HRM Lecture Notes for PU, MBA 2nd

Semester
Unit- 2 (Two)
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING
Human Resource Planning
Predetermining HR needs in terms of quality & quantity
Estimating the size & composition of future workforce
Due to the dynamic nature of environment technological change,
globalization, change in nature of job, OD, shortage & requirement of
critical skills led to importance of HRP
HRP is the process of determining an organizations HR needs -
Decenzo &Robbins

Human Resource Information System

HRIS is a device for providing skill inventory information
Computer based data system for systematically track most of the
information about employee and jobs
Collect, analyze, store, retrieve & disseminate information about
employees &job
Useful for storing employment, training and compensation information
on each employee

Contents of HRIS
a) Personal data- name, address, dob, marital status
b) Skill data- qualification, training, special skills, capabalities, language
spoken etc
c) Position data- current position, duties, responsibilities, occupational
history, jobs held in other organizations, work locations etc.
d) Compensation data- current salary, salary history, bonus, overtime
payments, deduction from salary, tax information,award received etc.
e) Performance data- current & past performance appraisal data

Uses of HRIS
Human resource inventory development
Human resource forecast
Human resource development
 Job analysis
To make succession and replacement planning
To determine current & probable productivity of employee
Establish link between corporate objectives & strategies, corporate
planning & HR planning

Human Resource Inventory

Skill inventory of HR currently employed in the organization
It includes names,education, training, salary level, languages spoken,
capabalities & specialized skills of all employees
From HRP viewpoint,
What skills are currently available in the organization
Can take advantage of opportunities to expand or alter the
organizations strategies
Useful in- training need assessment, promotion & transfer
To identify current or future threats to organizations ability to perform
Staff turnover rate, sickness & absenteeism rate,etc.

HRP Process
1. Assessing current human resources
- Human resource inventory, HRIS, Job analysis
2. Forecasting HR demand- external environmental forces, organizatinal
objectives, business plan, succession plan, workforce factors such as:-
work load norms, employee reallocation, seperation, turnover,
contingent workforce
- Management judgement, expert forecasts, statistical analysis may be
used to forecast demand
3. Forecasting HR supply
- Internal sources forecasts: potential additions & losses to HR
inventory,
- External sources forecast- education & training institute, labour
market etc
4. Matching demand and supply forecast- shortage & surplus
5. Preparation of action plan
- Recruitment action plan
- Development action plan
- Retention action plan
- Redeployment action plan
- Redundancy action plan
- Promotion & succession action plan

Unit: 3 (Three)
JOB ANALYSIS
Job analysis:
The process of studying and collecting informations relating to the
operations and responsibilities of a specific job. The immediate product
of this analysis are job description and job specification.
It analyze the content & characteristics of the job and requirements/
qualifications needed to perform those jobs.

Job description:
Job description is an organized, factual statement of the duties and
responsibilities of a specific job.
It should tell what is to be done, how it is done, and why. It is a
standard of function. It defines the authorized content of the job. It
contains : job title, location, job summary, duties, machine, tools and
equipments, materials used, supervision given or received, working
conditions, hazards etc.

Job specification
A statement of the minimum acceptable human qualities necessary to
perform a job properly. It is a standard of personnel and designates the
qualities required for acceptable performance.
A statement of human qualifications necessary to do the job. Usually
contains such items: education, experience, training, judgement,
initiative, physical effort, physical skills, communication skills,
emotional characteristics, sensory demands such as sight, smell, hearing
and many others depends upon the nature of job.

Uses of Job analysis

HRP- number & types of human resource are determined by the jobs
which need to be staffed. Job related information is provided by JA.
Recruitment & selection- an understanding of the types of skills
needed and the types of job that may open in future helps HR manager
to plan recruitment and knowledge about the work to be done and
qualifications needed helps to select right person- match the right
people with the right job.
 Training & development- what a given job demands from the
incumbents in terms of knowledge & skills? Training & development
programmes can be designed depending on the job requirements.
Job evaluation- determination of relative worth of each job to
determine wage & salary differentials. Relative worth is determined
mainly on the basis of job description & specification.
Remuneration- remuneration should be based on relative worth of
each job. Employee need to be compensated on the grades of the job
which they occupy. Otherwise feeling of inequity may arise.
Performance appraisal- Job Analysis helps to fix standards for
performance in relation to which actual performance is compared and
assessed.
Safety & health- provides information regarding hazardous conditions,
unhealthy environmental factors. So that corrective measures can be
taken to minimize and avoid the possibility oh human injury.
Personnel information- planning, acquisition, development, utilization
and remuneration purpose Job Analysis helps by providing
information.

Methods of collecting Job information

Observation- job analyst carefully observes the job holder at work and
records what & how s/he does and how much time is needed for
completion of given task.
Interview- job analyst interviews the job holder & supervisor about the
job. Generally structured form is used. The analyst must make
judgements about the informations to be included and its degree of
importance.
Questionnaire- job holder fill in the given structured questionnaire,
which are then approved by their supervisor.
Checklists- similar to questionnaire, but the response-sheet contains
fewer subjective judgements and tends to be either yes-or-no variety. It
can cover many activities but job holder has to tick only those tasks
that are included in their jobs.
Technical conference method- a conference of supervisor who
possess extensive knowledge about a job are used.
Diary method- job holders records in detai their activities each day in a
diary.

JOB ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

 1. Job focused techniques
Functional job analysis (FJA) - used to analyze the nature of jobs in
terms of data, people and things. Information collected is categorized
under those three associated functions.
Management position description questionnaire (MPDQ) designed to
analyze managerial position. Job analyst use a checklist containing 197
job factors related to managerial concern & responsibilities. A statistical
analysis on job factors will be conducted to find the different job
factors relating to the position of individual managers.

2. Job analysis techniques

The hay plan- analyse managerial jobs. since executives are engaged in
numerous tasks it is difficult to specify their duties and responsibility.
Hay plan is based on interview between job analyst & the person in the
job. Information gathered using Hay plan relates to four aspects of
managerial job: i) objective of the job ii) dimensions to be covered by
the job holders in that position iii) nature & scope of the position iv)
accountability
Purpose : recruitment, selection, placement, job evaluation,
management development & organizational analysis.
Metods analysis analysis of non managerial job. Studies motion at
work. Method analysis is used in organizations that rely heavily on
human labour to carry out repetitive and routine tasks accurately &
efficiently.
Person or behaviour- focused technique.
Position analysis questionnaire (PAQ) to find the personal or
behavioral requirements for performing a job. PAQ contains 194 items.
194 job items are categorized in 5 job dimensions:
i) Job dimension relating to decision making /communication/ social
responsibilities
ii) Relating to performing skilled activities
iii) Relating to physical activities/ environmental conditions
iv) Relating to operating vehicles/ equipment
v) Job dimension relating to information processing.

