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 An exploration of fungi in the Anamalai hills

Fungus
Among Us

Ranjini Murali
P Jeganathan
t r shankar raman
divya mudappa
 An exploration of fungi in the Anamalai hills

Fungus
Among Us

Ranjini Murali
P Jeganathan
t r shankar raman
divya mudappa
Suggested citation
Murali, R., Jeganathan, P., Raman, T. R. S., and Mudappa, D. 2012. Fungus among us: An
exploration of fungi in the Anamalai hills. Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore.

This text of this document is licensed under Creative Commons

Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0. Copyright for images
remain with the respective photographers.

Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Kalyan Varma and Pavithra Sankaran for helping design this book and for
their valuable suggestions. We are extremely grateful to Dr. N. Parthasarathy, Dr. Vadivelu
Kumaresan, Dr. Gunasekaran Senthil Arasu, Dr. James Lindsey, Ms. Tanya Balcar, Mr. Robert
Stewart, and the members of the mushroom expert forum for help with identification of
the various genera. We would especially like to thank Dr. Tom May from Royal Botanic
Gardens Melbourne for taking the time and trouble to give us detailed comments that
helped improve this booklet. We thank Atul Joshi for bringing the bioluminescent fungi to
our attention. We also thank all the photographers for their generous contributions.

[The authors accept the responsibility for any errors that remain and would appreciate
comments, corrections, and suggestions to be sent to: [email protected]]

Financial support
M. M. Muthiah Research Foundation, Chennai
Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore

Design
Kalyan Varma and Pavithra Sankaran

Cover photos (Kalyan Varma)

Front: Calocera; Back: Underside of Filoboletus
 CONTENTS

About Fungi 1

Anatomy 2

Universal veil 3

Reproduction 4

Dispersal of spores 5

Interesting facts 6

Field identification 7

Cap and stem fungi 8

Jelly fungi 24

Coral and club fungi 30

Shelf and bracket fungi 34

Other fungi 46

References 55

Index 56

Photo credits 56
 About fungi

Mushrooms and clubs, yeasts and moulds, morels and trufflesdespite their great differences
in colour, size, structure, shape, texture, and smellsare all different kinds of fungus. Fungi are
distributed all over the world and range from single-celled to multi-celled organisms. They are
found everywherein the soil, in the oceans, in the food we eat, and even in the air we breathe.
Biologists believe that there are at least 100,000 to 250,000 species classified within the King-
dom Fungi. In India alone, over 27,000 species of fungi have been reported so far, although
many species surely await discovery.
Fungi grow well under moist and warm conditions, in the presence of suitable nutrients.
Fungi lack chlorophyll (the green pigment that helps plants manufacture their own food) and
hence have to depend on external sources for their energy requirements. Most of them are
saprotrophic, that is, they obtain their nutrients by growing on dead animal and plant remains.
Some fungi are parasitic and depend on other living organisms for their food at the expense
of the latter. Many fungi are symbiotic, locked in a mutually-beneficial relationship with other
living organisms as in the lichens that are associations of algae and fungi. Bioluminescence,
the emission of visible light by living organisms, is also observed in fungi. Excess light energy is
released due to an oxygen-dependent reaction causing the fungus to glow. It has been reported
in about fifty species of fungi, two thirds of which belong to the genus Mycena.
The portion of a fungus usually visible to us, such as a mushroom emerging from the soil or
a bracket attached to a tree trunk, is the fruiting body. The fruiting body is designed to spread
the single-celled reproductive spores of the fungus. The more obvious larger fungi are usually
seen on the forest floor, on dead tree stumps, on living trees, in grasslands, and sometimes
even on insects or other organisms.

Importance of fungi
Fungi break down plant and animal matter and recycle important elements like carbon and ni-
trogen back into the natural environment. There are innumerable fungi that are beneficial and
many that are harmful to man. They are used in the synthesis of antibiotics like penicillin, in the
fermentation of bread, alcohol, and various foodstuffs, and they can be a good source of nutri-
tion. At the same time, fungi are also responsible for diseases of various crops, for the spoilage
of food, and for various infections in humans and animals.

In this booklet

The rainforests of the Anamalai hills in the Western Ghats provide ideal conditions for the oc-
curence of a wide diversity of remarkable fungi. This booklet presents a brief introduction to
the rich diversity of fungi in the Anamalai hills, which we hope will encourage naturalists to
observe this fascinating group in the field. The fungi are identified only to the Genus level and
are grouped according to their macroscopic features with each group having a different colour
code. In this booklet, we deal only with macrofungi (large fungi with visible fruiting bodies. )

Facing page: Bioluminescence as observed in Mycena (Photograph from Kodagu, Western Ghats)

1
 A n at om y

A typical macrofungus is made up of the fungal body and the fruiting body. The fungal body is
present year-round in the substrate (such as soil or wood) and produces fruiting bodies when
conditions are favourable for their growth.

