination of water
occurs between the water collection point and consumption, the safe storage and handling of water is
an important hygiene practice.
7.4 Treatment, Handling and Storage of Drinking Water
In most rural areas and small communities in developing countries, adequate water treatment procedures are
almost non-existent, mainly for economic reasons. Generally, water for human use is collected from various
unprotected water holes, and is consumed without treatment.
Boiling: it is one of the most reliable methods of disinfecting water at household level. Provided that water
is brought to the boiling point, and is kept boiling for 15 to 20 minutes. All form of micro-organisms,
including the most resistant spores or cysts, will be destroyed. Boiling is effective for all kinds of raw water,
unless the water contains toxic chemicals which boiling cannot destroy. Boiled water has flat taste, due to
the loss of dissolved gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen) and minerals during the process of boiling. Great
care must be taken to avoid recontamination of the boiled water either during storage or consumption. It
must be stored in a clean, firmly covered container.
Solar Disinfection: Plastic bottles exposed to solar radiation for 1-2 days to disinfect drinking water.
Variations: Exposure time and clear, black or reflective surface.
Pros and Cons of Solar Disinfection
Pros
Scientifically proven
Highly effective against a wide range of microbial contaminants
plastic bottles widely available
Cons
User acceptance and sustained behavior change?
Weather dependency
Must expose bottles 1 day for safe water
Users in hot climates may reject hot water
Filtration:
A) Home made Sand Filters
The components of the filter media and the basic principles of operation of a homemade sand filter are the
same as those of a slow sand filter. The minimum depth of filter sand should not be less than 60 cm. It can
remove most of the substances that cause turbidity, taste and odor, the cysts and ova of parasites, and other
relatively larger organisms.
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Some of the limitations of a homemade sand filter are:

It cannot be relied upon to remove all forms of pathogenic organisms, particularly the viruses and
some of the very small-sized bacteria.
It frequently gets clogged, particularly if the raw water to be filtered is turbid.
Maintenance of a homemade sand filter:
There must be a continuous flow of raw water over the filter bed.
The rate of filtration should normally be controlled to not more than 1.5 liters per minute. This rate
will be achieved after the filter has been in operation for a few days.
The top-most layer of the sand must be scraped off, cleaned and replaced at fixed periods
B) Home Candle Filters
There are commercially made for filtering individual water supplies. There are various types and sizes,
known by different trade names. The core of the filter is a porous cylinder (shaped like a wax candle, hence
the name), made from high-quality unglazed porcelain. The efficiency of filtration depends upon the pore
size of the candle.
Pros and Cons of Ceramic Filters
Pros
About 90 99% removal of bacteria
Can be constructed of local materials (clay, sand, concrete, plastic) by local producers and create
local jobs
Cons
Requires regular cleaning once filter becomes clogged
Flow rates are slow and may not provide sufficient water quantity
Ceramics can break if handled improperly
Chlorine or its compounds: Chlorine or its compounds can be applied to disinfect water on a small scale.
When dealing in terms of liters, 3 drops of 1% chlorine stock solution applied to every liter of water can
give satisfactory disinfection; the dose can be doubled if the water is turbid. The tablet forms of chlorine,
such as Halazone, may be effectively used under field conditions when camping and during travel (dose: 1
tablet per liter of clear water.)
Use of Chlorine Tablets
Store water in a clean container.
Drop chlorine tablets in the container. But we must ensure that we do not put more than 10 mg of
chlorine tablets in a container of 20 liter capacity.
Use this water for drinking after two hours. Bacteria and germs present in the water shall be killed
by this time.
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Pros and Cons of Chlorination / Safe Water System Approach

Pros
Applied properly and with a water that is not excessively turbid, this provides a safe, disinfected
water supply
Residual chlorine is simply measured
Clinically proven
Inexpensive
Cons
Chlorine taste and smell
Some customers only use it sporadically, like medicine or just for their young children
Must wait 30 minutes before drinking treated water
Chlorine availability
Storage issues
Safe Storage and Handling of Drinking Water
To ensure that our drinking water remains pure and fit for drinking, we need to follow the tips given below:
Clean the water container thoroughly before filling water in it.
Always cover the container after filling the water.
Do not allow own/childs hands to touch the water in the container.
Inside the kitchen/home, keep the water container on a raised platform, away from the reach of
children or animals.
Use a ladle for taking out water from the container. Wash hands before using the ladle or pouring the water.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
8. Low Cost Sanitation Options
Sanitation systems can be classified:
A. On-Site Sanitation systems
On-site sanitation is a form of sanitation where human excreta are contained at the site of defecation in a
manner that is environmentally safe, hygienic and affords privacy. A basic form of on-site sanitation
comprises three building blocks:
- A substructure to isolate and contain excreta.
- A platform with a squatting pan or hole.
- A superstructure for privacy and protection from climatic factors.
On-site sanitation can be two type:
i. Water Independent On-site system
ii. Water Dependent On site system
On-site sanitation system
Water dependent Water independent
Flush toilet Simple pit VIP

latrine latrine
Septic tank s
i. Water Independent On-site system

Water Independent System is the system of on-site sanitation without using water Such type of sanitation
systems are common in undeveloped & developing countries. Water independent on-site sanitation system is
divided in to two main groups:
a. Unimproved Pit Latrine
- Traditional Latrines
- Dry-Pit Latrines
- Simple Pit Latrines
b. Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine (VIPL)
ii. Water Dependent On site system
Water Dependent On site system is the type of on-site sanitation facilities that depends on water to flush
the excreta. The excreta from flush toilet is carried to a septic tank by a pipe system. The sludge from septic
tank is collected using a vacuum tanker and disposed to sludge drying bed. The septic tank is designed to
serve individual household or group a households. The design of flush toilet is based on the per capita water
demand. This type of toilet system is common in developing countries like Ethiopia, especially in urban
areas.
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B. Off-Site Sanitation systems

The off-site system is a system in which the sanitary waste is removed from the place of production to the
place of disposal by piped system. The system needs big investment costs such type of system is common in
developed countries.
Off-site sanitation systems
Flush toilet
Sewerage line
Waste water
treatment
Disposal to river
C. Combination of On & Off-site disposal

The combined system involves both on-site & off-site systems. This system can be applied for high densely
populated areas.
8.1 Unimproved Pit Latrine

Simple or Traditional Pit Latrines: the pit is simply a hole in the ground into which excreta fall. When the
pit is filled, it empties or the pit filled up with soil and a new pit dug nearby. It is common in most part of the
country. It is applied only for single households, but not recommended for public places due to the risk of
inappropriate uses.
Design criteria of Simple pit latrines:
- It is recommended only for low incoming groups
- It should be far from the house 10 30m, to avoid the bad smell of the pit.
- Depending of the soil conditions, usually simple pit dug between 3 & 4m deep.
- Excavation above 4m will cause a safety hazards for the diggers & builders.
- The pit preferable has a volume sufficiently large to a function of 5-10 years, because of desludging
problems.
Advantages
The system is very simple
Simple to construct
Low cost
Disadvantages
It has smell
When it filled flies or mosquitos breed on the surface
It needs maximum care
Not possible to locate inside the house
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8.2 Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine (VIPL)

VIP latrine differs from simple latrine by vent pipe. The vent has an important role to reduce insect
production and to avoid bad smell. VIP latrines can be used in both rural & urban areas for individual
households and public places. Distance to a house depends on local preferences.
Design of VIP latrine
- Can be designed to be emptiable
- The depth is usually about 2m to reduce problems caused by a high water level.
- VIP latrines designed to avoid both bad smell and attract flies.
- The diameter of the vent pipe could be 75-200mm.
- The desludging period could be 2-3 years.
Design of the pit volume
- Faecal weight per person per day is estimated to be 250 grams (source WHO)
- Urine weight per person per year = 1.2 kg
- Total weight per person per day = 1.45kg
- Total deposit of 530liters/person/year or 0.53 m3/person/year.
- For the design purpose assumed 0.25 liters of wet solids/person/day leach into the surrounding soils
through un-mortared joints in the pit latrine
Volume of the pit can be calculated: V = R x P x N, m3
Where: V - volume of the pit (m3)
R - sludge accumulation rate for a single person (m3/person/year)
P - the average number of users in each day
N - filling time or effective life of the pit in years
8.3 Pour Flush Latrine

A pour flush latrine depends on water to flush the excreta. A pour flush latrine has a bowl with a water seal
trap. Excreta are flushed down into the pit by pouring water into the bowl. The water seal prevents flies,
mosquitoes and odors from entering the latrine from the pit. The pit can be under the latrine or may be offset
from the latrine by providing a short length of pipe or covered channel from the pan to the pit.
Advantages of flush toilet
Possible to locate inside the house
No odor or fly and mosquito breeding
Minimum risks to health
Minimum operational cost
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Disadvantages of flush toilet

High capital investment
It requires water
When filled the pit must be emptied
8.4 School latrines

Design parameters for School latrines:
- One squatting slab can service 50 boys or 30 girls within a 50m distance from the class rooms.
- A minimum space of 0.80 to 0.90m (width) and 1.0m (length) should be provided for every
squatting space.
- Another one or two squatting slabs, for teachers and other school employees are recommended.
- Hand washing facilities must be provided at beside each latrine.
- Latrine for boys and girls should be separated.
- Latrines in boys schools may have urinals.
- A bin for hygienic disposal of sanitary materials must be provided in every chamber in latrines in
girls schools.
Volume of a pit:
The pits can be rectangular or circular. The volume of pit of latrines may be calculated from the
equation: V = A + B
V = 0.3CPN + 0.75 x w x l x h for rectangular pit
V = 0.3CPN + n x 0.75 x h x x d2 /4 ...for series of circular pits
Where: A is volume of accumulated sludge and is equal to 0.3 CPN in m3.
B is volume of free space above the sludge and is equal to (0.75 x w x l x h) for
rectangular pit or (n x 0.75x hxxd2 / 4) for circular pit in m.
C is sludge accumulation rate or effective capacity per capita per year in m3/c/y. This figure
varies from 0.04 to 0.09 and 0.045 to 0.050
P is the number of students using the latrine.
N is the number of years the pit is to be used before emptying.
h is the most top depth of the pit which is 1 m in this case
w is the width of the pit in m
l is the length of the pit in m
d is the diameter of a single pit in m
The factor 0.3 was introduced to allow for the fact that school latrines would only be used during certain
hours of the day, mostly during the break, and that schools are closed for 3 to 4 months in a year. The factor
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0.75 has been introduced as the pit is to be emptied or filled with earth when the level of the waste in the pit
has a free space of three quarters of a meter from the level of squatting platform.
8.5 Public toilet facilities

Public toilet facilities which are recommended to:
Commercial & shopping centers
Bus & train stations
Market & other places where people gathered
Design parameters for public toilets:
- Volume of excreta is estimated 0.06 m3/person/year
- The total number of holes required is calculated on the basis of 50 users/hole/day
- Locate the building in a visible & easily accessible spot. There is no need to hide it from the public
eye.
- Give some attention to architectural attractiveness.
- The building shall have good ventilation.
- Provide separate seats for men & women but not at the backside.
- Provide urinary for men.
- All toilets shall have water seals.
- Provide hand washing facilities & soap, also considered mirrors.
- Use tiles or other smooth finishing at floors & 1m of all inner walls.
- Keep a few centimeters between the floor & door to facilitate cleaning & prevents rotting of the
lower parts.
- Provide lights to be used in the evening.
- The public toilet shall have a septic tank of adequate size to receive all wastewater from the toilets.
The tank shall have multiple compartments, the first receiving black wastewater, and the last
receiving grey water.
- The septic tank shall be desludging, when it fill.
- The overflow of septic tank shall run through a series of soak pits, and may ultimately discharge in
an open drain.
- Give due attention to levels, grades and slopes.
- Charge for the service, and provide toilet paper with it
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8.6 Septic Tanks

A septic tank is a rectangular or cylindrical chamber, usually located just below ground level that receives
both excreta and flush water from toilets as well as other household wastewater or sullage.The wastewater
enters flushing from toilets and all other household wastewater the settling chamber via a pipeline, which
carries excreta. A thick layer of scum is formed at the surface. Sludge is removed on a regular basis once
every 2-3 years.
A septic tank does not dispose of wastes; it only helps to separate the solid matter from the liquid. Some of
the solids float on the surface, where they are known as Scum, while others sink to the bottom where they
are broken down by bacteria to form a deposit called Sludge. A soak away is usually a pit or trench filled
with stones, broken bricks or other rubble. It allows the wastewater to filter through the sides into the
ground and disperse. The size of a soak away and the area of the land it requires will be determined mainly
by the volume of wastewater produced and the local soil conditions.
Septic tank is recommended for:
Household or group of households (condominium) with water dependent latrines
Institutions, Hotels, Restaurants, etc
Water dependent communal latrines
Calculation of Volume of tank
V = (Td x P x q)/103 + (v x Nd x P)
1000
Where: V = Effective volume of the tank in m3
Td = Hydraulic retention time in days (Td=1day)
P = User population
q = water consumption per capita per day
v = sludge accumulation per capita per year (v = 60 lit.)
Nd = desludging time (min 1-year)
8.7 Sludge Collection
Sludge collected from private latrines; septic tanks and public latrines. For removal pit latrines & septic
tanks recommended vacuum tankers. Septic tanks & wet pit latrines required regularly desludging. Assumed
a standard family tank (2m3) emptied once every 3years. 5m3 capacity vacuum truck could serve about 3000
clients per year
Sludge disposal
The common sludge disposal systems are: Sewerage lines, dumping on drying beds and disposing the solid
waste landfill or sanitary landfill.
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Sludge disposal site selection criteria

- not less than 5km from the town
- accessible with a good all-weather road
- not close to settlements
- down-wind of settlements
- attention to potential of ground & surface water pollution
- should be studied the environmental impact assessments
Sludge: is a domestic wastewater formed from baths, sinks, washing, cooking or cleaning of
utensils. Sludge also known as grey water, but do not contain excreta. It contains micro-organisms, about
80% of total household producing Sludge waste and disposed through drainage & sewerage.
Conventional Sewerage Systems: used to transport excreta & grey water to the central treatment plant
through a network of pipes. It can be combined (carrying both waste water & storm water) or separate
(carrying only waste water) and it depends on the population size & economical conditions which is widely
using in developed countries.
What waste products are generated?

The different sanitation systems generate the following products:
Black water is the mixture of urine, faeces and flushing water along with anal cleansing water (if
anal cleansing is practiced) or dry cleansing material (e.g. toilet paper).
Grey water is used water generated through bathing, hand-washing, cooking or laundry. It is
sometimes mixed or treated along with black water.
Urine is the liquid not mixed with any faeces or water.
Brown water is black water without urine.
Excreta is the mixture of urine and faeces not mixed with any flushing water (although small
amounts of anal cleansing water may be included).
Faecal sludge is the general term for the undigested or partially digested slurry or solid resulting
from the storage or treatment of black water or excreta.
Domestic wastewater comprises all sources of liquid household waste: black water and grey water.
However, it generally does not include storm water.
Storm water in a community settlement is runoff from house roofs, paved areas and roads during
rainfall events. It also includes water from the catchment of a stream or river upstream of a
community settlement.
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PART-II
Water Treatment
CHAPTER ONE
QUALITY OF WATER
1.1 Introduction
Absolutely pure water is not found in nature and contains number of impurities in varying amounts. The
rainwater which is originally pure also absorbs various gases, dust and other impurities while falling.
This water when moves on the ground further carries salt, organic and inorganic impurities. So this
water before supplying to the public should be treated and purified for the safety of public health,
economy and protection of various industrial process, it is most essential for the water work engineer to
thoroughly check analyze and do the treatment of the raw water obtained the sources, before its
distribution. The water supplied to the public should be strictly according to the standards laid down from
time to time.
1.2 Physical Characteristics

The following are the physical characteristics.
Turbidity
Colour and temperature
Taste and odour
i. Turbidity
Turbidity is caused due to presence of suspended and colloidal matter in the water. The character and
amount of turbidity depends upon the type of soil over which the water has moved ground waters are less
turbed than the surface water. Turbidity is a measure of resistance of water to the passage of light through
it. Turbidity is expressed as NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units) or PPM (parts per million) or
Milligrams per litre (mg/l). Turbidity is measured by:
Turbidity rod or Tape
Jacksons Turbidimeter
Balis Turbidimeter
The Sample to be tested is poured into a test tube and placed in the meter and units of turbidity is read
directly on the scale by a needle or by digital display. Drinking water should not have turbidity more than
10 NTU. This test is useful in determining the detension time in settling for raw water and to dosage of
coagulants required to remove turbidity.
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ii. Colour and Temperature
Colour in water is usually due to organic matter in colloidal condition but some times it is also due to
mineral and dissolved organic impurities. The colour produced by one milligram of platinum in a litre of
water has been fixed as the unit of colour. The permissible colour for domestic water is 20ppm on
platinum cobalt scale. The colour in water is not harmful but objectionable.
Temperature of water is measured by means of ordinary thermometers. The temperature of surface
water is generally at atmospheric temperature, while that of ground water may be more or less than
atmospheric temperature. The most desirable temperature for public supply between 4.40C to 100C. The
temperature above 350C are unfit for public supply, because it is not palatable.
iii. Taste and Odor
Taste and odour in water may be due to presence of dead or live micro-organisms, dissolved gases such as
hydrogen sulphide, methane, carbon dioxide or oxygen combined with organic matter, mineral substances
such as sodium chloride, iron compounds and carbonates and sulphates of other substances. The tests of
these are done by sense of smell and taste because these are present in such small proportions that it is
difficult to detect them by chemical analysis. The water having bad smell and odour is objectionable and
should not be supplied to the public.
The intensities of the odours are measured in terms of threshold number. This number is numerically equal
to the amount of sample of water in CCs required to be added to one litre of fresh odourless water.
1.3 Chemical Characteristics

In the chemical analysis of water, these tests are done that will reveal the sanitary quality of the water.
Chemical tests involve the determination of total solids, PH value, Hardness of water, Chloride content
etc.
i. Total Solids and Suspended Solids
Total solids includes the solids in suspension colloidal and in dissolved form. The quantity of suspended
solids is determined by filtering the sample of water through fine filter, drying and weighing. The quantity
of dissolved and colloidal solids is determined by evaporating the filtered water obtained from the
suspended solid test and weighing the residue. The total solids in a water sample can be directly
determined by evaporating the filtered water obtained from the suspended solid test and weighing the
residue.
The total solids in a water sample can be directly determined by evaporating the water and
weighing the residue of the residue of total solids is fused in a muffle furnace the organic solids will
decompose where as only inorganic solids will remain. By weighing we can determine the inorganic solids
and deducting it from the total solids, we can calculate organic solids.
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ii. PH Value of Water

PH value denotes the concentration of hydrogen ions in the water and it is a measure of acidity or alkanity
of a substance.
[H+] [H+]
PH = - log 10 or 1 / log 10
Depending upon the nature of dissolved salts and minerals, the PH value ranges from 0 to 14. For pure
water, PH value is 7 and 0 to 7 acidic and 7 to 14 alkaline range. For public water supply PH value
may be 6.5 to 8.5. The lower value may cause corrosion, where as high value may produce
incrustation, sediment deposits and other bad effects. PH value of water is generally determined by PH
papers or by using PH meter. PH can read directly on scale or by digital display using PH meter.
iii. Hardness of Water
It is a property of water, which prevents the lathering of the soap. Hardness is of two types.
1. Temporary hardness: It is caused due to the presence of carbonates and sulphates of calcium and
magnesium. It is removed by boiling.
2. Permanent hardness: It is caused due to the presence of chlorides and nitrates of calcium and
magnesium. It is removed by zeolite method.
Hardness is usually expressed in gm/litre or p.p.m. of calcium carbonate in water. Hardness of water is
determined by EDTA method. For potable water hardness ranges from 5 to 8 degrees. Generally a
hardness of 100 to 150 mg/litre is desirable. Excess of hardness leads to the following effects.
Large soap consumption in washing and bathing
Fabrics when washed become rough and strained with precipitates.
Hard water is not fit for industrial use like textiles, paper making, dye and ice cream
manufactures.
The precipitates clog the pores on the skin and makes the skin rough
Precipitates can choke pipe lines and values
It forms scales in the boilers tubes and reduces their efficiency and cause in erustations
Very hard water is not palatable
When softening is practices when hardness exceed 300mg/lit. Water hardness more than 600 mg/lit have
to rejected for drinking purpose.
Methods of removal of hardness:
1. Boiling
2. Freezing
3. Lime addition
4. Lime soda process
5. Excess Lime treatment
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6. Caustic soda process

7. Zeolete process
8. Dimineralisation or exchange process.
Methods 1,2 and 3 are suitable for removal of temporary hardness and 4 to 8 for both temperory and
permanent hardness.
1. Removal of temporary hardness :
a. Boiling
heat
Ca(HCO3)2 -----------> CaCO3 + CO2 +H2O
heat
Mg(HCO3)2 -----------> MgCO3 + CO2 +H2O
b. Addition of lime
Ca (HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 -----------> 2CaCO3 + 2H2O Mg(HCO3)2
+ Ca(OH)2 -----------> CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O
2. Removal of permanent Hardness:
a. Lime soda process : In this method, the lime and is sodium carbonate or soda as have used to remove
permanent hardness from water. The chemical reactions involved in this process are as follows.
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 -----------> CaCO3 + H2O (removal of CO2)
Ca(HCO3) + Ca(OH)2 -----------> 2CaCO3 + 2H3O (removal of temporary hardness)
Mg(HCO3) + Ca(OH)2 -----------> CaCO3 + Mg(CO3) + 2H2O
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 ----------> Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4 { conversion of MgSO4 to CaSO4}
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 ----------> CaCO3 + Na2SO4 {removal of sulphates}
CaCl2 + Ca(OH)2 --------------> Ca(OH)2 + CaCl2
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 --------------> Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2 { removal of chlorides}
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 --------------> CaCO3 + 2NaCl
MgCl2 + Na2CO3 --------------> Mg CO3 + 2NaCl {removal of chlorides}
Advantages of lime soda process
The PH value of water treated by this process bring down to 9 and which results in decrease in
corrosion of the distribution system.
Less quantity of coagulant will be required, if this process is adopted
Removal of iron and manganese to some extent
Reduction of total mineral content of water
Hardness of water is reduced to 40mg/lit (of CaCO3) and magnesium upto 10mg/lit
The process is economical
This process is most suitable for tubed and acidic waters where it will not possible to adopt zeolite
process.
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Disadvantages
Large quantity of sludge formed during this process to be disposed off by some suitable method
This process requires skilled supervision for its successful working
If re-carbonation is omitted, a thick layer of calcium carbonate will be deposited in the filtering
media, distribution pipes etc.
b. Zeolite process
This is also known as the base-exchange or Ion exchange process. The hardness may be completely
removed by this process.
Principle: Zeolites are compounds (silicates of aluminium and sodium) which replace sodium Ions
with calcium and magnesium Ions when hardwater is passes through a bed of zeolites. The zeolite can be
regenerated by passing a concentrated solution of sodium chloride through the bed. The chemical reactions
involved are
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O (Zeolite) + Ca(HCO3)2 ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO + 2NaHCO3
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaSO4 ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO + Na2SO4
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaC12 ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO + 2NaCl
Regeneration
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + 2NaCl ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaCl2
2SiO2 Al2O3 MgO + 2NaCl ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + MgCl2
Advantages
In this process, the sludge is not formed hence problem of sludge disposal does not arise
It can be operated easily and no skilled supervision required
The hardness of water reduces to zero and hence used for boiler and texile industries
The process is economical where salt is cheaply available
The load on Zeolite can be reduced by combining it with lime or aeration process
Disadvantages
The Zeolite process cannot be used for turbed or acidic water
The Zeolite process is unsuitable for water containing Iron and Manganese
The Zeolite should be operated carefully to avoid injury or damage to the equipment
Demineralisation: Both cations and anions are removed by resins similar to zeolites in two columns by iron
exchange method. Resins may be regenerated with sulphuric acid and sodium carbonate. This process is
used in industries to get distilled water or quality water motion of water through the atmosphere, earth,
plants, trees, rivers and oceans in a cyclic motion through liquid, solid and gaseous phases is called
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE.
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iv. Chloride Content

The natural waters near the mines and sea dissolve sodium chloride and also presence of chlorides
may be due to mixing of saline water and sewage in the water. Excess of chlorides is dangerous and
unfit for use. The chlorides can be reduced by diluting the water. Chlorides above 250 ppm are not
permissible in water.
v. Nitrogen Content
The presence of nitrogen in the water indicates the presence of organic matters in the water. The nitrogen
may be present in the water may be in forms Nitrates, Free ammonia, Albuminoid nitrogen. Excess
presence of nitrogen will cause MATHEMOGLOBINEMIA disease to the children.
vi. Metals and Other Chemical Substances
Water contains various minerals or metal substances such as iron, manganese, copper, lead, barium,
cadmium, selenium, fluoride, arsenic etc. The concentration of iron and manganese should not allow more
than 0.3 ppm . Excess will cause discolouration of clothes during washing and incrustation in water mains
due to deposition of ferric hydroxide and manganese oxide. Lead and berium are very toxic, low p.p.m of
these are allowed. Arsenic, Selenium are poisonous and may cause totally, therefore they must be removed
totally. Human beings are effected by presence of high quality of copper in the water. Fewer cavities in the
teeth will be formed due to excessive presence of fluoride in water more than 1 p.p.m. A laxative effect is
caused in the human body due to excessive presence of sulphate in the water.
vii. Dissolved Gases
Oxygen and carbondi-oxide are the gases mostly found in the natural water. The surface water contain large
amount of dissolved oxygen because they absorb it from the atmosphere. Algae and other tiny plant life of
water also give oxygen to the water. The presence of oxygen in the water in dissolved form keep it fresh
and sparkling. But more quantity of oxygen causes corrosion to the pipes material.
Water absorbs carbon-dioxide from the atmosphere. If water comes across calcium and magnesium salts,
carbon-dioxide reacts with the salts and converts them into bicarbonates, causes hardness in the water. The
presence of carbon-dioxide is easily determined by adding lime solution to water gives milky white colour.
viii. Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand
If the water is contaminated with sewage, the demand of oxygen by organic matter in sewage is known as
biochemical oxygen demand. The aerobic action continues till the oxygen is present in sewege. As the
oxygen exhausts the anerobic action begins due to which foul smell starts coming. Therefore indirectly the
decomposable matters require oxygen, which is used by the organisms.
The aerobic decomposition of organic matters is done in two stages. The carbonaceous matters are
first oxidized and the oxidation of nitrogeneous matters takes place in the latter stage.
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1.4 Bacterial and Microorganisms Characteristics

The examination of water for the presence of bacteria is important for the water supply engineer from the
viewpoint of public health. The bacteria may be harmless to mankind or harmful to mankind. The former
category is known as non-pathogenic bacteria and the latter category is known as pathogenic bacteria.
Many of the bacteria found in water are derived from air, soil and vegetation. Some of these are able to
multiply and continue their existence while the remaining die out in due course of time. The selective
medium that promote the growth of particular bacteria and inbuilt the growth of other organisms is used in
the lab to detect the presence of the required bacteria, usually coliform bacteria. For bacteriological
analysis the following tests are done.
(a) Plant Count Test

In this method total number of bacteria presents in a millitre of water is counted. 1 ml of sample water is
diluted in 99ml of sterilized water and 1ml of dilute water is mixed with 10ml of agar of gelatine. This
mixture is then kept in incubator at 37C for 24 hours or 20C for 48 hours. After the sample will be taken
out from the incubator and colonies of bacteria are counted by means of microscope. Drinking water should
not have more than 10 coliforms/100ml.
(b) Most Probable Number (MPN) Test

The detection of bacteria by mixing different dilutions of a sample of water with fructose broth and keeping
it in the incubator at 37C for 48hours. The presence of acid or carbon-dioxide gas in the test tube will
indicate the presence of B-coli. After this the standard statistical tables (Maccardys) are reffered and
the MOST PROBABLE NUMBER (MPN) of B-coli per 100ml of water are determined. For drinking
water, the M.P.N. should not be more than 2.
1.5 Drinking Water Standards

World health organization has observes that 80% of communicable diseases that are transmitted through
water. The diseases like cholera, gastroenteritis, typhoid, amoebia, diarrhoea, polio, hepatitis (Jaundice),
Leptospirosis, Dracontiasis are caused by bacteria.
Excess of fluorides present in water (above 1.5 mg/litre)cause diseases like dental flurosis, sketetal
flurosis. This is a permanent irreversible disease that weakens the bone structure. The patient becomes
immobile and bedridden. Excess of nitrates in water causes Mathaemoglobinaemia or blue baby symptoms
in infants. It effects the hemoglobin in the blood and reduces its capacity to transport oxygen to the cells.
Nitrates in water are caused by industrial effluents, agricultural runoff. Toxic ions of chromium, lead,
arsenic and pesticides in water cause diseases affecting the kidney, liver and high blood pressure, paralysis,
cancer etc. These toxic substances are due to industrial effluents reaching the surface and ground water
sources.
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Table 1.1 Drinking Water Standards

No. CHARACTERICTICS ACCEPTABLE VALUE MAX. PERMISIBLE LIMIT
1. Temperature 10C 15C -

2. Turbidity (N.T.U) 2.5 10
3. Colour (platinum cobalt scale) 5.0 25
4. Taste and odour Unobjectionable
5. PH 7.0-8.5 6.5-9.2
6. Total dissolved solids(mg/litre) 500 1500
7. Total hardness mg/l (as caco3) 200 600
8. Chlorides (as Cl) mg/l 200 1000
9. Sulphates (as So4) mg/l 200 400
10. Nitrates ( as No3) mg/l 45 45
11. Fluorides (as F) mg/l 1.0 1.5
12. Calcium (as Ca) mg/l 75 200
13. Magnesium (as mg) mg/l 30-120 150
14. Iron (as Fe) mg/l 0.1 1.0
15. Manganese (As Mn) mg/l 0.05 0.5
16. Phenolic compounds 0.001 0.002
(as phenol) mg/l
17. Arsenic (as mg) mg/l 0.05 0.05
18. Chromium (as Cr+6) mg/l 0.05 0.05
19. Cynamides (as CN) mg/l 0.05 0.05
20. Coliform count per 100ml Zero -
of water sample
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CHAPTER TWO
2. WATER SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS
2.1 Introduction
To obtain a true indication of the nature of water or wastewater, it is first necessary to ensure that the sample
is actually representative of the source. Having satisfied this requirement, the appropriate analysis must be
carried out using standard procedures so that results obtained by different analyses can be directly
compared.
The collection of a representative sample from a source of uniform quality poses few problems and a single
grab sample will be satisfactory. A grab sample will also be sufficient if the purpose of sampling is simply
to provide a spot check to see whether particular limits have been compiled with.
However, most raw waters and wastewaters are highly variable in both quality and quantity so that a grab
sample is unlikely to provide a meaningful picture of the nature of the source. To obtain an accurate
assessment in this situation, it is necessary to produce a composite sample by collecting individual samples
at known time intervals throughout the period and measuring the flow at the same time.
By bulking the individual samples in proportion to the appropriate flows an integrated composite sample is
obtained. Similar procedures are often necessary when sampling streams and rivers and with large channel
sections it may be desirable to sample at several points across the section and at several depths. Various
automatic devices are available to collect composite samples and these may operate on either a time basis or
on a flow-proportional basis.
2.2 Sampling
One of the objectives of sampling is to assess the quality of the water supplied by the supply agency and of
that at the point of use, so that samples of both should be taken. Any significant difference between the two
has important implications for remedial measures.
Samples must be taken from locations that are representative of the water source, treatment plant, storage
facilities, and distribution network, points at which water is delivered to the consumer. In selecting sampling
points, each locality should be considered individually; however, the following general criteria are usually
applicable:
Sampling points should be selected such that the samples taken are representative of the different
sources from which the water is obtained by the public or enters the system;
These points should include those that yield samples representative of the conditions at the most
unfavorable sources, or places in the sample system, particularly points of possible contamination;
Sampling should be uniformly distributed throughout a piped system;
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The points chosen should generally yield samples that are representative of the system as a whole
and of its main components;
In systems with more than one water source, the locations of the sampling points should take into
account the number of inhabitants served by each source and;
There should be at least one sampling point directly after the clean water outlet from each treatment
plant.
The most important tests used in water quality surveillance or quality control in communities are those for
microbiological quality and turbidity, and for free residual chlorine and PH where chlorination is used.
These tests should be carried out whenever a sample is taken, regardless of how many other physical or
chemical variables are to be measured.
Situations that requiring testing:
Change in environmental conditions
Outbreak of waterborne diseases
Increase in incidence of waterborne diseases
Although recommendations vary, the time between sample collection and analysis should be kept to a
minimum (6-24 hours). It is assumed that the samples are immediately placed into a tight insulated box
containing melting ice. If such a container is not available, the transportation time must not exceed 2 hours.
2.2.1 Selection of Sites and Frequency of Sampling