All jobs are categorized under above 5 job dimensions. Information is

collected through using a position questionnaire.
1. Person or behaviour- focused technique.
 2. Physical abilities analysis (PAA) analyse the physical
abilities/ strengths required by job holders to perform the jobs.
3. The critical incident technique (CIT)- critical job
incidents that represents effective or ineffective performance.
This techniques identifies the crical incidents that occured
durung last 6 to 12 months. Desirable or undesirable.
4. Guidelines-oriented job analysis (GOZA)- GOZA
techniques analses job after completion of following steps:
i) Listing the job domains of the incumbents
ii) List the important or critical duties typically requiring person to
perform in a job
iii) Determine how frequently these critical duties are required to be
performed & their importance
iv) Determine requisite skills/ knowledge
v) Determine physical characteristics
vi) Describe other characteristics

JOB ANALYSIS PROCESS

Six steps in doing job analysis- According to Dessler
1. Decide how you will use the information- it helps to
determine the types of data and methods to collect.
2. Review relevant background information- such as
organization chart, process chart & job description
3. Select representative positions- because there may be
too many similar jobs to analyse. Eg. It is usually unnecessary
to analyse the jobs of 200 assembly workers when a sample of
10 jobs will do
4. Actually analyse the job- by collecting data on job
activities, required employee behavior, working conditions and
human traits and abilities needed to perform the job. Use one
ore more methods and techniques of Job Analysis.
5. Verify the job analysis information- with job holder &
immediate supervisor to confirm that informations is factually
correct & complete.
6. Develop a job description and job specification-

Unit: 4 (Four)
RECRUITMENT
 Recruitment is the process of searching for and obtaining applications
so as to build a pool of job seekers from whom the right people for the
right jobs may be selected.
The purpose of recruitment is to build a pool of applicants.
Recruitment represents the first contact an organization makes with
potential employees.
It is through recruitment that many individuals will come to know a
company and eventually decide whether they wish to work for it.
It is an ongoing process because employee leave the firm in search of
greener pastures-some retire and some die in the saddle.
More importantly, an enterprise grows, diversifies, takes over other
units-all necessitating hiring of new employees.
In fact, the recruitment function stops only when the company ceases
to exist.
Theoretically, recruitment process is said to end with the receipt of
application.

FACTORS AFFECTING RECRUITMENT

1) External factors
a. Supply and demand- If the demand for a particular skill is high
relative to the supply, an extraordinary recruiting efforts may be
needed. The situation of demand and supply of specific skills affects
recruitment.
b. Unemployment rate- If unemployment rate is high,
recruitment process becomes simpler because large number of people
can be attracted with minimum effort.
c. Labor market- Availability of manpower in a local area, specially for
non-managerial, supervisory and middle- management positions and in
the country level for executive and professional positions has effect on
recruitment.
d. Political-legal- Reservations of jobs for scheduled castes, scheduled
tribes, minorities and other ethnic and backward classes, child labor act
have effect on recruitment.
e. Sons of soil- Preferences to local or people of their respective state in
matters of employment.
f. Image- It is the perception of the job-seekers about the company that
matters in attracting qualified prospective employees.

2. Internal factors:
a. Recruitment policy- Recruiting internally or externally, recruitment of
local citizens, policy of temporary and part time workers.
b. Human resource planning- A company cannot attract prospective
employees in sufficient numbers and with required skills overnight. It
takes time. Effective HRP greatly facilitates the recruiting efforts.
c. Size of the firm- Bigger the size less problematic.
d. Cost- Cost incurred in recruitment process, must
operate within budgets, multiple job openings simultaneously
may minimize cost.
e. Growth & expansion- An organization going on
growth and expansion will have more recruiting on hand than
the one which finds its fortune declining.
RECRUITMENT METHODS
1. Internal methods:
Job posting, employee referral, human resource inventory search
Internal sources
a) Present employees- Promotion, transfers, job rotation
b) Employee referrals- finders fees, Microsoft, Wipro, Infosys, Texas
instrument
c) Formers employees- Retired employees may be willing to come back
on part time basis, may recommend someone, people who have left the
company for some reasons or other are willing to come back and work
d) Previous applicants- Although not truly an internal source, can be
contacted quickly to fill an unexpected opening.

2. External methods/sources:
a) Advertisement
b) Professional or trade associations-
c) Employment exchange-
d) University/colleges-
e) Walk-ins, write-ins and talk-ins-
f) Consultants-
g) Contractors-
h) Competitors-
i) E-recruiting-

ALTERNATIVES TO RECRUITMENT
Organizations search for alternatives to recruitment because of the cost
of recruiting. The alternatives to recruitments are:
a) Overtime-
b) Employee leasing- Staff outsourcing, paying charges to a leasing
company or consulting firm that handles payroll, employee benefits
and routine HR functions for the client company.
c) Temporary employment

Unit- 5 (Five)
SELECTION
Selection is the process of choosing among people who apply for work
with an organization. Selection process is a series of steps used to
decide which recruits should be hired.
Steps in selection:-
Application form evaluation-> selection tests-> selection interview->
reference checks-> physical examination-> hiring decision
Selection methods
Qualification and experience method, work proficiency method,
written test method, interview method, written test and interview
method, comprehensive selection method.