The fungal body The fruiting body

This is called the thallus and is either single This fruiting body (or sporocarp) is made
celled or forms thread-like structures. The up of hyphal tissue. It supports the spore-
thread-like structures are called hyphae producing tissue, the hymenium. A fruiting
and are present in the substrate. They come body typically has a stipe (stalk) and a pileus
together to form mycelia that produce (cap). The hymenium is usually confined to
fruiting bodies on the surface of the the underside of the cap. It may be in the
substrate. form of lamellae (gills), pores, spines, or even
enclosed in the fruiting body. Sometimes
the fruiting body is directly attached to the
substrate without a stem.

Top: Anatomy of a fungus fruiting body

Bottom: Close-up of the hymenium bearing spores
2
 Universal veilS

Veils are cobweb-like or membranous protective tissues that cover different parts of the fruiting
bodies of many fungi (particularly mushrooms) early in their development. The universal veil
covers the whole fruiting body. With maturity, the universal veil ruptures, leaving patches or
warts on the cap and a cup-like structure at the base of the stem, called the volva. The partial
veil covers the developing gills, joining the stipe to the edge of the cap. When the partial veil
ruptures at maturity, it leaves an annulus (or ring) on the stem.

Top left: The partial veil left on the stem as a ring; Top right and bottom: Warts left on the cap from
rupture on universal veil
3
 R e pro d u c t i o n

Fungi reproduce both asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction may occur by the frag-
mentation of hyphae, budding of vegetative cells or by formation of various kinds of asexual
spores. Some of these spores are thick-walled and enable the fungus to tide over unfavourable
conditions, forming hyphae only when the environmental conditions favour the survival of the
fungus.
Sexual reprodution introduces the possibility of variation into the population. It takes
place after the fusion of two compatible hyphae of different mating type (e.g. + and -). These
form a dikaryon which eventually produces a new fruiting body. Sexual spores are produced by
the fruiting body.

Fruiting body releases spores

from gills

Spores of + and mating type

Hyphae from compatible spores

fuse to form dikaryon, with
fruiting body primordium

Spores germinate to form

hyphae

Diagram depicting sexual reproduction with spore formation in basidiomycete fungi

4
 D i s p e r s a l o f s por e s

The main function of the fruiting body is

to disperse the spores and this is done in a
variety of ways using nature's elements to
their advantage.
Most of the spores are spread with the
help of the wind. The gills of the ink caps
(Coprinus sp.) slowly dissolve projecting their
spores into the air.
Other fungi such as the bird's nest
fungus (Cyathus sp.) use water. As the name
suggests, the fruiting body of this fungus
looks remarkably like a bird's nest. It is made
up of a small cup inside which nestles a few
egg-like peridioles. These egg-like peridioles
are actually small capsules with spring-like
threads attaching them to the cup. If a
raindrop falls into the cup, the droplets are
deflected such that the capsule is detached
from the cap and projected up to two metres
in the air. With the help of their threads, the
capsules attach themselves to a leaf or a twig
and release the spores when the conditions
are right.
Puffballs produce a powdery mass of
spores inside a ball-shaped structure. At
first the interior is solid but at maturity it is
filled with the powdery spore mass. When
raindrops fall on the puffball, the pressure on
the surface pushes spores through the stoma
(a small apical opening).
Insects are also used by some fungi
for dispersal of spores. The fungi produce
an odour that attracts various insects, thus
effectively using them to disperse their
spores, in a manner similar to flowers that
use insects for carrying pollen.

Top right: Bracket fungi release spores that are dispersed by wind currents; Middle right: Bird's
nest fungus; Bottom right: Flies, probably spore dispersers, on a fungus
5
 I n t e r e s t i n g fa c t s

Interactions with other organisms

Almost all organisms on earth interact

with fungi in one way or another. Some
are beneficial only to the fungus, some
benefit both the organisms, and some are
detrimental to the fungus.
Mutualistic relationships between fungi
and ants have been well documented. The
leafcutter ants of South Americabelonging
to two genera Atta and Acromyrmexare
well known as ants that farm fungi. They
actively cultivate fungi by feeding it plant
material and keeping it free of pests and
other moulds. In return, the fungi provide the
ant larvae with nutrition. Different species
of ants cultivate different species of fungi all
belonging to the Family Lepiotaceae.
Symbiotic relationships between fungi
and the roots of trees are called mycorrhizal
associations. These occur in most plant
species and it greatly improves the
absorption capacity of the roots; in return,
the fungi gain access to carbohydrates.

