Understanding Rheology

Ross Clark
Distinguished Research Fellow
San Diego R&D

Page 1
 Background

CP Kelco makes carbohydrate based water soluble

polymers
Fermentation
Xanthan
Gellan
Plant derived
Pectin
Cellulose gum
Carrageenan
Thirty two years!
Rheology
Particle characterization (zeta potential, sizing)
Microscopy
Sensory science
Unusual properties
Page 2
 Commonly used terms

Strain Deformation or movement that occurs in a material.

Expressed as the amount of movement that occurs in a given
sample dimension this makes it dimensionless.
Translation: How much did I move the sample?
Stress Force applied to a sample expressed as force units per
unit area, commonly dynes/cm2 or N/m2.
Tranlation: How hard did I push, pull or twist the sample?
Viscosity The ratio of shear stress/shear strain rate.
Translation: How much resistance is there to flow?
Modulus The ratio of stress / strain, expressed in force units
per unit area (since strain has no dimensions).
Translation: How strong is the material?
Extensional viscosity The resistance of a liquid to being pulled
Dynamic testing The application of a sinusoidally varying
strain to a sample

Page 3
 Types of deformation

Shear - A sliding deformation that occurs when there is

movement between layers in a sample, like fanning out a
deck of cards. May also be called torsion.
Compression - A pushing deformation that results from
pushing on two ends of a sample, like squeezing a grape.
Tension - A pulling deformation that occurs as you stretch
a sample, like pulling on a rubber band. May also be
called extension.

Page 4
 Basic Deformations

Extension (Tension)

Bending

Simple Shear

Page 5
 Laminar Shear Flow

1 Newton, force 1 Newton

1 square meter area Shear Stress
1 meter/second, velocity 1 meter 2

1 meter
separation
1meter / second 1
Shear rate
1meter second

Since viscosity is defined as shear stress/shear rate, the final units (in the SI system) for
viscosity are Newtonsecond / m2. This can also be given as a Pascalsecond since a
Pascal is one Newton / m2.

In the more traditional physics units, the units of viscosity are dynesseconds / cm2. This
is defined as 1 Poise

1 mPas (milliPascalsecond) is equivalent to 1 cP (centiPoise).

Density is sometimes included for gravity driven capillary instruments. This unit is a
centiStoke.

Page 6
 More terms

Dynamic Mechanical Analysis Typically, a solid material

is pushed in bending, tugging, or sliding in a repetitive
manner.
Common symbols used:

Type of deformation: Modulus values Strain Stress

Shear G, G, G G*
Compression /tension E, E, E, E*

Tan delta The tangent of the phase angle, delta.

Obtained as the ratio of G and G or E and E
Still used but actual phase angle ( ) seems more logical

Page 7
 Viscoelasticity measurement
Viscoelastic Response of a Perfectly Elastic Sample

Elastic materials, like a steel spring, will always

1. 2

Strain
Stress

have stress and strain when tested in dynamic

test. This is because the material transfers the
applied stress with no storage of the energy.
-1 . 2

0 10 0

Viscoelastic Response of a Perfectly Viscous Sample

1. 2

Strain
Stress
Viscous materials, like water or thin oils, will
always have stress and strain shifted 90 from
each other. This is because the most
resistance to movement occurs when the rate
-1 . 2
of the movement is the greatest.
0 10 0

1. 2
Viscoelastic Response of a Xanthan Gum Sample
Strain
Stress
Most of the world is viscoelastic in nature and
so shares characteristics of elastic and viscous
materials. The phase shift ( ) will always be
between 0 and 90.
-1 . 2

0 10 0

Page 8
 Where do G and G come from?

Viscoelastic Response of a Perfectly Elastic Sample Viscoelastic Response of a Perfectly Viscous Sample
1 . 2 1 . 2
Viscoelastic Response of a Xanthan Gum Sample
1 . 2

Strain Strain Strain

Stress Stress Stress

- 1 . 2 - 1 . 2
- 1 . 2

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0

Convert to phase angle ( ) and magnitude

and then from polar to rectangular coordinates
G (viscous)

G (viscous)

G (viscous)
G (elastic) G (elastic) G (elastic)

Page 9
 What is the use of viscoelasticity?