Samples should be taken from locations that are representative of the water sources, treatment plant, storage
facilities, distribution network and household connection. Where there are several sources and a mixed
distribution system, it is necessary to take account of this. Where there is a branched distribution system,
samples should be taken at random points evenly spread throughout the system. Where there are main
branches and remote periphery, greater attention should be given to the main branches and remote
points in the next network.
Sampling of water for microbial examination
The objective of sampling is to obtain information about a particular source by examination of a small
portion of that source.
Samples may be collected as:
- Part of a quality control of surveillance systems,
- Official samples to determine conformity to legal specification, or
- Part of waterborne disease investigation.
Collection of water samples
Samples of water for bacteriological testing must be collected in a sterile bottle, and care must be taken
to prevent accidental contamination of the water during its collection and transport to the laboratory.
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The laboratory results and their interpretation are only as valid as the sample submitted for examination.
Containers for samples
Collect samples for microbiological examination preferably in a glass bottle with a capacity of at least
200 ml.
The sample bottle should be fitted with round glass stoppers or screw caps.
The stopper or cap and neck of the bottle should be protected from contamination by a suitable cover
either of paper or thin aluminum foil.
Dechlorination of samples
If the water to be examined is likely to contain chlorine (chloramines) or other halogens, add a reducing
agent to the sample collection containers.
Sodium thiosulphate (Na2S203) is a satisfactory dechlorinating agent that neutralizes any residual
halogen and prevents continuation of bacteriological action during sample transit. The examination then
will indicate more accurately the true microbial content of the water at the time of sampling.
Add 0.1-0.2 ml of Na2S203, 30 gm/l (3% weight per volume) to each bottle of 200 ml capacity before it
is sterilized.
2.2.2 Sampling procedures

When the sample is collected, leave ample air space in the bottle (at least 2.5 cm) to facilitate mixing by
shaking before examination.
Collect samples that are representative of the water being tested.
Flush or disinfect the sample parts.
Use aseptic techniques to avoid sample contamination.
Keep sampling bottle closed until it is to be filled. Remove stopper or cap as a unit; do not contaminate
the inner surface of the stopper or cap and neck of the bottle.
Fill container without rinsing and replace the stopper or cap immediately.
Size of sample
The volume of sample should be sufficient to carry out all tests required, preferably not less than 100 ml.
Identification of Data
Accompany the sample by complete and accurate identifying and descriptive data. This should include:
- Code number of the sample.
- Reasons for examination (for example, whether a routine sample or otherwise).
- Source from where the water has been collected.
- Whether the water has been filtered, chlorinated, or treated in some other way.
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- If the water is from a well, give details of depth, whether covered or uncovered, and whether
recently constructed or altered.
- If the sample is spring water, describe whether the sample was taken directly from the spring or
from a collecting chamber.
- If the water is a river or stream, mention the depth at which the sample was collected, and whether
there had been heavy rainfall or flooding.
- If the water is from a lake or reservoir, given the exact position, and the depth at which it was
collected, and whether there had been heavy rainfall or flooding.
- Indicate the temperature of the source of the sample.
- Mention any possible sources of pollution in the area, and their approximate distance from the
sampling point.
- Indicate the date and time when the sample was taken and dispatched.
Holding Time and Temperature
Start microbiological examination of water sample promptly after collection to avoid unpredictable
changes.
If samples cannot be analyzed within one hour after collection, use an ice cooler for storage during
transport to laboratory.
Hold the temperature of samples below 10 0c during a maximum transport time of 6 hours.
When local conditions necessitate delays in delivering of samples longer than 6 hours, consider conducting a
field examination, using field laboratory facilities located at the site of collection.
2.3 Water quality analysis

It is estimated that 80 % of all diseases and over one-third of deaths in developing countries are caused by
the consumption of contaminated water and, on average, as much as onetenth of each persons productive
time is lost to water-related disease.
The cause for these problems is contaminated water with pathogenic micro-organisms and harmful chemical
substances. Therefore, provision of potable water is very important to reduce these problems, as well as
developing drinking water standards with special emphasis on aesthetic, physical, chemical, bacteriological
and sanitary surveying of drinking water supply so as to reduce suffering and death in the community.
2.3.1 Aesthetic and Physical Analysis

Aesthetic parameters are those detectable by the senses, namely turbidity, color, taste, and odor. They are
important in monitoring community water supplies because they may cause the water supply to be rejected
and alternative and possibly poorer quality, sources to be adopted. Additionally, they are simple and
inexpensive to monitor qualitatively in the field.
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Color
Color in drinking water may be due to the presence of colored organic matter, (e.g. humic substances),
metals such as iron and manganese, or highly colored industrial wastes. Drinking water should be colorless.
For the purposes of surveillance of community water supplies, it is useful to note the presence or absence of
observable color at the time of sampling. Changes in the color of water and the appearance of new colors
serve as indicators that further investigation is needed.
Taste and odor
Odors in water are caused mainly by the presence of organic substances. Some odors are indicative of
increased biological activity; others may results from industrial pollution. Sanitary inspections should
always be made to correct an odor problem. Taste problems, which are sometimes grouped with odor
problems, usually account for the largest single category of consumer complaints.
Generally, the taste buds in the oral cavity detect the inorganic compounds of metals such as magnesium,
calcium, sodium, copper, iron, and zinc. As water should be free of objectionable taste and odor, it should
not be offensive to the majority of the consumers. If the sampling officer has reason to suspect the presence
of harmful contaminates in the supply, it is advisable to avoid direct tasting and swallowing of the water.
Under these circumstances, a sample should be taken for investigation to a central laboratory.
Turbidity
Turbidity is important because it affects both the acceptability of water to consumers, and the selection and
efficiency of treatment processes, particularly the efficiency of disinfection with chlorine since it exerts a
chlorine demand and protects micro-organisms and may also stimulate the growth of bacteria.
In all processes in which disinfections are used, the turbidity must always be low, preferably below 1 NTU
or (these units are interchangeable in practice). It is recommended that, for water to be disinfected, the
turbidity should be consistently less than 5 NTU or / and ideally have a median value of less than 1 NTU.
Turbidity may change during sample transit and storage, and should therefore be measured on site at the
time of sampling. This can be done by means of electronic meters, which are essential for the measurement
of turbidities below 5 NTU. For the monitoring of small community water supplies, however, meters that
are capable of measuring turbidities of 5 NTU and above are adequate. These rely on robust, low-cost
equipment that does not require batteries and is readily transportable in the field, and are therefore generally
preferred.
Environmental Significance
Turbidity is an important consideration of water supplies for three major reasons:
- Aesthetics
- Filterability
- Disinfection
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Application of Turbidity Data

Turbidity measurements are of particular importance in the field of water supply. They have limited use in
the field of domestic and industrial wastewater treatment. Turbidity is used in conjunction with other
information to determine whether the water supply requires special treatment by chemical coagulation and
filtration before it is used for public water supply.
2.3.2 Chemical Analysis

Under ideal conditions, water meant for drinking and domestic uses should not contain above the maximum
allowable concentration of chemicals that may be harmful, objectionable or economically undesirable. The
maximum allowable concentration (MAC) or the permissible dose of a toxic substance is "a definable and
measurable level of human exposure at some point above zero, below which there is no significant threat to
human health".
The aim of chemical analysis of water is, therefore, to determine the quality and quantity of different types
of chemicals that may be present in a water supply system. The analyses are generally expressed in terms of
mg/l or ppm.
Chemical analysis of water may be divided into two types:
A. General chemical analysis and
B. Sanitary chemical analysis
A. General chemical analysis
General chemical analysis is concerned with the determination of acidity-alkalinity, PH, hardness, dissolved
oxygen, hydrogen sulphide (H2S), chloride, chlorine residual, fluoride, iron, manganese, and toxic
substances such as arsenic, lead, pesticides, etc. The significance of the presence of some of these chemicals
in water will be briefly discussed below.
1. Hydrogen ion concentration (PH)
The PH of water is a measurement of how much acid or alkali is in it, the PH scale being marked from 0 to
14. A PH of 0 is extremely acid, while a PH of 14 is extremely alkaline. A scale reading of 7 indicates a
neutral point. The PH values of natural water range from slightly acidic to slightly alkaline, running from
5.5 to 8.5.
Ideally, drinking water should be neutral or slightly alkaline, PH 7.0 to 8.5. Water that is acidic is corrosive;
it affects the solubility factors of the various chemicals that might be in the water, and hence affects the
process of water treatment. On the other hand, water on the alkaline side of the scale reduces the disinfection
efficiency of chlorination, etc.
PH testing
It is important to measure PH at the same time as chlorine residual since the efficacy of disinfection with
chlorine is highly PH dependent: Where the PH exceeds 8.0, disinfection is less effective. To check that the
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PH is in the optimal range for disinfection with chlorine (less than 8.0), simple tests may be conducted in the
field using comparators such as that used for chlorine residual. With some chlorine comparators, it is
possible to measure PH and chlorine residual simultaneously.
Alternatively, portable PH electrodes and meters are available. If these are used in the laboratory, they must
be calibrated against fresh PH standards at least daily; for field use, they should be calibrated immediately
before each test. Results may be inaccurate if the water has a low buffering capacity.
Environmental significance
Change in PH gives valuable clues in water quality control. It can reflect decomposition of organics in
the water or photosynthetic activities in surface water. It can also indicate water pollution.
Biological processes in water, especially in ponds, lakes, and quiet waters, are indicated by PH changes.
The CO2 produced by the respiration of animals and plants in water is sufficient to depress the PH and
the CO2 taken up by photosynthetic process of aquatic plants is sufficient to raise PH.
Application of PH
PH measurement is important in almost every phase of water supply and wastewater treatment.
It is a factor that must be controlled in: Chemical coagulation, Disinfection, Water softening and
Corrosion control.
Hardness
Hardness of water is divided into temporary and permanent hardness. The two hardnesses considered
together are called Total Hardness. Analyses of total hardness are usually expressed in terms of CaCO 3
equivalent (mg/l of CaC03). Hard water wastes soap, forms scale in boilers, and may act as a laxative under
extreme conditions.
Chlorides
Sodium chloride or common salt dissolves easily in water. The content of chloride in natural surface waters
is generally insignificant, but groundwater may contain excessive amounts of chloride, particularly where
the rock formation of a region contains salt deposits. In other cases, the presence of excessive concentrations
of chlorides may be due to contamination of the water by sewage (urine concentration of chlorides is in the
order of about 5000 mg/l), or the mixing of salty water from coastal areas with fresh water. In any case, the
concentration and the source of the chlorides in water supply must be determined.
Water that contains high concentrations of chlorides has an unpleasant taste; the level at which this
objectionable taste is noticeable depends on the individual. WHOs an international standard for drinking
water (1971) indicates 200 mg/l as the highest desirable level, and 600 mg/l as the maximum permissible
level of chlorides in drinking water.
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Chlorine residual test

The disinfection of drinking water supplies constitutes an important barrier against waterborne diseases.
Although various disinfectants may be used, chlorine in one form or another is the principal disinfecting
agent employed in small communities in most countries.
Chlorine has a number of advantages as disinfectant, including its relative cheapness, efficacy, and ease of
measurement, both in laboratories and in the field. An important additional advantage over some other
disinfectants is that chlorine leaves a disinfectant residual that assists in preventing recontamination during
distribution, transport, and household storage of water. The absence of a chlorine residual in the distribution
system may, in certain circumstances, indicate the possibility of post-treatment contamination.
Three types of chlorine residual may be measured: free chlorine (the most reactive type, i.e. hypochlorous
acid and the hypochlorite ion); combined chlorine (less reactive but more persistent type formed by the
reaction of free chlorine species with organic material and ammonia); and total chlorine (the sum of the
free and combined chlorine residuals). Free chlorine is unstable in aqueous solution, and the chlorine
content of water samples may decrease rapidly, particularly at warm temperatures. Exposure to strong light
or agitation will accelerate the rate of loss of free chlorine. Water samples should therefore be analyzed for
free chlorine immediately upon sampling and not stored for later testing.
The method recommended for the analysis of chlorine residual in drinking water employs N, N-diethyl P-
phenyl enediamine, more commonly referred to as DPD. Methods in which 0-tolidine is employed were
formerly recommended, but this substance is a recognized carcinogen, and the method is inaccurate and
should not be use. Analysis using starch-potassium iodide is not specific for free chlorine, but measures
directly the total of free and combined chlorine; the method is not recommended except in countries where it
is impossible to obtain or prepare DPD.
Iron and manganese
Iron and manganese are usually considered together because they usually occur together in groundwater,
and their chemical behavior is similar. Iron and manganese, when present in excess of the optimum level of
concentration, impart a brown-to-reddish color to the water, and they stain clothes washed in such water.
They also affect the taste of water, and their removal to an acceptable level (MAC: iron as Fe 1.0 mg/l, and
manganese as Mn 0.5 mg/l) is essential in water treatment.
Lead
Lead (Pb) is one of the toxic elements that may be present in a water supply, but which is not normally
found in natural waters. However, lead dissolves in water that is acidic, and will contaminate water that is
conveyed through lead pipes, collected over lead-painted surfaces or stored in lead-coated containers, etc.
Lead can also reach water through industrial wastes. Lead poisoning is cumulative; that is, it increases with
every addition of lead in the human system, which cannot get rid of it; and it causes various forms of
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paralysis. The maximum allowable concentration that can be permitted in water without ill effects is
established to be less than 0.1 mg/l.
B. Sanitary chemical analysis
As the name implies, sanitary chemical analysis of water is concerned with tests intended to reveal the
sanitary quality of water. The analysis usually involves the detection of nitrogenous compounds (e.g.
ammonia, nitrites and nitrates). The correlation of this test with the sanitary quality of the water is based on
the nitrogen cycle in nature.
Nitrogen compounds are among the main constituents of all organic matter, plants and animals. When
organic matter, such as human feces, animal droppings, dead bodies, etc., decays, nitrogenous compounds
are the main products given off. One of the first products of decay is ammonia, which, with the help of some
nitrifying bacteria in the soil, is converted to nitrite.
The sanitary significance of this is that, if nitrogen-ammonia, nitrogen-nitrite (the intermediate stage of
decay), or nitrogen-nitrate (the final stage of decay) is detected in water above the maximum allowable
concentration, then this must be due to decomposition that is taking place, or that has taken place in the
recent past. Hence, this is an indication that the water is polluted with decaying organic waste.
Furthermore, dissolved nitrogen-nitrates (NO3) are a health hazard when present in water above the
permissible level of concentration. The presence of more than 45 mg/l concentration of NO3 in water supply
causes a disease known as methaemoglobinaemia ("blue babies") in infants less than three months old.
This can happen when babies consume food or milk prepared with water that has a high nitrate
concentration. The disease is restricted mainly to infants of less than three months, because only the
intestinal bacterial floras of infants of this age are able to convert the nitrate. The newly formed nitrite then
converts hemoglobin, the blood pigment that is responsible for the circulation of oxygen in the tissues, to
methaemoglobin, which interferes with the oxygen-transporting function of the hemoglobin; the end-result
is oxygen deprivation (suffocation) of the body tissues.
Nitrates may also reach water from other sources, such as carelessly stored fertilizers, runoff from fertilized
fields, cattle feeds enriched with nitrate compounds, etc. Technically, nitrates can be removed or reduced to
a desirable level in drinking water, but the method is generally complex, expensive and impracticable under
rural or semirural conditions.
2.3.3 Bacteriological Analysis

The principal risk associated with water in community supplies is that of infectious disease related to fecal
contamination. Hence, the microbiological examination of drinking water emphasizes assessment of the
hygienic quality of the supply. Indicator organisms may be used to assess the efficiency of drinking water
treatment plants, which is an important element of quality control. The isolation of specific pathogens in
water should be undertaken for the purposes of investigating and controlling outbreaks of disease.
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Bacterial indicators of fecal pollution

The use of normal intestinal organisms as indicators of fecal pollution rather than the pathogens themselves
is a universally accepted principle for monitoring and assessing the microbial safety of water supplies.
Feces contain a large number of organisms including Escherichia coli, streptococcus fecalis and clostridium
perfringens. These organisms form part of the normal bacterial flora of the intestinal tract. A useful way,
therefore, for determining whether a water supply is fecal polluted and could possibly contain enteric
pathogens dangerous to health, is to test the presence of normal fecal organisms.
Direct search for all potentially present pathogens is not practicable for routine control purposes, because:
The pathogens present are usually greatly outnumbered by normal intestinal microbes (1:106).
They tend to die off faster, and
Isolation of and specific tests on all possible pathogens involve complicated and lengthy procedures.
Therefore, simple and rapid tests have been developed for detection of normal intestinal bacteria that in this
way are used as indicators or tracer bacteria of fecal pollution of water; their presence indicating only those
pathogens might also be present. Hence, if water is found to contain fecal indicator bacteria, it is considered
unsafe for human consumption.
Bacteria indicators/tracers of fecal contamination ideally should fulfill the following requirements.
o Be applicable to all types of water
o Always be present when pathogens are present
o Always be absent when pathogens are absent
o Be easy to detect and count, and detectable in low densities
o Be non-pathogenic for the safety of laboratory personnel
o Be a normal member of intestinal flora of healthy people
o Be exclusively intestinal inhabitants, hence exclusively
o facal in origin when found in the environment
o Unable to multiply outside the intestine.
No bacterial species or groups presently in use completely fulfill all these requirements. But a few come
close to doing so. In conventional water bacteriology, three main groups or species of bacteria are used as
fecal indicators:
1. Coliform bacteria (E. -coli, Citrobacter, Entrobacter, klebsiella)
- Total coliform (TC)
- Fecal coliform (FC)
- Non-fecal coliferm (NFC)
2. Fecal streptococci (FS) or Entrococcus - e.g. streptococcus fecalis
3. Clostridium perfringens (Cl. Welchi).
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Coliform Bacteria
Are present in human and animal feces; in human feces in numbers of 10 6-10 9 /gm of stool
Are the most sensitive fecal indicator; one cell in 100 ml water is detectable.
Exist in two main groups; fecal and non-fecal coliforms (together forming total coliforms)
The term total coliforms refers to gram negative, rod shaped, aerobic or faclutive bacteria capable of
growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth inhibiting
properties, and able to ferment lactose at either 35oc or 37oc with the production of acid gas and
aldenyde within 24-48 hours
Total coliforms include E. coli, Citrobacter, Entrobacter and klebsiella. Total coliforms are derived not
only from the feces of warm-blooded animals but also from vegetation and soil. Therefore, the detection
of total coliforms only from a water sample may not indicate pollution by fecal matter.
- Fecal cloiforms are coliforms that exhibit the same properties as total coliferms at temperature of
44 oc or 44.50 oc
- Total coliforms comprise the genus E. coli and, to at certain extent, occasional strains of
entrobacter, citrobacter and klebsiella. Of these organisms, only E. coli is specifically of fecal
origin, being always present in the feces of humans, animals and birds in large numbers and rarely
found in water or soil that has not been subject to fecal pollution.
- Complete identification of E. coli in terms of modern taxonomy would require an extensive series of
tests, which would be impractical for routine water examination. Therefore, detection and
identification of fecal coliforms as fecal organisms or presumptive E. coli is considered to provide
sufficient information to assess the fecal nature of pollution.
- Fecal coliform organisms that ferment lactose at 44 oc or 44.5 oc with the production of acid and gas
and that also form indole from tryptophan are regarded as presumptive E coli.
- Fecal (thermo-tolerant) coliforms are less reliable indicators of fecal contamination than E. coli
although under most circumstances their concentrations are directly related to E. coli concentration
in water. Their use for water-quality examination is, therefore, considered acceptable.
Fecal Streptococcus
Fecal streptococci are present in the human body and animal feces. Their number in humans is 105-108/gm
of stool; in general, smaller than that of coliforms.
The fecal streptococcus group consists of a number of species of the genus streptococcus such as
streptococcus fecalis, streptococcus faecium, streptococcus bovis, streptococcus equinus and streptococcus
gallinarum.
The normal habitat of fecal streptococcus is the gastrointestinal tract of warm-blooded animals.
Streptococcus fecalis and streptococcus facium are considered to be more human-specific than other
streptococcus species. Other species have been observed in human feces but less frequently.
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The entrococcus group is a subgroup of the fecal streptococci that includes S. fecalis, S. facium, S.
gallinarum and S. avium. The entrococci are differentiated from other streptococci by their ability to grow in
6.5% sodium chloride at pH 9.6 and at 450c.
The main value of fecal streptococcus lies in assessing the significance of doubtful results from the coliform
tests. When organisms of the coliform groups but not E. coli are found in a water sample, the finding of
fecal streptococcus affords important confirmatory evidence of the fecal nature of pollution. Sometimes
fecal streptococcus tests are used as an independent test in the examination of swimming pool water.
Clostridium Perfringens (Cl. Welchi)
Clostridium perfringens is anaerobic, spore forming, exclusively fecal in origin, and can also be pathogenic
(gas gangrene and food poisoning) Cl. perfringens occurs in human and animal feces. A gram of human
feces may contain 101 107 Cl. Perfringens, which is lower than fecal streptococcus and fecal coliforms. Cl.
perfringens can persist for a longer time outside the intestine, and resist chlorination. It can, therefore, be
used as an indicator of occasional or intermittent fecal contamination (example, of open wells) or of fecal
pollution of a remote date, when no fecal coliforms or fecal streptococcus can be detected any more.
Methods of Examination of Water
In the interest of public health, drinking water sources should be tested regularly to confirm their freedom
from fecal contamination. It is impractical to attempt directly to detect the presence of all the different kinds
of water borne pathogens. Instead, reliance is placed on testing the supply for fecal indicator bacteria. It is
necessary not only to attempt to detect the presence of indicator bacteria, but also to enumerate them, for the
greater their number, the greater the dangers of infection from the supply.
There are two principal methods for counting and identification of indicator organisms. These methods are:
1. Membrane Filter method;
2. Multiple Tube Fermentation or Most Probable Number (MPN) Method.
1. Membrane Filter (MF) Method
In this method, a measurable volume of the water sample is filtered through a membrane with a pore size
small enough to retain the indicator bacteria to be counted. The membrane is then placed and incubated on a
selective indicator medium, so that the indicator bacteria grow into colonies on the upper surface. These
colonies, which are recognized by their color, morphology and ability to grow on the selective medium, are
counted.
The membrane filter technique is highly reproducible, can be used to test relatively large sample volumes,
and yields numerical results more rapidly than the multiple tube procedure. The membrane filter is
extremely useful in monitoring drinking water. In the membrane filter technique, sample sizes will be
governed by expected bacterial density. In drinking water analysis, sample size will be limited only by the
degree of turbidity or by the non-coliform growth on the medium.
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An ideal sample volume will yield 20 to 80 coliform colonies, and not more than 200 colonies of all types
on a membrane filter surface. Analysis of drinking waters can be conducted by filtering 100 1000 ml or by
filtering replicate smaller sample volumes.
Analysis of other water can be conducted by filtering three different volumes (diluted or undiluted),
depending on the expected bacterial density. When less than 10 ml of sample (diluted or undiluted) is to be
filtered, add approximately 10 ml sterile dilution water to the funnel before filtration, or pipette the sample
volume into a sterile dilution flask, and then filter the entire dilution. This increase in water volume aids in
uniform dispersion of the bacterial suspension over the entire effective filtering surface.
In the membrane filtration method, a minimum volume of 10ml of the sample (or dilution of the sample) is
introduced aseptically into a sterile membrane filter. A vacuum is applied and the sample is drawn through
the membrane filter. All indicator organisms are retained on or within the filter, which is then transferred to
a suitable selective culture medium in a petri dish. Following a period of resuscitation, during which bacteria
become acclimatized to new condition, the petri dish is transferred to an incubator at the appropriate
selective temperature where it is incubated for a suitable time to allow the replication of the indicator
organism.
Visually identifiable colonies are formed and counted, and the results are expressed in numbers of color
formation (CFU) per 100 ml of original sample.
2. Multiple Tube Fermentation or MPN Method
The multiple tube fermentation method determines the presence and number of coliform bacteria through
the planting of a series of measured sample portions into tubes containing favorable culture media. The test
progresses through three distinct phases:
i. The presumptive phase
ii. The confirmed phase
iii. The completed phase.
It is possible to stop the examination of a water sample at the end of any of these phases, provided the
purpose of the test has been fulfilled, or the examination may proceed directly from one stage to the
following stage.
The confirmed test and the completed test increase the certainty that positive results obtained in the
presumptive test are due to coliform bacteria, and not to the activity of other kinds of bacteria.
The completed test is the standard test for the determination of the bacteriological safety of water. In routine
practice, bacteriological testing of most public water supplies is stopped as the end of the confirmed test.
The confirmed test is also valuable in testing sample from the sources of a water supply from various parts
of a water treatment plant.
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When multiple tubes are used in the fermentation technique, the results of examination of triplicate tubes
and dilutions are reported in terms of the most probable number, based on certain probability formulas, as an
estimate of the mean density of coliforms in the sample.
MPN tables are based on the assumption of a Poisson distribution (random dispersion). However, if the
sample is not adequately shaken before the portions are removed, or if clumping of bacterial cells occurs,
the MPN value will be an underestimate of the factual bacterial density.
The precision of each test depends on the number of tubes used. The most satisfactory information will be
obtained when the largest sample of inoculums examined shows positive reaction in some or all of the tubes,
and the smallest sample of inoculums shows negative reaction in all or a majority of the tubes.
The multiple tube method is also referred to as the most probable number (MPN) method because, unlike
the membrane filter method, it is based on an indirect assessment of microbial density in the water sample
by reference to statistical tables to determine the MPN micro-organisms present in the original sample. It is
essential for highly turbid water samples that cannot be analyzed by membrane filter.
The multiple tube methods depend on the separate analysis of a number of volumes of the same sample.
Each volume is mixed with culture medium and incubated. The concentration of micro-organisms in the
original sample can then be estimated from the pattern of positive results by means of statistical tables that
give the MPN per 100 ml of original sample.
2.3.4 Sanitary Survey

A sanitary survey of a water supply system is the complete, extremely careful and detailed investigation of
the entire water supply system, from the source to the consumer, in order to detect the presence of actual or
potential sources of contamination. The sanitary survey report of the water supply system is the single
reliable and practical source of information for ascertaining the potability of the water supply.
Sanitary survey of a water supply includes the following information:
Geological and topographical survey of the source: the type and nature of the rock formations of the
locality, (including porosity, permeability, existence of limestone,), hydraulic gradient, depth to water
table, etc.; the extent of the drainage or catchments basin of the source or other feeders of the source,
the type of vegetation, and the factors that all these points may contribute to contamination.
Human habitation, livestock and animal population: the existence of actual or potential sources of
contaminants as the result of human activities. For example, methods of excreta disposal, refuse
disposal, and animal waste disposal; the distance of such sources of contaminants, latrines, cesspools,
sewage, etc., from the water source; industrial or other wastes which are being drained or will be
drained into the source.
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Amount and duration of rainfall: the chances of infiltration or flooding of runoff during rainy seasons
and dry seasons to the source; preventive measures against such infiltration by diversion ditches, if
any or by other means.
Soundness of the protection technique: if the source is a well or a spring, the soundness of the casing
platform and cover to exclude the infiltration of contaminants; the possibility of contamination
through the method of drawing water (water pump, sanitary bucket and rope, etc.); the gradient and
distance from potential sources of contaminants, with the chance or infiltration from nearby streams,
ponds, septic tank effluents, seepage pits, cesspools, oxidation ponds, etc.
Efficiency of treatment: the type of treatment used and the efficiency of each step: aeration, chemical
coagulation, sedimentation filtration (slow or rapid sand filter) chlorination; storage methods and
condition of the reservoir; possibilities of contamination during pumping, transport (piping), storage
and distribution, including public standpipes and house connections; frequency of supervision, type of
personnel and their qualification for running the treatment processes; regularity of chlorination;
presence of residual chlorine at all times and at all points in the system, availability of residual
chlorine records (daily, weekly, etc.); frequency of disinfection, if any; and, if the source is ground-
water, type and frequency of laboratory test performed.
Review Questions
1. What is the objective of sampling?
2. What are the prerequisites taken into consideration in the handling of sample bottle for
bacteriological analysis?
3. What is the importance of dechlorination of samples of water for microbiological analysis?
4. What is the environmental significance of turbidity?
5. What is the implication of high/low conductivity?
6. What are the tablets used in testing PH and residual chlorine?
7. Discuss briefly the similarities and differences between general and chemical analysis.
8. Justify that Coliform organisms are the preferred indicators compared with pathogenic micro-
organisms
9. Which methods of water quality test for microbiological analysis are feasible during fieldwork?
10. Write the common ingredient of culture media.
11. Write and discuss types and forms of culture media.
12. What factors are to be considered in sampling water for bacteriological examinations?
13. What factors are to be considered during sanitary inspections?
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CHAPTER Three
3 WATER TREATEMENT
3.1 Introduction
Water is used for many purposes associated with human activity. In its natural state it occurs in and on the
ground in sub-surface and surface reservoirs. The quality and reliability of a source of water will vary
considerably, both in time and space. This means that characteristics (chemical, physical, and biological)
will differ greatly depending upon the location and type of source. It also means that a given source may
vary over the seasons of the year.
Thus, in the selection of a water source, consideration is usually given to the use to which the water will
ultimately be put, so as to minimize the cost of treatment. Simultaneously, consideration must be given to
the reliability of the source to provide an accurate and constant source of supply. Ground water supply may
enjoy the benefit of requiring little or no treatment, while a surface supply such as a river, pond or lake may
require considerable and perhaps seasonally varying treatment. However, a surface supply is visible and
therefore more reliable whereas a ground water supply may just disappear with no warning or notice. In
certain areas, fresh water is so scarce that the source must be accepted and choices are not available.
In 1854, cholera claimed the lives of 10,675 people in London, England. In 1910, the death rate from
typhoid fever in the City of Toronto, Canada, was 40.8 per 100,000. By 1931 it had fallen to 0.5 per
100,000. These improvements all related to the extensive water purification and sterilization techniques that
were introduced to municipal water treatment systems during that period.
We must therefore determine the significance of water quality before we examine the types of treatment that
are necessary to achieve this quality. Water quality very much depends upon the use for which the water is
intended. For example, industrial boiler feed water requires a very low hardness because the hardness tends
to deposit on the pipes in the boiler system and reduces the efficiency of the heat transfer. However, if the
hardness of the boiler feed water is zero, the water tends to be very corrosive and this of course is also very
undesirable for a boiler system.
Thus, assuming that natural water requires some kind of treatment in order to achieve certain predetermined
standards, and the process of treating these waters can be subdivided into physical and chemical processes,
the remainder of this section will deal with the physical and chemical methods of treating water for
municipal use.
Water treatment on a large scale is utilized where the population is larger and when there is an organized
municipality operating the treatment plant for the production and distribution of adequate and safe water for
HUIOT/WSEE Page 130

the community. It is different from treatment of water on a small scale; hence, it utilizes different
complicated steps of water treatment units for filtration of raw water for large populations.
Water Treatment can be defined as the processes of removing those substances, whether biological,
chemical or physical, which are potentially dangerous or undesirable in water supply for human and
domestic use.
Main objective of water treatment

1. To remove pathogenic organisms and consequently to prevent waterborne disease.
2. To remove substance which impart color, taste or odor to the water.
3. To remove excess or undesirable chemicals or minerals from the water.
4. To regulate essential elements or chemicals that may be in excess or lacking in a certain water
supply (e.g. fluoridation or defluoridation of water, softening of water, etc.)
5. To remove excess or undesirable dissolved gasses.
In order to achieve these objectives, water treatment procedures may involve a simple physical process such
as sedimentation, or complex physio-chemical and biological processes, depending upon the undesirable
elements or substance present in the raw water that we need to improve. The treatment process or processes
to be used in any specific instance will depend upon the nature and quality of the raw water to be treated,
which will in turn depend on the source of the raw water and its surroundings, particularly the existence of
actual and potential sources of contamination. Nevertheless, treatment processes and practices have been
generally standardized, and the steps applied are universally practiced.
Preliminary planning of water treatment plant work should include a comprehensive study of the
catchments area in terms of:
1. Size, topography, population division and surface geology
2. Source of pollution
3. Sewage treatment facilities
4. Raw water characteristics including physical, radiological, chemical, bacteriological and biological
characteristics
5. Rainfall and run-off data
6. Evaporation rate
7. Anticipated water supply requirement, (minimum, maximum and average); and
8. Other items of importance in providing a safe water supply, adequate in amount for the community
in question.
The most important factors influencing in selection of treatment processes are:
Treated water specifications.
Raw water quality and its variations.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 131
Local constraints (availability of skill, manpower and funds).