Fairy ring

A naturally occuring ring of mushrooms

which can be up to ten metres in diameter is
a fairy ring. It can be found in the forest floor
or in grasslands. The ring-like shape is a result
of even growth of fungi hyphae in the soil
outwards from initial germination of a spore
There are several myths surrounding fairy
rings. In western Europe, it was popularly
believed that fairy rings were caused by elves
and fairies dancing, and tragedies would
befall any person who entered this ring.

Top: Leafcutter ants carrying leaves to cultivate their fungus; Middle: Lepiotaceae, commonly
cultivated by ants; Bottom: Mushrooms forming a fairy ring
6
 F i e l d i d e n t i f i c at i o n

The study of fungi is called mycology. Field identification of macrofungi is based on the fruiting
body. Although fungi are around at all seasons, the monsoon is the best time to look for fungi.
Careful observation of fruiting body, the form of the under surface, the gill attachment and the
spore deposit colour are essential for field identification, at least to the level of the genus.

The fruiting bodies can be of different colours, shapes, and sizes. It is important to note the
size, the colour, the texture, and the smell of the fruiting body.

The under surface of the cap can have gills, spines, or pores. It is important to note the spac-
ing of the gills or the size and shape of the pores. The colour of the under surface must also be
noted.

Note that the attachment of the gills to the stem can be of various kinds such as extending on
to the stem, attached to a collar, or separated from the stem.

Photos highlighting various features to take note of while identifying fungi

7
Cap and stem fungi
Commonly called mushrooms, these fungi have soft, fleshy caps with more-or-less
central stems. The fruiting body appears only for a short period of time while the
fungal body lives within the substrate permanently. The spores are produced on
the underside of the cap on gills, spines, or pores.
 Amanita

This genus contains more than 900 species and includes some of the most toxic mush-
rooms known, as they contain alpha-amanitin, a highly potent toxin. Amanita species are
recognised by their pale gills that are usually free from the stem. A universal veil is present,
which is a tissue enclosing the button mushroom, protecting the immature mushroom.
As the mushroom matures, this veil ruptures and is left on the mushroom cap as warts or
or on the base of the stem as a cup-shaped volva. A partial veil may also be present, leav-
ing a ring on the stem. Some Amanita species develop a reddish or brownish discolouration
as they age or if they are injured. The cap margin may be lined with prominent striations.

Facing page: Profile of Amanita; Top: Upper surface of Amanita

9
 Agaricus

These mushrooms are terrestrial saprotrophes and have caps which are not brightly coloured.
At maturity the gills are free or almost free from the stem and are varying shades of brown. The
Agaricus have a partial veil that forms a ring on the stem. Many commonly cultivated mush-
rooms belong to this genus. They have pure white or whitish flesh that can stain red or yellow on
bruising. The cap and stem is mostly white. Agaricus is found growing on the ground, on wood
chips or other organic debris. This is an extremely large and complex genus.

Right: Agaricus with the annulus on the stem

Left: Cap of Agaricus
10
 Panaeolina

These are saprotrophes and decompose grass litter, forest litter, or dung. Species of this genus
are identified by their small size and conical or bell-shaped caps that are greyish, brownish, or
blackish in colour. They have thin fragile stems. The cap is egg-shaped on young specimens. As
the mushroom matures, the gills range from grey to black and are often mottled when mature.
They are commonly found growing in elephant dung, especially after some rains.

Top: Panaeolina growing from elephant dung

Bottom: Colour variations of Panaeolina
11
 Coprinus

These are saprotrophes, decomposing wood,

dung, and forest litter. Their spores, when
dissolved, form a black, inky substance that
can be used as writing ink. Hence, their
common nameink cap fungus. The gills
start dissolving from the margin inwards and
the spores are shot into the air just before
the dissolving process reaches the point in
the gills where the spores are produced.
The gills are usually very crowded and are
attached to a wheel before being attached
to the stem. The more-or-less oval caps of
young mushrooms start to flatten as they
grow older. A ring is present on the stem.
The genus Leucocoprinus looks very similar
to Coprinus, but has white gills that do not
become inky.

Top left: Coprinus growing in a cluster; Bottom left: spores forming inky substance on underside;
Top right: Upper surface of Leucocoprinus; Bottom right: Under surface of Leucocoprinus
12
 Gymnopilus

This mushroom is typically orange to rusty

brown, often with a well-developed veil. They
produce a large amount of orange to rusty-
brown spores. The cap is convex when young
and as it matures, it slowly becomes plane,
and finally depressed at the centre. They are
commonly found growing on wood.