As crosslinks form in a material, it shows more and more

elasticity.
As molecular weight increases, most systems become
more entangled, this results in more elasticity, especially
at high deformation rates.
Samples with a high degree of viscous response tend to
not stabilize and suspend as well.
Processing of samples that are too elastic can often be
difficult.

Page 10
 Still more terms for steady shear

Rate dependent effects (how fast you shear)

A sample that decreases in viscosity as rate increases is
pseudoplastic
Alignment of chains due to flow field decreases resistance
Unusual samples can increase in viscosity as the rate goes up,
these are dilatent
Almost always are highly loaded suspensions with many particles that
lock together as the rate increase; cant get out of the way
Time dependent effects (how long you shear)
When viscosity goes down this is thixotropy; may or may not be
reversible after shear stops
If the network is robust, it is reversible
Increasing viscosity is very rare, it is called rheopectic flow. You
may never see it!
Did you see shear thinning? No!
Page 11
 Commonly encountered shear rates

Suspension

Stabilization

Sag and Leveling

Pouring
Viscosity

Mouthfeel
Dispensing
Pumping
Coating
Spraying

10 -6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 10+2 10+3 10+4 10+5 10+6
Shear Rate
Page 12
 Couette Rheometers, Design

Couette, coaxial cylinder or cup and bob

This type of geometry is

commonly used for materials that
contain suspended solids
Providing the gap between the cup
and bob is small, the exact shear
rate can be determined
Easy to control evaporation with an
oil layer on top
Higher shear rates result in
unstable flow due to centrifugal
force

Page 13
 Couette Calculations

Measured parameters: speed of rotation (rpm), torque (T),

bob radius (Rb), bob height (Hb) and cup radius (Rc)

T
=
2* * Rb2 * Hb

. 2* * rpm Rc2
=2* *
60 Rc2 - Rb2

* Newtonian flow assumed, corrections will need to be made

for non-Newtonian fluids
Page 14
 The problem with Couette flow

Initial, t=0 Newtonian Pseudoplastic

Cup Wall Bob Wall Cup Wall Bob Wall Cup Wall Bob Wall
Page 15
 Couette, nonNewtonian Corrections

For all cases except where the gap between the cup & bob is very small, that is Rc/Rb > 0.95, we must
correct for the flow field in the gap. When a more pseudoplastic fluid is tested, the shear rate in the gap
tends to be the highest near the rotating member (the bob in the case of the Brookfield). This is because the
shear stress is at a maximum at this point and the fluid tends to flow faster under high shear stress values.

In any event, we need to correct for this flow profile in the gap. This is most commonly done by assuming
that the material will obey the power law, that is = K n.

Below, a step by step procedure is listed for correction of the shear rate for non-Newtonian fluids in Couette
viscometers: .

Step #1, calculate the shear stress, on the bob using the equation for Newtonian fluids.

Step #2, calculate the value of for each of the speeds used.

Step #3, make a loglog plot of and . Calculate the value of n (slope) and b (intercept).

Step #4, determine the correction factor, as: = 1+ [ln (s)/ n] where s = Rc2
ln (s) Rb2
Step #5, determine the K value as K=b n

. .
Step #6, determine the shear rate, as =
.
Step #7, determine the viscosity, as = /

Page 16
 Couette Errors

In the table given below, the shear rate and errors associated with the Newtonian calculation of shear rate
for two different theoretical pseudoplastic fluids are given. In each case the speed of the viscometer is the
same (0.3 rpm) and the Rb/Rc calculation is given for the three different viscometer gaps.