Relative cost of different treatment processes.
Steps in Municipal Water Treatment Plant
1. Preliminary water treatment
- The source and intake of the raw water
- Screening
2. Aeration and pre-chlorination
3. Coagulation and flocculation
4. Sedimentation
5. Filtration
6. Post-chlorination
7. Supplementary treatment
3.2 Preliminary Water Treatment

To protect the main units of a treatment plant and to aid in their efficient operation, it is necessary to remove
any large floating and suspended solids that are often present in the inflow. These materials include leaves,
twigs, paper, rags and other debris that could obstruct flow through a plant or damage equipment in the
plant.
3.2.1 The Source and Intake of the Raw Water

The intake phase of municipal water treatment starts with a careful survey of the sanitary condition of the
entire catchments basin or drainage area of the source of the raw water, whether it is river, lake or artificial
pond. As a rule, the source, especially the intake area, should be fenced around or maintained in such a way
that gross pollutants such as sewage and industrial waste are entirely prevented from entering it. Obviously,
the better the quality of the raw water, the more the saving in treatment cost. An appropriate size of intake
pipe is installed at a carefully selected point at the source, and a pumping station, if needed, is constructed at
the size of the intake. Then, depending on the presence of undesirable substances in the raw water, the
treatment process is selected.
3.2.2 Screening
River water frequently contains suspended and floating debris varying in size from logs to small rags. These
solids can clog and damage pumps or impede the hydraulic flow in open channels and pipes. Screening is
the first step in treating water containing large solids.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 132

Type of Screening
1. Coarse screening
River water intakes are commonly located in a protected area along the shore to minimize collection of
floating debris. Lake water is withdrawn below the surface to preclude interference from floating materials.
Coarse screens of vertical steel bars having openings of 1-3 inches are employed to exclude large materials.
The clear openings should have sufficient total area so that the velocity through them is less than 3 feet per
second. These screens are available with mechanical rakes to take accumulated material from the bars. A
coarse screen can be installed ahead of a finer one used to remove leaves, twigs, small fish, and so on.
Whatever the source of water, it is necessary to insert some kind of screen in the system in order to prevent
the passage of solids in the subsequent steps of water treatment. If the source of water is a well, the screens
tend to be designed to prevent the admission of sand from the water bearing strata in to the pumping system.
Where water supply is drawn from rivers or lakes, the intake usually has to be screened and built of
corrosion-resistant materials in order to prevent the admission of fish or logs or any other undesirable solids
into the system.
2. Micro-strainer (Fine Screen)

The micro-strainer is a development of the drum screen that uses a fine woven stainless steel mesh with
aperture sizes of 20-60 m to provide removal of relatively small solids. It has applications in water
treatment for removal of algae and similar size particles from water of otherwise good quality.
A micro-strainer is also employed as a final tertiary stage to produce a high-quality sewage effluent.
Because of the small mesh apertures, clogging occurs rapidly so that the drum is rotated at a peripheral
speed of about 0.5 m/s and the mesh continually washed clean by high-pressure sprays. Straining rates in
normal usage are 750-2500 m3 /m2/day.
The design of micro-strainer installations is based on the laboratory determination of empirical

characteristics of the suspension known as the filterability index. This parameter measures the behavior of
the suspension with reference to its clogging properties and can be used to determine the allowable straining
rate to prevent excessive clogging and possible physical damage to the mesh.
In some locations where it is found that seasonally algal blooms become a nuisance, micro-straining has
been introduced. Micro-strainers are a very fine weave of stainless steel wire with apertures sufficiently
small to prevent the passage of the microscopic algae which is normally found in an algal bloom. Such a
screening system is normally only required on a seasonal basis and in certain locations where these
problems are prevalent. Micro-straining is conducted at such a very small diameter orifice that it is
sometimes considered to be a part of filtration.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 133

3.2.3 Aeration
Within the hydrological cycle, freshwater is exposed to the earths atmosphere in falling rain and snow, and
in runoff from rainfall and snowmelt gathered in the brooks and rivers, ponds, lakes, and reservoirs. In
reduced volume, freshwaters are exposed also to ground air within the voids of soils through which seepage
waters flow. From the free atmosphere, surface water absorbs mainly oxygen and nitrogen in smaller
amounts, and carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and other gases released to the atmosphere by:
Household and industrial operation (mainly the combustion of fuels), and
the respiration of living things ranging from man and the higher animals to the saprophytes
responsible for the degradation of organic matter.
From the ground air, groundwater may absorb methane, hydrogen sulfide, and large amount of carbon
dioxide, all of them gases of decomposition that accumulates in the ground. When plants die, the stubble of
crops is left to rot, leaves fall, and organic waste substance are destroyed by bacteria, moulds, and other
micro-organisms of the teeming soil. Currently, ground waters may surrender their dissolved oxygen to the
saprophytes. If all the available oxygen disappears, decomposition becomes anaerobic. Similar change takes
place also in the stagnant depths of ponds, lakes, and reservoirs and in tidal estuaries in which organic
detritus is laid down in bethel deposits.
From what has been said, it is clear that the discharge of putrid or decomposable organic matter into natural
water by households and industry and its entrance into these waters as decaying or as fertilizing elements
through run off from agricultural lands increase the aquatic food supply and within the general lands
increases the aquatic food supply and within the generation of gases of decomposition, while draining
heavily on available oxygen resources, thereby affecting the quality of water.
In most instances the engineering objective of aeration is either the removal of gases or other violet
substance from the above-water source. In some instances, however, air may be injected into water slowly
for purposes of agitation.
Aeration for gas exchange in simplest and the most direct form has the following aims:
1. Addition of oxygen to oxidize dissolved iron and manganese in water drawn from the ground and, in
wide measure, to maintain wanted oxygen tension in waste water treatment and disposal including
both natural and induced aeration of polluted water.
2. Removal of carbon dioxide to reduce corrosion and interference with lime-soda softening.
3. Removal of hydrogen sulfide to eliminate odor and taste, decrease the corrosion of metals and
disintegration of cement and concrete, and lessen interference with chlorination.
4. Removal of methane to prevent fires and explosions; and
5. Removal of volatile oils and similar odor and taste producing substances released by algae and other
microorganisms.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 134

Aerator spaces, especially enclosed spaces, should be well ventilated not only to create effective
differentials in gas concentration between the two phases, but also to prevent:
Asphyxiation of operating or repair crews and visitors by carbon dioxide,
Their poisoning by hydrogen sulfide and,
Formation of explosive mixtures of methane with air.
3.2.4 Pre chlorination

Pre-chlorination replaces aeration in some water purification plants. Pre-chlorination accomplishes a similar
objective to aeration, and in addition, it helps to control the growth of algae, which cause the clogging of
filter sand. Pre-chlorination should not be confused with the universal practice of chlorination or
disinfecting; the latter practice is usually termed as post-chlorination.
Use of Pre chlorination will:
Improve coagulation
Reduce taste and odor caused by organic sludge in the sedimentation tank
Reduce excess growth of algae and other organisms
Reduce frequency of cleaning sand filters
Pre-chlorination is not applicable in developing country like Ethiopia where the process is uneconomical
and very difficult from the practical point of view.
3.3 Plain Sedimentation

In water treatment, sedimentation, or the removal by gravitational settling of suspended particles heavier
than water, is perhaps the most widely useful operation. When the impurities are separated from the
suspending fluid by gravitational or natural aggregation of the settling particles, the operation is called plain
sedimentation. When chemical or other substance are added to induce aggregation and settling of finely
divided suspended matter, colloidal substance, and the large molecule, the operation is called
sedimentation by coagulation.
Factors that influence effective sedimentation processes are :
Size, shape and weight of particles, or floc (precipitate)
Velocity and temperature of the water
Effective average period available for sedimentation
Area of the basin of tank
Effective depth of the tank or basin
Surface overflow rate
Inlet and outlet position of the tank
HUIOT/WSEE Page 135

3.3.1Clarification
Many of the impurities in water and wastewater occur as suspended matter, which remains in suspension in
flowing liquids but which will move vertically under the influence of gravity in quiescent or semi-quiescent
conditions. Usually the particles are denser than the surrounding liquid so that sedimentation takes place, but
with very small particles and with low-density particles, flotation may offer a more satisfactory clarification
process. Sedimentation units have a dual role: the removal of settleable solids and the concentration of the
removed solids into a smaller volume of sludge.
3.3.2The Ideal Sedimentation Basin

The behavior of a sedimentation tank operating on a continuous flow basis with a discrete suspension of
particles can be examined by reference to an ideal sedimentation basin which assumes:
1. Quiescent conditions in the settling zone
2. Uniform flow across the settling zone
3. Uniform solids concentration as flow enters the settling zone
4. Solids entering the sludge zone are not re-suspended.
Figure 2.1 . The ideal sedimentation basin

(Adapted from Tebbutt, Principles of Water Quality Control. 3rd edition, Pergamon Press, 1983.)
Efficiency of Sedimentation Tanks
The hydraulic behavior of a tank may be examined by injecting a tracer into the inlet and observing its
appearance in the effluent. The flow-through curves so obtained are of infinite variety, ranging from the
ideal plug flow case to that of a completely mixed tank. The flow-through curve obtained in practice is a
combination of the two extremes: short- circuiting due to density currents and mixing due to hydraulic
HUIOT/WSEE Page 136

turbulence producing a peak earlier than would be expected in an ideal tank. Thus the actual retention time
is often considerably less than the theoretical value.
Since the purpose of sedimentation tanks is to remove suspended matter, the logical way of expressing their
efficiency is by the percentage removal of such solids. The normal SS (suspended solids) determination
records particles down to a few microns whereas floc particles smaller than 100 m are unlikely to be
removed by sedimentation. Thus a sedimentation tank will never remove all the SS from sewage and the
normal range of SS removal from sewage by sedimentation is 50-60%. Research has shown that with
heterogeneous suspensions such as sewage, the hydraulic loading on a tank has less influence on the
removal efficiency than the influent SS concentrations.
3.3.3 Types of Sedimentation Tank

1. The horizontal tank
2. Circular tank
3. Hopper bottom tank
The main types of sedimentation tank found in use are shown in Fig. 2.2. The horizontal tank is compact but
suffers from a restricted effluent weir length unless suspended weirs are adopted. Sludge is moved to the
sump by a traveling bridge scraper, which may serve several tanks, or by a continuous belt system with
flights. The sludge is withdrawn from the sump under hydrostatic head. Circular tanks offer advantages of
long weir length and simpler scraping mechanisms but are not so compact. Hopper bottom tanks with
horizontal flow are popular on small sewage works where the extra construction cost is more than offset by
the absence of any scraping mechanism.
The vertical flows are popular on small sewage works where the extra construction cost is more than offset
by the absence of any scraping mechanism. The vertical flow hopper bottom tank is often used in water
treatment plants and operates with a sludge blanket which serves to strain out particles smaller than would
be removed by sedimentation alone at the overflow rate employed.
Sedimentation tanks have two functions: the removal of settleable solids to produce an acceptable output,
and the concentration of the removed solids into a smaller volume. The design of a tank must consider both
of these functions and the tank should be sized on whichever of the requirements is limiting. The sludge
thickening function of a tank is likely to be important when dealing with relatively high concentrations of
homogeneous solids.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 137

Figure.2.2. Types of sedimentation tank

(Adapted from Tebbutt. Principles of Water Quality Control. 3rd edition, Pergamon Press, 1983.)
3.3.4 Flotation
An alternative clarification technique, which is particularly attractive for relatively small particles and for
particles with a density close to that of water, is flotation. With flotation the loading rates are not directly
related to the suspension characteristics so it is usually possible to provide relatively short retention times
whilst still obtaining good clarification. The process involves the addition of a flotation agent, usually fine
air bubbles, which becomes associated with the suspended particles and thus provides the necessary
buoyancy to carry them to the surface of the tank where they can be removed as scum.
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Air flotation requires the release of a cloud of fine air bubbles at the base of the unit and this is usually
achieved by saturating a portion of the treated flow (the recycle) with air at high pressure. When this
pressurized liquid is returned to the main flow at atmospheric pressure, the excess air comes out of solution
in the desired fine bubble form. The bubbles of air become attached to or enmeshed in the suspended
particles, which then rise to the surface because of their reduced density. Figure 2.3 shows that schematic
arrangement of a typical dissolved air flotation unit.
For water treatment operation recycle ratios of around 10% with pressurization up to 400 kPa have proved
satisfactory, giving rise rates of about 12 m/h with good clarification. The scum removed from the tank
surface usually has significantly higher solids content than that achievable by sedimentation of the same
suspension. The capital cost of flotation units is less than that of the equivalent sedimentation units but
operating costs are higher.
Figure 2.3 Dissolve air flotation

3.4 Coagulation and flocculation

Many impurities in water and wastewater are present as colloidal solids, which will not settle. Their removal
can be achieved by promoting agglomeration of such particles by flocculation with or without the use of a
coagulant followed by sedimentation or flotation.
3.4.1Most commonly used coagulants

A. Aluminum Sulphate
B. Ferrous Sulphate
C. Ferric Sulphate
D. Magnesium Carbonate
E. Polyelectrolyte
F) Copper Sulphate
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3.4.2The principle of chemical coagulation in terms of chemical reaction

Most of the suspended particles in water are in colloidal form. Colloids may be defined as minute particles
that exist in dispersed state in a liquid, in this case water. The average size of colloidal particles ranges from
one micron (one micron is equivalent to 1/10,000 cm or 10-3 millimeters) to 100 mill microns.
When a solution of aluminum sulphate is added to the water, however, its molecules dissociate into Al 3+ and
SO4-2. Some of the positively charged molecules of alum (Al 3+) combine with the negatively charged
colloids in the water:
Al 3+ + Colloid Al Colloid
At the same time some of the Al3+ combines with the OH in water, forming aluminum hydroxides:
Al 3+ + 3OH Al (OH)3
Al (OH)3 + colloid Al (OH)3 colloid
The aluminum hydroxide farther interacts with the negatively charged colloids, thus forming relatively
heavy flocs, which are removed during coagulation. The end result of chemical coagulation is shown in the
following reaction.
Al2 (S04)3 + 3 Ca (HCO3)2 2Al (OH)3 + 3 CaSO4 + 6 CO2
Natural water normally contains calcium bicarbonate alkalinity, which may be sufficient to bring about the
desired result when alum is added to water. However, if the water does not contain sufficient alkalinity for
the quantity of alum to be added, then lime (calcium hydroxide) or soda ash must be added, in order to
adjust the alkalinity.
The reaction of lime with alum is as follows:
Al2 (SO4)3 + 3Ca (OH) 2 2Al (OH)3 + 3 CaSO4
The relative proportions of alum and lime can be determined in theory from the above reaction. In practice,
however, they are determined by experiment and experience. It must be remembered that, in practice,
chemical coagulation is not as simple as described here. In fact, the entire process of flocculation is a very
complicated one, which cannot be carried out economically under rural conditions or in small water-
treatment plants. First of all, it requires special equipment and a highly skilled operator. Secondly, the
efficiency of coagulation brought about by alum or any similar coagulant depends upon such variables as the
availability of the water, the nature of the suspended materials and the temperature of the water. For these
reasons, coagulation with alum is routinely used before rapid sand filtration, which is normally operated by
skilled person.
3.4.3 Colloidal Suspensions

Sedimentation can be used to remove suspended particles down to a size of about 50 m depending on their
density, but smaller particles have very low settling velocities so that removal by sedimentation is not
feasible. It can be seen that the smaller particles have virtually non-existent settling velocities. If these
HUIOT/WSEE Page 140

colloidal particles can be persuaded to agglomerate, they may eventually increase in size to such a point that
removal by sedimentation becomes possible.
In a quiescent liquid, fine particles collide because of Brownian movement and also when rapidly settling
solids overtake more slowly settling particles. As a result larger particles, fewer in number, are produced;
growth by these means is, however, slow. Collisions between particles can be improved by gentle agitation,
the process of flocculation, which may be sufficient to produce settle able solids from a high concentration
of colloidal particles. With low concentrations of colloids a coagulant is added to produce bulky floc
particles, which enmesh the colloidal solids.
Agitation of water by hydraulic or mechanical mixing causes velocity gradients, the intensity of which
controls the degree of flocculation produced. The number of collisions between particles is directly related
to the velocity gradient and it is possible to determine the power input required to give a particular degree of
flocculation as specified by the velocity gradient.
Flocculation of dilute colloidal suspensions provides only infrequent collisions and agglomeration does not
occur to any marked extent. In such circumstances, clarification is best achieved using a chemical coagulant
followed by flocculation and sedimentation. Before flocculation can take place, it is essential to disperse the
coagulant, usually required in doses of 30-100 mg/l, throughout the body of water. This is carried out in a
rapid mixing chamber with a high-speed turbine (see Fig. 2.4) or by adding the coagulant at a point of
hydraulic turbulence (e.g. at a hydraulic jump in a measuring flume). The coagulant is a metal salt that
reacts with alkalinity in the water to produce an insoluble metal hydroxide floc, which incorporates the
colloidal particles. This fine precipitate is then flocculated to produce settlable solids.
Figure 2.2 Rapid mixer

With very low concentrations of colloidal matter, floc formation is difficult and coagulant aids may be
required. These may be simple additives like clay particles, which form nuclei for precipitation of the
hydroxide, or polyelectrolytes (heavy long chain synthetic polymers), which when added in small amount
HUIOT/WSEE Page 141

(<1 mg/l) promote agglomeration. Because of the spongy nature of floc particles, they have a very large
surface area and are thus capable of absorption of dissolved matter from solution.
The principal function of chemical coagulation is known as destabilization, aggregation, and binding
together of colloids. Alum (aluminum sulphate, Al2 (SO4)3.18H2O) is one of the most common coagulants
that may be added to a water system. Such a coagulant possesses tiny positive charges and therefore has the
ability to link together with negatively charged color or turbidity particles by mutual coagulation. Alum also
reacts with the natural alkalinity (carbonate or bicarbonate system) of the water to produce a precipitate,
which is usually thought to be aluminum hydroxide. If the relation takes place with the natural alkalinity, it
may be expressed as follows:
Al2 (SO4)3. x H2O + 3 Ca (HCO3)2 2Al (OH)3 + 3 CaSO4 + x H20 + 6 C02
In the event that there is insufficient natural alkalinity for this to occur, then calcium oxide (lime) may be
added to create the same effect. Because this system is poorly understood, the optimum dose required in
practice has to be done by trial and error through a series of tests known as jar tests.
It is not possible to calculate the dose of coagulant required or the results that it will produce so that
laboratory tests must be carried out using the jar- test procedure. This involve setting up a series of samples
of water on a special multiple stirring and dosing the samples with a range of coagulant, e.g. 0, 10, 20, 30,
40 and 50 mg/l, stirring vigorously with a glass rod. The samples are then flocculated for 30 minutes and
allowed to stand in quiescent conditions for 60 minutes. The supernatant water is then examined.
Color and turbidity and the lowest dose of coagulant to give satisfactory removal are noted. A second set of
samples is prepared with PH adjusted over a range, for example of 5.0,6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, and the
coagulant dose determined previously added to each beaker followed by stirring, flocculation and settlement
as before. It is then possible to examine the supernatant and select the optimum PH and if necessary recheck
the minimum coagulant dose required.
Because of the effect of PH on coagulation it is normally necessary in chemical coagulation plants to make
provision for the control of PH by the addition of acid or alkali.
3.4.4 Coagulant aids

Coagulation may be improved by coagulant aids, that is, substances that increase the critical mass of the
colloids and speed up coagulation. Kinetically, for example, water with little turbidity may not coagulate as
easily as water of moderate turbidity. Coagulation may then be improved by adding colloids that carry a
charge of the same sign as the normal turbidity of the water. Examples are bentonite, anionic polyelectrolyte
and activated silica. Because the critical mass of colloids interacting with coagulants is increased by
additives of this kind, coagulation is accelerated; occasionally coagulant aids may reduce coagulant dosage
HUIOT/WSEE Page 142

by speeding the kinetic of the process. They may also improve the physical character of the flocs. The
solution containing metal-ion coagulants for instance, some anions, polysilicate, and other ionic
polyelectrolytes may produce dense agglomerates that settle fast and respond well to remove by filtration.
In the purification of municipal water supply, coagulated impurities are normally removed by gravitational
settling of up flow clarification in advance of filtration. Overall efficiency depends on optional integration of
component treatments. Both settling and filtration are governed, in some degree, by the compactness, size,
density, sheer strength, and compressibility of coagulates or flocs.
3.5 Filtration
It is a process where the suspended matter is separated or purified by passing it through a minute porous
material or medium. This medium may be sand, diatomaceous earth, or a finely woven fabric. When the raw
water passes through a fixed depth of carefully arranged sand medium, almost all the suspended and
colloidal matter in the water is trapped by the first few top layers of the sand grains, and clear water is
produced at the bottom of the medium. This process is termed as filtration.
Filtration of water through a sand medium after sedimentation is one of the most important and oldest
practices of water purification. Water that is on occasion extremely turbid should, of course, first of all be
treated by some coagulation or settling or combination of both. However, water that is normally not too
turbid may be directly applied to the filter. Water that has previously been treated by sedimentation and/or
coagulation may also be applied to filters to provide the final polishing and the production of clear,
aesthetically acceptable water.
Settling takes place in the small settling basins that are provided between the particles. Screening takes place
where particles that are larger than the interstice will be retained because they cannot pass through. Finally,
a biological action takes place through bacterial growth, which may occur on the particles of the filter, and
which grows at the expense of the soluble organic carbon passing through in the water. This latter
phenomenon is not a very satisfactory way of removing organic carbon because it does tend to plug up the
filter fairly rapidly and reduce its effectiveness. Filters have been developed through the ages through a
series of steps, which are mainly related to their operating characteristics or the material that is used as
filtering medium.
Objective of filtration
To produce clear sparkling water (reduce turbidity)
To reduce number of micro-organisms
To minimize the contaminants which cause undesirable taste and odor.
To remove any suspended solid in water.
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3.5.1 Slow Sand Filter

The oldest type, this type of filter has been use traditionally and has been effective in the past. However, it
has certain operation disadvantages in that it cannot readily be cleaned. Some of these filters are still in use
in some parts of the Far East, Europe, and North America. Where labor tends to be more costly, other types
of filter have been developed. Once properly constructed, it is very well suited to rural areas, because it does
not require skilled workers to construct or maintain, and the costs of operation and maintenance are
reasonable.
In this filter system, the process of filtration is a combination of physical straining, (e.g. sedimentation and
biological activities), such as the growth of micro-organisms which takes place in the topmost layer of the
sand grains soon after filter is in operation.
This microbial growth in the sand grain forms a sticky gelatinous coat in the top layers of the filter, and is
called schmutzdecke, a German term meaning "cover of filth". Uninterrupted operation of the filter
encourages the formation of schmutzdecke, which in turns promotes the efficiency of the filter medium. As
the filter becomes more efficient, the rate of filtration become less and less, until the rate reaches a
predetermined point at which the flow-through rate becomes unacceptably low and the loss of head is high
(that is, the water emerging from the filter comes slowly, lacking the pressure of its own weight). At this
point, filtration is stopped, the topmost layer of the sand is scraped off, and the filter put back in to
operation.
Figure 2.6. Slow sand filter.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 144

(Adapted from WHO - Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Surveillance and Control of Community
Supplies, 2nd edition, Volume 3, 1997.)
Main purpose of the slow sand filter

The main purpose of slow sand filtration is the removal of pathogenic organisms from the raw water, in
particular the bacteria and viruses responsible for the spreading of waterborne diseases. A well-operated
slow sand filter will remove protozoa such as Entamoeba histolytic and helminthes such as schistosoma
haematobium and Ascaris lumbricoides. E. coli will normally be absent in a 100 ml sample of filter water,
which satisfies normal drinking water standards.
3.5.1.1 Design of a slow sand filter

The efficiency of the slow sand filter depends mainly on the depth, quality and size of the filter sand and the
quality of the raw water to be filtered.
Constituents of a slow sand filter
1. Under Drain
Perforated pipes, or drainpipes with open joints, with side joints (laterals) connected to the main drain, are
laid at the bottom of the filter bed or tank to collect filtered water.
2. Graded Gravel
Crushed round gravel of fixed sizes, varying from about 5 cm to 1.5 mm (2 inches to 1/16 inches) is laid
around and over the under drains, the largest size at the bottom and the smallest at the top. The depth of the
graded gravel should be at least 30 cm (12 inches), and preferably 45 cm (18 inches).
3. Graded Filter Sand
Sand for the filter is graded or specified by:
a. Quality of Sand:
The best possible quality is chosen (i.e. hard, durable grains, round and free from dirt, etc.)
b. Size of Sand
The size of the grains of filter sand is defined by two terms, as follows:
i. Effective size of the sand: whereby the size of grains is such that 10% of the sand grains by weight
are smaller, and 90% are larger. It may also be expressed in terms of sieve size, defined as the sieve
size in millimeters that permits 10% of the sand by weight to pass. Sieves for grading filter sand are
usually sold in coded series known as Standard testing sieve series. The effective size for slow
sand filter varies from about 0.2 mm to 0.4 mm, and is generally about 0.35 mm.
ii. The uniformity coefficient: The uniformity coefficient means the ratio between the sieve size that
will pass 60% of the sand grains by weight and the sieve size passing 10% of the sand by weight.
The uniformity coefficient for slow sand filter varies from 1.70 to 2.5, and is normally about
HUIOT/WSEE Page 145

2.00.See table 2.1 below, for a comparison between the effective size and uniformity coefficient
employed in slow and rapid sand filters.
iii. Depth of filter sand: The depth of the filter sand is one of the most important determinants of the
efficiency of flirtation. The graded sand is laid on the top of the graded gravel to a minimum depth
of 60 cm (2ft), optimum 90 cm (3ft), and a maximum depth of 1.20 meters (4ft).
iv. Depth of raw water: The raw water to be filtered should be as clean as possible, and turbidity
should be less than 50 mg/l. The raw water is evenly distributed over the graded sand to a depth
from 90 cm to 1.20 meters (36 inches to 48 inches).
3.5.1.2 Cleaning of filter sand

The rate of filtration of a slow sand filter decreases gradually due to clogging, until the rate reaches a per-
determined point indicated by the rate of flow control gauge and the loss of head control gauge, which are
placed in the filter medium. When these indicate the necessity for cleaning, filtration is stopped, and the
topmost layer of the sand is removed by careful scraping. Each scraping usually removes from 5 cm to10 cm
depth of sand. The sand that has been scraped off is stored and washed several times. The cleaned sand is
then replaced over the bed of the filter, to maintain the minimum depth. The cleaning interval varies from
about three weeks to several months depending on the quality of the raw mater to be filtered.
3.5.2 Rapid sand filter

This is a more recently developed type, and is more or less mechanized. Both slow and rapid sand filters are
sometimes called gravity filters, because water passes through them under the force of gravity. The major
difference between the two, as their names show, is the rate of filtration.
The rapid sand filter is designed to filter a large volume of water in a very short time. The principle of
operation of a rapid sand filter is basically physical straining of the water. Generally, its function is
automatically controlled. It requires a very small space compared with a slow sand filter, and is very well
adapted to urban areas, where highly skilled operations are normally available. The raw water to be filtered
is almost always treated first with chemical coagulants and then by sedimentation.
Because the rate of filtration is 30 to 40 time higher than that of a slow sand filter, rapid sand filters will
need cleaning more frequently than a slow sand filter, and because of the high frequency of cleaning
involved, it is designed with what is called back-washing system for cleaning purpose.
The rate of filtration in both slow and rapid sand filters is controlled with two meters, which are called the
rate-of-flow control gauge, and the loss-of-head control gauge. A well designed and well-operated sand
filter will remove from 97% to 99% of the bacteria in raw water. The turbidity can be reduced below 5 ppm,
provided that the raw water is sufficiently sedimented or coagulated and sedimented, before filtration It is
HUIOT/WSEE Page 146

cleaned by means of its back-washing system. In this filter, the sand layer gets clogged quickly because of
the high rate of filtration and the deposition of flocs among the sand grains. The filter is washed at intervals
varying between 20 hours and 5 days, depending on the degree of turbidity of the raw water.
Washing of the filter sand is achieved by forcing clean water up through the sand, by reversing the flow of
water pressure. The forced upward flow agitates the sand layers and washes away the clogging materials to a
drain system, which totally gets rid of the dirt into a final disposal drain.
The washing process is normally accomplished in five to fifteen minutes, and consumes from 4% to 5% of
the filtered water. The filter is put back into operation with very little loss of time.
Table 2.1 Comparison of slow and rapid sand filter
Characteristic Rapid Filter Slow Filter Rapid Filter
Space occupied Large Very much less
Effective size of filter sand 0.2 to 0.4 mm (usually 0.35 mm) 0.35 to 0.45 mm
Uniformity coefficient of filter sand 1.70 to 2.5(usually 2.00) 2.00
Rate of filtration 2.8 m3 /m2/day 115 m3/m2 /day
Method of cleaning Scraping Back Washing
Frequency of cleaning From 3 weeks to months From 20 hours to 5 days
Number of filter basins needed At least two One preferably more
Type of operators needed Operators with less training Highly skilled operators:
effective control of the filter
media is critical
Cost to build High Low
Cost to operate Very low Very high
Type of raw water for filtration Reasonably clear, turbidity less Any water after coagulation
than 50 ppm and sedimentation can tolerate
high turbidity.
(Adapted from Gabre-Emanual Teka. Water Supply- Ethiopia, An Introduction to Environmental Health
Practice, 1997.)
3.5.3Pressure filters
Whereas the rapid sand is a gravity filter, a pressure filter is somewhat the same type of system; only
pressure is applied to the water to pass it through the filter. The most common household unit nowadays
would be the swimming pool filter, where the water is pumped vertically through the sand and the filter, and
when the head loss through the filter becomes excessive, as registered on the pressure gauge, the operator
will reverse the flow through the filter, accomplishing the backwash described above.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 147

Figure 2.7 Pressure Filter cutaway

(Adapted from Pfaffin J.R. and E.N. Ziegler. Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering. 2nd
edition, volume 3, Q- Z Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1983.)
1. Diatomaceous earth filter
Diatomaceous earth is the siliceous residue of the bodies of diatoms that were deposited in past geological
ages and now form extensive beds where they are mined. The earth is processed and ground and the silica
particles are extremely irregularly shaped and thus provide a very good porous coating. The diatomaceous
earth filter was developed by the army for field use to remove certain chlorine-resistant organisms
responsible for dysentery.
The filter medium is supported on a fine metal screen or a porous material. There are three steps in the
filtration cycle. First of all, there is a deposit of a per-coat, which is a thin layer of diatomite deposited on
the filter element. The second step is the actual filtration and the body feed addition. The reason why body
feed is continually added to the filter is to reduce the amount of clogging that occurs at the surface. This also
permits significantly longer filter runs.
The third step, when the pressure drops or the filtration rate reaches such a low level that it becomes
necessary to wash, is the removal of the filter cake, which is accomplished by reversing the flow through the
filter element and the discharging the dirty filter cake to wash. Diatomaceous earth filters are frequently
used for swimming pool operation, military installations in field, and for some small communities.
Figure2.8 Diatomaceous earth filter

(Adapted from Pfaffin J.R. and E.N. Ziegler. Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering. 2nd
edition, volume 3, Q- Z Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1983.)
HUIOT/WSEE Page 148

3.6 Disinfection
3.6.1 Introduction
Disinfection is the process of killing all pathogens that remain after conventional treatment. As a result,
microorganisms are destroyed or deactivated; resulting in termination of growth and reproduction. The
substance used for disinfection is called disinfectant. When a disinfectant is added to water, it reacts
chemically and products are released. They attack the cell of the pathogen and inactivate the cell.
Disinfectants must effectively reduce all types of pathogens without being toxic to humans or domestic
animals. Additionally, it must not drastically change the taste or color of water and it must be persistent.
Factors affecting the efficiency of disinfection:

1. Nature and concentration of organisms: certain organisms like parasites and viruses may not be
destroyed or completely inactivated by disinfection.
2. Nature and concentration of disinfectant: higher concentrations are co- related to higher efficiencies.
3. Nature of water to be disinfected: if the water contains particulate matter, especially of a colloidal and
organic nature (turbidity), the disinfection process generally is hampered due to the "protection" of the
micro-organisms by the turbidity particles.
4. Temperature: the higher the temperature the more rapid the disinfection will be.
5. Time of contact: the disinfection effect becomes more complete when the disinfectant remains in contact
with the water longer.
6. The pH of the water: Chlorine, for example, will have better disinfection power if working at pH below
7, as the chlorine compound that will prevail is HCIO. At higher pH the chorine compound present is
CIO- which has a lesser bactericidal power.
7. Mixing: Good mixing ensures proper dispersal of the disinfectant throughout the water, and so promotes
the disinfection process.
3.6.2 Methods of water disinfection