Selection Tests
a. Intelligence tests
Tests of general intellectual abilities. They measures not a single trait
but rather a range of abilities such as- reasoning, vocabulary, verbal
fluency, numerical abilities, memory etc.
b. Aptitude tests
It measures whether an individual has the capacity or latent ability to
learn a given job if given adequate training. A capacity to learn in the
future. To select person who will show a higher degree of success after
the training period. Specific capacities or aptitudes are- mechanical,
clerical, linguistic, musical, academic etc.
c. Achievement tests
Concerned with what one has accomplished. When applicants claim to
know something, an achievement test is given to measure how well
they know it. Trade tests such as- electricians, typing, dictation,
computer operator, machinists etc. It helps to shows the demonstrable
relationship and job performance.
d. Personality tests
 It measures personality attributes of candidate such as emotional
stability, confirmity, agreeableness, extroversion, smartness etc.
e. Interest tests/Vocational tests
Most organization realize that a person who is interested in a job or
tasks will do much better than who is uninterested. In this test
applicants is asked whether s/he likes, dislikes the particular
occupation, activities, peoples. Interest in specific profession and
occupation is tested. Measures candidates preference in different types
of job.

f. Situation tests
It evaluates the candidates behavior in a particular situation or in a
situation which is similar to some aspects of the job to be done in the
future.
g. Test batteries
This test helps to fit candidate with wide array of jobs. This test covers
abilities such as- verbal, numerical, intelligence, finger and manual
dexterity etc.

Selection Interview
An interview is a procedure designed to obtain information from a
person through oral responses to oral inquiries.
A selection procedure designed to predict future job performance on
the basis of applicants oral responses to oral inquiries.
Managers uses several types of interviews, such as: selection, appraisal
and exit interviews

Types of selection interviews - Gary Dessler

1. Stuctured or Directive interview: An interview
following a set sequence of questions. The questions and
acceptable responses are specified in advance and the responses
are rated for appropriateness of content.
2. Unstructured or Nondirective interview: An
unstructured conversational- style interview in which the
interviewer pursues points of interest as they come up in
response to questions. Generally no set format to follow.
Interview for the same job may or may not get the similar
questions. A few questions may be specified in advance.
3. Situational interview: A series of job related questions
that focus on how the candidate would behave in a given
 situation. Asks interviewees to describe how they would react
to a hypothetical situation today or tomorrow.
4. Behavioral interview: A series of job related questions
that focuses on how the candidate reacted to actual situations
in the past. Asks interviewees to describe how they reacted to
actual situations in the past.
5. Job related interview: A series of job related
questions that focuses on relevant past job related behaviors.
Asks job related questions to draw conclusions about what the
applicants on the job performance will be based on his or her
answers to questions about past experiences.
6. Stress interview: An interview in which the applicant is
made uncomfortable by a series of often rude questions. This
technique helps identify hypersensitive applicants and those
with low or high stress tolerance.
7. semi-structured interview: major questions to be
asked are planned in advance and are same for all candidates
but other questions vary from candidate to candidate.
Interviewer are provided some flexibility.

Puzzle questions: Recruiter for technical, finance, and other types of

job like to use them to see how candidates think under pressure. E.g.
An interviewer at Microsoft asked a tech service applicant this: Mike
& Todd have $ 21 between them. Mike has $ 20 more than Todd. How
much money has Mike and how much money has Todd?
Administering interview:

Personal or Individual interview

Panel Interview
Serial Interview
Mass Interview
Telephone Interview
Computerized Interview

Reliability and Validity of Tests

Reliability- It refers to the degree of consistency of results obtained. If a
test possesses high relaiability , a person who is tested a second or third
 time with the same test under the same condition will obtain
approximately the same score.
Validity- It refers to the relationship between the test score and
performance on the job (accuracy). It is concerned with measuring
important characteristics related to job behavior.

Types of validity
i) Content validity- such a test can approximate the work to be done on
the job.e.g. Typing test
ii) Construct validity- is the degree to which a particular trait is related to
successful performance on the job. Measurement of psychological
quality of applicants such as intelligence (abstract in nature).
Usually conducted by industrial psychologist by observig various behavior
of the applicant and measuring how these behavior or traits relate to the
job.
iii) Criterion related validity- the degree to which a particular selection
device accurately predicts the important elements of work behavior.
Relationship between the test scores and job performance.

To establish criterion related validity one of two measures can be used

a) Predictive validty- the degree to which test scores determine the future
job behavior of the candidate. Present test score is compared with
actual performance of the candidate generally after a year. If no clear
relationship exists, then the test may have to be revised. (probationary
period)- training,transfer, discharge (handle).
b) Concurrent validity- it validates tests using current employees as the
subjects. The scores from the current employees are immediately
analyzed with their previous performance appraisal report. If there is a
relationship between test scores and performance, then a valid test has
been found.
Predictive validity can be used as screening device where as concurrent
validity acts on current employees.

Unit- 7 (Seven)
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
Training refers to the imparting of specific skill, abilities and knowledge
to employee ( development of those employees who do not supervise
activities of others, operative level)
 System and practices get outdated due to new discoveries in
technology, including technical, managerial and behavioral aspects. In
this context training enhances the knowledge, skills and attitudes of
employees to increase efficiency and effectiveness on the prsent job as
well as expected future job.
The objective of training is to achieve a change in the behavior of those
trained. It is expected that employees apply their newly acquired
knowledge & skill on the job in such a way as to aid in the achievement
of organizational goal.

Need of training
Training directly contributes to the development of human resources.
It is the most widely used HRD mechanism in the world for the
development of human resources. It plays a great role in determining
the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization.

- Improved performance
- Fill manpower needs
- Prevent obsolescence
- Aid in solving operational problems
- Attitude formation
- Improve health and safety
- Benefit to employees themselves

Determining training needs

Training need is a gap between the existing capabilities of an employee
and the requirement of the job.
Job requirement employee capability = training needs

Methods of determining training needs

1. Management audit method
Environmental assessment- environmental (political-legal, economic,
socio-cultural, technological) changes are identified to determine
training needs.
Objectives, strategies and structure change- training needs are identified
to manage such changes.
 2. Task analysis method
Collection and analysis of task related information- performance
standards for each task are set- details are found about how tasks are
done- training needs are identified for effective task performance. Job
description, job specification, job performance standard

3. Performance analysis method

i. Organizational performance method- specifies desired performance
standard. Overall performance such as- goal achievement, production
performance, quality control, sales performance,cost, absenteeism, labour
turnover,accident rates etc. It determines the overall training needs.
ii. Employee performance analysis- identifies actual performance on the
current job. Performance deficiencies and problem faced by the
employees are identified to determine training needs through-
employees performance appraisal reviews, career planning discussion,
exit interview, performance test etc.

4. Supervisory recommendation method

In this method supervisor identify gap in knowledge and skills and
recommend needed training for the employees.

5. Training need survey method-

In this method direct questioning is used to gather opinion about
training needs through individual survey (each employee), group
survey (group of present employees, former employees and supervisors).
The result of survey becomes training needs. Competency survey- experts
are asked to give opinion on desired competencies to perform the job
effectively. This desired competencies determines training needs.