It can be seen that the errors become very large for pseudoplastic fluids in wide gap instruments. This is
one reason to avoid the use of small spindles in the Brookfield small sample adapter or any other
viscometer.
Newtonian Pseudoplastic Error Pseudoplastic Error
Couette Gap n=1 n=0.658 (%) n=.261 (%)
Narrow 0.967 0.974 0.99 1.64% 1.063 9.14%

Moderate 0.869 0.255 0.271 6.27% 0.344 34.90%

Wide 0.672 0.11 0.127 15.45% 0.199 80.91%

An example of some of the dimensions for various Brookfield attachments is given in the table below. As you
can see, the error associated with even the best conditions (#18 bob with the small sample adapter or the
UL) is still significant, especially when the degree of pseudoplasticity of most of our fluids is taken into
account.
Bob Radius Cup Radius
(mm) (mm) Rb/Rc
Small Sample Adapter, #18 bob 8.7175 9.5175 0.916

Small Sample Adapter, #27 bob 5.8600 9.5175 0.616

UL Adapter 12.5475 13.8000 0.909

Page 17
 Effect of Couette corrections

100

Brookfield LV with SSA #27 spindle

Kreiger-Elrod corrections applied

10 Nearly
2x higher
(s -1 )

for xanthan!
Shear rate,

0.25% Keltrol
Glycerin / Water

0.1
1 10 100
Spindle speed (rpm)

Page 18
 Cone/Plate Rheometers, Design

Cone and plate

This type of geometry is

commonly used for clear fluids
without solids
If the angle of the cone is less than
about 3, there will be a uniform
shear rate in the gap
Mind the gap! Particles can interfere
since a common gap is 50 microns
A variation of this is the parallel
plate; a compromise in accuracy for
ease of use

Page 19
 Cone/Plate Calculations

Measured parameters: speed of rotation (rpm), torque (T),

cone angle ( ) and cone radius (Rc)

T
=
2/3* * Rc3

. 2* * rpm / 60
=2*
sine ( )

* Calculations are valid for Newtonian and non-Newtonian

materials
Page 20
 Cone & Plate Calculations

Side or edge view In this example, we have

0.524 mm a cone with angle, and
1.5 0.262 mm a radius, r. Providing
that the cone angle is
10 mm <~4, the following
20 mm equations give the shear
stress and shear rate.

Top View
Torque . 2 (rpm / 60)
2/3 r3 sine
10 mm If we assume a speed of 12 rpm or 1.26 rad/s:

Linear velocity @ 10 mm = 12.6 mm/sec

Linear velocity @ 20 mm = 25.2 mm/sec.
The shear strain rate is given by the velocity / separation:

20 mm Shear strain rate @ 10 mm = 48.1 s-1

Shear strain rate @ 20 mm = 48.1 s-1.

By the equation given above for shear rate we get 48.0 s-1.
Page 21
 Capillary Rheometers, Design

Capillary or pipe flow

This type of geometry can be used

with either clear fluids or ones with
solids
The device can be driven by a
constant pressure or a constant
volumetric flow
Gravity driven glass instruments are
traditional for polymer Mw
Excellent oscillatory instrument is
the Vilastic www.vilastic.com.
Superb accuracy for low viscosity

Page 22
 Capillary Calculations

Measured parameters: capillary radius (Rc), capillary length

(Lc), volumetric flow rate (Q) and pressure drop ( p)

p * Rc
=
2 * Lc

. 4*Q
=2*
* Rc3

* Newtonian flow assumed, corrections will need to be made

for non-Newtonian fluids
Page 23
 Steady shear rheological models

Used to reduce the data to a standard equation.

May provide insight into molecular processes.
Yield stress
Association or crosslink half life
Are useful to engineers needing data to plug into standard
formulas (pumping, pressure drop, pipe size).

Page 24
 Newtonian

.
Equation: =K*

Newtonian
3 6
10 10
For this graph:
5 K = 150
10

Newtonian fluids are

Shear stress
4
10
rare. Low molecular
Viscosity

weight oils and some

3
10
small water soluble
polymer molecules.

2
10

2 1
10 -1 0 1 2 3
10
10 10 10 10 10
Rate

Page 25
 Bingham Plastic

.
Equation: = o + (K *
For this graph:
Bingham K = 120
3 6
10 10
o = 20

5
10
This modification of the
Newtonian model allows
for a yield stress. This

Shear stress
4
10
Viscosity

is a force that must be

exceeded before flow
3
10 can begin.
A frequently used oil-
2
10
field model (YP and
PV).
2 1
10 -1 0 1 2 3
10
10 10 10 10 10
Rate

Page 26
 Casson

.
Equation: = o + K*
For this graph:
Casson model
10
3
10
5 K = 40
o = 20

4
10
This is a variation of the
Bingham model. It is

Shear stress
Viscosity

frequently used to
2 3
10 10 extrapolate to a yield
stress from low shear
rate data. Has been
2 successfully used with
10
chocolate.

