Cancer Facts - Philippine Cancer Society

2015
PHILIPPINE CANCER
FACTS and ESTIMATES
Adriano V Laudico, MD
Maria Rica Mirasol-Lumague, MD
Victoria Medina
Cynthia A Mapua, MS
Francisco G Valenzuela
Eero Pukkala, PhD
PHILIPPINE CANCER SOCIETY- MANILA CANCER REGISTRY

DEPARTMENT of HEALTH - RIZAL CANCER REGISTRY
in cooperation with the
DEPARTMENT of HEALTH
DISEASE PREVENTION and CONTROL BUREAU
RIZAL MEDICAL CENTER
PHILIPPINE COUNCIL for

HEALTH RESEARCH and DEVELOPMENT
UNIVERSITY of the PHILIPPINES, MANILA
FINNISH CANCER REGISTRY
published in Manila, 2015 by the

Philippine Cancer Society
2015 Philippine Cancer Facts & Estimates Page 1 of 79

INTRODUCTION
The most essential information necessary to win a successful war against cancer
are incidence, mortality and survival. Cancer incidence and cancer mortality tell us the
number of new cases and deaths respectively, occurring in a specific population during a
particular time frame. Both incidence and mortality are usually expressed as the number
of cases per 100,000 population. Cancer survival rates tell us how long patients live
after being diagnosed, and is usually expressed as the proportion of patients still alive
after a period of time, usually 5 or 10 years, or as a ratio of the observed survival in the
patient population and the survival expected in the general population (relative survival).
Incidence data tells us if we are successful, or unsuccessful, in cancer

prevention. Incidence data is best derived from population-based cancer registratries.
In the WHO 2008-2013 ACTION PLAN for the Global Strategy for the Prevention and
Control of Non-Communicable Diseases, one of the indicators is the number of
countries with population-based cancer registries. This was reiterated in the WHO
GLOBAL ACTION PLAN for the Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases
2013-2030.
Survival data gives us an idea of the curability, or incurability, of specific types of

cancers, as well as the health systems performance in early detection and appropriate
treatment of certain curable cancers. Cancer mortality is a sum effect of incidence and
survival.
Cancer incidence, mortality and survival give the best information about the
general population when the data are population-based. Patient selection and
approaches to patient management vary considerably between hospitals. Therefore
hospital-based data should be applied to the general population with a great deal of
caution, or not at all. Hospital-based cancer incidence data are normally reported as
frequency distribution (proportions) and not as number of new cases per 100,000
populations.
For almost three and a half decades, two population-based cancer registries the
Philippine Cancer Society-Manila Cancer Registry (PCS-MCR) and the Department
of Health-Rizal Cancer Registry (DOH-RCR) have been the main source of cancer
incidence data in the Philippines. The populations covered are those of Metro Manila
and Rizal Province. Data from these two registries have been published by the
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in the series Cancer Incidence in
Five Continents (CI5) since Volume V (1978-1982) up to the latest Volume X (2003-
2007).
The Philippine Cancer Society has also published data from the two registries in
the series Cancer in the Philippines. Volume 5 Part 1 contains 2003-2007 incidence
trends, and Part 2 contains 1980-2007 incidence trends, in cooperation with the Finnish
Cancer Registry.

For the Philippine Cancer Facts and Estimates series, the calculation of
national cancer incidence and mortality estimates for the years 1988, 1993 and 1998.
The 2005 incidence and mortality estimates were calculated using GLOBOCAN 2000
Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Prevalence Worldwide Version 1.00 software, produced
by the Descriptive Epidemiology Group of the International Agency for Research on
Cancer (IARC). The 2010 incidence and mortality estimates were calculated using the
GLOBOCAN 2008 software version. The 2015 incidence and mortality estimates were
calculated using GLOBOCAN 2012 version. The statistical methods used for
GLOBOCAN 2008 are markedly different from those used in GLOBOCAN 2000 and
GLOBOCAN 2002, and GLOBOCAN 2008 also includes information not used in the
previous GLOBOCAN versions. For this 2015 Cancer Facts and Estimates, the 2008-
2012 raw registry data of Manila-Rizal population-based registry was used to extrapolate
estimates for 2015. Age-standardized incidence rates, age-standardized mortality
rates, cumulative incidence rates (%), and cumulative mortality rates (%) in 2012
are compared for the Philippines and other countries.
IARC-GLOBOCAN has greatly facilitated national estimation of cancer incidence

every 5 years and comparisons between countries. IARC also helps to develop and
sustain population-based cancer registries worldwide and has been assisting the two
Philippine registries from the very start. Population-based survival data of selected
leading cancer sites, derived from 2 cohorts of new cancer cases, one cohort consisting
of Metro Manila residents alone and a second cohort of Metro Manila and Rizal province
residents, and compared with selected ethnic groups in the United States (Filipino-
Americans and Caucasians), some African, Asian and Central American populations,
and a collection of European countries are described.
CANCER: BASIC DATA

What causes cancer?
Normally, the cells that make up the body reproduce themselves in an orderly
fashion and have specific life spans. Dead and worn-out tissues are replaced, injuries
are repaired and the body stays healthy. When exposed to some substances, like
certain chemicals and viruses, some susceptible cells undergo changes in their genes
called mutations. The substances that cause these genetic mutations are called
carcinogens. Examples of carcinogens, also called cancer initiating or promoting
substances, are numerous chemicals in cigarette smoke, viruses that cause chronic
infection of the liver and the uterine cervix, hormones such as estrogen, and ultraviolet
rays from the sun. These cellular genetic mutations if left unchecked will eventually
enable the cells to behave in a manner totally different from normal cells. They keep on
reproducing, live much longer, and can spread and reproduce in other parts of the body.
Cancer cells serve no useful purpose and when too numerous and widespread, they
cause serious damage and death.
Although carcinogens are capable of initiating cellular genetic mutations, the

body is also quite capable of repairing these mutations. When the mutations are so
extensive that repair is no longer possible, the body can get rid of these rogue cells. If

the rogue cells cannot be killed, the body is often successful in keeping them at bay.
These defence mechanisms are also referred to as cancer protecting mechanisms.
These mechanisms are in peak fighting form in any healthy person. The major
promoters of health are healthy diet, physical fitness and possibly less stress.
Lately, non-genetic factors that cause the genes to express themselves

differently (epigenetic factors) have been recognized to also play important roles in the
initiation/promotion/protection of specific types of cancer and other diseases. Epigenetic
factors also respond to pressures in the external and internal environment.
The major factors involved in the causation of cancer,

as well as many other chronic degenerative diseases, are
CIGARETTE SMOKING, UNHEALTHY DIET, ALCOHOL DRINKING, PHYSICAL
INACTIVITY, OBESITY, HORMONES, VIRUSES, and IONISING RADIATION.
The numerous battles in the deadly war between cancer initiating/promoting

mechanisms and the bodys cancer protecting defences begin early in life, are
happening every day, and continue over many decades, until the body wins or loses.
The war is not lost overnight. It is usually a case of too much of cancer promoting
substances over too long a period of time, combined with not enough cancer protecting
mechanisms because of unhealthy lifestyles that eventually defeat the body.
A few individuals have an inherited predisposition to develop specific cancers,

such as breast cancer and colon cancer, or to cancer in general, but for these persons
cancer is not inevitable. If they avoid the cancer promoting substances, and strengthen
their defences by maintaining healthy lifestyles from childhood, they will win.
Table 1. Estimated New Cancer Cases

in 2012 by Age -Groups, All sites, Table 2. Estimated New Cancer Deaths
Philippines (GLOBOCAN 2012) in 2012 by Age -Groups, All sites,
Philippines (GLOBOCAN 2012)
Age - Males Females
Age - Males Females
Group Rate No. of Rate No. of
Group Rate per No. of Rate No. of
per Cases per Cases
100,000 Cases per Cases
100,000 100,000
100,000
0-14 7.3 1,257 5.6 916
0-14 4.5 776 3.4 554
15-39 23.7 4,838 55.1 10,940
15-39 12.0 2,455 15.7 3,118
40-44 89.0 2,298 211.4 5,546
40-44 48.7 1,258 70.0 1,836
45-49 155.5 3,492 282.3 6,533 45-49 87.4 1,963 108.5 2,512
50-54 276.7 5,223 349.1 6,948 50-54 156.2 2,948 155.0 3,086
55-59 429.5 6,609 397.3 6,711 55-59 267.5 4,117 205.9 3,479
60-64 593.1 6,278 461.8 5,555 60-64 418.3 4,428 269.0 3,236
65-69 767.1 5,169 531.3 4,364 65-69 582.1 3,922 359.6 2,954
70-74 895.9 3,934 590.5 3,549 70-74 820.1 3,601 491.0 2,951
75+ 925.5 3,960 606.9 4,129 75+ 1,211.3 5,183 681.3 4,635
All Ages 139.9 43,058 143.4 55,191 All Ages 107.4 30,651 78.6 28,361

As a general rule, the incidence of cancer increases with increasing age. Table 1
above shows that in 2012, Childhood Cancer (0-14 years) comprised only 2.2% of all
cancer cases, and that 25% of the cases that occurred among persons 65 years and
older. Table 2 shows that the mortality rates and number of deaths also significantly
increased with increasing age, with mortality rates and number of deaths lowest among
children and highest among those 65 years and older.
In 2012, 13 out of 100 males and 14 out of 100 females in the Philippines
would have had some form of cancer if they would have lived up to age 75.
Eleven out of 100 males and 7 out of 100 females
would have died from cancer before age 75.
Can cancer be prevented?
At least 1/3 of all cancers can be prevented.

Cancer protecting mechanisms prevent cancer. A healthy lifestyle that is
started in childhood, particularly eating a HEALTHY DIET, maintaining PHYSICAL
FITNESS and MINIMIZING/ PROPERLY COPING with STRESS may decrease the risk
of cancer, coronary artery disease, hypertension, stroke and diabetes.
A healthy diet is low in animal fat, rich in starchy foods (such as cereals, tubers
and pulses), with substantial fruits and vegetables. The micronutrients found in fruits
and vegetables, such as vitamins, minerals and trace elements, are essential in
maintaining the defence mechanisms that protect the body. An unhealthy diet is rich in
fat, salt and free sugars, and/or in smoked, salt-pickled/-preserved foods.
Physical fitness is achieved through a lifelong active lifestyle. Physically fit

individuals are not overweight, quite productive, with high self-esteem, and successful in
coping with stress. Formally planned exercise as well as usual walking, stair climbing,
and myriad manual activities regularly performed result in physical fitness.
Increasing mental, social, psychological and spiritual stress seems to

accompany economic progress, and at the same time coping mechanisms are eroded.
While increasing stress may be inevitable, traditional support structures within the family
and community ought to be strengthened, and new institutional mechanisms
established, to help individuals and families cope with day to day stress.
Cancer promoting agents should be avoided. Cigarette smoke is the most

pervasive cancer causing substance. The numerous carcinogenic agents found in
cigarette smoke cause cancers of the lung, mouth, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, other
cancers, and other acute and chronic diseases. The damage is not inflicted on the
smoker alone but on everyone who inhales cigarette smoke (second hand smoke
[SHS] or passive smoking).
High alcohol consumption also increases the risk of many cancers. Betel-
quid chewing causes cancer of the mouth and this habit should be avoided.

