Detail aJ 2,13.

C H A P T E RT W O

The Indus(or Harappa)Civilization

( c a .z 3 o o t o r 7 J o B . c . )

Distinctive settlernentpatterns accompaniedby Carnbay, east into the Gangetic headwaters,

cultural and techrological developmentsare well and north to the foothills of the Himalayas. It
documented from an early date in the north- is fully expectedthat future researchwill extend
western regions ofthe South Asian subcontinent the boundaries and definitions of this culture
and have recently been identified in the Ganges even further. The city of Harappa, where the
Valley, However, the earliest known Indic civilization was first discovered,haslent its name
'civilization"l
conrplex which can be termed to the alternate designation for this culture.
in the stricrest.enseo[ the word i. the Indus. However, this name also has limitations since
or, as it is also called, the HaraPpa civilization. over one hundred fifty sitesfrom this civilization
Since early investigatorsoriginally thought that have been found, five of which may be called
the cities and toms of the culture were clustered cities in the proper senseof the term. Thus, the
only in the Indus River Valley of Pakistan, it city of Harappa is not to be considereda unique
was called the Indus civilization, a name which example, nor necessarilyeven one typical of the
is no longer considered truly descriptive. For civilization as a whole.
subsequent discoveries of sites belonging to Although extensive archaeological explora-
this culture have expanded its known geo- tion and study has bcen carried out at HaraPpa
graphic domain to include a region approx- sites for much of this century,z information
maiely the size of western Europe, reaching about this ancient culture is still limited; many
from northem Afghanistan and the border basic questions about the people, their beliefs,
between Pakistan and Iran on the west, south and pattems of life remain unanswered. Much
along India's western coast to the Gulf of of what is surmised about the civilization is
IO FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CTVIIZATION

derived from our understandingof what occurs it hasbeen estimatedthat ar Mohenjo-Daro, one '1-:-,::i
"read
later in South Asia (we thus into" Indus of the great metropolisesof the Indus civiliza-
phenomena) or from cross-cultural analogies, tion, the lower third of the site is unavailable
primarily with the fourishing civilizations of for study becauseof ground water. It is posible
contemporaneous Mesopotamia, with which that some sites will eventually reveal develop-
the Indus peoples were in contact. This latter, mental stagesof the civilization while other sites
while comprising an important analytic tool, that do not might reflect the spread of the
should not automatically suggestan indebtedness civiliz'ation at an advanced stage and its super-
of the Indus civilization to those of Mesopo- imposition on other modes of life.3
tamia. Indus-type artifacts have been found in reli-
Becausesitesshowing experimental or forma- ably dated Mesopotamian strata ranging from
tive stagesof developrnentfor the Indus culture approxin.rately 23oo B.c. to about r8oo s.c.4
have been difiicult to identify, the antecedents However, based on radiocarbon datess and
of the civilization remain elusive.In sorne cascs, other archaeologicalevidence,the culture's main
fooding and the rise of the water table have period of florescence,its mature or urban phase,
obscured the lowest levels of Indus sites and is now believed to have taken place between
the early stages, which may have been the about zroo l.c. and r75o n.c,
formative ones, are inacccssible.For example,

Tn: Crrrrs,tuo Towr.ts been a trading por

the location of thr
Many cities and towns of the Indus civilization Iocated along the main streetsor thoroughfares. makers, shell and
were laid out on rectilinear grids, with streets It is posible that thc n.ronotonyof the walls was workers in craftst
oriented on north-south and east-west axes relievcd by painting or by other decoration
Judging from th
(Fig. z.r). Such standardizationimplies a great which has not survived. Houseshad bathroorns, peoples of the Ind
degree of civic planning and organtzatron, as and the cities had sophisticated methods of to have erloyed a
would be necessary in an urban environmenc drainage. Apparently, the urban citizen of the threats posed fior
where large populations lived in relatively small Harappe culture led a comfortable life, even discussed the exte
areas.The common building rnaterial at Harap- by modcrn standards. nature al1dstreng
pa sites was baked brick.6 A remarkable aspect In addition to private dwellings and shops, a been found, but, J
of the bricks is that they conform to specific number of large, apparently publlc, structures, is impossible to
standards of size and quality throughout the including granaries and citadels, have been regarding the rel:
known geographical and chronological extent identified at vadous Harappa sites.At Mohenjo- life. The marked
of the culture. This uniformity indicatesa high Daro, a tank, gcnerally called the Great Bath, artifacts does see
degreeoI centralizrtion.as weli as continuous has been unearthed (Fig. z.r, left). Becausewe remained stableo
contact between various sites.Houses varied in know that in latcr Indic life and religion, phenornenon that
size, Some were probably several stories high. bathing is essentialfor ritual cleansing, it has of insulariry and
Most display a similar plan with a squarecourt- often been suggestedthat the Great Bath had new or different
yard surrounded by a number of roon-rs, a religious significance, but there is no direct both. Wh e man
format which persiststirroughout South Asian internal evidence of this. At Lothal, on the can also be noted
history and was later incorporated into both western seaboard of India, a large structure at Mohenjo-Darc
domestic and religious architecture. The walls often identified as a constant-water-leveldock changes in the t
closing oll the houses from the streets were has been excavated.If this intriguing but con- artifacts, such as
often high and apparently plain, broken only troversialTstructureis a dock, it would represent great constancyf
by doorways, insuring tire residents'privacy and an engineering Gat of great sophistication. lack of change
protection. It is intercstingto note thrt doorways Further, it would provide concrete evidence of human nature its
leading into domestic compounds invariably a means of sca trade between the Indus and some important
occur along small lanesor byways and are never other civilizations.8 That Lothal n.right have many of the emb
 THE INDUS CIVIIZATION ''
'., -.rr r:: r., -'

z.r. View of site showing Great Barh. Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan.

FIarapp.period.

been a trading port city is further evidencedby strate the personality of the culture and indicate
the location of the shops of metalsmiths,bead- greaterdifferenceswere made in easilyperishable
makers, shell and ivory workers, and other materials and have becn lost. Mcasuremenrson
workers in crafts there. excavated skeletal remains have shown that at
Judging fiom the archaeologicalevidence,the leastfour different racial types livcd at Mohenjo-
peoplesof the Indus civilization have been said Daro,e and thus complete homogeneity in the
to have enjoyed a peaceful existence,with few society is not to be expected. In {act, archae-
threats posed fron the outside, Scholars have ologists are increasingly able to make distinc-
discussedthe extent of city fortifications and the tions from site to site and over the course of
nature and strength of the weapons that have rime. Yet. the overnltelming impressiongivcn
been found, but, lacking any historical texts, it by the buildings and structures of the Harappa
is impossible to make an accurate statement sitesis that of a controlled, conservative,well-
regarding the relative peacefulnessof Harappa ordered,homogeneoussocietywith a centralized
liG. The marked homogeneity of many of the government.
artifacts does seem to suggest that the society Although the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro
remained stable over a long period of tin.re, a may have had some ritual purpose, and the
phenomenon that may indicate a high degree existenceofreligious ceremoniesis alsosuggested
of insularity and the ability to quickly absorb by the discovery of a Gw fire altars at Harappe
new or different elements into the society, or sites, the lack of a major Harapp- structure
both. While many distinctions can be made, it that can be identified positively with religious
can also be noted that in nine excavatedlevels ceremonies,such as a temple, is puzzling. Since
at Mohedo-Daro, for example, no significant most of later Indic thought, art, and life is
changes in the type and character of many dominated by religious concerns,and sincernost
arti&cts, such as brick size, occurs, indicating other civilizations in comparable stages of
great constancy for several centuries.Since this dcvclopment yield documentation of religious
lack of change alrnosc .eems to go against beliefs, this is surprising. Clues to some of
human nature itself, future researchmay hold the concepts fundamental to the Indus people
some important answers. It is possible that do exist, however, in the sculptures and seals
many of the cmbellishmentsthat could demon- that have been found.
 I2 FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVILIZATION

shell rvhen it rv;t

ficial types chal
subcontinent or
Thc treatmentof
Indic fashion) an
extant examPles
strictly controlled
propensity for I
torrn\. 1Ills ltneai
also in the treatr
configuration on
costumeworn by
associationswith
example, the ga
lcft shoulderis a t
potanian art, tho
onc-shoulderedg
tume suggeststha
z.z. tsearded man. From Mohcnjo-Daro, Pakistrn. Mrture I-Iar- stylc of clothing.
ippa period. Ca. 2roo rTJo B.c. Linestonc. FI: 19 cm. Nrrional ment rcinforcesth
Muscunr, Karachi.
contact, for this p
Egyptian, Mesop
Scurlturr not in later India
wherc as a moti
The sophistication and teclurological advance- The purposesof thesc sn-rrllsculpturcsarc as case,tl.retrefoil pr
nent evidencedin the organization and stmcture Lrnclearas thcir stylistic origins. It is not known fiom dre surlac
of the citics of thc Harappa civilization are also r''hethcr they were rnadc for secularor religious with a red paste'
seen in sculpttral works. Aside lronr sealsand ncccls,nor can thcir stylistic origins ancl prece- that it contribute
terra-cotta scrrlpttucs,so fcr,v stone and n-retal dents bc determined at prescnt. In general,they thc scuipture.The
. c u l p t r ' r e 'l r a v e c o r n e r o l i g l r t i n c x c a v J t i o n c do not appear to bc the tentative formuiations with its ends ha
(lcssthan two dozen are known) that the surviv- onc rvould expect in a bcginning art tradition, head,is a type se
ing examplesmLrstrepresentonly a tiny fraction Rath.-r, they reflcct a mature stagc of artistic reserved only fb
of the objects oncc proclucccl. A sculptural developn.rcntin whicl.r problems of proportion, thesefeatures,wh
traclition using nore ephemeral materials,slrch scalc,rclation offorms, and surfaceenhancemcnt on the South As
as wood, must have cxisted alongsideol and are alJcarefully workcd out. While the forn.rative seen to persista
certainly prior to, the use of stone and netal. stagcsremain undetermincd, th,-seworks can be some westetn A
All of thc sculpturcs found thrrs far are small contextualizedby comparison to Mcsopotamian direct contactbet
(the largestis only about forty centinretershigh), cxan-rplesaswell as to latcr Indic art. is not the only
and even those that arc brokcn rvorrld not have One sculpturc rcvcaling some af{initics to sharedcharacter
bccn sizablervhen complete. Interestingly, there Mesopotan-rian in-ragery is a carved limcstone a common debt t,
is considerablevariety in the typcs of stone used fragmcnt showing the head and shouldersof a continuun of ide
evcn among the few surviving exarlrples,sug- bearded man. It was found in one of the later formulation ofbor
gestirg that the Dlateials were selcctedbecausc Harappa-period levels at Mohcnjo-Daro (Fig. civilizations.
of their intrinsic beauty, not becausethey were z.z). Some scholars have suggested that the Thc individual
rvidely avaiiable in the region. In fact, the individual depicted rnight be a foreigncr, often beencalled
stonesuscd gencrally rvere not local to lorthwcst perhapsa Mesopotamian,sincethe high, straight vaious factors. :
India and Pakistan. It is likely that small pieces nose rvhich blcnds aln.rost imperceptibly into this casea headb
ofdiferent stoneswere imported through trade, the forchcad, thc full lips, and the narrow, a person of ran
pcrhaps as highly covetcd ra.,v n.raterials. slitlike eyes (one of rvhich was still inlaid with wearing of turba
 THE INDUS CIVIIZATION ,J

shell when it was found) do not seemto leflect

facial types characteristic of the South Asian
subcontinent or that occur in later Indic art.
The treatment of the beard (itselfnot a typically
Indic fashion) and hair also differs fiom any
extant examples in South Asian art in the
strictly controlled striated patterns that reveal a
propensiry for linear rather than sculptural
forms. This lineariry and abstraction is evident
a]so in the treatment of the ear as a whorllike
configuration on the side of the head. The
costume worn by the figure may betray further
associationswith wcstern Asiatic culture. For
2.3. Seated figure. Frorn Mohenjo-Daro,
example, the garment that covers only the Pakistan. Mature Harappa period. Ca.
left shoulder is a type cornmonly seenin Mcso- 2roo rTJo B.c. Alabastcr. H: 29.2 cm.
potamian art, though the popularity of a similar Nalional Muscum, Karachi.
one-shoulderedgarment in later Buddhist cos-
tume suggeststhat it may rellect a purely Indic
style of clothing. The trefoil design on the gar-
ment reinforcesthe suggestionof western Asiatic headgear is generally associated with high-
contact, for this pattern is found occasionallyin ranking individuals. The meaning of his one-
Egyptian, Mesopotarnian, and Minoan art, but shouldered garment is unclear in the Indus
not in later India, although it docs appear else- contcxt. but ir may have hed religiorrsassocia-
where as a motif in Harappe art.10 In this tions as suggested by its popularity in later
case,the trefoil pattern, which is slightly raised Buddhism. Further, the half-closed appear-
from the surface of the sculpture, was {illed ance of the slitlike eyes has led to the sug-
with a red paste wherr the piece was found, so gestion that the individual is practicing medi-
that it contributed to a polychrome efect for tation, perhaps of a type known in later Indic
the sculpture.The headbandworn by the figure, religious traditions. But such an identi{ication
with its ends hanging down the back of the must remain speculativeuntil a fuller picture
head, is a type seenin later Indic art, but usually of the Harappa culture emerges.
"foreign"
reserved only for types. Together, Another sculpturefiom Mohenjo-Daro, made
these features,which have no known precedent of alabaster, shows further associationswith
on the South Asian subcontinent and do not Mesopotamianart (Fig.2.3). This male frgure
seem to persist as Indic characteristics,suggest wears a garment that completely masks the
some western Asiatic associations.However, lower portion of his body. His seatedposture,
direct contact between the cultures at this time obscured by the garment, seemsto be a cross-
is not the only possible explanaton for the legged pose witb the left knec slightly raised or
shared characteristics.Similarities may illustrate held high by the left hand. The body is quite
) comrnon debt to an underJyingor Preexi5ting thin, and the arms and hands in particular lack
continuum of ideasll that was important in the substanceand solidity. While the head is missing,
formulation of both the Indus and Mesopotamian a strandfalling behind the right shouldersuggests
civilizations. long hair or a wig. At first glance, the figure
The individual portrayed in this sculpturehas indeed seemsto resemblea number of sculptures
often been called a priest, an assertionbasedon from Mesopotamia. Closer examination reveals
various factors. The presence of headgear, in that the rounded forms, the posture, and the
this case a headband, suggeststhat he may be treatment of drapery and hair, while posibly
a person of rank, for in later lndic art, the basedon similar or common aestheticpredisposi-
wearing of turbans, crowns, and even simpler tions, cannot be mistaken for Mesopotamian
14 FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION

2.4. Male figure, three views. Fron Harapp:, pakisran. Mature

Harappe pcriod. Ca. 2roo-r7jo n.c- Red stoDe. H: 9.3 crn.
National Muscunl, Ncrv Delhi.

types. Yet, like the prcvious sculpture, this the head and limbs. This feature is not seen in Although from
carving does not suggest the forms of later later Indic stonc sculpture, but is a comrnon static and frontal,
Indic art, either. Thus, while apparently related Harappa terra-cotta technique, The carving suggeststhat the f
to western Asiatic traditions, both seem to relates stylistically to some later Indic works, as if the weight o
expressan aspectof the Harappa civilization. but distinctionsare also present.Thus, the work resting on one lr
In striking contrast, other sculptures have rnay bc acceptedwith some certainty as a pro- createsa feeling o
been found at Harappa sitcs that bear no duct of thc Harappa civilization. Hopefully, imbalanceand thr
resemblance whatsocver to western Asiatic future scientific cxcavationswill unearth sin.rilar tion that reinforce
forms.I hc.eworks.along with rhe vastmajoriry pieces to verify this. Plece.
of Harappa artifacts, clearly document the Perhapsthe urost striking aspectof this small The unadornec
cultural indepcndence of the civilization. Fur- stanre is its naturalism. The body is subtly generateda grea
thermorc.rnrny ofthese objecrsoffer inrriguing modclcd and softly contourcd. Gentle transi- fact of the nudity
evidence of continuities bctwcen Harappa tions betwecn onc part of the body and another genitalsdoesnot r
sculpture and later Indic art. Perhaps the best arc created through sculptural means, rather fertility. The san
figurative cxample showing both the independ- than with the usc of line. For example, the {igureswhosehips
ent tradition of the Harappans and its ties to abdorninal and pectoral regions swell in a three- I o not deptcl rne
later Indic art is a small red stone statue of a dimensioualnanner and arc not defined by any body would sign
'I
nude male figure that was found at Harappa outlite or linear den-rarcation.In contrast to the and a negation.
(Fig. z.a). Unlortunarcly. becauserhe piece preceding exan.rples of Harappa sculpture, describe the hur
was not excavated under controlled conditions, thcre is a total absenceof linear design, abstract undue attention i
there is no archaeologicalproof of its eariy date. patterns, and other surface enhancement. In any case,the rea
Some have claimed that it dates from a later much of later Indic sculpture, while some mystery, for in
period.lz However, several cogent argunents linear patterns r.night be present, such as in Indic art, total r
for a Harappa-period date havc been put forth, drapcry depictions, a major emphasisis on the rather than the
including the fact that the sculpture has drillcd forns of the body, achieved, as here, through the human forn
socketsto receive dowels for the attachnent of sculpturalmeans. ments character
 THE rNDUS CrVITZATTON 15

2.5. Female figurc, fronr and back views. From Mohcnjo-Daro,

Pakistan.Mature Harapp, period. Ca.2loo ITjo s.c. Bronze.
lI: rr.j cm. National Museum, Nerv Delhi.