1 1
10 -1 0 1 2 3
10
10 10 10 10 10
Rate

Page 27
 Power Law

. n
Equation: =K*
For this graph:
Power Law
3 4
10 10 K = 150
n = 0.5

2 3
10 10 The power law model

Shear stress
is the most frequently
Viscosity

used equation. It fits

a wide range of water
10
1 2
10 soluble polymers to a
more or less
acceptable degree.
Xanthan gum is a
0 1 classic power law
10 -1 10
10 10
0
10
1 2
10
3
10 fluid
Rate

Page 28
 Ellis (Power Law with Yield Stress)

. n
Equation: = o + K * (
For this graph:
Ellis or power law + yield stress
10
3 4
10 K = 120
n = 0.5
o = 25
2 3
10 10

Shear stress
Viscosity

This modification of
the power law model
1 2
allows for a yield
10 10
stress like the
Bingham. It is difficult
to fit; 2 known
parameters, 3
0 1
10 -1 0 1 2 3
10 unknowns.
10 10 10 10 10
Rate

Page 29
 Cross Model

Equation: = + o
.n For this graph:
1+ K * (
Cross model = 0.002
3 4
10 10
o = 500
3
10
10
2
K = 50
2
10
1
n = 0.8
10 1
10 This model fits

Shear stress
Viscosity

10
0 0
10
viscosity data rather
than shear stress
-1
-1
10 data. It allows for
10
-2
upper and lower
10
-2
Newtonian viscosity
10 -3
10 values. With 4
-3 -4
parameters, it
10 -7 -5 -3 -1 1 3 5
10 requires nonlinear
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Rate methods.

Page 30
 Time sweep test
1% xanthan in 0_05M N aC l AR ES time sweep

3
10

1% Xanthan in
0.05 M NaCl
50 mm parallel
plate, 0.5 mm
gap
)

23C
[dyn/cm ]
2

10 rad/s
G" (

50% strain 2
10
ARES instrument
)
[dyn/cm ]
2
G' (

1
10
5 0 .0 10 0 .0 1 5 0 .0 2 0 0 .0 2 5 0 .0 3 0 0 .0
0.0 350.0

tim e [s]

Page 31
 What is learned from a time sweep?

This is an essential first test to do on a material that is

unknown.
Tells you how long to wait to allow the sample to recovery
after loading.
Tells you how long you may need to wait between linked
tests.
Provides insight into recovery processes
Used with initial controlled shear to monitor recovery after
a process such a filling.

Page 32
 Strain sweep test
1% xanthan in 0_05M N aC l AR ES strain sweep

3
10

1% Xanthan in
0.05 M NaCl
50 mm parallel
plate, 0.5 mm
gap L i n e a r vi s co e l a sti c re g i o n
)

2
23C 10
[dyn/cm ]
2

10 rad/s
G" (

1 to 1000% strain
ARES instrument
)
[dyn/cm ]
2
G' (

1
10

0
10
1 2
0 10 10 3
10 10

Strain [% ]

Page 33
 What is learned from the strain sweep?

How does applied strain effect the sample.

Where does the structure begin to breakdown
How quickly does it breakdown
Does the material have a linear viscoelastic region.
Most do, that is where you normally do all further tests.
How wide is this range?

Page 34
 Frequency sweep test
1% xanthan in 0_05M N aC l AR ES freq sweep

3
10

1% Xanthan in
0.05 M NaCl
50 mm parallel
plate, 0.5 mm
gap
)

23C
[dyn/cm ]
2

0.01 to 100 rad/s

G" (

50% strain 2
10
ARES instrument
)
[dyn/cm ]
2
G' (

1
10
-1 0 1
-2 10 10 10 2
10 10

Freq [rad/s]

Page 35
 What is learned from a freq. sweep?