Some viral infections of the liver can result to chronic active hepatitis which can
then lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is the most common
cause of liver cancer in the Philippines. HBV vaccination should prevent majority of
liver cancer in the country.
Human papilloma virus (HPV) causes cancer of the uterine cervix and is
transmitted through sexual intercourse. Safe sex, including the use of barrier
protective devices such as condoms, is currently the most effective means of
preventing sexually transmitted diseases. HPV vaccines are available.
Ultraviolet rays from the sun are capable of causing skin cancer, particularly in
fair-skinned persons. Excessive sun exposure should be avoided, and the use of
umbrellas, wide-brimmed hats and sun-bloc preparations ought to be encouraged.
Many cancers of the

LUNG, LIVER, CERVIX, ORAL CAVITY, STOMACH, COLON/RECTUM,
LARYNX and SKIN MELANOMA,
which comprise 42% of all cancers in both sexes, can be prevented.
Can cancer be cured?
At least 1/3 of all cancers can be cured.
Majority of cancers can be cured if they are detected early. However at present,
not all cancers can be detected early enough to be cured. At least a third of all cancers
can be cured when detected and treated early, and particularly when curative treatment
is available.
Surgery is currently the most effective and widely accessible form of treatment
for majority of cancers that can be cured if detected early. Radiotherapy can cure small
cancerous growths such as cancer of the mouth and larynx. Chemotherapy alone can
cure certain types of cancer such as acute lymphocytic leukemia in children, testicular
cancer, and choriocarcinoma of the uterus. In some instances radiotherapy, hormone
therapy and/or chemotherapy can be added to surgery as adjuvant treatment and will
improve curability.
These common cancers can be detected early and when treated properly can be
cured - BREAST, CERVIX, COLON, RECTUM, ORAL, THYROID, PROSTATE. These
comprise 42% of all cancers, 27% of cancers in males, and 58% of cancers among
females.
What about cancers that can neither be prevented nor detected early?
All cancer patients with distressful symptoms can have adequate palliative care
that can result in an acceptable quality of life.
Palliative care is the active total care of patients

whose disease is not responsive to curative treatment.
Control of pain, and of psychological, social and spiritual problems are
paramount. The goal of palliative care is the achievement of
the best quality of life for patients and their families.
Many aspects of palliative care are also applicable earlier in the course of the
illness, in conjunction with anticancer treatment, and to relieve symptoms caused by
anticancer treatment. Palliative care affirms life and regards dying as a normal process
that neither hastens nor postpones death, provides relief from pain and other distressing
symptoms, integrates the psychological and spiritual aspects of patient care, offers a
support system to help patients live as actively as possible until death, and offers a
support system to help the family cope during the patients illness and in their own
bereavement.
Freedom from cancer pain is essential to palliative care. Every year, 6 million
people worldwide and at least 200,000 Filipinos suffer from cancer pain, majority of
which are not satisfactorily relieved in spite of the availability of well-established, simple
and cost-effective methods for cancer pain relief. The WHO method of cancer pain relief
is very effective, simple and inexpensive. When used properly, the method is capable of
relieving cancer pain in at least 90% of cases. This is based on the use of drugs which
can be administered by mouth, and by the clock rather than on demand. The drugs are
increased from non-opioids to mild opioids, and then to strong opioids (3-step analgesic
ladder) to keep the patient continuously pain-free.
By using oral medications, the focus of treatment shifts from the hospital to the
home. The patient can return to a meaningful and productive life. Large numbers of
patients with incurable cancer, mostly in progressive minded developed countries in
Europe and North America are currently back at work, their pain relieved by strong
opioids taken by mouth, by the clock, at the right dose. The right drug in the right
dose and route given at the right time will relieve cancer pain.
Opioids do not cause addiction among patients treated for cancer pain.
Strong opioids should not be withheld until the patient is dying.
The prescription of strong opiods does not mean that death is near.
An acceptable quality of life does not only involve cancer pain relief. There are
other symptoms which should be relieved, as well as psychological, social and spiritual
problems which are to be attended to. The FAMILY is the unit of care in palliative
medicine, and the HOME is the ideal location of palliative care.
CANCER SITUATION and CONTROL in the PHILIPPINES

Prevention
In 2003-2004, smoking prevalence had decreased to 56% and 12% among

males and females respectively, from 64% and 19% in 1989. Per capita consumption of
cigarettes had increased from 1,990 in the 1970s to 2,160 in the 1980s, and then
decreased to 1,462 in 1995. Around 95% of the population could have been exposed to
second hand smoke (SHS) in 1999. The first Philippine Global Adult Tobacco Survey
(GATS 2009) showed that although more than 90% were aware that smoking causes
serious illness, 28% were current tobacco smokers (48% among men and 9% among
women), and 49% were exposed to cigarette smoke in their homes. There is still a huge
need for a strong and sustained campaign for a total ban on all forms of tobacco

advertising and sponsorships, prohibition of sales to minors, and prevention of SHS
exposure everywhere, including homes. Graphic health warnings ought to be placed in
tobacco products. An increase in the taxes on cigarettes will be very helpful.
Another important indicator required in the WHO NCD Action Plans is the
number of countries with reliable standardized data on the major non-communicable
disease risk factors (WHO STEPS Surveillance Manual). The Philippine Food and
Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI) of the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST) has been using this WHO Method of NCD risk factors surveillance in its National
Nutrition and Health Surveys (NNHeS).
There had been a steady decline in the consumption of fruits and vegetables.
The 8th National Nutrition and Health Survey (NNHeS 2013) reported that overweight/
obesity had increased from 26.6% in 2008 to 68% (BMI > 30.0) in 2013. The prevalence
among adults of hypertension increased from 22% in 1993 to 25.3% in 2008. Prevalence
of high fasting blood sugar among adults also increased, from 3.9% in 1998 to 4.8% in
2008. Dyslipidemia had significantly increased from 2003-2008.
In Luzon Island, physical inactivity was observed in 57% of adults aged 20-65
years. A 2001 national survey reported that regular drinking (consumption of alcoholic
beverages 4 days per week) was observed in 13% and 6% of males and females
respectively. Per capita alcohol consumption increased by more than 50% from 1970-
1972 to 1994-1996.
HBV vaccines have been available in the country since 1984. The Department
of Health had included HBV vaccination as part of the Expanded Program of
Immunization (EPI) in 1992. The 2008 NNHeS reported that 85% of children 0-48
months had received HBV vaccination. Meanwhile, in the private sector, HBV
vaccination had been widely promoted and accepted by families that can afford it,
starting in the 1980s.
Two types of HPV vaccines were introduced in 2006. The Department of Health,
alarmed by the rapid rise in new cases of HIV/AIDS, promoted the practice of safe sex
including the use of condoms. The Catholic Church, as it had consistently done for
decades, is vigorously opposing condom use, claiming that condom use is a sin and
would lead to sexual promiscuity.
The traffic mess in Metro Manila and other urban centers illustrate a very
unhealthy situation wherein everyday millions live in an environment that is conducive to
cancer and a host of other diseases. Vehicular emissions loaded with harmful
chemicals, notably from trucks, buses, jeepneys and tricycles, in addition to cigarette
smoke, pervade the air..
In order to PROMOTE HEALTH AND PREVENT CANCER

and OTHER MAJOR DISEASES successfully,
an INTEGRATED and COMPREHENSIVE EFFORT that is doable and sustainable
must be undertaken simultaneously by all sectors of society.

Early Detection and Prompt Treatment
In the Philippines, in spite of nearly two decades of Awareness Campaigns

conducted by the public and private sectors, such as those on breast, cervix and
colorectal cancers, majority of these cancers are still not diagnosed and treated at an
earlier, more curable stage. Early detection or screening for cancer has not been
implemented on a nationwide scale by the government.
The reality is that more than 80% of Philippine families cannot afford out-of-
pocket expenses needed for basic medical care. The 2005-2007 preliminary estimates
of the Philippine National Health Accounts (PNHA) released by the National Statistical
Coordination Board (NSCB) revealed that the total expenditure as a percentage of GDP
decreased from 3.4% in 2005 to 3.2% in 2007. Private out-of-pocket expenditure in 2007
was 54.3% of total health expenditure, with government contributing 13.0% and local
government units (LGUs) contributing 13.3%. The share of Social Insurance was 8.5%,
down from 9.8% in 2005. The main national health insurance provider, PhilHealth, in
cooperation with local government units, has been steadily increasing the enrolment of
indigent families, and aiming to insure a large portion of indigent families and the self-
employed, particularly starting but slow during the immediate past year or so with the
advent of the Universal Health Law and Sin Tax Law.
It may be that most Filipino women may in fact be already aware that breast
cancer is curable when detected and treated early. Recent evidence indicate that
majority of women with detected breast lumps will indeed have the mass biopsied if they
were assured that the treatment will be free. It is not only the direct costs of treatment
that will have to be considered. Indirect, but equally important, socioeconomic factors will
have to be considered, such as transportation costs, care for the children and household
while the mother is in hospital, perception and attitudes of the husband, and attitudes
about perceived other mandatory treatment such as chemotherapy. Institutional factors
may pose additional barriers, such as long queues and waiting times, unnecessary tests,
and bureaucratic regulations and procedures.
Contrary to the continuing misperception that most Filipinos lack awareness that
certain common cancers are curable when detected and treated early, it could be that
due to socio-economic realities, majority actually have no choice.
Palliative Care
In September 1991, the Philippine Cancer Society Inc. started its Patient
Outreach Services, the first palliative care program in the Philippines. The 2007
Directory of the Asia Hospice Palliative Care Network shows that there are 35 registered
Philippine facilities, 18 located outside of Metro Manila.
In the Philippines the prescription of morphine and other strong opioids are
regulated and relatively few physicians would seek to be licensed to prescribe opioids
thus constitute the major barriers to the effective treatment of severe pain either caused
by cancer, following major operations, or many other very painful conditions. More
Filipino Physicians must come forward equipping themselves to treat cancer pain armed
with the necessary tools to do so but compliant also to government regulations.
PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
Philippine Cancer Control Program
The DOH institutionalized the Philippine Cancer Control Program way back in
1990 looking at epidemiology to public information to early detection to training,
treatment and pain relief, focusing on breast, cervix, and lung cancers. This early 2016,
an AO was done revisiting the AO in 1990, adding the creation of a National Cancer
Control Committee once more focusing on similar goals. Specific Objectives:
Operationalize the National Cancer Registry and Surveillance System; Reduce
mortality and improve overall survival and quality of life of people with various cancer
types through early diagnosis and prompt treatment; Reduce the incidence of
prioritized cancers associated with the most common avoidable risk factors;
Ensure that prioritized cancer control services are provided in an equitable and
sustainable way at all levels of care; Increase and expand the coverage of cancer
treatment, including but not limited to the use of innovative drugs and psychosocial
support in the preventive, treatment, and survivorship stage of the patient and family, if
necessary; Set regulatory and accreditation standards for cancer institute/ center,
as an integral part of DOH and government hospitals including private hospitals as
applicable that follows a multi-disciplinary/ interdisciplinary team approach to
cancer management ; Develop and update regularly a compendium of guidelines or
standards for prioritized cancers including childhood cancers.
To this list, we add re-examine and improve the health financing systems for
cancer management
These are still just objectives and the key is to MAKE ALL that is WRITTEN TO
DO SINCE 1990 HAPPEN - beyond any changes in political administration- a rigorous
and passionate implementation sustainable over the years under good governance. On
the other hand a mere AO might not really do it (as so experience by the 1990 version),
so we strongly propose to make the AO into a LAW!!!
Cancer Registration
The DOH has identified the Philippine Cancer Society Manila Cancer
Registry (PCS-MCR) as its lead partner organization for population-based cancer
registration. Cancer incidence, mortality and survival data will be the basis for
formulating, implementing, monitoring and assessment of cancer control programs. The
DOH will promulgate directives to concerned agencies that will facilitate the operations
of cancer registries in selected areas in the country, particularly that of a uniform
mandatory reporting system. There will be linkage with the National Statistics Office,
such as access to death certificates which are essential to the determination of cancer

survival. The DOH will also provide financial assistance to the PCS-MCR and actively
relate with existing and potential benefactors of other cancer registries.
Healthy Lifestyle
The DOH has an Integrated Program for the prevention of Non-Communicable