Although from the front the figure sccms Asian art almost suggest nudity. It is perhaps
static and frontal, the asymmetry of the back becauseof the nudity, as wcll as the accident of
suggeststhat the figure was meant to bc shown having lost the limbs and head in both cascs,
as if the weight of the body was more heavily that this figurc is so often discussedin rclation
resting on one leg than on the other. This to the Lohenipur torso of the Maurya period,
createsa feeling of implicit movement through around the third century a.c. (Fig. 4.ir). This
imbalance and thus provides a senseof anima- comparison has becn emphasizcdby thosc who
tion that reinforcesthe overall naturalism of the favor thc view that the piece from Harappa is
PleCe. not a product of thc Harappa civilization. The
The unadorned nudity of this figure has points of cornparisou are superficial, howcvcr,
generateda great deal of discussion.The n-rere for in tcchnique (the Maurya piece has a. char-
fact of the nudity and tl.redepiction of the male acteristichighly-polished surfacc),thc mcthod of
genitalsdoesnot nccessarilyindicatc sexuality or dcpicting body transitions, and the presenceof
fertility. The same would be true of fernale the socketsin the Harappa piece, thc sculptures
figureswhosc hips and breastsmight bc apparent. difller. Thc nudity of tl.re Maurya sculpture
To not depict the sexual featuresof the human might be related to a spccific religious cult.
body would signify a deliberate artistic choicc Wherlrerrhis js lnre lor t he Harapp.rpiccc can
and a negation. To represcnt them is simply to only ren.rainspeculativeat tlis tinc, for we do
describe the hun-ran form, unless, of course, not knorv who the sculpturc rcpresentsor what
undue attention is placed on their depiction. In purposeit served.In later Indic contexts,when a
a n y c a s e t. h e r e a 5 o nf o r r h c r r u d i t y r e r r a i n s. r figure is shown without clothing, as in the case
"Sky-clad"
mystery, for in both Harappa art and later of Digatrbara or Jain figures, it
Indic art, total nudity is by far thc exception is generally not for the purpose of glodfying
mthcr than the normal manner of presenting thc human body, but rather rs a syn.rbol of
the hun.ran form, although thc clinging gar- world renunciation and victory over the usual
ments characteristic of m"ny styles of South needs of the physical body. It is possible that
 OF INDIC CIVIIZATION
16 FOUNDATIONS
a similar reason explains this figure's nudity. came to servc both decorative and symboiic
A well-prcscrved statue of a female figure fuirctions in Indic art, but whether anything q
provicles a rare example of metal sculpturels
from the Harappa civilization. Quite difierent
in style fiom the red stone torso, it also shows
links to later Indic art (Fig. 2.5). Found at
Mohenjo-Daro in one of the later strata, this
nrorc than simple adornment is intended hcre
is unknown. As in tl.repreccding sculpture, the
nudity does not necessarilyimply sexuality or
fcrtility, since tl.rere is no cr.nphasison sexual
characteristics.(Perhapsbecauseof her adoles-
r
small image is probably of a date late in the centlike lankiness, no onc has suggestedthat
"mother
history of the site. Thc piece is stylistically this girl is a goddes.") Other features
quite unlikc either thc western Asiatic-type of intercst include the hair, which is ticd into a
forms or the more typically Indic forms thus bun at the nape of thc neck in a style similar to
far describedin Harappa art. It nray rePresent that worn by many South Asian womcn evcn
still another strand in this early rrt tradition. today, ancl thc facial characteristics,including
Like thc red stonc figure, the body is nude, but the hcarrylips and high forchcad. These physical
here the bodily forms are abstractcdinto long, features arc often said to be typical of the
thin, pipe-like elemcnts and have none of the Dravidians, the people who arc prevalent today
softly modeled fcshinessof the red statue. The in south India and who may havc bccn the
elongated,lanky limbs scem to show a disregard principal inhabitantsof thc Harappa civilization. I
for naturalistic proportions, yet the ovcrall Thus, this sculpture documents diffcrcnt forr-ns 2-6. Fcmalefigure
effect is one of liveliness and animation. This and trends than do thc stone sculptures and Mature Herapptp
cotla.H: ca.15crr,J
efect is largely achieved through the jaunty hrrther 'uggcstsrhe brerJrh of Hrrapps Jrr.
po.ture. with both Iegs bcnt "nd rhe lefr leg Numerous tera-cotta figures hrve been
placed slightly forward while the bcnt right recovcrcd from Harappa sites, but these di{Ier
"mother
arrn rests on thc right l.rip. This vitality has led considerabiy in stylc and decotation fion.r thc called g,
to the conrnon assumption that this figure stonc and nretal pieces. Thc terra cottas are of this designat
represents a dancer, a suggestion colored by usually norc crudely executed and, sincc they occasionallyoccu
attempts to interpret carly Indic works in light are far more comlnon! may representa popular hip or at the br
of later Indic civilization. It would bc of great art form. Il as has been suggested,stone for suggestsplegnan
interest if this figurc is a dancer, for this would sculpture was o{tcn imported, thc usc of that notherhood may
demonstratea precedent for the later emphasis rnore prccious rnateial, and of mctal (which go so far asto sa
on dance in South Asia. Howcvcr, such an would require a rclativcly sophisticatedtechnol- figure is the con
assertionis strictly speculativc,for it is impossible ogy), may have been associatedwith thc clite of it is actualor pote
to determine whether the implicd moven.rentof the society, whilc the ubiquitous terra cotta of the divine nr
the figure is that of a dance. could have servedthc artistic nccdsof the people insupportableat I
Although rhc girl is nudc. .]te is not un- as a whole. assune that the l
adorned. Shc wearsa nccklaceand hasnumerous A common subject in tcrra-cotta figures is subject in terra
banglcs on her arrns. While it is most Lrnusual the fenale. Thcse sculptures bear little rcscm- and Harappa tim,
to find an unclothed fernale in the whole range blancc to the metal girl just dcscribcd,but it is of motherhooda
of Indic art, jewelry is almost universally worn important to rcmembet that any apParent and the continuit
by figures both female and male-throughout differences have not yet bcen correlatecl to of any divine sta
thc many centudcsoftraceable Indic art. In gcn- possiblc artistic developments over time and this early emphas
eral, it is thc absence,not presencc,ofjewelry from place to placc within the Harappa civili- be a strong basis1
that is the morc notable condition. A lack of zation. Thc most corllnon typc of fen-Lalchas on women in tl
jewelry is often a delibcrately choscn means of wide hips, pcllctlikebreasts,tubular limbs, and consequently the
making a statement about an individual, such abundant .jewelry adornn.rcntsincluding ncck- Nonetheless, the r
as, for example, thc fact that he or she is a lace, girdlc, earrings,and frequently an elaboratc imagcry at this e
rcligious mendicant. (The absencc of jewclry headdres (lig. 2.6). Terra-cotta figures are A potential et
may thus proviclc a clue to the meaning of the generally smali and schematicallyrcndcrcd. Like femalesdepicted:
red torso from Harappa,) Jewelry eventually their pre-Harappa coLlnterparts,these are often by other objec
 THE INDUSCIVITIZATION 17
sites. A definite referenceto procrcatron secms
to be intcndcd in a numbcr of carvings that
represent the phallLrs (lliga). While somc of
these are abstract and may only bc infcrred to
rcpresent the phallus, others are qrite natural-
istic (Fig. u.7). Ring stonesbclieved to represent
tlre fernale generativc organ (yoni) also have
becr.rfound. Since few have been unearthedin
specific associationwith a /iiga, somc scholars
have discrcdited rhe interpretation of these
objects as iligas and yorls. Howcver, a convinc-
ing alternativc hypothesis has not been oli-ered,
:rnd bec.lrr.elingas,Lndyorrlsarc corrrrrronin
later Indic art, theseobjects m"y be acceptedas
early exan.rples.A rcligious cmphasis on pro-
creation is a phenomenon associatedwith early
agricultural societiesdcpeirdcntupon thc bounty
of nature for their well-being and survival.
2.6. Ferule fisure. From Mohcnjo-Daro, Pakistan. iater Inclic iconography, it is also
Judging frorr"eternal"
B.c. Terra
"universal"
Matule Harappt pcriod. Ca. 2roo-r7jo possible that or symbolism
cota. H: ca. rJ cm. National Museum, Ncw Delhi. is intcndecl by such objects. Thc lozl night
"born
representthe cloor through rvhich onc is
again," thcreby relating to the concept of
"motber
called goddesses," though thc aptness countless rounds of rebirths (sarrsara),which
of this designation is qucstionable. When, as figures in latcr Indic thought. The liriga would
occasionallyoccurs, a sm^ll child appcars on the representthe procreativc.aspcctof thc universe
hip or at the breast, or a bulging abdomcn (latcr, of the Hindu god Siva) and thc ncans by
sug:lests prcgnancy, at least the concept of wlrich thc cndless cycles of birtl.r, deatl.r,and
motherhood may bc verified. One ruight cvcn rebirth occur. The rcalization of nonduality,
go so far as to say that inplicit in cvery fcmale symbolizcd by the cornbination of n.Laleand
figurc is thc concept of notherhood, whether female principles, reprcscntsonc of thc cssential
it is actual or potcntial. However, the asscssn-rent goals of later Buddhist and Hindu thought.
oI thc divine n.rurre -thc goddes' a'pect r'
insupportable at this date. Perhaps it is best to
assun-rcthat the popularity of the fen-raleas a
subject in terra-cotta art from prc-Har:rppa
ancl Harappa times is associatcdwith the idcas
o f r r r o t h e r h o o..nl d l t c n c el e r t i l i t y .p r o c r e r r i o r r .
and the continuity of lifc, although thc presence
of any divine status is unknown. It is truc that
this early emphasison the fbmininc asPectmight
be a strong basisfor thc later importance placed
on women in thc major lndic religions, and
consequently tl.reir pror.ninence in Indic art.
Nonctheless,thc meaningsassociated with fcmale
i m a g e r y . r tt h i ' e . r r l yd a t er e m . u nu n c e r ( , i t t . 2-7. aiigd. Fron Mohcnjo-Drro,
A potential cmphasison the sexuality of the Pakistan. Hxrappt period. Ca.
fcmales depictcd in the terra cottas is reinlorced 23oo r7Jo B.c. Stone. whcre-
by other objects recovcred fiom Harappe aboutsof original unknown.
 ,d FOUNDATIONS OI INDIC CNIIIZATION