TRAINING PROCESS
1. Organizational objectives and strategies- what business
are we in? At what level of quality do we wish to provide this
product or service? Where do we want to be in the future?
2. Assessment of training needs-
Job requirement employee capability = training needs
3. Establishment of training goals- clear behavioral standard of expected
results are necessary so that training programme can be effectively
designed and results can be evaluated. It should be SMART.
4. Designing training programme- every training programme must address
certain vital issues-
i) who are the participants or trainees
ii) who are the trainers
iii) what methods and techniques are to be used for training
iv) what should be the level of training
v) what learning principles are needed
vi) where is the programme conducted
(vi) how far the program has been useful must be judged to get feedback.
5. Implementation of training programme- once the training programme
has been designed, it needs to be implemented. Programme
implementation involves:
i) deciding the location and organizing training and other facilities
ii) scheduling the training programmes
iii) conducting the programme
iv) monitoring the progress of trainees.
6. Evaluation of the programme- since huge sum of money and time are
spent on training programme, how far the program has been useful
must be judged to get feed back.

Types of training
Apprenticeship training- learning by doing under the guidance of
experienced worker- craft & technical areas- mechanics, jewellers,
carpenters..
Job instruction training (JIT)- specially useful for preparing
supervisors to train operatives. Also known as training through step-
by-step learning steps:
i) Preparation- providing informations about job, duties and responsibilities
to the trainees.
ii) Presentation- providing essential information in a clear manner by
positioning the trainees at work site, telling & showing them each step
of the job, stressing why and how each step is carried as it is shown.
iii) Practise- having the trainee try out the job to show that s/he has
understood the instructions, if there are any errors they are corrected.
iv) Follow-up- encouraging the questions and allowing the trainee to work
alone. Trainer follow up regularly.
It provides immediate feedback, quick correction of error and
provision of extra practise if required. It is based on the principle, if
the learner has not learned, the teacher has not taught.
Internship training- trainee is trained on the job by immediate
superior. Working as a assistant to type of position. Student of
 technical and professional subjects are sent to organizations to get
practical experience of theoretical knowledge they have learnt in
colleges. Trainee work as an employee for specific period.

Off-the-job training
Lectures-
Seminars- small group meeting conducted according to an
organizational plan. Generally trainees sit facing one another around a
conference table where instructor introduce the topics and invites
views from the participants on problem areas related to the topics.
Participants are expected to make some views and ask questions. Learn
not only from the instructor but also from each other.
Role playing- trainees are assigned parts to play infront of the class. The
role players are provided either with written or oral descriptions of a
situation and the role they are to play. It provides an opprtunity for
trainees to actually put in to practise the knowledge they have observed
from text book, lectures and discussions.
Simulation- a techniques that duplicates as nearly as possible the actual
conditions encountered on the job. It is abstraction of real working
conditions in the lab or class room. Trainees are placed in such an
artificial environment which looks alike the real working place &
condition.

Case study- from the written description of the actual business

situation the trainees determine problems, analyze causes, develop
alternative solutions and select the best alternatives as accurately as
possible and implement it as manager faces and tackles. Provides
opportunity to expose their analytical and judgemental abilities.

Evaluating training programme

The main objective of evaluating the training programme is:
to determine if they are accomplishing specific training objectives, that
is correcting performance deficiencies.
To ensure that any changes in trainees capability is due to training
programme and not due to any other condition.
To determine their cost effectiveness.
Finally, credibility of training is greatlt enhanced when it is proved that
the organization has benefitted tangibly from it.
Criteria for evaluation
 Criteria used for evaluating training effectiveness:
1. Reaction criteria- reaction measures reveal trainees
opinions regarding the training programme.
2. Learning criteria- learning measures assess the degree to
which trainees have mastered the concepts, knowledge and
skills of training.
3. Behavior change criteria- behavior indicates the
performance of learners. Changes in job behavior.
4. Organizational results- examine the impact of training
on the work group or the entire company.

Process of training evaluation

Steps:
i. Setting intended standards
ii. Measuring actual outcomes
iii. Finding deviation
iv. Corrective action

Methods for evaluating training progarmmes

1. Observation method
Observation method is done by closely observed during the training
programme. Performance in practical work situation, participation in
discussion, role play, timing , presentation method. The errors are
carefully observed and recorded.
2. Test-retest method
In this method participants are given a test to establish their level of
knowledge before they enter the training programme. After the
completion of training, they retake the test. The change in test scores
indicate the change in the level of knowledge resulting from training.
3. Pre-post performance method
The actual job of each participants is evaluated and rated prior to
training. After the training the participants job performance is
reevaluated. Changes in job performance is attributed to training.
4. Experimental control group method
Two groups are formed. One group is control group whose members
work without undergoing training. Another group is experimental
group whose member undergo training. Two groups are evaluated at
the end of the training. If the performance of the experimental group
improves, training is regarded effective.
5. Training surveys
 Direct questioning to trainees to get reaction, generally after the end of
training participants are asked to fill-up form containing- physical
facilities, achievement of training objectives, contents, trainer
effectiveness, suggestions for improvement etc.
6. Cost effectiveness analysis
It assesss total value of training benefits against total cost of training.
Training is effective if benefit exceeds costs.

MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT
All those persons who have authority over others and are responsible
for their activities & for the operations of an enterprise are managers.
Any activity designed to improve the performance of existing managers
to provide for a planned growth of managers to meet future
requirements is management development.
A systematic process of training & growth by which manegerial
personnel gain & apply skill, knowledge, attitudes & insight to manage
the works in their organization.
Purpose:
Increase managerial capabalities
Enhance managerial effectiveness
Facilitate environmental adaptation
Improve managerial decision making
Facilitate managerial succession & career development
Aid managerial job satisfaction & retention

MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT METHOD

1. On the job
a. Coaching: when manager takes an active role in guiding another
manager, it is called coaching. If the coaching is done by someone
other than immediate supervisor/manager, it is called mentoring.
Coach sets goal, tells what, how, when it is to be done, follow up
suggestions & correct errors. The effectiveness of this techniques on the
ability of the coach.
b. Understudy assignments: potential managers are assigned to work
under experienced manager with a title assistant to. S/he has to learn
about the full duties & responsibilities of the position currently held by
his superior. Learns the complexities of problem that superior has
faced and how to solve them, also learns decision making process. In
the absence of superior has to work as acting of superior.
 Organization ensures that a fully trained persons are available to
replace manager during long absence, illness, transfer or promotion.
c. Job rotation
transfer or movement of executives from one job to another. The
purpose is to provide diverse knowledge or overall knowledge and
familiarizing with the different sectionsl job before they are posted as
managers in the department.
d. Committee assignments
Techniques where juniors are assigned to board or committes by the
chief executives. In these committees, real problems are discussed,
different views are debated and decisions are taken. The juniors get an
opportunity to share in managerial decision making, to learn by
watching others and to solve specific organizational problems.