There are two methods of disinfecting water:
1. Physical Method of water disinfection: at family level the two principal physical disinfection methods
used are boiling of the water and Solar disinfection. Ultraviolet radiation has been gaining rising
acceptance for small community systems in developed countries, because of the reliability of the
components and the declining costs.
a. Boiling: Heating water to a high temperature, 100C, kills most of the pathogenic organisms and it is an
effective method of treatment because no important water borne diseases are caused by heat resisting
organisms. However it is not practically possible to boil huge amounts of water. Moreover, it cannot
take care of future possible contaminations. It is effective in destroying all classes of waterborne
HUIOT/WSEE Page 149

pathogens (viruses, bacteria and bacterial spores, fungi and protozoan etc) and can be effectively applied
to all waters. Boiling water also kills like giardia and cryptosporidium Parasites.
Advantages of Boiling
Readily available.
Well suited for emergency and temporary disinfection.
Will drive volatile organic chemicals out of water.
Extremely effective disinfectant that will kill even giardia cysts.
Disadvantages of Boiling
Requires a great deal of heat
Time to bring water to boil and cool before use
Can give water flat taste
Contributes to indoor pollution and deforestation
Typically limited capacity
Application of boiling
It is highly effective as a household treatment, as it destroys pathogenic micro-organisms such as viruses. In
emergency situation, boiling of water may be used as a temporary measure. To enhance feasibility,
promotion may focus on boiling water only for groups with the highest risks, such as infants and young
children. Nevertheless, in some areas of the world this method may be expensive for the user (too much
fuel consumption and work for women). Consumers usually do not like the taste of boiled water and it also
takes a long time for the water to cool.
b. Solar Disinfection (SODIS): Solar disinfection is a simple water treatment method using solar
radiation (UV-A light and temperature) to destroy pathogenic bacteria and viruses present in the water.
It is one of the simplest and least expensive methods for providing acceptable quality drinking water.
Solar disinfection is a thermal process consisting of raising water temperature for a long enough period
of time in containers that have been prepared to absorb the heat generated by solar radiation. These
containers are made of a heat conducting material and should preferably be black, for this color to
absorb heat better than light colors.
Factors that Influence SODIS
Geographic latitude and altitude
Season
Number of hours of exposure
Time of the day,
Clouds, and temperature;
Volume and material of vessels containing the water
Water turbidity and color.
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Advantages of SODIS
Not dependent on conventional energy
Avoid the use of toxic chemicals.
Require relatively simple and low-cost equipment that is easily recovered
Not environmentally damaging
Do not consume firewood and thus helps to avoid deforestation.
It is simple and inexpensive.
Easily accepted by the communities.
Do not smoke like open fires that can cause respiratory diseases
Disadvantages of SODIS
Water needs to be clear for best efficiency (< 30 NTU).
Cannot remove suspended particles or dissolved compounds.
Requires bright sunlight.
Waiting period.
Needs to be cooled.
Several bottles needed per day.
Efficiency of SODIS
Usually, the efficiency to inactivate bacteria is indicated to be 99.9% (even though it is higher with many
specific organisms). With virus, the efficiency is slightly lower. However, if the water contains sediments, it
is recommended to use sedimentation and filtration (depending on the amount of sediments) to eliminate the
sediment.
c. Ultraviolet radiation (UV): Even though it is not popular in the Third world, the most practical
physical method that can be used for water disinfection in a water treatment facility at small community
level is ultraviolet radiation. Ultraviolet (UV) water treatment is the disinfection process of passing
water by a germicidal UV light source, typically low-pressure and medium-pressure mercury lamps. The
UV light source emits germicidal energy into the water that can alter the nucleic acid (DNA) of the
various bacteria, viruses, molds, and parasites that may be present in the water, inhibiting their ability to
reproduce and rendering them inactive. Exposing water to ultraviolet light destroys pathogens.
To assure thorough treatment, the water must be free of turbidity and color. Otherwise some bacteria will be
protected from the germ-killing ultraviolet rays. The UV radiation technology is simple to use and highly
effective for inactivating microbes in drinking water. It does not introduce chemicals or cause the production
of harmful disinfection by-products in the water. The most important parameters of UV radiation relating to
water disinfection are: Wavelength, Condition of the water, Intensity of radiation, Exposure time and Type
of microorganisms.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 151

Advantages of UV
Kills bacteria almost immediately.
Compact and easy to use.
low contact time
Simple operation and maintenance
No chemicals involved.
Does not modify aesthetic characteristics of the water.
Disadvantages of UV
No disinfection residual.
Low penetration power.
Requires pretreatment of cloudy or colored water.
Requires cleaning and new lamp annually.
Higher cost of equipment when compared with chlorine solution.
2. Chemical Method of water disinfection: Chemical methods depend mostly on selected chemicals with
oxidizing and biocidal properties. Several chemicals, acting as strong oxidants, can destroy micro-
organisms. Hydrogen peroxide and other metallic peroxides, lime, potassium and calcium
permanganate, iodine, bromine, ozone and chlorine and its related compounds all fall into this category.
Clean metals like copper, silver, mercury and zinc also disinfect, basing their action on a mechanism
that is probably related to the absorption of the metallic ions by the organism, which is some way affects
the chemistry of its cell structure.
Important characteristics a good chemical disinfectant
It is not only important to have the potential to destroy germs but a good chemical disinfectant should:
not cause the water to become toxic or unpalatable.
be able to destroy all types of pathogens in the water.
destroy the pathogens within the time available for disinfection.
function properly regardless of any fluctuations in the composition or condition of the water.
function within the temperature range of the water.
be safe and easy to handle.
provide residual protection against recontamination.
not produce disinfection by-products (DBPs).
be readily available and low cost .
Unfortunately there is not one disinfectant that complies with all of those conditions. Almost all of them fall
into a category that could be called far from complying such as ozone, iodine, bromine, potassium
permanganate and metallic ions. Only a few may be called almost complying such as chlorine and its
compounds.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 152
1. Ozone gas
Ozone, being a very strong oxidant, is effective in destroying organic matter and in eliminating compounds
that give objectionable taste or colour to water. Unstable gas and it readily breaks down into normal oxygen,
and releases nascent oxygen. The nascent oxygen is a powerful oxidizing agent and removes the organic
matter as well as the bacteria from the water. It is a very strong, broad spectrum disinfectant that is widely
used in Europe. It is an effective method to inactivate harmful protozoans that form cysts. Ozone can be
used to remove manganese from the water, forming a precipitate which can be filtered.
2Mn2+ + 2O3 + 4H2O 2 MnO(OH)2 (s) + 2O2 + 4 H+
Like ultraviolet ray, ozone normally leaves no measurable residual, which could serve for monitoring the
process or that protect against new contamination of the water after its disinfection. Disinfection by ozone,
like chlorine, leads to the formation of both inorganic and organic DBP. The most frequently found are
bromates, bromoform, bromoacetic acid, aldehides, ketones and carboxilic acids, which are carcinogenic.
The high installation and operation costs, the need for continuous supply of power and the need for a proper
operation and maintenance, do not make the use of ozone a recommended practice for small systems in
developing countries.
Advantages of Ozone
Strongest oxidant/disinfectant available
Produces no chlorinated THMs
It does not add any taste or odor to the water.
Effective against Cryptosporidium at higher concentrations
Used with Advanced Oxidation processes to oxidize refractory organic compounds
Limitations of Ozone
Process operation and maintenance requires a high level of technical competence
Provides no protective residual
Forms brominated byproducts and non halogenated byproducts (organic acids, aldehydes)
Breaks down more complex organic matter; smaller compounds can enhance microbial re-growth in
distribution systems and increase DBP formation during secondary disinfection processes.
Higher operating and capital costs than chlorination
Difficult to control and monitor particularly under variable load conditions
2. Iodine
Iodine has attractive properties as a disinfectant. It has an effective bactericide and virucide power over a
wide range of pH. In fact, iodine, unlike other halogens, becomes a more effective virucide as the pH
increases. Iodine has been widely used for individual water supplies and for small batches of water. The use
of iodine is popular either in solution, drops or tables. In spite of its attractive properties as a disinfectant,
iodine has not gained widespread use in water treatment:
HUIOT/WSEE Page 153
One reason is that it is more costly (about ten times more expensive) than chlorine.
Another may be that the use of iodine for water disinfection over extended periods of time has been
seriously debated, as it may have physiological effects on iodine sensitive people.
The high volatility of iodine in aqueous solution is also factor against its use except in emergency
situations.
3. Bromine
Compared with chlorine and iodine, bromine is a more effective amoebic cysticide throughout the pH range.
It has a property of killing bacteria (at 8-10ppm). Its residual is more persistent that of chlorine. On the other
hand, bromine is not easily found everywhere it is a bit dangerous to manipulate, and it is more costly than
chlorine. Little experience exists for its use as disinfectant for drinking water. For these reasons, bromine is
not recommended for small water supplies. But, it can be used for the disinfection of swimming pool and
cooling tower water. It is not used for the disinfection of drinking water.
4. Potassium permanganate
This is a powerful oxidizing agent, and has been found to be effective against cholera vibrios but not for
other pathogens. It leaves stains in the container and hence it is not a very satisfactory disinfectant for
community water supplies.
5. Metallic ions
Several metallic ions (gold, silver, copper, mercury, etc) have germicidal properties called
oligodynamia. Most of them, though, have drawbacks: Gold is expensive; Copper is good as an algicide
but not as good as a bactericide; Mercury is toxic.
Silver seems to be the only one to have relatively good characteristics for water disinfection. It is not very
toxic to human beings and the doses used in water treatment are very low, in the range of 20-75 micrograms
/ liter. Silver is added to treated water by dosing it from solutions or by direct electrolysis of silver or silver
coated electrodes in the running water. Residual silver is not likely to decay easily, and it does not produce
taste, odors, colour or DBPs. Even though the bactericidal power of silver is important, it is not so quick as
that of other disinfectants. It has been found to be not a very good virucide. Besides, organic matter or other
salts present in the water may hinder its activity. Silver disinfection treatment costs can be tens or even
hundreds of times more expensive than low - cost disinfectants.
6. Excess lime
Lime when added raises the pH value of water making it extremely alkaline.This extreme alkalinity has
been found detrimental to the survival of bacteria (a pH of 9-10 can kill 99% of bacteria.). This method
needs the removal of excess lime from the water before it can be supplied to the general public. Treatment
like re-carbonation for lime removal should be used after disinfection.
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3.6.3 Disinfection by Chlorination

The purpose of disinfecting water supplies is to prevent the spread of waterborne disease by destroying
pathogenic organisms. Most of the physical and chemical treatment processes described previously will
remove most of the microorganisms to some extent. However, very small numbers of microorganisms that
are viable and pathogenic are all that are required to bring about disastrous epidemic. Thus, post
chlorination is considered to be a necessary final step before treated water is delivered to a municipal
system.
A physical process for disinfection was described using ultraviolet irradiation. Other forms of chemical
disinfectant are the halogens such as chlorine, bromine, iodine, and the powerful unstable oxidant, ozone.
Chlorination is the most common of the disinfectant processes used, for a number of reasons. Firstly, it is
fairly simple to handle and can be manufactured inexpensively in bulk and delivered to the site. It can be
applied under fair controlled conditions, and can maintain a measurable residual in the water supply to
indicate safety at all points on a water distribution system.
There are certain disadvantages of chlorination, in that high residual chlorine will bring about a taste that is
unacceptable to many people, and chlorine furthermore will react with certain micro- constituents of water,
such as phenols, to bring about substantial odors (chlorophenole) quite out of proportion to the
concentration of the causative chemical. The addition of chlorine to water releases a group of substance, all
of which have some disinfecting properties.
The substances released are:
Hypochlorite ion (OCl)
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl)
Monochloramine (MH2Cl)
Dichlormine (NHCl2)
Nitrogen trichloride (NCl3)
Organic compounds containing chloride, and
Chlorine dioxide.
Disinfection of water can be accomplished in many ways. For example, boiling is the easiest and the most
reliable method of disinfecting water, because it sterilizes the water by completely destroying all forms of
micro-organisms, including the most resistant spores. However, boiling is not practicable for large quantities
of water such as municipal supplies.
Chlorine and its compound are the disinfectant of choice because:
They are relatively easy to handle and transport and they are readily available almost everywhere
They are comparatively inexpensive
They are effective and long lasting
HUIOT/WSEE Page 155

They are simple to apply and relatively easy to detect in water, both qualitatively and quantitatively
Form of chlorine and its compounds commonly used for water disinfections
Elemental chlorine is usually available in the form of liquid chlorine. It is prepared commercially by
compressing gaseous chlorine into steel cylinders, which can be transported like standard oxygen cylinders.
The most common forms of chlorine that are readily available in rural areas and small communities are
calcium hypochlorite powder, Ca (OCl)2, and sodium hypochlorite solution, NaOCl, variously known as
chlorox (Barachina),etc, Chlorine compounds are also available in the form of tablets such as Halazone for
disinfection of small amounts of water.
Other factors that influence the disinfecting power of chlorine and its compounds
ii. The quality of the water to be chlorinated
Since chlorine is a very active element, it will combine with many substances, organic or inorganic, that
may be present in the water, and will then lose its effectiveness. The water to be chlorinated must therefore
be as free as possible of suspended or dissolved substances.
iii. Contact time
After chlorine is added to water, adequate time must be allowed for the chlorine to react with
microorganisms or other substances in water. For effective and reliable disinfection, at least 20 minutes
(normally 30 minutes) of contact time must be allowed.
iv. Water Temperature
Almost all chemical reactions are accelerated with temperature increase, and temperature also affects the
disinfecting power of chlorine. At higher temperatures, the disinfecting power of chlorine is higher,
especially when the chlorine is used in the form of a compound.
v. Presence of Ammonia
When chlorine is added to water which contains ammonia (NH3), or organic nitrogenous compounds, it
readily combines, forming chloramines. The types of chloramines formed as a result of the reaction of
ammonia with chlorine depend mainly upon the PH and the temperature of the water. Thus:
NH3 + HOCl NH2Cl (Monochloramine) + 2H2O (PH over 7.5)
NH3 + 2HOC NHCl2 (Dichloramine) + 2H2O (P H 5.0 to 6.5)
NH3 + 3HOC NCl3 (Nitrogen Trichloride) + 3H2O (P H below 4.5)
Fortunately chloramine has similar disinfecting properties to chlorine, except that it is much weaker and
needs a much longer contact time. The disinfecting action is generally achieved by the monochloramines
and dichloramines. Nitrogen trichloride, however, is almost inactive and useless for disinfecting purposes.
Dosage rate of chlorine
The amount of chlorine or its compounds to be added to disinfect a given quantity of water depends upon
several factors, chiefly:
HUIOT/WSEE Page 156

i. The chlorine demand of the water

The chlorine demand of the water may be defined as the difference between the initial amount or dosage of
chlorine added to water supply for disinfection, and the amount of available chlorine residuals remaining at
the end of a specified contact period, generally 30 minutes.
ii. Residual chlorine
Residual chlorine is the amount of chlorine left over in the water in the form of Cl 2, hypochlorous acid
(HOCl) or hypochlorite ion (OCl ), after the water is completely disinfected and the chlorine demand of the
water is satisfied.
Let us assume that the dosage of chlorine applied to a certain water supply system was two parts per million.
After three hours of contact the total chlorine residual was found to be 0.4 ppm. Therefore the chlorine
demand of this water is 2 ppm - 0.4 ppm = 1.6 ppm. In other words, out of the initial doses 2 ppm, 1.6 ppm
chlorine is consumed by the water by reaction with organic and inorganic matter, or by killing
microorganisms that may have been in the water.
In actual fact, the chlorine demand of water varies with the quality of the water, and indeed from time to
time even in the same water supply system. In practice, a sufficient dose of chlorine is added to a water
supply system in order to obtain minimum residual chlorine of 0.1 to 0.5 ppm at any time and at any point
throughout the system.
Residual chlorine in water may be found in the form of Cl2, HOCl or OCl, in which case it is termed as free
available residual. It may also be found chemically combined with ammonia, when it is termed as
combined available chlorine residual (residual chloramines).
Dechlorination
By error, or due to a very low chlorine demand of a specific water supply, it might happen that there is in the
water an undesirable excess amount of chlorine, which must be removed. This process of extracting excess
amounts of chlorine from water is called dechlorination, which may be achieved by the following methods:
The reducing chemical which is routinely use in dechlorination is sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3)
When practicable, the water in question can be passed through beds of granular activate carbon
(charcoal). The granulated charcoal has the property of absorbing chlorine, and so can remove the
excess.
Aeration
Boiling the affected water.
Chlorine compounds commonly used in community water disinfection
In most big water treatment plants, chlorination is carried out by using compressed liquid chlorine (pure or
elemental chlorine). The cylinders containing the chlorine are conveniently fitted with controls for automatic
feeding into the water.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 157

The compounds of chlorine that easily available in cities and small towns are calcium hypochlorite, 70%
high-test hypochlorite crystalline powder (commonly abbreviated to HTH) and chlorinated lime (commonly
known as bleaching powder).
Sodium hypochlorite solution is known under various trade names such as Chlorox, bleaching solution,
Barachina and sedex bleach. The available percentage of chlorine is usually indicated in the table below.
A chlorine compound is also available in the form of tablets known as Halazone. Each tablet is normally
sufficient for one liter of clear water.
Table 2.2 Some chlorine compounds with their chlorine concentration (Adapted from Gabre-Emanual Teka.
Water Supply- Ethiopia, An Introduction to Environmental Health Practice, 1997.)
Name Chemical Percent of Remark
Formula Available Cl2
Liquid or elemental chlorine Cl2 100% Compressed in steel cylinders

Calciumhypochlorite (HTH) Ca (OCl)2 70% Crystalline stable powder: dissolves
in water with very little residue
Bleaching powder (Chlorinated lime) CaClOCl 25% to 35% Relatively unstable available
chlorine decrease with length of
storage
Sodium hypochlorite solution NaOCl 2.5% to 17% Widely available under such name
(normally 4% to as chlorox, barachina, etc.
5.25 %
Halazone tablets HOOC-C6H4-SO2NCl2 One tablet for one liter of relatively
clear water
Methods of feeding chlorine under rural conditions

In large municipal water treatment systems, chlorine feeders are usually provided with chlorine gas tanks,
which have built in automatic controls for feeding chlorine. However, under rural conditions, the use of such
complex and expensive equipment is not feasible, and some simple devices for feeding chlorine solution
have to be found.
The siphon-bottle chlorinator consists of a large bottle fitted with an airtight rubber stopper with two holes.
A bent glass tube passes through the first hole into the chlorine solution, well above the bottle. To the top
end of the tube is attached a rubber hose, at the end of which is a glass orifice or opening with a stopcock.
By loosening or tightening the stopcock, we can adjust the flow rate of the chlorine solution. The second
hole in the stopper is for a glass tube that keeps the solution open to atmospheric pressure.
When the initial amount is used up, the bottle is replenished with clear hypochlorite solution. Disturbance of
continuous feeding can be avoided by using a second bottle while the first is being refilled. The bottle can be
set up in an inverted position, provided the siphon action is maintained.
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Preparation of stock solution

When chlorine compounds are used for disinfecting water supply, sewage effluent, etc., it is convenient to
prepare a known concentration of chlorine solution and to feed from this solution at a desired dose. This
known concentration of chlorine or any other chemical is known as a stock solution. Normally a chlorine
stock solution is prepared to the strength of one percent available chlorine equivalent to 10,000 ppm.
Let us take some of the most readily available compounds of chlorine, and prepare a 1% available chlorine
stock solution:
If we have sodium hypochlorite solution (Clorox), which contains from 4% to 5.25% available
chlorine, we should take 250 milliliters (about 1 medium cup) of the Clorox solution in one-liter jar,
and fill it up with clear water, preferably distilled or boiled. The one-liter jar now contains a 1%
stock solution.
If we have HTH, which contains 70% available chlorine, we should take 15 gm. (one tablespoon) of
HTH, and fill the jar up to one liter with clean water.
If our chlorine compound is calcium hypochlorite powder (chlorinated lime), which generally
contains about 30% available chlorine when freshly prepared, we should take 40 gms. (two-and-a-
half tablespoons) of this compound, and fill the jar up to one liter with clean water.
All chlorine compounds (particularly calcium hypochlorite, HTH, etc.) should be stored in dark containers
or in sealed plastic bags in dark and cool places. Freshly-opened calcium hypochlorite or HTH gradually
loses available chlorine upon exposure to air and therefore should be used as soon as possible.
Methods of calculating chlorine dosage

Too much chlorine is poisonous and too little is unreliable in disinfecting water. An exact dose must
therefore be determined for chlorinating a given water supply. Generally chlorine is applied at the rate of 2
to 3 ppm, depending on the quality of the raw water.
Method No. 1
One liter of pure water weighs 1000 grams or 1,000,000 milligrams. Hence, 1 milligram/liter is normally
considered to be equal to 1 ppm, even when the water is not pure. In calculating chlorine dosage, it is useful
to remember:
- 1 ppm = 1 milligram per liter
- 2 ppm = 2 milligram/ liter
- 10 ppm = 10 mg/l
Example 1: A well is 2 meters in diameter and contains water to a depth of 1.75 meters. It is desired to
chlorinate the water in this well with 10 ppm of 70% HTH (available chlorine 70%).
Solution: First find the volume of the water in the well, V= r2 h = (1m)2 1.75m = 5500 liters
Using the formula: Weight of powder = ppm desired
HUIOT/WSEE Page 159

Weight of water ppm in the powder
Weight of powder in kg = ppm desired

Weight of water in liters ppm in the powder
Weigh of powder = ppm desired x weight of water in liters = 10ppm x 5500litres = 55 Kg

ppm in the powder 700,000ppm 700
Weight of powder in gram = 55,000 gram=78.57 grams of 70% HTH Needed

700
Well water chlorination

A newly constructed well, or a well suspected to be polluted, should be disinfected with a chlorine dose
from 50 to 100 ppm, and a contact period of 12 to 24 hours should be allowed for disinfection. After this,
the disinfected water should be bailed out of the well until the emerging supply shows only about 0.1 ppm
residual.
Example 2: A new well has just been constructed and properly protected in the Boricha town of Sidma
Zone. It is required that the well water should be disinfected with 50 ppm of chlorine before it is passed for
community use. The well is circular, and its dimensions are diameter of 2m and level of water 7m. Sodium
hypochlorite solution (sedex bleach) is available at Boricha town shop at Ethiopian Birr (ETB) 0.80 per
liters. The available chlorine of the sedex bleach is 5%.
Calculate:
1. The volume of water
2. The dose of sodium hypochlorite solution needed for disinfection
3. The cost of chlorinating the water.
Solution:
1. V = r2 h = 22/7 x (lm) 2 x 7m =22 m3 = 22,000 liters
2. Weigh of disinfectant = ppm desired x weight of water in liters
ppm in the disinfectant
= 50ppm x 22,000litres = 22 liter
500,000ppm
3. One liter of sedex bleach costs ETB 0.80 So 22 liters cost ETB 22 x 0.8 = ETB17.6
Method 2
Formula for calculating problems related to chlorination
Formula 1
Calculation of quantity of any chlorine compound needed to prepare a chlorine stock solution or to treat
water, given the required dosage or strength of chlorine, the volume of water to be treated, and the
chlorine content of the chlorine compound in percentage of available chlorine:
a. Chlorine compound (in grams) = (chlorine dosage or strength (ppm)) x (volume to be added or treated (liters))
(10 x % available chlorine of compound)
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b. Chlorine compound (in grams) = (chlorine dosage (ppm))x (volume of water to be treated (cu. m.) x (100)
(% available chlorine of compound)
Note: Using the formula given above, it is possible to calculate any desired item in the formula, by making
it the subject of the formula, and then substituting for the known values of the other variables.
Formula 2:
Calculation of the volume of a stock chlorine solution of known strength required to treat a certain volume
of water with a desired chlorine dosage (chlorine residual + chlorine demand):
a. stock chlorine solution (in liters) = (volume of water to be treated (liters)) x (chlorine dosage (ppm))
(strength of chlorine solution (ppm))
b. Stock chlorine solution (in liters) = (volume of water to be treated (cu. m.)) x (chlorine dosage) (ppm) x 1000
Note: If strength of chlorine is given in terms of percentage of available chlorine, then substitute in each of
the above formula: strength of chlorine solution (% available chlorine) x 10,000 in place of strength of
chlorine solution (ppm). This is because 1% available chlorine = 10,000 ppm.
Formula 3
Calculation of rate of feeding a chlorine solution into flowing water that is to be treated, given the rate of
flow, the dosage of chlorine (residual and demand), and the strength of the chlorine solution:
d. Rate of feeding chlorine solution (in cubic centimeters/minute)
= (rate of flow of water (cu. m./day)) x (chlorine dosage (ppm) x 100)
e. Rate of feeding of chlorine solution (in cc/minute) =
= (rate of flow of water (cu. m./day)) x (chlorine dosage (ppm)) x100)
3.7 Miscellaneous water treatment

In addition to the normal water treatment steps, some water may need supplemental treatment. The need will
depend upon the nature of the source of the water, which in turn varies from locality to locality. Complete
supplemental water treatment cannot be efficiently carried out under rural conditions, because it requires
complex equipment, laboratory facilities and specially trained, skilled personnel. In spite of these
difficulties, however, some aspects of supplemental treatment can be attempted, if the quality of the water
requires specific treatment. Of the various types of supplemental treatments, we will discuss the principles
of fluoridation, and also softening of water.
3.7.1Water Softening
Hard water may be described as water that will not readily give a lather with soap. A more comprehensive
definition of hard water is water in which calcium and magnesium salts, and occasionally iron, manganese,
etc., are held in solution in the form of bicarbonates, sulphates or chlorides. Hardness that is caused by the
HUIOT/WSEE Page 161

presence of bicarbonates of calcium or magnesium is termed as temporary hardness, because it is readily

removed by boiling. Hardness that is due to the presence of sulphates or chlorides of calcium or magnesium
is known as permanent hardness, as it cannot be easily removed by boiling.The degree of hardness of water
is commonly expressed in terms of the amount of dissolved salts per unit volume of water (mg/1 or ppm).
Thus water which contains dissolved salts of : 0 -75 mg/l (0 to 75 ppm) is termed as soft; 75 - 150 mg/l is
termed as moderately hard; 150 - 300 mg/l is termed as hard; and more than 300 mg/1 upwards is termed as
very hard.
However, the importance of the degree of hardness is relative, because it varies with the type of water to
which the consumer has been accustomed for a prolonged period, and the purpose for which the water is to
be used.
Methods of softening water
As it has been pointed out earlier, softening of water may not be practicable in rural areas where complex
equipment and trained technical personnel are not available. Nevertheless, health workers should be familiar
with the principles of water softening.
1. Removing temporary hardness
A) Temporary hardness may be removed by simple boiling. Thus water that contains Ca++ or Mg++
bicarbonates is softened as follows:
Ca (HCO3)2 CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
Ppt
B) Of course boiling is not practicable for softening water on a large scale. For this hydrated lime or
calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 is used to remove temporary hardness:
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Ppt
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 MgCO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
Ppt
2. Removing permanent hardness

Permanent hardness of water may be removed by one of the following methods:
Lime soda method
When sodium carbonate (soda ash, Na2 CO3) is added to water that contains non-carbonate hardness, (e.g.
CaSO4, MgSO4, MgCl2, etc.), soda precipitates the hardness-causing cations, forming non-hardness-causing
sodium salts:
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4
MgSO4 + Na2 CO3 MgCO3 + Na2SO4
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NaCl
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In practice, sodium carbonate is regularly used together with hydrated lime; hence the term Lime Soda
Method is applied to this process. The role of the hydrated lime is to convert soluble Ca(HCO3)2 to insoluble
CaCO3, to facilitate fast removal of CaSO4, etc., by Na2CO3.
The type of chemical reaction can be shown as follows:
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Mg (OH)2 + Na2SO4
In this reaction, both CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 are precipitated, leaving soft water. The lime soda method is
usually used in large-scale water softening, and can remove both permanent and temporary hardness. The
amounts of soda ash or hydrated lime to be added are determined by titration (the EDTA method).
The degree of hardness of both carbonate and non-carbonate type is expressed in terms of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). When measured by titration, the result is expressed as total hardness, because the titration method
indicated all forms of hardness, whether calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminum, etc., as equivalent to CaCO3
hardness. The result is expressed as Clark's Degree of Hardness. One degree on Clarks scale is equal to one
grain of CaCO3 hardness in one gallon of water. One grain of hardness is equivalent to 17.1 mg/l.
3.7.2 Fluoridation of water

Fluoridation of water is another commonly practiced supplemental water treatment in most of the developed
regions of the world. By fluoridation is meant the application of a predetermined dose of fluorides to
drinking water. Fluorides are compounds of the element fluorine, which only occurs in compound forms.
Such compounds as fluorspar (CaF2) occur naturally in rock in certain regions of the world. Fluoride is one
of the normal chemicals components of the human tissues, particularly bone tissues, and quite a large
proportion of food items contain traces of fluorides. Most water contains some amount of dissolved
fluorides, the amount varying from place to place. But some water may contain too little fluoride, some
almost none, while some contains an excess. The objective of fluoridation is to supplement fluoride
deficiencies of drinking water.
Relation of fluorides to dental caries
Tooth decay is a very widely distributed chronic disease, affecting all segments of the population, the old
and the young alike. Hence tooth decay is a very important health problem all over the world. In localities
where drinking water contained an optimum amount of fluoride, the decay of teeth was observed to be much
lower in children who had consumed this water from ages 1 to 16, that is, during their formative years. It
was also observed that where there was an excess amount of fluoride in water, it cause mottled or spotted
teeth, dental fluorisis, disfiguration or staining of the enamel of teeth.
Fluoride contents in drinking water and possible effects:
<0.5 mg/l : dental caries
0.5-1.5 mg/l : promotes dental health
1.5-4 mg/l : dental fluorosis: mottled enamel of teeth;
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>4 mg/l : dental, skeletal fluorosis:-bone fluorosis;

>10 mg/l : Crippling fluorosis:-calcification (CaF2) at several places leading to serious invalidity.
Methods of feeding fluorides
Fluoridation of water requires complex equipment and highly skilled operator. Fluorine and its compounds
are poisonous in concentrated form, and thus need careful handling at every stage. Because of these
difficulties, fluoridation is usually carried out only in carefully operated municipal water treatment system.
Generally fluorides are fed in solution or powder forms. Regardless of the form of fluoride, the feeders are
normally small pumps that are specially designed to feed carefully calculated doses at predetermined time
intervals.
3.7.3 Defluoridation
In certain regions of Ethiopia, particularly in the Rift Valley, the water supply systems, especially
groundwater, contain a higher concentration of fluoride than is desirable. In such regions of the Awash
Valley, cases of mottled teeth can be observed among schoolchildren. Fluoride concentrations of 3.9 mg /l,
6.4 mg/l and 6.8 mg/l at Dire Dawa, Wonji and Awash Valley park respectively were recorded.
The excess or undesirable concentration of fluoride in such places must be removed from the water supply
before the water reaches the consumers. This process of removing the undesirable amount of fluoride is
known as defluoridation. Various methods have been developed for the defluoridation of drinking water, but
all are at present generally too complicated and expensive for application in small water treatment plants and
in rural areas. Home defluoridation units suitable for the use of individual families have also been
developed. Yet here again the units are too complex and expensive to warrant wider application.
Some of the current defluoridation methods that can technically be used are:
1. The Ion Exchange Process
2. The Phosphate Compounds Process
3. The Aluminum Compounds (Activated Aluminum) Process.
An alternative method, when practicable, may be the dilution of high fluoride water with low fluoride water.
3.7.4 Aeration
Aeration removes odor and tastes due to volatile gases like hydrogen sulphide and due to algae and related
organisms. Aeration also oxidize iron and manganese, increases dissolved oxygen content in water, removes
CO2 and reduces corrosion and removes methane and other flammable gases. Principle of treatment
underlines on the fact that volatile gases in water escape into atmosphere from the air-water interface and
atmospheric oxygen takes their place in water, provided the water body can expose itself over a vast surface
to the atmosphere.
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Types of Aerators
1. Gravity Aerators (Cascades): In gravity aerators, water is allowed to fall by gravity such that a large
area of water is exposed to atmosphere, sometimes aided by turbulence.
2. Fountain Aerators : These are also known as spray aerators with special nozzles to produce a fine
spray. Each nozzle is 2.5 to 4 cm diameter discharging about 18 to 36 l/h. Nozzle spacing should be
such that each m3 of water has aerator area of 0.03 to 0.09 m2 for one hour.
3. Injection or Diffused Aerators: It consists of a tank with perforated pipes, tubes or diffuser plates,
fixed at the bottom to release fine air bubbles from compressor unit. The tank depth is kept as 3 to 4 m
and tank width is within 1.5 times its depth. If depth is more, the diffusers must be placed at 3 to 4 m
depth below water surface. Time of aeration is 10 to 30 min and 0.2 to 0.4 litres of air is required for 1
litre of water.
4. Mechanical Aerators: Mixing paddles as in flocculation are used. Paddles may be either submerged or
at the surface.
3.7.5 Water desalinization