Another aspectof fertility symbolism in the

Hartppa culture seems to exist in thc many
representationsof bulls. On Indus seals,bulls
outnumber all othcr motifs. Bulls are com-
monly found as isolated sculpturesas well (fig.
2.8). Often, the reprcsentations are highly
naturalistic. Severaldiferent varicties of bovine
animals arc easily distinguishable. Thcse may
represent some of the domesticated animals
that werc highly valucd in society and that
2.8. Buil. From Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan- Mature came to have great economic irnportance to
Harappa period. Ca. 2rocFrzjo B.c. Terra cotta. l{: thcir owners. The bull, as potential sire of
cr. 7 cm. NarionalMu'eurn, Neu Delhi. generations of offspring, n.right have come to
have a synbolism associatedwith both wealth
and Grtility. The importance of this animal
Perhaps such symbolism grew out of beliefs may bcst be explained by examining somc of
distirguishable
as early as the Harappaciviliza- the sealsthat have been recovered from various
tlon. Harappe sites. homs of the anima
unicom is not beir
form of the anima
Srars bovine creature,re6
the number ofhorn
Over two thousand sealsand seal impressions held view about an in.rportant Dravidian com- "manger"
The is
have been found at Harappa sites.The majority ponent of the civilization, though this would objectsof this type
of sealsare made of steatitethat has becn coated not prcclude the existence of othcr linguistic the excavationsof
with an alkali and then fired to produce a white and ethnic groups anong the Harappa peoples. been used in religi
lustrous surface.l4Usually, the sealsare square Thc decodcd language lnight also provide a or may simply have
in shapc and have a perforated boss at the back key to thc interpretation of the sealsand their implicationsof the <
for handling and suspension(Fig. 2.9). They are designs. However, the seals n-ray have been fiequently shown r
generallysmall, averagingonly a fcw centimeters used as the personal marks of idcntification of animal are alsouncl
across.Despitc their srnall size, sealssometimes their owners and may contain only proper names In this seal,the s
have elaborateinraglio designsshowing animals, or titles of individuais rather than explanatory anatomicalprecisio
plants, geometric fomrs, and even s'ceneswith rnaterial. As far as can be determined, the script are clearly visible
humans or humanoids, as well as writing. The as it survivcs did not develop over the ccnturies scemsto be reserve
decipherment of the writing on the Indus seals in which the Harappa cllture fourished. Its in the seals,while hr
is perhaps the rnost vexing problcm for the origins and devclopments are thereforc as in a schematicand
interpretcr of this ancient civilization, for its enign-raticas the words it records.lo was evident from
decipherment could sumnarily prove or dis- Elcphants, rhinoceroses, and other anirnals naturalism could al
prove the numerous thcories that have bccn put appear on thc seals,but the predominant zoo- hun.ranfigure, at L
forth about the culture. Approximately four morphic motif is a profile represcntationof an texts. Obscrvation
huldred diflerent signshave been cataloguedfor anir.nalstanding in front of what has been called seen in the differe
this apparently pictographic script. To date, a manger (Fig. z.ro). Since the animal appearing animals on Indus s
there has been no confirmed decipherment, on such scalsis depicted with only one horn, it specificallydefined
although many announcements to that effect has often becn identified as a unicorn. Although zebu (Fig. 2.9), an
have been made.15The analysis of the script the Indic context does provide somc validity to Harappa cave pain
and languagcis importrnt bccauseit miy con- the identification, for a one-homed creature secondis a bisonlik
Iirm the identity of at lcast sorneof the Harappa (ekalrhga)is known in the latcr Jain religion,l? as if fecding from a
people.For example,ifit relatcsto the Dravidian thc fact that the hcad of the animal is invariably example shown (Fig
languages,it would support the commonly depicted in a strict profile, suggeststhat the two represented type
 THE TNDUSCrVITZATTON 19

2.9. Sealwirh bull design,tluec views. Fron Mohenjo-Daro, Pe-

kiscan.Mature Harappaperiod. Ca. 2roo-t7Jo B.c. Steatite.2.8 x
2.8 x r.3 cln. Departne[t of Archacoiogyof Pakistan,Karachi.

horns of the animai simply overlap, and that a

unicorn is not being showu at all. Indeed, the
form of tl.reanimal's body indicatesthat it is a
bovine crcature, regardlessof any peculiarity in
the number ofhorns.
"manger"
The is also difiicult to interpret, for
objects of this type have not yct been found in
the excavationsof Harappa sites. It may have
been used in religious ceremgniesor sacrifices
or nay sirnply have been a fecding trough. The
implications of the double-ribbed pad or harness
frequently shown across the shoulders of the
anin-ralarc also uncicar.
2.ro. Sealwith horned animal. From Mohenjo-Daro,
ln this seal,thc subtlcty of n.rodelingand the Pakistan.Matlrrc Harappa period. Ca. 2roo-r7Jo B.c.
anaton-ricalprecision cvidenced in the best seals Steatite.H: J.7cn. National Museurn,New Delhi.
are ciearly visible. Interestingly, naturalism
seemsto be reservedfor the carvings of animals
in thc seals,while hun.rrnsarc norn.rallydepicted
in a schematic and abstractedfashion. Yct, as
was cvidcnt frorn thc sr-nallrecl male statue,
naturalism could also be a cl-nracteristicof thc
human figure, at least in sonie Harappd con-
texts. Observation of natural forn-rs is further
seen in the clifercntiation of various bovine
anin-ralson Inclus seals,for at least three other
specifically defined types appear. The first is a
zebu (Fig. z.o). ln rnirrrll corrnror in pre-
Harappt cavc painting as well (Fig. r.z); the
secondis a bisonlike creaturecommonly shown
as if Geding ftom a trolrgh, though not in the z . r t . S e a is h o l v i n g b u l l . F r o u M o h e n j o - l ) a r o , P a k i s t a n .
exampleshown (Fig. z.rr); thc third is a seldom Matore Hrrappa pcriod. Ca. 2roo rTJo B.c. Steatite.
rcprescntcd type with widespread, arching H: ca. 4 cn1. National Muscum, Karachi.
 2d FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION

horns, perhaps a water buffalo. These tiny shown either ha

carvings are oftcn exccuted with great verisi- might be a comp
militude, indicating the artists' intimate visual creature)or wear
knowledge of the anatorny of the anin.nls and prised of horns,i
their possession of sophisticatcdartistic methods of the beast'sch
of r.nodelingtheir forms. "bull-man"
bc a
The emphasis on bovine animals in the In Mesopotamia
Harappa civilization may partly bc explained in drcssby a ruler w
cconomic tctn-rs.An agricultural socicty would divinity to him; t
have depended heavily on such animals as a indicatestill anoth
sourceof milk, possibly r.ncatand lcather, and as the Indus cultur
bcasts of burden. The females of the spccies The tripartite .fc
would be in-rportant as propagators of firture 2.12. Seal sho$'ing a 1og/n. From Mohcnjo-Daro, distinctively Hara
gencrations and as insurers of wealth's abun- Pakistln. Mature Hamppt period. Ca. zroo-r75o l.c. indicated, homei
dance. Nonetheiess,bulls rathcr than cows are Slealite. H: 3.4 cn. National Muscunr, New Delhi. importance in Ind
invariably depicted on the seals and in ftee- pa times, in cont
standing Harappa sculptrue. Wc know from shelter paintings
later Hindu iconography that the bull becamethe suggesr wesrem
vehicle (uahana)of Siva and also a symbol of gesturesused within the same contcxt. While important not to
sexualenjoyment. Therefore, perhapsthe prow- individual asanas and mudras ca,ne to have nections,or to in{
ess of the bull is also used in the Harappa specific comn.runicxtive content, it is dilicult of one culture to t
contcxt to symbolizeprocreativeand progenitivc to go beyond tl.re simple obscrvation that this Since the later
powers and thc rcsultant abundanceof the hcrds. and other {igurcs on sealsin similar or related associatedwith tl
Thc possibleassociationbetween early depic- configurations may bc pcrforming a religious has lent support tr
tions ofbulls and later Siva forms is strengthcned exercise or ritual. Meditation and the use of as a prototype of
by the occurrence of liitgas in the Harappa asanasand mudras are usualiy associatedwith dificult to discer
coltext, for thc linga eventually becamc an yoga and yogic practices.Yoga, which r.neans sculpture,it is por
"to
almost universal sign of the god Siva. Also, a literally yoke," refers in the broadest scnse faces,is ithyphalli
number of n-ralc figurcs on several Harappd r o b c l i c f r . r n dp r . t c r i c eb. y w h i c l r a p r r . r i r r o r r e r or has a tigerlike
"yoke"
seri. have , haractetistic< tlut srrggestassocia- attempts to or unify l.rimself with the featuresagain can
tions witir later Siva inagery. Thus, it is possible divine or universal. It is a pan-sectarianconcept nography, as can
that sonc of the beliefs and practices of thc associated with virtually every major Indic to be involved in
Harappa civilization scrved as a foundation for rcligion, including Buddhisn.r, Jaitisn, and four animalssurrc
aspectsof later Indic religion. The best,example Hinduism. Thr-rs,the apparcntreGrenceto yogic elephant, a tiger,
"proto-Siva"
of what has bcen cailcd thc on practiccs in thc Harappa civilization does not have been related
Indus seals shows a male figure seated in a necessarilysignify the roots of any one specific which he is Lord r
posturewith the solcsofhis {bet prcsscdtogether, sect; it might represent a corlmon source for While many of
his legs splayed to each side (Fig. z.rz). The a l l . I r i , i n r p o r r a n tro n o t e t h a r t h e l o g i c c o n - conrpellingargun
.rms extend away fion.r the body and the cepts, as well as the use of asanasand turltas, Si.'o"'i.ooo-g,"piy
thumbs rcst on his kneeswhilc the fingcrs point probably rcllcct indigenous developmcnts in -it is important to
downward. Neither the leg position nor the - 'r' - 'r' - - rhJt cJn be characteristics are I
arm position is one that someone would traced to westcrn Asiatic sources.Becausethese At this early date
casuallyassume.l{ather, theseare highly formal sccln to occrlr in a well-developed stage rvhen rlton pool of relig
gesturesand may rcpresent a specific asaaaand {irst encountered in Harappa art, it nlust bc of the Indic syste
-fhe 'ieat")
nfulra. terrr' asalw (literally reGrs assun.rcdthat a lcngthy period of evolution the arrangemento
ro the diffcrcnt lcg position. or:itting postures precededtl.rem. central figure sugg
usually assumedby a persouperforming mcdita- In contrast, a few elementsof this sealsuggcst diagram knom r
tion or other religious practices in later Indic al nities to conceptsand forr.nsfound through- religions.le The sp
culture. The terlli' mudrz refers to the hand out westem Asia. For example, the figure is antelopes(one ofl
 THI INDUS CIVIIIZATION 2]

shorvn cithcr having horns (in which casc, hc thc dais upon which thc figurc sits is prinarily
might be a composite, part-hunan, part-animal associatedwith later Buddhist iconography.
creature)or wearing a hcaddress,whic[ is con- The seat itself, ancl its nore cllborate countcr-
prised of horns, ir.nplying the adoption of somc part, thc thronc, is usedin latcr Indic rcligions to
of the beast'scharactcristics.Thc figure rnight signify the high rank of the person who sits
"bull-lnatr"
be a in concept, if not in actuality. upon it. It is probably inost accurxtc to assrnlc
"bull-n.ran"
In Mesopotarnia,thc wearing of a horned head- that tl.re and the acconpanying
dressby a rulcr was believed to inpart powcr or clcmcnts of this famous seal relatc to many
divinity to l.riur; thc horns shown here may thus conceptsfound in later lndic religioussystems,
indicate stili another tie, even ifindirect, betwecn inciuding Saivisur, but that these ideas arc lot
thc Indus culture and ar-rcicntMesopotauria. 1 < tc r c l u . i v el o r n ) o r c o f t l t . r n .A . s u c l rt.r r e
The tripartitc form seen here seen-rsto be scalis an important docul-ncntof a wholc rangc
distinctively Flarappan, and, as has already been ofconcepts funcllmental to tl-Lercligiots outlook
indicatcd, horned creatures clcarly had grcat of a nuniber of Indic sects.What is cspccially
importancc in Indic culture, evetr in pre-Harap- important about this scalis that, in contrastto
pe timcs, in contexts like thc Stonc Age rock r l r e i n d i ri d r r . r l . c r r l p r r r r c f. o L r n d a r H . r r . r p p a
shelter paintings, which do not necessarily sites,whose meaningscould only be discussed
suggcst western Asiatic contacts. Thus, it is in thc most spccnlativc tcrn-rs, in this small
important not to ovcrstresssuch possib)econ- composition, we have definite proof of Harappa
nections, or to infer from them an indebtedncss religious practices, involving pcrhaps an carly
of one culture to thc other. forln of yoga and possibly identity transferralin
Since the later Hind11 god Siva is sttongly lvhich a humatr takes on certain, probably
associatedwith dre bull, the l.rorned heaclclress syn-rbolic,charactcristicsof othcr crcatures.
haslcnt support to .intcrprctations of this figure It is notable that g'hile the designsof some of
as a prototype of Siva. In aclclition,rvhilc it is thc bull scals,or tbosc showillg othcr anirr-rxls,
difiicult to discern thcsc featureson such a tiny repeat amon! the corpus of Indus sea1s,t)ris
sctilpture,it is possiblethat thc figure has three exalnple and othersshowing hurnan-typc figurcs
faces,is ithyph:rllic, and either wears a tiger skin in rvirichrcligiousactivityis clefinitclyportrayed,
or has a tigerlike upper torso.18Each of these seen to have been uniqne. As a group, such
f."tor., "g"ir-, can be rclatc.l to iater Sive ico- sealsconprise only a handful of the thousands
nography, as can the fact tl.rat the figurc sccnrs o f r c " l s t l r , t h " v c b e " r r r r n , . ' r r l r c ;, rl H . r r r p p . r
to be involved in yogic practices.Further, thc sites.Perhaps these I'ere the personal propertl'
four animals surrounding the ccntral figure, an of a ferv high-ralkir.Lgindividuals in the socicty,
elephant, a tigcr, a rhinoceros, and a buffalo, w h i l " r h c o r h c r .r ' r , 1 l r r v eb e e n . 'g e n e r i rcl p c
h a v cb c e n r e l . r t e dt o S i v . r ' sP r ' u p . ' t ia r p e c r i. n c o r r ' o n r o w h o l cc ] n . " ro f p c o p l c .
which he is Lorcl of Bcasrs. Anothcr scal shou's a figure with a sinilar
Whilc rnaly of thesefeaturcssccn-rto provide headdress stalding in a U-shapcdtrcc (Fig.z.r3).
. . o n r p e l l i nJgr g u n r c n t \f o r r c l a t i n gr h c ' c . . r il o Thc lcavcsarc those ofa lildl tree, which occurs
5 r v . r c o n o g r a p l r y, n d i n d c c di r p r o b r b l y, l o r s on Pottcry asa notif as early as the pre-Harappa
it is inportant to rerlenber that rnany ofthese period. However, while thc neaning of this
characteristics are not exclusive to thc god Siva. t r e c i n e . r r l i e rc o n c c x c i. . r r r r L n o w r ri'r m . r y
A r t h r ' c r r l y d a l e .r h c y n t i g l t t i r d i c r r c . , c o r n - havc bccn depicted only becauseof tl.rebear,rty
mon pool of religious iders lrom u'hich rnany and symnetry of its leaves-it rnight bc assun.rcd
of thc Indic systclns developed. For examplc, that its depiction hcrc is n.rore significant. Thc
the arrangcment of thc four animals around the ptpal ftee is one of the few idcntifirble plant
centralfigurc suggestsa na4dala, a cosmological s p c c i c ro n H . r r . p p a. c , 1 . . l r ) p c r \ i \ l e n c er r r
diagram known in Saivism and other Indic symbol in South Asia,.particularly in Buddhisrn,
rcligions.leThe specific placcnent of a pair of whercin it bccanc Sakyamuni Buddha's tree
antelopes(one of which has broken off) beneath of enlightenment,may not be ncrcly acciclcntal.
22 TOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION

epic, in which tl
beast. However,
from the motif a
this interpretation
like forms on the
female, which wc
Enkidu imposibl
side, along with
was undoubtedly
nicate an event
everyday experi
still enigmatic.
2.r3. Sealshowing cerernonywith figuresand bull. 2.r4. Seal showing serpenrsand frgures honoring a Two other se
FrornMohenjo-Daro, Pakistan.MarureHarappa period. 1,ogir.From Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan.Mature Harappt complexities of
Ca. zroo-r75on.c. Stearite.H: ca. 3 4 cm. National period. Ca. 2roo-r7jo B.c. Faicnce.H: ca, t-z cnt? first shows three
Museun,Karachi. Presentwhereaboutsunlnown.
form (Fig. z.16),.
of the three anim
pattern. That a s
When used on seals,the plpal seernsto appear (Fig. z.ra). In this case, the seated central figure may be inferred b'
in religious contexts,zoIn this seal,for exan.rple, appears without headdress but in the same of a number bear
a complex ceremony is taking place, in which a yogic posture described in Figure z.rz. He is ple chosenshows
kneeling devotee propitiates the homed figure being propitiated by two kneeling figures, one pattems are also 1
in the tree. The kneeling figure also wears a to eithcr sidc, both of whon are backed by fiom a center, lil<
homed headdress,which suggcststhat he may serpentsrising up from the ground like cobras shoulders.Irl late
be assuming some of the characteristicsof the about to strike. The obvious resemblanceof this directionaland co
figure in the tree-perhaps a deity-by means group to later Buddhist votive scenesin which such forms. The
of identity transGrral. Behind the kneeling serpentdeities(r?agas)pay homage to the Buddha itself noteworthy
{igure is a bull, whose role here is unknown, has been noted.2zIndeed, the parallel is so close monly used by tJ
but the bull's presence reinforces a religious that the iconographic format must have con- sociated with p<
associationfor bulls (as do the homed head- tinued from this early date to later periods, Asia. Yet its app
dresses) in the Indus context. The row ofstanding although the specific meanings might have the presumeddate
figures along the bottom of the seal may also changed. into ancient India
be participantsin the events and they too wear Another seal that posesn-rany questions and have been borr<
elaborateheaddrcsscs.If identity transferral, by o{l'ersintriguing possibilitiesdepicts an anthro- Harappan usage,
which the devotee seeks unification with a pornorph and a zoomorph, each of which is tacts between the
divine essence,is truly indicated by a cor.nposi- a cornposite of several forms (Fig. 2.rJ). The pans commenced
tion such as this, this would indicate a very zoomorph is essentially a horned tiger with of the latter's civi
early source for the concept of union between clearly defined facial features, feline paws and that Indo-Aryan
the individual and the univcrsal that perrneates ears,as well as stripes and a tail, while the an- populating the Inc
later Indic thinking. In fact, this concept so thropomorph seemshuman becauseofits upright Regardlessof
strongly relates to the philosophical thinking posture and the use of its forelimbs like arms interpretations of
expressedin a body of tcxts known as the rather than like the legs of a guadruped. The generalmight see
Upanisads, believed to have been conposed lower half of the body, including the cloven or other substa
around 8oo-45o 8.c., that it might be suggested hoofs, the tail, and the horns on the head, all between the Indt
that the Upanisadscould rellect the finaiization appear to be bovine, resernbling those features culture, all of the
of conceptsthat had bcen extant since Harappe of rnlrry bullr on other 1(als.Because its gesrurcs in the realm ofpos
times.2l might be intcrpreted as an attack upon the it hasnot beenpo
A small faience scal is also startling for its zoomorph, it has been suggcstcdthat this scene relative chronolo
apparcnt rclationship to later Indic concepts representsan cvent in the Sumerian Gilgamesh developmentalas
 THT INDUS CWIIZATION 2'