2. Off- the- job development

a. Sensitivity training
method to develop or changing behavior through group processess.
Small group gather in unstructured learning situation where they
discuss & interact with themselves. This discussion is facilated by
professional behavioral scientist. Objectives are:
Improved understanding of how & why trainees act toward others and
how their action affect others.
Insight in to why others act the way they do
Improved listening skill
Insight in to how group operates
Increased tolerance & understanding of others
Experimentation with new ways of acting toward people & feedback
about how these new ways affect people

Group experience designed to provide maximum possible opportunity

for the individuals to expose their behavior, give & receive feedback,
experiment with new behavior & develop awareness of self & of
others.- Chris Argyris

1. Transactional analysis
Used to improve interpersonal relations. In TA trainess are taught to
analyze their interactions with others in terms of ego state being
expressed. Basic assumptions of TA is that every individual personality
holds three ego states: the parent, child and adult. The parent state is an
ego state of authority & superiority. They are usually dominant,
 scolding and authoritative and they use frequently such words as
should, ought and mustnt. The child contains all the influence
that are natural to an infant, that is why they are emotional and acts
according to the feeling of moment. So in this ego state person may be
obedient or manipulative, charming at one moment and repulsive the
next. The adult stage is objective and rational. The adults deals with
hear & know reality, listens with an open mind, state opinions, and
actively engaged in probability estimating & rational decision making. It
has been suggested that one who generally is low in parent, high in
adult and high in child is likely to be most effective in dealing with
others.
3. Lecture/seminar course
4. Simulation exercise etc.

Unit- 8 (Eight)
CAREER PLANING AND DEVELOPMENT
A career is a sequence of positions occupied by a person during the
course of a lifetime.-Decenzo & Robbins
Career is a sequence of separate but related work activities that
provides continuity, order and meaning in a persons life.- Edwin Flippo
A career is all the jobs that are held during ones working life.
A career path is the sequential pattern of jobs that form a career.
Career goals are the future positions one strives a part of career.
Career planning is the process by which one selects career goals and
the path to these goals.

The main purpose of career planning is to integrate individuals and

organizational growth needs.
It helps to develop individuals and groups, provides opportunities and
challenges and strengthens work cultures.
To increase managerial competence
To attract competent person and retain them in the organization
To provide suitable promotional opportunities
To enable the employees to develop and make them ready to meet the
future challenges
To increase the utilization of managerial reserves within an
organization
To correct employee placement
 To reduce employee dissatisfaction and turnover
To improve motivation and morale

PROCESS OF CAREER PLANING:

1. Self-assessment by employees-
2. Exploring opportunities-
3. Identification of occupational orientation
4. Identification of high potential occupation-
5. Setting career goals to meet the career issues-
6. Setting career plans-
7. Implementing career plans-

CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Career development consists of personal improvements undertaken by
the individual employee, training, development and educational
programs provided by the organization and various institutes.
The career development is the process of guiding the placement,
movement, and growth of employees through assessment, planned
training activities and planned job assignment.
The most important aspect of career development is that every
employee must accept their responsibility for development.
Various career development actions prove useful if an employee is
committed to career development.

The career development actions are:

Job performance- Employee must prove that their performance on the
job is to the level of standards established, if they wants career
development.
Exposure- They should expose their skills, knowledge, qualifications,
achievements, performance etc. to those who take the decision about
the career progress.
Resignation- Employee may resign the present job, if they find career
opportunities elsewhere are better than those of the present
organization.
Change the job- Employees who put organizational loyalty above
career loyalty may change the job in the same organization if they find
that career opportunities in other jobs in the same organization are
better than those of present job.
 Career guidance- Counseling provides, information, advice and
encouragement to switch over to other career or organization, where
career opportunities are better.
So, there are two types of mobility in career development actions-
internal and external mobility.

Why Career development program?

1. Growth opportunities
2. Quality of working life
3. Competition for high talent personnel
4. Avoid obsolescence
5. Retention of personnel
6. Improved utilization of personnel

Effective organizational career development techniques include:

Challenging initial job
Dissemination of career option information
Job postings
Assessment centers
Career development workshops
Continuing education and training
Periodic job change
Sabbaticals For more see:
HRM- Decenzo and Robbins
Individual career development is a three-step self-assessment
process:
Identification and organization- Identify and organize your skills,
interests, work-related needs, and values.
Conversion into general fields and a specific goals- Convert these
inventories into general career fields and specific job goals.
Testing against realities- Test these possibilities against the realities of
the organization or the job market.

Unit- 9 (Nine)
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
Once the employee has been selected, trained & motivated the next
step of MGMT is to find out how effective it has been at hiring and
placing. The tools used to ascertain whether an employee has shown
her/his best performance on a given job is called performance
 evaluation. It is the assessment of an individuals performance in a
systematic way against such factors as job knowledge, quality &
quantity of output, initiative, leadership abilities, dependability,
cooperation, judgement etc. The assessment is not only concerned with
past performance, it is also concerned with potentials of the employees
for future performance.
Pupose of performance evaluation
The overall objectives of PE is to improve the efficiency of an
employee by attempting to mobilize the best possible efforts from
individuals employed in it. Such evaluation achieves four objectives
includiing the salary reviews; the development & training of individuals;
planning job ratation and assistance promotion.- Cummings
PE plans are designed to meet three needs, one of the organization &
the other two of the individuals.
i) They provide systematic judgements to back up salary increases,
transfers, demotions or terminations.
ii) They are means of telling a subordinate how they are doing and
suggesting needed changes in their behavior, attitudes, skills or job
knowledge. They let them know where they stands with the boss.
iii) They are used as a base for coaching and conselling the individual by
the superior.