Tells us how time effects the sample.

Materials usually become stronger (modulus increases) as the
rate increases or the measurement time decreases (rate = 1/time).
If you can look at a material over a wide enough time range, most
things are the same.
Cross over points for E and E are commonly used as an
indication of the samples relaxation time (elastic and viscous
values are equal).

Page 36
 Stress ramp test
0.216% Primacel (0.36% total) in STW control

1000.0

1% bacterial 9 0 0 .0
cellulose in tap
water
8 0 0 .0
50 mm parallel
plate, 0.5 mm
7 0 0 .0
gap
23C 6 0 0 .0
)

Stress ramp from 0

to 100 dynes/cm 2
[% ]

5 0 0 .0
over a 120
(t) (

second period 4 0 0 .0

SR-2000
Yield stress:(2 0.59 dynes/cm 2 @ 139.57% strain)
instrument 3 0 0 .0

2 0 0 .0

1 0 0 .0

0.0
5 .0 1 0 .0 1 5 .0 2 0 .0 2 5 .0
0.0 30.0
2
(t) [dyn/cm ]

Page 37
 Why do a stress ramp test?

Best way to find a yield stress (catsup).

By continually increasing the applied stress from zero to some
value that will get the material to flow, we can look for a break in
the curve.
This break indicates when the material structure was substantially
broken.
Both the yield stress and yield strain are important.
Yield strain should be a little larger than the LVR limit.

Page 38
 Temperature sweep test
Figure 1. E ffect o f A P V G aulin H o m o genizatio n o n G ellan G um S et T em perature

3
10
C o n tro l Ts~ 97C
0.5% gellan gum T re a tm e n t # 1 T s 8 2 C
in 4 mM CaCl 2 T re a tm e n t # 2 T s 7 4 C

50 mm parallel
plate, 0.5 mm
gap
23C
Dynamic test at 10
2
)

10 rad/s and 5%
[dyn/cm ]
2

strain
G' (

ARES instrument
with Peltier
heating / cooling

S e t te m p e ra tu re d e fi n e d a s G ' va l u e
10
1 o f 1 0 d yn e s/cm 2

4.0
6 5 .0 7 5 .0 8 5 .0
55.0 95.0
< ------ C o o l i n g te st ru n fro m h i g h te m p to l o w < -------
Tem p [C]

Page 39
 Why do a temperature sweep test?

Commonly used to find Tg in a material

Point at which the structure changes due to temperature
Used to find melting temperatures of samples.
Materials like gelatin can change from a liquid to a solid
Find the amount of thinning that occurs with heating to
predict performance and design process equipment

Page 40
 Creep test
1% xanthan in 0_05M N aC l creep test

3 2
10 10

1% Xanthan in
0.05 M NaCl
50 mm parallel
plate, 0.5 mm
gap
23C

stress(t) (
)

50 dynes / cm 2

[dyn/cm ]
stress
2
[% ]
Strain(t) (

10

2
)
1 1
10 10
1 0 0 .0 2 0 0 .0 3 0 0 .0 4 0 0 .0 5 0 0 .0 6 0 0 .0 7 0 0 .0 8 0 0 .0
0.0 900.0

tim e [s]

Page 41
 What is learned from a creep test?

When a material is subjected to a constant stress (force) it

will flow easily if it has the characteristics of a liquid and
less if it is solid-like.
Can be used to fit data to spring-dashpot models.
Materials with a high amount of creep may be too fluid-like
(elastomers).
Some materials that are very elastic may not store energy
or dampen properly.