epic, in which the bull-man Xnkidu attacks a

beast. However, since the precise form differs
from the motif as found in Mesopotamian art,
this interpretation is unverified. Further, breast-
like forms on the chest suggest that the {igure is
Gmale, which would make the identification as
Enkidu imposible. In any case,the tree at the
side, along with the two composite animals,
was undoubtedly carefully selectedto commu-
nicate an event outside the normal scope of
everyday cxperience,though its meaning is
still enigmatic.
Two other seals further demonstrate the 2.r5. Sealshowing compositecreaturesand tree. From
complexities of Harappa iconography. The Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan.Mature Harappaperiod. Ca.
first shows three tigers interlinked in a circular 2Ioo-rZJo B.c. Steatite. H: ca. z-4 cm? National
forrn (Fig. z.16), with the central shoulder mass Museurn,New Delhi.
of the three animals developed into a complex
pattem. That a specific diagram was intended
may be inferred by comparing this sealwith one
of a number bearing abstractdesigns,The exam-
ple chosenshows a srastlla (Fig. z.r7), but other
patterns are also found in which forms radiate
from a center, like that formed by the tigers'
shoulders. In later Indic art and architecture,
directionaland cosmic significanceis attachedto
such forms. The presence of the svastileais in
itself noteworthy, since it is a symbol com-
monly used by the Aryan peoples usually as-
sociated with post-Harappa times in South
Asia. Yet its appearancein a context prior to 2.16. Seal \irith interlinkcd tigers. From Mohenjo-
rhepresumeddateof the lndo-Aryan migrations Daro, Pakistan.Mature Harappaperiod. Ca.2toa-r75o
into ancient India suggeststhat the motif rnay B.c. Steatite.H: ca. 2-4 cm? National Mr1seum,New
Delhi.
have been borrowed by the Aryans fiom
Harappan usage, or more probably, that con-
tacts between the lndo-Aryans and the Harap-
pens commenced rnuch earlier than the demise
of the latter's civilization. Indeed, it is possible
that lndo-Aryans were among the people
populating the Indus civilization.
Regardlessof how plausible some of the
interpretations of Harappa seals and art in
generalmight seem,without written verification
or o*rer substantirl proof of the continuity
berween the Indus civilization and later Indic
culture.all of rheseintcrpretationsmust remain
in the realm ofpossibility only. In this discussion,
2.r7. Seal with sl,astikdd,esigr.r.
From Mohenjo-Daro,
it hasnot been possibleto take into account the Pakistan.Mature Harappe period. Ca. 2roo rTJo B.c.
relative chronological position of the objects, Faience.r.5 X r.6 cm. Deparlnent of Archaeologyof
developmentalaspectsof the Indus religion and Pakistan,Karachi.
 OF rNDrC CIVITZATTON
24 IOUNDATTONS
culture, nor cven interregional ramifications of pcoplc were concerned with ideas that go
thc dcvelopments. The range in style of the beyond evcryday cxpcrience even though they
sealsculpturesalone suggcstschronological and/ may have borrowed hcavily frorn it. These two No one can say
or geographicalvariations. predispositionssimiiarly coexist in the fabric of demiseof the Indr
In sorne cases,such as the reprcscntationsof later Indic thought. While they might now severalfactors,inr
the bulls (Figs. 2.9, ztr), Harappa sexlsshow a appear to be contradictory, it will be shown cultural evolution
remarkable degree of naturalism that rcllccts that they are not. In Act, their reconciliation is Some outposts o{
closeobscrvation of the physical world. Other one of the hallmarks of ancicnt India's artistic and no singlefate
seals,such as those depicting cornpositeanimals and philosophic creativity. of all settlementsi
(Fig. z.r5), clemonstratc that thc Harappa While a general d
be cited as the en
or urban phase,a
PoTTERY iarly in the south
sphere, seemsto
The same complexity and multiplicity of inter- designs range from simple to conplex and l.c. It has been t
pretation sccn in the sculpture and sealsof the from abstract to representational.The motifs deforestationof tl
Indus civilization is encounteredin the study of are often crowded into an overall pattcrn on the land lesshabitz
the painted pottery. Likc the other Harappe the surface of a vessel. An intersecting circle tions to migrate ta
art forrns, painted pottery displays affinities to design(Fig. z.r8a) had great popularity. Further, climatic changes<
both Mesopotamia and to later Indic culture the motif apparently persists,for it resurfacesin were man-madeor
while maintaining a great deal of individuality. monumental architecture of the Maurya period changesare still J
Most Harappa painted pottery is a black-on- in the third century D.c. (Fig. a.l), suggesting Mohenj o-Daro, flc
red ware, although some polychrorne wares are thc basic continuity of Indic civilization. Leaf perennial problem
also known. Harappa painted pots generally motifs, especially the pipal (Frg. z.r8b), suggest threat of continuin
display a varied assortmentof motifs, including des to both prc-Harappa and later Indic forms the gradual aband
animal, vcgctal, and geometric forms. The and may have been used symbolically. ological evidence
generations of in
suffered fiom fre
the damage was
rebuilt in a sho
decline in the urbar

2.r8. Pottery motifs. A) Intcrsectingcircle ,rotif on painted pot.

Frorn Mohenjo-l)aro, Pakist:n. Harapp, period. B) Painredpot
(black on red) r'ith pipal leafdesigrr.Harappeperiod.
 THI INDUS CMIIZATION 25

Tnr Ecrrpsr or tnl Ilrlus Ctvlrlz,arlor,t

"post-urban"
No one can say for ccrtain what caused thc l.rasbeen called a phase.zaOther
demiseof the lndls civilization. Most probably, sites seem to have been abruptly abandoned
sevcral factors, including thc natural processof with no obvious signs of r.natcrialdcclinc prior
cultural evolutiou, combined to ellect its end. to clesertion.A commonly supplied explanation
Some outpostsof the society outlastcdothers, for this phenomenon is that incrcasingnulnbers
and no single fate was rcsponsiblefor the demise of foreigners can-rcinto the area, causing a shift
of all settlementsin this widespreaclcivilization. in population distribution.
Whiie a gcncraldate of around rTJo B.c. may Scholars have debated thc exxct natLlre of
be cited as the end of thc civilization's lnaturc these nigrating peoples, but most agrcc that
or urban phasc, activity xt somc sites,particu- incursions by peoplcs fron-r the northwest oc-
iarly in the soutl.rem rcgions of the Harappa curred around the secondquarter of thc second
spherc, sccms to have continucd to about 8oo millennium 4.c., regardless of whcther they
n.c. It lras been thcorized that desiccationand contributed to thc dcmisc of the Harappa
deforestation of the lower Indus rcgion made civilization or not. Most probably, thesc incur-
thc land lesshabitable, possibly causing popula- sions did not corne at once, nor did they repre-
tions to migratc to the eastand south. Whether sent a unified effort by thc ncwcomcrs or onc
climatic changes did occur and whether they marked by violence.zs Rather, it is believed
were man-madcor the natural result ofgeological that theseshifts in population took placc ovcr a
changes are still highly arguable points.z3 At periodof.evcral hundredyerr,..rlTecting v;riorrs
Mohenjo-Daro, fooding apparently had been a places unequally. Of thc scvcral ethnic, racial,
perennial problem; therc, it is likely that thc and linguistic groups thxt may have been
threat of continuing scvereinunclationshcralded involvcd in thc displacernent of the Harappa
thc gradual abandonttrent of the site. Archae- peoples, at least one component was made up
ological cvidcnce reveals that thc last few of Aryans who probably cntcrcd the Indic lands
generations of inhabitants at Mohenjo-Daro fiom thc Iranian rcgion. The heritage of tl.rese
suflcrcd from frequent fooding. Each tirne, Indo-Aryans or Indo-Iranians26eventually be-
the darrage rvas repaired or thc dwellings came a dominant aspcctof n-ruchof subsequent
rebrrilt in a .hoddier nranncr. \uggesting a Indic civilization.
dcclinein the urbanizedcivilization itselfin what
 a

THE ART OF AN(

w1

:"'-.rr!a-\jj{>.

,.I:: a:3;'1.''

t,
ANCIENT INDIA
Buddhist,
Hindu,Jarn
by SusanL. Huntington
with contributions by John C. Huntington

WEATHERHILL
New York . Tokyo