Process of performance evaluation

The evaluation process consists following steps:
1. Establish performance standards
2. Communicate performance expectations to employees
3. Measure actual performance
4. Compare actual performance with standards
5. Discuss the appraisal with the employees
6. If necessary, initiate corrective action

Uses of performance evaluation

1. Performance feedback
2. Reward management
3. Training & development decisions
4. Promotion, transfer, separation decisions
5. Validation of selection tests
6. Career & succession planning
7. Supervisory understanding
8. Policy formulation
 Methods of performance evaluation
Relative standards- performance of individuals are compared against
other individuals. Major relative standards major are:
1. Individual ranking: supervisor or rater ranks the
performance of subordinates in the order of their merit,
starting from the best to worst or viceversa. Each individual
gets their own rank, two or more person can not get the same
rank.
2. Group order ranking- employees are placed, grouped or
ranked in to a particular classification by the evaluator
according to the selected features such as; analytical ability,
cooperativeness, dependability, self expression, judgement,
leadership & organizing capacity etc. Such as- for outstanding
A, B= very good, C= good, D= fair, E= poor and F= hopeless
or distinction, first, second & third division.
3. Paired comparison- appraiser compares each employee
with every other employee, one at a time. E.g.- there are 5
employyes named A B C D & E. The performance of A is first
compared with B and decision is made about whose
performance is better. Then A is compared with C D & E in
that order. Same procedure is repeated to other employees.
After the completion of comparision, the results can be
tabulated and a rank is created from the number of times each
person is considered to be superior.

Absolute standard
1. Essay appraisal- the appraiser describes the
performance, traits, behavior and potentiality of the employee
on the job in a essay form.
2. Checklist- a checklist of statements on the traits of the
employees and their job is prepared in 2 columns that is yes
& no. The supervisor tick these yes & no column
according to their performance on given statement and forward
the list to HR department where actual evaluation is done by
alloting certain point to each yes.
3. Forced choice- developed form of checklist, where
two or more statement is provided to raters and raters has to
identify which statement is most descriptive of the individuals
being evaluated. The actual assessment is done by HR
 department. The main advantage of this method is that it
reduces biasness because rater doesnt know the right answer.
4. Critical incident- this approach focuses on certain
critical behavior of an employee that makes all the differences
between effective and non effective performance on the job.
Supervisor directly observes & records examples of behavior
under the categories that indicate effective or ineffective
performance frequently through out the year. This procedure
can provide a sound basis for feedback to the individual so it is
useful for devlopmental purpose. The danger is taht it may give
the employees the impression that everything they do will be
recorded which may harass them.

5. Graphic rating scale- this system consists of several

numerical scales each representing a job related performance
criteria such as- dependability, initiative, output, attendence,
attitude, cooperation etc. Each scale ranges from excellent to
poor. The rater checks the appropriate performance level on
each criteria and computes the employees total numerical score.
6. Behaviourally anchored rating scales (BARS)

Management by objective
MBO is a process that converts organizational objectives in to
individual objectives.
Steps of MBO
- Goal setting- generally supervisor & subordinates work together to
establish goals.
- Action planning- means are determined to achieve ends.This step
includes identifying the activities necessary to accomplish the
objectives, establishing the relationship between these activities,
estimating time requirement and determining the resources required to
complete each task.
- Self control- subordinate themselves systematically monitor, measure
and review their own performance.
- Periodic review- the actual level of goal attainment is compared with
the goals agreed upon. The evaluator explores reasons for goal that
were not met and for the goals that were exceeded. Necessary
corrective actions are taken. These reviews should take place at least
two to three times a year.
 Factors that can distort appraisals
Leniency error- every evaluator has his or her own value system which
acts as a standard against which appraisals are made. Some evaluator
mark high and others low. Positive leniency error and negative leniency
error. If all individuals in an organization are appraised by the
same person there will be no problem.
Halo error- tendency to rate high or low on all factors due to the
impression of high or low rating on some specific factor.
Similarity error- when evaluator rate other people in the same way that
the evaluators perceive themseves, then they are making similarity
error.
Low appraiser motivation- what are the consequenses of appraisa?
Employee can be rewarde, not rewarded, punished , if evaluator knows, may
not give the realistic appraisal.
Central tendency- reluctance to make extreme ratings in either
direction; the inability to distinguish between and among ratees; a form
of range restriction. Central tendency error prone rater rates all
employees as average.
Inappropriate substitutes for performance- in many jobs it is difficult to
get consensus on what is a good job, and it is even more difficult to get
agreement on what criteria will determine performance. As a result
appraisal is frequently made by using substitutes for performance;
criteria that, it is hoped, closely approximate performance and act in its
place.

Suggestions for improved performance appraisal: i) behaviorally based

measures ii) combine relative and absolute standard iii) ongoing
feedback iv) multiple raters v) selective rating, trained appraisers, peer
evaluations, post appraisal interview, rewards to accurate appraisers.

Who should do the appraising?

1. The immidiate supervisor
2. Peer appraisals
3. Rating committees
4. Self ratings
5. Appraised by subordinates
6. 360 degree feedback- ratings are collected all around
an employees, from supervisors, subordinates, peers and
internal & external customers- a complete survey on individuals
 Unit- 10 (Ten)
COMPENSATION ADMINISTRATION
Compensation refers to all forms of financial returns, tangible service,
and benefits employees receive as part of an employee
relationship. -Milkovich
Designing pay structure that will attract, retain and motivate the
competent employees and which is perceived as fair by the employees,
by considering the paying capacity of the organization is compensation
management.

Purpose:
Establish fair & equitable pay system
Attract & retain competent human resources
Improve motivation & morale of employees
Improve image of the organization as a fair pay employer
Comply with legal framework related to compensation
Compensation administration

Determinants of compensation policy

1. Legal framework 2. Union pressure
3. Organizations compensation policies 4. Equity
considerations
5. Job evaluation 6. Competition
7. Productivity

Establishing pay plans

Pay plan is concerned with assigning a monetary value to each job in
the organization.
Steps :
1. Job analysis- process of describing the duties of a job,
authority relationship, skills required, conditions of work and
additinal relevant informations.
2. Jobevaluation- systematically determining the value of
each job in relation to all jobs within the organization. JE seeks
to rank all the jobs in the organization & place them in a
hierarchy that will reflect the relative worth of each job.
3. Wage & salary survey- published surveys, consultant &
agencies, advertisement, informal communication.
 4. Compensation structure- ranking, market rates for
similar job, creation of job grades

Difference between job evaluation & performance evaluation

Job evaluation
i) The job is rated keeping in view such factors as responsibilities,
experience, qualifications, skills, working conditions etc required for
performance of the job.
ii) Job is rated before employee is appointed
iii) Purpose is to establish satisfactory wage differentials
iv) Not compulsory
v) JE comittee & experts does JE

Performance evaluation
i) Employee is rated on the basis of performance.
ii) Performance evaluation takes place after the employees has been
hired & placed on the job.
iii) Purpose is to reward, award, punish, assess training need
iv) Compulsory & done regularly
v) Performance evaluation is done by peers, employee themselves,
supervisors, group of people or combination of these.