Diseases, promoting a healthy lifestyle and integrating this at the community level with
the local government units (LGUs), and professional and civic organizations. This will
continue to focus on 1) avoidance of cigarette smoking and exposure to second hand
smoke; 2) a healthy diet and avoidance of overweight/obesity; 3) increased physical
activity; and, 4) avoidance of excessive alcohol consumption.
Control of Tobacco
The Tobacco Regulation Act was realized in 2003 augmented by the Consumers
Act of the Philippines regulating smoking in public places, sales to minors, packaging
and labelling , advertising, promotion and sponsorships. There has been strong lobby
against the implementation of the Law up to this time.
Cervical Cancer Screening
The Establishment of a Cervical Cancer Screening Program was ordered by the

government (DOH) in 2005, but this has yet to be implemented adequately.
Hepatitis B Infection Control
The control of hepatitis b infection stated in 1990 including this in the expanded
program on immunization, followed by the Mandatory Infants & Children Health
Immunization Act in 2011 including Hep B vaccine free to infants within 24 hrs of birth.
Evaluation of the implementation of the Hep B Birth Dose within 24 hours of birth
noted <50% coverage with more health facilities giving the dose beyond 24 hours, so
mainly practice by private hospitals. The target goal of <2% sero-prevalence among
infants in 2012 was not reached.
Universal Health Care Act, 2013
To improve health care and health care funding in the country, the Universal
Health Care Act was legislated in 2013 and ensures that all Filipinos, especially the
poorest of the poor, will get health insurance coverage from the Philippine Health
Insurance Corp. (PhilHealth), Mandates a national health insurance program (NHIP)
as the means for the healthy to help pay for the care of the sick and for those who can
afford medical care to subsidize those who cannot, and is Compulsory in all provinces,
cities and municipalities, notwithstanding the existing health insurance programs of local
government units.
The funds for this would come from the 2012 Sin Tax Law, which significantly
increased the prices of cigarettes and liquor in the country.

To make the Universal Health Care Act work, in 2014 the DOH through the
Philippine National Center for Disease Prevention & Control-Degenerative Disease
Office has developed . clinical pathway guidelines for selected non-communicable
diseases (NCDs) and Craft service packages for NCDs identified in three major
program clusters, which include Cancer (Breast, Cervical, Prostate, Colorectal). The
service packages include from preventive to curative to rehabilitative services at the
barangay to district to regional to specialty levels of care but this has yet to be realized.
Implementing the Philippine Medicines Policy
The DOH National Center for Pharmaceutical Access & Management (DOH
NCPAM) has been implementing the Philippine Medicines Policy in 2011 and started to
improve access to cancer drugs starting with Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia for
children and Breast Cancer for women.
The medicines access program started first in the four largest government
hospitals in Metro Manila. The project included a Patient Navigation System with the
Philippine Cancer Society, with patient navigators assisting patients move swiftly through
the formidable socioeconomic obstacles that are encountered daily by our less fortunate
citizens and which are the major barriers to early detection and treatment of breast
cancer. Initially hospital-based, evidence-based and community-oriented standard
protocols on the efficient diagnosis, preoperative work-up, primary treatment, adjuvant
treatment and surveillance of patients are set up. Institutional procedures will be
improved to avoid delays and strict monitoring of compliance will be implemented.
Nevertheless, a hospital-based program by itself is not expected to lead to a significant
increase in the proportion of cases detected with earlier stages. In order to truly promote
earlier detection and treatment, the project will have to be brought to the community
level, in cooperation with LGUs and civic organizations.
This Access Program serves as a gateway to the Philippine Health Insurance Z

Package for Cancer
The PhilHealth Z Benefits
The Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth) implemented its Case

Type Z Benefit Packages (Z Benefits) last 2012. The Z Benefits focus on providing
relevant financial risk protection against illnesses perceived as medically and
economically catastrophic especially affecting Filipinos belonging to the marginalized
sectors of society. There are currently Z packages for ALL, breast, cervix and prostate
cancers, at every early stage of implementation among a few pilot government hospitals.
Acceptance of the first Z package (breast cancer) was and still is having resistance
mainly due to its low peso amount; the Z packages on ALL, cervix cancer, and colorectal
cancer have not met as much resistance.
NCAPM and PHIC has been collaborating on improving access to health care,
and just recently started developing the national clinical practice guidelines for early
stage BrCa particularly concerned on the inclusion of aromatase inhibitors, trastuzumab,
and HER2neu testing based on economic feasibility within a low-middle resource
setting.
CANCER ESTIMATES in 2015, PHILIPPINES
Table 3 shows that in 2015, the predicted number of new cases will be about
109,280 new cases (both sexes), 48,138 among males and 61,142 among females.
There will be about 66,151 cancer deaths (both sexes), 34,391 in males and 31,760 in
females.
Table 3. Estimated New Cancer Cases & Deaths 2015 by Site & Sex, 2015
New Cases Deaths

Both Both
Cancer Sites Male Female Male Female
Sexes Sexes
Oral Cavity 1406 1247 2653 592 512 1104

Nasopharynx 1315 591 1906 671 302 973
Other pharynx 898 465 1363 744 409 1153
Esophagus 586 223 809 508 197 705
Stomach 1582 1133 2715 1344 957 2301
Colon/Rectum 5250 4375 9625 3040 2483 5523
Liver 6070 2579 8649 5874 2461 8335
Pancreas 936 959 1895 825 841 1666
Larynx 1251 324 1575 542 152 694
Lung 9995 3684 13679 8709 3066 11775
Skin Melanoma 175 155 330 81 71 152
Breast 20267 7384
Cervix Uteri 7289 3151
Corpus Uteri 2451 565
Ovary 2657 1610
Prostate 5526 2912
Testis 217 102
Bladder 761 348 1109 330 155 485
Kidney 710 406 1116 423 246 669
Brain/ Nervous System 1186 1017 2203 853 724 1577
Thyroid 824 2464 3288 305 673 978
Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma 1395 1160 2555 896 687 1583
Hodgkin's Disease 113 116 229 52 54 106
Multiple Myeloma 183 212 395 121 145 266
Leukemia 2166 2104 4270 1706 1680 3386
All Sites but skin 48138 61142 109280 34391 31760 66151
Table 4 shows the number of new cases (both sexes) per cancer site in 2015,
ranked according to decreasing number of new cases, and Figure 1 illustrates the top
10 leading sites (breast, lung, colon/rectum, liver, cervix uteri, prostate, leukemia,
thyroid, stomach, ovary). The 10 leading sites comprise 73% of all new cases.

Table 4. Estimated Leading New Cancer Cases, Both Sexes, 2015
Cancer Sites Number Percentage

Breast 20267 19
Lung 13679 13
Colon/Rectum 9625 9
Liver 8649 8
Cervix Uteri 7289 7
Prostate 5526 5
Leukemia 4270 4
Thyroid 3288 3
Stomach 2715 3
Ovary 2657 2
Oral Cavity 2653 2
Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma 2555 2
Corpus Uteri 2451 2
Brain/ Nervous System 2203 2
Nasopharynx 1906 2
Pancreas 1895 2
Larynx 1575 1
Other pharynx 1363 1
Kidney 1116 1
Bladder 1109 1
Esophagus 809 1
Skin Melanoma 330 1
Hodgkin's Disease 229 1
All Sites but skin 109280 100

Table 5 shows the number of new cases in 2015 among men per cancer site,
ranked according to decreasing number of new cases, and Figure 2 illustrates the top
10 leading sites. The 10 leading sites among men (lung, liver, prostate, colon/rectum,
leukemia, stomach, oral cavity, Non-Hodgkins lymphoma, nasopharynx, larynx)
comprise 77% of all new cases.
Table 5. Estimated Leading New Cancer Cases, Males, 2015
Cancer Sites Male Percentage

Lung 9995 21
Liver 6070 13
Prostate 5526 12
Colon/Rectum 5250 11
Leukemia 2166 5
Stomach 1582 3
Oral Cavity 1406 3
Nasopharynx 1315 3
Larynx 1251 3
Pancreas 936 2
Other pharynx 898 2
Thyroid 824 2
Bladder 761 2
Kidney 710 2
Esophagus 586 1
Testis 217 1
Hodgkin's Disease 113 1

Table 6 shows the number of new cases in 2015 among women per cancer
site, ranked according to decreasing number of new cases, and Figure 3 illustrates the
top 10 leading sites. The 10 leading sites among women (breast, cervix uteri,
colon/rectum, lung, ovary, liver, thyroid, corpus uteri, leukemia, oral cavity) comprise
79% of all new cases.
Table 6. Estimated Leading New Cancer Cases, Females, 2015
Cancer Sites Female Percentage
Breast 20267 33
Colon/Rectum 4375 7
Lung 3684 6
Ovary 2657 4
Liver 2579 4
Thyroid 2464 4
Corpus Uteri 2451 4
Leukemia 2104 3
Oral Cavity 1247 2
Stomach 1133 2
Pancreas 959 2
Nasopharynx 591 1
Other pharynx 465 1
Kidney 406 1
Bladder 348 1
Esophagus 223 1
Skin Melanoma 155 1
Table 7 shows the number of new deaths (both sexes) per cancer site in 2015,
ranked according to decreasing number of deaths with the 10 leading sites (lung, liver,
breast, colon/rectum, leukemia, cervix uteri, prostate, stomach, pancreas, ovary)
comprising 73% of all cases. Figure 1 show the number of new deaths associated with
the new cases of the top 10 cancer sites. The 2015 estimates were calculated using
the GLOBOCAN software version 2012.

Table 7. Estimated Leading New Cancer Deaths, Both Sexes, 2015
Cancer Sites Number Percentage
Lung 11775 18
Liver 8335 13
Breast 7384 11
Colon/Rectum 5523 8
Leukemia 3386 5
Cervix Uteri 3151 5
Prostate 2912 4
Stomach 2301 4
Pancreas 1666 3
Ovary 1610 2
Other Pharynx 1153 2
Oral Cavity 1104 2
Thyroid 978 2
Nasopharynx 973 2
Esopahgus 705 1
Larynx 694 1
Kidney 669 1
Corpus Uteri 565 1
Bladder 485 1
Table 8 shows the number of new deaths in 2015 among men per cancer site,
ranked according to decreasing number of deaths with the 10 leading sites (lung, liver,
colon/rectum, prostate, leukemia, stomach, Non-Hodgkins lymphoma, brain/nervous
system, pancreas, other pharynx) comprising 79% of all cases. Figure 2 shows the
number of new deaths associated with the new cases of the top 10 cancer sites.

Table 8. Estimated Leading New Cancer Deaths, Males, 2015
Cancer Sites Male Percentage

Lung 8709 25
Liver 5874 17
Colon/Rectum 3040 9
Prostate 2912 9
Leukemia 1706 5
Stomach 1344 4
Pancreas 825 2
Other Pharynx 744 2
Nasopharynx 671 2
Oral Cavity 592 2
Larynx 542 2
Esophagus 508 2
Kidney 423 1
Bladder 330 1
Thyroid 305 1
Table 9 shows the number of new deaths in 2015 among women per cancer
site, ranked according to decreasing number of deaths with the 10 leading sites
(breast, cervix uteri, lung, colon/rectum, liver, leukemia, ovary, stomach, pancreas,
brain/nervous system) comprising 77% of all cases. Figure 3 shows the number of new
deaths associated with the new cases of the top 10 cancer sites.