Top right: Upper surface of Gymnopilus; Top left: Close-up of the cap
Bottom: Lower surface of Gymnopilus with gills
13
 Macrolepiota

The fruiting bodies of this species are big and fleshy with squamules (minute scales) present on
the cap. White- to cream-coloured gills with white spores are present on the lower surface. A
prominent ring is present on the stem which is often movable. Sometimes, a cup-like volva is
present at the base of the fruiting body.

Macrolepiota, with squamules on the cap, growing on the forest floor

14
 Galerina

The species of this genus are often seen growing in clusters on wood. The cap may be coloured
orange to rusty brown, which may fade with age. The cap margin is more-or-less wavy. They
have a slender and brittle stem with a distinct ring on the stem below which the stem is fibrous.

Top left: Galerina growing on dead wood; Top right: Close-up of Galerina cap;
Bottom: Lower surface with the gills directly attached to the stem
15
 Stropharia

Stropharia are commonly seen in the tropics during the rainy season growing out of dung piles.
They are known to occur in forests and grasslands, growing in the leaf litter. Certain Stropharia
species have cells with finger-like projections called acanthocytes that have the capacity to kill
free-moving nematodes. Once the nematode is killed, the fungus then feeds on it.

Stropharia growing on elephant dung in a grassland

16
 Filoboletus

Filoboletus is a common saprotrophic mushroom with pores present on the underside. It is

commonly found growing in the tropics. The caps are small and smooth with a tough rubbery
texture. The caps appear regularly patterned with small circles due to the pores being visible
through the cap tissue. Often seen growing in clusters, some species are bioluminescent.

Top left: Upper surface of Filoboletus ; Top right: Lower surface of Filoboletus with pores
Bottom left and right: Colour variations of Filoboletus
17
 Boletus

Boletes are fleshy pore fungi that look like typical mushrooms but have pores instead of gills on
the lower surface. Boletus is one of the common genera of boletes. Their caps have soft, firm
flesh and solid stems. The flesh of some boletes changes colour to blue or red when exposed to
the air such as when the fruiting body is cut in half. The veil may be present on the stem as a ring
in the adult Boletus. All boletes form mutually beneficial associations with trees.

Boletus with a fleshy cap, growing on the forest floor

18
 Omphalotus

There are nine species known in this genus, which are fairly easy to identify. Most of them grow
in clusters on wood. The cap is strongly depressed and funnel-like. The gills extend onto the
stem. Omphalotus species are bioluminescent, producing a greenish light that is sufficient to
read with at night. Omphalotus is poisonous and care should be taken to distinguish it from the
similar-looking Pleurotus.

Top: White Omphalotus growing on a fallen log and view of underside (inset)
Bottom: Orange Omphalotus growing on a log and view of underside (inset)
19
 Microporus

This is one of the most common fungi found in the Asian, African, and Australian tropics. The
fruiting body is circular with a centrally- or laterally-located stalk. The stalk often has an ex-
panded foot at the base. The cap is rounded and depressed or flat with characteristic zones.
Very small, white- to cream-coloured, rounded pores (5 10 per mm) are present on the under
surface. The surface of the fruiting body is very tough. They are adapted to resist drought as
they have modified spores that withstand desiccation. They are commonly found growing on
dead wood.

Top right: Upper surface of Microporus with zones; Top left: Microporus with a stem that is funnel-
shaped at the base; Bottom: Microscopic pores of Microporus
20
 Marasmius

These mushrooms have a tough, leathery

texture, with a characteristically long,
thin stem. The cap is radially wrinkled and
variously coloured with broadly-spaced gills.
In most species, the gills are attached to a
wheel or collar rather than the top of the
stem. The cap has distinct radial grooves
sometimes with a dark navel present in the
centre. They are commonly found growing on
the leaf litter and on tree trunks.

Left: Marasmius with thin, long stems (picture from Australia); Top and Bottom right: Marasmius
growing on a fallen log
21
 Hygrocybe

These fungi have convex to conical, slimy or dry, brightly-coloured caps. The caps may be red-
dish, yellow, or greenish in colour and shiny. The caps maybe waxy and translucent and this
feature is particularly evident in the gills which are relatively thick and widely spaced. In most,
the stems are also brightly coloured.