Methods of job evaluation

1. Ranking method- worth of each job is assessed on the basis of its
importance & content than compared with each other & rank of each
job is determined.
2. Grading method- at first,the number of grade is decided; second,
factors corresponding to these grades are developed; third, basic
information about job are collected through job analysis; fourth, after
analyzing these informations jobs are matched with the grades. The
degree of skill, responsibility and other job characteristics are taken in
to consideration while forming the job grade.
3. Factor compariion method-
i) Selection of key factors
ii) Key factors may be- mental requirements, skills, physical efforts, job
conditions etc.
iii) These factors are assumed to be constant for all jobs.
iv) All the jobs are compared one- by- one with the key factors
v) The worth of the job is obtained by adding together all the point
value.
 vi) It uses pay rate for each compensable factors.
vii) Methods of job evaluation
4. Point method- evaluates the compensable factors. Uses points instead
of pay rates according to the level/ degree of compensable factors.
i) Compensable factors are determined- responsibilities, skills, efforts,
job conditions etc. Each factor is further subdivided in to sub factors.
ii) Determine the level of factors- several levels are created for each
factor.
iii) Allocate points to sub factors and levels
iv) Apply the point system matrix.

Unit- 11 (Eleven)
INDIECT FINANCIAL COMPENSATION
Benefits are membership based rewards offered to all employees
regardless of performance.
It should not be expected to motivate employees.
Absence of adequate benefit can contribute to employee dissatisfaction
and increased absenteeism and turnover.
Benefits: Something for everybody

Types of benefits
1. Legally required benefits: certain benefits must be
supplied by the organizations for its employees, regardless of
whether it wants to or not. Such as social
securities,unemployment compensation, workers
compensation, disability
2. Voluntary benefits: rest period, holidays-dashain, tihar, vaccations-paid
leave, sick leave, leave of absence- 14 days, pension & gratuity
progarmmes, insurance, study leaves etc.

SERVICES
Those facilities which is provided by the organization at no cost to the
employee or a significant reduction from what might have to be paid
without the organizations support. Such as- company sponsored
events, counselling, cultural activities, credit unions, housing, free
tea/coffee, discount, company picnic, educational assistance etc.

Trends in benefits & services:

 Cafeteria style of benefits: the cafeteria approach allows employees
to pick and choose those benefits that are desirable. Core benefits are
provided to all employees, remainder of the money to be spent on
benefits left to the decision of each employee.

INCENTIVES
Monetary benefits paid to employees for outstanding performance.
Given in addition to wage & salary
Variable pay linked to performance
Types of incentives
1. Individual incentives: reward linked with the
individual performance. Individual incentive plans are:
a) Piece rate- compensation is based on number of units produced. Used
for production worker.
b) Commissions- based on sales performance in terms of value. Used for
sales personnel.
c) Bonus- one-time lumpsum payments for meeting performance goal.
Used for managerial & professional employees.
2. Group incentives- reward linked to the combined performance. Where
task are interdependent and requires team work and the output of
individual employee canot be measured such incentive is provided.
Bonus, commission, piece rate.
3. Organizational incentives- reward linked with the
overall performance of the organization.
a) Scanlon plan- it is based on the ratio of labor cost to productivity. All
employees are entitled to a share of saving in labor cost through bonus
payments (productivity gain sharing).
b) Suggestion plan- reward for useful ideas for improvement of
organizational effectiveness from the employees.
c) Employee shares some portion of profit.

Unit-12 (Twelve)
HEALTH AND SAFETY
The life of industrial workers is full of risks and hazards. Every year
thousands of workers are injured in factories and mines. The injuries
may be caused as a result of any unsafe activity, or as a result of some
unsafe work conditions or unsafe acts of employees themselves, or
defective plant or shop lay out, inadequate ventilation, unsafe and
 insufficient lighting arrangements, or insufficient space for movement
inside the plant. One of the important consequences of all this is
increased dangers to human life. Partial disablement, total disablement,
death.
Safety means freedom from the occurrence or risk of injury or loss.
Industrial safety or employee safety refers to the protection of workers
from the danger of industrial accidents.
Accident is an unplanned and uncontrolled event in which an action
and reaction of an object, a substance, a person, or a radiation results in
personal injury.
Causes of accidents:
Human causes- carelessness, daydreaming, intoxication, inability to do
the job, or other human deficiency etc.
Environmental causes tools, equipment, physical plant & general
work environment.
Among both these sources, the human factor is more responsible for the vast majority
of accidents.
Accident prevention measures include:
Education
Skill training
Engineering
Protection
Regulation enforcement as

Health- a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.- WHO
Industrial health refers to a system of public health and preventive
medicine which is applicable to industrial concerns.
Industrial health is: i) the prevention and maintenance of physical,
mental & social well being of workers in all occupations, ii) prevention
among workers of ill health caused by the working conditions, iii)
protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from
factors adverse to health and iv) placing and maintenance of the worker
in an occupational environment adapted to their physical &
psychological equipment.
The basic objective of industrial health is the prevention of disease and
injury rather than the cure of disease.

Unit-13 (Thirteen)
 LABOUR RELATIONS
Labor relations are the complex of interrelations among workers,
managers and government.
Employees, employers, their respective associations, government and
judiciary are the parties which have stakes in labour relations.
Employees perceives LR as a method to improve their conditions of
employment, to voice any grievances, to exchange views and ideas with
management and to share in decision making.
Trade unions look to LR in order to secure improved terms and
conditions of employment and to obtain improved status for the
workers in their work.
Employers have economic power in their hands and use it to affect
workers destiny. They understand LR as a means to motivate workers
and to sustain their commitment to work.
The role of employers association is relevant in as much as they
represent employers in collective bargaining and develop machinery for
avoidance or settlement of disputes.
The government seeks to protect the interest of both employers as well
as employees. Constitute wage boards, labour courts, tribunals, and
enacted a series of labour acts and policies.
The judiciary is relevant as it has the authority to settle any dispute and
to review any legislation, particularly when it is against the
constitutional provisions.