Table 9. Estimated Leading New Cancer Deaths, Females, 2015
Cancer Sites Female Percentage
Breast 7384 23
Lung 3066 10
Colon/Rectum 2483 8
Liver 2461 8
Leukemia 1680 5
Ovary 1610 5
Stomach 957 3
Pancreas 841 3
Thyroid 673 2
Corpus Uteri 565 2
Oral Cavity 512 2
Other pharynx 409 1
Nasopharynx 302 1
Kidney 246 1
Esophagus 197 1
Larynx 152 1
Skin Melanoma 71 1

Figures 1, 2 and 3 show that in some cancer sites, such as lung and liver, for which
there are no effective early detection methods, the number of deaths is very close to the number
of new cases. Thus, for these cancers efforts should focus on primary prevention. On the other
hand, in some cancer sites such as breast, cervix and colon/rectum the number of deaths is
much smaller than the number of new cases because these cancers can be detected and
treated early. Another way to present the ratio of the number of new cases to the number of new
deaths is using the incidence rate to mortality rate ratio which will be used in the succeeding
sections on specific cancer sites when comparing estimated Philippine rates to those estimated
for other countries/regions.
MAJOR CANCER SITES
Breast Cancer
Incidence, Mortality and Survival
Breast cancer is the leading site for both sexes combined (19%) in 2015 and ranks 1st
among women (33%). An estimated 20,267 new cases is estimated to occur among women.
The incidence rate starts rising steeply at age 30. The incidence rate has been steadily
rising since 1980, with an average annual percentage change of 1.2%.
Figure 4 shows that in Metro Manila, the significantly highest incidence rates of breast
cancer during 2003-2007 (ASR 64-79 per 100,000) were in the cities of Manila, Paranaque, San
Juan, Mandaluyong, Quezon City, Makati, and Pasig, wherein large scale housing development
had occurred starting in the 1950s. This had resulted in internal migration of middle and high-
income families from all over the country, and could have led to more rapid Westernization
including changes in reproductive behavior. Adjoining cities/municipalities which were not
included in this housing boom had lower breast cancer incidence. These adjoining areas had
breast cancer ASRs of 39-57 per 100,000 women.

Figure 4. Metro Manila and Rizal Province age-standardized incidence rates,
Breast cancer, females, 2003-2007.
In 2012, five (4.7) out of 100 women would have had a likelihood of getting breast
cancer before age 75. The estimated national age-standardized mortality rate was 17.8 per
100,000 women. One (1.7) out of 100 women would have died from breast cancer before age
75.
In 2015, there is an estimated 7,384 deaths from breast cancer, the 3rd leading cause
of cancer deaths among both sexes (11%), and the highest among women (23%).
Figure 5 shows that in 2012 the incidence/mortality ratio of breast cancer in the
Philippines was lower compared to developed countries/regions and some Asian countries,
around 5:1 in the United States, the European Union and in Israel, and around 3:1 in the
Philippines. In 2012, for every 5 new cases of breast cancer in these developing countries there
was one death due to breast cancer. In the Philippines, for every 3 new cases of breast cancer
there was one death due to breast cancer.

Using country-specific abridged life tables (Table 10), the 5-year relative survival
rates (RSR) among Metro Manila and Rizal Province residents with cancer diagnosed in the
mid 1990s (47%) were lower compared to those of China, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South
Korea, Thailand, Turkey and Costa Rica.
Table 10. 5-year relative survival (%), Breast cancer patients (cancer diagnosed in the
mid 1990s) in selected populations
MM + China India Saudi Singapore South Thailand Turkey Costa

Rizal Arabia Korea Rica
47 82 52 64 76 79 63 77 70
For breast cancers diagnosed between 1993-2002 and using population-specific life
tables (Table 10), the 5-year relative survival rate of Metro Manila residents (59%) was lower
compared to Filipino-Americans (90%) and Caucasians (88%) in the United States. For
breast cancers diagnosed between 1995-1999 and also using population-specific life tables,
survival of Metro Manila women (57%) was also lower compared to European women (79%)
in the Eurocare-4 study.
Risk Factors and Prevention
Estrogen increases risk of breast cancer. The more prolonged and sustained the
exposure of breast tissue to estrogen the higher the risk becomes. Women with early
menarche and/or late menopause, those who never had children, and those whose first
pregnancy occurred after age 30 years are at higher risk. As pregnancy and lactation
interrupts the continuous production of estrogen, women who have had children and
particularly those who breast-fed have a lower risk. The risk of Filipino women who have
never been pregnant is 5 times that of women with 5 pregnancies. Those whose age at first

birth was 30 years had a 3.3 times higher risk compared to women whose age at first birth
was <20 years. Women who went to college had almost twice the risk than those with
minimal education.
Removal of the ovaries before menopause also decreases the risk. Anti-estrogen
drugs such as tamoxifen may prevent breast cancer, particularly among women at high risk.
Contraceptive pills do not cause breast cancer. On the other hand, postmenopausal
Estrogen hormone replacement therapy (HRT) increases risk, especially when used
in combination with continuous progestin. Symptomatic postmenopausal women should be
informed of the potential risks and benefits of HRT.
Mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 tumor suppressor genes were present in 5% of

Filipino women with breast cancer, similar to what has been reported in other populations.
As economic development has consistently been associated with a fall in birth rates it is
expected that breast cancer incidence will continue to rise. Women in the Philippines, including
those who have a family history of breast cancer, should endeavor to lower their individual risk
by starting a healthy lifestyle early and maintaining it throughout life.
Warning Signals
Any breast lump, particularly among women 30 years and older, should be medically
attended to. Breast changes that persist such as a lump, thickening, swelling or dimpling are the
most common presentation. Breast cancer is generally painless.
Early Detection
Breast cancer, compared to other cancers, is relatively easier to detect because in most
cases breast masses are palpated by the patient herself. Monthly self-breast-examination
(SBE) and annual health worker-breast-examination (HWBE) remain the mainstays of early
detection particularly in developing nations. These should be a habit by the age of 30. All
suspicious masses should be biopsied, preferably using needle aspiration biopsy.
Needle aspiration biopsy is an accurate, safe and economical procedure that saves the
patient from an open biopsy operation. When hormone receptor assay is available, a core
needle biopsy (CNB) is preferable to a fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB). Specimens
obtained from a CNB are sufficient for hormone receptor assays which will give information that
is important to treatment options and decisions.
A screening procedure, mammography, may discover cancers that are too small to be
felt even by the most experienced examiner. It had been shown in High Income Countries that
mammographic screening, combined with physician breast examination, increased survival
among women 50 years and older. However, the WHO does not recommend mammography as
a population-screening method in developing countries because of the prohibitive cost.
Nevertheless, women 50 years and older are encouraged to undergo annual mammography on
their own.

In the Philippines, lack of awareness may not be the major reason why majority of breast
cancers are not diagnosed early. Inability of most patients to afford the direct and indirect costs
of diagnosis and treatment, as well as related socioeconomic impediments, may well be the
major barriers that have to be overcome. Current National Breast Cancer Awareness
campaigns which do not include the provision of diagnosis and treatment are outdated and
ineffective. The efforts should instead be directed at the local level, with each
province/city/municipality/district/barangay fashioning, implementing and monitoring their own
uniquely relevant schemes. These efforts will require the sustained involvement of local
government officials, insurance providers, NGOs and civic minded individuals and
organizations, health workers and medical specialty societies.
Treatment
Early breast cancer is curable. Early breast cancer is defined as that wherein the
primary lesion in the breast and the spread in the axillary lymph nodes can be completely
removed by surgery, and there is no indication that there could be spread beyond these
areas. In the Philippines, women with localized breast cancer diagnosed in 1987 had a 5-
year survival rate of 76%, and a 10-year survival rate of 57%. The usual curative operation
is called a modified radical mastectomy in which the entire breast is removed. For small
cancers, a breast conservation procedure can be performed wherein only the lesion and
axillary lymph nodes are removed followed by radiotherapy to the breast. This however
increases the cost and requires daily trips for treatment so that many eligible women opt for
mastectomy.
Community-based programs on early detection and treatment should be primarily

concerned with getting women with breast cancer to undergo mastectomy as early as possible.
Program planning, particularly concerning fiscal matters, accessibility and sustainability should
have mastectomy as the primary endpoint. Mastectomy can be performed throughout the
country. The 10-year survival of cases that did not have any spread to the axillary lymph nodes
and who underwent mastectomy alone is around 70% in developed countries where most cases
are detected and treated early.
The most important prognostic factor in early breast cancer is the presence or absence
of spread to the axillary lymph nodes. Spread to the lymph nodes significantly shortens
survival. Survival following primary treatment for early breast cancer has been shown to be
increased if adjuvant treatment is given, particularly if there is already spread to the axillary
lymph nodes. The most important information to consider in deciding what kind of adjuvant
treatment is most appropriate for a particular patient is the ER/PR-HER2neu status of the
tumor. In general, women with hormone receptor- positive cancers, comprising around 70% of
all cases, are treated with adjuvant hormonal therapy, and those with hormone receptor-
negative cancer are given adjuvant chemotherapy. Those with HE2neu positive tumors are
given anti-HER2neu biological agents such as trastuzumab.

Accurate hormone-HER2neu receptor assay for breast cancer should be encouraged
and developed nationwide.
Many women with advanced breast cancer can still survive for many comfortable and
productive years. Again, hormonal therapy for women with hormone receptor-positive cancer is
generally the first-line treatment and accompanied by judicious and cost-effective palliative
care.
Lung Cancer
Incidence, Mortality, Survival.
The incidence rates begin to rise at age 40 among males, and at age 45 among
females. Among males, incidence rates had slightly increased from 1980 to 2007, with an
annual change of 0.1%. In females, there had been an annual increase of 0.3%.
Figure 6 shows that in 2003-2007, the highest incidence rates among men occurred in
some cities of Metro Manila (ASR 58-63 per 100,000), while some municipalities in Rizal
province had incidence rates similar to the estimated 2012 national average (ASR 27.9 per
100,000). Figure 7 shows a similar incidence pattern among women although the rates were
lower compared to men. Highest incidence rates were also seen in some cities in Metro Manila
(ASR 15-17 per 100,000), while some municipalities in Rizal province had incidence rates
similar to the estimated 2012 national average (ASR 7.7 per 100,000).

Lung cancer, males, 2003-2007.

Lung cancer, females, 2003-2007.
In 2012, the estimated age-standardized national incidence rates were 20.4 per 100,000
in both sexes, 31.3 among males, and 9.5 among females in the Philippines. Three (3) out of
100 men and 1 out of 100 women would have had a likelihood of getting lung cancer before age
75. The estimated national standardized mortality rates were 18.1 per 100,000 in both sexes,
28.2 among males, and 8.0 among females.
Lung cancer was estimated to be the 2nd leading cancer site for both sexes combined
(13%) in 2015. It is the estimated leading site in males (21%) and the 4th leading site among
females (6%). An estimated 13,679 new cases in both sexes, 9,995 in males and 3,685 in
females. Death from lung cancer was estimated to be the leading cause of cancer deaths,
11,775 among both sexes, and 8,709 among males and 3,066 in females.
Figures 8 and 9 show that in 2012 in both sexes and in all countries/regions
represented, the incidence/mortality ratio of lung cancer was quite low, almost approaching a
ratio of 1:1. Many patients with lung cancer do not survive for a year following diagnosis.