Top: Hygrocybe growing on the forest floor

Bottom: Waxy caps of a possible Hygrocybe; Facing page: Omphalotus
22
The three major ways of making a living
in our world are well represented by
plants (production), fungi (reduction),
and animals (consumption).
~ Stephen Jay Gould, Ever Since Darwin
J e l ly f u n g i
The fruiting bodies of this group have a consistency of jelly, hence their common
name. The fruiting bodies become shriveled when dried but when rehydrated,
they regain their former consistency. They have no stem, gills, pores, or spines.
They belong to three orders: Tremellales, Auriculariales, and Dacrymycetales.
 Auricularia

Commonly called jelly ear, Auricularia are saprotrophes that grow on dead and decaying wood.
The fruiting body is usually reddish brown in colour with a gelatinous texture. It is wavy and ir-
regular with velvety, fine hairs on the upper surface of the cap.

Top left and right: Upper surface of fruiting body; Mid left: Under surface; Bottom left: Auricularia
on dead wood; Bottom right: The lower surface of Auricularia with irregular projections
25
 Tremella

All Tremella are parasitic on other fungi, particularly on fungi that grow on wood. The fruiting
body is gelatinous. It may be small and cushion-shaped or large and variously lobed.

Brain-like Tremella with variously-lobed fruiting body, growing on wood

26
 Calocera

This fungus has brightly coloured, jelly-like, conical to club-shaped fruiting bodies. They
maybe be erect or branched and attached to a common base. They are commonly found
on damp, decaying wood.

Jelly-like fruiting bodies of Calocera growing on damp wood

27
 Dacrymyces

The gelatinous-textured fruiting body is

brightly coloured, ranging from yellow to
orange. It is a saprophyte usually growing on
wet and decaying wood.

Dacrymyces photographed on moist surfaces

Facing page: Bird's nest fungus
28
If you can approach the worlds complexities, both its
glories and its horrors, with an attitude of humble curiosity,
acknowledging that however deeply you have seen, you have
only scratched the surface, you will find worlds within worlds,
beauties you could not heretofore imagine, and your own
mundane preoccupations will shrink to proper size, not all
that important in the greater scheme of things.
~ Daniel C. Dennett
Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon
 C or a l a n d c l u b f u n g i
This group of fungi have either single, club-shaped or branched fruiting bodies
that make them look like underwater corals. They lack gills, pores, or spines, and
bear their spores on the sides of the club.

30
 Xylaria

The club fungi of this genus are saprotrophes that grow on fallen logs. The fruiting body is club-
shaped and black in colour. However, when young it is pale, with a whitish tip. These are com-
monly called dead man's fingers.

Top: Xylaria on wood; Bottom left to right: Young Xylaria with white tips, close-up of club-shaped Xy-
laria, thinner and longer Xylaria; Facing page: Clavaroid fungus
31
 Clavaroid fungi

The fruiting bodies of these fungi are club-shaped or extensively branched, resembling under-
water corals. Spores are present on the sides of the clubs. They are found growing on the ground
or on decaying wood. One of the larger genera of coral fungi is Calvaria, and hence this group is
also called clavarioid fungi. Other genera are Clavulina and Ramaria, which also has numerous
species. The spore deposit (seen when fruiting bodies are placed on paper and left overnight) is
whitish in Clavaria and Clavulina, but ochre brown in Ramaria. Some of the clavaroid fungi are
brilliantly coloured, like Clavaria zollingeri that is a beautiful purple.

Top: Clavaroid fungi with few branches

Bottom: Extensively-branched clavaroid fungi
32
 Clavaroid fungi

Top: Clavaroid fungi of different colours and types of branching

Bottom: Superficially like a clavaroid but this is possibly a Cordyceps
33
 Shelf and bracket fungi
These grow on dead or living wood. Some may have a rudimentary stem, but all
are attached to the wood from one side of the fruiting body. These fungi may grow
singly or in tiers. Shelf fungi are very thin, whereas brackets are thicker. The under-
side may be smooth, or have gills or pores The fruiting body is perennial with a new
layer of spores forming on the old layer.

34
 Laetiporus

These bracket fungi are bright yellow when fresh and form tiered clusters of fan-shaped fruiting
bodies. There are pores on the underside of the cap. Commonly called chicken of the woods,
they are found growing on living as well as dead trees.

Facing page: A bracket fungus releasing spores at night; Top: Chicken of the woods growing on a
tree
35
 Bjerkandera

Often found spreading over fallen logs,

Bjerkandera species produce small, irregular
brackets with blunt, rounded margins. The
upper surface is brown with concentric zones,
and the underside has pores. Bjerkandera is
similar to Trametes, but has gray pores.

Different species of Bjerkandera growing on fallen logs

36
 Trametes

Commonly called turkey tail, the species of this genus are the most common wood-rotting fun-
gi. The fan-shaped, semi-circular brackets are fused with their neighbours to form long stripes
or shelves. The upper surface is concentrically zoned in shades of black, brown, grey, purplish,
or yellow. The underside is pale cream with fine pores.