To meet the ever-increasing demands for fresh water, especially in arid and semi-arid areas, much research
has gone into finding efficient methods of removing salt from seawater and brackish water. Three of the
processes involve evaporation followed by condensation of the resultant steam and are known as multiple-
effect evaporation, vapor-compression distillation, and flash evaporation.
The last-named method, the most widely used, involves heating seawater and pumping it into lower pressure
tanks, where the water abruptly vaporizes (flashes) into steam. The steam then condenses and is drawn off
as pure water. Freezing is an alternate method, based on the different freezing points of fresh and salt water.
The ice crystals are separated from the brine, washed free of salt, and melted into fresh water.
In another process, called reverse osmosis, pressure is used to force fresh water through a thin membrane
that does not allow the minerals to pass. Reverse osmosis is still undergoing intensive development.
Electrodialysis is being used to desalt brackish waters. When salt dissolves in water, it splits into positive
and negative ions, which are then removed by electric current through anion and cation membranes, thus
depleting the salt in the product water. Although developmental work on electrodialysis is continuing, a
number of commercial plants are in operation. In any event, desalination of seawater is expensive and not
applicable for community water supply.
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Review Questions
1. What is the advantage of raw water intake in water treatment?
2. What is the use of fine and coarse screens?
3. In water treatment plants, what is the most important use of clarifiers?
4. Explain the use of jar test.
5. Mention the most commonly used water coagulants.
6. Write the phenomena that occur in filtration.
7. In a water treatment plant, the Jar test results show that 5 mg/l of Alum at PH 7 is required for
coagulating. What is the consumption of Alum for 5,000 m3 of water intended for coagulation?
8. Identify the disinfectant used in water treatment.
9. In a community water supply, 10 ppm of chlorine are added for disinfection. After 30 minutes, the
residual chlorine was found to be 0.3 ppm in laboratory test. What is the chlorine demand of the
water?
10. The label of a chlorine powder container indicates that it contains 70% of available chlorine. How
many grams of the powder must be added to 45m3 of water to give a dose of 2 ppm?
11. What are the conditions that lead to the formation of hardness?
12. Show the chemical reaction indicating how water becomes hard.
Note to the teachers
After you have gone through this chapter, arrange a practical visit to a nearby conventional large
scale water treatment plant and show the students the steps in treatment processes. Give them an
assignment to write a report and present it.
Arrange a practical session to show the students how to prepare stock solution and determine the
residual chlorine concentration.
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PART III
Community Water supply and Sanitation
Chapter One
1. Introduction
1.1 General
Water is essential to man, animals and plants. Without water life on earth would not exist.
From the very beginning of human civilization, families have settled close to water sources,
along rivers, beside lakes or near natural springs. Indeed where people live, some water is
normally available for drinking, domestic use, and possibly for watering animals. This does
not imply that the source is convenient and of sufficient capacity nor that the water is safe
and wholesome. On the contrary, in many countries people live in areas where water is
scarce. Often women and children carry it over long distances, particularly during dry
periods. Scarcity of water may also lead people to use sources that are contaminated by
human or animal faeces, and are thus dangerous to human health.
1.1.1 Water supply, health and socio-economic development

A few liters of water each day are sufficient for a persons basic drinking and food
preparation requirements, depending on climate and lifestyle. Larger quantities are
necessary when water is used for personal hygiene, cleansing of cooking utensils, laundry
and house cleaning and for meeting basic economic needs within the household, such as
the raising of animals and the production of vegetables. Safe, adequate and accessible
supplies of water, combined with proper sanitation, are surely basic needs and essential
components of primary health care. They can greatly help improve the health of
underprivileged populations in rural and urban fringe areas. They are also a source of, and
condition for, socio-economic development.
1.1.2 Improved hygiene and health

A sufficient amount of safe drinking water is important in the control of many diseases. The
World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that as many as 80 percent of all
infectious diseases in the world are associated with insufficient and unsafe water. This is
particularly well established for diseases such as diarrhoeas, cholera, typhoid and
paratyphoid fever, infectious hepatitis, amoebic and bacillary dysentery. Table 1.1 gives an
overview, along with preventive measures. Which diseases are most prevalent and serious
in a particular area depends on local factors such as climate, density of settlement, local
practices and socio-economic and gender relations. The type of intervention must therefore
also be locally specific and be chosen together with the local users, women and men.
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Infection Transmission Personal Domestic Food Water Safe Wastewater

pattern hygiene hygiene hygiene hygiene / human disposal
(and animal safe water water and
management) consumption consumption drainage
Diseases caused by a lack of water are a serious health hazard. When women, men and
children use very little water, either because there is little available or because it is too far
away to be carried home in quantity, it becomes impossible to maintain a reasonable
personal hygiene. There may simply be too little water for washing oneself properly and
cleaning food, utensils and clothes. Easy access to a sufficient amount of water, reliably
delivered to every household, is essential for the prevention of diarrheas, dysenteries,
typhoid, schistosomiasis and skin and eye diseases.
Diarrheas in particular remain a killer disease, especially for babies and children below the
age of five. Research has shown that in diarrhea prevention more water used for hygiene
and better sanitation is more important than better water quality. It has shown too that for
a positive impact, at least three quarters of the families must use, and be able to continue to
use, sufficient amounts of water for hygiene. They must also use hygienic methods of
excreta disposal (Esrey, 1994).
These conditions have important implications for the design and planning of water
improvements. Projects that aim to improve health must not only improve water services,
but also sanitation and hygiene behavior. For sanitation, it is often necessary first to raise
the demand for improvements. For hygiene, information alone is insufficient. Improved
hygiene behavior comes not from just telling women and men, girls and boys how diseases
are transmitted or what to do and not to do. High quality hygiene promotion programmes
are needed which use participatory learning and action methods or effectively market a
small number of locally desired improvements.
To improve health, improved water services need a critical mass of users. Year-round uses
by almost all people only happen when the users both want to use and sustain a service
effectively, and are able to do so. The implication is that the outsiders involved in a water
project or programme politicians, planners, engineers, sociologists, economists,
educators cannot impose a service. They must create a service for widespread and
sustained use that meets the perceived needs of the users. This can only be done in
partnership with those who will use and sustain it: the community women and men and
their organizations.
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1.1.3 Water quality, quantity and drainage

Water that is contaminated by people or animals will transmit diseases that are water
borne, such as bacillary dysentery, cholera, or typhoid, or those that are water based, that
is need snails or Cyclops that live in the water to pass the disease on. Examples of water
based diseases are guinea worm and schistosomiasis. Control of these diseases means
improving the quality of the drinking water and discouraging people from wading into the
source, e.g. to bathe, collect drinking water or wash clothes. Many diarrheal diseases are
caused more by a lack of an adequate quantity of water than by its quality.
During warm weather, biting insects are common. Most of these, notably mosquitoes, breed
in pools or other open water, and sometimes even in household water containers.
Tsetse flies are also active near water. An improved water service may actually increase
health risks from insect breeding. The risks arise when the water in = water out principle is
neglected (i.e. no provision is made for safe drainage of wastewater) or when the design
allows breeding in the system itself. Pools of stagnant wastewater from lack of good
drainage at distribution outlets are unfortunately still very common. They, and/or the
stagnant water in other parts of the system have brought new or extra transmission risks
of malaria, filariasis, dengue and yellow fever.
1.1.4 Socio-economic development

As well as better public health, improved water services are also a source of, and condition
for, socio-economic development. Development comes both from the services themselves
and from the processes of their planning, establishment and management. The water
supply itself reduces the labor of women and children if it brings water closer to or into
their homes, in acceptable amounts and of the desired quality, throughout the year.
Reducing time and energy for water collection may bring more equity between the sexes.
In many tropical countries women work longer hours than men due to, among other things,
the long distances for collecting water and fuel wood. The carrying sometimes takes as
much energy as the heaviest agricultural tasks done by men, with the difference that water
carrying is a daily task. The reduced working hours and increased rest brought by an
improved water supply benefit womens health and thereby the well-being of the whole
family. Local access also increases the safety of women and children who no longer need to
leave their communities for their daily water requirements.
Alternatively, women have chosen to use time and energy savings of an improved water
supply for their domestic, economic, social and managerial tasks. Time saved is used for
household and child care, including the collection of more water for hygiene. Or it is used to
HUIOT/WSEE Page 169

free children from water carrying and give them more time for school and/or play.
Unfortunately, these benefits often still go only to boy children.
Women also use time and water gains to increase their domestic productivity. They utilize
them, for example, for animal raising and vegetable gardening. Cases of successful
productive use, e.g. in micro-enterprises, are found in situations where time gains have
been large and reliable and women have access to organization, training, credit and
markets. Men have also used water supplies productively, for example, for animal raising
and brick making. Economic studies have shown that the income raised is an important
contribution to family livelihood and comes at critical times when income from other
sources is not available.
Less time and energy for water collection has also benefited womens many social tasks in
the extended family and as neighbors, and their work in community development,
including work for the local water service. There are, however, also examples of negative
impacts. A new water service has, for example, reduced the opportunities for young women
and girls to move outside their house. Or it has increased womens work in agriculture or
animal husbandry, but this work has not benefited them and their children, as husbands
spend the proceeds on other than family interests. There have also been examples of
competition and conflicts over water between different user groups, when the design and
management has overlooked the different demands for domestic and productive use of
water between and within households.
Development benefits also come from the process of participatory planning,

implementation and management. Involving women and men community members from
the different sections of the community in the planning and establishment of the new
service means that local resources are organized and utilized. At the same time, the
involved groups acquire new knowledge and capabilities. The water services also create
new functions, jobs and, sometimes, whole enterprises. Positive experience and new skills
in transparent and socially equitable community organisation, decision-making, financing
and management benefit not only the water service but also other community development
projects. More details on planning, implementation and management processes and their
social equity aspects may be found in the next chapter.
1.2 Small community water supplies in developing countries

Communities in developing countries that want to establish and run an improved domestic
water supply vary greatly. Some are small and rather isolated. They may have a scattered
population, a subsistence rather than a cash economy, a limited demand for water, strong
leadership but with limited administrative skills, a strong social cohesion and a long
tradition of self-help and mutual support.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 170

Others are bustling trading centers. They are situated on major roads and railways, have a
cash economy, administratively experienced leaders, considerable differences between the
rich and the poor, a great variation in water demands and little time and readiness for
voluntary community development activities. Some are on the outskirts of major cities or
are low-income communities in inner cities. The legal status and social, cultural and
economic characteristics of these more urban communities usually varies greatly. Some are
former rural communities that have been engulfed by the urbanization process, with a legal
status, a high social cohesion, and a varying quality of initiative and leadership. Others are
the result of urban migration and urbanized settlement. They have been formed through an
organized invasion of rural families from the same rural area under local leaders. Or they
have resulted from a gradual process of settlement either by male household heads and
single men who left their families in the rural areas or by whole families from the same
villages or from quite different rural areas.
In the past, projects and programmes have often overlooked the different nature and
history of small communities. They have applied a so-called blanket approach, using the
same technology and service level, and the same maintenance, management and financing
systems in every community. Implementation followed the same national design criteria
and the same technical and social processes everywhere, irrespective of local social and
economic conditions. It is hardly surprising that the resulting services were often
unsustainable.
Nowadays, water projects and programmes increasingly organize that different types of
communities want and can sustain different solutions, not only for technologies and service
levels, but also with regard to local maintenance, management and financing arrangements.
The technology options may range from the improvement of the existing indigenous water
sources and water transport systems to the installation of new water supplies with public
facilities, group facilities and/or private facilities. Other options are a combination of
traditional and improved systems for complementary use or a sequence of different
systems during the rainy and wet season. One example of a climbing frame of water
technology options is given in figure 1.1.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 171

Year-round piped water supply with a

community managed water treatment and
disinfection system (especially when surface
water is used) and multiple house
connections with drainage
Year-round piped water supply with a community

managed water treatment and disinfection system
and a mix of private, group and neighborhood
connections, and drainage
Year-round piped water supply as above but with group or

neighborhood connections, if demanded, with washing/bathing/cattle
watering facilities, and drainage
Year-round piped water system as above but with one communal connection, e.g. a
battery of taps without or with washing/laundry/cattle watering facilities, and with
drainage
Year-round point source: protected spring with a reservoir, outlet and, if needed,
washing/bathing/cattle watering facilities, with drainage but no reticulation system as yet. Springs
may be farther than wells, but may score higher as option when allowing expansion with a gravity-
fed piped system
Year-round point source: hand pump over permanent hand-dug (ring) well, which allows emergency access to well
water and has larger storage capacity than drilled wells), with drainage
Year-round point source: hand pump over a hand or rig drilled well with drainage (no emergency access possible, but has
advantages of deeper well, especially when rig drilled, less time and effort to construct, and lower health risks)
Year-round point source: protected dug well with pulley and fixed bucket or bucket on a bucket stand, combined with clean handling
practices and regular (continued or periodic) disinfection of well water
Upgrading of existing sources: protection against contamination, installation of a percolation well next to a pond or dam for domestic water,
facilitation of drawing or transport, for example, a communal oxcart system
Fig 1.1 climbing frame of choices for improved community water supplies
Apart from helping communities to match their choice to their current needs and
potentials, it is also possible to choose designs that allow moving up or down the climbing
frame. A piped water supply, for example, may be designed in such a way that later, when
the community has become more developed, it may be expanded with a distribution
network. Alternatively, a user group may decide on dug wells rather than drilled wells with
hand-pumps, because this makes it possible to open the well or use the manhole when for
one reason or another a hand-pump cannot be repaired. In such a case, the users should be
made well aware of the risks of contamination and be ready and able to protect the water
quality through a safe alternative way of drawing (e.g. with clean buckets and ropes) and
well chlorination. Where user groups decide to go for wells that are only
operable/operated through hand-pumps, they need to take account of the scope for speedy
repair and temporary sharing arrangements in the case of breakdown.
In the past, external projects have one-sidedly decided not to give such options to the users
and sustainers of water supplies, because of the risk of contamination. This has only meant
HUIOT/WSEE Page 172

that when hand-pumps on drilled wells broke down and could not be repaired either
immediately or at all, the wells became useless. The women had either to use another well
with problems of distance, queuing, conflict and a lower water use, or turn to other, and
riskier water sources.
Considering the pros and cons and the implications of each option and comparing them
with the demands of the different user groups and the available resources is therefore a
crucial part of decision-making. The processes for such planning and decision-making are
discussed in chapter 2, along with some of the emerging options for maintenance,
management, and financing of water services.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 173

Chapter Two
2. Planning and management
The last two decades have seen big changes in the approaches to planning and managing
small community water supplies. In 1980s, community participation in water projects was
certainly seen as important. Water agencies had recognized the benefits of involving local
people in construction, operation and maintenance of their own water systems. There was
an emerging trend, too, for decisions about the design and financing of water supply
improvements to be taken in partnership with the community.
That trend has continued apace. It has evolved via participatory approaches that try to
ensure that development is community driven, reflects the true aspirations of all sections
of society, and is both gender and poverty sensitive. At the same time, there has been a
growing recognition that water supply improvements alone do not bring optimum health
and development impact. Better sanitation provisions, changes in hygiene behavior and
linkages with other livelihood inputs are the complimentary activities needed to yield the
full benefits.
So, the institutional framework and organizational models for planning and management of
community water supplies have to be inclusive in terms of both society and sectoral
interests. The role of water agency staff is very much one of motivators, facilitators and
supporters of community-led programmes.
2.1 Planning for community managed water supply systems
2.1.1 Project versus programme

The planning and design of water supply systems in large communities is usually
approached as a single project. The term project encompasses all the preparations for the
construction of a particular scheme or water supply system. Because each community and
system is different, each project is unique. There is still a need for the inclusive approach,
to avoid marginalizing the poor, but the ways of ensuring sustainability in large urban
settings are outside the scope of this publication.
For planning with a large number of small communities, a programme approach is more
efficient and effective than a project approach. A programme is a series of integrated
activities directed at the establishment and continued functioning and use of a considerable
number of similar water supply services. Because the communities themselves manage the
services, the technologies on offer should fit the different levels of complexity and costs
that the communities concerned can manage. Choices should also not be dominated by
local political interests. The challenges of a programme approach are therefore social,
HUIOT/WSEE Page 174

organizational and administrative. This has implications for the manner of implementation
and the kind of expertise required.
Planning will depend on strategies adopted by the supporting agency and on basic
principles that are emerging in the water supply and sanitation sector. One principle is to
involve the different groups in communities, right from the start of the planning process.
Support agencies, community groups and users should work together as partners, and plan
their activities based on mutual agreement. The latter is particularly important in contexts
where communities are taking more and more responsibilities for operating, maintaining
and managing their water supply schemes. Experience shows that effective management is
determined to a considerable extent by non-technical issues. Therefore, the agency staff
involved in planning and assessing water supply systems should come from a wide range of
disciplines social development, economics, health, environment, management and
engineering.
2.1.2 Demand-responsive programmes

Demand-responsive programmes give each community and the various groups in that
community an informed choice of services and service management systems. This means
that all locally relevant groups, or stakeholders, get information on all relevant aspects and
implications of the various water supply options. The information may include: the amount
and quality of water provided; the purposes for which this water will be adequate;
potential implications for health and socio-economic development; investment and
recurrent costs involved; approximate walking distances; requirements and possibilities
for sharing of service and costs (for example, through group connections or by forming
user groups); prospects for service regularity and reliability; and differences in ease of
maintenance (for example spare parts and technical skills required) and administration.
A comparative quantitative evaluation of small community managed water services

showed that
communities with demand responsive projects (i.e. community households, both

men and women, involved in planning decisions) had better sustained and used
water services; communities with more (owner) rights and with capacity
building for local management had better sustained services;
household contributions to construction were only significantly associated with

better sustained services if coupled with more rights and capacity building for
local management;
having a local water management organisation composed of women and men

members correlated with greater access for all, especially when there were more
poor people among committee members;
HUIOT/WSEE Page 175

when there was better representation of women and people from poor families
in the water management, poor women more often perceived themselves to
have influence on the water service;
the more directly democratic and gender sensitive the planning of the
technology/service levels and maintenance system (that is, with men and
women from the households), the better the services had covered their cost over
the last three years;
Cost recovery was also better with more community control and accountability,
i.e., when local water management organisations had had some control over
design and construction, applied local rules on water use/management,
accounted to users for management and had a legal position.
2.1.3 Comprehensive planning
The eventual local solution for an improved water supply system is the product of
comprehensive planning, considering all community, technical, environmental, financial
and institutional aspects.
Fig. 2.1. Comprehensive planning
The stakeholders who make these choices are the groups that will use and sustain the
service and thereby determine its success. At the community level, they are the local
leadership, the male and female heads in each household who will be the future users and
tariff payers, and the local organisation that will manage the participation process and
possibly also the service after its establishment. The latter may be an elected committee or
sub-committee, but other management forms are possible. It is thus very important that all
HUIOT/WSEE Page 176

these groups know what the implications of the various options are and can choose the
option or combination of options that best fit their local needs, conditions and resources.
2.2 Linking water supply, hygiene and sanitation

We saw in chapter one that for sustainable public health benefits, 75-80% of the population
have to use enough water of an adequate quality the year round and practice safe
sanitation and good hygiene. It follows that small community water supply programmes
need to cooperate with effective programmes for improved sanitation and hygiene
behavior.
In rural communities, households frequently have a choice between alternative water

sources and women have developed criteria to choose which source to use for what
purpose. This means that households will not automatically use and sustain an improved
water supply. A strong demand for good quality water may initially only exist in situations
of severe shortages or of heavy pollution of the water sources. In the same way, demand for
sanitation in rural and peri-urban communities is often low, especially among men. Women
and adolescent girls face more privacy and safety problems and so have a greater demand.
However, often they can only express these needs within the family. For the true demand to
be reflected in programming, there has to be gender sensitivity in the participatory
planning.
Enhancing the demands for better water use, sanitation and hygiene is thus imperative to
meet longer-term health benefits of environmental engineering. In the last decade
considerable knowledge has been achieved on how to do this effectively. Part of this
knowledge is that water engineers cannot consider local projects in isolation from the
existing alternatives. To be accepted, used and sustained, the new provisions have to be
and remain better than the other alternatives in terms of economic and social costs and
benefits. It does not work just to tell people that this is so, or for programmes to educate
villagers to do what outsiders consider best for them. Programme teams that support
community projects must seek and value the local experiences and viewpoints, particularly
from poor women and men, to understand better what local people really want and can use
and sustain.
2.3 Planning and assessment

The comprehensive participatory planning illustrated in figure 2.1 involves assessment of
and consultations on a wide range of different aspects. Some of the key criteria to be
considered in planning are listed in table 2.1.
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Assessment Key components

criteria
Demand for water supply improvement and desired service level (men and
women, including marginalized groups)
Perception of benefits related to an improvement of water supply (men
and women, including marginalized groups)
Responsibility and ownership feelings
Culture, habits, beliefs related to water and hygiene
Community Presence of alternative water sources
aspects Organized and elected community group to be responsible for operation
and maintenance (representative of the community social structure,
including men and women)
Managerial and technical capacity of the community group, and availability
of tools
Possibility of grouping several communities for a single water supply
scheme (in the case of small piped systems)
Present and future water consumption
Need to include water treatment
Technical standards and complexity of O&M procedures, with a preference
for technologies that can be operated and maintained at community level
Technical
Quality, durability and cost of equipment
aspects
Cost and availability/accessibility of spare parts, and potential for local
manufacture of spare parts, as well as standardizations
Dependence on and cost of fuel, power and chemicals, if needed, with a
preference for reducing this dependency
Quantity and quality of water resource, including the need for water
Environmental
treatment, water resource management and seasonal variations
aspects
Water source protection and wastewater management
Cost benefit analysis
Ability and willingness to pay
Tariff structure (covering O&M and replacement costs), with due
Financial
consideration for marginalized groups
aspect
Cost-recovery procedures and financial management capacity
Alternative financial mechanisms, in case of major problems
Economies of scale
Legal framework and national strategy
Training availability and capacity
Follow-up support, including monitoring
Availability of technical assistance to the communities (NGOs, municipal
Institutional and/or district level)
aspects
Availability and capacity of local craftsmanship
Involvement of formal and informal private sector
Capacity of technical staff to deal with community development and
knowledge of participatory processes
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All communities have at least one form of water supply. From the perspectives of all these
criteria it is wise to consider all forms of improvements, from improvement or upgrading of
existing traditional and/or improved water supplies to the establishment of one or more
supplementary provisions. Building a new system that replaces all others is not the only
and necessarily best choice. On some dry plateaus with low density settlement for example,
a sequence of water supplies, starting with rainwater harvesting and surface water use at
the peak of the rainy season, and followed by using protected wells on the plateau and,
when these dried up, hand-pump wells in the river valleys (sealed and with the pumps kept
by the committees when they were not used) has been the agreed option.
2.4 Designing for current and future needs

To serve the needs of all groups, small community water supply designs must further be
holistic, expandable and upgradable.
In a holistic design, the local water supply system or combination of systems meets all the
basic water needs of the people. In small communities, separating water between domestic
and productive uses is often unrealistic. As well as the family needs for drinking, cooking,
bathing, sanitation and hygiene, both women and men often need domestic water for small-
scale productive uses within the household, such as raising animals, growing vegetables
and trees, processing food and making bricks. Alternative water sources are not always
available for such uses. Even if there are several sources it is unlikely that there will be
clear enforceable arrangements made on which source will be used for which purposes.
Unless local design, management and financing arrangements encompass all the different
needs, competition and conflicts over water are the result.
Designing for expandability is required because programmes seldom can go back to

communities some years later to install new water points for new households and
neighbourhoods. Social and health benefits may be lost unless service coverage levels can
be kept up and newly settled families also have access to the improved water supply. It is
therefore important that, in choosing the technology and service levels, the community and
its advisers also consider the systems expandability within the locally available technical
and financial means.
Upgradability is an issue because improvements in basic services can be expected to lead to

socio-economic growth. Communities may therefore wish to design for the future and
accept the implication of some extra community investments upfront to increase the
possibilities for later upgrading.
Rehabilitation of defective water supply schemes can be an alternative to investing in a

new project, but that decision should not be taken lightly. The rehabilitation option has to
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be evaluated, as one would do with a new scheme, by taking into consideration the
communitys needs, preferences and capacities to sustain whatever is undertaken, as well
as the support capacity of water agencies. In assessing the scope for rehabilitation,
community members and support agencies should use a participatory problem analysis to
review the reasons why the system needs to be rehabilitated, and carefully examine other
feasible options. Rehabilitation should not simply be a matter of replacing defective
equipment or repairing damaged infrastructure. The most common causes of failure are
poor organizational/financial capacity and inappropriate choice of technology.
2.5 Standardization
Several countries have chosen to standardize their choice of technology. There are positive
and negative aspects that should be carefully considered before making a decision to
standardise (see table 2.3). Standardization can only last a certain number of years, as
technological progress, price factors and new life styles/patterns will influence the level of
service and choice of technology.
Table: For and against standardization
For Standardization Against Standardization

Wide use of the same type of equipment The chosen technology does not respond
encourages agents and shopkeepers to to the needs and preference of the users
store and supply spare parts because of The market is closed for new, innovative
an important and foreseeable demand and cheaper technologies
Proliferation of being of brands and Poor incentive for the involvement of the
technology makes it difficult to organize private sector
an efficient spare parts availability Possible conflict between country and
system
donor policy choice of technology
Prices and markets can become more Competition between different brands can
accessible help prices to go down and improve
Users become familiar with one type of efficiency
technology and product
Training of personnel can be standardised
2.6 Participatory processes

How are demand-responsive programmes implemented?
A number of new approaches are emerging for community planned and community
managed water services, with more Participatory and gender and poverty sensitive
strategies, organisations and methods.
Participatory planning and design is an intensive and crucial process. It is continually
necessary to consult separately with the different community groups about the different
options. Because of the great technical, socio-economic and cultural variation, each
HUIOT/WSEE Page 180

programme will need to work out its own range of options and the information and tools
that it will use with the groups concerned. Decisions on community financing alone, for
example, cover a wide range of choices: how much should be paid to reflect local costs and
age of systems; equitable payment systems; division of responsibilities and work in
collection and administration; accounting and accountability; etc. There is an increasing
amount of field experience in the literature about what works best under what
circumstances. There are also a growing number of reference documents and advisory
services that help identify the kind of choices that programmes may consider.
2.7 A programme fund to (co-)finance locally planned projects

Small communities frequently find it difficult to obtain the capital to construct improved
water supplies, so local efforts seldom develop into larger programmes without some sort
of outside support. The initiative for organising and financing multi-community
programmes usually comes from the central or provincial government. Establishing such a
programme, and creating a programme fund, facilitates the local initiation of a succession
of small community water supply projects. The fund may be partly revolving, that is, it is a
centrally established fund that finances new projects using repayments on earlier loans.
The communities that agree to take a loan, or qualify for a grant, or a combination of the
two, contribute to the costs of planning, design and construction with their time, cash, local
knowledge and expertise, materials and labour. They also manage the local planning
process through their own organization (not necessarily specific to water supply). This
organization makes the arrangements for the construction of the installations, involving
community women and men, artisans and/or local contractors. It has to account for the use
of the funds to the programme agency and to the women and men from the community.
2.8 Participatory assessments during the pre-planning stage

Using a demand-responsive approach implies that, before obtaining a loan or a grant,
individual communities have the opportunity to assess the demands within their
households and submit a pre-proposal to the programme. Candidates for funding may be
all interested communities in selected programme areas, although programmes also
sometimes formulate eligibility criteria.
Communities are not homogeneous entities. They consist of different groups broadly
representing those that are better off, the middle classes and the worse-off/marginalized
groups. In each of these groups, women and men have their own needs, knowledge and
potentials. To help and get support from all, it is important to identify the various groups at
the very start of the process and ensure their equitable participation. It is often necessary
to meet separately with each group, because in many cultures women and poor people
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cannot or will not attend and speak out at large meetings. Their views have to be obtained
through gatherings where they can participate in an uninhibited way. Trusted individual
local men and women then convey the views to a larger general meeting and report back to
a second gathering later.
The local organisation that organizes the pre-planning and planning process is the heart
and soul and the driving force of the whole participation process. It must be able to
represent the interests of all community groups. From the beginning, it needs to have an
equitable representation of both women and men from the major groups in the community.
External agency staff assists this organisation to assess the existing conditions and needs
for improvements and to prepare a pre-proposal for improvements. The organisation also
needs to be able to submit the proposed plan for approval to all the women and men in the
different socio-economic (and sometimes also different religious and ethnic) groups.
2.8.1 Preliminary project selection

No community exists without having some kind of water supply system. Projects can
therefore not be planned in a vacuum, but must be based on the assessment of existing
conditions. Assessment of existing water supplies and their technical, financial,
administrative, social and environmental shortcomings is therefore a part of any rapid
feasibility/baseline study. Rapid participatory appraisal methods such as the Methodology
for Participatory Assessment of Community Water Services (Wijk, 2001) facilitate such an
evaluation.
Having assessed the existing conditions and laid down the demands, needs and potentials
for improvement, each community submits its resulting preliminary plans, or pre-proposal,
to the programme level. At this level, the first prioritization and selection of preliminary
proposals takes place, followed by the allocation of financial and human resources to help
with detailed planning and design. In a participatory programme, such decisions are ideally
also a joint process, in which women and men community representatives from the
concerned communities participate. In the process, special care is needed to ensure that
weaker communities are not disadvantaged. Those with less development, weak
leadership, or suffering social conflict often require more assistance and/or more time to
complete the process. Already advantaged communities may otherwise dominate the
competition for project resources.
2.8.2 Detailed planning and decision-making

Once a proposal has been selected and resources have been assigned, the next stage is
detailed planning and design. Programme support teams (discussed later) now use their
social and technical know-how to help the communities to consider the pros and cons of
different technical and organizational options and make informed choices. The choices
cover a wide range of issues:
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the types of technology and the levels of service that best suit the different sections of
the community;
the number, physical design and precise location of the facilities;
the extent to which women and men in the different community groups will
participate with cash, materials and labour including cooking and collecting water
during construction and maintenance and how the participation will be managed,
monitored and controlled;
monitoring of the quality of the work;
local arrangements for maintenance and repair;
the local financing system for sharing the investment and recurrent costs;
The statutes and regulations needed for management of the water system and of
water and land use to protect the quantity and quality of the water resource(s).
For the support team, most of the options and even the choices will be the same from
project to project. That does not mean that they can be prejudged. The future sustainability
of the new systems depends on the whole community sharing information and accepting
responsibilities based on full involvement in planning decisions.
2.8.3 Example of a planning process

An effective planning process leads in stages from the demand of the community, to an
initial service level assumption, a participatory base-line survey, an assessment of support
capacity, and an analysis of results with the communities, and ultimately to a formal
agreement on the water supply system chosen. The steps are:
Step 1 Demand from the communities for support in improving their water supply. This
step may well have been preceded by promotion campaigns.
Step 2 Initial service level assumption, during which the support agency makes a
preliminary overview of hydrological, population, technical and institutional aspects,
including an inventory of theoretically potential water supply options, based on existing
data and information.
Step 3 Participatory community baseline survey, during which a situation analysis is

done with the communities, in order to assess the following points:
Demand (of poor, middle class and better-off men/women)

Consumption patterns and desired service level (men and women)
Perception of benefits of an improved water supply system (men and women),
including distance, comfort, time gains, health, income generating activities, status
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Culture, beliefs and habits of different user groups regarding water supply,
sanitation and hygiene, including an assessment of experiences (good and bad) in
past community projects
Housing distribution (rich, intermediate and poor)
Income and willingness to pay (rich, intermediate and poor)
Present and future availability of water resource (yield and treatment needed,
including seasonal variations)
The importance of alternative and traditional water points
Presence, capacity and representativeness of organized community groups, as
indicated by men and women, and the poor
Managerial and technical capacity within the community, by class and sex
Managerial and technical capacity outside the community, including follow-up
support
Link with local/municipal/district authorities
Potential technical options that match users preference, ability to pay, management
capacity, availability of spare parts and environmental conditions
Capacity and willingness to pay for capital costs, including contributions in kind
The need to integrate sanitation, hygiene and wastewater management
Step 4 Assessment of operations support capacity, during which an investigation is

made among local, municipal and district public bodies, private formal/informal bodies or
individuals, and NGOs in order to assess their present and potential future role and
capacity in supporting the management, operation and maintenance of water supply
schemes. The support agency will subsequently need to
define a division of responsibilities together with the main stakeholders involved;

promote the involvement of the private formal and informal sector not only for
design and construction purposes, but also for maintenance, repairs, supply of spare
parts, water quality monitoring (in conjunction with public health services),
community mobilization, etc.;
Plan for capacity building activities according to the needs that have emerged at all
levels (community, public authorities, private sector).
Step 5 Analysis of results with the communities, during which the agency that
implements the overall programme makes a preliminary overview of the results of the
participatory baseline survey. This is then discussed with the communities, with an
emphasis on all implications and long-term commitments of various technical options.
Clarification should be made on the necessary organizational adjustments, as well as on the
managerial and financial responsibilities, and tariff levels that are emerging. The sanitation
and hygiene component is as essential as the water supply one, as it could jeopardize any
effort in improving water supply schemes if not properly dealt with.
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Communities need enough time to consider the various options and implications, and may
have to be organised in a formal group (association, cooperative, etc.). Women and the
poor sometimes need help to organise separately and so gain equal influence.
Step 6 Formal agreement between the community, the local authorities and the support
agency, once the community has made an informed choice on the desired water supply
system, location and sites, and it has formally decided to contribute to the capital costs (in
cash and/or in kind), as well as formed a community group. The agreements clearly define
the responsibilities and rights of each party and spell out the sanctions and procedures in
cases of violation.
2.9 Implementation
When each community has developed its own detailed plan, the same publicly accounted
decision-making process at the programme level serves to decide which plans are financed
through a loan, a grant or a combination of the two. Advisory services from the programme
teams are made available to each community project and the project funds are transmitted
in installments to the special project bank account that each community has established.
Under this approach, procurement and construction are fully community implemented and
controlled. This presumes that the capability to monitor the quality of construction and
manage the contract is locally available or that training is provided. During this stage the
local project committee also monitors and accounts for the fair implementation of
contributions from individual householders. Care and monitoring ensure that both women
and men from the different sections are trained and that women, as primary users, are not
given only the low level physical work, but can exercise control over the quality of facilities.
2.9.1 The post-construction stage