As early detection and treatment is still difficult to achieve, even in High Income
Countries, survival remains poor. For lung cancers (both sexes) diagnosed between 1993-2002
and using population-specific life tables, the 5-year relative survival rate of Metro Manila
residents (12%) was slightly lower compared to Filipino-Americans (18%) and Caucasians
(17%) in the United States. For lung cancers (both sexes) diagnosed between 1995-1999 and
also using population-specific life tables, survival of Metro Manila residents (9%) was also
slightly lower compared to European residents (12%) in the Eurocare-4 study.
Cigarette smoking causes lung cancer. Non-smokers who are continuously exposed
to tobacco smoke, especially in enclosed spaces, also have a higher risk of lung cancer. The
best way to fight lung cancer is to stop smoking, and to prevent non-smokers from inhaling
tobacco smoke. The relative increase in the prevalence of smoking among women is
worrisome, as marketing of cigarettes has increasingly been targeting women.
Warning Signals
A persistent cough, blood streaked sputum, chest pain, recurrent episodes of pneumonia
or bronchitis, hoarseness, arm or shoulder pain, weakness and weight loss.
Early Detection
There is still no effective early detection method for lung cancer. As a consequence,
majority of patients with lung cancer are diagnosed at an incurable stage.
Treatment
For the occasional patient seen in an early stage, surgery is the preferred curative
treatment.
For the majority of cases, who are usually seen in an incurable stage, judicious and
cost-effective palliative care can offer an acceptable quality of life.
Liver Cancer
The incidence rates begin to rise at age 35 among males, and age 50 among females.
There was a slight decrease in incidence rates from 1980 to 2007, with an annual change of -
0.5% among males, and -0.5% among females.
Figure 10 shows that among males the highest incidence rate in 2003-2007 was in the
city of Manila (24.6) and no wide variations between most of the other cities/municipalities.
Figure 11 shows that among females the highest incidence rates were in the cities of Manila,
San Juan and Pasay (7.9-8.8), and also no wide variations between the other cities and
municipalities.

Liver cancer, males, 2003-2007.
Liver cancer, females, 2003-2007.

in both sexes, 17.1 among males, and 6.5 among females in the Philippines. Two (1.7) out of
100 men and one (0.6) out of 100 women would have had a likelihood of getting liver cancer
before age 75. The estimated national standardized mortality rates were 11.8 per 100,000 in
both sexes, 17.4 among males, and 6.3 among females. Two (1.7) out of 100 men, and one
(0.6) out of 100 women would have died from liver cancer before age 75.
Liver cancer was estimated to be the 4th leading site for both sexes combined (8%) in
2015. It ranked 2nd among males (13%) and 6th among females (4%). There was an estimated
8,649 new cases among both sexes, 6,070 cases among men and 2,579 cases among
women.In 2015, there was an estimated 8,335 deaths in both sexes, 5,874 in men and 2,461 in
women
For liver cancers (both sexes) diagnosed between 1993-2002 and using population-
specific life tables, the 5-year relative survival rate of Metro Manila residents (8.5%) was
slightly lower compared to Filipino-Americans (11.7%) and Caucasians (12.3%) in the United
States. For liver cancers (both sexes) diagnosed between 1995-1999 and also using population-
specific life tables, survival of Metro Manila residents (5.3%) was also lower compared to
European residents (9.1%) in the Eurocare-4 study.
.
Viral infections that cause chronic active hepatitis, such as Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C
viruses, are responsible for most cases of primary liver cancer in the Philippines. Hepatitis B
virus (HBV) infection is still the most prevalent. Infants and young children who get the infection
and become carriers are at highest risk of liver cancer. Other factors implicated are heavy
alcohol consumption, prolonged intake of foodstuffs containing large amounts of aflatoxin and
other chemical carcinogens.
Most liver cancer cases in the country can be prevented through HBV infant vaccination
and improved sanitation nationwide. The decrease in incidence by 2002 may be partly attributed
to increasing vaccination that started in the 1980s in both private and public sectors.
Warning Signs
Abdominal pain, weight loss, weakness and loss of appetite, particularly in someone
who has been diagnosed as having cirrhosis of the liver or is a known HBV carrier.
Early Detection
There is still no efficient early detection method for liver cancer.
Treatment
For the occasional patient whose liver cancer is still small, surgery can be curative. For
the majority of cases, who are usually seen in an incurable stage, judicious and cost-effective
palliative care can provide an acceptable quality of life.

Colon-Rectum Cancer
The incidence rates begin to rise steeply at age 50 years in both males and females.
The incidence rates rose steadily from 1980 to 2007, with an annual change of 1.3% for both
males and females.
Figure 14 shows that in colon cancer among males the highest incidence rates in 2003-
2007 were in the cities of Pasay, Manila and Quezon City (16.4-19.9), while the rest of Metro
Manila (5-13) and Rizal province (2.6-5) had lower incidence rates. Figure 15 shows that among
females the highest incidence rates were in the cities of Pasay, Quezon and Manila (11-16), and
also decreasing incidence rates eastward to Rizal province.
In 2015 cancers of the colon and rectum combined were estimated to rank 3rd for both
sexes (9%), 4th among males (11%) and 3rd among females (7%). There will be 9,625 new
cases in both sexes, 5,250 in males and 4,375 in females.
Colon cancer, males, 2003-2007.

Colon cancer, females, 2003-2007.
Figure 16 shows that in rectum cancer among males the highest incidence rates in
2003-2007 were in Manila, Mandaluyong, San Juan, and Paraaque (12.3-19.4), and Figure 17
shows that in females the highest incidence rates were in Manila, San Juan and Paraaque
(8.1-9.2).
Rectum cancer, males, 2003-2007.

Rectum cancer, females, 2003-2007
Figures 18 and 19 show that in 2012 the incidence/mortality ratios in China, Thailand,
Vietnam, Malaysia and the Philippines were lower compared to those in the United States,
European Union, Israel, Japan and the Republic of Korea.

In 2012, the estimated age-standardized national incidence rates for colon and rectum
cancers in the Philippines, were 13.3 per 100,000 in both sexes, 15.6 among males, and 11
among females. One (1.3) out of 100 men and one (1.1) out of 100 women would have had a
likelihood of getting colorectal cancer before age 75. In 2012, the estimated national
standardized mortality rates were 8 per 100,000 in both sexes, 9.7 among males, and 6.4
among females. One (0.9) out of 100 men and one (0.6) out of 100 women would have died
from colorectal cancer before age 75.
In 2015th cancers of the colon and rectum

rd
combined was estimated to rank 3rd for both
sexes (9%), 4 among males (11%) and 3 among females (7%). There is an estimated 9,625
new cases in both sexes, 5,250 in males and 4,375 in females. There is an estimated 5,523
deaths in both sexes, 3,040 in males and 2,483 among females.
Using country-specific abridged life tables (Table 11), the 5-year relative survival rates
(RSR) among Metro Manila and Rizal Province residents with cancer diagnosed in the mid
1990s (40%) were lower compared to those of Singapore, South Korea, and Turkey.
Table 11. 5-year relative survival (%), colorectal cancer patients

(cancer diagnosed in the mid 1990s) in selected populations
South
MM + Rizal China India Uganda Singapore Korea Thailand Turkey
40 44 28 8 52 60 35 52
For colorectal cancers (both sexes) diagnosed between 1993-2002 and using
population-specific life tables, the 5-year relative survival rate of Metro Manila residents
(40.2%) was lower compared to Filipino-Americans (62.3%) and Caucasians (64%) in the
United States. For colorectal cancers (both sexes) diagnosed between 1995-1999 and also
using population-specific life tables, survival of Metro Manila residents (37.8%) was also lower
compared to European residents (54%) in the Eurocare-4 study.
Reported major risk factors are personal or family history of colon or rectum cancer,
polyps in the colon or rectum, and inflammatory bowel disease. Lifestyle factors, particularly
diet, alcohol consumption and physical inactivity, may account for the global differences in
incidence. Evidence suggests that a diet high in fat and deficient in whole grains, fruits and
vegetables increase the risk.
Maintaining a healthy lifestyle, particularly a healthy diet, physical activity and

decreased alcohol consumption will decrease a persons risk. While in some Western countries
the large scale detection and removal of polyps had contributed to a decrease in incidence,
practically all colorectal cancer in Philippine residents are not associated with polyps.
Warning Signals
A change in bowel habits such as recurrent diarrhea and/or constipation, particularly

when accompanied by abdominal discomfort, weight loss, unexplained anemia, blood in the
stool.
Early Detection
Early colon and rectum cancers are asymptomatic, and there is still no efficient method
for population-screening particularly in developing countries wherein majority of cancers are not
associated with polyps. The aim would be earlier diagnosis of symptomatic patients who
complain of changes in bowel habits, vague abdominal pains, and unexplained weight loss
and/or anemia, particularly among patients who are 50 years old and older, by means of rectal
digital examination, proctoscopy, proctosigmoidoscopy, barium enema and colonoscopy.
Public information and education is important, but physician education is equally vital.
The mistaken obsession of our physicians with amoebiasis, other forms of infectious bowel
diseases, and hemorrhoids, still is a major factor that has for decades delayed diagnosis of
colon and rectum cancer. The wide availability of antidiarrheals, antibiotics, and amoebicides
results in their protracted and sometimes dangerous use. Too many physicians still insist on
prescribing vitamin preparations and hematinics for chronic unexplained weight loss and anemia
without endeavoring to look for the cause.
Treatment
Early cancers of the colon and rectum are curable by surgery. For small rectal
lesions, radiotherapy is just as effective. In certain instances, the adjuvant use of certain drugs
and/or radiotherapy can increase survival
For advanced cases, judicious and cost-effective palliative care can offer an
acceptable quality of life.

Uterine Cervix Cancer
The incidence rate of cervix cancer starts rising steeply at age 30 in the Philippines.
There was a slight decrease in incidence rate from 1980 to 2007, with an annual change of -
0.5%.
Figure 20 shows that the highest incidence rates in 2003-2007 were observed in the
cities of Manila, Pasay, Pateros and Las Pias (21-42), and the lowest ASRs were in Rizal
province.
Cervix cancer, 2003-2007
In 2012, the estimated age-standardized national incidence rate was 16 per 100,000.
Two (1.6) out of 100 women would have had a likelihood of getting cervix cancer before age
75. In 2012, the estimated national standardized mortality rate was 7.5 per 100,000. One
(0.7) out of 100 women would have died from cervix cancer before age 75.
Figure 21 shows a lower incidence/mortality ratio in the Philippines (2:1) compared to

high income countries/regions in 2012. The high incidence/mortality ratios observed in the
Republic of Korea (4:1) and in Malaysia (3:1) show that cervical cancer control programs are
feasible among Asian populations.

Using country-specific abridged life tables (Table 12) , the 5-year relative survival rate
(RSR) among Metro Manila and Rizal Province residents with cancer diagnosed in the mid
1990s (37%) were lower compared to those of China, India, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand,
Turkey and Costa Rica.
Table 12. 5-year relative survival (%), cervix cancer patients

(cancer diagnosed in the mid 1990s) in selected populations
MM + China India Uganda Singapore South Thailand Turkey Costa
Rizal Korea Rica
37 67 46 13 66 79 61 63 53
For cervix cancers diagnosed between 1993-2002 and using population-specific life
tables, the 5-year relative survival rate of Metro Manila residents (45.4%) was lower
compared to Filipino-Americans (67.2%) and Caucasians (67.4%) in the United States. For
cervix cancers diagnosed between 1995-1999 and also using population-specific life tables,
survival of Metro Manila residents (38.8%) was also lower compared to European residents
(62.6%) in the Eurocare-4 study.
Cancer of the cervix is highly preventable. Viral infections that cause chronic
infections of the cervix, particularly human papilloma virus (HPV) cause cancer of the uterine
cervix. The virus is transmitted through sexual intercourse, and the more numerous the sexual
partners of the woman, or the womans male partner, the greater the risk of being exposed to
the virus. The prevalence of all HPV types is around 90% of both squamous cell carcinomas
and adenocarcinomas. HPV 16 and 18 are the most common types.