Top right: White lower surface of Trametes; Top left: Upper surface of Trametes
Bottom: Trametes growing at the base of a tree
37
 Pycnoporus

These bracket fungi are easily recognised by the bright reddish-orange colour of their fruiting
bodies. They have a leathery texture that becomes corky when dried. The upper surface of the
young fruiting body is covered in fine hairs, but these fall off as it matures and the surface be-
comes slightly wrinkled. They have circular or angular pores (approximately 2 3 per mm) on
the under surface. They are found growing on dead wood. Pycnoporus is used medicinally by
a number of Australian Aborigines. There have been two antibiotic compounds isolated from
Pycnoporus coccineus.

Right: Red brackets of Pycnoporus seen growing on a log; Top left: Orange-red upper surface of
Pycnoporus; Bottom left: The lower surface with tiny pores
38
 Hexagonia

This genus contains 16 species and has a widespread distribution in the tropics. The basidiocarps
are sessile and annual to perennial. They have a corky to woody texture. The upper surface is
smooth, sometimes with dense long hairs. The lower surface has characteristically angular and
large pores.

Top and bottom right: Upper surface of Hexagonia

Top and bottom left: Under surface of Hexagonia with angular and large pores
39
 Stereum

These species are like thin bracket fungi.

The upper surfaces are elongated, irregular
thin brackets that are brown in colour. The
underside is smooth and yellow to orange in
colour.

Top right and left: Upper surface of Stereum; Middle right: Stereum seen growing in groups on wood
Bottom left and bottom right: Under surface with microscopic pores
40
 Fomitopsis

These bracket fungi have hard, tough caps that are whitish to bright coloured. Some of the
older specimens may be hoof shaped. They are found growing on living and dead trees and
cause a brown cubical wood rot.

Top left: Upper surface of Fomitopsis; Top right: Lower surface of Fomitopsis
Bottom: Close-up of Fomitopsis
41
 Pleurotus

Commonly called oyster mushrooms, species of this genus grow on wood. They have gills pre-
sent on their lower surface and typically form semi-circular caps. They are either attached di-
rectly to the wood or with a rudimentary lateral stem.

Pleurotus species growing on a tree trunk

42
 Pleurocybella

Commonly called angels wings, these fungi are saprotrophes found growing solitarily or as
overlapping clusters on decaying wood. The fruiting body is 5 10 cm in diameter, convex, and
shaped like a shell, petal, or fan. It is white and the margin is rolled inward at first. The white or
cream gills radiate outward from the stub-like point of attachment. They are long, narrow, and
crowded. This species is very similar to Pleurotus, but Pleurotus has thicker flesh.

Top: Upper surface of Pleurocybella

Bottom: Lower surface of the Pleurocybella showing gills
43
 Schizophyllum

Schizophyllum is a bracket fungi with prominent gills, and not pores. There are several species
in this genus. They commonly occur as a weak parasite or as a saprophyte on wood. The gills of
Schizophyllum are made up of two flat plates that curl away from each other, which is different
from the gills of all other fungi. The fruiting body is greyish, flat, and fan-shaped.

Top: The upper surface of Schizophyllum with minute hairs; Bottom: Lower surface showing gills;
Facing page: A species of Schizophyllum growing on dead wood
44
...mycelium is the neurological network of nature.
Interlacing mosaics of mycelium infuse habitats with
information-sharing membranes. These membranes
are aware, react to change, and collectively have the
long-term health of the host environment in mind. The
mycelium stays in constant molecular communication
with its environment, devising diverse enzymatic and
chemical responses to complex challenges.
~ Paul Stamets, Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms
Can Help Save the World
Other fungi
Among the other fungi are included a huge variety of fruiting bodies of various
shapes ranging from cup-like or trumpet-shaped to ball-shaped. Nearly all of
them lack gills, pores, or spines. Their colours, sizes, methods of survival and spore
dispersal, are all very varied.
 Phallus

Commonly called stinkhorns, these fungi are known for their particularly foul odour. The odour
attracts many insects that help in dispersing the spores. It is interesting that mosquitoes feed-
ing on this fungus die, suggesting the fungus has compounds that can be used as bio-control
agents. Some species of Phallus have a prominent orange or white veil. It is saprophytic and
seen growing alone or in small clusters.

Facing page: Calyptella, downward-facing, trumpet-shaped fungi growing on dead wood;

Top: Phallus multicolor, commonly called veil on a penis
47
 Phillipsia

These fungi have brightly coloured, cup-shaped fruiting bodies. These are saprotrophic, com-
monly found growing on wood and in the forest litter. They are much larger than most other
cup fungi.