Page 42
 Spring and dashpot models
Used to provide a physical model of a materials properties
Spring-represents a Dashpot-represents a
perfectly elastic element perfectly viscous element

This represents an idealized creep curve with the data

fitting a single relaxation or retardation time. E1
represents the initial elastic deformation, 1 represents
the creep flow or steady state viscosity and the E2 + 2
E1
combination provides a retarded flow that can be used to
determine a characteristic time of a material.
E2
strain

E2+ - Relaxation time

E1
time
Page 43
 Relaxation test
1% xanthan in 0_05M NaC l AR E S s tres s relaxation tes t #3

2 3
10 10

1% Xanthan in
0.05 M NaCl
50 mm parallel
plate, 0.5 mm
gap
23C
)

s tre s s (t) (
50% strain

[d yn /c m
ARES instrument 1 2
S tra in (t) (

10 10
[% ]

2
]
)
0 1
10 10

0 .0 5 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 5 0 .0 2 0 0 .0 2 5 0 .0

tim e [s ]

W e d n e s d a y , S e p te m b e r 0 6 , 2 0 0 0 R o s s C la r

Page 44
 Startup (stress overshoot) test

8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0
)
[Pa]
stress(t) (

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0 900.0 1000.0

Strain [%]

Page 45
 What is learned from a stress overshoot?

How does the sample behave as the structure is broken

down by a large strain
Comparable to a dynamic strain sweep
The overshoot test is done in steady shear
Applies more strain than strain sweep
Strain is not oscillatory but steady
This mimics many filling and dispensing operations

Page 46
 Creep frequency transform
G ', G " from 1% xanthan in 0_05M N aC l creep test

3
10

1% Xanthan in
0.05 M NaCl
T h e se d a ta a re fro m a fre q u e n cy sw e e p cu rve
50 mm parallel
plate, 0.5 mm
gap
)

23C
[dyn/cm ]
2

Frequency sweep
G" (

data collected
with auto stress 10
2

adjust. Strain
)
[dyn/cm ]

controlled from
2

20 to 50%
G' (

Creep data
collected at 50
dynes / cm 2 stress
SR-2000
instrument
These data are from a transform ation of
the creep cu rve data.
1
10
-2 -1 0 1
-3 10 10 10 10 2
10 10

Freq [rad/s]

Page 47
 Why use a creep freq. transform?

Creep tests provide data at longer times.

Two tests (creep and frequency) + transformation can give
more data in less time that a single longer frequency test.
Use an applied stress that yields a creep strain roughly the
same as what was applied in the frequency sweep.
Use in reverse to predict creep from frequency sweep
data. Useful in your instrument is not controlled stress.

Page 48
 Relaxation frequency transform

3
10

1% Xanthan in
0.05 M NaCl
50 mm parallel
plate, 0.5 mm
gap
)

23C
[dyn/cm ]
2

Frequency sweep
G" (

data collected
with auto stress 10 2
adjust. Strain
)

controlled from
[dyn/cm ]
2

20 to 50%
G' (

Creep data
collected at 50
dynes / cm 2 stress
Solid lines from relaxation data Dashed lines from frequency sweep
SR-2000
instrument

1
10
-3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 3
10 10

Freq [rad/s]

Page 49
 Why use a relaxation freq transform?

Sometimes relaxation tests can collect data a shorter

times that other tests.
Extending the data to shorter times aids understanding.
This is a sort of impact test and can simulate some short
time processes.
Can serve as a confirmation of the data collected with
another type of test.
Use in reverse to obtain relaxation data from frequency
sweeps.

Page 50
 Time Temperature Superposition

Characteristics of viscoelastic materials vary with both

time and temperature.
We can trade temperature for time and get more
information quickly
But. Only if our material does not change state over the
chosen temperature range

Page 51
 TTS data
[Pg13]:TTS Session--TTS O verlay C urve

6
10
0.5% gellan gum
in 4 mM CaCl 2
25 mm parallel 5
plate, 0.5 mm 10

gap
-35 to +55C
)
[dyn/cm ]
2

Frequency sweep 10
4

data collected at
G" (

10% strain
ARES instrument
)
[dyn/cm ]
2

3
10
G' (

2
10

1
10
0 1 2
-1 10 10 10 3
10 10

Freq [rad/s]

Page 52
 TTS data after shifting
[Pg18]:TTS Session--TTS O verlay C urve

7
10

Data shifted with

two dimensional
residual 6

minimization. 10

Cubic spline
interploation
)
[dyn/cm ]
2

5
10
G" ( )
[dyn/cm ]
2

4
10
G' (

3
10

2
10
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
-6 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 2
10 10

Freq [rad/s]