Industrial dispute
Industrial dispute mainly relate to the strife between employers and
employee.
Industrial disputes mean any dispute or differences between employers
and employers, or between employers and workmen, or between
workmen and workmen, which is connected with the employment or
non-employment or terms of employment or with the conditions of
labour of any person.- Industrial Dispute Acts, 1947, India

Methods of settlement
1. Collective bargaining- representative of employee and management sit
together and negotiate to settle the dispute. The collective bargaining
process consists the following steps: i) organizing & certification, ii)
 preparation for negotiation iii) negotiation iv) ratification v) contract
administration.
2. Conciliation- a process by which representative of workers and
employers are brought together infront of third party, conciliator, with
a view to persuading them to arrive at an agreement by mutual
discussion between them. The third party may be an individual or
group of people. Conciliator works as facilitator only, does not impose
its views or decisions .
3. Mediation-where third party plays more active role and suggests various
proposals for settlement ofdispute but parties involved in the disputes
are free to accept or reject such proposals.
4. Arbitration- is a procedure in which a neutral third party studies the
bargaining situation, listens to both the parties and gather information
and then makes recommendations that are binding on the parties.
5. Adjudication- means a mandatory settlement of industrial dispute by a
labour court or tribunal.

Preventive measures:
1. Institution of labor welfare officer & labor welfare work
2. Works committees
3. Bipartite & tripartite bodies
4. Grievance procedures
5. Workers participation
6. Code of discipline, rules regulations etc.
7. Collective bargaining

Discipline
Discipline- adherence to rules, regulations, procedures, and standard of
acceptable behavior in an organizational setting.
Disciplinary problems:
Attendance related- late for work, absenteeism, leaving work without
permission, habitual tardiness, abuse of leave etc.
Job behavior related- insubordination, failure to obey safety rules,
defective work, not reporting accidents, drunk, gambling, fighting on
the job, destruction of property etc.
Dishonesty related- theft, information falsification, punching time card
of others, concealing defective work etc.
Outside activities related- unauthorized strike, working for competing
firms, outside criminal activities, embrassing speeches, wage garnishing
etc.
 Disciplinary action:
i) Oral warning ii) written warning iii) suspension
iv) Pay cut v) demotion vi) dismissal

Grievances
Grievances are employees perception of unfair treatment on the job.
When employees complaint is brought to the notice of management, it
becomes a grievance.
Grievance is a written complaint filed by an employee claiming unfair
treatment.
Causes of grievances
1. Interpretation differences
2. Management practices
3. Labor union practices
4. Personality traits
5. Working conditions
Handling employee grievances
1. Open door policy- Employees are invited to walk in any
time and express their grievances to higher level management.
2. Legal compliance- Management takes legalistic view in
handling grievances. It follows the contract with employees and
union. Handles the grievances as specified in the contract.
3. Grievance procedure:
Grievant Supervisor (verbal complaint)
Grievant Department head (written complaint)
Grievant Grievance committee (appeal for review)
Grievant Top management ( appeal for review)
Voluntary arbitration ( referred for arbitration) decisions binding on all

Unit-14 (Fourteen)
INTERNATIONAL HRM
Due to the increasing trend of globalization, number of organizations
of many countries are operating in different countries. Liberalization
policy of developing countries has attracted many foreign direct
investment as well as many multinational companies. In these
companies people of many countries work together. Due to the
competition in the global market- internationally oriented management
practices have emerged and been adapted. IHRM is now of growing
 concern/importance for the companies that are operating or going to
operate with the trend of globalization.

The HRM issues and problems arising from the internationalization of

business, and the human resource strategies, policies and practices
which firms pursue in response to the internationalization process.

HR issues in international business:

1. Selection & appointment
Recruitment policy
- Ethnocentric: recruitment from parent country nationals
- Polycentric: from host countries nationals
- Geocentric: recruitment regardless of nationality
- Regiocentric: recruitment made on the basis of regional needs
2. Criteria for selection: some of the most important criteria are-
domestic employment record, technical & management expertise,
language proficiency, family support, previous international experience
& ability to operate independently.
3. Selection system
4. Preparation & training- what sort of special training do overseas
candidates need four step approaches
Level-1: training focuses on the impact of cultural differences & on raising
trainees awareness of such differences & their impact on business
outcomes.
Level-2: aims at getting participants to understand how attitudes are formed &
how they influence behavior
Level-3: training provides factual knowledge about the target country, while
Level-4: provides skill building in areas like language and adjustment and
adaptation skills.
Trends in expatriate training- first rather than providing only
predeparture cross-cultural training, more firms are providing
continuing, in-country cross-cultural training during the early stages of
an overseas assignment. Second, employers are using returning
managers as resources to cultivate the global mind-sets of their home
office staff. Third, there is also increased use of software & internet
for cross-cultural training.

5. Compensation- cost of living criteria, hardship allowances & others

 The balance sheet approach- to equalize purchasing power across
country. The basic idea is that each expatriate should enjoy the same
standard of living s/he would have at home.
Incentives
6. Performance evaluation-

7. Repatriation- this is the problem of returning home after success or

failure in the foreign assignment. If an organization fails to foresee the
problems of repatriation, it will bring another big problem on the part
of expatriates as well as the organization itself.

Five factors important in international assignee success & their

components:
1. Job knowledge & motivation- managerial ability,
organizational ability, imagination, creativity, administrative
skills, alertness, responsibility, industriousness, initiative &
energy, high motivation, frankness, belief in mission & job,
perseverance
2. Relational skills- respects, courtesy & fact, display of
respect, kindness, empathy, non-judgmental, integrity,
confidence
3. flexibility/ adaptability- resourcefulness, ability to
deal with stress, flexibility, emotional stability, willingness to
change, tolerance for ambiguity, adaptability, independence,
dependability, political sensitivity, positive self image
4. Extra-cultural openness- variety of out side interests,
interest in foreign culture, openness, knowledge of local
languages, outgoingness & extroversion, overseas experience
5. Family situation- adaptability of spouse and family,
spouses positive opinion, willingness of spouse to live abroad,
stable marriage
Source- Gary Dessler