Top left: Upper surface of Phillipsia; Top right: Lower surface of Phillipsia
Bottom: Phillipsia growing on wood
48
 Puffballs

Puffballs are fungi which produce spores in a powdery mass inside a spherical or tuberoid fruit-
ing body. When the fungus matures, spores are released through an apical opening, or the
whole fruiting body splits open. Spores are dispersed when water drops fall on the puffball,
causing puffs of spores to be released. Common genera of puffballs include Calvatia and Lyco-
perdon. The size of the puffball is variable, from less than a centimetre up to 50 cm. They are
found growing in the leaf litter, on decaying wood, and on the ground.

Top: Puffball releasing its spores through an apical opening (photographed in Arunachal Pradesh)
Bottom left: Puffball growing on a tree; Bottom right: Puffball growing in leaf litter
49
 Peziza

Peziza species are cup fungi that grow on wood or leaf litter and sometimes on dung. The fruit-
ing body is cup-shaped and usually coloured grey, violet or brown.

Peziza growing on dung

50
 Cookeina

Species of this genus commonly grow on fallen branches or on fruits in tropical and sub-tropical
regions. They have cup-shaped to funnel shaped fruiting bodies that are bright yellow to red
due to carotenoid pigments. Hairs may be present on the outer surface of the fruiting body. The
spore-producing tissue lines the cups.

Cookeina on a fallen tree trunk

51
 Calyptella

This genus, with twenty known species has a widespread distribution. They are small, white to
yellow, bell-shaped fungi that have a smooth outer surface. They are found growing on herbs
and wood, especially at the base of thick stems.

Top: Fruiting body of Calyptella

Bottom: A cluster of Calyptella growing on a log
52
 Cordyceps

These fungi are club-shaped with long stems. They are parasites infecting the body of insects
and other arthropods. They are capable of penetrating the brain and altering the the behaviour
of the host animal they parasitise, making the animal act in a way that is favourable to the
propagation of the fungi.

Cordyceps growing out of an insect; Overleaf: Omphalotus, a species of luminous, cap and
stem fungi
53
I see mycelium as the Earths natural Internet,
a consciousness with which we might be able to
communicate. Through cross-species interfacing,
we may one day exchange information with
these sentient cellular networks. Because
these externalized neurological nets sense
any impression upon them, from footsteps to
falling tree branches, they could relay enormous
amounts of data regarding the movements of all
organisms through the landscape.

~ Paul Stamets,
Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help
Save the World
 References

Books
Butler EJ, and Bisby RG (1931) The Fungi of India. Scientific Monograph 1. The Imperial Council of Agricultural
Research i-xviii, 1-237. <http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/60984/index.htm>
Evans S, and Kibby G (2004) Fungi. Dorling Kindersley Limited, London.
Koon TT (1990) A Guide to Tropical Fungi. Singapore Science Centre, Singapore.
Lsse T (1998) Mushrooms. Dorling Kindersley Limited, London.
Largent DL (1977) How to identify mushrooms to Genus I: Macroscopic Features. Mad River Press, Eureka California.
Mueller GM, Bills GF, and Foster MS (2004). Biodiversity of fungi: Inventory and Monitoring Methods. Elsevier Aca-
demic Press, Amsterdam.
Natarajan K and Raman N (1983) South Indian Agaricales. Strauss and Cramer GmbH, Germany.
Stamets P (2005) Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Save the World. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, California.

Articles
Buyck B, Lsse T, Meyer M, and Hofstetter V (2010) Collecting the forgotten kingdom: Guidelines for the field
mycologist with emphasis on the larger fungi. In Eymann J. et al. (editors) Manual on Field Recording
Techniques and Protocols for All Taxa Biodiversity Inventories. ABC Taxa Volume 8: 308 330.
Hughes DP, Andersen SB, Hywel-Jones NL, Himaman W, Billen J, and Boomsma JJ (2011) Behavioral mechanisms
and morphological symptoms of zombie ants dying from fungal infection. BMC Ecology 11:13
Luo H, Li X, Pan YB, Li GH, and Zhang KQ (2006) Acanthocytes of Stropharia rugosoannulata function as a
nematode-attacking device. Applied Environmental Biology 72: 2982 2987.
Manoharachary C, Sridhar K, Singh R, Adholeya A, Suryanarayanan TS, Rawat S, and Johri BN (2005) Fungal biodi-
versity: Distribution, conservation and prospecting of fungi from India. Current Science 89: 58 71.
Natarajan K, Narayanan K, Ravindran C, and Kumaresan V (2005) Biodiversity of agarics from Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve, Western Ghats, India. Current Science 88: 1890 1893.
Sawant P (2000) The hidden world of mushrooms. Hornbill April June: 4 8.
Swapna S, Abrar S, and Krishnappa M (2008) Diversity of macrofungi in semi-evergreen and moist deciduous for-
est of Shimoga District-Karnataka, India. Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology 38: 21 26.