Safe sex, including the use of barrier protective devices such as condoms, offers the
best prevention of sexually transmitted diseases. Unfortunately, unprotected sexual behavior is
still practiced by the great majority of individuals. While the World Health Organization is
strongly recommending condom use as an effective method of preventing HIV/AIDS, the
Catholic Church in the Philippines has been consistently and vigorously opposing condom use.
There needs to be a sustained national effort to raise awareness that safe sex protects against
HIV/AIDS, other sexually transmitted diseases and cervix cancer. Due to the increasing number
of HIV/AIDS cases, the Department of Health is currently increasing the efforts to make
condoms widely available.
HPV vaccines are now available in the Philippines and peri-adolescent vaccination
could be gaining ground among families that can afford.
Warning Signals
Irregular painless bleeding not associated with menstruation intermentsrual, postcoital,

post-douching, or postmenopausal. Unusual vaginal discharge is also common.
Early Detection
The development of cervix cancer usually occurs in a stepwise fashion, with the cells
looking progressively worse. Dysplasia, the last change in appearance before frank cancer
occurs, almost invariably leads to frank cancer. If areas with dysplasia are discovered and
removed, cervix cancer can be prevented. In countries with long standing cervix cancer
screening programs, the incidence of cervix cancer had gone down, and a substantial portion of
the decrease in incidence had been attributed to screening.
A highly effective screening method for the early detection of cervix cancer is the
Papanicolau smear (Pap smear). This is essentially a microscopic examination of cells from
the cervix and body of the uterus. The presence of abnormal cells necessitates the need of a
diagnostic procedure, such as colposcopy, and biopsy of the suspicious areas.
It is recommended that for the average risk female, a Pap smear should be done every 5 years
after an initial negative test starting at age 30. High risk women may be tested more frequently.
Unfortunately, a national Pap smear screening program is not inexpensive to establish and
sustain, particularly if the required quality control measures are included. Visual inspection with
acetic acid wash (VIA) could be more appropriate, particularly in primary and secondary health
care facilities.
Since treatment costs are beyond the reach of majority of women, screening activities
ought to assure adequate financial support for treatment as well as other socioeconomic factors
that have traditionally been a barrier to earlier detection. A national program may not be
practical and instead targeted at cities with high incidence likelihood. Local government units,
the private sector and healthcare organizations will have to get involved.

Treatment
With the use of the Pap smear or VIA, lesions that eventually lead to cancer can be
detected. These can then be diagnosed and removed thereby preventing full blown cervix
cancer. For early cervix cancer, either surgery or radiotherapy can be curative.
The current suggested treatment is concurrent chemoradiation which could be difficult

for most women in the Philippines. Radiotherapy is available in only 21 facilities, 13 of which are
in Metro Manila, although there are 104 members of the Philippine Radiation Oncology Society.
There are also additional problems such as inappropriate dosimetry on account of inadequate
facilities, protracted treatment and poor follow up of indigent patients. Chemotherapy costs are
beyond the reach of most patients.
The ideal cervix cancer control program includes widespread practice of safe sex, peri-
adolescent HPV vaccination, screening and earlier detection with appropriate treatment. In the
real world however, countries or even individual cities should plan to achieve what is affordable,
feasible and sustainable. The choice of which screening modality to use requires the ability to
do high quality screening, the provision of reliable follow up of women with abnormal results,
prompt and adequate treatment, and an acceptable coverage in women 30 years and older.
Decision analytic models could be used to provide necessary information as to what strategies
are likely to be cost-effective and affordable.
Advanced cervix cancer requires judicious and cost-effective palliative care.
Leukemia
In 2010 leukemias will rank 7th in both sexes (4%), 5th in males (5%) and 9th among
females (3%).
In 2012, the estimated age-standardized national incidence rates of leukemias were 4.5
per 100,000 in both sexes, 4.8 among males, and 4.5 among females. Less than one (0.4) out
of 100 males and less than one (0.4) out of 100 females would have had a likelihood of getting
leukemia before age 75. Tthe estimated national standardized mortality rates were 3.9 per
100,000 in both sexes, 4.1 among males, and 3.7 among females. Less than one (0.4) out of
100 men and less than one (0.3) out of 100 women would have died from leukemia before age
75.
In 2015, there will be an estimated 4,270 new cases in both sexes, 2,166 in males and
2,104 in females. There will be 3,386 deaths in both sexes, 1,706in men and 1,680 among
women
The incidence rate of Myeloid Leukemias is slightly higher than that of Lymphoid
Leukemia. Age-specific incidence rates of Lymphoid Leukemia are highest among children
and people 70 years and older. Age-specific incidence rates of Myeloid Leukemia rise from age
50 years.
For adult leukemia cancers (both sexes) diagnosed between 1993-2002 and using
population-specific life tables, the 5-year relative survival rate of Metro Manila residents (5.2%)
was lower compared to Filipino-Americans (37.8%) and Caucasians (48.4%) in the United
States. For leukemia cancers (both sexes) diagnosed between 1995-1999 and also using
population-specific life tables, survival of adult Metro Manila residents (2.7%) was also lower
compared to European residents (42.4%) in the Eurocare-4 study. Accessibility to proper
treatment could have been a key factor.
In Metro Manila acute lymphoid leukemia (ALL) comprised 65% of all leukemias among
children (0-14 years), and 79% of childhood ALL occurred between the ages 1-9 years. The 5-
year relative survival rate of Metro Manila children with ALL was lower (34%) compared to Asian
American (87%) and Caucasian children (86%) in the United States. This is also mainly due to
poor access to treatment.
Figures 22 and 23 show that in 2012 the incidence/mortality ratios of leukemia in both
sexes were higher in developed countries compared to those of Vietnam, China, Thailand,
Malaysia and the Philippines. A major factor is the high cure rates in childhood leukemia
achieved in developed countries, particularly in ALL.

Exposure to high doses of radiation and continuous and prolonged exposure to certain
chemicals have been blamed for increasing the risk of leukemia. Avoiding such exposure,
particularly among children, would be prudent.
Warning Signals
Easy fatigability, pallor, weight loss, easy bruising, frequent nosebleed, or repeated
infections, especially among children. Symptoms of acute leukemia appear suddenly. Chronic
leukemia may progress slowly with few symptoms.
Early Detection
There is no practical screening method for leukemia. Early detection of symptomatic

patients, particularly children, should be aimed for. Peripheral blood smears and bone marrow
examination confirm the diagnosis in suspicious cases.
Treatment
Some forms of leukemia, particularly acute lymphocytic leukemia in children, are

highly curable by chemotherapy. The public sector ought to allocate more resources for the
management of curable leukemias in indigent children. Patients with advanced leukemia
require judicious and cost-effective palliative care.
Stomach Cancer
The incidence rates of stomach cancer begin to increase steeply starting at age 50
among males and at age 55 among females.
The incidence rates had decreased from 1980 to 2007, with an annual change of -2.5%
in males and -2.3% in females.
Figure 24 shows that the highest incidence rates among males in 2003-2007 were in the
cities of Manila, Malabon and Pasig (9-10). ASRs in the rest of Metro Manila (8.0) and in Rizal
province (4.2) were significantly lower. Figure 25 shows that the incidence rates were lower
among females, with the highest incidence observed in the cities of Pasay and Manila (6).

Stomach cancer, males, 2003-2007.
Stomach cancer, females, 2003-2007.

In 2010 stomach cancer
th
will be the 9th leading site for both sexes combined (3%), 6th
among males (3%) and the 12 among females (2%).
in both sexes, 4.8 among males, and 2.9 among females. Less than one (0.4) out of 100 men
and less than one (0.3) out of 100 women would have had a likelihood of getting stomach
cancer before age 75. The estimated national standardized mortality rates were 3.4 per
100,000 in both sexes, 4.3 among males, and 2.5 among females. Less than one (0.4) out of
100 men and less than one (0.2) out of 100 women would have died from stomach cancer
before age 75.
In 2015, there will be a total of 2,715 new cases in both sexes, 1,582 in men and 1,133
in women. There will be 2,301 deaths in both sexes, 1,344 among males and 957 in females.
Figures 26 and 27 show that in 2012 the highest incidence rates of stomach cancer in
both sexes occurred in Korea and Japan and owing to established screening programs also had
the lowest incidence/mortality ratios. Incidence/mortality ratios in other countries/regions were
quite high, even in developed areas.

For stomach cancers (both sexes) diagnosed between 1993-2002 and using population-
specific life tables, the 5-year relative survival rate of Metro Manila residents (27.3%) was
almost similar compared to Filipino-Americans (30.7%) and Caucasians (23.2%) in the United
States. For stomach cancers (both sexes) diagnosed between 1995-1999 and also using
population-specific life tables, survival of Metro Manila residents (22.5%) was also similar
compared to European residents (24.5%) in the Eurocare-4 study.

Pernicious anemia and atrophic gastritis had been associated with an increased risk.
Some evidence suggests that stomach cancer may be linked to diet, particularly to the
prolonged high consumption of foodstuffs preserved or cured using salt, smoke, and
certain chemicals. A decrease in the consumption of such foods as a result of the increased use
of refrigeration is believed to be a major factor. A diet that is low in fruits and vegetables
resulting in a deficiency of some micronutrients has also been shown to increase risk. There is
also evidence that a chronic gastritis caused by Helicobacter pylori may increase risk and the
widespread practice of aggressive treatment for H. pylori may be a contributory factor to the
decrease in incidence.
While there is no known specific preventive measure for stomach cancer, maintaining a
healthy diet which is rich in fruits and vegetables, and minimizing the intake of preserved or
cured foodstuffs, is expected to decrease risk
Warning Signals
Stomach cancer generally progresses silently to an advanced stage before symptoms

alert a patient or a physician. Symptoms include indigestion, dyspepsia, loss of appetite,
weakness and anemia. Weight loss, difficulty in swallowing, vomiting and a palpable upper
abdominal mass suggest an advanced stage.

Early Detection
Screening had been practiced in Japan and Korea, justified by the very high incidence in
these two countries, and had improved survival and decreased mortality. Unfortunately, mass
screening may not be cost-effective in other countries. In order to increase survival, earlier
diagnosis and effective treatment of symptomatic patients should be the goal. Patients 50 years
and older who present with nonspecific upper digestive tract symptoms, particularly if
accompanied by loss of appetite, anemia, weakness or weight loss, should undergo endoscopic
studies and/or upper gastrointestinal radiologic procedures.
Treatment
The patients who are diagnosed with early stomach cancer are curable by surgery. For
many patients with advanced cancer, palliative surgery can improve the quality of life. For
inoperable cases, judicious and cost-effective palliative care can still improve quality of life.
Prostate Cancer
The incidence rate starts rising sharply at age 55 years and continues to rise with
increasing age. The incidence rate had increased from 1980 to 2007, with an annual change of
2.1%.
Figure 28 shows that the highest incidence rates in 2003-2007 were observed in the
cities of San Juan, Mandaluyong and Las Pias (40-52), and the lowest incidence were in Rizal
province (19.4).
Prostate cancer, males, 2003-2007.