Small community water supplies are often more difficult to keep running than to construct.
The need for proper maintenance and management is generally 19tabilize19, but the actual
maintenance work is frequently neglected. Building local management organisations and
management capacities needs careful attention.
The local management organisation manages the water service according to locally agreed
regulations and statutes that do not conflict with national water regulations. Users
generally make payments that, as a rule, cover local operation and maintenance costs.
Depending on the arrangements with the government, community financing may further
cover primary repairs, repayment of the loan and the costs of keeping up local service
coverage. Proper budgeting and financial management are crucial for a satisfactory service.
Being a service for all, the local management organisation should also be accountable to all.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 185

That means reporting from the start and at clearly agreed intervals on its management,
including its financial management, to the male and female household heads.
For small water supply systems, selected technicians and the management committee
greatly benefit from technical and managerial experience and training during and after the
construction. For larger and multi-village systems with a community-based management,
the technicians and management staff are generally professionally trained and hired by the
community water board. Other management options exist with roles for local authorities,
such as municipalities and districts, and the private sector.
2.10 Programme organizational aspects

Small community water supplies developed under a large programme depend for their
success on combining local skills and energy with proper programme support. This third
section addresses some of the main organization and staff requirements, and management
models, for the kind of programmes that help communities to establish and run small,
decentralized water services.
Function divisions
In large programmes in which many small community water supplies are decentrally
planned, implemented and managed, success depends on the degree of completeness and
clarity in the division of functions and on the standards to which those functions are
carried out at each level. Table 2.4 gives the principal functions that may be carried out at
the higher (national or state), middle (provincial and/or district) and lower levels.
The national and local governments, with their supporting institutions, are one category of
actors in the complex context of water supply; the community-based (management)
organisations, NGOs and the private sector are other key actors, as, of course, are the men
and women users.
If certain links in this chain are weak or missing, the overall chain is at risk.
Decentralisation cannot, for example, be limited to the delegation of responsibilities to
communities to manage their own water services. They also need authority and rights, such
as a legal status and procedures for claiming liability in case of substandard construction or
mismanagement of funds. And they need capacity building and technical support that does
not stop at the completion of a project.
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Table: Functional divisions among different level of organisations
Level Functions
Establishment of technical and administrative policies
Formulation of measurable objectives, strategies, guidelines and
standards
Long-term programme planning
Legislation
Regulation
Management of national funds, and matching these to local
contributions
National/state Monitoring and evaluation
Accounting to parliament. Etc
Adjustment to policy, strategies, etc based on evaluation and
public accountability
General financial control.
Interdependent coordination
Donor coordination
Adjustment of education curricula
Provisions for in-service training
Planning and execution of implementation programme(s)
Allocation of individual community projects
Resources support (financial and human)
Capacity building and training
Provincial/District Monitoring and evaluation of implementation and post.
Implementation results in relation to support approaches, with
correction action
Financial and quality control
Backstopping of established community services
Coordination for water resources management
Planning and implementation of local water projects
Process management
Service management (including O&M and financial management)
Community Monitoring and evaluation of services, with corrective action
Accounting for project implementation and service management
to community male and female household heads
Coordination with other community/water resources
management
Management models
There is a worldwide trend to decentralize management responsibilities as well as to
involve the private sector to a greater extent. This decentralization trend has resulted in
municipal councils and local governments being endowed with the responsibility of
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ensuring the provision of public services at local level. In some countries this has even
become a constitutional prerogative. However, many local government organisations do
not have sufficient capacities to assume this responsibility. Along with this trend, the great
majority of national sector strategies, especially those designed for rural and periurban
areas include the principles of community participation and management of water supply
services and gender and poverty sensitive approaches as a basic condition for
sustainability. How can these trends (municipal management and community management
with gender and social equity) work together without competing with one another? How
can the public and private sector cooperate for greater efficiency with preservation of
social justice?
In most cases municipal and local government bodies remain legally responsible, and they
will delegate part of their responsibility to the communities within their borders in the case
of community managed water supply systems. It is important that this is spelt out in a
written contractual form, giving water committees a legal status and clearly defining the
boundaries of responsibilities of each party. Unfortunately, in many countries, water
committees do not have a proper legal status. There are several possibilities:
The municipality/local government officially registers the water committee, and

acknowledges the constituting act of the general assembly of the community
The water committee operates under the legal mandate of a village development
association
The water committee is registered with the chamber of commerce as a non-profit
making user association
The water committee is registered with the chamber of commerce as an
organisation with an economic interest as a cooperative or private firm.
The private sector generally intervenes as a provider of services, for a specific activity
(repair, construction, etc.), or under a time-bound service contract or management
contract. Remuneration corresponds to the service provided. In urban areas other
contractual arrangements are made, under which the private contractor is remunerated via
water fees from users.
The choice of a particular management model is influenced by issues such as: capacity of
community organisations; complexity and type of technology; possibility of multi-village
scheme; links with local authorities and other stakeholders; capacity of the private formal
and informal sector; national policies, (on institutional arrangements at local level and
decentralized for instance).
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The following management models can be applied for community managed water supply
systems:
Tap or neighbourhood committee: responsible for operating and maintaining a

specific water point
Water committee: responsible for all managerial, financial and technical activities of a
scheme that covers a larger area than a neighbourhood, and possibly the whole
community
Water committee contracting a private body: The committee remains responsible
for general management and control, but contracts a private body (an individual, a
mechanic, a group of artisans, a firm) to operate and maintain the system
Multi-village water committee, responsible for the management of water supply in
several communities, where each community has also its association. This option is
sought in the situation of a piped scheme serving several villages
Village association: responsible for all development activities concerning the village,
including overseeing water and sanitation
Sanitation and hygiene either fall under one of the abovementioned bodies or are managed
by a separate health or sanitation committee.
The committee or association may have the ownership of the assets but more important is
that it is in control of the decision-making and management. For larger and more
complicated piped water supply schemes, the actual management including the daily
financial and technical functions is best done by a professional team consisting of a
manager, accountant and technicians.
Supporting the process of change
Because of their limited size and experience in running water services, community-based
management and governing boards of most small water supply systems need external
support and advice in areas such as planning, implementation, management, accounting,
audits, monitoring, training, special repairs, etc.
One possibility is to have special multidisciplinary government teams with expertise in all
aspects of community projects. In a variation of this approach, technical and social units
from different departments work together, or a government technical team cooperates
with a social NGO. In such cases, teamwork is generally more difficult to achieve, but a team
approach is vital for good results.
A further possibility is the involvement of multidisciplinary teams from local NGOs and
consultancy groups on a contract basis. Finally, in regions in which small communities have
capable local development organisations and technical expertise, it is possible to organise
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training programmes for these groups that include hands-on learning in and across local
communities.
Forming an association of community-based water supply organisations can create a

strong structure of mutual political, financial and technical support. Suchassociations
act as bridges, facilitators and protectors of small water organisations in their relationships
with the private sector and government departments.
In the spectrum of actors, an independent national and regional water regulator is required
to protect the public interests. This function of regulation cannot be combined with the
national and regional water departmental tasks.
Supporting communities to plan and implement their projects is quite different from
planning and implementing projects oneself. In all models, the organizational
arrangements will therefore be quite different from those of conventional engineering
programmes. Selection criteria for staff who volunteer or are recruited to work in a
support programme must include good communication skills and attitudes to work as a
team, with local women and men as colleagues. The members of the team must want and
be able to combine the specific knowledge, expertise and skills of local people with those of
the team. Knowing and having used participatory methods and tools such as PRA
(participatory rural appraisal) and SARAR (self-esteem, associative strength,
resourcefulness, action planning, and responsibility) are an advantage. All team members
must be gender and poverty conscious, and recognise and be able to overcome or reduce
inequalities between women and men and rich and poor. Teams must also have the
opportunity to stay together for at least five years.
In participatory, demand-responsive and gender and poverty sensitive programmes, job

descriptions of technical staff differ from those in conventional engineering programmes.
Technical staff need to be aware of and take into account the socio-cultural and
organisational implications of technical options. In the same way, social staffs need to have
a basic understanding and appreciation of the technical implications of community choices.
Both types of staff often need joint training on community management aspects of the
services, the use of participatory tools and techniques and the application of gender and
poverty perspectives.
The private sector has a number of possible functions in new-style programmes. At the
support level, a programme may decide to give contracts for support work with
communities to technical-social teams from the private sector. It is important that these
teams are chosen for their expertise and field experience and will work together for a
prolonged period. A trial phase with indicators of performance (not just quantitative, but
also qualitative) and the judgments of different community groups on the quality of the
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work further help to achieve good results. Similar procedures can help to secure good
training for communities from private and semi-private sector agencies.
For technical work, the communities may decide to do their own procurement, use their
own artisans and/or hire contractors. Typical help from the support programme will
consist of guidance on required skills, materials and equipment, making and managing
contracts, and monitoring of the quality of the work. Criteria of success are not
construction rates, but the degree to which the services are sustained and used and the
overall coverage levels within communities.
At the higher level, managers and other superiors need to appreciate, support and reward
participatory and gender and poverty-positive work styles from social and technical field
personnel. Staff performance evaluations and new contracts cannot simply be based on
achieving physical and financial targets, but must take into account the quality of process
work and the nature of longer-term results. Ideally they should also take into account the
feedback from different community groups. It is the attitudes and behavior of the higher
management levels towards participation, gender and poverty programmes, which co-
determine the overall atmosphere and results of small community water supply
programmes.
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Chapter three
3. Spring water Development
3.1 Introduction
Springs are found mainly in mountainous or hilly terrain. A spring may be defined as a
place where a natural outflow of groundwater occurs.
Spring water is usually fed from sand or gravel water bearing soil formation called an
aquifer, or a water flow through fissured rock. Where solid or clay layers block the
underground flow of water, it is forced upwards to the surface. The water may emerge
either in the open as a spring, or invisibly as an outflow into a river, stream, lake or the sea
(Fig. 3.1). Where the water emerges in the form of a spring, it can easily be tapped. The
oldest community water supplies were, in fact, often based on springs and they remain a
favored source, because the water usually has a high natural quality and intake
arrangements are relatively straightforward. That suits both the engineers helping to
design the water supply system, and the community members who will have to look after
it. Because of their popularity, most natural springs have been developed in one way or
another as drinking water sources. However, a proper feasibility study, application of some
basic design principles and attention in protecting the spring and its catchment area will
usually lead to improvements in the quantity, quality and sustainability of many such
supplies. As in the rest of the module, there is an overriding principle that community
members should be fully informed and closely involved in decisions about the tapping, use
and protection of spring water sources.
A key reference on spring catchment is the SKAT manual Spring Catchment of 2001.
Figure 3-1: Occurrence of springs
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3.2 Procedures in spring development
3.2.1 Identification of spring source

Local people, especially women (as drawers of water), but also farmers, hunters and
grazers, have a good knowledge of the location of springs and their characteristics. These
people are the primary sources of information in the identification process. In the dry
season, green vegetation in a dry area may also be an indication of a spring source.
Some springs form small ponds where animals drink and people may well also fetch water
from there. Others flow as small streams in valleys and can be traced back to the source.
The source, though, is not necessarily the first upstream point at which the stream emerges
from the ground. In some cases streams may be buried for quite a length and there can be
added risks of contamination unless the investigation continues further upstream to locate
the true spring.
3.2.2 Identification of types of spring sources

Springs are classified according to the conditions under which water flows to them. Some
surface under pressure, while others do so as a result of discontinuities in the strata that
held the water underground. For instance, in a seepage or filtration spring the water
percolates from many small openings in porous ground, while in fracture springs the water
comes from joints or fractures in otherwise solid rock, and for tubular springs the outflow
opening is more or less round. To understand the possibilities of water tapping from
springs, the distinction between gravity springs and artesian springs is most important. A
further sub-division can be made into depression springs and overflow springs.
Spring
Artesian Gravity
Depression Overflow Fissure Depression Overflow
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a) Gravity depression springs

Gravity springs occur in unconfined aquifers. Where the
ground surface dips below the water table, any such
depression will be filled with water (Fig. 3.2). Gravity
depression springs usually have a small yield and a further
reduction occurs when dry season conditions or nearby
groundwater withdrawals result in the lowering of the
groundwater table.
Figure 3-2: Gravity depression spring
b) Gravity overflow springs
A larger and less variable yield from gravity springs is obtained where an outcrop of
impervious soil, such as a solid or clay fault zone, prevents the downward flow of the
groundwater and forces it up to the surface (Fig.
3.3). At such an overflow spring, all the water from
the recharge area is discharged. The flow will be
much more regular than the recharge by rainfall.
Even so, an appreciable fluctuation of the discharge
may occur and in periods of drought some springs
may cease to flow completely.
Figure 3-3: Gravity overflow spring
c) Artesian depression spring

Artesian groundwater is prevented from rising to its free water table level by the presence
of an overlaying impervious layer. That is the reason why artesian groundwater is under
pressure. Artesian springs are the sites where the groundwater comes to the surface.
Artesian depression springs are similar in appearance to gravity depression springs.

However, the water is forced out under pressure so that the discharge is higher and there is
less fluctuation. A drop of the artesian water table during dry periods has little influence on
the artesian groundwater flow (Fig. 3.4).
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Figure 3-4: Artesian groundwater flow Figure 3-5: Artesian fissure springs
d) Artesian fissure spring

Artesian fissure springs (Fig. 3.5) form an important variant of this type of spring. Again the
water emerges under pressure, this time through a fissure in the impervious overburden.
Fissure springs exist in many countries and widely used for community water supplies.
e) Artesian overflow spring

Artesian overflow springs often have a large recharge area, sometimes a great distance
away (Fig. 6). The water is forced out under pressure; the discharge is often considerable
and shows little or no seasonal
fluctuation. These springs are very well
suited for community water supply
purposes. Artesian springs have the
advantage that the impervious cover
protects the water in the aquifer against
contamination. The water from these
springs is usually bacteriologically safe.
Figure 3-6: Artesian Overflow springs
3.2.3 Feasibility study

The feasibility study of a spring source aims to investigate the quality and the quantity of
water from the source. It provides the information and data for design of a water supply
system. The study also needs to take any possible environmental impact in to
consideration. Local people are important sources of information and should be involved in
decisions about the feasibility of developing any particular spring. Aspects to be considered
include the quantity and quality of the water, its reliability, current and future uses, and
socio-cultural acceptability for a domestic water supply.
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A representative feasibility study is therefore best done together with a team of community
members.
3.2.4 Rapid environmental assessment

A rapid assessment of potential environmental impact is a sensible first step. This involves
identifying possible environmental consequences of developing a spring. These can include
risks of landslides, erosion, or contamination of the source. The environmental assessment
includes investigating the flow direction of surface runoff above the spring; human
activities and water uses in the catchment area, i.e. habitation, farming, grazing, etc.; and
the type of plants growing in the catchment or recharge area.
If there are people living in the catchment/recharge area, they are likely to contaminate the
groundwater through their own waste and their activities such as cattle holding or
agriculture using artificial fertilizer or chemicals. But it may be very difficult to relocate
them. If the groundwater contamination risks are too high, then such locations are not
suitable. Some trees and plants are undesirable too. Eucalyptus trees, for instance, compete
for water with the spring and can significantly reduce the yield. Raffia palms, though
harmless, increase the iron content of the water, changing its taste and colour enough to
deter consumers. If these kinds of plants are around, the best solution is to make the
community members aware of the impact and hold discussions about moving or removing
them.
3.2.5 Spring water quality

In general, spring water is of good quality. Pathogenic contamination is unlikely if the
source meets certain criteria. These include the thickness of the soil layer, the type of soil
and the velocity of infiltration of the surface water. The soil formation should be thick
enough for natural filtration and biological action to remove pathogenic organisms before
the water enters the aquifer feeding the spring. The type of soil determines the speed of the
flow through the voids in the soil and so influences the purification mechanisms and the
concentration of suspended solids. If the soil layer is not thick enough, any human activity
should be restricted or even forbidden in the catchment area. Otherwise, local farmers may
be allowed to conduct some agricultural activities in the catchment area (but outside the
protection area around the spring) under some restrictions such as no use of artificial
fertilizers or harmful chemicals. This may contribute to the protection of the catchment
because they have a direct interest in protecting the area for their crop and their water
supply.
One of the key signs of a good spring is that the water maintains a constant temperature
throughout the day. This temperature is just below the average air temperature. The water
should also be colourless. Variation of water temperature during the day and colouration of
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water shortly after rains are indications of a poor quality spring source. It may have its
water-bearing soil layer not deep enough or rapid infiltration of surface water through the
topsoil. If users note these temperature and colour changes, but they still favour the spring
over alternative water sources, then the community needs to be advised to include water
treatment as part of the water supply system. This treatment may be incorporated in the
intake chamber or outside the spring. For small communities, household-based water
treatment may be the most feasible option.
Laboratory testing of the water quality is a necessary part of the feasibility study even if
there are no changes in the water temperature and colour. Testing should extend over a
reasonable period of time, especially if there are human activities in the recharge area of
the source.
3.2.6 The spring water quantity

The quantity of water a spring produces is known as its yield. Information about the yield is
crucial in the decision-making process for the tapping of a spring. Yield is studied in terms
of flow rate and consistency. Variation in the yield of a spring during the dry season and the
rainy season is an important criterion to determine whether the spring is a suitable source.
If the ratio between the highest yield in the rainy season and the yield in the dry season is
below 20, then the spring has an acceptable consistency and can be regarded as a reliable
source in both wet and dry seasons. Take into account that the highest and the lowest yield
do not occur at the beginning of the rainy season and at the end of the dry season but
typically a couple of weeks (or even months) later, depending on the soil characteristics.
It follows that a proper feasibility study of a spring source should last for at least one year.
A longer duration is preferred as there may be dry and wet years. The study will indicate
the variation in yield of the spring throughout the year, and the maximum, minimum and
estimated average flow. The average yield will reveal if more than one spring is needed to
meet the daily water demand of the user population. If the overall yield is limited, users
should be guided towards using the spring water primarily for drinking and cooking
because of quality, and secondarily for other domestic purposes. A participatory study
increases the peoples sense of ownership and the appreciation for proper water
management.
The yield is highly influenced by the water storage capacity of the aquifer. When the water
velocity in the saturated stratum gets too high, the pores through which the water passes
tend to become choked so that the flow becomes considerably reduced. Limestone and
volcanic rock areas do not experience this effect.
In many cases, more than one spring is tapped for the same water supply system. Ideally,
this should be done in a phased manner, with the community water committee judging in
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advance when augmentation is going to be necessary. As the population and/or its

productive activities increase, daily water demand also increases, resulting in potential
water shortages in the system. Shortages will occur first during dry seasons and a few
weeks or months into the rainy season. They can be prevented by proper planning with the
community water committee.
There may not always be time for a long study of spring yield. Water supplies are key
development indicators used by politicians in rural areas for campaign purposes. This
political influence sometimes does not allow the technician and the community to study the
source for the required duration. Under such influences, critical study periods are used to
give a rapid estimation of the yield. The best time to use is the transition period of dry and
rainy seasons when the flow is minimal. The times of peak and minimum spring yield do
not necessarily correspond to the peak and minimum rainfall periods. In fact, the lowest
spring yield usually occurs about a few weeks to several months into the rainy season. So, if
the study terminates at the end of the dry season, the lowest yield level of the spring may
not be noticed. The critical study should extend for about four months into the rainy
season. The chances of recording peak yield still remain unlikely, but that is less critical
than the minimum yield.
Estimating spring yield
A spring yield is measured in liters per second (l/s). The measurement process involves
two selected trained villagers who measure the discharge from the spring over the study
period. The process starts with the construction of an earth dam. Spring water retained by
the dam is drained through a pipe. One villager collects the water with a container of a
known volume while the other measures the time needed to fill the container (Fig. 3.7). The
pipe diameter and container size are chosen such that the water outflow will not fill the
measuring container in less than five seconds. Sometimes several pipes are used. Four
readings are taken during the day and day averages are calculated, expressing the
discharge in l/s. This is repeated once every week for the measuring period. In this way, the
minimum and maximum yields are determined.
Studies of catchments with many springs channeled into a single supply point must be
carried out carefully for reasons of backpressure effects. Simply adding the yields from
each individual spring together is not enough. An excessive flow could build up a
backpressure and cause some springs to divert their courses. In some cases it may lead to
permanent damage to the catchment. The designer needs to study the flow characteristics
of any collection chambers or pipes and ensure that each spring outlet flows freely. The
yield of springs may vary from a few liters per minute to several thousand per minute.
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Figure 3-7: Measuring spring yield
3.2.7 Design and construction

The design and construction of a spring-fed water supply for a specific location must
(i) be appropriate for the specific local conditions,
(ii) prevent pathogenic contamination and pollution,
(iii) be reliable in terms of quantity, and
(iv) have no adverse environmental consequences.
Because of their small yield and the difficulty of providing adequate sanitary protection,
gravity depression springs cannot be recommended for community water supplies. The
presence of such a spring, however, indicates shallow groundwater that may be withdrawn
using drains or dug wells. These can be covered and protected against contamination.
3.3 Design
The major components in the design of a spring-source water supply system include the
actual springs water collection area where water from the aquifer is actually being
channeled to a single discharge point the supply pipe, the collection chamber, and the
outlet to a storage tank (Fig. 3.8).
Figure 3-8: Layout of a springs water collection area
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The collection area is a critical part and involves the tapping of water from the aquifer. Two
methods are used to collect the groundwater. One is by dry stone masonry and the other is
by perforated pipes (Fig. 3.9).
Experience has shown that roots may grow in the collection area. The roots can become so
dense that they obstruct the flow, thereby reducing output from the source and also
generating back pressure that could cause damage to the aquifer hydraulics. Easy access to
the collection area enables the caretaker to remove the obstructing roots.
Figure 3-9: Types of water tapping methods: (a) dry stone masonry, (b) perforated pipes
Source: Helvetas Cameroon, 1985
Other modifications in the design are made mainly to reduce costs and make the system
more appropriate (fig 3.10).
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Figure 3-10: Low cost option for collection area

Two supply pipes are used in the collection area to channel the drain water to the
collection chamber. The first pipe channels all the discharge during times of low yield. The
second ensures that there is no excess water backing up in the collection area during
maximum yields, as this could obstruct the natural flow in the aquifer and create
backpressure.
3.3.1 Tapping of gravity springs
The spring collection area is the heart of a water supply system that uses a spring source.
Once constructed and backfilled, access to collection area, for instance to correct errors, is
very cumbersome. Thus, care and experience is needed for proper spring construction.
Figure 11 illustrates a detailed view of a springs collection area design.
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Figure 11: Detailed design of a spring collection area
The major parts of the construction are the permeable construction and the barrage (dam).
The permeable construction is a package of filter material made of rocks, stones and gravel
that allows water to drain into the supply pipes. Perforated pipes surrounded by a gravel
filter package are sometimes used instead of dry stone masonry but the latter is preferable.
The barrage can be a concrete dam or a stone masonry construction controlling the drain
and directing water into the supply pipes. It also carries the load of the backfilling. The
floor of the permeable construction and the perforated pipes slopes at about 2%.
Construction of the collection chamber should take into consideration that it acts as a
sedimentation tank as well. Thus, access must be provided for regular cleaning.
Construction starts with excavation from where the spring emerges to the surface. This is
done carefully to avoid disturbing the natural flow of water from the spring. There should
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be regular drainage during the digging. Decreasing flow during the digging is an indication
of different springs from different directions. In such a case, digging should be extended to
catch all the springs (Fig. 12).
Figure 12: Excavation of gravity spring source
3.3.2 Tapping artesian springs

In outward appearance, artesian depression springs are quite similar to gravity depression
springs but their yield is greater and less fluctuating, as the water is forced out under
pressure. Excavation and construction of artesian springs are as shown in figure 13.
Figure 13: Excavation and construction of artesian springs
Source: Meuli and Wehrle, 2001
To tap water from an artesian depression spring, a wall extending a little above the
maximum level to which the water rises under static conditions should surround the
seepage area. For sanitary protection the spring collection area or spring eye should be
covered (Fig. 14)
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Figure 14: Artesian depression spring

For artesian depression springs that cover a large area, a system of drains is commonly
used to channel the collected water into a storage chamber. From there it flows into the
water supply system. To protect the water quality, the recharge area should be cleared and
kept clear of all debris. For granular top layers, it may be necessary to cover the recharge
area with layers of graded gravel to trap fine suspended solids.
Fissure springs are similar to artesian depression springs, but the water rises from a single
opening, so that the intake works can be small (Fig.15). Some increase in capacity may be
obtained by removing obstacles from the mouth of the spring or by enlarging the outflow
opening (Fig.16). The 38tabilize outflow of water from the spring makes sanitary
protection easy to arrange.
Figure 15: Fissure spring of small capacity
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Figure 16: Fissure spring of large capacity
Where the outflow of water occurs at only one point, the spring water can be tapped in a
small intake construction. For a large lateral spring, a retain-ing wall should be constructed
over its full width, with the borders extending into the over-lying impervious layers and the
base of the wall reaching into the bedrock. In this way, leakage of water and any risks of
erosion and collapse are avoided.
3.4 Protection of catchment and direct spring surroundings

Catchment protection
Protection of the catchment has two main objectives:
(i) to improve the recharge of the aquifer, and

(ii) to prevent contamination of the groundwater.
Catchment protection therefore involves planning, implementation and motivation to

refrain from or substantially reduce human and economic activities that could cause
adverse effects on the quality and quantity of the water from the spring. Production of
fodder grass and crops not requiring application of chemicals are permitted, but the
feeding of animals on this fodder grass should be outside the catchment area. Protection
rules and other decisions are preferably made by the local (user) communities after
analyzing the situation and the most suitable actions that can be taken locally.
Although trees/plants stabilize the soil and reduce erosion, they should be selected to
avoid those that will compete for water (such as eucalyptus). Useful trees are, for example,
pine or indigenous species (consult the Forestry Department and use local wisdom).
There are many problems associated with the protection of the catchment, including land
ownership, change of habits and traditional beliefs. For individuals, reluctance to surrender
their land for communal interest is a common problem. Some may consider the area to be
very fertile and therefore not want to sacrifice it. Others link it to their ancestors origins,
HUIOT/WSEE Page 205

and regard it as sacred. These problems bring conflicts in the community. Some local
governments now have a legal status which allows them to regulate demarcation and
intervention in an area chosen for catchment protection.
Protection of the spring surrounding
The immediate area around the spring (at least with a 50 m radius) must be fenced with
barbed wire or an alternative barrier decided by the community. In this area definitely no
human activities such as farming, grazing and hunting are allowed. Protection activities
here include soil conservation, erosion control, drainage work and planting of trees, shrubs
and grasses.
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Chapter four
4. Rainwater Roof Catchment Systems
This chapter deal about Design consideration, Construction and Maintenance and
monitoring of Rainwater Roof Catchment system.
4.1 Design Consideration

Rainwater harvesting is a means of taking water out of the hydrological cycle for either
human or agricultural use. The rainfall is intercepted and collected on prepared
watersheds.
Basically, there are two types of rainwater harvesting schemes those designed for
agricultural use and those designed for human use. Rainwater catchment schemes intended
for agricultural use require large catchment areas. In this case, use of the ground surface is
the obvious choice.
However, water for human use should be more convenient and cleaner than water for
agricultural use. Roofs are an obvious choice for a catchment surface as their elevation
protects them from contamination and damage which are common to ground surface
catchments. Tanks located close to homes highlight the convenience of this system.
This submodule focuses on rainwater roof catchment systems (R.R.C.S.) which are widely
used throughout the world. A typical R.R.C.S. is illustrated in Figure1.
The following are some areas where rainwater roof catchment is installed:
Where groundwater is contaminated by salt intrusion and runoff in streams is

minimal.
Where limited rainfall, poor river quality and distances between individual
consumers make this an attractive option.
Where annual rainfall is plentiful but a long dry season exists.
where housing development is resulting in new roof materials replacing traditional
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Figure: Typical Rainwater roof catchment system
4.1.1 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Rainwater Roof Catchment Systems

The advantages of a rainwater collection system over other water supply schemes are:
The quality of rainwater is high;

the system is independent, and therefore suitable for scattered settlements;
local materials and craftsmanship can be used in rainwater system construction;
No energy cost is needed to run the system;
Easy of maintenance by the users/owners;
Convenience and accessibility of water. Valuable time is saved in collecting water.
Some disadvantages or limitations are:
The high initial capital cost may prevent a family from buying a system.
Arrangements for grants and low-interest loans may have to be made.
The water available is limited by rainfall and roof area.
Supplementary water sources may be needed. For long dry seasons, the required
storage volume may be too high.
Mineral-free water has a flat taste while people may prefer the taste of mineral-rich
water.
Mineral-free water may cause nutrition deficiencies in people who are already on
mineral-deficient diets.
4.1.2 The Feasibility of a Rainwater Roof Catchment System

The initial step in planning and developing a R.R.C.S. involves an appraisal of the feasibility
of the system. The feasibility can be determined in light of three constraints: technical,
economic and social.
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Technical
The initial consideration of the feasibility of R.R.C.S. concerns water availability as

compared to its use or demand. The yield or supply of the system depends on how much
rain falls during the year and the variability of the rainfall. The demands imposed on the
system depend on water use. In the household, water is used for drinking, cleaning, cooking
and washing. In rural developing areas each person may use between 15-30 litres per day.
Reliable rainfall data are required when determining the supply from the system. Rainfall
data for about a 10 year period is preferable. This information can be obtained from the
Government Meteorological Office, the Ministry of Agriculture, a University, or airports. If
rainfall data for a particular region is not available, data can be obtained from the closest
station, and related to the particular region in question. Farmers are also useful sources of
information. For design purposes, it is important that the monthly values are not totalled
and averaged, but used as actual monthly data. The next step involves estimating the total
annual demand and comparing it with the supply possible from the rainwater catchment
area. This is a simple calculation. For example, if the catchment area is 25m2 and annual
precipitation is 1 meter, and then supply is approximately 25m3. If the supply exceeds the
demand, then the R.R.C.S. is feasible from a technical point of view, based on total
maximum supply over the period of a year.
If the supply is less than demand, then possible solutions include increasing the catchment
area or reducing the demand for rainwater. For example, use the rainwater for drinking
and cooking only, and obtain water required for cleaning and washing from another source
(well, river, etc).
Economic
The R.R.C.S. must be economically feasible to the household. Costs of the proposed R.R.C.S.
must be evaluated and compared with the costs of alternative water supply improvements.
Costs of catchment and storage depend on what existing structures can be used, and the
local prices of additional building materials. However, though the system may be
economically justifiable, it must also be affordable to the household. If the use of R.R.C.S. is
to be widespread in a region, financing for the tanks should be available from a central
village development committee. Capital can be made available in the form of a revolving
fund.
Social
Once it has been tentatively established that it is technically and economically feasible to
construct a R.R.C.S., the next step involves social and community assessment. This stage is
critical to the success of the catchment scheme.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 209

The project developer must determine the extent of community needs - this must be done in
light of traditional practices within the community. The role of women and children in carrying
water and the amount of time spent in this activity should be examined. The engineer should
collect information on existing catchment technologies and discuss with the community the
usefulness of water supplied by a roof system. Users should be informed of the
palatability of rainwater. The community's need for communal Vs individual catchment
systems should be evaluated.
The project engineer must also compile a resource inventory of local skills, materials and
experience which can be used in R.R.C.S. Materials which are easy to obtain by local people
who know how to work with the materials will result in a rooftop system that is cheap and
simple to build and repair. An appropriate resource inventory checklist includes
availability and cost of materials and construction skills.
Eventually, the community members will decide if they are willing to participate in the project
and the amount of time and money households are willing to commit to the project.
4.2 Design
The design stage of the project involves sizing the storage tank. There are a number of
methods that can be used to determine tank volume.
4.2.1 Dry Season Demand versus Supply

This approach considers the length of the dry period as a design constraint. The tank is
designed so that it accommodates the household during the dry season. For this reason, the
method is most appropriate where there is a definite wet/dry period during the year.
The length of the dry period can be estimated by:
Asking farmers and residents about the longest drought they remember;
Estimating from official weather data the number of consecutive dry months per
year. The Dry Season Demand Versus Supply method should also consider the
maximum drought length in light of its probability of occurrence.
An example of checking the feasibility of rainwater roof catchment systems through the dry
season demand versus supply technique is given in the second slide/sound show.
The Dry Season Demand Versus Supply gives only a rough estimate of supply and demand.
However, it does not take into account variations in annual rainfall patterns. A better method of
tank sizing involves the Mass Curve Analysis Technique.
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4.2.2 Mass curve analysis