Websites
Australian National Botanic Gardens <http://www.anbg.gov.au/fungi/aboriginal.html>
Cornell Mushroom Blog <http://blog.mycology.cornell.edu/>
Michael Kuos Mushroom Expert <http://www.mushroomexpert.com>
Mushroom: the journal of wild mushrooming <http://www.mushroomthejournal.com>
MycoBank <http://www.mycobank.com>
MycoKey <http://www.mycokey.com>
Rogers Mushrooms <http://www.rogersmushrooms.com>
The Mushroom Observer <http://www.mushroomobserver.org>
Tom Volks Fungi <http://www.botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/ >
Tree of Life Web Project, Fungi < http://tolweb.org/Fungi/2377 >

55
 Index

Agaricus 10 Filoboletus 17 Peziza 50

Amanita 9 Fomitopsis 41 Phallus 47
Ascobolus 50 Galerina 15 Phillipsia 48
Auricularia 25 Gymnopilus 13 Pleurocybella 43
Birds nest fungi 5,29 Hexagonia 39 Pleurotus 19,42-3
Bjerkandera 36 Hygrocybe 22 Puff balls 49
Boletus 18 Laetiporus 35 Pycnoporus 38
Calocera 27 Leucocoprinus 12 Schizophyllum 44
Calyptella 46,52 Macrolepiota 14 Stereum 40
Clavaroid fungi 30,32-3 Marasmius 21 Stropharia 16
Coprinus 12 Microporus 20 Trametes 36-7
Cookeina 51 Mycena 1 Tremella 26
Cordyceps 33,53 Omphalotus 19,23,53 Xylaria 31
Dacrymyces 28 Panaeolina 11

Photo Credits
Chengappa S. K.: facing page 1; Dilan Mandanna: 52t
Divya Mudappa: 16t; 16b; 19b; 19b (inset); 23; 25tl; 25tr; 25ml; 28tl; 33tr; 35; 38tl; 38bl; 38bl
(inset); 38r; 39tr; 39tl; 42; 44t; 44b; 45; 48tl; 49br;51; 53; 54
Hari Krishnan: 3tr; 8; 9; 12bl; 14; 21tr; 21br; 24; 27t; 27b; 49bl
Kalyan Varma: front cover; 5tr; 25br; 34; 47; 49t; back cover
Nisarg Prakash: 22b; 12tr
P. Jeganathan: 3tl; 5br; 10r; 10l; 11t; 11r-l; 12tl; 12br; 13tr; 13b; 13tl; 15tr; 15tl; 15b; 17tl; 17tr;
17bl; 17br; 18; 20tl; 20tr; 20b; 22tl; 25bl; 26; 28b; 28tr; 30; 31t; 31bm; 32t; 32b; 33b; 36tl; 36tr;
36b; 37tl; 37tr; 37b; 39br; 39bl; 40tl; 40bl; 40tr; 40mr; 40br; 41tl; 41tr; 43t; 43bl; 43br; 46; 48tr;
48b; 52b
Ranjini Murali: 33tl; 41b
Robin Abraham: 5mr; 29
Sajid Ansari: 22tr; 50
Saleem Hameed:19t; 19t (inset)
Swati Sidhu: 3b; 31bl; 31br
Wikimedia under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0: Debivort,
January 2006: 2b; Bandwagonman, January 2008: 6tr; Ervinpospisil, November, 2006: 6mr;
Aviddoghug: 6br; Steve Axford: 21bl; Walter Siegmund: 28tr; Modified from M.violante, 24
May 2006: 2tl, 4
Page 7(l-r): Row 1: P. Jeganathan; H. Krishnan; D. Mudappa; D. Mandanna; Row 2: P.
Jeganathan; P. Jeganathan; S. Ansari; K. Varma; P. Jeganathan; Row 3: P. Jeganathan; D.
Mudappa; D. Mudappa; P. Jeganathan; Row 4: D. Mudappa; P. Jeganathan; P. Jeganathan; H.
Krishnan
ttop; trtop right; tltop left; mmiddle; mrmiddle right; mlmiddle left; b
bottom; brbottom right; blbottom left; rright; lleft
56
 nature conservation foundation
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+91 821 2515601
www.conservation.in

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