In 2012, the estimated age-standardized national incidence rate was 18 per 100,000.
Two (1.8) out of 100 males would have had a likelihood of getting prostate cancer before age
75. The estimated national standardized mortality rate was 11.3 per 100,000. One (1.1) out of
100 males would have died from prostate cancer before age 75.
In 2015, cancer of the prostate will be the 6th most common in both sexes (5%), and 3rd
among males (7%). There will be 5,526 new cases. There will be 2,912 deaths.
Figure 29 shows that in 2012 the incidence rates were extremely high in the United
States, Europe and Israel, where widespread PSA testing had partly contributed to the
increasing incidence, and a very low incidence/mortality ratio. The incidence/mortality ratio
was also high in Korea, Japan, and Singapore and lower in the Philippines, China, Thailand and
Malaysia.
In the Philippines, a report described a median survival of 52 months, a 43% 5-year

survival rate and a 31% 10-year survival rate.
Increasing age is the most important risk factor and the increasing numbers of Filipino
males who are 55 years and older is the main reason for the significant increase and expected
continuing increase in the number of cases. The evidence for the association between prostate
cancer and unhealthy lifestyles is not as clear compared to certain cancers such as lung, breast,
colon and rectum, cervix and oral cavity cancers. Nevertheless, males who start a healthy
lifestyle early in life and are able to sustain the healthy habits throughout life may lower their
individual risk of prostate cancer.
Warning Signals
Early prostate cancer is usually asymptomatic. When symptoms occur, these are usually
difficulty in urination and increased frequency of urination particularly at night. These symptoms
are similar to those seen in men with benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH), a noncancerous
enlargement of the prostate gland. BPH is much more common than prostate cancer and occurs
in the same age-group. Sometimes, the initial presentation of prostate cancer is that of bone
pain due to spread of the cancer to the bones.
Early Detection
A test to assay prostatic specific antigen (PSA) is accurate enough to be used to

detect prostate cancer, either as a screening method in asymptomatic men or in symptomatic
individuals. If positive, a diagnostic biopsy is performed. If the PSA test is not available, biopsy
of suspicious areas in the enlarged prostate, detected by rectal digital examination and/or
transrectal ultrasound, is done on symptomatic individuals. Annual transrectal digital rectal
examination on asymptomatic men who are 50 years or older may detect early prostate and
rectum cancer.
A substantial number of prostate cancers are very slow growing and will have no clinical
impact. They are discovered as incidental findings during autopsy. Unfortunately, it is still not
possible to distinguish this benign type of prostate cancer from the more aggressive variety
among asymptomatic PSA-positive men. This could lead to overdiagnosis and overtreatment,
and curative treatment modalities do have complications. The European Randomized Study of
Screening for Prostate Cancer showed that PSA-based screening had reduced mortality by
20% but was associated with a high risk of overdiagnosis. The matter of population-based PSA
screening is still being discussed in many high income countries, and not feasible in most
developing countries.
For men who are interested to have a PSA test, the current thinking is that there should
be a thorough discussion with a physician on the benefits and possible harmful sequelae, and
the decision mutually met.
Treatment
Early prostate cancer is curable. For cancers incidentally discovered during

prostatectomy, nothing more is usually done. For those with capsular invasion or distant spread,
hormonal manipulation, such as orchiectomy, is the usual first-line treatment. In certain
situations radiotherapy can be beneficial. For advanced cases, judicious and cost-effective
palliative care can improve the quality of life.

Ovarian Cancer
The incidence rate rises steeply starting at age 40 and continues to increase with age.
In 2012, the estimated age-standardized national incidence rate was 5.9 per 100,000 in
the Philippines. One (0.6) out of 100 women would have had a likelihood of getting ovarian
cancer before age 75. The estimated national standardized mortality rate was 3.9 per 100,000.
Less than one (0.4) out of 100 women would have died from ovarian cancer before age 75.
In 2015, cancer of the ovary will be the 10th leading site for both sexes combined (2%),
and the 5th among women (4%) in the Philippines. There will be 2,657 new cases. In 2015, there
will be 1,610 deaths.
Figure 30 shows that in 2012 there were no marked differences in the

incidence/mortality ratios among selected countries including the Philippines.
For ovarian cancers diagnosed between 1993-2002 and using population-specific life
tables, the 5-year relative survival rate of Metro Manila residents (49.5%) was lower compared
to Filipino-Americans (56.1%) and Caucasians (50.2%) in the United States. For ovarian
cancers diagnosed between 1995-1999 and also using population-specific life tables, survival of
Metro Manila residents (44.2%) was however higher compared to European residents (36.5%)
in the Eurocare-4 study.

Risk Factors
Evidence is lacking to pinpoint the specific cause or causes of cancer of the ovary.
Some factors are suspected of increasing the risk: nulliparity, menstrual irregularities, history of
breast cancer or endometrial cancer. There could also be a hereditary predisposition in some
women. Pregnancy and oral contraceptives could be protective. The role of exogenous
hormones as protective agents is being studied.
Warning Signals
Ovarian cancers are usually asymptomatic at the outset and many cases are detected
late. It is usually detected as an abdominal mass, or a mass felt during a pelvic examination.
Early Detection
Thorough annual pelvic examination starting at age 40 may detect some early cancer of
the ovary.
Treatment
In early cancer of the ovary, surgery is curative. For clear cell carcinoma, appropriate
surgery followed by adjuvant chemotherapy prolongs survival in all stages. Advanced ovarian
cancer requires judicious and cost-effective palliative care.
Thyroid Cancer
Thyroid cancer is the most common cancer of women at ages 15-24 years. Among
women, the incidence rate rises at age 30 years and continues to rise with increasing age.
Among men, the incidence rate begins to increase much later, starting at 60 years.
The incidence rates had increased from 1980 to 2007, with an annual change of 1.1%
in males, and 2.7% among females.
Figure 31 shows that in 2003-2007, the highest incidence rate among males was in the
city of Paraaque (4.7). Figure 32 shows that among females the highest incidence rates were
in the cities of San Juan, Paraaque and Manila (14-16), one of the highest in the world and
higher than the 2008 world average incidence rate (4.7). For both sexes, incidence rates
appeared to be higher in Metro Manila compared to Rizal province.

Thyroid cancer, males, 2003-2007.
Thyroid cancer, females, 2003-2007.

In 2008, the estimated national standardized mortality rates were 1.1 per 100,000 in both
sexes, 1 among males, and 1.7 among females.
In 2010, there were an estimated 3,288 new cases in both sexes, 824 in males and in
2,464 females.
and less than one (0.4) out of 100 women would have had a likelihood of getting thyroid cancer
before age 75. Less than one (0.1) out of 100 men and less than one (0.2) out of 100 women
would have died from stomach cancer before age 75.
In 2015, thyroid cancer was estimated to be the 8th most common for both sexes
combined (2%), the 17th leading site in men (1%) and the 9th among females (3%). There is an
estimated 978 deaths in both sexes, 305 in males and 673 in females
Figures 33 and 34 show that in 2012 the incidence/mortality ratios in both sexes were
observed to be lower in the Philippines, probably because of better accessibility to adequate
treatment in the other countries/regions, particularly radioactive iodine therapy for metastatic
lesions.

More than 90% of thyroid cancers are well-differentiated cancers and decades of
survival are expected following appropriate treatment. For thyroid cancers (both sexes)
diagnosed between 1993-2002 and using population-specific life tables, the 5-year relative
survival rate of Metro Manila residents (82%) was lower compared to Filipino-Americans
(91.3%) and Caucasians (92.3%) in the United States. For thyroid cancers (both sexes)
diagnosed between 1995-1999 and also using population-specific life tables, survival of Metro
Manila residents (72%) was also lower compared to European residents (82.9%) in the
Eurocare-4 study.
Risk Factors
A history of neck radiation during childhood is an established cause. The observations

that Filipino females residing in the Philippines, as well as females of Filipino descent who are
residents of Hawaii and the West Coast of the United States have some of the worlds highest
incidence of thyroid cancer strongly suggest that hereditary factors and/or unique ethnic
lifestyles are involved.
Some investigators had considered a history of nodular goiter, as well as iodine

deficiency, as possible risk factors. In spite of a Law on Salt Iodization promulgated in 1995, a
recent report revealed that 63% of nodular goiter cases at the Philippine General Hospital had
iodine deficiency, and 56% of patients with thyroid cancer were also iodine deficient.
Warning Signals
A hard mass in the anterior neck, nodules of the thyroid in men, rapid enlargement of a
long-standing goiter in older patients, enlargement of lymph nodes in the neck, hoarseness,
difficulty of swallowing, and difficulty of breathing associated with a goiter.

Early Detection
Benign enlargement of the thyroid gland (goiter) is still very prevalent among Filipinos. In
the following situations, needle aspiration of a thyroid nodule is recommended: hard
consistency; a solitary nodule when the rest of the thyroid gland is not enlarged; a rapidly
growing nodule in benign multinodular goiter.
Treatment
Almost 90% of thyroid cancers in the Philippines are well-differentiated carcinomas and
are highly curable by appropriate surgery alone. Radioactive iodine is the main mode of
treatment for the occasional metastasis to other organs. Survival of well differentiated cancers
(papillary carcinoma and follicular carcinoma) appear better among patients younger than 45
years, mainly because of better response of distant metastases to radioactive iodine treatment,
compared to older patients. Advanced cancer requires judicious and cost-effective palliative
care.
Corpus Uterine Cancer
Incidence and Mortality
The incidence rate starts rising steeply at age 40 and continues to increase with
increasing age.
In 2012, the estimated age-standardized national incidence rate was 5.6 per 100,000.
One (0.5) out of 100 women would have had a likelihood of getting corpus uteri cancer before
age 75. The estimated national standardized mortality rate was 1.4 per 100,000. Less than one
(0.1) out of 100 women would have died from corpus uteri cancer before age 75.
In 2015, cancer of the body of the uterus was estimated to be the 13th most common in
both sexes (2%), and the 8th leading site among women (4%). In 2015, there will be 2,451 new
cases. There was an estimated 565 deaths.
Figure 35 shows that in 2012 the highest incidence rates occurred in the United States,
Europe, Israel, China and Singapore, with high incidence/mortality ratios. The
incidence/mortality ratio in the Philippines and some other Asian countries can still be increased
with earlier detection and treatment of symptomatic cases.

The major risk factor, like cancer of the breast, is estrogen. Nulliparity, infertility, and
long term use of estrogen all increase risk. Other factors that could increase risk include obesity,
hypertension, history of breast cancer, and diabetes mellitus.
Indiscriminate use of estrogen hormone replacement therapy should be avoided.

Women who are taking adjuvant tamoxifen for breast cancer also have an increased risk of
endometrial cancer and should be vigilant about warning signals.
Women who start a healthy lifestyle early in life, including a healthy diet and maintaining
a normal weight, and sustain this throughout life decrease their personal risk of cancer of the
body of the uterus.
Warning Signals
Postmenopausal, intermenstrual or excessive menstrual bleeding.
Early Detection
There is no efficient screening method for asymptomatic women. An abnormal Pap

smear may lead to the incidental discovery in asymptomatic women. An annual gynecologic
examination and a high index of suspicion in cases of bleeding can lead to more women
diagnosed at an early stage.

Treatment
Early cancer of the corpus uteri is curable by surgery. For advanced cases, judicious
and cost-effective palliative care can help attain an acceptable quality of life.
Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma
Among adults, incidence rates rise steeply starting at age 50 among males and at age
55 among females.
sexes, 2.5 among males, and 1.7 among females.
in both sexes, 3.6 among males, and 2.7 among females. Less than one (0.3) of 100 men and
less than one (0.2) out of 100 women would have had a likelihood of getting Non-Hodgkin
lymphoma before age 75. Less than one (0.2) out of 100 men and less than one (0.1) out of
100 women would have died from Non-Hodgkin lymphoma before age 75.
In 2015, NHL is estimated to be the 12th leading site in both sexes (2%), the 8th among
males (3%), and the 11th among females (2%). An estimated 2,555 new cases will occur in both
sexes, 1,395 cases in men and 1,160 in women. There is an estimated 1,583 deaths in both
sexes, 896 among males and 687 in females.
Among Metro Manila children (0-14 years) NHL comprised 50% of lymphomas, and
40% of childhood lymphomas occurred at age 10-14 years. The 5-year relative survival rate of
Metro Manila children with NHL was lower (50%) compared to Asian American (85%) and
Caucasian children (81%) in the United States.
Figures 36 and 37 show that in 2012 and in both sexes, the highest incidence rates
occurred in the United States and Israel, which also had the highest incidence/mortality
ratios. The lowest ratios were observed in the Philippines and other Southeast Asian
populations.