A more accurate method of sizing a tank involves an analysis of data using the mass curve
technique. Successful use of the technique requires approximately 10 years of data.
First, an approximation of the runoff coefficient is required. Some rainwater will be lost
during collection. This amount is represented as a fraction called the runoff coefficient:
(amount of runoff entering the tank)/(rain falling on roof).
This is not a precise value but is estimated on the basis of the type of roof, the condition of
gutters and piping, and the evaporation expected from the roof and tank. Approximate
runoff coefficient values are:
Type of roof Good Gutters Poor Gutters

Metal 0.9 0.8
Other roof 0.8 0.7
(Thatched roofs are not recommended)
If you are unsure of the runoff coefficient, it is safer to use a low value such as 0.75 or 0.7
rather than a high one.
Example 4.1
Using mass curve analyses determine the volume of tank for roof size of 25m2 and metal
roof type with poor gutter condition. Here is the data for a typical region.
Table 1: Example Rainfall Data (mm)

year annual
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec rainfall
1
310 210 126 26 0 0 0 11 13 19 73 126 914
2
263 137 149 37 0 2 2 0 36 11 137 136 910
3
265 83 80 16 0 4 0 3 2 7 57 122 639
4
391 228 129 22 6 5 1 0 2 44 100 104 1032
5
283 292 194 6 7 7 3 0 8 62 104 207 1173
6
238 97 61 48 0 0 6 0 11 39 201 135 836
7
176 436 135 10 0 0 1 0 0 32 134 111 1035
8
222 215 382 27 0 0 9 12 43 119 106 227 1362
9
156 110 542 8 0 0 1 0 1 2 187 72 1079
10
439 133 39 2 2 1 0 4 0 6 89 221 936
Total rainfall 9916
HUIOT/WSEE Page 211

Solution
i. Yearly supply from Rainfall
Q =Roof area X Runoff coefficient X average annual Rainfall
= A*C*I
A= 25m2, C=0.8 from table and
total Rain fall 9916
I 991.6mm 1m
number years data used 10
Q 25 * 0.8 *1 20m3
ii. Always mass curve analysis start from the wet season so that to consider the
surplus can compensate the deficit of the proceeding dry season. Thus, for
illustrative purpose the last 24 months data used in the analysis below.
Cumulati amount Total Required Selected

Season Months Monthly Monthly Monthly tank
Rainfall Supply ve Supply Demand stored stored Volume tank volume
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

1 156 3120 3120 1500 1620 1620
Wet
2 110 2200 5320 1500 700 2320 11660-
3 542 10840 16160 1500 9340 11660 1400
4 8 160 16320 1500 -1340 10320 = 10260
5 0 0 16320 1500 -1500 8820
6 0 0 16320 1500 -1500 7320
Dry 7 1 20 16340 1500 -1480 5840
8 0 0 16340 1500 -1500 4340
9 1 20 16360 1500 -1480 2860
10 2 40 16400 1500 -1460 1400
11 187 3740 20140 1500 2240 3640 10920lite
12 72 1440 21580 1500 -60 3580 12020- r or
Wet 1100 10.92m3
13 439 8780 30360 1500 7280 10860
=10920 [Max. of
14 133 2660 33020 1500 1160 12020 all values
15 39 780 33800 1500 -720 11300 in column
16 2 40 33840 1500 -1460 9840 (7)]
17 2 40 33880 1500 -1460 8380
18 1 20 33900 1500 -1480 6900
Dry 19 0 0 33900 1500 -1500 5400
20 4 80 33980 1500 -1420 3980
21 0 0 33980 1500 -1500 2480
22 6 120 34100 1500 -1380 1100
Wet 23 89 1780 35880 1500 280 1380
24 221 4420 40300 1500 2920 4300
HUIOT/WSEE Page 212

(1) Monthly rainfall in series starting from the beginning of wet season of available
data
(2) Amount harvested from the available rainfall and roof area for each month
[=25m2*0.8*monthly rainfall]. Example for the 1st month =25*0.8*156 =
3120liters
(3) Cumulative of monthly supplies
(4) Monthly demand (=25m2*0.8*1mm*0.9*1000/12)
(5) (2) (4) = (5)
(6) Cumulative of (5)
(7) Max. total stored of wet season minus minimum total stored in the dry season
(8) Maximum of all consecutive wet and dry season total tank volume
NOTE: The storage required can also be determined graphically. The procedure is:
A. plot the cumulative values on supply curve

B. Demand must be less than supply. Let us assume the demand is rationed down to 50
liters per day or 18m3 per year. This represents 90% of the supply during the 1 year
period, and is plotted as a straight line because the demand is constant. The supply
and demand curves now must be compared to each other. To do this, the demand
curve is placed on top of the supply curve and moved up or down until it is tangent
to one of the crests of the supply curve (see Fig. 4). The demand and supply axes
must be parallel to each other during this procedure.
C. Now we must determine where the demand curve is farthest above the supply
curve. This vertical distance is the difference between supply and demand and
represents the required storage volume for that year of data. Move the demand
curve to the next crest on the supply curve and repeat the procedure. This process is
repeated for every crest on the supply curve. The largest storage volume is chosen.
In our example it would be 10,920litres. This corresponds to the dry period in the
10th year of data. The numerical method and graphical method should yield the
same required volume.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 213

45000
40000
90%Demand curve slope
35000
30000
umulative supply in liter
25000
20000 90% cumulative demand
15000
Cumulative
storage
10000 curve
5000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Months starting from January year 8
4.2.3 Mass curve with Dimensionless constant Analysis

This method is actually an extension of the above mass curve analysis procedure with
similar approach for different percentage of demand as Supply.
Derive the curves for 70, 50, 30 and 10%demand representing 14m3, l0m3, 6m3 and 2m3
per year respectively, when then annual supply is 20m3. This is done by repeating
procedures (b) and (c) for each of the demands required. The resultant volumes are then
expressed as a percentage of the supply. The results are listed in tabular form as follows:
Demand % (as % of Supply) 90 70 50 30 10

storage Required ( m3) 10.92 8.25 5.6 3.26 0.927
storage required as % of Supply 54.6 41.25 28 16.3 4.635
e) The next step involves plotting this data. The storage required as % of supply is plotted
along one axis and demand as a % of supply is plotted along the other axis. (see Figure 5).
HUIOT/WSEE Page 214

Now we have a useful graph. Although it was derived from a particular roof, it will work for
all demands, for any roof area and with any runoff coefficient. The graph can be taken into
the field for rapid analysis of individual systems. The restriction on this graph is that the
graph can be used only for the region where the rainfall data is applicable; hence it is a
regional graph.
Example 4.2
a. Determine area of roof- after measurement it is found to be 30m2

b. Estimate runoff coefficient- let us assume it is 0.7
c. Determine the annual supply
= 30m2X0.7X1m = 21m3
d. Determine demand for a year- let us assume demand is 15m3/year
e. Calculate demand (as % of Supply)
=158100%/21m3 = 71.4%
f. From the % demand - % storage curve % storage = 42%
g. Determine tank volume required
= 21m3*42% = 8.8m3
Figure : Dimensionless constant graph

60
40
20
(as % of
0
Storage
0 20 40 60 80 100
%Demand (as %o of Supply)
Discussion Assumptions of Methods

Assumption 1: Demand is the same for every month
Demand varies. During the rainy season water may be available for additional uses such as
irrigation and livestock consumption, but during the dry season water is conserved for the
most important uses. It is possible that severe droughts will enforce strict rationing. Water
shortage during the dry season can be avoided by making sure the tank is full at the end of
the wet season, and that the calculated minimum demand remains constant throughout the
year.
Assumption: the rainfall pattern in the future will be similar to the rainfall used to calculate
the demand/storage curve.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 215

It is impossible to know how much rain will fall in a year. It is important to have as many
years of monthly rainfall data as possible to use in calculating the demand/storage curve
because, with more data, the severe drought may be more accurately predicted. If a lot of
data is not available, the analysis can still be done, but extra storage should be added to
cover severe droughts. How much should be added is a matter of judgment. As a general
rule, the more variable the rainfall of the region, the more storage should be added.
Assumption 2: Demand is constant from year to year
No growth is used for the demand. Therefore, in doing the analysis of total demand, the
maximum expected family size should be used.
Assumption 3: Evaporation from roofs and tanks is not considered

Evaporation is a loss which can be included in the runoff coefficient. However, in areas of
high evaporation, the runoff coefficient should be reduced or else the calculated storage
should be increased.
4.3 Construction
The components of an R.R.C.S. include the roof, the gutter system and the storage tank.
Some provision should also be made for suitable disposal of the "first flush" water.
Figure: Roof Catchment
The Catchment Area - To collect rainfall, the roof must be constructed of appropriate
material, have sufficient surface area and be adequately sloped to allow run-off. Suitable
materials for a R.R.C.S. include corrugated metal, clay tile and locally available resources.
Corrugated metal is light in weight, easy to install and requires little maintenance.
However, it may be expensive or unavailable in isolated areas where R.R.C.S. may be most
applicable.
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Clay tiles make good surfaces and are usually cheaper and longer lasting than sheet metal
because they can be produced locally. However, the manufacturer of clay tiles requires a
good source of clay, and fuel for firing. The disadvantage of tile is their weight. A strong
roof support structure is required to support the tile.
In many parts of the world, it is not always possible to use hard-surface roofs for R.R.C.S.
Roofs constructed of thatched materials such as grass and palm leaf have proved to be
inexpensive and durable. The disadvantage of using thatched roofs is that the runoff
contains organic matter, is yellowish in color and smells of decomposed leaves. For this
reason, thatched roofs should be used in conjunction with a simple filtration device using
crushed charcoal, sand and gravel, burned rice husk, coconut fibers, or some combination
thereof, as media. However, in most instances the use of a filter is impractical due to the
frequent maintenance required. It is recommended that water collected from a thatched
roof be used for livestock consumption, irrigation use or for flushing toilets.
It is important to understand that the effective roof area for collecting water is not the roof
area itself but the horizontal or ground area covered by the roof. Figure 6 above
demonstrates the procedure to determine the effective roof area for water collection. In
this example, the effective roof area is 48m2.
The Gutter System- Effective guttering is an important part of the R.R.C.S. water must be
efficiently conveyed from the roof to the tank to meet the homeowner's demands.
A good gutter material should be lightweight, water resistant and easy to join. To reduce
the number of joints and thus the likelihood of leakages, a material which is available in
long, straight sections is preferred. Examples of materials used for gutters include bamboo,
wood and sheet metal.
Metal gutters are the most durable and require the least maintenance. However, they are
the most expensive. Materials such as wood and bamboo are widely available and
inexpensive, but they will deteriorate. Examples and methods of joining gutters are shown
in Figures 7 and 8.
Figure: Joining Bamboo Guttering
HUIOT/WSEE Page 217

Figure: Joining Gutter and down pipes
Regardless of the material selected, the gutter should be large enough to channel water
from heavy rains without overflowing. A gutter with a cross-section of lOOcm2 is usually
sufficient to meet this requirement. The minimum recommended depth is 7.0 cm for any
gutter. The gutter should be placed at a uniform slope to prevent water from pooling, or
overflowing the gutter. For most R.R.C.S. the slope should be about 1 cm/meter.
To collect the water running off during light and heavy rains, the roof should overhang the
gutter by 1 or 2 cm. The gutter should extend beyond the roof edge by about 7 cm.
The gutter must be well supported - most gutters should be supported every 50 or 60 cm.
This can be accomplished by tying wire around the gutter and fastening it to the roof.
Alternative means of fastening include nailing the gutter to the roof or supporting it with
wood. It is important to ensure that all joints be leak proof. Joints can be sealed with tar or
rubber (see Figures 7 and 8). The joining compound should not contaminate the water.
The "First-Flush" - During periods of no rain, dust, bird droppings and dead plant matter
will accumulate on the roof. These materials are washed off with the first rain and may
contaminate the water in the tank. Contamination can be avoided by diverting the first 10-
20 liters of rain from the tank.
Flush traps can be used to prevent the first flush from reaching the tank (see Figure 9). In
this case, the plastic pipe reservoir collects the first flush water from the roof and the
removable end allows discharge after each rainstorm.
Filters are a possible solution to keeping sediment and contaminants out of the storage
tank. However, they have a high maintenance requirement; such filters require frequent
inspection and flushing to prevent bacterial buildup on the filter medium. Diversion of the
first flush from the tank is more practical than investing in filters.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 218

Figure: First Flush Trap
Storage Tank
A satisfactory storage tank is the most important part of a R.R.C.S. It is difficult to construct
and must be a durable device - hence it is the most expensive component of the system.
The requirements of tank construction are as follows:
a. functional design appropriate to local conditions;

b. water tight construction;
c. Top of tank must be below eaves of house. Maximum height of 2m recommended to
prevent high water pressures;
d. Tank must be convered to keep out sunshine, dirt and insects;
e. Top of tank has a hole in it large enough for someone to enter the tank for cleaning
or repair. The cover for this hole must be secure;
f. the overflow pipe and entry pipe should be screened to prevent entry of flies and
animals;
g. a means of removing water is needed: a tap at the bottom for an above ground tank;
a pump and pipe from an underground tank.
There are several variations on the tank design - each has its own construction methods,
material costs and labor requirements.
Cement Mortar Jars - In the construction process, cement mortar is plastered around a jar
shaped mold. The mold is usually constructed from a cloth sacking filled with rice husks or
vegetable wastes. Most jars have a volume of 0.1 - 0.5m3.
Traditional Basket Jars - The construction technique involves forming a basket from locally
available shrubs and sticks. Cement mortar is then plastered over the shrub frame and set
HUIOT/WSEE Page 219

into a concrete base. Typical dimensions of this storage tank would be about 1.5m high,
with a volume of 203m3.
Cast Concrete Ring Tank - This tank is formed by pouring concrete between concentric steel
forms. Generally the rings have approximate dimensions of 1.5m diameter and 0.6m in
height. The advantage of this apparatus is that the rings can be stacked to give large tank
volumes up to about 7m3. The rings are reusable and would therefore be applicable in
areas where a R.R.C.S. is feasible.
Ferro-cement Tanks - The main advantage of ferro-cement tanks is that they use commonly
available materials - cement, sand, water and wire. Simple skills are usually all that is
required, so users of the tank can help with the construction process with the use of the
basic hand tools. For these reasons ferro-cement tanks are a suitable technology for low-
income rural areas. Ferro-cement is cheaper than other tank construction materials such as
galvanized metal, and has proven to be more durable. Reports of ferro-cement tanks with
over 25 years of service are not uncommon. Ferro-cement techniques also require less total
material than conventional concrete tanks. Minimum thickness of walls is 2cm for a 1m
high tank, and 4cm for a 2m high tank.
Sheet Metal Tanks - These tanks have been used for many years in many areas. However,
the cost of these tanks is high. Another disadvantage is that the corrugated metal from
which these tanks are made may not last longer than five years in a damp climate, even
though they may be galvanized.
Reinforced Concrete Tanks - Steel and bamboo reinforcing has been used in many areas for
large tank construction (up to 12m3). Bamboo reinforced tanks are described in the
manual for 4.lc. Reinforced concrete tanks as locally available materials and construction
skills are highly recommended for durability and reliability.
4.4 Maintenance and Monitoring

User maintenance of the catchment surface, gutter and storage tank is essential if the
R.R.C.S. is to be successful.
Rooftop catchment surfaces collect dust, organic matter and bird droppings which can clog
channels, cause sediment buildup on the tank bottom and contaminate the stored water.
Gutters and tanks must be cleaned frequently to prevent overflow during heavy rains.
Another problem is consistently discharging the "first flush" which would otherwise
contaminate the tank. A device for keeping the first flush out of the tank is necessary; this is
discussed in the construction section of this manual.
The maintenance requirements of the tank will eventually depend on the effectiveness of
the first-flush system and the frequency of roof and gutter cleaning. Another important
HUIOT/WSEE Page 220

factor is the quality of the tank cover and screening on any inlet and outlet holes. Sunlight
reaching the water will promote algae growth. Unprotected openings will also encourage
mosquito breeding. The inside of all tanks require periodic cleaning, regardless of the
quality of water collected. Sediment should be removed and walls should be scrubbed
annually. Vinegar, baking soda and chlorine bleach solutions are commonly used cleaning
agents. Care must be taken not to contaminate the next volume of incoming storage water.
If cracks in the tank wall are observed, they should be re-plastered after each cleaning of
the tank surface.
If the tank runs dry during the dry season, it is possible that water is being used for
purposes other than what it was intended for. The user must be aware of the dangers of
using too much water too early in the dry season. Operation and maintenance is the
family's responsibility, and lessons learned during the first year's dry season about correct
water use will likely be used in subsequent years. It is the project's responsibility to ensure
the householder is fully aware of the uses of rainwater before the first dry season arrives.
It is a good idea to set up a program of inspection and repair of systems. This should
include education for the user and training of local technicians to carry out repairs. Local
authorities should encourage maintenance and organize inspection from a central agency.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 221

Chapter five
5. Gravity Flow Water Supply System
5.1 Introduction
In this module, the experience gained from gravity water programs in Nepal and Malawi
provides much of the information.
A major problem in providing adequate amounts of clean water is that safe water is often
available only at considerable distances from people's houses. Often many hours are needed
to carry the water to the home. This is hard work and only small amounts of water are carried.
Water can be transported from its source to villages by pipeline if a source of water is sufficiently
above where the water is to be used. If the water flows through the pipeline using only gravity,
the network of pipes is called a gravity low water system.
The components of a gravity-flow water system are:

1. An elevated source of water, particularly a spring, or clean river, or stream. Where
disinfection is necessary, simple methods should be used. In all cases the source
should be protected to prevent contamination.
2. A sedimentation tank near the source which allows suspended solids to settle out of
the water (if necessary).
3. The main pipeline which transports the water to where it is distributed. Within
limits, this can follow land contours and may even go up and over small hills.
4. District reservoirs that may be required to store water overnight for peak use
during the day time.
5. Networks of smaller pipes that distribute the water to the standpoints
6. Standpoints where the water is made available to the people.
7. Washout valves, air release valves and break pressure tanks
Advantage Disadvantage
HUIOT/WSEE Page 222
A gravity-flow water system requires no Usually water quality depends on the quality of
energy to operate it as the water is water of the source, but if sufficiently clean
propelled by gravity alone. No pumps are water is not available, additional treatment
needed and there are very few moving facilities may have to be built at additional cost.
parts. Therefore maintenance is simple Available sources of water may not provide
and is required only infrequently. adequate amounts of water throughout the year.
Water is delivered when required, close to Systems should not be built to handle greater
the user's home. If the source permits, flows than what is available. More abundant
enough water can be delivered to meet all sources at a greater distance should be
of the needs of the household. A better considered.
quality of water is obtained than in the Water rights cause problems in some areas as
HUIOT/WSEE Page 223

village's traditional water source. large ones will serve many villages or towns.
Gravity-flow water systems can be built by villages near the source may object to having "their"
the village people themselves, if trained water piped to villages below them. Pipelines may
project supervisors are provided. be damaged in local disputes.
Systems of different sizes can be built for Gravity-flow water systems do require regular
different numbers of people. Small basic maintenance, especially the care of the
systems can serve single households and taps. If arrangements are not made to carry out
this maintenance, the system will eventually fail.
5.2 Design Procedure

The following steps describe the order of events required to carry out the design of a
system. For greater detail see the design example given below.
5.2.1 Locate Reliable clean sources

A source investigation should result in the cleanest source possible, even if it is not the
closest one to the village.
In order to keep the water as clean as possible, the intake for the water has to be carefully
built. If it is a spring, a spring box that allows the water to flow out of the spring is needed.
Underground springs need to be covered and surface springs need to be fenced off to
prevent dirt from washing into the area and to keep animals and people out.
If the source is a stream, the location must be chosen to be as free of contamination as

possible. A partial or full dam is often built, but this must be strong enough to withstand
wet season floods.
If the water is contaminated, a water treatment system may be installed. A slow sand filter
is the least cost system, but other types may be needed. Water treatment is discussed in
other modules.
The flow rate must be determined. If the source cannot meet the daily requirements of the
population to be serviced (in the first part of the year) then another source must be
considered. Systems with several sources are possible.
5.2.2 Determine consumption of water per person per day

Per capita demand is the amount of water required by one person. Usually the amount used
per person per day is determined by a survey of the users. An estimate for each use such as
drinking, cooking and washing is made, and additional uses such as livestock watering are
added in.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 224

The demand will vary from region to region as it depends on local custom, the availability
of water, and the uses for piped water.
Typical values of demand are between 15 to 50 liters per capita per day
5.2.3 Determine the location of the standpoints

Locating the standpipe correctly is very important and should be done with the
advice of the users through the Community Committee.
The standpipes can be located in common areas to serve a large number of
households or in yards to serve a few households. The standpipe locations should be
established in order to serve about 100-200 people each, but may serve fewer
people if they are in an isolated area. The precise number of people per tapstand
depends on the number of hours of use, the flow from the tapstand and the daily
water demand per person.
Additional taps are needed at institutions. For high density areas, large standpipes
with many taps may be built.
The location of the pipes are set out on a plan and checked in the field. Taps should
be kept away from streams and rivers.
5.2.4 Determine flow per tap

The present population is estimated using the collected data and allowance is made for an
appropriate increase per year due to future water availability, possible migration into the
area and other population changes. The lifetime of the project is estimated. Fifteen years is
suggested, but the maximum is probably 25 years.
These figures will give the design population of the area. Water usage for schools, health
centers and other institutions need to be included in the estimates.
As examples, in Malawi the standpipes operate 16 hours a day at 0.075 l/s to supply 160
people with 27 lid each. In Nepal the design values are 12 hours per day, 0.225 l/s, 215
people and 45 l/c/d.
5.2.5 Choose the pipe alignment

With the location of standpipes decided, the location of the pipeline system can be finalized.
A steady gradient should be maintained wherever possible. The length of pipeline should
be kept to a minimum. Avoid pipeline alignments which will require constant maintenance
- i.e. steep hillsides and numerous stream crossings. Finally, avoid crossing land where
legal access cannot be acquired or any land that is outside the control of the government or
the user community.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 225

5.2.6 Design main pipeline

First, the materials available for pipeline should be evaluated.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is fairly low-cost and is usually easy to obtain. Freight costs are
low and it can be carried to the site manually or by small vehicles. Class 10 (maximum
100m head) is the recommended minimum class of pipe. Due to the fact that PVC becomes
brittle on prolonged exposure to sunlight, it should be stored in shade. To prevent cracking
due to contraction upon cooling in the ground, the pipe should be laid and buried in the
morning and laid loosely in the trench (Hazen's C = 150).
High-density polyethylene (HDP) may be more expensive than PVC. Maximum head is 60m.
It comes in 100m flexible rolls and thus it has fewer joints than PVC and can be turned
around trees and rocks more easily. The rolls are heavy and are more expensive to
transport by truck, but easier to move around the site than PVC. Joints are made by
applying solvent or heat. Care must be taken in unrolling it and a check must be made for
internal blockages (Hazen's C = 150).
Asbestos Cement (AC) in some areas may be the cheapest pipe over 100mm in diameter,
but it is often not available and is being replaced by PVC. It is brittle and difficult to
transport. Class 18 (maximum 90m of head) is recommended as the minimum standard.
Asbestos and rubber ring collars for joints allow some movement, but laying standards
must still be high. In laying, 12mm spaces must be left between pipe ends (Hazen's C =
130).
Galvanized iron (GI) pipe is expensive to buy, hard to transport and subject to corrosion. It
is used only where strength is required, such as sections with high hydraulic pressure, river
and gully crossings, shallow sections under roads and pipe works at tanks (Hazen's C = 120
(new) - 80 (very old), average 100).
The basic hydraulic principles that govern the flow at gravity-water systems are
summarized below. Knowledge of these principles is necessary for the project engineer to
design the pipe network.
In a gravity-flow water system, the source of energy is the action of gravity on water. As
water flows through pipes, fittings and tanks, some energy is dissipated through friction.
The purpose of pipeline design is to manipulate frictional losses so as to move the desired
flows through the system, by conserving energy at some points and using energy at other
points. This is done by a careful selection of pipe sizes and proper location of fittings and
tanks. (A separate module in the section is devoted solely to the distribution network
design).
HUIOT/WSEE Page 226

The amount of gravitational energy in a pipeline is called a "head". There are two kinds of
heads.
In the first case (Figure 1) the control valve is closed and no water is flowing in the pipe. If
small open-ended tubes were inserted into the pipeline, the water level in each tube would
rise to the static water level. The height of water in each tube is the pressure head exerted
on the pipeline at that point. This pressure head is called the static head. Since no water is
flowing, there is no energy lost to friction, hence the horizontal static level.
Fig. Static equilibrium
If the control valve in Figure 2 is opened, water will flow through the pipeline (assume that
the level in the tank remains constant). In Figure 2 it is seen that the water heights in the
vertical tubes form a descending line through the system. For a constant flow, the line
formed by water heights will remain steady - the system is in a state of dynamic
equilibrium. The line formed by the water levels in the vertical tubes is called the hydraulic
grade line. This line represents the energy level at each point along the pipeline. The
vertical distance from the pipeline to the hydraulic grade line is a measure of the pressure
head and the difference between the hydraulic grade line and static level is head loss due to
friction.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 227

Fig, 2 Dynamic equilibrium

The water pressure at air/water interfaces is zero. The hydraulic grade line must meet the
water level whenever water comes into contact with the atmosphere, such as when it flows
from a tap.
As frictional losses are never recovered, the hydraulic grade line slopes down along the
direction of flow. It should always be above the pipeline, but if the pipeline rises, it is
possible for the HGL to fall below the pipeline. This indicates the presence of a negative
residual head, which means there is not enough gravitational energy to move the desired
quantity of water. This situation should be avoided and should be checked for in the design
stage.
At a tap or any point where water leaves the pipe, a minimum head of water is needed. The
desired head is between 10 - 30 meters in rural water supply systems, with the suggested
minimum and maximum values of 7 and 55 meters respectively.
We now have the background necessary to determine the size of the pipelines. In step 4,
the average flow from a tap was calculated over the period of use.
However, at some times during the day, the tap and the system will have to supply more
than this average flow. This is determined by a peaking factor (PF).
Maximum hourly flow

P.F.
Average hourly flow
The value of the peaking factor is usually between 1 and 2, depending on local conditions,
and is determined by the design engineers.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 228

Design flow P.F.X average flow
(An allowance should be made for leakage even on new systems. This is further described
in the article on network distribution design).
The design in each branch of the system is determined by working backwards from each
taps. At junctions, flows added together.
At storage reservoirs, the calculations are a bit more complicated. First, the design flow out
of a reservoir has been determined by adding up the flows in the branches below it.
Reservoirs average out high and low flows so the flow coming into the reservoir is based on
the average outflow.
average outflow X hours tap in use
Design reservoir inflow =
24 hours
Secondly, the storage size can be determined by a mass curve analysis of the hourly water
demand over a day. The storage size can be roughly calculated as:
= Design Inflow X hours tap not in use
In this way, the flow rates in all sections of the system are obtained and the flow needed
from the source can be estimated.
The static head at any point in the pipe cannot be so high that it exceeds the rated pressure
capacity of the pipe. Therefore, starting at the lowest parts in the system, a check is made
for points in the pipe that are higher than the maximum allowed static head for the pipe.
Break pressure tank or reservoirs are located at these points.
The size of the pipe in each branch is then determined. A means of determining the
frictional head loss is needed. Tables are available for design at the end of this chapter.
Besides the friction in the pipe, there is friction due to pipe fittings, bends and valves. These
are called minor losses and are more important in small diameter, short pipes than in large
diameter long pipes.
These minor losses are included in the calculation by converting them to equivalent lengths
of pipe which are added to the actual length when solving for pipe sizes.
For each line in the pipe network, the flow and pipe length are known and an ideal
hydraulic gradient is determined from the elevations of the hydraulic grade line at the
beginning and end of the line. The ground profile is plotted on graph paper and the
horizontal static head line and the desired hydraulic gradient lines are drawn. A pipe
HUIOT/WSEE Page 229

diameter is then calculated and a pipe size selected from those available. As a check, the
hydraulic gradient is recalculated for the line using the selected pipe diameter. From this
the height of the hydraulic grade line at the end of the line is determined and the actual
HGL is plotted. The actual HGL should yield the minimum pressure head required at the
standpipes.
A design limitation for self-help schemes on the maximum size of pipe is the maximum
weight of a pipe which can easily be handled by a man.
5.2.7 Calculate Reservoir and sedimentation tank dimensions

Reservoir
District reservoirs are placed high enough to give adequate pressure in the pipeline and are
situated to divide the network into manageable areas. The decision to build reservoirs
depends either on the flow rate of water from the source or its location. A reservoir is
needed if the source cannot supply all of the water needed in a working day, but can supply
it in 24 hours.
A reservoir may also be installed to save money. A study should be undertaken to

determine whether it is cheaper to:
a. put in a large pipe from the source that would supply enough water in a working
day, even during peak hours; or
b. put in a reservoir to cope with peak demands and a smaller, cheaper pipe from the
source to the reservoir.
Small reservoirs may also be located at each standpipe. This arrangement may be
necessary if some groups of users are drawing much more water than other groups.
Sedimentation tank
This is a rectangular tank that stills the water to allow solids to settle out. It has a minimum
volume of water equivalent to the amount of water flowing through it in two hours, a depth
of 1m or more and a length to width ratio is 4: 1 or more. Water enters one end at half
depth and is removed at the other end at the top. The tank can be built according to the
most economical design available.
Sedimentation tanks are never considered to be storage for design purposes, and so they
are always kept full.
5.2.8 Locate air release valves, washout and break pressure tanks
Air release valves are located at high points on the pipeline. They release air that collects
in the pipe and prevent "air locks", large bubbles of air that block the flow. They can also
HUIOT/WSEE Page 230

admit air to protect the pipeline if a break occurs. Their locations can be determined from
the elevations of the pipeline. The best types are automatic ones as these require the least
maintenance, but simple manual valves can be used.
Washouts are located at low points, at the ends of pipe sections with low flows and at
regular distances along the main pipeline. These consist of a tee joint that has a cap or valve
that can be opened to flush settled solids out of the pipe. They are often part of the pipe
fitting arrangements at a standpipe.
Break Pressure Tanks: These small tanks reduce the pressure in the pipe to atmospheric
pressure. This is done when the pipe elevation is sufficiently below the source to exceed
the pressure capacity of the pipe. They are tanks that water flows into and out of,
controlled by a float valve.
Valves should be located at the inlet for every tank, and at every branch and change of pipe
size.
Design Example 5.1
Water demand for a region is 200,000 liters per day and a storage tank is to be built 2km
from the water source. The vertical distance from the source to the tank is 20m. The
minimum head of water at the outlet to the tank is Sm. Pipe is available in diameters of 25,
50 and 75mm. Assume the standpipes are in use 16 hours per day and the equivalent
length for the pipe fittings is 38m. What is the size of the storage tank and what size of
asbestos cement pipe should be used from the source to tank?
Solution
Time water taps not in use = 8 hours
8 X 200,000l
Storage tank size = = 66, 667liters
24
Assume main pipeline supplies water continuously to tank.
Flow rate in main pipeline is:
200,000l
=2.31 l/s
24 * 3600
Hydraulic gradient
Fall in elevation of HGL

length of pipe min or loss length
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20 5 m / km
2000 38 1000
= 7.4 m/km
From Table 1, a 75mm diameter pipe is required as a smaller size would give too great a
loss of head.
From table 1, for 75mm asbestos cement pipe,
Flow (l/s) Friction Loss (m/km)

2 3.9
2.5 5.9
By interpolation, friction loss is 5.1m/km for a flow of 2.3l/s. therefore, total friction loss is
2038 * 5.1
10.4m
1000
and the height of the HGL above the water level in the tank is 20 - 10.4 = 9.6m which meets
the design requirements of 5m minimum.
Exercise
Redesign the example above for galvanized Iron pipe.
Design Example 5.2