For more information concerning minimization methods developed by Brent and Powell, see W. H.
Press, et. al., Numerical Recipes in C, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0 521 43108
Page 53
 TTS master curve

7
10 90.0

80.0

106
70.0
)

60.0
[dyn/cm ]

PhaseAngle (
2

105
G" (

50.0

[]
)
[dyn/cm ]

40.0
2

4
10
G' (

)
30.0

20.0
103

10.0

2
10 0.0
-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 2
10 10

Freq [rad/s]

Page 54
 Practical tips 1

Know your instrument

Torque limits
Most manufacturers stretch the truth; confirm with standards!
Rotational speed limits
Computerized instrument isolate the user; you need to know if you are
asking the impossible
Frequency limits
Very low frequencies might not be accurate
High frequencies might have roll off in strain or inertial problems
Strain limits
In a digital world there is a limit to the bits of resolution
No substitute for being able to see the actual waveforms
Temperature accuracy
Dont assume it is correct!
Does the temperature controller over or undershoot
Controlled stress instruments are a problem
Samples fundamentally react to strain

Page 55
 Practical tips 2

Pick the best test geometry

Cone and plate is ideal
Small volume
Uniform shear rate
Cant be used with varying temperatures
Cant be used if solid particles > 25% of the gap are present
Common gap is 50 microns!
Parallel plate a workable compromise
Not a uniform shear strain or rate
Relatively insensitive to temperature changes
Handles solid particles better
Common gap is 1 mm
Reduce the gap to 50-100 microns to achieve a higher shear rate
Couette is good for larger samples
Usually need 5-20 ml samples
Easier to control evaporation
Needs corrections in most cases.
Poor choice for high shear (Taylor instabilities)

Page 56
 Practical tips 3

Sample loading sensitivity

Select the best way to load the sample
Cast or form a gel in place
Cut a gel and put between parallel plates
Spoon or pipette
Use time sweeps to determine the effects of loading
How long to wait before you begin testing
Determine if evaporation control is important
Either recovery time or temperature are considered
Strain limits (stay in the Linear Viscoelastic Region)
In most cases you have to work here
Consider the LVR when picking frequency sweep parameters
Can your instrument control strain?
Does it back up and start over if the strain limit is exceeded?
Consider the LVR strain when picking a creep stress
Page 57
 Practical tips 4

What are you really interested in?

Dont measure samples blindly; consider what is important
This is not reading tea leaves! Be selective with testing
For a uniform type of sample with small variations:
No time or strain sweeps needed
Mw and crosslinking can be measured with a frequency sweep
Monitor modulus as a function of time?
Is melt important?
If samples vary widely:
LVR strain is likely to vary; an important characteristic
Network rearrangement can be measured with creep
Setting or melting might be revealing

Page 58
 Most overlooked tests

Creep (constant stress)

How networks rearrange
Transformation to convert to frequency sweep
Step shear rate
Low High Low for time dependency
Never, ever, use a thixotropic loop test Please!
Temperature ramps
Even if TTS is not used, can still find about phase changes
TTS cannot be used if there is a phase change!
Stress ramp
Many materials have a functional yield stress
Philosopical arguments aside, yield stress is practically present in
many materials
Oscillatory capillary test (Vilastic)
Developed for biological fluids with weak structures

Page 59
 Most overused tests

Flow curve (viscosity versus shear rate)

Are steady shear tests even appropriate
Did thixotropy get covered up?
Increase or decreasing speed?
Steady increase (ramp) or stepwise (sweep)?
Thixotropic loop
Ramp up and down
Area in between supposed to be thixotropy
Often is inertia in the instrument instead

Page 60
 In conclusion

Rheology is complex but understandable

Experts often are not consulted (ask, we want to teach!)
Expertise is more important than intuition about what test to use
Tremendous evolution in the last 15 years
Historical literature can be a disadvantage; start fresh
A great deal of misinformation in the literature
For example, lack of strain control in stress controlled
instruments
Manufacturers are not good sources of information
Some exaggeration and distortion
Still more tests available:
Solids testing
Extensional properties of fluids
Optical rheology
Micro-rheology

Page 61