Risk Factors
The cause of lymphomas is still unclear. Viruses may be involved in the causation of
some lymphomas.
Warning Signals
Usual presentation is that of painless, enlarged lymph nodes which may be associated
with fever, night sweats, itching or weight loss. Occasionally, other organs are involved like the
skin and digestive tract, and the presenting symptoms mimic those of other diseases.
Early Detection
Lymph node enlargement that cannot be explained by prevalent causes, their

persistence and progressive enlargement should elicit concern. Suspicious lymph nodes should
be biopsied.
Treatment
Chemotherapy is the primary curative treatment. Adjuvant radiotherapy may be
beneficial in some cases. Advanced cases can benefit from judicious palliative care

Oral Cavity Cancer
Cancer can occur in any part of the oral cavity. The incidence rates rise steeply
starting at age 55 among males, and at age 60 among females. Declining incidence rates had
been observed in both sexes from 1980-2007, with an annual decline of -2.9% in males and -
4.3% in females.
Figures 38 and 39 show that in 2003-2007, and in both sexes, there does not seem to
be great differences in incidence rates between cities/municipalities, unlike in many other
cancer sites.
Oral cavity, males, 2003-2007.

Oral cavity, females, 2003-2007.
and less than one (0.3) out of 100 women would have had a likelihood of getting oral cavity
cancer before age 75. Less than one (0.2) out of 100 men and less than one (0.1) out of 100
women would have died from oral cavity cancer before age 75.
th
In 2015, cancer of the mouth is estimated to be the 11 most common site when
th th
both sexes are combined (2%), the 7 among men (3%), and the 10 among women (2%).
There is an estimated 2,653 new cases in both sexes, 1,406 cases in males and 1,247
cases among females. There is an estimated 1,104 deaths in both sexes, 592 males and 512
females.
Figures 40 and 41 show that in 2012 the incidence/mortality ratios were the highest in
the United States, Europe, Israel and Singapore.

In the Philippines, median survival was reported to be 19 months, survival rate was
27% at 5 years and 17% at 10 years.
Oral cavity cancer is highly preventable. Cigarette smoking causes cancer of the oral
cavity, and so does betel nut (buyo) chewing. Chewing tobacco, excessive alcohol consumption
and inverted cigarette smoking also increase the risk. A diet lacking in fruits and vegetables
further increases risk. Avoidance and/or cessation of these unhealthy habits, and maintaining a
healthy diet, will prevent oral cancer.
Warning Signals
A sore that does not heal or bleeds easily; a lump or thickening; a reddish or whitish
patch that persists. Difficulty in chewing, swallowing, or moving the tongue or jaw are late
manifestations.
Early Detection
Physicians and dentists have the opportunity, through oral examination, to see abnormal
tissue changes and to detect oral cancer at an early stage. Annual oral examination starting at
age 50 is recommended.
Treatment
Early cancer of the oral cavity is curable. Surgery is the most accessible curative
treatment. Small lesions will also be cured by radiotherapy. Advanced cases require judicious
and cost-effective palliative care.
Pancreas Cancer
The incidence rate starts rising steeply at age 55 and continues to rise with increasing age.
in both sexes, 2.8 among males, and 2.5 among females. Less than one (0.3) out of 100 males
and less than one (0.2) out of 100 females would have had a likelihood of getting pancreas
cancer before age 75. Less than one (0.2) out of 100 men and less than one (0.2) out of 100
women would have died from pancreas cancer before age 75.
In 2015, cancerth of the pancreas is estimated

th
to be the 16th leading site for both sexes
combined (2%), the 12 in men (2%) and 14 in women (2%). There is an estimated 1,895 new
cases in both sexes, 936 in males and 959 in females. There is an estimated 1,666 deaths in
both sexes, 825 among men and 841 among women.
Figure 42 and 43 shows that in 2012 the incidence/mortality ratios in both sexes and
in all populations still approximated 1:1 in both sexes since most cases were still detected in an
advanced stage.

Risk Factors
The exact cause of cancer of the pancreas is still nclear. Among factors that could
increase risk are: exposure to certain chemicals, cigarette smoke, a history of diabetes mellitus,
and excessive alcohol intake.
Warning Signals
There are no specific signs and symptoms in most cases. Persistent upper abdominal
pain, painless jaundice or unexplained weight loss in middle aged or older persons should elicit
suspicion.
Early Detection
There is no efficient mass screening method. Sometimes, cancer of the pancreas is

diagnosed early among persons with jaundice which is not associated with pain, and often
accompanied by severe generalized itching as well as a dilated gallbladder. Persistent and
progressive moderate to severe upper abdominal pain, particularly if accompanied by weight
loss, should be highly suspicious and cancer of the pancreas should be a main consideration.
Treatment
Early cancer of the pancreas is curable by surgery. Advanced cancer is often very
painful but satisfactory pain relief is possible in most cases. Jaundice can be relieved by
surgery. Judicious and cost-effective palliative care can lead to an acceptable quality of life.
Nasopharyngeal Cancer
The incidence rates begin to rise steeply at age 45 among males and at age 50 among
women.
and less than one (0.1) out of 100 women would have had a likelihood of getting
nasopharyngeal cancer before age 75. The estimated national standardized mortality rates
were 1.3 per 100,000 in both sexes, 1.9 among males, and 0.7 among females. Less than one
(0.1) out of 100 men and less than one (0.1) out of 100 women would have died from
nasopharyngeal cancer before age 75.
In 2015, cancer of the nasopharynx was estimated to be the 15th leading site in both
sexes (2%), the 9th in men (3%) and the 15th among women (1%). An estimated 1,906 new
cases in both sexes will be seen, 1,315 in men, and 591 in women. There was an estimated
973 deaths in both sexes, 671 in males and 302 in females.
Figures 44 and 45 show that in 2012 the highest incidence rates among the selected
countries/region in both sexes were observed in Malaysia, Singapore and Vietnam. High
incidence/mortality ratios of around 2:1 were observed in Singapore and Malaysia. The
Philippine ratio was lower.
Risk Factors
The cause of nasopharynx cancer is still unclear. Since the highest incidence had been
observed among residents in certain areas in Southern China, and migrants coming from these
areas, hereditary factors and/or unique ethnic lifestyles could be involved. A previous infection
with Epstein-Barr virus has also been implicated.
Warning Signals
Bloody nasal or postnasal discharge, nasal obstruction, ear pain, fullness of the ear, or a
unilateral recurrent otitis media. Frequently, the first presentation is that of enlarged lymph
nodes at the upper part of the neck below the ear. More advanced disease will have
neurological or ocular manifestations such as headache, bulging of one eye, double vision,
hoarseness or difficulty in swallowing.
Early Detection
Since there is no efficient screening method for detecting asymptomatic cancer of the
nasopharynx, earlier diagnosis and appropriate treatment of symptomatic cases should be the
goal. Middle-aged persons with the aforementioned complaints should undergo
nasopharyngoscopy and biopsy of suspicious areas.
Treatment
Chemo-Radiotherapy is the principal treatment of nasopharynx cancer. Advanced cases

could benefit from judicious palliative care.
Laryngeal Cancer
The incidence rates rise steeply starting at age 50 among men and at age 70 among
women.
and less than one (0.1) out of 100 women would have had a likelihood of getting larynx cancer
before age 75. The estimated national standardized mortality rates were 1 per 100,000 in both
sexes, 1.7 among males, and 0.4 among females. Less than one (0.2) out of 100 men and less
than one (0.04) out of 100 women would have died from larynx cancer before age 75.
In 2015, cancerthof the larynx is estimated to be the 17th moststcommon for both sexes
combined (1%), the 10 most common among men (3%), and the 21 among women (0.5%).
There is an estimated 1,575 new cases in both sexes, 1,251 males and 324 females. There is
an estimated 694 deaths in both sexes, 542 among men and 152 among women.
Figure 46 shows that in 2012 the highest incidence rates among males were observed in
Europe, Israel and the United States which had incidence/mortality ratios of around 3-5:1.

Figure 47 shows that the incidence rates among women were lower but with similar ratios. The
Philippine ratios were the lowest among the selected populations.

Risk Factors
Cigarette smoking causes cancer of the larynx.
Warning Signals
Hoarseness is the most common early symptom. Advanced cancer causes difficulty of
swallowing or even breathing problems. Sometimes the initial presentation is enlarged lymph
nodes in the lower part of the neck.
Early Detection
Persistent or recurrent hoarseness in adults that cannot be explained as being due to

prevalent conditions, particularly among heavy smokers, should be suspect. Direct
laryngoscopy and biopsy of suspicious areas can detect early cancer of the larynx.
Treatment
Early cancer of the larynx is curable. For small lesions radiotherapy can be curative and
the voice can be preserved. Larger lesions are still curable by surgery, but the voice is lost. In
many cases, speech can be used with training in the use of various devices. For advanced
cases, there should be a vigorous effort to improve quality of life through judicious and cost-
effective palliative care.

5-YEAR POPULATION-BASED CANCER DATA
(PCS-MANILA & DOH-RIZAL TUMOR REGISTRIES, 2008-2012)
Both Sexes

Men

Women

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What information does cancer incidence data provide?

What information does cancer incidence data provide?

What does cancer survival data indicate?

What does cancer survival data indicate?

2015

PHILIPPINE CANCER SOCIETY- MANILA CANCER REGISTRY

in cooperation with the

RIZAL MEDICAL CENTER

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL for

UNIVERSITY of the PHILIPPINES, MANILA

FINNISH CANCER REGISTRY

published in Manila, 2015 by the

2015 Philippine Cancer Facts & Estimates Page 1 of 79

Incidence data tells us if we are successful, or unsuccessful, in cancer

Survival data gives us an idea of the curability, or incurability, of specific types of

2015 Philippine Cancer Facts & Estimates Page 2 of 79

IARC-GLOBOCAN has greatly facilitated national estimation of cancer incidence

CANCER: BASIC DATA

Although carcinogens are capable of initiating cellular genetic mutations, the

2015 Philippine Cancer Facts & Estimates Page 3 of 79

Lately, non-genetic factors that cause the genes to express themselves

The major factors involved in the causation of cancer,

The numerous battles in the deadly war between cancer initiating/promoting

A few individuals have an inherited predisposition to develop specific cancers,

Table 1. Estimated New Cancer Cases

2015 Philippine Cancer Facts & Estimates Page 4 of 79

Can cancer be prevented?

At least 1/3 of all cancers can be prevented.

Physical fitness is achieved through a lifelong active lifestyle. Physically fit

Increasing mental, social, psychological and spiritual stress seems to

Cancer promoting agents should be avoided. Cigarette smoke is the most

2015 Philippine Cancer Facts & Estimates Page 5 of 79

Many cancers of the

Can cancer be cured?

At least 1/3 of all cancers can be cured.

Palliative care is the active total care of patients

CANCER SITUATION and CONTROL in the PHILIPPINES

In 2003-2004, smoking prevalence had decreased to 56% and 12% among

2015 Philippine Cancer Facts & Estimates Page 7 of 79

In order to PROMOTE HEALTH AND PREVENT CANCER

2015 Philippine Cancer Facts & Estimates Page 8 of 79

In the Philippines, in spite of nearly two decades of Awareness Campaigns

PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES

Philippine Cancer Control Program

2015 Philippine Cancer Facts & Estimates Page 10 of 79

The DOH has an Integrated Program for the prevention of Non-Communicable

Cervical Cancer Screening

The Establishment of a Cervical Cancer Screening Program was ordered by the

Hepatitis B Infection Control

Universal Health Care Act, 2013

2015 Philippine Cancer Facts & Estimates Page 11 of 79

Implementing the Philippine Medicines Policy

This Access Program serves as a gateway to the Philippine Health Insurance Z

The PhilHealth Z Benefits

The Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth) implemented its Case

New Cases Deaths

Oral Cavity 1406 1247 2653 592 512 1104

2015 Philippine Cancer Facts & Estimates Page 13 of 79