General
A village has a population of 850 divided into two parts, Part I with 605 persons and Part II
with 245 persons. A water source with an estimated minimum flow of 1l/s is located
approximately 2,300 meters from the village. The standpipes are used for 12 hours per day.
Assume that galvanized iron pipe must be used for all pipe because of the rocky terrain. (A
sketch map of the village and a ground profile are presented in Figures 3 to 6. Design the
pipelines required to serve and plot the hydraulic gradient for each pipe length.
Design Parameters
Population
The design population is the expected population in 10 years at a 2% growth rate or 850 x
1.22 equal to 1,037 persons. For design purposes this is rounded up to 1,050 persons.
Water usage
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It is preferable to supply the maximum amount of water possible but a per capita supply of
100 liters per day would require 105,000 liters/day or a flow of 1.21 l/s. Since the
estimated minimum flow of the source is only 1 l/s this is not possible. A per capita use of
80 liters/day would require an average daily flow of 0.97 l/s and this is possible.
Storage required
A per capita use of 80 litres/day means that the average daily usage is:
= per capita per day demand X forecasted total population
= 80 liter/person/day x 1,050 person
= 84,000 liters
Because the galvanized iron pipe is so expensive the smallest pipe possible is used. In order
to reduce the size of the main pipe, storage will be located in the village. The recommended
storage is:
= The average daily usage X proportion of hours of tap not in use
= 84,000 liters x 12hr/24hrs = 42,000 liters
= 42m3
Based on the present population distribution 245/ 850 x 42m3= 12.1m3 should be in Part II
and 605/ 850 x 42m3 = 29.9m3 should be in Part 1. Based on the village sketch it has been
decided that the water will be distributed to five public reservoirs, three in Part I and two
in Part II. With this layout, the water will be under village control. Costs will be reduced
because the main pipe does not have to convey peak flows of water. The public reservoirs
are to be situated on high points to obtain any acceptable pressure head at the tank outlet.
The three reservoirs in Part I will be 10m3 each for a total of 30m3 (rounded up from
29.9m3). The two reservoirs in Part II will be 6m3 each for a total of 12m3 (rounded down
from 12.1m3). With this distribution of reservoirs, no one has to walk more than 100
meters to obtain water.
The number of persons per faucet should be between 30 and 100 so the number of faucets
for Part I should be between 6 and 20 and for Part II between 2 and 8. In order to
accommodate future demand, a higher number is preferable. Thus 6 faucets at each of the
three reservoirs in Part I and 4 faucets at each of the reservoirs in Part II give a total of 26.
The average number of persons per faucet (based on the future population of 1050) is 42
for Part I and 37 for Part II.
Design flow
The path of the pipeline is sketched in Figure 3. The water will flow continuously into the
reservoirs so the design flows will be the same as the average daily flows. The peaking
factor is therefore 1. At the projected per capita use of 80 l/day the average daily flow is
0.97 l/s but the spring has an estimated minimum flow of 1.0 l/s. Therefore, 1.0 l/s will be
used in designing the pipeline.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 233

Fig. Path of pipeline to Village

From the source to the junction at point A the design flow used is 1.0 l/s. At point A this
flow is divided with 0.71 l/s flowing to Part I and reservoir B. The remainder of 0.29 l/s will
flow to Part II and reservoir E.
At reservoir B 0.23 l/s is taken and the remainder of 0.48 l/s flows to reservoir C. At C 0.24
l/s is taken and the remainder of 0.24 l/s flows to reservoir D. At reservoir E 0.14 l/s is
taken and the remainder of 0.15 l/s flows to reservoir F. The design flows are noted on the
pipeline route and profile.
Pipeline Design
Pressure breaking tank

Inspection of the profiles in Figures 4 to 6 indicates that a break pressure release tank is
necessary 1,300 meters from the source. The static head at this point is 55 meters. The
point of greatest pressure is 1,100 meters from the source but it is not possible to place the
tank at this point because the water will not flow from it up the adjacent hill.
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Fig: Profile from sources to break pressure tank

Pipe Material
Galvanized iron pipe is used because of the rocky terrain.
Pipeline Size from Source to Break Pressure Tank
The distance to the tank is 1,300m and the available head 55m with a design flow of 1.0 l/s.
calculated head losses are as follows:
length (m) Flow (l/s) pipe diameter (mm) Head loss (m)
1300 1.0 50 16.6
1300 1.0 40 49.1
1300 1.0 32 145.6
400 1.0 50 5.1
900 1.0 40 34
700 1.0 40 26.5
200 1.0 32 22.4
From the calculated head losses it appears that 40mm is sufficient but a check of the HGL on the
profile indicates a negative pressure in the first 400 meters. Thus, a 50mm pipe must be used in
the first 400m to avoid a negative pressure and the remaining pipe is 900 meters of 40mm
diameter pipe.
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Total calculated head loss is 39.1 meters. (Note: in actual practice, this range of pipe sizes may
not be available. In this case, the closest available pipe size should be used by rounding up the
size of pipe).
Break pressure tank to Junction at Point A
Calculated head losses are as follows:
length (m) Flow (l/s) pipe diameter (mm) Head loss (m)
500 1.0 50 6.4
500 1.0 40 18.9
500 1.0 32 56
With the available head of 20m a 40mm pipe is appropriate.
Fig: profile from point A to reservoirs B, C and D
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Point A to Reservoir B, C and D
Calculated head loss are as follows:
length (m) Flow (l/s) pipe diameter (mm) Head loss (m) Available head loss
500 0.71 40 10 10
500 0.71 32 29.7 10
500 0.71 50 3.4 10
200 0.48 40 1.9 10

200 0.48 32 5.8 10
200 0.48 25 19.2 10
200 0.24 32 1.6 0

200 0.24 25 5.3 0
200 0.24 20 15.7 0
From Point A to Reservoir B a 40mm pipe is appropriate. From reservoir B to C a 32mm

pipe is adequate and there is extra head available of 10 - 5.8 = 4.2 meters. From reservoir C
to D a 32mm pipe is adequate.
Fig: profile from point A to Reservoirs E and F
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Point A to Reservoir E and F

Calculated head losses are as follows:
length (m) Flow (l/s) pipe diameter (mm) Head loss (m) Available head loss
600 0.29 40 3 7
600 0.29 32 6.8 7
600 0.29 25 22.6 7
200 0.15 25 2.2 3

200 0.15 20 6.6 3
If 32mm pipe is used from point A to reservoir E and 25mm pipe from reservoir E to F then the
total head loss is 6.8 + 2.2 or 9.0 meters which very closely matches the available head of 10
meters. The pipe sizes, HGL and design flows are all noted on the profile.
Pipe 1a: Pipe Head Loss Due to friction (m/km)- Plastic C= 150
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Table 1b: Pipe Head Loss Due to friction (m/km)- Asbestos Cement C= 100
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Table 1c: Pipe Head Loss Due to friction (m/km)- Galvanized Iron C= 130
HUIOT/WSEE Page 240

Chapter six
6. Pumping
6.1 Introduction
Water pumping technology developed in parallel with the sources of power available at the
time. Indeed one can say that our first ancestors who cupped their hands and lifted water
from a stream chose the pumping technique appropriate to them. Modern devices such as
centrifugal pumps have reached a high state of development and are widely used,
particularly in developed countries, only because suitable power sources such as diesel
engines and electric motors became available.
For small communities in developing countries, human and animal power is often the most
readily available power for pumping water, particularly in rural areas. Under suitable
conditions wind power is of relevance. Solar energy can also have potential. Diesel engines
and electric motors should only be used if the necessary fuel or electricity supplies are
reliably available, together with adequate maintenance and spare parts.
A wide range of pump types is available on the market. Prevailing local conditions and
management capacities determine the type that is most suitable and sustainable. While it
may seem obvious that effective involvement of users, the private sector and support
organisations is important in the choice of pumping technology, the fact remains that it is
frequently disregarded. Too often technical capacities of users and local support are over
estimated, resulting in pumps not being properly operated and maintained, and eventually
to their breakdown.
Participation by representatives of the different user groups, including women and
children of different ages, in selecting and trying out the pumps, helps to ensure that a type
is chosen that is suitable and acceptable to them. Productive use of the pumped water
generally has a very positive effect on the upkeep and lifetime of the pump. It also helps
when users learn about the proper way of operating a specific type of pump and the
underlying reasons, and set up and implement a system for proper operation as part of
local participatory planning and management of the service. When local interest is not
generated, lack of local funds or incentives to invest in O&M and replacement of pumps
means that their condition degenerates quickly.
6.2 Power sources for pumping

Human power
The simplest pumps of all are those operated by human power. In this category come a
range of hand-pumps and foot-pumps. They are capable of lifting relatively small amounts
of water. Using human power for pumping water has important benefits for small
communities in developing countries:
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The power requirements can be met from within the users group.
The capital cost is generally low.
The discharge capacity of one or more manual pumping devices is usually adequate
to meet the domestic water requirements of a small community, including, if
needed, for small-scale productive uses within households.
Design developments during the last 20 years mean that pumps can be repaired and
maintained by appropriately trained local caretakers (men or women).
The power available from human muscle depends on the individual, the environment and
the duration of the task. For work of long duration, for example eight hours per day, a
healthy man is estimated to produce 60-75 watts (0.08-0.10 horsepower). This value must
be reduced for women, children and the aged. It also must be reduced for high
temperature, and work environments with high humidity. Where the pump user and the
pump are poorly matched, much of the power input is wasted, for example, when a person
operates a pump from a stooped position. Tests and user evaluations help to bring out
problems, such as rejection of foot-pumps because pregnant women and young children
could not easily operate them or the movement was not culturally acceptable.
Animal power
Draught animals are a common and vital source of power in many developing countries.
Animals may be used for pumping water for irrigation as well as for human consumption.
The most efficient use of animals is at fixed sites where they pull rotating circular sweeps
or push treadmills to drive slow moving, large displacement pumps with gears. However,
with the increased access to other sources of energy, the use of animal power for water
pumping is declining.
Wind power
The use of wind power for pumping water should be feasible if
winds of at least 2.5-3 m/s are present 60% or more of the time;
the water source can be pumped continuously without excessive drawdown;
storage is provided, typically for at least 3 days demand, to provide for calm periods
without wind;
a clear sweep of wind to the windmill is secured, i.e. the windmill is placed above
surrounding obstructions, such as trees or buildings within 125 m; preferably the
windmill should be set on a tower 4.5-6 m high;
Windmill equipment is available that can operate relatively unattended for long
periods of time, e.g. six months or more. The driving mechanism should be covered
and provided with an adequate lubrication system. Vanes, and sail assemblies
should be protected against weathering.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 242

By far the most common type of wind-powered pump is the slow-running wind wheel
driving a piston pump. The pump is generally equipped with a pump rod that is connected
to the drive axis of the windmill. Provision can be made for pumping by hand during calm
periods.
The wind wheels range in diameter from about 2-6 m. Even though the windmills
themselves may have to be imported, strong towers can usually be constructed from local
materials.
Modern windmills are designed to ensure that they automatically turn into the wind when
pumping. They are also equipped with a pull-out system to turn the wheel automatically
out of excessive wind that might damage the windmill, i.e. stronger than 13-15 m/s. The
sails or fan blades can be de-signed in such a way that they furl automatically to prevent the
wheel from rotating too fast in high winds. The windmill will normally not begin pumping
until the wind velocity is about 2.5-3 m/s. Fig. 9.1 shows several typical arrangements for
windmill-pumped water supply systems.
Fig> Windmill-pumped water supply systems
HUIOT/WSEE Page 243

Electric motors
Electric motors generally need less maintenance and are more reliable than diesel engines.
They are therefore preferable as a source of power for pumping, provided a reliable supply
of electric power is available. The electric motor should be capable of carrying the
workload that will be imposed, taking into consideration the various adverse operating
conditions under which the pump has to work. If the power requirement of a pump exceeds
the safe operating load of the electric motor, the motor may be damaged or burnt out.
Attention must also be paid to the characteristics of the motor and the supply voltage.
There is sometimes a tendency to us general-purpose motors offered by the

manufacturers without giving due consideration to the characteristics of the particular
pump used. This results in frequent failure or burning out of the motor. The squirrel-cage
motor is mostly selected for driving a centrifugal pump as it is the simplest electric motor
manufactured.
Diesel engines
Diesel engines have the important advantage that they can operate independently at
remote sites. The principal requirement is a supply of fuel and lubricants and these, once
obtained, can be easily trans-ported to almost any location. Diesel engines, because of their
ability to run independently of electrical power supplies, are especially suitable for driving
isolated pumping units such as raw water intake pumps.
Diesel engines may be used to drive reciprocating plunger pumps as well as centrifugal
pumps. Gearing or another suitable transmission connects the engine with the pump. For
any diesel-driven pump installation, it is generally prudent to select an engine with 25-
30% surplus power to allow for a possible heavier duty than under normal conditions.
Extensive use of electric and/or diesel pumps for drinking water supply and irrigation may
cause shallower dug wells to fall dry. This may cause great problems for poor people
especially poor women who depend on the wells as their domestic water source.
Solar power
Solar panels made of photovoltaic cells arranged into an array convert sunlight into a direct
current (DC). This current is used to drive a submersible pump of the DC type. Another
option is that the DC is first converted to alternating current (AC) as most submersible
pumps on the market are of the AC type. On the other hand, converting DC means a
substantial loss of energy (about 25%). In photovoltaic pumping systems, the pump works
whenever there is adequate sunshine, and this is independent of the ambient temperature.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 244

The water is pumped into a storage tank to cater for water demands during the periods
that there is no sunlight and therefore no pumping. Solar powered pumps can lift water up
to 100-200 m, but the system is most economical up to a pumping head of 50 m.
The solar powered pumping system is an attractive option for remote areas where power
and fuel supply is difficult and expensive. The only requirement is sufficient sunlight. The
investment cost is high due to the (still) high price of solar panels, but operation and
maintenance costs are low. The solar system is vulnerable to vandalism and theft because
solar panels have many applications.
When solar, electrical or diesel pumps are installed, it is important to assess who will
decide on their installation and use, and who will manage and benefit from them. Often,
different groups are involved, such as cattle owners, women from better-off families who
use the water also productively, and women from poor families who use the water only for
domestic uses. The interests of the more powerful groups then often prevail, unless each
group is equitably involved in decisions and management.
Fig. Solar powered pump system
6.3 Types of pumps

The main applications of pumps in small community water supply systems are:
Pumping water from wells
Pumping water from surface water intakes
Pumping water into storage reservoirs and the distribution system, if any
HUIOT/WSEE Page 245

HUIOT/WSEE Page 246

Fig> Types of Pumps
Based on the mechanical principles involved, these pumps may be classified as follows:
Reciprocating2
Rotary (positive displacement)
Diaphragm
Axial-flow (propeller)
Centrifugal
Air lift
Another type of pump with limited application in water supply systems is the hydraulic
ram. Table 9.1 gives characteristics of the various types of pumps.
Types of pumps Depth range Characteristics and applicability

1. Reciprocating Low speed of operation; hand, wind or motor
(plunger) powered; efficiency range 2560%
Capacity range: 0.5-1 l/s; suitable to pump against
a. Suction Up to 7 m
variable heads; valves and
pump buckets require maintenance attendance
capacity range: 0.5-2.5 l/s; mostly used for
b. Suction: treadle
Up to 6 m irrigation but also feasible for water supply if
pump
water is treated
c. Lift (direct action) Up to 15 m As for suction
d. Low lift: rower capacity: 0.5-2 l/s mostly used for irrigation but
Up to 3-6 m
pump also feasible for water supply if water is treated
e. Lift (high lift) Up to 180+ m As for suction
2. Rotary (positive Low speed of operation; hand, animal, wind
displacement) powered
a. Rope pump Up to 45 m Capacity range: 0.2-1.0 l/s Discharge constant
s under variable head
25-150 m Using gearing; hand, wind or motor powered;
b. Helical rotor Usually good efficiency; best suited to low capacity high
submerged lift pumping
3. Diaphragm (rubber Capacity: 0.2-0.3 l/s; hydraulic pressure on
Up to 45 m
diaphragm in cylinder) diaphragm
4. Axial-flow High capacity low-lift pumping; can pump water
5-10 m
containing sand or silt
High speed of operation smooth, even discharge;
5. Centrifugal efficiency (range 50-85%) depends on operating
speed and pumping head
Requires skilled maintenance; not suitable for
a. Single-stage 20-35m hand operation; powered by engine or electric
motor As for single stage; motor
b. Multi-stage shaft 25-50m As for single stage; motor accessible, above
HUIOT/WSEE Page 247

driven ground; alignment and lubrication of shaft critical;

capacity range 25-10,000 l/min
As for multi-stage shaft-driven; smoother
operation; maintenance difficult; repair to motor
c. Multi-stage
30-120m or pump requires pulling unit from well; wide
submersible
range of capacities and heads; subject to rapid
wear when sandy water is pumped
High capacity at low lift; very low efficiency
6. Air lift 15-50m especially at greater lifts; no moving parts in the
well; well casing straightness not critical
6.4 Technology selection

Recent research and development (R&D) has focused on ease of operation and
maintenance, and corrosion resistance. Corrosive water seriously affects galvanised iron
and mild steel, reducing the life span of components and causing deterioration of water
quality. Even stainless steel can show some corrosion (mainly galvanic). Components made
from uPVC, polypropylene and engineering plastics are increasingly being adopted.
However, plastics may extend over time due to weight. Fiberglass is also being tested for
pump rods in deep settings. These materials are light in weight (easing lifting) and
corrosion resistant, and are likely to have a greater application in the near future.
Pump selection criteria
In selecting a pump type for a specific purpose the following technical criteria need to be
considered:
Rate of delivery required
Vertical distance from pumping level to delivery level
Variations expected in water levels at the source
Durability of basic components (including corrosion resistance)
Weight of below ground parts
Availability and cost of spares
Ease of maintenance
Apart from these technical criteria, several institutional and community criteria have
significant influence on the sustainability of the functioning and use of the pump (see also
chapter 2):
Involvement of both men and women from the different user groups in the choice of
the most suitable pump (that can also be used by children and pregnant women);
choice of pump location(s); the selection of women and men who will operate,
maintain and manage the water supply system and go for training; and the financing
system through which the various costs will be met
Assessment of ability and willingness to pay for the expected cost of operation and
maintenance (O&M), repair and management
HUIOT/WSEE Page 248

Institutional and organisational capacity at community level to manage the water

supply service, including technical capacity for O&M
Representation of the different user groups in management and training for
maintenance and management of the water supply
Institutional and organisational capacity outside the community to support the
community in their tasks governmental agencies, NGOs, water associations and
the private sector could provide this support
6.5 Reciprocating pumps

The type of pump most frequently used for small water supplies is the reciprocating
(plunger) pump4. Several types may be distinguished:
Suction and lift pumps
Free delivery and force pumps
Suction pumps (shallow well)

In the suction pump, the plunger and its cylinder are located above the water level
usually within the pump stand itself (Fig. 9.4).
Fig. 6.4 Suction pump (for shallow well)
Because of its reliance on atmospheric pressure (about 10 m of water column), the suction
pump gives a high discharge up to a lifting height of 7 m (at high altitudes 4 m), beyond
which it becomes unstable. In addition it cannot be used when the water table drops.
Suction pumps are simple to install and maintain.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 249

Treadle pump
In certain Asian countries, the treadle pump is commonly used as a small-scale irrigation
pump. It is also suitable for drinking water supply provided the water is treated afterwards
at household level. The pump is relatively easy to manufacture locally and therefore
suitable for areas with limited technical development.
The pump is operated by the legs, which can produce more power than arms. Therefore,
the capacity, about 1 l/s, is higher than other human powered pumps. The treadle pump is
a typical suction pump and therefore the maximum water lift is 7 m.
Fig. Treadle pump
Rower pump
The rower pump is another commonly used small-scale irrigation pump, which can be used
as a drinking water pump provided the water is treated before drinking. It is also a suction
HUIOT/WSEE Page 250

pump, so the maximum pumping lift is 7 m. It can be easily constructed with PVC pipes and
simple valves and piston. The investment costs are low.
Fig9.6. Rower pump
Lift pumps (deep well pump)

In lift pumps, the cylinder and plunger are located below the water level in the well. The
cylinder has to be submerged in the water to ensure priming of the pump. In terms of
definitions, deep or shallow well refers to the depth of the water level (usually the chosen
setting for the cylinder), not the depth to the bottom of the well (Fig. 9.8).
Fig9.7. Pumping Lift
Because of the fact that the cylinder and plunger are located below the water level, this pump can
lift water from wells as deep as 180 m or even more. The forces created by the pumping increase
HUIOT/WSEE Page 251

with the depth to the water table. Also the problems associated with reaching the cylinder, deep in
the well, for maintenance and repair are much more difficult than in shallow well pumps. Thus the
design of pumps for deep well use is more critical and complicated than for suction pumps. An
example of a deep well lift pump is shown in figure 9.8.
Fig 9.8 Lift Pump (deep well)
Direct action handpumps are effective up to 15 m, and are self priming, which reduces
the risk of contamination. They do not rely on lever action and bearings, which eases
maintenance. They are simple and light (with semi-buoyant rods), and have a high
discharge.
High lift pumps are required beyond 15 m. They are sometimes used at shallower settings
for reasons of standardisation.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 252

Force pumps
Force pumps are designed to pump water from a source and to deliver it to a higher
elevation or against pressure. All pressure-type water systems use force pumps. They are
enclosed so that the water can be forced to flow against pressure. Force pumps are
available for use on shallow or deep wells (Fig. 9.10).
Fig 9.9 Force pumps
A shallow-well force pump is shown in figure 9.9a. Its operating principle is the same as
that of the suction pump discussed earlier, except that it is enclosed at the top and,
therefore, can be used to force the water to elevations higher than the pump. For this,
either a separate connection or a hose or pipe is fitted to the spout.
Force pumps usually have an air chamber to even out the discharge flow. On the upstroke
of the plunger, the air in the air chamber is compressed and on the down stroke the air
expands to maintain the flow of water while the plunger goes down. The trap tube serves to
trap air in the air chamber, preventing it from leaking around the plunger rod.
The operation of a deep well force pump (Fig. 9.9b) is the same. The principal difference is
that, like the lift pump, its cylinder is down in the well. The pump can therefore lift water
from depths greater than 7 m.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 253

Diaphragm pump
Diaphragm pumps are positive displacement pumps. There are two entirely different types.
Conventional diaphragm pumps are more commonly used as dewatering pumps than as
pumps for drinking water supply. The main part of the pump is its diaphragm, a flexible
disc or tube made of rubber or metal. Non-return valves are fitted at the inlet and outlet
(Fig. 9.10).
Fig. 9.10 Traditional diaphragm pump

The edge of the diaphragm is fixed to the rim of the water chamber and the centre is
flexible. A rod fastened to the centre moves it up and down. As the diaphragm is lifted,
water is drawn in through the inlet valve, and when it is pushed down, water is forced out
through the outlet valve. These pumps are self priming.
The second type the hydro-pump uses the diaphragm pumping principle. The special
feature in its design is the use of a small rubber tube in the pumping element that expands
when water flows in and is contracted by the hydraulic action created by the pump pedal.
This contraction of the diaphragm forces water through the plastic delivery hose to the
spout (Fig. 9.11). The pump needs considerable power to operate, and the diaphragm
needs regular cleaning. An advantage is that it is not sensitive to sand and other small soil
particles
HUIOT/WSEE Page 254

Fig. Diaphragm foot-operated pump (hydro-pump)
6.6 Rotary (positive displacement) pumps

Bucket or rope pumps
These pumps use a continuous chain of small buckets, discs or knots on an endless rope
moving over a wheel to lift water. Each bucket or disc carries water from the bottom of the
well and empties it into a spout at the top. In the rope pump, the rope and discs pass
through a tightly fitting riser pipe, and lift the water as they move. Rope pumps can be used
for storage tanks, shallow dug wells and also boreholes. Because of their capacity, they are
used at single- or multiple-family level or for small communities. They are very suited to
local manufacture and maintenance. The investment cost is low and it is therefore
attractive as a family pump (and irrigation pump). The rope pump needs frequent
maintenance (e.g. the rope) but it can be repaired by the users with easily available
material.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 255

Fig. Rope Pump
Helical rotor pump

The helical rotor pump consists of a single-thread helical rotor that rotates inside a double
thread helical sleeve, the stator (Fig. 9.13). The meshing helical surfaces force the water up,
creating a uniform flow. The water output is proportional to the rotating speed, and can be
varied simply by changing a pulley. As the rotor and stator provide an effective continuous
seal, the helical rotor pump requires no valves. Helical rotor pumps are available for use in
4-inch (100 mm) or larger tube wells. Although relatively expensive, these pumps have
given good service on deep wells in parts of Africa and Asia.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 256

Fig. Helical rotor pump
Drive arrangements suitable for helical rotor pumps are manual operation, electric motors,
diesel engines and petrol engines. Different drive heads are available. If there is plenty of
space, a standard head with a V-belt drive can be used. Where a compact unit is required,
geared heads are installed for diesel engine or electric motor drives.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 257

6.7 Axial-flow pumps

In the axial-flow type of pump, radial fins or blades are mounted on an impeller or wheel,
which rotates in a stationary enclosure (called a casing).
Fig. Axial flow Pumps
The action of the pump is to lift the water mechanically by the rotating impeller. The fixed
guide blades ensure that the water flow has no whirl velocity when it enters or leaves the
impeller.
6.8 Centrifugal pumps

The essential components of a centrifugal pump are the impeller and the casing (Fig. 9.15).
Fig. Centrifugal pump (Volute-type casing)
The impeller is a wheel with vanes radiating from the centre to the periphery. When
rotated at a sufficiently high speed, the impeller imparts kinetic energy to the water and
produces an outward flow due to the centrifugal forces. The casing is so shaped that the
kinetic energy of the water leaving the impeller is partly converted to useful pressure. This
pressure forces the water into the delivery pipe. The water leaving the eye of the impeller
creates suction; it will be replaced by water drawn from the source and forced into the
casing under static head.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 258

An impeller and the matching section of the casing are called a stage. If the required water
pressure (pumping head) is higher than a single stage can practicably produce, a number of
stages may be placed in series (multiple-stage pump). The impellers are attached to a
common shaft and therefore rotate at the same speed. The water passes through the
successive stages, with an in-crease in pressure at each stage. Multiple stage centrifugal
pumps are normally used for high pumping heads.
The rotating speed of a centrifugal pump has a considerable effect on its performance. The
pumping efficiency tends to improve as the rotating speed increases. Higher speed,
however, may lead to more frequent maintenance requirements. A suitable balance has to
be aimed at between the initial cost and maintenance cost. A comprehensive study of the
pumps characteristics is necessary for final selection.
In centrifugal pumps the angle between the direction of entry and exit of the water flow is
90. In an axial flow pump the water flow continues through the pump in the same direction
with no deviation (0). The term mixed-flow pump is used for those centrifugal pumps
where the change in angle lies between 0 and 90; they can be single or multiple stage.
6.9 Pump drive arrangements

Two different drive arrangements exist for pumping water from deep wells: shaft-driven
and close-coupled submersible electric motor.
Shaft-driven
The crankshaft or motor is placed at the ground surface and powers the pump using a
vertical drive shaft or spindle (Fig. 9.16). A long drive shaft will need support at regular
intervals along its length and flexible couplings to eliminate any stresses due to
misalignment. The advantage of a drive shaft is that the drive mechanism may be set above
ground or in a dry pit and thus will be readily accessible for maintenance and repair. An
accurate alignment of the shaft is necessary; the shaft-drive arrangement is not possible in
crooked tube wells.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 259

Fig. Shaft driven pumps
Close-coupled submersible electric pump

In this pump drive arrangement, a centrifugal pump is connected directly to an electric
motor in a common housing, with the pump and motor as a single unit. This unit is
constructed for sub-merged operation in the water to be pumped (Fig.9.17).
HUIOT/WSEE Page 260

Fig. Pump driven by a close-coupled submersible electric motor
The pump-motor unit, usually called the submersible pump, is lowered inside the well
casing and set at a suitable depth below the lowest drawdown water level in the well.
Submersible pumps are often a tight fit in a tubewell as their outside diameter is usually
only 1-2 cm less than the internal bore of the well casing. Consequently, great care is
HUIOT/WSEE Page 261

needed during installation or removal of these pumps. A waterproof electric cable connects
the motor with the control box housing, the on-off switch and the power connection.
The electrical control should be properly grounded to minimise the risk of shorting and
damage to the motor. Figure 9.18 shows a submersible pump in exploded view. The
submersible pump-motor unit is usually supported by the discharge pipe, which conveys
the pumped water to the connecting pipeline or tank. When sand is found or anticipated in
the water source, special precautions should be taken before a submersible pump is used.
The abrasive action of sand during pumping would shorten the life of the pump
considerably.
Fig. Submersible pump (exploded view)
HUIOT/WSEE Page 262

6.10 Air-lift pumps

An air-lift pump raises water by injecting small, evenly distributed bubbles of compressed
air at the foot of a discharge pipe fixed in the well. This requires an air compressor. Because
the mixture of air and water is lighter than the water outside the discharge pipe, the
water/air mixture is forced upward by the hydrostatic head (Fig. 9.19).
HUIOT/WSEE Page 263

Fig. Air lift pump (schematic)
The major drawback of air-lift pumps is their low mechanical efficiency, about 25-40%.
The additional energy losses in the compressor give a total efficiency of not more than
15-30%. Air-lift pumps have the important advantages that they are simple to operate and
not affected by sand or silt in the pumped water.
6.11 Hydraulic ram

The hydraulic ram needs no external source of power. The ram utilizes the energy
contained in a flow of water running through it, to lift a small volume of this water to a
higher level. The phenomenon involved is that of a pressure surge, which develops when a
moving mass of water is suddenly stopped. A steady and reliable supply of water is
required with a fall sufficient to operate the hydraulic ram. Favorable conditions are mostly
found in hilly and mountainous areas (Fig. 9.20). Hydraulic rams are not suited to pumping
water from wells.
Fig. Hydraulic ram installation
The ram operates on a flow of water running from the source down through the drive pipe
into the pump chamber. The water escapes through the opened impulse valve (waste
valve). When the flow of water through the impulse valve is fast enough, the upward force
on the valve will exceed the spring tension of the valve adjustment and the impulse valve is
suddenly shut. The moving mass of water is stopped, with its momentum producing a
pressure surge along the drive pipe. Due to the pressure surge, water is forced through the
non-return (delivery) valve and into the delivery pipe. Water continues to pass the non-
return valve until the energy of the pressure surge in the drive pipe is exhausted. The air
HUIOT/WSEE Page 264

chamber serves to smooth out the delivery flow of water, as it absorbs part of the pressure
surge that is released after the initial pressure wave.
Fig. Typical Hydraulic ram
When the pressure surge is fully exhausted, a slight suction created by the momentum of
the water flow, together with the weight of the water in the delivery pipe, shuts the non-
return valve and prevents the water from running back into the pump chamber. The
adjustment spring now opens the impulse valve, water begins to escape through it, and a
new operating cycle is started.
Once the adjustment of the impulse valve has been set, the hydraulic ram needs
HUIOT/WSEE Page 265

no attention provided the water flow from the supply source is continuous at an adequate
rate and no foreign matter gets into the pump, blocking the valves.
An air valve is provided to allow a certain amount of air to bleed in and keep the
air
chamber charged. Water under pressure will absorb air and without a suitable air valve
the air chamber would soon be full of water. The hydraulic ram would cease to function.
The advantages of the hydraulic ram
are:
No power sources are needed, and therefore no running costs
Suitable for local production
Only two moving parts
Most hydraulic rams will work at their best efficiency if the supply head is about one
third of the delivery head. The higher the pumping head required, the smaller the amount
of water delivered. In cases where the required pumping capacity is greater than
one hydraulic ram can provide, a battery of several rams may be used, provided the
supply source is of sufficient capacity (Fig. 9.22).
Fig. Hydraulic rams placed

parallel
The maintenance required for a hydraulic ram is very little and infrequent. It includes
activities as replacement of the valve rubbers when they wear out, adjusting the
tuning, and tightening bolts if they get loose. Occasionally the hydraulic ram may need
dismantling for cleaning. It is essential that as little debris as possible enters the drive
pipe. For this reason, it is necessary to provide a grit or strainer to keep back floating
leaves and debris.
HUIOT/WSEE Page 266

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What are the different types of water demands discussed in the document?

What are the different types of water demands discussed in the document?

What factors affect per-capita water demand?

What factors affect per-capita water demand?

Module on Water Supply Engineering 2013

3.1.2 Types of Intake structures......................................................................................................... 30

5.1 Spring Development.......................................................................................................................... 66

7.3 Hygiene Education ............................................................................................................................ 96

CHAPTER Three ......................................................................................................................................... 130

3.7.5 Water desalinization ................................................................................................................ 165

3. Spring water Development ................................................................................................................. 192

5.2.3 Determine the location of the standpoints ........................................................................... 225

1.1 Various Types of Water Demands

1.1.1 Domestic Water Demand

1.1.2 Industrial Demand

1.1.3 Institution and Commercial Demand

Table 1.1 Water requirements of various commercial establishments

1.1.4 Demand for Public Use

1.1.5 Fire Demand

1.1.6 Losses and Wastes

1.2 Per-capita Demand

1.3 Factors Affecting Per-capita Demand

1.4 Variations in Demand

1.4.1 Seasonal Variations

1.4.2 Daily Variations

1.4.3 Hourly Variations

1.5 Design Period

Table 1.2 Design period of different components of water supply system

1.6 Population Forecasting Methods

1. Arithmetic Increase Method

Where Pn=population at n decades or years

Where Po= initial population

3. Incremental Increase Method

Where Pn= population after n decades from present

4. Decrease growth rate method

where Ps = saturation population,

The future population P is

Where Po = population of the base year

6. Simple graphical method

7. Logistic Curve Method

Where: Ps = Saturated population

Where n = time interval between successive censuses

9. Master Plan Method

1970 ---------- 80,000

b) Geometric growth method

d) Declining growth method

Year Popn. Increase % increase Decrease in %

2.2 Surface Water Sources

2.3 Subsurface water source

Figure 2.1 Gravity Spring

Figure 2.2 Surface Spring

Figure 2.3 Artesian Spring

Figure 2.4 Infiltration Gallery

Figure 2.5 Infiltration Well Figure 2.6 Jack Well

Figure 2.7 Shallow Well

Figure 2.8 Deep Well

2.4 Water quality considerations

2.5 Source Selection